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Language is the central component of both culture and the educational process. The language that students bring to educational settings affects how they are treated and assessed in the classroom. Some students come to school already speaking the standardized variety of English that is valued and viewed as being the “most correct” in educational systems. Not surprisingly, these students are often more likely to succeed in school. Many other students come to school without already knowing the standardized variety, and as a result, they often face linguistic hurdles that can affect their opportunities for success in school.
We have been working throughout our careers as educators and researchers to create culturally sustaining pedagogy to ensure that all students in an increasingly diverse United States are educated in ways that enable them to achieve their highest potential. As a crucial part of doing so, we focus on variation within the English language and the relationship of that variation to cultural and racial identity.
Multicultural and culturally sustaining approaches to education help educators act on two essential concepts: that each student is unique and that uniqueness is central to the academic and social development of every student.1 Language is a key aspect of this uniqueness, and because language is integral to culture and identity, understanding language variation and diversity is critical to education equity. All educators need knowledge and tools to honor and value students’ (and their families’ and communities’) language differences and variations, to understand and address any language-related challenges students may face, and to support students’ academic, social, and emotional development.
Efforts to help all students achieve their highest potential are incomplete without an understanding that linguistic discrimination, inseparable from racial discrimination, has historically limited African Americans’ access to opportunities afforded other citizens. Thus, we focus in this article on linguistic variations specific to African American English and ways educators can actively and creatively support Black students.
We write as two authors with lived experiences as African American educators in the United States (Charity Hudley and Bigelow) and two white educators who actively learn with African American educators and students (Mallinson and Samuels). We draw on our cumulative decades of experience to provide strategies and activities for educators and learners that support the success of Black students in educational environments from elementary school through college.
We take a three-pronged approach in this article, covering the value of Black language and culture; the relationships among race, culture, community, identity, and language; and the specific knowledge about language and race that is essential for educators. Each of these parts is accompanied by a webinar on Share My Lesson, plus other Share My Lesson resources full of practical strategies for effectively working with culturally and linguistically diverse students. It is our hope that through this approach, educators will increase their knowledge about language and culture and use it in their classrooms to lift every voice in ways that advance educational equity.
The Value of African American Language and Culture
Language varieties hold inherent value as markers of culture and identity. As a result, some speakers of African American English may feel—or may be made to feel—shame, insecurity, and embarrassment when they operate within a society that expects them to speak standardized English. Educators of students who use African American English, therefore, have a special role to play in understanding these students’ personal and cultural experiences and helping them navigate comfortably across their linguistic diasporas, which may include African American English and standardized English as well as other languages and varieties.2
What do we mean by “African American English”? We use the term to refer to a culturally African American variety of English used in places where African Americans live or historically have lived. And yet, we fully acknowledge the variability and ambiguity that accompany any attempt to define how language is used along cultural or ethnic lines and the impossibility of attempting to put one name and one face on the range of those who identify as Black or African American.
African American English is both a product and a repository of African American culture, but it is not what makes a person Black or African American. (In this article, we use the terms “Black” and “African American” often interchangeably, while recognizing the variation across cultural identities and experiences.) African Americans are not a monolithic group, and neither are their languages, language varieties, and cultural practices. How a person uses language is shaped by the languages and language varieties of the communities that they are a part of as well as their individual experiences, including where they grew up, their friends and networks, personal styles, and more. A person’s entire linguistic knowledge—the often multiple languages, varieties, and styles that they use or know to any degree—all make up their linguistic repertoire. For this reason, language variation occurs on a dynamic spectrum that varies culturally, locally, and individually.
Attitudes and Beliefs About African American English
When students come to school using African American English, they are aware that many of their relatives, friends, and neighbors speak similarly to themselves.3 They may also be mindful that many of their educators do not use African American English. The message that African American students may internalize from this situation is that educators expect them to learn a new way of communicating that may be at odds with their home language and culture. This creates a “push-pull” that many African American students face:4 when they are pushed to assimilate to mainstream academic culture to succeed in school, they may feel forced to pull away from their home communities.5 This affects students’ linguistic and cultural identities, and over time, the burden takes an emotional toll. Many people would find it difficult to accept a message, even an indirect message, that they have to suppress part of their linguistic identity to operate within mainstream culture. African Americans, with their specific social and cultural history, often live this reality every day.
Negative perceptions about African American English have roots in racist ideologies that are apparent in early linguistic research. Scholars in 1924 described Black language as “infantile,” and similar perceptions drove language education programs for Black students following the Brown v. Board Supreme Court decision in 1954.6
The first systematic study of attitudes toward African American English was published in 1969.7 In analyzing evaluative judgments from 150 listeners, the researchers found that on a range of personal characteristics, listeners gave lower (more negative) ratings to the voices of speakers of African American English, especially on the characteristics of speech, education, talent, and intelligence. In contrast, they gave higher (more positive) ratings to the voices of speakers of other language varieties.
Since then, much additional research has found that educators of all backgrounds tend to rate students who use African American English as less intelligent, less confident, and less likely to succeed than students who speak in a more standardized way.8 Many African American students report having heard their language use described as “broken,” as “uneducated,” or with other disparaging adjectives.9 Consider the psychological and educational impacts on African American students when their language is framed as deficient. That’s a raciolinguistic ideology at work, and it affects students’ opportunities to succeed in school.
Studies find that classroom work containing features of African American English is often evaluated as inferior to otherwise equivalent work in which a student uses standardized English. One recent study found that the use of African American English negatively impacted community college students’ grades on writing assignments because most educators in the study had little knowledge of this variety or its valid and well-established linguistic characteristics; even some who had that knowledge often saw African American English as “inappropriate” in academic writing.10 The biases also extend to oral language: researchers have found that teachers are more likely to give lower evaluations to work presented orally by Black students, even when that work is equal in quality to work presented by white students.11 And speaking and writing in African American English has been and continues to be a factor in Black students’ disproportional placement in remedial classes and special education.12
The Intersections of Language, Race, and Identity for African American Students
It is important for educators to understand that internalized linguistic racism and racialized ideologies about language can affect individual speakers, which is often characterized in research as linguistic insecurity.13 For students who use African American English, linguistic insecurity can manifest when they perceive that their language is devalued and when they do not receive linguistically and culturally appropriate feedback from educators. If students perceive their language is devalued, they may also perceive that they, along with their culture, communities, family, and friends, are being devalued. In turn, they may become discouraged in school and lose confidence in their educators. They may even reject this devaluing by disengaging from the standardized English-dominant school culture altogether.
Other students who use African American English might go a different direction, accommodating as much as possible to standardized English. Much educational literature has been devoted to understanding the concept that has come to be known as “sounding white,” “talking white,” or “acting white,” which refers to the academic and cultural bind felt by some African American students who fear that any attempt to do well in school is seen by other individuals as trying to be something they are not.
The idea of sounding, talking, and acting white as a way of achieving educational success is complex. Carefully conducted research suggests that even though some Black students may sometimes reject what they perceive as white, middle-class styles of speech and behavior, most also understand that educational attainment leads to social mobility and that standardized English usage is often part of this process.14 A Black student who uses standardized English and resists using African American English may be stigmatized by other African Americans who view the student’s linguistic choices as snubbing the local language variety and, in turn, snubbing their cultural background. At the same time, even if Black students do sound and act in ways that are interpreted as white, they may still not be accepted by white peers, whether due to prejudice or to a range of social factors.
Linguistic insecurity is not limited to students; African American educators may feel similar tensions and dueling expectations surrounding language and culture. Like students, some may avoid the use of African American English. Other African American educators switch linguistically and culturally between the language of their communities and the schools in which they teach. Studies have found that Black educators who employ features of African American English in their classroom teaching often effectively build rapport with their African American students.15
These complexities surrounding language and culture are tied to what W. E. B. Du Bois first described as the “double consciousness” that many African Americans may feel when they navigate the social and professional demands of American society.16 Those who use African American English may feel compelled to shed their home linguistic patterns to succeed in a mainstream climate. At the same time, they may be highly invested in maintaining what they perceive to be their authentic African American speech and culture. In the film Voices of North Carolina, such sentiments are expressed by Richard Brown, an African American man from Durham:
Particularly in the African American community, there is this idea that yes, you know, you can speak in a much more relaxed, intimate Black speech in certain spaces. Then in other spaces, you have to speak a much more common English. And, for some people, there’s an internal struggle about should you really do that. Should you really be trying to talk like white folk? Or should you always, all the time, no matter what setting you are in speak the same way—speak the same way your mama taught you to speak?17
African American English is an important part of African American culture. Because language is familial, cultural, and personally meaningful, we encourage educators to take a strengths-based perspective that accurately reframes language variation as a valuable cultural and linguistic resource.
As a key element of a strengths-based perspective on language and culture, we have created the Share My Lesson webinar “Crafting Linguistic Autobiographies to Build Cultural Knowledge.” The linguistic autobiography guides educators and students to think about the social context of language, culture, and identity. We demonstrate how to craft our linguistic autobiographies to build cultural and linguistic knowledge in our schools and communities and how to encourage others to share the linguistic and cultural richness they bring to our learning communities.
–A. H. C. H., C. M., R. S., and K. B
Reclaiming Race: Culture, Community, Identity, and Language
Race is a social construct, and by extension, race can be seen as a myth. But to many people from racialized groups, race is the realest thing we know. In particular, race affects where we live and attend school and who our classmates are. Teaching about race and culture to students matters, as the multicultural movement has been asserting for the past 50 years.
There is a clear need for educators to receive more resources, training, and support about race, culture, community, and identity in the classroom—and their intersections with language. Many educators want to more deeply understand what race and ethnicity are.18 We must engage with Blackness to dismantle anti-Blackness, and language is a key part of these efforts.
The Personal, Cultural, and Social Dimensions of Language Use
Recognizing these interrelationships across language, race, culture, community, and identity is particularly important due to the personal, cultural, and social dimensions of language. Not everyone has the linguistic ability to code switch—that is, to choose to speak in African American English or standardized English, depending on the context. But even if a person can code switch, it doesn’t mean they always want or need to. Continually engaging in impression-management strategies by changing one’s communication style can lead to stress and burnout.19 Robinson Cook, a Black senior at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, shared that “Code-switching is exhausting.… Coming home at the end of the day feels like taking off a costume. When I’m out in the world, I’m constantly performing for everyone else. It’s never a positive experience. Either I succeed, and I get to continue playing along, or I’m outed as an imposter and shunned.”20 Other students have shared that being limited to standardized English in academic writing can feel like being locked in a box. Being forced to switch between African American English and standardized English can also take an academic toll because of the additional cognitive demand of maintaining a separation between the two linguistic systems, even in seemingly non-language-related coursework.21 These academic inequities and psychological, cultural, and social burdens are a powerful argument in favor of students’ right to use their own language.
Yet, beliefs about the use of African American English in educational settings vary. Some educators may wonder how best to teach students who use African American English so that they can succeed in mainstream environments while valuing their linguistic and cultural heritage. Others may believe it is inappropriate for students to use features of African American English in school contexts altogether. Some may feel that African American English is a substandard form of English that indicates a student’s incapacity for linear thinking or logical analysis (although linguists strongly disagree).22 Others may perceive students’ use of African American English as a mark of defiance or as a signal of rejection of school culture.
Educators may also want their students to use standardized English because speaking and writing according to existing standards yields many tangible, real-world benefits. Educators know that students who are comfortable using standardized English are not only more likely to be told that they sound educated but also probably more likely to get ahead in their educational and professional pursuits and less likely to face discrimination based on their language use.23 For example, in one experiment, six African American applicants were sent to interview for secretarial positions at 100 sites. Those applicants who spoke in standardized English rather than African American English were given longer interviews and were more likely to be offered a job.24
Similarly, research found that Black workers whose speech was distinctly identified as “sounding Black” earned 10 percent lower salaries than white workers with comparable skills who did not “sound Black”; further, white workers with speech distinctly identified as “sounding Black” earned 6 percent lower salaries than their white peers who did not “sound Black.”25 In addition, Black workers whose speech was not distinctly identified as “sounding Black” earned 2 percent less than comparably skilled white workers. As these results make clear, racial discrimination, linguistic discrimination, and the intersection of both persist in the labor market. (Nevertheless, it is also important to point out that simply using the language of school assessment does not guarantee success for African American students, who may face the realities of racism and discrimination regardless.)
Honoring the cultural and linguistic heritage of students who use African American English while also preparing them to live and work in a society where standardized English often dominates is thus a complex and multifaceted goal for educators (and students and families). In many other communities, including immigrant communities, students face pressure to assimilate to English to do well in school and life. While there are many school and community programs to aid students who speak a primary language other than English, few programs are in place to help students who use varieties of English, including African American English. Often, the general sentiment is that students who grow up speaking English should be able to produce standardized English forms no matter their background. However, as the author and progressive activist James Baldwin contended decades ago, succeeding at school should not require African American students to abandon their linguistic and cultural heritage: “A child cannot be taught by anyone whose demand, essentially, is that the child repudiate his experience, and all that gives him sustenance, and enter a limbo in which he will no longer be Black, and in which he knows that he can never become white.”26
Educators must therefore recognize the ways in which language and race are interrelated and intertwined with culture, community, and identity. By working to establish an equitable learning community, all students’ cultural and linguistic heritages can be valued and included as part of their trajectory of academic success.
As a tangible strategy for creating an equitable learning community, we have created the Share My Lesson webinar “Affirming Students Through a Language and Literacy Equity Audit.” Much like an equity audit, the language and literacy audit actively seeks out the linguistic strengths of your learning community and is designed to be used with teachers, students, administrators, and community members. The audit will help you support literacy in its multiple definitions and learn with students as linguistic experts by valuing what they know about language. We suggest you view the linguistic autobiography webinar here before viewing the language and literacy audit webinar.
–A. H. C. H., C. M., R. S., and K. B.
Essential Knowledge About Language and Race
Educators and students who come from different racial, ethnic, regional, and cultural backgrounds may feel unaware of, uncertain about, confused by, or even resistant to understanding each other’s linguistic and cultural practices. Serious cultural and academic misunderstandings may arise between educators who use standardized English and students who use African American English—particularly when each person assumes that they understand and are understood by the other.
Yet, whereas students who use African American English are required to learn standardized English and its academic culture, educators are not often required to do the reverse—to learn about their students’ local, culturally inflected linguistic variety. These inequalities contribute to cultural, social, and academic rifts and resentments, as well as unintentional misunderstandings, as educators and students alike may assume that the other is “operating according to identical speech and cultural conventions”27 when, in fact, different norms may be in use.
For these reasons, it is critical for educators to understand the language patterns that students bring with them into the classroom to best help all students attain academic success. African American English is a complete linguistic system, and educators must have information about its specific features and understand how these features manifest in educational settings. Moreover, educators should keep in mind that language variation occurs on a dynamic spectrum that varies culturally, locally, and individually. In this section, we share some common characteristics of African American English, describe their variability, and discuss their educational implications.
Grammatical and Sound-Related Variation
For students who use African American English, learning to speak and write using the grammar conventions of standardized English can be a complicated process.* One major issue is that the grammatical system of African American English interacts with its sound system differently than the ways sound and grammar interact in standardized English. For example, a student who uses African American English may pronounce words such as joined and marked as join or mark and may also write “j-o-i-n” for joined and “m-a-r-k” for marked. As a result, this student may face additional challenges with recognizing and producing grammatical particles (including the -ed that marks the past tense) in standardized English. Educators may view students’ use of words such as mark for marked on written homework and standardized tests as evidence of a significant grammatical error in standardized English despite it being a recognizable sound-related grammatical variant.
Past tense forms in standardized English that are spelled or sound exactly like present tense forms may be particularly difficult for students who use African American English. Research established long ago that students who spoke African American English were able to correctly pronounce the past tense form of read in the sentence, “Last month I read the sign,” in which the phrase “last month” indicates the past tense. The sentence “When I passed by, I read the sign,” however, posed much more difficulty. In this sentence, the students who spoke African American English tended to pronounce the verb passed as pass, and they subsequently pronounced the verb read in its present tense form (pronounced as “reed,” not as “red”).28 These pronunciation differences indicated that the students who spoke African American English were comprehending the sentences as being in the present tense, not the past; that is, they interpreted the sentence as stating: “When I pass by, I read the sign.” Therefore, it is important for educators to pay close attention to helping students learn the different pronunciations that accompany past and present tense verb forms in standardized English.
Other sound differences in African American English have similar grammatical implications. Speakers of African American English may demonstrate variation in the pronunciation of final consonants, which may make contracted future tense forms difficult to recognize. For example, “You’ll go there” may sound similar to “You go there” due to the variability of the final l sound in you’ll. Similarly, I’ll can be difficult to distinguish from I for students who speak African American English and are decoding standardized English, as well as for speakers of standardized English who are decoding or listening to African American English. Therefore, it is important for educators to pay close attention to how students who use African American English are pronouncing and writing future tense forms in standardized English.
Knowledge of how and why specific language variations appear in students’ oral reading and writing is invaluable when teaching and assessing students who speak African American English because features of this variety will often appear in students’ speech, oral reading, and written work. It is critical, however, that educators avoid shaming students for their language variation or disproportionately penalizing them for the presence of language variants in their speech, oral reading, and written work.
When pointing out places where students’ use of grammar diverges from the norms and conventions of standardized English, it is important to consider whether these grammatical “errors” might actually be rooted in students’ use of a language pattern characteristic of African American English. If so, it is important to explain both linguistic patterns to the student. This entails guiding the student to recognize where and how their usage is influenced by African American English and, while acknowledging and appreciating this language variation, also comparing and contrasting it to standardized English.29
Above all, it is critical not to focus on standardized English grammatical usage in students’ speech, oral reading, and writing to the point of overlooking the quality of the content, organization, or style of the student’s work. Doing so over-penalizes students who use African American English and can lead to the educational frustrations discussed earlier in this article that many students unfortunately experience.30
Impact on Learning Mathematics
Although some may believe that learning mathematics is simply a question of manipulating numbers, in reality, some of the challenges that students encounter are linguistic, such as when they are asked to solve math word problems.31 Math word problems frequently employ existential constructions such as “There is,” “There’s,” and “There are,” as in statements such as “There are six apples in the bag.” This may cause difficulty for students who use African American English because existential constructions vary; “It is” and “It’s” are commonly used in place of “There is,” “There’s,” and “There are” (e.g., “It’s six apples in the bag”). These and other similar variations may affect how students who use African American English read and process word problems.32
One study of the relationship between the linguistic complexity of word problems and students’ success in carrying out the computations offers further evidence of challenges that may face students who use African American English in math classwork.33 Working with 75 African American second-graders, the researchers estimated how each student’s test performance was affected by two features of African American English: the variability of -s in third person singular verb forms (as in “He talk a lot,” compared to “He talks a lot”) and in possessive constructions (as in “My mama house is big,” compared to “My mama’s house is big”). The researchers accounted for each student’s overall ability and the difficulty of the math problem. They found that a core group of students—those who were highly affected by linguistic differences—would have answered 9 percent more questions correctly, on average, if the linguistic feature in question had not been included in the word problem. The researchers explained their results by suggesting that some students who use African American English may face an added cognitive load on their working memory when they read and process math word problems due to language variation. Another study found an even stronger impact, estimating that US students who do not use standardized English may perform 10 to 30 percent worse on math word problems than on comparable problems presented in a numeric format.34 These results indicate the importance of understanding the significant role that linguistic factors play, in addition to computational skills, in mathematics.
Intonation and Classroom Meaning
The sounds of English involve intonation, pitch, rhythm, stress, and volume, or what linguists refer to as prosody, and they can vary between African American and standardized English. For example, in standardized English, especially as used in the classroom, questions are generally expected to rise in their intonation. In the sentence “Are you going to the store?,” the word store will usually be said with a rising intonation. In contrast, in African American English, questions may also be formed with falling or flat intonation. The question “Are you going to the store?” may therefore be said with flat intonation, as in “Are you going to the store.”35
Why does this matter? Differences in how questions are asked can be critical in how educators and peers perceive students who use African American English. It also might mean that educators who only speak standardized English might not immediately recognize that a Black student is asking them a question. Intonation matters in school and everyday interactions because it is directly tied to comprehension. It is also often implicitly tied to notions of politeness, friendliness, and enthusiasm that are embedded in school culture—and that are closely aligned to the cultural practices of a majority white and female educator population in the United States.
The lack of melodic variation in the voices of Black students, especially male students, is often misinterpreted in a negative light and may be infused with perceptions of emotions that students do not mean to convey. As a result, students who use African American English may be improperly evaluated academically, socially, and emotionally. In standardized English, the absence of a rise at the end of a question can be used to signal disengagement, disinterest, and disrespect. This is not the case in African American English, as speakers of this variety may equally produce questions with rising, flat, or falling intonation patterns. If a Black student says “Why am I taking this test” (with a flat or falling intonation) instead of “Why am I taking this test?” (with a rising intonation), an educator who is not familiar with this variety may interpret it as a signal of aggression, uncooperativeness, noncompliance, withdrawal, or disrespect, even though the student may not have intended to send such a message. Other intonation patterns that seem to signal negative emotions or behaviors, such as indifference or rudeness, interact with frequently misunderstood nonverbal behaviors, such as not making eye contact when listening to a speaker or shrugging one’s shoulders.36 As a result, misimpressions of certain students may be intensified.
For these reasons, it is essential for educators to have knowledge of and respect for differences in students’ use of intonation. This is particularly critical when interpreting students’ emotional states, including whether and how students are perceived to sound polite, enthusiastic, and respectful or bored, withdrawn, uncooperative, and angry. Educators should also be aware of intonational differences so that they can teach students about them, helping students better understand each other and build relationships. Intonation also plays an important role in reading comprehension, and sometimes intonation patterns are misinterpreted by students as part of this process. Variation in intonation may lead to students misinterpreting how a character feels or how the author intended the text to be read.
Conversational Differences
Conversational norms in African American English may also differ from standardized English and other varieties of English in key ways, such as in how individuals greet each other. Whereas white children and adults may often use each other’s first names to show friendship and familiarity, African American children and adults may prefer to use titles to show respect, both in situations in which there is a hierarchical difference between the speakers (e.g., doctor-patient or educator-student) and in situations that are more egalitarian.37
Conversational differences between standardized English and African American English may be easily misinterpreted. One important example surrounds styles of turn-taking. When speaking with others, Black students may communicate in interactive and energetic ways, and they may engage in more conversational overlap, such that more than one person is speaking at a time.38 Overlapping with another speaker is often viewed as normal and comfortable in African American English (and in other varieties, such as Jewish American English39). In standardized English, however, overlap may be considered a form of interruption and may be offensive to the speaker. These differences can lead to miscommunication. In one study, when African American students used overlapping turns, educators perceived them to be boisterous, loud, and out of control.40 It is important to be sensitive to variations in how students converse with each other and with educators. If the conversational norms of standardized English are expected, these conventions may need to be explicitly taught.
Forms of verbal play have also been well documented in research on African American English, including the ways that students who use African American English interact with peers. Verbal play is a vehicle through which the speakers make use of figurative language, draw on cultural and personal knowledge, and learn verbal and creative improvisation skills similar to those that are built when artists learn to “improv” in jazz music or “freestyle” in rap and hip-hop music. Instigation, signifying, and other forms of playful teasing may be misinterpreted, however, which may segue into other forms of confrontation. Verbal confrontation at school can lead to conflict, which may cause a student to be reprimanded or punished. Knowledge of the rituals of verbal jousting may be important when assessing whether or not students are engaging in verbal play.
Another important difference surrounds giving commands. Indirect commands are common in standardized English, especially in educational settings. For example, students may be asked to form a line through indirect statements such as “Let’s get lined up,” “I don’t see anyone standing in line yet,” or “I like the way some of you are standing in line.” In African American English, it is common to use direct commands, such as “I want you to line up now.” Therefore, students who use African American English may interpret indirect commands as preferences or suggestions, rather than commands. Educators may wish to explicitly teach awareness of the differing cultural norms of suggestions and commands. For example, educators may need to explain that “Let’s get lined up” and “I like the way you all are talking quietly” often carry the same meanings as “Line up now” and “Please talk quietly.” By the same token, it is important to be mindful that educators who issue more direct commands to their students, such as “I want you to line up now” or “Stop talking,” are not necessarily being harsh with their students but rather may be operating according to different cultural and linguistic norms.
Not Too Loud or Too Quiet
Volume is another linguistic characteristic that can have implications for classroom interactions. Many stereotypes perpetuate the idea that African Americans speak more loudly and tend to shout more often than other racial or ethnic groups, and that African American students are more rambunctious than other students. At the same time, the paradoxical stereotype also exists that Black students are silent or withdrawn, which often leads them to be perceived as “having a wall up” or as being standoffish, sullen, and hard to get to know.
Black students who do not talk much at school may also be perceived to have limited language skills. For example, teachers thought a student named Zora had a learning disability because she refused to talk while she was at school. As a result, Zora was asked to repeat first grade. Later, when she was in middle school, Zora explained that she had often felt nervous and out of place in school, and she chose not to speak up in school settings, both as a coping mechanism and to avoid drawing attention to herself. Zora recalled that many teachers “thought I was slow, because I didn’t say nothing when they asked me a question.”41
Classroom observations reveal that students who are less secure in adhering to the conventions of standardized English and who feel less safe in academic contexts may retreat into various stages of quiet or what may be perceived as withdrawal. Other students may speak more loudly and behave in ways that are perceived as “acting out.” These students may also use more features of African American English, shifting the style of their speech from the standardized English that is generally expected in the school setting. Peers may even attempt to regulate or ridicule African American students’ loud verbal performances, labeling them as “ghetto.” In such situations, it is important not to assume that variation in students’ communication patterns signals low intelligence, uncooperativeness, or hostility. Students may be using features of African American English to assert their identity.
Students gain confidence and can enjoy academic and social success when they know standardized English and when they and their educators value the language patterns that the students bring with them to school. How educators react to language variation sends an important message to students about safety and acceptance; positive messages of inclusion help students view learning as an accessible and engaging process. Language differences can add to other school stressors; thus, the classroom must be a safe place to take risks and speak up, so that students are willing to have their voices be heard.42
As a way to actively understand and incorporate language variation in the classroom, we have created the Share My Lesson webinar “The Sound of Inclusion: Using Poetry to Teach Language Variation.” This interactive workshop will bring out the poetry in your students and in you! We will use poetry study to build from the ground up with students and integrate the academic, social, and emotional aspects of learning language. We focus on sharing ideas about the concepts of dialect, language varieties, and translanguaging.
–A. H. C. H., C. M., R. S., and K. B.
With the information presented in this article, educators are equipped to conceptualize and talk about the varied dimensions and shifting intersections of language, culture, race, and identity in all their complexity. Educators who are familiar with African American English as a linguistic system and who take a strengths-based perspective are also able to provide students with opportunities to draw upon the linguistic resources of their homes and communities in their academic work. Research reveals that this inclusive strategy is educationally effective,43 and it offers the validation that students need to feel that they can show up as their whole selves in classrooms and schools.
Language is not just a theory or an idea; it requires dialogue and action. The actions that you take and the ways that you do language going forward matter—from the daily conversations you hold with students and families to the ways you advocate for linguistic justice in practice and assessment. As author and professor Toni Morrison said in her Nobel lecture after accepting the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1993, “We die. That may be the meaning of life. But we do language. That may be the measure of our lives.”44
Anne H. Charity Hudley is a professor of education at Stanford University, where she focuses on the relationship between language variation and educational practices. She is a fellow of the Linguistic Society of America and the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Christine Mallinson is the founding director of the Center for Social Science Scholarship, a professor of language, literacy, and culture, and an affiliate professor of gender, women’s, and sexuality studies at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County. Rachel Samuels is an elementary student support specialist in Williamsburg, Virginia. She was the 2019 Virginia Reading Teacher of the Year. Kimberly Bigelow is an assistant principal of literacy in Washington, DC; she has 15 years of experience as an elementary teacher and instructional coach.
* To learn more, see “Teaching Reading to African American Children” in the Summer 2021 issue of American Educator. (return to article)
Endnotes
1. D. Paris and H. Alim, eds., Culturally Sustaining Pedagogies: Teaching and Learning for Justice in a Changing World (New York: Teachers College Press, 2017).
2. A. Charity Hudley and C. Mallinson, Understanding English Language Variation in U.S. Schools (New York: Teachers College Press, 2011); and A. Charity Hudley and C. Mallinson, We Do Language: English Language Variation in the Secondary English Classroom (New York: Teachers College Press, 2014).
3. J. Rickford and R. Rickford, Spoken Soul: The Story of Black English (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2000).
4. G. Smitherman, Talkin That Talk: Language, Culture and Education in African America (New York: Routledge, 1999).
5. P. Carter, Keepin’ It Real: School Success Beyond Black and White (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007).
6. A. Baker-Bell, Linguistic Justice: Black Language, Literacy, Identity, and Pedagogy (New York: Routledge, 2020).
7. G. Tucker and W. Lambert, “White and Negro Listeners’ Reactions to Various American-English Dialects,” Social Forces 47 (1969): 463–68.
8. See H. Fogel and L. Ehri, “Teaching Elementary Students Who Speak Black English Vernacular to Write in Standard English: Effects of Dialect Transformation Practice,” Contemporary Educational Psychology 25, no. 2 (April 2000): 212–35; and Baker-Bell, Linguistic Justice.
9. V. Marian, “On the Origins of African American English,” Psychology Today (blog), August 25, 2018.
10. H. Franz, “Instructor Response to Language Variation in Community College Composition Papers,” PhD diss. (University of William & Mary, 2019).
11. A. Godley et al., “Preparing Teachers for Dialectally Diverse Classrooms,” Educational Researcher 35, no. 8 (November 2006): 30–37.
12. G. Cartledge and C. Dukes, “Disproportionality of African American Children in Special Education: Definition and Dimensions,” in The SAGE Handbook of African American Education, ed. L. C. Tillman (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2008), 383–98; and B. Harry and M. Anderson, “The Disproportional Placement of African American Males in Special Education Programs,” Journal of Negro Education 63, no. 4 (1995): 602–19.
13. D. Preston, “Linguistic Insecurity Forty Years Later,” Journal of English Linguistics 41, no. 4 (2013): 304–31.
14. Carter, Keepin’ It Real.
15. M. Foster, “‘It’s Cookin’ Now’: A Performance Analysis of the Speech Events of a Black Teacher in an Urban Community College,” Language in Society 18, no. 1 (1989): 1–29.
16. W. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk (Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Co., 2003).
17. Voices of North Carolina: Language, Dialect, and Identity in the Tarheel State, directed by N. Hutcheson (North Carolina Language and Life Project, 2005).
18. National Education Association, “Creating the Space to Talk About Race in Your School,” 2017, neaedjustice.org/social-justice-issues/racial-justice/talking-about-race; National Education Association, Racial Justice in Education: Resource Guide (Washington, DC: National Education Association, 2018), neaedjustice.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Racial-Justice-in-Education.pdf; and M. Costello and C. Dillard, Hate at School (Montgomery, AL: Southern Poverty Law Center, 2019).
19. C. McCluney et al., “The Costs of Code-Switching,” Harvard Business Review, November 15, 2019.
20. M. Retta, “The Mental Health Cost of Code-Switching on Campus,” Teen Vogue, September 18, 2019.
21. J. Terry et al., “Dialect Switching and Mathematical Reasoning Tests: Implications for Early Educational Achievement,” in The Oxford Handbook of African American Language, ed. S. Lanehart (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015), 677–90.
22. J. Washington and M. Seidenberg, “Teaching Reading to African American Children: When Home and School Language Differ,” American Educator 45, no. 2 (Summer 2021): 26–33, 40.
23. J. Baugh, Beyond Ebonics: Linguistic Pride and Racial Prejudice (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000); and D. Massey and G. Lundy, “Use of Black English and Racial Discrimination in Urban Housing Markets: New Methods and Findings,” Urban Affairs Reviews 36, no. 4 (2001): 452–69.
24. S. Terrell and F. Terrell, “Effects of Speaking Black English upon Employment Opportunities,” Journal of American Speech and Hearing Association 25, no. 6 (1983): 27–29.
25. J. Grogger, “Speech Patters and Racial Wage Inequality,” Harris School Working Paper Series 08.13, Harris School of Public Policy, University of Chicago, June 2008.
26. J. Baldwin, “If Black English Isn’t a Language, Then Tell Me, What Is?,” in The Price of the Ticket: Collected Nonfiction, 1948–1985 (New York: St. Martin’s, 1985), 649–52.
27. T. Kochman, Black and White Styles in Conflict (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981).
28. W. Labov, Sociolinguistic Patterns (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1972), 31.
29. See Charity Hudley and Mallinson, Understanding English Language Variation.
30. G. Smitherman-Donaldson, “Toward a National Public Policy on Language,” College English 49, no. 1 (1987): 29–36.
31. J. Abedi and C. Lord, “The Language Factor in Mathematics Tests,” Applied Measurement in Education 14, no. 3 (2001): 219–34; C. Lager, “Types of Mathematics-Language Reading Interactions That Unnecessarily Hinder Algebra Learning and Assessment,” Reading Psychology 27, no. 2–3 (2006): 165–204; C. Mallinson and A. Charity Hudley, “Communicating About Communication: Multidisciplinary Approaches to Educating Educators About Language Variation,” Language and Linguistics Compass 4, no. 4 (2010): 245–57; and M. Schleppegrell, “The Linguistic Challenges of Mathematics Teaching and Learning: A Research Review,” Reading & Writing Quarterly 23, no. 2 (February 2007): 139–59.
32. Mallinson and Charity Hudley, “Communicating About Communication.”
33. J. Terry et al., “Variable Dialect Switching Among African American Children: Inferences About Working Memory,” Lingua 120 (2010): 2463–75.
34. Abedi and Lord, “The Language Factor.”
35. A. Charity, “Dialect Variation in School Settings Among African American Children of Low-Socioeconomic Status,” PhD diss. (University of Pennsylvania, 2005).
36. J. Keulen, G. Weddington, and C. DeBose, Speech, Language, Learning, and the African American Child (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1998).
37. R. McNeely and M. Badami, “Interracial Communication in School Social Work,” Social Work 29, no. 1 (1984): 22–26.
38. N. Day-Vines and B. Day-Hairston, “Culturally Congruent Strategies for Addressing the Behavioral Needs of Urban, African American Male Adolescents,” Professional School Counseling 8, no. 3 (2005): 236–44.
39. D. Schiffrin, “Jewish Argument in Sociability,” Language in Society 13, no. 3 (1984): 311–35.
40. A. Morakinyo, “Discourse Variations in Low Income African-American and European-American Kindergartners’ Literacy-Related Play,” PhD diss. (University of Maryland-Baltimore, 1995).
41. V. Evans-Winters, Teaching Black Girls: Resiliency in Urban Classrooms (New York: Peter Lang, 2005), 101.
42. A. Ball, “Empowering Pedagogies That Enhance the Learning of Multicultural Students,” Teachers College Record 102, no. 6 (2000): 1006–34; and C. Lee, “Every Good-Bye Ain’t Gone: Analyzing the Cultural Underpinnings of Classroom Talk,” International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education 19, no. 3 (2006): 305–27.
43. Foster, “‘It’s Cookin’ Now’”; C. Kynard, “Stank 2.0 and the Counter-Poetics of Black Language in College Classrooms,” Teacher-Scholar-Activist, October 9, 2017; S. Perryman-Clark, Afrocentric Teacher-Research: Rethinking Appropriateness and Inclusion (New York: Peter Lang, 2013); and E. Richardson, “Critique on the Problematic of Implementing Afrocentricity into Traditional Curriculum: ‘The Powers That Be,’” Journal of Black Studies 31, no. 2 (2000): 196–213.
44. T. Morrison, “Nobel Lecture,” Nobel Foundation, December 7, 1993, nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1993/morrison-lecture.html. | https://www.aft.org/ae/winter2022-2023/charityhudley_mallinson_samuels_bigelow |
Focus: Urban schools often serve students of cultural, racial, and linguistic diversity, many of whom live in poverty. Such schools may face issues of drug and alcohol abuse, violence, and crime in surrounding communities, issues which also sometimes challenge suburban and rural schools but which are compounded in urban contexts by specific circumstances. Urban planning, development, and zoning policies, and the gentrification of neighbourhoods, for example, affect social housing conditions and access to resources for poor communities. Those policies can further disenfranchise young people in those communities in terms of their achievement and participation in schooling.While all teachers must be cognizant of equity and social justice issues, and be prepared to teach students of diverse backgrounds, the Urban Education specialty area helps to build specialized knowledge and understanding about schools particularly characterized by poverty and high rates of mobility, and which serve large numbers of ethnic, racial minority, immigrant, sexual minority, and gender-diverse students. For PJ, JI, and IS Teacher Candidates. Is this specialty for me? Urban Education prepares teachers for schools serving students from particularly diverse and complex communities. If you want to make a commitment to improving life chances for children and youth who come from disadvantaged positions in life, this specialty is for you.
French (Elementary)
Focus: Within the PJ and JI programs, Teacher Candidates in this specialty area prepare to teach in French Immersion and Core French programs in Ontario schools. By developing a critical understanding of and sensitivity to linguistic variation, Teacher Candidates prepare to teach students in diverse linguistic and social backgrounds. Is this specialty for me? If you are interested in teaching French to children of diverse backgrounds and varied level of proficiency, in working in a private French language school, or in teaching French as a second, additional, or international language to students abroad, and if you are interested in expanding your understanding of French language education and cultures in Canada, this specialty area is for you.
Advanced Studies in the Psychology of Achievement, Inclusion, & Mental Health
Focus: Today’s classrooms include students with a variety of strengths, challenges, and exceptionalities. While all teachers must be prepared to teach for success in inclusive classrooms, the Advanced Studies in Psychology program builds specialized knowledge about evidence-based practices that significantly increase students’ academic achievement, social development, and mental health. For PJ, JI, and IS Teacher Candidates. Preference is given to candidates who have a strong psychology background in their undergraduate course work. Is this specialty for me? If you are particularly interested in teaching students with exceptionalities, many of whom also face social or economic disadvantage, or both, this specialty is for you. | https://www.edu.uwo.ca/teacher-education/specialties-ji.html |
Tapping Into English Language Learners’ Strengths
Focusing on these students’ experiences and skills can contribute to their academic success and foster an inclusive classroom environment.
Equity in education is the personalized assurance that all students receive the resources they need to thrive in the academic setting. One way to do that in a class with English language learners, or multilingual students, is to leverage culturally sustaining practices, which stem from the belief that multilingual learners possess a diverse array of experiences and skills that contribute to the dynamics of the learning environment and their own academic success.
We can provide multilingual students with opportunities to actively engage in translanguaging, the practice of students having opportunities to engage in the learning process by using their linguistic repertoire to support linguistic growth in their target language.
As a monolingual educator, I use the existing knowledge of my multilingual students to bridge learning gaps by connecting what they know in their primary language to new learning. For example, while studying poetic devices such as alliteration, I will introduce the concept of tongue twisters to my students and then lean on them to educate me on the existence of tongue twisters in their primary languages.
My Spanish-speaking students will frequently recall the “tres tigres” expression and retain the meaning of alliteration by remembering those three tigers as well as the time their teacher struggled to say it quickly. This models for students that their lingual plurality is not only something they should be proud of but a skill that can allow them to access new knowledge.
Educators of multilingual students can develop learning communities that serve to maintain students’ use of the primary language while using it as the basis for new academic learning, as well as a tool for building their cultural and social knowledge of the larger world around them.
Supporting Multilingual Students
Building bridges between the classroom and students’ families: Over the past two years, I have committed to offering families a bilingual version of my open house presentation. As educators know, the successful open house event communicates to families our expectations for the upcoming year and the impact a teacher will have on the lives of their students.
By taking the extra steps to provide my families with a multilingual experience, what I am trying to demonstrate is that involvement matters and that I care about the education of their children and their participation in it. When multilingual families see such efforts, they are more inclined to invest their time and resources into the learning community.
Support students’ learning about school culture and traditions: Another vital pathway to consider is students’ linguistic accessibility to school culture and traditions. Students arrive in our classrooms unfamiliar with school-related social events such as homecoming and prom, as well as activities such as student leadership and interest groups.
In a similar approach to the open house presentation, instructional leaders and coaches can bridge gaps by offering multilingual communications about other social settings and dynamics. Initiatives from this vantage point could involve designing and posting bilingual recruitment flyers, providing closed captioning in languages other than English for campus news productions, and producing brochures about senior year festivities in alternative languages.
Use student leadership to increase multilingual students’ participation in school activities: One innovative approach I have used in closing involvement gaps for my students is to leverage the power of existing student leadership. I invite student school leaders into my sheltered multilingual classrooms during a homeroom class period or during the opening weeks of a school year to share their experiences within a club, sport, or organization. I ask the school leaders to invite my students to attend an info session or meeting later.
As multilingual student participation rates increase, the next phase of this plan is to leverage the linguistic brokering skills of these students to return the favor by visiting other sheltered classroom settings themselves, to extend the same opportunities to new students that were extended to them. When students see themselves represented in these spaces, their confidence and willingness to engage increase.
Introduce and contextualize diverse literature: Multilingual learners benefit from reading diverse literature not only because it can help them access familiar content for greater comprehension, but also because it can provide them with opportunities to establish deep connections between their culture and the cultures of the works they are engaging. What I’ve found to be successful is utilizing the heritage month systems to introduce students to figures of diverse backgrounds who have made significant contributions within the core content areas.
For instance, during Black History Month, I created a mini-unit titled “Black History Concurrent,” a calendar of brief videos and articles that not only provided students with the cultural contributions of African Americans under the age of 40 but specifically dedicated many of its entries to teens and younger adults. Not only were my students introduced to experiences that were unique and intriguing, but also they were able to see alternative educational and professional pathways that they had not previously been able to perceive.
In a similar vein, mathematics, science, and history educators can use the heritage month systems as springboards to introduce multilingual learners to the contributions of American and global figures within their content-related industries.
Student greatness can only happen when stakeholders within the learning community take the initiative to invest in their success through dynamic innovation and love. This dynamism is implemented through a respect for the assets originating from student backgrounds, as well as an understanding of the inequities and challenges that multilingual learners face and that keep them from fully engaging and seeing themselves represented in the culture and curriculum.
These practical solutions aim to change the narrative of deficit thinking with respect to these students and close the equity gaps that exist for them. | https://www.edutopia.org/article/tapping-english-language-learners-strengths/ |
Molloy is a very warm and welcoming community. We are small enough so that we get to know each other by name, yet we are growing academically as an institution. As an alumna of Molloy, I have had the privilege of watching my alma mater evolve as a highly-respected institution of higher education. Our students are wonderful to work with, our faculty members are highly prepared educators , and our support staff are always willing to help to make Molloy a great place to work!
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Academic Interests
Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL)
Cultural Diversity
Sociolinguistics
History of the English Language
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What I am working on
We are currently in the proposal-writing stage for an Ed.D. in Educational Leadership. We have chosen to focus on two of the academic strengths of our graduate programs: special education and cultural/linguistic diversity. We strongly believe that school leaders should advocate on behalf of students in their school districts in these two areas. Our proposed program will assist current or aspiring school leaders in these areas and lead to the terminal degree in education.
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Educational Philosophy
My educational philosophy has evolved over 37 years as a teacher at the elementary, secondary, college and university levels both in New York and Puerto Rico. My education at Molloy took place during the decade of the 1970's, a period of great change in the teaching profession. I learned to adapt traditional and innovative teaching models to fit my own personal teaching style as well as the learning styles and needs of my students. I took the skills learned at Molloy and put them into practice in New York schools and later, during 16 years of teaching in Puerto Rico, where I applied what I had learned to my new cultural surroundings. These experiences led me to value adaptability as a necessary skill in the teaching profession. Reflecting upon these experiences has helped me to identify and describe the talents and expertise that I bring to Molloy College, the values that continue to influence my professional life and the model I strive to be for my students.
The Conceptual Framework of the Professional Education Unit reflects the mission statement of Molloy College and both have influenced my educational philosophy. I was a contributing member of the team that wrote the Conceptual Framework, and strongly believe that a large part of what I do as a professional is mirrored in the statement that the faculty of the Professional Education Unit at Molloy is "committed to the preparation of outstanding teaching professionals with the dispositions, skills, and knowledge required to meet the needs of all students they have the privilege to teach. It is the goal of the faculty to guide students through pedagogically valid and intensely challenging learning and service experiences that empower teacher candidates to serve as leaders in schools and communities. We recognize that effective teachers have a solid foundation in the liberal arts and sciences, aligned with national, state, and institutional teaching and learning standards."
I believe that teacher candidates must embrace the diversity that is part of contemporary life in America. This will prepare them to understand the various cultural and linguistic groups in the schools in which they will teach and help them to adapt their teaching to meet the needs of all students. The Molloy College Mission Statement clearly states its support for openness to diverse world-views and our Vision Statement fosters a diverse and inclusive learning community.
My teaching methodology courses are aimed at training teacher candidates not only in the content areas, but also in adaptive techniques and strategies geared to helping students who arrive in the US from other countries to feel welcome and as valued members of their new classrooms. In addition to helping newcomers achieve acceptance in our schools, I believe it is also important to challenge native-born American students to discover the richness of their own cultural backgrounds and those of their classmates. Educational materials representing the contributions of a variety of cultures are essential in helping to bring about this acceptance. Through the Graduate Education courses I teach that address cultural diversity and strategies for working with English Language Learners (ELLs), I attempt to share techniques to help all students feel that they have valuable contributions to make to American society.
In addition to my commitment to raising my students' awareness and acceptance of the diversity that make up our schools, I further encourage them to accept the challenge of becoming more diverse themselves. As a speaker of Spanish and German, I have found that the experience of learning a second or third language as an adult is a challenge that can further broaden one's understanding of the learning process as well as the frustration that comes with learning a new language. Additionally, it promotes empathy toward those who must establish themselves in new cultural and linguistic environments. Whenever the opportunity arises, I encourage my students to learn basic communication skills in a new language so that they will be able to help students and parents who are learning English. I have also offered workshops and courses to teachers and administrators in local school districts on adapting the curriculum to cultural and linguistic diversity as well as offering a course entitled, "Spanish for Teachers."
Beyond the classroom, I continue to search for opportunities for Molloy students to personally experience diversity through international experiences. My belief in the value of diversity in education, whether through providing opportunities for Molloy students to experience international education or helping them to facilitate the education of students that come to America from abroad, pervades my thinking and practice as an educator.
One further belief that is a driving force in my professional life is that teachers hold the key to creating a more just and inclusive society from the heart of their classrooms. America is experiencing a paradigm shift with respect to population diversity. No longer can teachers expect their classrooms to be comprised of students from cultural and linguistic backgrounds similar to their own. Changing immigration patterns require that educators learn new and effective ways to teach acceptance of diversity. Our success or failure in this endeavor will determine how well we live up to the motto, E pluribus unum.
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Educational Background
Bachelor of Arts, English Education, Molloy College (1974)
Master of Education, Catholic University of Puerto Rico, Ponce, Puerto Rico (1983)
Doctor of Education, Curriculum and Instruction (TESOL), University of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico (1993)
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Additional Information
Education is a vocation, something that people aspire to from the time that they are children. Molloy's teacher education programs are dedicated to preparing professionals with the knowledge, skills and dispositions necessary to make a positive impact upon the students they teach. Year after year, our teacher candidates tell us that they have been inspired by teachers they have had over the course of their education and that they want to spend their professional lives in this profession. Every great career starts with what one learns in elementary and high school.
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Publications/Presentations
Past opportunities for newsletter publication have included a book review that I wrote for the Speech Communication Association of Puerto Rico on "Discourse across Cultures: Strategies in World Englishes."
My dissertation topic was a study of Puerto Rican English as a variety of World English. Given the political nature of the use English as one of two official languages in Puerto Rico, a US Commonwealth, my dissertation was widely discussed in the local press (Newspaper article, "Perspectiva: Ingles en Puerto Rico, Balon politico, published in El nuevo dia, dated Feb. 25, 1997).
The topic of incorporating technology in TESOL education was addressed in an article co-authored with three colleagues from the Division of Education. See cite below: | https://www.molloy.edu/academics/undergraduate-programs/education/faculty-and-staff/maureen-walsh |
This paper describes an ESL teachers’ perspective on teaching ESL writing to advanced second language learners reflecting on her experience as an ESL teachers drawing on the students’ responses to survey questions. It shows that writing in English as a Second language has political, cultural, and historical aspects since the “nature and functions of discourse, audience, and persuasive appeals often differ across linguistic, cultural, and educational contexts” In addition, acquiring the discourse proprieties is challenging because they represent culturally bound, conventionalized, and abstract characteristics of academic prose that are frequently absent in written discourse in rhetorical traditions other than the English dominant educational environments. ESL teachers should get the awareness of the needs and challenges that the face and understand the linguistic, cultural, and educational background they are coming from in order to help them overcome these challenges which also should dictate the instructional pedagogies, curriculum and assessment. | http://journal.wima.ac.id/index.php/BW/article/view/736 |
A great amount of the literature that is available in Colombia is based on the United States milieu. Although Colombian researchers have carried out successful and innovative investigations that in the long run will generate theory in the country, most of the theory that is reviewed in higher education institutions have emerged in a foreign context. The expert on second language learning, Cummins (2000), considers that “practice generates theory, which in turn, acts as a catalyst for new directions in practice,
which then inform theory, and so on “ (p.1). If that theory does not emerge from the various contexts that teachers engage in on a daily basis, Colombia will keep on digging up where the answer is not hidden. Sociopolitical issues cause researchers to construct theories that contribute to the improvement of educational practice. Therefore, it is crucial to understand the context in which those theories are generated in order to evaluate their application in Colombia.
On January 8, 2002, President George Bush signed the NCLB Act into law and initiated, as argued by Mallico & Langan as cited in Batt, 2005, “the most sweeping change in federal educational policy” (p.1). This Act focuses on stronger responsibility for state and local education organizations by holding them accountable for annual progress. This progress, Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP), is determined by raising the achievement levels of subgroups of students (major racial and ethnic groups, economically disadvantaged, students with disabilities, Limited English Proficient and special education students) to a state-determined level of proficiency. Under the NCLB Act every student must meet academic standards in reading and math and a way to determine the schools’ success is test scores. The test results will allow the state to label schools as “satisfactory” or “in need of improvement” but all children must be proficient by 2014 and no child will be left behind.
A group that finds difficulties to achieve 100% proficiency is the Limited English Proficient subgroup (LEP). LEP students deserve special attention because of their limited proficiency in English resulting in a disadvantage in comparison to students in other subgroups (Batt, 2005). Then, schools with large numbers of LEP students will experience difficulties achieving AYP. However, there are different programs that offer financial support to public schools with high numbers of poor children to help them meet high academic standards. Those schools are called Title I, and the funds are aimed at improving teaching and learning for students. A school with a large number of LEP students can be considered Title I, thus they are evaluated on the percentage of students that score at or above proficiency determined by the state. In addition, states are required to identify, in their student population other languages besides English in order to suitably assess each language from the linguistic aspect. Nonetheless, most schools overlook these requirements and administer the reading and mathematics assessments in the dominant language: English.
The sanctions schools receive when they do not make AYP vary depending on the number of years it has happened. Sanctions go from developing an improvement plan, offering students the option to transfer to another school, providing tutoring outside the regular school day, replacing some or all of the staff members, implementing a new curriculum, or reopening the school as a charter school ( a public funded school that has been exempted from state or local regulations). These characteristics exemplify the particular benefits of NCLB for the LEP subgroup which are bringing additional resources as well as attention to the schools that are serving them. The flaw that I can perceive is blame LEP students, as well as the other subgroups, will have to face if the school does not make AYP, generating prejudice and racism among the school community. In the long run, AYP for the LEP subgroup can become a mechanism of exclusion.
When working at a public school in the US, a defiant challenge from the NCLB Act towards both LEP students and the school itself can be perceived in the atmosphere. The challenges include the instability of the subgroup, the failure of standardized test scores to reflect what students understand, and the lack of proven accommodations that might make the scores more reliable (Batt, 2005). The LEP population does not stay in the same place over the time period allowed by the NCLB for all students and schools to become proficient. In addition, since the tests are made for native English speakers, LEP students are at a disadvantage due to the lack of cultural knowledge, which is assumed through out the tests. Schools are to offer specific and appropriate accommodations for LEP students, but they are limited to giving extended time to them. How can extended time help students understand the content on the standardized tests when they have weak reading skills? Some states such as Illinois, Virginia, and North Carolina have designed simple language versions of their mathematics and reading assessments aimed at helping schools make AYP, What about the other states? Most other states do not provide other types of assessment for LEP students because of the high cost; therefore, they simply administer the standard reading and math content tests failing to comply with AYP. Policy makers wish for LEP students to become proficient in English and master academic contents. Nevertheless, they are still looking for appropriate ways to incorporate LEP students in the process of accountability.
The ownership of two languages is not as simple as having two wheels or two eyes (Baker, 1996). Being bilingual entails not only the form of the language but also the skills, attitudes and usage given to the specific language. Then, who is bilingual? Bloomfield, cited in Bialystock (2001), insists that “a bilingual has full fluency in two languages” (p. 4). This general view takes into account neither the pragmatics of the language nor the individual differences of the learners. A bilingual individual is someone who can function in each language according to the given needs (Grosjean, cited in Bialystock, 2001). According to this view, a person that has a basic knowledge of the English language can be compared to a person that has good proficiency, because both of them can develop certain functions of the language. A number of definitions are given by several authors but there has not been a general agreement yet.
The Bilingual Education Act, which was replaced by the NCLB , tried to address the academic, linguistic, sociocultural, and emotional needs of students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds (Ovando, 2003). Under this Act, several bilingual schools were established to serve LEP students, addressing aspects that deal with the acquisition of a second language. After January 8, 2002, the word bilingual was wiped out from the first legislation and policy makers named the new one the 'English Language Acquisition, Language Enhancement, and Academic Achievement Act'. Its purpose is to ensure that LEP students achieve English proficiency, developing high levels of academic success in English.
Convincing politicians, school communities, parents, and policy makers of the benefits of, not only for LEP students, but also for language majority students, has been a knotty undertaking. School administrators and teachers have to persuade parents of the cognitive, social, and economical benefits that bilingualism would bring to their children in the long run. However, parents still show resistance towards the idea of having their children receive bilingual education.
Bilingual programs are created in public schools across the United States according to the school administrators’ beliefs, the available funds as well as the staff they depend on. The results of a specific bilingual program depend on resources, allocation class time given to the first and second language, parents’ cooperation, students’ socio-cultural background and the student-teacher environment lived in the school community.
Since Bilingual education is much more than a pedagogical tool, it has become a societal pain involving complex issues of cultural identity, social class status, and language politics (Ovando, 2002). The insignificant value that is given to Spanish in the United States is determined by the social interaction in the market. The increased number of bilingual programs across the US is due to the degree of awareness that Americans have reached towards this issue. The Hispanics population is the largest and fastest growing subgroup, and this means economical and political power.
From the economical point of view, a bilingual person that entered to the country legally can easily earn $40,000 a year. This is affecting the Caucasian unemployment rate. However, Hispanics that are not legally documented get paid the minimum wage. As a result the companies prefer to reduce costs by paying a low salary to illegal immigrants, which in turn causes discomfort among ethnic groups.
From a political stance, LEP students are being deprived from their linguistic rights. The so-called English-only movement is carrying not only a powerful linguistic deprivation but also a discrimination mass movement. Florida approved an anti-bilingual ordinance in 1980. This ordinance is exclusive because it does not advocate diversity and difference. Ambiguity and hidden messages are sent throughout the country with this type of legislation. Moreover, the US Federal Government states there is no official language, yet English is the official one in 26 states. The contrast of views among the states leads us to a hopeless landscape in which minority students are the ones that will suffer from a cognitive, social and cultural aspect.
What can be done to improve this controversial landscape in which children are in the crossfire? This question leads me to the third issue: how does the US prepare their bilingual teachers for the challenges of the twenty-first century classroom? NCLB Act calls for highly qualified teachers in every core academic classroom by the end of this school year (2005-2006) and to be considered highly qualified, teachers must have a bachelor’s degree, a full state certification and prove that they know each subject they teach. This claim becomes a challenge resulting in a language teacher’s shortage.
Some English language learners have teachers who understand their linguistic needs and provide rich, meaningful lessons that support their language growth (Short, 2005). The lessons that are planned by these types of teachers promote peer interaction that helps them comprehend the content that is covered in class. However, there are some less favorable learners that have teachers that leave them unsure of the tasks they are expected to do affecting their learning process.
Native teachers are expected to incorporate English culture in their teaching. Munter and Tinajero (2004) state that “the quality of the teacher is the single most outstanding factor leading to increase in pupil achievement” (p. 5). Teachers need to be well informed about issues that surround cultural awareness and prepared with the methods and pedagogic tools to achieve this so that no child will be left behind.
Mazur and Givens (2004) believe that “schools, community, and universities must function as a system rather than as separate entities and disconnected goals” (p. 11). US teachers need to take the theory to practice by visiting schools and getting familiar with the real situation that the different subgroups are experiencing. It is a matter of partnership to achieve the same goal: acquiring English and getting academic achievement through teacher training. The most recent proposal is to carry out this teaching practice in the context of professional development schools. These schools are an implemented partnership for the academic preparation of interns, as well as the continuous professional development of the school system and institution of higher education.
In this partnership, the knowledge cannot be placed exclusively on the university students or interns; the school and its staff can give useful information to make connections between theory and the daily classroom practice. These types of practices can meet the different needs of a diverse population of students and achieve students’ success.
Language teachers, researchers and any individual that are engaged in the educational field should be aware of the context in which the theory is generated. Being familiar with the socio-political issues that take place at the moment theory is brought about helps the government, schools and teachers have a clear goal regarding bilingual education. In the US, this type of education has come down a long and tortured path in which immigrants are hasty to assimilate the language and culture swiftly. The immigration movement is striking different national aspects, such as the acceptance of diverse classrooms, which make policymakers come up with new legislation that is in compliance with their culture, and political framework. Any individual that carries out research on the educational field should evaluate these diverse issues to foresee the application of theory in a different context, in this case, Colombia.
Colombia is passing through a transitional process in which English is of vital importance to the government. Therefore, the ministry of education, as a means to develop the skills of its citizens at this time of globalization, has created the Colombia Bilingue project. Its educational purpose, as opposed to the English-only movement in the United States, is seeing the process of language learning as a process of cultural learning. Yet, the project continues searching for solutions that come from abroad overlooking the potential Colombian teachers possess to generate educational theory that can help the students face this new challenge for Colombia. In the end, answers will be found in the classroom where teachers’ research initiatives generate theory framed by our own socio-economic, political, educational and societal issues.
|“||But if you ask what is the good of education in general, the answer is easy: that education makes good men, and that good men act nobly.||”|
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—Plato, Greek philosopher (c. 428–c. 348)
References
Baker, C. (1996). Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Batt, L., Kim, J. (February, 2005). Limited English Proficient Students. Harvard University.
Bialystock, E. (2001). Bilingualism in Development: Language, Literacy and Cognition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cummins, J. (2000). Language, Power and Pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossfire. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Mazur, A., & Givens, S. (2004). Professional Development Schools. NABE News. (28) 1
Short, D. (2004). Teacher skills to support English language learners. Educational Research. 62(4) December-January. pp 9-13. | https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bilingual_Education/Models_of_Bilingual_Education |
Ukrainian academic environment has been demonstrating an increased tendency for multiculturalism since foreign students were given an opportunity to study in Ukraine in 1994. Nowadays, more than sixty-six thousand students from 147 countries are enrolled here . Yet, challenges caused by intercultural education appear to be the gap that has not been given the needed attention. The objective of the paper is to highlight the importance of higher educational faculty awareness of students’ cultural and linguistic background which is understood as the total of a person’s experience, knowledge, and education . Traditionally, the range of multicultural issues faced by lecturers encompasses different learning styles, cultural diversity, non-verbal behavior, viewing historical and religious events from different perspectives, different educational experiences and expectations, language barrier. [6; 8] However, the latter mainly deals with the situation when a lecturer speaks a mother tongue while a student speaks a foreign language. In reality, neither lecturers nor the majority of international students speak English as a first language in Ukraine.
How it works
In other words, English has become a language of contact and a medium of instruction. In the Nigerian English example, we will reveal what challenges academics must be aware of before entering the classroom. Due to the distinctiveness they hold, the most striking to Ukrainian speakers of English phonetic characteristics of Nigerian English will be addressed. By now over five hundred and twenty-one languages spoken in Nigeria neither one has acquired a statues of the lingua franca [Cit. 5, p. 253]. It is only English that has grown into the nation’s official national language. Henry Hunjomaintains: “The English language in Nigeria has assumed the status of a second language considering its unique role. The language, apart from its status as the country’s lingua franca is the language of official communication, educational and political administration” [3, p. 52]. However, researchers state that, in the long process of ‘nativisation’ or indigenization of English in Nigeria, it has developed into a new form significantly different from Standard British English [Cit. 5: p. 253–254]. Accents and fluency is the first thing lecturers encounter in their classroom activity as there is a number of phonetic features which may lead to confusing and misunderstanding. Researchers maintain that the major concern is the substitution of consonant and vowel phonemes and omission of phonemes [7, p.21–22] .
Primarily, these changes are attributed to mother tongue interference. Some examples are presented here. Consonant phonemes variations vary from one ingenious language of Nigeria to another. Victoria Udon states that some languages lack the phonemes /z/, so its speaker would substitute the unavailable phoneme with /s/. Similarly, the speakers of other languages substitute /f/ for /v/ and /s/ for /ts/. Breaking up of the English consonant clusters is a common practice among interlocutors of some Nigerian languages like Yoruba and Igbo [7, p. 21]. The dental fricatives /?/ and /?/ are invariably replaced by the alveolar plosives /t/ and /d/ respectively. From the data collected by Udon, the following words are mispronounced: path /pat/ then /den/ father /fadar/ they /dei/ theme /tim/ thank /tank/ thick /tik/ three /til/ [7, p. 34]. Vowel phoneme substitution. Most Nigerian languages do not have the vowels /æ/, /?/ and /?/. For instance, /æ/ is substituted for /?/; in a word like bitter / bit?/ , / ? /, is substituted by /?/ and /a/ is /?/. British Received pronunciation /?: / is replaced sometimes by / ?: / as in /w ?:st/ for Received pronunciation /w? :st/ or /e/ as in fest/. [7, p. 21].
Omission of the glottal fricative /h/ when it occurs at the initial positions. Thus, they pronounce the following words as follows: Helicopter /elikppt?/ Happy /æpi/ heat /i:t/ hot /ot/ [7, p. 34]. Insertion the glottal fricative /h/ where it is not required: enough /hin?f/ hour /haur/ honour /ho:ne/ eye /hai/ Another interesting phonetic feature is violation of reading norms. Nigerians say the word the way they it is written: whistle /wistil/ [7, p. 34]. Coming back to an issue of intercultural education, it is highly important to remember that education is a double-sided process, i.e. educators learn from students just as well as those learn from them. “Teachers who learn more about their students’ backgrounds, cultures, and experiences will feel more capable and efficient in their work as teachers. Teachers should work continuously to improve the lives of their students” , whereas ignoring the linguistic peculiarities of students’ English may lead to language barriers bolstering and become a reason for significant incomprehension.
References
- Merriam-Webster online dictionary [Electronic resource]. – ????? ???????: https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/background. – Date of access: 28.01.2019.
- Ojetunde C.F. Lexico-Grammatical Errors in Nigerian English: Implications for Nigerian Teachers and Learners of English [Electronic resource] / C.F. Ojetunde // European Scientific Journal, June 2013. – Vol.9. – No.17. – Mode of access: http://eujournal.org/index.php/esj/article/viewFile/1170/1187. – Date of access: 28.01.2019. 6. Shinnik J. The Challenges of Intercultural Education, For Both Lecturer and Student [Electronic resource]. – Mode of access: https://millian.nl/artikelen/the-challenges-of-intercultural-education-for-both-lecturer-and-student. – Date of access: 28.01.2019.
- Udoh V. Ch. Linguistic Features of The Language of The Nigeria Police Force, Onitsha [Electronic resource] / V.Ch. Udoh : MA paper ; Department of English And Literary Studies, University ?f Nigeria. – Nsukka, 2010. – Mode of access: http://www.unn.edu.ng/publications/files/images/MA.Project.pdf. – Date of access: 28.01.2019.
- Veinhardt J. The Attitude of Students of Different Cultures to Barriers to Learning in Foreign Higher Education Institutions: Case of Lithuania and Pakistan [Electronic resource] / J. Veinhardt, A. Rizwan, E. Stonkute. – Mode of access: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274310758_The_Attitude_of_Students_of_Different_Cultures_to_Barriers_to_Learning_in_Foreign_Higher_Education_Institutions_Case_of_Lithuania_and_Pakistan. – Date of access: 28.01.2019.
- White Teachers, Diverse Classrooms: Creating Inclusive Schools, Building on Students’ Diversity, and Providing True Educational Equity / Ed. by J. Landsmann and Ch. W. Lewis. – Stylus Publishing. 2011. – 384p. | https://papersowl.com/examples/language-barrier-as-a-challenge-of-intercultural-communication/ |
Nursing Students Head to Spanish Class
Negotiating the health care system is daunting—understanding insurance, finding a provider, securing appointments, communicating health issues. These challenges, coupled with language barriers, can discourage individuals from seeking help or cause them to misunderstand their diagnoses or treatments.
For the first time, the University of Houston College of Nursing will offer a class in Beginning Medical Spanish to prepare students to care for patients with limited English-language proficiency. The two –week class will be offered on the UH Sugar Land Campus during the May mini-semester.
“Among many Hispanic patients there are language barriers and a mistrust of the health care system,” said Maria E. Perez, Instructional Assistant Professor in the Department of Hispanic Studies. “Health care professionals who can successfully communicate and understand their patients will be better equipped to overcome these challenges and to empower their patients to be active participants in their health decisions.”
According to the Pew Research Center there are approximately 55 million Hispanics in the U.S., 70 percent of whom indicate they use Spanish at home; 23 percent indicate their accent or the manner in which they speak English contribute to their poor treatment in health care settings.
Unlike a traditional Spanish language class, Perez says students won’t focus on extensive verb conjugation. Rather, the goal will be to develop language skills that will allow them to obtain basic patient history, perform physical assessments, all with empathy and culturally appropriate interactions.
The nursing class is structured around modules with specific learning outcomes. Students will study vocabulary and grammar and complete written assignments. They’ll also practice role-playing scenarios to review what they’ve learned and to model cultural competency and professionalism. The class meets in three-hour sessions, five times a week.
“Our students reflect the diversity of the patients they will be serving,” said Kathryn Tart, professor and founding dean of the College of Nursing. “Their academic preparation must include all avenues to connect with their diverse patients, among them language and culture. We are happy to offer this class and to see the enthusiasm with which our students have approached it.”
The class is an addition to the Department Hispanic Studies’ Spanish for Global Professions Minor, which Perez assisted in development. The courses are for students whose careers will interact with Hispanic communities. The courses are offered for business, translation & interpretation, and health.
“There has been a definite increase in interest in Spanish for specific purposes,” she said. “The rapid growth of the Hispanic population in the United States has created a niche for practical courses that address the particular needs of this population.”
The Office of Minority Health (housed in the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services) has developed standards for public institutions that receive federal funds to provide language services in the preferred language of the patients. Additionally, there is a new focus on increasing the number of health professionals who are capable of providing competent linguistic and cultural health care. | http://www.uh.edu/sugarland/news/2017/april/Spanish%20Class%20for%20Nurses/ |
Assessing the Impact of Head Start on Latino Children and their Families
This project examines the impact of Head Start enrollment on Latino students in Washington State. Latino families are more likely to be living below the poverty line and to have the lowest level of education of any other group in the state. Their children enter school with undeveloped basic academic skills, which frustrates their progress and contributes to high drop out rates. For the past forty years Head Start has been the federally funded answer to the academic challenges of disadvantaged children, and it’s ability to remain effective is tied to the program’s capability to adapt to the needs of the growing Latino community in Washington.
Methods: I researched published information and studies on the benefits of preschool, the Head Start program, and the educational barriers which face minority and poor children. I collected and compared last school year’s National Reporting System test scores from several programs throughout the state, to both each other and to averages from Head Start programs across the country. I also conducted a survey of Walla Walla Head Start parents and two local interviews to supplement discussion of Head Start’s impact on the academic performance and home learning environment of Latino students.
Findings: Head Start can positively impact the performance of Latino children both in the short and long term. A case study of the programs offered by Walla Walla’s Head Start program to parents demonstrates the influence of an educational approach which engages the parents. However, this research also suggests that troubling achievement gaps persist between Latino students and their classmates, despite enrollment in Head Start; I argue that the restricted language capabilities of many Latino families impact the scholastic performance of their children in a variety of ways.
Recommendations:
- Conduct more long term research on the impact of Head Start enrollment
- Reassess current testing procedures and replace them with tests which match the program’s stated outcomes
- Improve the capacity for K-12 education to continue the linguistic and socio-emotional development with Head Start begins
- Increase support for teachers, including providing funding for Spanish-language training. | http://www.walatinos.org/2005/11/assessing-the-impact-of-head-start-on-latino-children-and-their-families/ |
Background: Health disparities exist among different cultural groups in a multicultural society. Older people from minority groups usually face greater challenges in accessing and utilizing healthcare services due to language barriers, low levels of health literacy and cognitive impairment. Objectives: The aims of this study were to measure nursing students’ cultural competence in the context of caring for older people from diverse cultural backgrounds and explore associated factors affecting their cultural competence in order to inform curriculum design in Xinjiang, China. Design: A cross-sectional study design. Settings: The study was undertaken in the School of Nursing, Xinjiang Medical University, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, China. Participants: Students enrolled in a 4-year Bachelor of Nursing Program. Methods: Students’ cultural competence was measured using a validated Chinese version of Cross-cultural Care Questionnaire. Data were collected using a self-administered survey. Results: The number of students in the survey was 677. Of those students, 59.5% of them were from an ethnic group other than Han Chinese. A higher proportion of students from ethnic groups, other than Han Chinese, were able to fluently speak a language other than Chinese and used this language in their study and daily lives. Nursing students demonstrated low scores in knowledge, skills and encounters subscales for cultural competence, but had a relatively high score in awareness across all academic years. Findings from students’ responses to open-ended questions reveal the need to integrate cross-cultural care and gerontological care into the nursing curricula and support students to apply gerontological knowledge to practice in clinical placements. Conclusions: Nursing students enrolled in a 4-year Bachelor degree program in a multicultural and less developed region demonstrated lower scores on cultural competence and recognized the need to develop crosscultural and gerontological competencies. | https://researchnow.flinders.edu.au/en/publications/nursing-students-cultural-competence-in-caring-for-older-people-i |
This project investigates how vignette illustrations minimize the impact of limited English proficiency on student performance in science tests. Different analyses will determine whether and how ELL and non-ELL students differ significantly on the ways they use vignettes to make sense of items; whether the use of vignettes reduces test-score differences due to language factors between ELL and non-ELL students; and whether the level of distance of the items moderates the effectiveness of vignette-illustrated items.
Guillermo Solano-Flores
Professional Title
Associate Professor
Organization/Institution
About Me (Bio)
Dr. Guillermo Solano-Flores specializes in educational measurement, assessment development, and the linguistic and cultural issues that are relevant to both the testing of linguistic minorities and international test comparisons. He is Associate Professor of Bilingual Education and English as a Second Language at the School of Education of the University of Colorado, Boulder. A psychometrician by formal training, his work focuses on the development of alternative, multidisciplinary approaches that address linguistic and cultural diversity in testing. He has conducted research on the development, translation, localization, and review of science and mathematics tests; the design of software for computer-assisted scoring; and the development of assessments for the professional certification of science teachers. He has been principal investigator in several National Science Foundation-funded projects that have examined the intersection of psychometrics and linguistics in testing. He is the author of the theory of test translation error, which addresses testing across cultures and languages. Also, he has investigated the use of generalizability theory—a psychometric theory of measurement error—in the testing of English language learners. He has advised Latin American countries on the development of national assessment systems and contributed to the development of the National Assessment of Educational Progress 2009 Science Framework with advice on strategies for the testing of linguistic minorities. Current research projects investigate the measurement of mathematics academic language load in tests and the design and use of illustrations as a form of testing accommodations for English language learners with an approach that uses cognitive science, semiotics, and sociolinguistics in combination. He is a member of the research team of an international study that investigates the feasibility of adapting and translating performance tasks into multiple languages.
Keywords
Design and Use of Illustrations in Test Items as a Form of Accommodation for English Language Learners in Science and Mathematics Assessment
University of Colorado Boulder
09/01/2008
Examining Formative Assessment Practices for English Language Learners in Science Classrooms (Collaborative Research: Solano-Flores)
University of Colorado Boulder
09/01/2011
This is an exploratory study to identify critical aspects of effective science formative assessment (FA) practices for English Language Learners (ELLs), and the contextual factors influencing such practices. FA, in the context of the study, is viewed as a process contributing to the science learning of ELLs, as opposed to the administration of discrete sets of instruments to collect data from students. The study targets Spanish-speaking, elementary and middle school students. | https://cadrek12.org/users/guillermo-solano-flores |
Veklury (Remdesivir for Injection)- FDA
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A number of approaches have been used Injdction)- identify the ecological features and attributes used in setting targets for spatial management, some of which may be relevant in the deep-sea environment.
Cold-seep and deep-water coral ecosystems (Figure 5) Velury be considered as VMEs under this framework. However, given that the deep-water Injfction)- and gas industry still operates, almost exclusively, within areas of national jurisdiction, and has impacts that differ in extent and character to bottom-contact fishing, the VME concept may not be the most appropriate.
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MPA Advisory Group unveils results of public consultation on ‘Expanding Ireland’s Marine Protected Areas Network’
On 31 March 2022, the Marine Protection Area Advisory Group published a detailed analysis summarizing the results of their public consultation on Ireland’s network of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). The public consultation started on February 17, 2021 and continued until July 30, 2021 inclusive. The consultation took place as part of the government’s initiative to protect the marine environment through the designation of marine protected areas.
In December 2019, the Minister for Housing, Regional Planning and Local Government established an independent expert group, the Marine Protected Areas (MPA) Advisory Group, to provide independent and expert advice on the how to support the expansion of a coherent network of marine protected areas. Areas, in line with Ireland’s commitments under the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) and the EU Biodiversity Strategy. The MPA Group conducted extensive dialogue with stakeholders and produced a report titled Extension of Ireland’s Marine Protected Area Networkwhich served as support for this public consultation.
In this report, the MAP advisory group noted that a very small part of the marine environment is currently under protection, with only 10,420 km² or 2.13% of the total maritime area of the Ireland covered by the Natura 2000 network of Special Sea Areas of Conservation (SACs) and Special Protection Areas (SPAs) under the Habitats and Birds Directives. There is an absence of national legislation supporting the implementation of MPAs beyond 12 nautical miles. The Wildlife Act is limited in its application to the foreshore, which roughly corresponds to the limits of the territorial sea. The protection of sensitive habitats and species beyond 12 nautical miles is therefore limited to measures taken within the framework of Community law (in particular the MSFD, the Birds and Habitats Directives) or the OSPAR Convention. Overall, the Advisory Group found that “Ireland’s network of protected areas cannot be considered cohesive, representative, connected or resilient or as meeting Ireland’s international commitments and legal obligations”. However, the Panel also recognized that other environmental protection mechanisms are in place and that offshore developments requiring Marine Area Consent (MAC) under the new marine governance regime will require an EIA and/or or an appropriate assessment before being able to obtain planning permission from the Council. (Semple M. Maritime Spatial Planning Bill 2021Bill Digest).
The MAPA was enacted on December 23, 2021 and the relevant provisions governing the granting of MACs entered into force shortly thereafter, on March 10, 2022. The law does not deal with AMPs, which will be the subject of a separate legislative text. . Prior to the MAPA’s enactment, concerns were raised that development permission could be granted in environmentally sensitive areas that may be designated as MPAs in the future (see: Joint Committee on Housing, Local Government and heritage, 2021. Pre-legislative examination report of the general outline of the maritime development planning and management bill). Despite Ireland’s commitment to designate 30% of its marine area as MPAs by 2030, the development of MPA legislation lags behind the enactment of the MAPA. Several offshore wind farms qualify as special MAC cases and will soon come under the new MAC regime. In due course, some or all of these proposed developments will seek development approval. It is therefore of concern that further delays in establishing a system of designated MPAs may lead to missed opportunities to consider MPAs in the context of these applications.
Of course, the protection granted to SACs and SPAs is not strictly limited to the boundaries of these designated sites. For example, in the context of SPA birds, Article 4(4) of the Birds Directive expressly extends protections to other ex situ habitats used by these birds. Article 5(d) of the Birds Directive expressly prohibits the deliberate and significant disturbance of all wild birds, including SPA birds, in particular during their most vulnerable breeding and rearing periods, and the article 12 of the Habitats Directive expressly prohibits the deliberate disturbance of marine mammals, in particular (but not exclusively) during periods of reproduction and rearing or migration, and also prohibits the deterioration or destruction of their breeding or resting sites . These protections are subject to limited exceptions and apply throughout the jurisdiction, not just in designated areas. Therefore, even within the existing legislative regime, it will be possible to ensure that the potential impact of projects on these species and their habitats will be analyzed and assessed in accordance with the Habitats and Birds Directives.
The public consultation was spread over more than five months and concluded with a Independent analysis and report on public consultation submissions on Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). A total of 2,300 submissions were received and showed strong public acceptance of marine protected areas. Over 99% of submissions received by the MPA Advisory Group supported the expansion of the Irish MPA network. The need for strong scientific support and early stakeholder engagement with fishers and coastal communities was seen as critical to the MPA expansion process. In essence, it was found that:
- the program target for the government to protect 30% of Irish waters by 2030 as part of the MPA network was supported; whereas the current level of protection (at approximately 2%) was not considered sufficient;
- 93% of respondents support the inclusion of existing conservation sites in the national network of MPAs;
- 91% support the key principles of the ongoing MPA process;
- respondents noted gaps in information and data as well as gaps in marine protection education;
- Respondents called for urgent, evidence-based action, and increased research and resources, to protect our marine life and the economic and societal benefits that come from a marine environment diverse and productive.
The findings of the consultation will inform the development of national legislation to enable the identification and management of MPAs. Work to develop a general outline of legislation on MPAs is currently underway within the Ministry of Housing, Local Authorities and Heritage and should continue until 2022. | https://publicopinionpros.com/mpa-advisory-group-unveils-results-of-public-consultation-on-expanding-irelands-marine-protected-areas-network/ |
# Batrisodes venyivi
Batrisodes venyivi, also known as Helotes mold beetle, is an eyeless beetle in the family Staphylinidae. They are found exclusively in the dark zones of caves in the Southwest region of Texas. More specifically, they have been found in eight caves throughout Bexar County, Texas. Similar species include the eight other Bexar County invertebrates, such as Rhadine exilis or Rhadine infernalis. All nine of these species are protected under the Endangered Species Act. Despite the efforts of a small number of researchers, the logistical challenges of accessing this habitat greatly limit the amount and type of information. Very little is known of the species’ behavior, population trends, or general ecology.
## Description
The Helotes mold beetles average about two millimeters in length. No current information is available about the coloration of the Helotes mold beetles.
The Helotes mold beetles are eyeless Arthropods. There are 5 species of Batrisodes in the Edwards Plateau region that typically differ from their usual species traits. The species in this region have abnormally long antennae and legs. Additionally, the species that live under these conditions often develop elongated sensory setae that enable them to attach to irregular cave surfaces.
## Ecology
### Diet
Helotes mold beetles are omnivores. They consume animal or plant materials that have been transported via water or wind to their habitats. They play an important role in their ecosystem, as they eat invertebrates such as mites, springtails, and cave crickets. In addition, they are eaten by other invertebrates and vertebrates in caves. Their overall role in their ecosystem is still in the process of being researched by scientists, but they are a large part of the food chain in Bexar County, Texas.
### Habitat
The Helotes mold beetles live in underground habitats with high humidity and stable temperatures. They are found in the dark regions of caves, often under rocks. They exhibit troglobitic traits, such as absent or reduced eyes, long antennae, legs, and sensory setae (hair-like structures). Previous studies show that troglobitic arthropods thrive in higher humidity and lower air temperatures, which explains their necessity for deep cave conditions. Because of this, the Helotes mold beetles are most commonly found in the southwestern region of Texas.
There are current efforts to conserve and protect these habitats under the Bexar County Karst Invertebrate Recovery Plan. See Human Impact and Current Conservation Efforts for more information.
### Range
Helotes mold beetles are commonly found in eight caves throughout the southwest region of Texas, more specifically Bexar County, where they were first collected in 1984. When they were first discovered, they were only found in six caves, but have since been found in two more in the area. However, troglobites, like the Helotes mold beetle, cannot travel between cave systems and are endemic to a single cave or cave system. Their specific habitat requirements and their troglobitic characteristics make the range of the species very small. Because of this, the species is facing habitat loss due to increased urbanization and population growth in Bexar County. There is little evidence that indicates the Helotes mold beetles have occurred elsewhere in Texas (for a range map see ).
### Historic and current population size
The Helotes mold beetles are known to live in stressful conditions as their habitats are commonly impacted by urbanization. Their range is limited, and they are sparsely found in southwestern Texas. Due to the difficulty in accessing their habitats, a specific estimation of their population size seems to be unknown to researchers. In 2000, the Helotes mold beetle was recognized by the Endangered Species Act.
## Life history
Information about the reproduction of the Helotes mold beetle is largely unknown because it is such a small and rare species. The following information is about two similar species, the Coffin Cave mold beetle, Batrisodes texanus, and the Kretschmarr Cave mold beetle, Texamaurops reddelli.
### Helotes mold beetle
Little is known about the daily lives of the Helotes mold beetles and similar karst invertebrates because of their secretive habitats. There does not seem to be a distinct reproduction pattern for this species, and they may reproduce at any time during the year if steady conditions remain present in the caves.
### General Batrisode beetles
Batrisode beetles can be sexually dimorphic, meaning that sexes of the same species exhibit different characteristics. Males tend to reach sexual maturity at a smaller size than females. While information about the reproductive process for Batrisode beetles is largely unknown, it is likely that this species of beetle engages in a similar lifestyle to that of beetles in general. This means that a male and a female mate, the female lays an egg, the egg hatches, and the young beetle grows to become a fully developed adult. The adult will eventually find another mate to restart the cycle.
## Conservation
The Helotes mold beetle was listed as endangered in 2000 and is currently protected under the Endangered Species Act. Large amounts of land in Bexar County are privately owned, making cooperative conservation efforts difficult and essential to the conservation of the species. Three of the caves that the species inhabits have been purchased to minimize damage from urbanization. Preserving these caves and thus protecting the genetic diversity and ensuring long-term survival is essential.
### Human impact on the species
The rapid urbanization of the land around the city of San Antonio has greatly impacted this species. Urbanization has proceeded largely unregulated both before and after the listing of the species. Thus, the number of suitable cave preservation sites is likely dwindling by the minute. Caves and other suitable karst habitats are vanishing due to human overtake during development, and quarrying the rock from which they are comprised. The filling, or altering cave entrances, is extremely destructive and results in habitat loss. Examples of this may include alternating drainage patterns, reducing or increasing nutrient flow, altering native surface plant and animal communities, contamination, and the competition and predation of invasive, non-native species.
In 2012, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service was tasked with building a critical habitat for the nine Bexar County invertebrates, including the Helotes mold beetle. They held a public hearing in 2011 to discuss the proposed critical habitat and took public word into consideration. This enabled the government to purchase more of the privately-owned critical habitat for conservation.
### Major threats
There are several major threats to the Helotes mold beetle. Changes to a cave’s surface or underground drainage basin can hurt a beetle habitat. This generally occurs from development activities that might affect the quality of hydrologic inputs into the karst ecosystem. The Helotes mold beetles are reliant on buffers in the form of plant communities. Without these native plant communities present, it becomes more difficult to maintain microclimatic conditions. Urbanization also poses a threat to the Helotes mold beetle because it alters cave entrances, infiltrates cave water, decreases connectivity among populations, and degrades surface habitats. All of these effects ultimately reduce Helotes mold beetle population status and the species’ long-term persistence.
### History of ESA and IUCN listings
The Helotes mold beetles were listed (as of 12/26/2000) as endangered wherever found in the ESA. They were first collected in 1984 and later rediscovered by Chandler. It was Chandler’s descriptions that prompted a petition by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services to list the Helotes mold beetles. At the time of its original listing, the Batrisodes venyivi was only known in six caves. The species later appeared on the federal register in 1994. In a recovery plan from 2011, it was detailed that these beetles inhabit eight caves around Bexar, Texas, yet they remain endangered. On 8/27/2002, there was a proposal for the designation of critical habitat for the species. Additionally, a final recovery outline plan was developed and published on 9/12/2011.
The IUCN does not currently have a listing for this species.
### Current conservation efforts
A critical habitat designation for the Helotes mold beetle was proposed to preserve habitat areas and support populations that represent the genetic diversity of the species.
In 2011, the Bexar County Karst Invertebrates Recovery Plan was published. In this plan, the Helotes mold beetle is listed as a priority 2C, with 1 being the highest priority and 18 being the lowest priority, due to a moderate degree of threat and low recovery potential. The recovery strategy states that karst fauna areas should adhere to the following objectives:
Establish sufficient quantity of moisture to karst ecosystems Maintain stable in-cave temperatures Limit red-imported fire ant predation/competition Provide adequate nutrient input to karst ecosystems Protect caves as they serve as migration routes for karst invertebrates Ensure that preserves are large enough to withstand random or catastrophic events Minimize the amount of active management needed for each preserve Maintain adequate populations of native plant and animal communities
The long-term targets of this recovery plan include maintaining high numbers of Helotes mold beetles through trend monitoring of cave species, research on the species’ genetic diversity, and educating the public about karst biology. The short-term efforts of this plan include designing preserves that meet the species needs to breed and protect the surface drainage basins and ensuring that karst fauna areas are far enough apart so that catastrophic events do not overtake all of them at once. Additionally, this plan involves monitoring population statuses to document loss/growth and applying adaptive management strategies to limit human intervention in Helotes mold beetles’ habitats. Both short-term and long-term strategies are implemented to create high quality karst fauna areas and increase probability of species survival, so the Batrisodes venyivi can be delisted in the future. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batrisodes_venyivi |
By Riley Chervinski, Communications and Events Coordinator, Ocean Program of CPAWS Manitoba
Did you know Manitoba boasts a biologically rich coastline and globally significant wildlife habitat?
Western Hudson Bay is home to some of the largest concentrations of beluga whales and polar bears in the world.
The federal government identified a huge swath of Hudson Bay that could be protected as a National Marine Conservation Area (NMCA) along the coasts of Manitoba and Ontario in 2017.
Our partner Ocean’s North published a report a year later outlining why the area should be protected by 2020. Canadians are still waiting for the government to launch the process.
Let’s look at what exactly this designation means for Western Hudson Bay and how you can show your support.
What is an NMCA Designation?
An NMCA is more than just a fancy title. It helps create federal investment, tools and resources to protect and manage a vital marine area. It is based on science, traditional knowledge, local knowledge and participation, all while affirming Indigenous rights. This is important for a region like Western Hudson Bay, where observable effects of climate change include a faster loss of ice than most parts of the Arctic.
What Does an NMCA Designation Mean for Western Hudson Bay?
There are four key elements of support and protection an NMCA designation will bring to Hudson Bay:
Protect Species at Risk
Approximately 1,000 polar bears in the southern Hudson Bay area rely on the formation of sea ice to be able to hunt seals. In summer, an estimated 55,000 beluga whales (one-third of the world’s population) migrate into the Churchill, Seal, and Nelson river estuaries. 170 species of birds are also found in the region, including some that are hard to spot anywhere else.
With longer ice-free periods in the Arctic sea, beluga whales are becoming more vulnerable to increased ship traffic, hydroelectric development and predation from orca whales.
Polar bears are facing shorter hunting seasons, making it difficult for them to gain the weight that is critical to reproduce, raise healthy young and survive the lean summer months on land.
The establishment of an NMCA in Western Hudson Bay would result in detailed studies of habitats and ongoing monitoring programs to detect changes and impacts on wildlife populations.
Secure Indigenous Cultures and Ways of Life
Inuit families who live near Western Hudson Bay rely on the harvesting of beluga whales for their food security. An NMCA would enhance conservation measures, monitoring and management to protect the habitats of beluga whales and other wildlife. This would help secure vital food resources for local Indigenous communities in a region where store-bought options are deficient.
Archeological evidence in Hubbard Point (north of the Seal River) suggests humans have relied on the area to hunt for over a thousand years. Establishment of an NMCA could fund further research and excavation of these ancient Indigenous sites. A Guardian or Watchmen program in the area would also employ members of Indigenous communities to help monitor and protect the sensitive cultural sites and act as guides and interpreters for visitors.
Create Jobs, Support Tourism and Provide Investments in Infrastructure
Churchill is the most accessible and affordable sub-Arctic tourist destination in the world, drawing between 10,000 and 15,000 visitors per year to view polar bears, beluga whales and northern lights. 40 per cent of Churchill’s economy comes from tourism alone.
An NMCA designation would include a federal investment to improve docks, wharfs and pathways for visitor safety and upgrade visitor centres and scientific research centres.
Minimize Environmental Impacts of Shipping and Other Commercial Activities
Less sea ice means a longer and busier shipping season, particularly in the Port of Churchill, Canada’s only deep-water port in the Arctic.
A NMCA would encourage collaboration with the Port of Churchill and shipping industry to design minimal-impact shipping routes and would prohibit ocean dumping of hazardous pollutants.
A NMCA could also ensure that Manitoba Hydro is directly engaged as a partner in the conservation and management of beluga habitat in the area.
How Can You Help?
Write a letter to the Prime Minister urging the protection of the Western Hudson Bay region. It is a globally significant habitat and deserves to be recognized and protected as such.
The Government of Canada first acknowledged the significance of this site in 2017 when it prioritized the Western Hudson Bay for assessment as a marine protected area. It’s time to remind them of its critical importance to our ecosystem. | https://cpawsmb.org/protecting-world-treasures-making-western-hudson-bay-a-marine-conservation-area |
Have Your Say!
On 19 January 2016, Natural Resources Wales (NRW) launched a consultation on proposals to create six new Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in Welsh seas. Our seas in south west Wales are important for many species, including nationally important seabird and marine mammal species such as Manx Shearwaters and Puffins, Bottlenose Dolphins and Harbour Porpoises.
This proposal to protect new areas follows a long period of data gathering and analysis by government agencies, to determine the best locations for designation. The proposed new protected areas are a mixture of Special Areas of Conservation (SACs), and Special Protection Areas (SPAs). Designated under the European Habitats and Birds Directives, SACs are sites that are considered of European importance for the species or habitats found within them, and SPAs are designated to protect populations of rare, threatened or migratory species of wild birds and the habitats on which they depend.
Within WTSWW’s area, these proposals include the following sites. Follow the hyperlink for more details on the specific site proposals, and the rationale for choosing them:
- West Wales Marine- a possible SAC incorporating most of Cardigan Bay and the Pembrokeshire Coast, primarily for Harbour Porpoise
- Bristol Channel Approaches- a possible SAC incorporating Carmarthen Bay and extending across the Channel to south west England, primarily for Harbour Porpoise. The area proposed which falls outside Welsh territorial waters remains the responsibility of the UK government and is being consulted on by JNCC.
- Skomer, Skokholm and the seas off Pembrokeshire- a proposed significant extension to the existing SPA around our Pembrokeshire islands, to extend protection for a number of our seabirds.
- Northern Cardigan Bay- a proposed SPA in the offshore waters north of Aberystwyth, for the single feature of the non-breeding population of Red-throated Divers.
The Wildlife Trust of South and West Wales wholeheartedly welcome this significant move to protect special places where these species congregate for feeding, socialising and breeding around the UK. This network of sites will offer greater protection for a range of Welsh habitats including breeding and feeding areas, which are essential to the important life stages of these species.
Although these new site proposals do not stop human activity within these areas, they should ensure that all current and future activities do not harm protected species by ensuring they are properly regulated and managed.
If these sites are successfully designated, they will make a significant contribution to the conservation of some of our most iconic species. However, we also need to ensure adequate protection of harbour porpoises and seabirds throughout their range, both inside and outside of protected areas. We can and must all play our part in minimising threats such as prey depletion, pollution and disturbance to marine species and habitats to ensure future generations are able to enjoy our Living Seas.
The designation of SACs and SPAs in Welsh territorial waters is the responsibility of the Welsh Ministers. NRW advises Ministers on the identification of sites, and they are carrying out this consultation on behalf of the Welsh Government. No decisions have yet been made on whether to designate these areas but if they are designated, they will become part of Wales’ contribution to the Natura 2000 network, joining Wales’ existing series of marine SACs and SPAs. Final decisions on whether to designate the sites in Welsh waters will be made by the Minister for Natural Resources in the Welsh Government.
The Welsh consultation runs until 19 April, and is being co-ordinated with consultations on other proposed marine sites in English, Northern Ireland and UK offshore waters. These latter sites are being consulted on by the Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC) – information on these sites can be found on the JNCC website.
What you can do
If you want to lend your support to the designation of these important sites for Harbour Porpoise and seabirds, you can find further information in relation to the consultation here.
All responses to this consultation must be received by midnight on 19 April 2016 at the latest. Any responses received after that date cannot be taken into account.
Responses must be submitted using the online response form or in writing by sending an email to: [email protected], or by writing to NRW at: Marine N2K Consultation, Natural Resources Wales, Maes y Ffynnon, Bangor, LL57 2DW. If you simply wish to write in support of designation you may find it simpler to do by post or email than in the online form.
If you are responding by email or letter you must indicate clearly which site or sites your response relates to. This is essential to enable NRW and JNCC to properly consider the consultations responses. You can also indicate if you would like your response on any one of the sites included in the consultation to be considered as applicable to the wider UK network proposed sites.
Please note that Welsh Government intends to publish the responses received. This includes publishing the name and address of the person or organisation that sent the response. If you do not wish your name and your views on these SAC or SPA proposals to be made public, NRW advise not to respond to this consultation.
Thank you for your support!
For further information: | https://www.welshwildlife.org/marine-2/proposed-new-marine-protected-areas-could-help-protect-wildlife-in-wales/ |
WASHINGTON, D.C. – The Department of the Interior's U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service today designated more than 187,000 square miles of on-shore barrier islands, denning areas and offshore sea-ice as critical habitat for the threatened polar bear under the Endangered Species Act.
The designation identifies geographic areas containing features considered essential for the conservation of the bear that require special management or protection.
“This critical habitat designation enables us to work with federal partners to ensure their actions within its boundaries do not harm polar bear populations,” said Tom Strickland, Assistant Secretary for Fish and Wildlife and Parks. “Nevertheless, the greatest threat to the polar bear is the melting of its sea ice habitat caused by human-induced climate change. We will continue to work toward comprehensive strategies for the long-term survival of this iconic species.”
The designation of critical habitat under the ESA does not affect land ownership or establish a refuge, wilderness, reserve, preserve, or other conservation area. It does not allow government or the public access to private lands. A critical habitat designation does not affect private lands unless federal funds, permits, or activities are involved.
The final designation, contained in a final rule that was submitted on November 23, 2010 to the Federal Register, encompasses three areas or units: barrier island habitat, sea ice habitat and terrestrial denning habitat. Barrier island habitat includes coastal barrier islands and spits along Alaska's coast, and is used for denning, refuge from human disturbances, access to maternal dens and feeding habitat and travel along the coast. Sea ice habitat is located over the continental shelf, and includes ice over water up to 300 m (984 ft) in depth extending to the outer limits of the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone, 321 km (200 miles) from shore.
Terrestrial denning habitat includes lands within 32 km (20 miles) of the northern coast of Alaska between the Canadian border and the Kavik River and within 8 km (5 miles) between the Kavik River and Barrow, Alaska. Approximately 96 percent of the area designated as critical habitat is sea ice habitat.
On October 29, 2009, the Service proposed to designate approximately 519,403 sq km (200,541 sq mi) as critical habitat for the polar bear. The final rule reduces this designation to 484,734 sq km (187,157 sq mi), a reduction due mostly to corrections designed to accurately reflect the U.S. boundary for proposed sea ice habitat.
In addition, the critical habitat designated in the final rule differs from that originally proposed in several significant areas: 1) five U.S. Air Force (USAF) Radar Sites are exempt from the final rule based on their Integrated Natural Resource Management Plans, which include measures to protect polar bears occurring in habitats within or adjacent to these facilities; 2) the Native communities of Barrow and Kaktovik were excluded from the final designation; and 3) all existing manmade structures (regardless of land ownership status) are not included in the final critical habitat designation.
The polar bear was protected under the Endangered Species Act as threatened, range-wide, on May 15, 2008, due to loss of sea ice habitat caused by climate change. Other threats evaluated at that time included impacts from activities such as oil and gas operations, subsistence harvest, shipping, and tourism. No other impacts were considered as significant in the decline, but minimizing effects from these activities could become increasingly important for polar bears as their numbers decline.
The ESA requires that, to the maximum extent prudent and determinable, the Secretary of the Interior designate critical habitat at the time the species is added to the federal list of threatened and endangered species. However, the Service determined that additional time was needed to conduct a thorough evaluation and peer–review of a potential critical habitat designation, and thus did not publish a proposed designation when the listing's final rule was announced. As part of the settlement of a subsequent lawsuit brought by a group of conservation organizations, the Department of the Interior agreed to publish a Final Rule designating critical habitat for the polar bear. Today's announcement fulfills the terms of that agreement.
Polar bears evolved for life in the harsh arctic environment, and are distributed throughout most ice-covered seas of the Northern Hemisphere. They are generally limited to areas where the sea is ice-covered for much of the year; however, they are not evenly distributed throughout their range. They are most abundant near the shore in shallow-water areas, and in other places where currents and ocean upwelling increases marine productivity and maintains some open water during the ice-covered season.
Polar bears are completely dependent upon Arctic sea-ice habitat for survival. They use sea ice as a platform to hunt and feed upon seals, as a habitat on which to seek mates and breed, as a platform to move to onshore maternity denning areas, and make long-distance movements, and occasionally for maternity denning. Most populations use onshore habitat partially or exclusively for maternity denning.
Throughout most of their range, polar bears remain on the sea ice year-round or spend only short periods on land. There are two polar bear populations that occur in the U.S.; the Chukchi Sea population and the Southern Beaufort Sea population located to the west and north of Alaska. Internationally, they also occur throughout the East Siberian, Laptev, and Kara Seas of Russia; Fram Strait and Greenland Sea; Barents Sea of northern Europe; Baffin Bay, which separates Canada and Greenland; and through most of the Canadian Arctic archipelago.
The Service announced its original proposal to designate critical habitat on October 29, 2009, opening a 60-day public comment period. On May 5, 2010, the Service published in the Federal Register (75 FR 24545) a notice re-opening the public comment period and informing the public of the availability of a Draft Economic Analysis on the proposed designation of critical habitat. The Service received over 111,000 public comments which were considered in the final decision.
The areas included in this critical habitat designation do encompass areas where oil and gas exploration activities are known to occur. Section 7 of the ESA requires federal agencies to ensure that the activities they authorize, fund or carry out are not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or to destroy or adversely modify its critical habitat. If a federal action may affect the polar bear or its critical habitat, the permitting or action agency must enter into consultation with the Service. Consultation is a process through which Federal agencies and the Service jointly work to identify potential impacts on listed species and their habitats, and identify ways to implement these actions consistent with species conservation. This applies to oil and gas development activities, as well as any other activity within the range of the polar bear that may have an adverse affect on the species.
For more information about the critical habitat final rule and other issues on polar bear conservation, please visit http://alaska.fws.gov/fisheries/mmm/polarbears/criticalhabitat.htm
The mission of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is working with others to conserve, protect and enhance fish, wildlife, plants and their habitats for the continuing benefit of the American people. We are both a leader and trusted partner in fish and wildlife conservation, known for our scientific excellence, stewardship of lands and natural resources, dedicated professionals and commitment to public service. For more information on our work and the people who make it happen, visit www.fws.gov. | https://www.doi.gov/news/pressreleases/US-Fish-and-Wildlife-Service-Announces-Final-Designation-of-Polar-Bear-Critical-Habitat |
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service today issued a final revised designation of critical habitat under the Endangered Species Act for the threatened northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis caurina) totaling approximately 5.3 million acres of federal land in the northwest United States. This includes the designation of approximately 1.8 million acres in Washington, 2.3 million acres in Oregon and 1.2 million acres in California.
The critical habitat designation is based on the draft and final recovery plans for the northern spotted owl. The resulting network of conservation areas is designed to support a stable number of breeding pairs of northern spotted owls over time and to allow for their movement across the network.
In federal forests west of the Cascade Mountains’ crest, the designation overlays the owl conservation areas identified in the final recovery plan, released in May 2008. In fire-prone forests east of the Cascade crest, the critical habitat designation follows the owl conservation areas delineated in the 2007 draft recovery plan. This is because the final recovery plan, following the advice of expert peer reviews, adopts a broad-scale, “landscape management” approach to owl conservation in eastside forests and does not delineate specific conservation areas. By law, a critical habitat designation must delineate specific geographic areas.
These revisions of the original 1992 critical habitat designation, which totaled nearly 6.9 million acres, also reflect information gathered through advanced mapping and modeling technologies, which resulted in a more precise definition of owl conservation areas. Changes in land management since the original designation, such as Northwest Forest Plan reserves, also contributed to the new critical habitat designation.
The northern spotted owl was listed as a threatened species under the federal Endangered Species Act in 1990, and critical habitat was first designated in 1992. The species’ need for continued federal protection was confirmed by a scientific review in 2004.
The six-year effort to update the northern spotted owl’s critical habitat designation by including recent scientific information and peer review was initiated in response to a lawsuit filed by the Western Council of Industrial Workers, the American Forest Resource Council, the Swanson Group and Rough and Ready Lumber Company.
Critical habitat identifies specific geographic areas that contain features essential for the conservation of a threatened or endangered species and that may require special management considerations. For the northern spotted owl, these features include particular forest types of sufficient area, quality and configuration. This critical habitat supports the needs of territorial owl pairs throughout the year distributed across the species’ range, including habitat for nesting, roosting, foraging and dispersal.
The designation of critical habitat does not affect land ownership or establish a refuge, wilderness, reserve, preserve or other conservation area. It does not allow government or public access to private lands. A critical habitat designation does not impose restrictions on private lands unless federal funds, permits or activities are involved. Federal agencies that undertake, fund or permit activities that may affect critical habitat are required to consult with the Service to ensure that such actions do not adversely modify or destroy critical habitat.
In addition to conservation on federal lands, habitat for the northern spotted owl may also be protected through cooperative measures under the Endangered Species Act such as Habitat Conservation Plans, Safe Harbor Agreements and state programs. Voluntary partnership programs such as the Service’s Private Stewardship Grants and Partners for Fish and Wildlife program also restore habitat. Habitat for endangered species is provided on many national wildlife refuges managed by the Service and on state wildlife management areas.
The final revised critical habitat information is available for download at http://www.fws.gov/pacific/ecoservices/nsopch.html or by contacting the Oregon Fish and Wildlife Office, 2600 SE 98th Ave., Suite 100, Portland, OR 97266 (503-231-6179). | http://www.4x4voice.com/4x4voice-home/entry/revised-critical-habitat-for-northern-spotted-owl-released |
Biodiversity is the variety of different plants, animals and micro-organisms, their genes and the ecosystems of which they are a part. Biodiversity is important for our survival and economic development. Food security and the discovery of new medicines are put at risk by the loss of biodiversity. Vital goods and services that are often taken for granted, such as clean air and fresh water, are threatened by the deterioration of ecosystems.
There is EU and Irish law which aims to ensure biodiversity by conserving natural habitats and wild flora and fauna.
Birds Directive
The Birds Directive (that is, Directive 2009/147/EC on the conservation of wild birds) has 3 main elements:
- It provides for habitat conservation, including a requirement to designate Special Protected Areas (SPAs) for migratory and other vulnerable wild bird species
- It bans activities that directly threaten birds (such as the deliberate destruction of nests and the taking of eggs) and associated activities such as trading in live or dead birds
- It establishes rules that limit the number of species that can be hunted, the periods during which they can be hunted and the permitted methods of hunting.
Habitats Directive
The Habitats Directive (Directive 92/43/EEC on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild flora and fauna) provides for the creation of a network of protected sites known as Natura 2000. These sites include SPAs (under the Birds Directive) and other sites proposed by EU member states which meet specific scientific criteria. The designated sites must then all be run in accordance with the safeguards set out in the Directive. This means that there must be:
- Prior assessment of potentially damaging plans and projects
- A requirement that these plans and projects be approved only if they represent an overriding interest and only if no alternative solution exists
- Measures for providing compensatory habitats in the event of damage.
The Directive also provides for a ban on the downgrading of breeding and resting places for certain animal species. This legislation is implemented in Ireland by the Wildlife Act 1976, the Wildlife (Amendment) Act 2000 and the European Communities (Birds and Natural Habitats) Regulations 2011.
Protected sites
The National Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS) publishes lists of sites that are protected under European and national legislation. These include Special Protected Areas (SPAs) under the Birds Directive, Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) under the Habitats Directive and National Heritage Areas (NHAs) designated under the Wildlife (Amendment) Act 2000.
Details of the process for designation of protected sites are available on the NPWS website, including information on objecting to a proposed designation; appealing if the objection fails; and compensation provisions for people who lose financially as a result of a site being designated.
A number of raised bogs have been designated as SACs or NHAs. Landowners and holders of turbary rights who are affected by the restriction on turf cutting on these bogs can apply for compensation under the Cessation of Turf Cutting Compensation Scheme.
Biodiversity
The European Commission has adopted the EU Biodiversity Strategy to 2020. The 6 targets of the Strategy cover:
- Full implementation of EU nature legislation to protect biodiversity
- Better protection for ecosystems, and more use of green infrastructure
- More sustainable agriculture and forestry
- Better management of fish stocks
- Tighter controls on invasive alien species
- A bigger EU contribution to averting global biodiversity loss
The EU is a party to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity. This commits the parties (among other things) to creating a network of nature protection and conservation areas to safeguard biodiversity.
The EU is also a party to a number of other Conventions, including the Convention on migratory species (Bonn Convention), the Convention on the conservation of European Wildlife and habitats (Berne Convention) and the Agreement on the conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA). | https://www.citizensinformation.ie/en/environment/environmental_protection/protection_of_nature_and_biodiversity.html |
- Project elephant is a centrally sponsored scheme launched in February 1992. The scheme helps and assists in the management and protection of elephants to the States having free-ranging populations of wild elephants, in order to ensure the survival of elephant population in the wild and protection of elephant habitat and elephant corridor.
- Project elephant is mainly implemented in 16 States / UTs, which includes Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Jharkhand, Kerala, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Uttaranchal West Bengal Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh.
- The union government provides financial and technical assistance to the states to achieve the goals of this project. Help is also provided for the purpose of the census, training of field officials and to ensure the mitigation and prevention of human-elephant conflict.
- There are around 32 elephant Reserves in India notified by the state governments. The first elephant reserve was the Singhbhum elephant Reserve of Jharkhand.
Objectives of project elephant
- Protection of elephants, their habitats and elephant corridors.
- Mitigation and prevention of man-elephant conflict.
- To ensure the Welfare of domesticated elephants.
The aim of this project
- To ensure the protection of elephants from hunters and poachers, and prevent illegal trade of ivory. It also includes the strategy to prevent unnatural causes of death of elephants in India.
- To develop and promote scientific and planned management strategies for the conservation of elephants.
- To mitigate and prevent the increasing conflict between humans and elephants in elephant habitats. It also aims to reduce and remove the pressure of human and domestic livestock grazing and other activities in important elephant habitat.
- To ensure ecological restoration of the natural elephant habitats and their migratory routes.
- To promote scientific research on issues related to conservation of elephants and promotion of public awareness and education on these issues.
- To ensure the proper health care and breeding of domesticated elephants. To facilitate veterinary care and Eco-development for the elephants.
Download Project Elephant- A Conservation Strategy PDF
Elephant corridors in India
- Elephant corridor is the narrow strips of forested lands which connects larger elephant habitats with significant elephant populations. It acts as a conduit for the movement of elephants between the elephant habitat. It is necessary to enhance species survival and birth rate of the elephant population in the wild.
- There are around 88 elephant corridors in India out of which 20 are in South India, 12 in North Western India, 14 in North West Bengal, 20 in Central India and 22 in North Eastern India. About 77.3% of these corridors are regularly used by the elephants. One-third of these corridors are of high ecological priority and other two third are of medium priority.
- These elephant habitats are facing threats due to their fragmentation. This problem is severe in areas of Northern West Bengal followed by North Western India, North Eastern India and Central India. This fragmentation was least in South India.
- 65% of elephant corridor in South India fall under protected areas or reserved forests. But only 10% of elephant corridors in Central area are completely under forest area, while 90% of them are jointly under forest, agriculture and settlements. Overall, only 24% of elephant corridors in India are under complete forest cover.
Major threats to elephant corridors
- Problems such as elephant habitat loss which is leading to fragmentation and destruction primarily due to developmental activities such as the construction of roads, railways, buildings, holiday resorts and electric fencing etc.
- Mining activities such as coal mining and iron ore mining have been described as single biggest threats to elephant corridor in Central India. States like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Orissa are mineral rich but also have the highest number of elephant corridors which is leading to elephant man conflict.
- As elephants require extensive grazing ground for food, lack of such grazing grounds can force elephants to search for food elsewhere. Most of the elephant reserves unable to accommodate all the elephants, which results in man-elephant conflict due to the destruction of crops by elephants.
Mitigation strategies
- Fusion of elephant corridors with the nearby protected areas and reserved forest wherever possible. In other areas, to provide protection to the elephant corridors, there is a need for the declaration of ecologically sensitive areas or conservation reserves.
- Securing the elephant corridors would require awareness generation and sensitizing the local population to promote voluntary relocation outside the conflict zones. This would prevent the problem of further fragmentation of continuous forest habitats from encroachment by human beings. It would also provide refuge for other wild animals such as tiger, Sambar, crocodile, bird species etc.
- During the process of securing the elephant corridor, there is a need to monitor the animal movements along with habitat restoration as per the requirements.
Elephant as the national heritage animal of India
- The elephant has been declared as the national heritage animal by the government of India in 2010 after the recommendations of the standing committee on national board for wildlife. This was to ensure sufficient protection for elephants before it's numbered fall to panic levels as it had happened in case of tigers.
- A proposed National elephant conservation authority (NECA) on the lines with NTCA has been proposed to be constituted by amending the Wildlife Protection Act 1972.
Monitoring of illegal killing of elephants (MIKE) programme
- MIKE program was started in South Asia and in 2003 after the conference of parties a resolution of CITES. It aims to provide information which is required by the elephant range countries to make proper management and enforcement decisions and to promote institutional capacity in those States for long-term protection and management of their elephant populations.
Main objectives of MIKE programme
- To measure the levels and trends in the illegal poaching of elephants. To ensure changes in the trends for protection of elephant population.
- To determine the factors which are responsible for such changes, and to assess in particular about the impact of decisions of the conference of parties to CITES responsible for such changes.
- Under this programme, data are collected on a monthly basis from all the sites in specified MIKE patrol form and it is submitted to the sub-regional support office for South Asia programme located in Delhi.
Hathi Mere Sathi
- Ministry of environment and forests (MOEF) in partnership with Wildlife Trust of India (WTI) has launched a campaign called Hathi Mere Sathi. The campaign aims to improve the conservation, protection and welfare of elephants in India. It was launched at Elephant- 8 ministerial meeting which was held in Delhi on 24th may 2011.
- The countries who are the part of the Elephant-8 ministerial meeting are Botswana, Kenya, Srilanka, Republic of Congo, Indonesia, Tanzania, Thailand and India.
- The Hathi Mere Sathi campaign aims at increasing public awareness and developing friendship and companionship between local population and elephants.
The campaign mascot Gaju
- The campaign Mascot Gaju focuses on various groups which include local people near elephant habitats, youth, policymakers and others. The scheme envisions to set up elephant centres all over the country in the elephant landscapes. It aims to spread awareness about the plight of elephants and promote people's participation in addressing these issues.
- The campaign plans to ensure capacity building of law enforcement agencies at the ground level to enhance protection of elephants, and to advocate for the policies in favour of elephants.
- The elephant task force (ETF) which was constituted by the Ministry of Environment and Forest has recommended the campaign to Take Gajah (the elephant) to the Prajah (the people) in order to increase public awareness and their participation in the conservation and welfare of elephants.
- India has around 25000 - 29000 elephants in the wild. However, the tuskers (male) in India are as threatened as the Tigers as there are only around 1200 tusker elephants left in India.
- The Asian elephants are threatened by the habitat degradation, man-elephant conflict and poaching for the Ivory. This problem is more intense in India which has around 50% of the total population of world's Asian elephants.
Elephant - 8 ministerial meeting
- The Elephant- 8 ministerial meeting has the representation of all three species of elephants i.e. Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), African Bush elephant (Loxodonta africana), African forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis). The ministerial meeting has the participation of policymakers, wildlife conservationists, scientists, historians, experts from art and culture from the participating countries.
- The discussions in the ministerial meeting cover several issues under three basics themes which include science and conservation, management and conservation, and the cultural and ethical perspectives of conservation.
- The E-8 countries have agreed to take necessary steps for the protection and conservation of elephants. They have also decided to actively pursue a common agenda in order to ensure the long-term welfare, protection and survival of all the species of elephants in all the elephant range countries.
- The ministerial meeting has called all the E-8 countries for cooperation under the umbrella of elephant 50:50 forum. Elephant 50:50 forum is the shared vision of 50 countries to promote conservation, protection, management and welfare of elephants and their habitats in the next 50 years.
Project elephant along the India Bangladesh border in Assam
- The India Bangladesh border in Assam is being completely fenced to prevent an illegal influx of migrants. However, this has created a problem for the movement of elephants who frequently travel through the borders of India and Bangladesh. Therefore in order to allow free movement of elephants, jumbo-sized gates would be constructed along the borders which have been the part of elephant corridors for several hundred years.
- These gates would be manned by the security forces guarding the borders. The forest department personnel would keep track of the movement of elephants and they would inform the border guards to open the gates for the herds to cross the border safely. There is a proposal of surveillance mechanism to keep track of the suspicious movements through these corridors.
- The elephants need a large Habitat for their survival and therefore they have been migrating in the neighbouring forests of Bangladesh from Assam and Meghalaya. Any obstruction on the seasonal migration routes of elephants has often lead to man-animal conflict leading to loss of lives and damages to crops and property.
- There are around 5000 elephants in Assam and another 1800 in Meghalaya. There are 6 elephant corridors along the India Bangladesh border in these northeastern states. The efforts of Wildlife Trust of India to restore the traditional migratory routes of elephants have been blocked by construction of boundary fences. Construction of Jumbo gates is seen as a solution to this problem. However, these gates should be long enough with sufficient cover for elephants to cross through them.
- Elephants use entire forest along the borders for their movement, but once they know about a safe route to pass through, then they are smart enough to use these gates as their corridors. | https://neostencil.com/project-elephant |
Three populations of killer whales, known as the southern residents, transients, and offshores, regularly occur in Washington. The southern residents are listed as federal endangered species, but all three populations are state endangered species.
Of the three main populations occurring in Washington, southern resident killer whales have shown an overall decline since 1995, whereas transient and offshore populations are currently not of conservation concern. The reduced availability of depleted Chinook salmon populations has limited the southern resident population’s productivity. High levels of chemical contaminants, noise and disturbance from vessels and other human activities, as well as large oil spills all have the potential to negatively impact the health and status of all three populations.
Marine mammals are protected under the Marine Mammal Protection Act. To report a dead, injured or stranded marine mammal, please call the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) West Coast Marine Mammal Stranding Network hotline: 1-866-767-6114.
Description and Range
Killer whales are the largest member of the oceanic dolphin family. This species may weigh up to 11 tons and length may be up to 32 feet. They are mostly black with white eyebrow patch, and white underside extending from throat to tail, including flanks.
Ecology and life history
Killer whales occupy pelagic and coastal waters. Southern resident and transient killer whales spend more time in coastal areas (including inland marine waters), where their preferred prey is typically found.
The southern resident population feeds primarily on Chinook salmon, chum salmon to a lesser extent, and occasionally other fish. Transient animals feed on seals and other marine mammals. Offshore animals primarily feed on sharks and other fish.
All killer whales become sexually mature at about 12 to 16 years of age. Females become reproductively senescent when 35 to 45 years old. The calving interval is about three to eight years.
This lifespan of this species ranges from 30 to 90 years. The estimated maximum lifespan is 80 to 90 years for females and 50 to 60 years in males.
Killer whales are distributed nearly worldwide. In Washington, they occur in most of the state's marine waters.
Three populations of killer whales, known as the southern residents, transients, and offshores, regularly occur in Washington. Only small portions of both transient and offshore populations normally occur in Washington at any one time. The southern resident population has shown an overall declining trend since 1995, falling from 98 whales to 81 whales as of July 2015. They are the population of greatest concern. The southern resident population is comprised of three highly stable social groups (J, K, and L pods) and commonly inhabits waters around the San Juan Islands and the eastern Strait of Juan de Fuca from late spring to fall. Most of the rest of the year is spent along the outer coast. While numbers have been relatively stable since 2001, they remain 17 percent below their recent peak size recorded in 1995.
Transient animals are part of a single population ranging from southeastern Alaska to California. In contrast to the southern resident population, the west coast transient population has shown considerable growth since the 1970s in response to the recovery of its marine mammal prey base and is now estimated to number more than 500 whales and be near its carrying capacity.
Offshore killer whales are much less studied, but also form one population extending from southeastern Alaska to California. These whales usually occur more than nine miles off the outer coast. Offshore killer whales are estimated at 300 individuals and have a stable population trend.
For worldwide distribution of killer whales and other species' information, check out NatureServe Explorer.
Climate vulnerability
Sensitivity to climate change
Climate change will likely impact all three ecotypes of killer whales (southern residents, transients, offshores) in Washington. This will occur mainly through alterations in prey abundance (i.e., availability of chinook salmon, marine mammals, sharks, and other prey) resulting from (1) changes in marine food webs, (2) alterations in freshwater habitats occupied by salmon (for southern residents), and (3) rising sea level, which may submerge or render unsuitable some traditional pinniped rookeries and haulouts (for transients), and some nearshore habitats required by salmon (for southern residents). These impacts will likely result from increases in marine and freshwater temperature, increases in ocean acidification, and altered levels of terrestrial precipitation and runoff. Southern resident whales are specialists on chinook salmon, which are themselves quite vulnerable to climate change.
Exposure to climate change
- Increased ocean and freshwater temperatures
- Increased ocean acidification
- Sea level rise
- Increased precipitation
Conservation
Conservation Threats and Actions Needed
All three populations of killer whale occurring in Washington carry heavy loads of environmental contaminants, face a continuing risk of major oil spills in their ranges, are susceptible to a disease outbreak, and will likely experience the impacts of climate change in the future. See the Climate vulnerability section above for detailed information about the threats posed by climate change to this species.
- Overharvesting of biological resources
- Threat: Depleted populations of Chinook salmon reduce prey availability for the southern residents, thereby limiting the population’s productivity.
- Action Needed: Rebuild depleted populations of Chinook salmon through multiple restoration activities, including management of habitat, harvest, hydropower, and hatcheries.
- Outreach needs
- Threat: Noise and disturbance from vessels and other human activities has the potential to disrupt foraging and other behavior by the southern resident population.
- Action Needed: Minimize disturbance from vessels by continued evaluation and enforcement of regulations and guidelines protecting killer whales from vessel noise and disturbance.
- Fish and wildlife habitat loss or degradation
- Threat: High levels of chemical contaminants continue to exist in southern resident whales and may be causing health impacts.
- Action Needed: Minimize pollution levels in aquatic habitats.
- Energy development and distribution
- Threat: Large oil spills could harm killer whale populations through negative impacts to health.
- Action Needed: Minimize the risk of oil spills in Washington and elsewhere along the west coast of North America.
Our Conservation Efforts
Various management activities have been taken since 2004 that directly or indirectly benefit killer whales in Washington, many of which are aimed at the southern residents. These include:
- the preparation of conservation plans
- designation of federal critical habitat for southern residents
- implementation and enforcement of new whale-watching regulations
- evaluation of Chinook salmon abundance and marine fisheries on the southern residents
- population monitoring and research
- public outreach
- salmon management and recovery
- steps to enhance oil spill prevention and response, and to deter whales away from spills
- measures to reduce the input of environmental contaminants into marine waters
Nevertheless, expanded actions will very likely be needed to achieve recovery of the southern residents.
Visit our Killer Whale Management and Conservation page for more information, including how you can help. | https://wdfw.wa.gov/species-habitats/species/orcinus-orca |
Bat Conservation International envisions a vibrant, diverse and expanding community advancing bat conservation across Africa and on the surrounding islands. We will work collaboratively to achieve lasting conservation that prevents extinctions, identifies and protects the world’s Significant Bat Areas, and develops proactive solutions to serious threats.
In Africa, the Egyptian Tomb Bat (Taphozous perforatus) roosts in caves and similar subterranean-type habitats across North Africa and the northern part of Sub-Saharan Africa. It is identified by the IUCN as a species of Least Concern, although roost disturbance likely threatens some colonies. Photo courtesy of Paul Webala.
Africa and its neighboring islands are home to more than 269 (>21%) of the world’s bat species. According to the IUCN, the Democratic Republic of the Congo currently has the most species documented with at least 119 species – new species continue to be described and known species are regularly being documented in new areas as there is a growing movement on bat research and conservation.
The diverse bat communities of Africa provide a broad array of ecosystem services that directly and indirectly benefit human communities. The migration routes of the straw-colored fruit bat (Eidolon helvum) across much of Sub-Saharan Africa are critical to the pollination and seed dispersal of native trees to help sustain Africa’s threatened forests. Insect-eating bats, like the molosids (free-tailed bats) in Swaziland, have been documented to provide important pest control services for sugarcane farms.
seed dispersers of many native forest trees.
Photos courtesy of Frank Willems.
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species classifies 45 African bats as Near-Threatened, Vulnerable, Endangered or Critically Endangered. Bats in Africa face challenges not unlike those elsewhere -- loss of roosting and foraging habitat from the conversion of natural lands by logging, agriculture, mining and major infrastructure projects, and loss of open water in the Sahel and other arid and semi-arid regions experiencing encroaching desertification due to overgrazing and climate change. The hunting of bats for bushmeat is another widespread threat to bats in Africa. Bats also roost in buildings throughout much of Africa, which unfortunately creates conflict and, more often than not, instills a negative public sentiment toward bats.
Bat Conservation International will work with and through collaborative partnerships to achieve lasting bat conservation across Africa. Given the limited information on Africa’s bats, we anticipate our initiatives will include targeted research to answer critical questions to inform our conservation, as well as inventories of the bat communities, assessments of habitats, and community awareness campaigns in priority regions. We will collaborate to build upon local leadership and capacity, while also proactively working to broaden and strengthen it.
Bat Conservation Africa, a network launched in February 2013, is one of our primary partners and we will continue to work with them on targeted initiatives. We will encourage other non-governmental organizations, universities, local, regional and national governments, as well as corporate organizations to engage in effective collaborative partnerships in regions of high conservation value for bats. | http://www.batcon.org/our-work/regions/africa/?tmpl=component |
No.
There appears to be little or no management, nor a strategic plan, nor enforcement thereof for most MPAs.
Prior to designation, comprehensive baseline monitoring should be undertaken of each MPA as a whole and not just its “protected features”; and, a management plan should be drawn up which highlights deficiencies in the ecosystem and sets targets and timetables for bringing the area back to its prime potential as a healthy ecosystem.
Protection of fish nursery areas, and the flora and fauna which support them, should override any short-term economic arguments.
No Take Zones should be designated for all fish nursery areas or other areas where disturbance would degrade the ecosystem. These measures are essential to allow fish stocks and ecosystems to recover from their commonly agreed degraded condition – see Charting Progress 2*
This would benefit fishermen in the long term, even if it is perceived as causing hardship in the short to medium term. Regular monitoring is also essential, with stringent enforcement of any necessary measures.
Fish generically are a key structure in the marine ecosystem, with both higher and lower orders of marine animals and birds heavily dependent for their own well-being on the prosperity of fish. A primary focus on fish and their ecological status and condition is therefore a strategic need of sustainable marine management.
* chartingprogress.defra.gov.uk/(
Question 2
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How should Area Statements, to be developed by Natural Resources Wales, cover Welsh seas? (For example should the sea adjoining each welsh Local Authority be included in its Area Statement, or should the marine environment be considered separately in one or more marine Area Statements?) (250 words)
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The Marine environment is fundamentally different from the land environment, so the marine environment should be considered separately in Marine Area Statements.
As the marine environment contains many migratory species, these species rely on finding good ecosystems in all the areas that they pass through. Hence Marine Area Statements need to cover large marine areas and need to be established at Governmental level. Local Authorities will have the opportunity to take part in the development of these Area Statements, as consultees.
Question 3
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How well are Wales’ MPAs currently being managed?
(This can include aspects such as the condition of sites, staffing to deliver management, surveillance and enforcement activities and the data on the extent of activities taking place in MPAs) (250 words)
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Poorly, see our response to Question 1.
Until such time as the marine ecosystem as a whole, and specifically maintenance of its integrity, are recognised as the fundamental principle for the management of human activity and its impact, then the function and performance of government will have failed and, as a consequence, MPA management also
It has to be recognised that the focus and purpose of marine management and conservation relates to human activity, not to marine species or physical/chemical features. These natural features (animate and inanimate) are governed by their own processes and when damaged remedy is made by not seeking to interfere or regulate these natural features but rather by, and this is of fundamental importance, regulating the human activities which have caused this damage.
Marine management is, first and foremost, about human management. (136 words)
Question 4
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What are the key issues affecting the effective management of multi-use MPAs? (250 words)
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The key human issues are insufficient money, staffing levels, compromises between the competing stakeholders, and expertise.
The protection of the ecosystem as a whole should be the top priority, with no compromise allowed.
A management plan should be drawn up before designation of the MPA, and this should be accompanied by baseline monitoring, then stringent enforcement of the identified conditions associated with the MPA designation.
This needs to be supplemented by regular monitoring to ensure that the ecosystem remains healthy. The management plan should be reviewed at regular intervals (every three – five years max) as a check to see whether the plan is adequate to protect the ecosystem in the whole of the MPA.
Question 5
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Do existing Welsh MPAs currently provide the right protection for the conservation of Welsh marine biodiversity? (250 words)
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No.
It is pointless to designate a MPA with specific “protected features” unless this designation is accompanied by an adequate management plan, with strong enforcement measures and regular monitoring of the state of these areas, in order to protect the ecosystem as whole within each MPA. The “protected features” do not exist in isolation, but are integrated within and dependent upon the whole ecosystem of the MPA.
Currently none of the Welsh MPAs is a designated as a No Take Zone (NTZ).
Although the large area designated as MPAs around the Welsh coast means it would be impractical to denote the whole of every MPA as a NTZ, we believe that all Marine Conservation Zones (MCZs) and all fish nurseries within MPAs should be designated as NTZs. Any other fragile ecosystems within MPAs which would suffer disturbance from fishing should also become NTZs.
The key question regarding human activity within a MPA is: does the activity adversely affect the ecosystem as a whole ? If it does, then the human activity needs to be restrained, should be subject to conditions, and should be required to be re-licensed on a regular basis.
Question 6
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What lessons can be learnt from current MPA management activity in Wales (including designation, implementation and enforcement)? (250 words)
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The system is not functioning as it could, and as it should.
For it to do so, MCZs and MPAs should be ecologically coherent in structure and practice i.e. each supporting one another in order to provide full health for the overall marine ecosystem within the government’s jurisdiction. Presently this coherence is absent, and not clearly set out in a comprehensive form to be achieved by a specific date.
For this to occur, government in Wales needs to establish an arm of administration with specific responsibility for marine affairs. This will provide accountability. This arm of government would formulate policy, administer policy, assess the performance of policy, and enforce policy. In short, it would have the sound and healthy functioning of the marine ecosystem as a singular focus. Upon this yardstick it would be accountable.
Until this occurs, the present performance of government and MPAs will fall short of what is necessary and, importantly, achievable.
Question 7
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Are there MPA examples or practices elsewhere that Wales can learn from? (250 words)
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Wales can look elsewhere to see how these matters are tackled.
However, this is not really the issue. That issue is that Wales understands the principles upon sound management of human activity is based, and seeks to implement this based on its own initiative.
Sound management is a democratic process, as much as it is a scientific, financial, and administrative one. Management requires consent and ownership by those people who derive their livelihood from the sea. It must therefore be built on this basis so that people derive the benefits from sound management.
If people respect their environment, if people see that the quality of the environment depends on their behaviour and responds to their behaviour, and people are made accountable for their behaviour, then a genuine management system will have been designed and it will succeed.
From this, the present degraded ecosystem will respond, and restore itself.
Question 8
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The majority of Wales’ MPAs are designated under the EU Habitats Directive. How should the Welsh Government’s approach to MPA management take account of the UK’s decision to leave the European Union? (250 words)
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The Welsh Government should retain all the existing provisions and designations established under EU law.
From that point onward, it needs to establish a system of management of human activity so that this activity, licensed wherever necessary (licensing provides finance and accountability), respects the integrity of the ecosystem of the sea as a whole under Welsh jurisdiction.
This is the route to maximum economic benefit from the seas.
This is the route by which the natural systems operating in the overall system can function properly and thus restore the overall health of the sea.
This is the route whereby the seas have democratic ownership, by both the users of the sea and society as a whole.
Question 9
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If you had to make one recommendation to the Welsh Government from all the points you have made, what would that recommendation be? (250 words)
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Management plans should be set up before designation of each MPA, and this management (of human activity) should be based on the preservation of the ecosystem both within the MPA and with regard to the MPA’s place in the sea as a whole, with stringent baseline monitoring, regularly repeated, and strong enforcement of the required protections necessary to preserve or enhance the ecosystem. | https://business.senedd.wales/documents/s59538/MPAW%2008%20Marinet%20Limited.html?CT=2 |
"Conservation and enhancement of Palestine Biodiversity & Wildlife."
In order to achieve its goals, the following objectives are being established:
- Conservation and management of species and habitats
- Education and promotion of wildlife and nature
- Active participation and involvement of local communities in conservation and sustainable development of resources
Key Activities
Nature Conservation Program
- Research & monitoring of birds in Palestine, with an emphasis on:
- Endangered, Endemic & Migratory Birds
- Seabird and Wetlands Research Conservation Program
Capacity building
Training of local & regional ecologists in nature conversation & management
Establishment of Wildlife Monitoring & Ringing (Banding) Stations in three main locations - Beit Jala, Jericho & Gaza
Education and Promotion Program:
Education and promotion of wildlife and habitats through activities with school trips to nature reserves and similar activities
Production of printing materials including posters, magazines and videos etc.
Inclusion of Wildlife Conservation in National Curriculum for Schools
Introducing the concept of Eco-tourism to Palestinian society.
Desertification
Controlling and decreasing the phenomenon that causes desertification through controlling overgrazing and forestation of the different areas with the native plants.
PWLS Departments
Communication
This department plays a major role in achieving the PWLS objectives.
Marketing Division
This division specialises in covering the process of finding funding agencies that help in covering the proposals that PWLS produce.
Nature Multimedia Division
This division specialises in preparing and producing environmental- and awareness-raising materials such as video films, informational CDs, TV documentaries, graphic design etc.
Education
This department aims to enhance and spread environmental education and awareness among local communities all over the Palestinian Territories. It uses different methods, and applies different programs to achieve this, such as eco-schools, student environmental mail and other environmental publications.
Research
This department conducts monitoring and wildlife surveys including bird ringing and mapping (GIS), giving a complete insight into endangered species and their migration routes and behaviour etc. | http://www.birdlife.org/middle-east/partners/palestine-palestine-wildlife-society-pwls?qt-read_more_news_tab=0 |
18.55.030 Relationship to other regulations.
18.55.090 Jurisdiction – Critical areas.
18.55.100 Protection of critical areas.
18.55.140 Signs and fencing of critical areas.
18.55.160 Exception – Public agency and utility.
18.55.180 Exception – Reasonable use.
18.55.190 Critical areas reports – Requirements.
18.55.230 Unauthorized critical area alterations and enforcement.
18.55.280 Bonds to ensure mitigation, maintenance, and monitoring.
18.55.300 Designation and rating of wetlands.
18.55.320 Performance standards – General requirements.
18.55.330 Performance standards – Mitigation requirements.
18.55.400 Designation and rating of streams.
18.55.420 Performance standards – General.
18.55.430 Performance standards – Mitigation requirements.
18.55.500 Designation of fish and wildlife habitats of importance.
18.55.520 Performance standards – General requirements.
18.55.530 Performance standards – Specific habitats.
18.55.610 Designation of geologically hazardous areas.
18.55.620 Designation of specific hazard areas.
18.55.640 Performance standards – General requirements.
18.55.650 Performance standards – Specific hazards.
18.55.710 Flood fringe – Development standards and permitted alterations.
18.55.720 Zero-rise floodway – Development standards and permitted alterations.
18.55.730 FEMA floodway – Development standards and permitted alterations.
18.55.740 Flood hazard areas – Certification by engineer or surveyor.
18.55.750 Channel relocation and stream meander areas.
A. The purpose of this chapter is to designate and classify ecologically critical and geologic hazard areas in order to protect ecologically critical areas and protect lives and property from hazards, while also allowing for reasonable use of private property.
B. The City finds that critical areas provide a variety of valuable and beneficial biological and physical functions that benefit the City and its residents, and/or may pose a threat to human safety or to public and private property. The beneficial functions and values provided by critical areas include, but are not limited to, water quality protection and enhancement, fish and wildlife habitat, food chain support, flood storage, ground water recharge and discharge, erosion control, protection from hazards, historical and archaeological and aesthetic value protection, and recreation. These beneficial functions are not listed in order of priority.
6. Maintain and promote a diversity of species and habitat within the City.
D. The regulations of this chapter are intended to protect critical areas in accordance with the GMA and through the application of best available science.
E. This chapter is to be administered with flexibility and attention to site-specific characteristics. It is not the intent of this chapter to make a parcel of property unusable by denying its owner reasonable economic use of the property.
A. As provided herein, the city manager is given the authority to interpret, apply, and enforce this chapter to accomplish the stated purpose.
B. The City may withhold, condition, or deny development permits or activity approvals to ensure that the proposed action is consistent with this chapter.
A. These critical areas regulations shall be in addition to zoning and other regulations adopted by the City. Compliance with other regulations does not exempt the applicant from critical areas regulations.
B. The critical area regulations set forth in KMC 16.05.060(B) shall apply to all critical areas located within the jurisdiction of the Kenmore shoreline master program.
C. These critical areas regulations shall apply concurrently with review conducted under the State Environmental Policy Act (SEPA) (Chapter 19.35 KMC).
D. Any individual critical area adjoined by another type of critical area shall have the buffer and meet the requirements that provide the most protection to the critical areas involved. When any provision of this chapter or any existing regulation, easement, covenant, or deed restriction conflicts with this chapter, that which provides more protection to the critical areas shall apply.
A. The City shall regulate all uses, activities, and developments within, adjacent to, or likely to affect one or more critical areas, consistent with best available science and the provisions herein.
5. Frequently flooded areas as designated in KMC 18.55.700, Flood hazard areas.
C. All areas within the City meeting the definition of one or more critical areas, regardless of any formal identification, are hereby designated critical areas and are subject to the provisions of this chapter.
A. The provisions of this chapter shall apply to all lands, all land uses and development activity, and all structures and facilities in the City whether or not a permit or authorization is required, and shall apply to every person, firm, partnership, corporation, group, governmental agency, or other entity that owns, leases, or administers land within the City. No person, company, agency, or applicant shall alter a critical area or buffer except as consistent with the purposes and requirements of this chapter.
B. The City shall not approve any permit or otherwise issue any authorization to alter the condition of any land, water, or vegetation, or to construct or alter any structure or improvement in, over, or on a critical area or associated buffer, without first assuring compliance with the requirements of this chapter. For development on lands regulated under the Kenmore shoreline master program, compliance with this chapter includes compliance with the requirements of the shoreline master program as well as with the requirements of this chapter.
A. The approximate location and extent of critical areas are shown on the City’s critical area maps. These maps are to be used as a guide and may be updated as new critical areas are identified. They are a reference and do not provide a final critical area designation. The exact location of a critical area and its boundary shall be determined on-site through a field investigation by a qualified professional.
b. King County critical areas map folio.
2. Fish and Wildlife Habitats of Importance.
d. Washington State Department of Natural Resources State natural area preserves and natural resource conservation area maps.
d. Washington State Department of Natural Resources slope stability maps.
1. Temporary Markers. The outer perimeter of the critical area or buffer and the limits of those areas to be disturbed pursuant to an approved permit or authorization shall be marked in the field in such a way as to ensure that no unauthorized intrusion will occur, and verified by the city manager prior to the commencement of permitted activities. This temporary marking shall be maintained throughout construction, and shall not be removed until permanent signs, if required, are in place.
2. Permanent Signs. As a condition of any permit or authorization issued pursuant to this chapter, the city manager may require that the applicant install permanent signs along the boundary of a critical area or buffer.
1. The city manager shall condition any permit or authorization issued pursuant to this chapter to require the applicant to install a permanent fence at the edge of the critical area and buffer, when fencing will prevent future impacts to the habitat conservation area.
2. The applicant shall be required to install a permanent natural wood, split-rail fence around the critical area and buffer.
3. Fencing installed shall be designed so as to not interfere with species migration, including fish runs, and shall be constructed in a manner that minimizes habitat impacts.
Exempt activities shall avoid impacts to critical areas. All exempted activities shall use reasonable methods to avoid potential impacts to critical areas. To be exempt from this chapter does not give permission to degrade a critical area or ignore risk from natural hazards. Any incidental damage to, or alteration of, a critical area shall be restored, rehabilitated, or replaced at the responsible party’s expense to prior condition or better.
8. Installation, construction, replacement, repair or alteration of utilities and their associated facilities, lines, pipes, mains, equipment or appurtenances in improved City street rights-of-way.
B. Operation, Maintenance or Repair. Operation, maintenance or repair of existing structures, infrastructure improvements, utilities, public or private roads, dikes, levees or drainage systems, that do not require construction permits, if the activity does not further alter or increase the impact to, or encroach further within, the critical area or buffer and there is no increased risk to life or property as a result of the proposed operation, maintenance, or repair.
C. Modification to Existing Structures.
1. Structural modification of, addition to, or replacement of single detached residences in existence before November 27, 1990, which do not meet the building setback or buffer requirements for wetlands, streams or landslide hazard areas if the modification, addition, replacement or related activity does not increase the existing footprint of the residence lying within the above-described buffer or building setback area by more than 500 square feet over that existing before November 27, 1990. No portion of the modification, addition or replacement may be located closer than the closest point of the residence to the critical area or, if the existing residence is in the critical area, no portion may extend farther into the critical area.
2. Structural modification of, addition to, or replacement of structures, except single detached residences, in existence before November 27, 1990, which do not meet the building setback or buffer requirements for wetlands, streams or landslide hazard areas if modification, addition, replacement or related activity does not increase the existing footprint of the structure lying within the above-described building setback area, critical area or buffer.
D. Activities within the Improved Right-of-Way. Replacement, modification, installation, or construction of utility facilities, lines, pipes, mains, equipment, or appurtenances, not including substations, when such facilities are located within the improved portion of the public right-of-way or a City-authorized private roadway, except those activities that alter a wetland or watercourse, such as culverts or bridges, or result in the transport of sediment or increased stormwater.
1. The removal of vegetation listed in King County’s noxious weed list.
2. The removal of trees that are hazardous, posing a threat to public safety, or posing an imminent risk of damage to private property, from critical areas and buffers; provided, that the city manager determines that the disturbance to the critical area is minimal.
A. If the application of this chapter would prohibit a development proposal by a public agency or public utility, the agency or utility may apply for an exception pursuant to this section, unless the project is located on lands regulated under the Kenmore Shoreline Master Program. Projects on lands regulated under the Kenmore Shoreline Master Program are regulated under the procedures of Chapter 16.75 KMC.
B. Exception Request and Review Process. An application for a public agency and utility exception shall be made to the City and shall include a critical areas report, including mitigation plan, if necessary, and any other related project documents, such as permit applications to other agencies, special studies, and environmental documents prepared pursuant to the State Environmental Policy Act (SEPA).
C. City Manager Review. The city manager shall review the application. The city manager shall approve, approve with conditions, or deny the request based on the proposal’s ability to comply with all of the public agency and utility exception criteria in subsection D of this section.
A. Variances from the buffer width and building setback standards of this chapter may be authorized by the City in accordance with the procedures set forth in the City’s zoning code, unless the project is located on lands regulated under the Kenmore shoreline master program. Projects on lands regulated under the Kenmore shoreline master program are regulated under the procedures of Chapter 16.75 KMC.
B. No variance is allowed in order to create additional lots.
6. The granting of the variance is consistent with the general purpose and intent of the City’s comprehensive plan and adopted development regulations.
D. Conditions May Be Required. In granting any variance, the City may prescribe such conditions and safeguards as are necessary to secure adequate protection of critical areas from adverse impacts, and to ensure conformity with this chapter.
E. City Manager Review. The city manager shall review the application. The city manager shall approve, approve with conditions, or deny the request based on the proposal’s ability to comply with all of the variance criteria in this section.
1. Establishment of any development activity authorized pursuant to a variance shall occur within four years of the effective date of the decision for such variance. This period may be extended for one additional year by the city manager if the applicant has submitted the applications necessary to authorize the development activity and has provided written justification for the extension.
2. For the purpose of this subsection, “establishment” shall occur upon the issuance of all local permit(s) needed to begin the development activity; provided, that the improvements authorized by such permits are completed within the timeframes of said permits.
A. If the application of this chapter pertaining to critical areas will prevent the applicant from making any reasonable use of the subject property, the applicant may apply for an exception pursuant to this section unless the project is located on lands regulated under the Kenmore shoreline master program. Projects on lands regulated under the Kenmore shoreline master program are regulated under the procedures of Chapter 16.75 KMC. An application for a reasonable use exception must accompany a development permit application through the City’s review and decision process.
g. Mitigation proposed by the applicant is sufficient to protect the functions and values of the critical area and public health, safety, and welfare concerns consistent with the goals, purposes, objectives, and requirements of this chapter.
2. Appeals. The applicant may appeal a decision of the city manager on a reasonable use allowance application to the hearing examiner pursuant to the provisions of the Kenmore Municipal Code.
B. Exception Request and Review Process. An application for a reasonable use exception shall be made to the City and shall include a critical areas report, including mitigation plan, if necessary; and any other related project documents, such as permit applications to other agencies, special studies, and environmental documents prepared pursuant to the State Environmental Policy Act (Chapter 19.35 KMC).
C. City Manager Review. The city manager shall review the application. The city manager shall approve, approve with conditions, or deny the request based on the proposal’s ability to comply with all of the criteria in subsection A of this section.
D. Burden of Proof. The burden of proof shall be on the applicant to bring forth evidence in support of the application and to provide sufficient information on which any decision has to be made on the application.
1. Establishment of any development activity authorized pursuant to a reasonable use exception shall occur within four years of the effective date of the decision for such reasonable use exception. This period may be extended for one additional year by the city manager if the applicant has submitted the applications necessary to authorize the development activity and has provided written justification for the extension.
A. Prepared by Qualified Professional. The applicant shall submit a critical areas report prepared by a qualified professional as defined herein.
B. Incorporating Best Available Science. The critical areas report shall use scientifically valid methods and studies in the analysis of critical area data and field reconnaissance and reference the source of science used. The critical areas report shall evaluate the proposal and all probable impacts to critical areas in accordance with the provisions of this chapter.
A. The applicant shall avoid all impacts that degrade the functions and values of critical areas. Unless otherwise provided in this chapter, if alteration to the critical area is unavoidable, all adverse impacts to or from critical areas and buffers resulting from a development proposal or alteration shall be mitigated in accordance with an approved critical areas report and SEPA documents.
F. Monitoring the impact and the compensation projects and taking appropriate corrective measures.
When mitigation is required, the applicant shall submit for approval by the City a mitigation plan as part of the critical areas report. Mitigation plan requirements are available from the city manager.
A. When a critical area or its buffer has been altered in violation of this chapter, all ongoing development work shall stop and the critical area shall be restored. The City shall have the authority to issue a stop work order to cease all ongoing development work, and order restoration, rehabilitation or replacement measures at the owner’s or other responsible party’s expense to compensate for violation of provisions of this chapter.
B. Restoration Plan Required. All development work shall remain stopped and the site stabilized until a restoration plan is prepared and approved by the City. Such a plan shall be prepared by a qualified professional and shall describe how the actions proposed meet the minimum requirements described in subsection C of this section. The city manager shall, at the violator’s expense, seek expert advice in determining the adequacy of the plan. Inadequate plans shall be returned to the applicant or violator for revision and resubmittal.
4. The historic functions and values should be replicated at the location of the alteration.
D. Site Investigations. The city manager is authorized to make site inspections and take such actions as are necessary to enforce this chapter. The inspector shall present proper credentials and make a reasonable effort to contact any property owner before entering onto private property.
A. In order to inform subsequent purchasers of real property of the existence of critical areas, the owner of any property containing a critical area or buffer on which a development proposal is submitted shall file a notice with the county records and elections division according to the direction of the City. The notice shall state the presence of the critical area or buffer on the property, of the application of this chapter to the property, and the fact that limitations on actions in or affecting the critical area or buffer may exist. The notice shall run with the land.
5. All other lands to be protected from alterations as conditioned by project approval.
B. Critical area tracts shall be recorded on all documents of title of record for all affected lots.
2. The right of the City to enforce the terms of the restriction.
A. When mitigation required pursuant to a development proposal is not completed prior to the City final permit approval, such as final plat approval or final building inspection, the City shall require the applicant to post a performance bond or other security in a form and amount deemed acceptable by the City. If the development proposal is subject to mitigation, the applicant shall post a mitigation bond or other security in a form and amount deemed acceptable by the City to ensure mitigation is fully functional.
B. The performance bond shall be in the amount of 125 percent of the estimated cost of the installed mitigation project (including monitoring) or the estimated cost of restoring the functions and values of the critical area that are at risk, whichever is greater.
C. The bond shall be in the form of a surety bond, performance bond, assignment of savings account, or an irrevocable letter of credit guaranteed by an acceptable financial institution with terms and conditions acceptable to the city attorney.
D. Bonds or other security authorized by this section shall remain in effect until the City determines, in writing, that the standards bonded for have been met. Bonds or other security shall be held by the City for a minimum of five years to ensure that the required mitigation has been fully implemented and demonstrated to function, and may be held for longer periods when necessary.
E. Depletion, failure, or collection of bond funds shall not discharge the obligation of an applicant or violator to complete required mitigation, maintenance, monitoring, or restoration.
F. Public development proposals shall be relieved from having to comply with the bonding requirements of this section if public funds have previously been committed for mitigation, maintenance, monitoring, or restoration.
G. Any failure to satisfy critical area requirements established by law or condition including, but not limited to, the failure to provide a monitoring report within 30 days after it is due or comply with other provisions of an approved mitigation plan shall constitute a default, and the City may demand payment of any financial guarantees or require other action authorized by the City code or any other law.
A. Designating Wetlands. All areas within the City meeting the wetland designation criteria in the Washington State Identification and Delineation Manual (1997), regardless of any formal identification, are hereby designated critical areas and are subject to the provisions of this chapter.
1. Wetlands Classification. Wetlands, as defined by this chapter, shall be designated Class 1, Class 2, and Class 3 according to the criteria below.
(4) Wetlands of exceptional local significance, specifically those wetlands proximal to and influenced by the main stem of Swamp Creek, the Sammamish River, or Lake Washington.
(5) Wetlands containing a forested wetland class.
c. Class 3 wetlands are those wetlands not rated as Class 1 or 2 wetlands, but greater than 1,000 square feet in size.
1. The establishment of buffer areas shall be required for all development proposals and activities in or adjacent to wetland areas. The purpose of the buffer shall be to protect the integrity, function, and value of the critical area, and/or to protect life, property and resources from risks associated with development on unstable or critical lands. Buffers shall be protected during construction by placement of a temporary barricade, on-site notice for construction crews of the presence of the critical area, and implementation of appropriate erosion and sedimentation controls. Native vegetation removal or disturbance is not allowed in established buffers.
A. Activities may only be permitted in a wetland or wetland buffer if the applicant can show that the proposed activity will not degrade the functions and values of the wetland and other critical areas and no other feasible site design exists that results in less encroachment or impact to the wetland or wetland buffer.
B. Activities and uses shall be prohibited from wetlands and wetland buffers, except as provided for in this chapter.
C. Class 1 Wetlands. Activities and uses shall be prohibited from Class 1 wetlands, except as provided for in the public agency and utility exception or reasonable use exception sections of this chapter.
6. Have adverse effects on any other critical areas.
E. Limited Exemption. Class 3 wetlands less than 1,000 square feet may be exempted from the provisions of KMC 18.55.300 to 18.55.330 and may be altered by filling or dredging if the City determines that the cumulative impacts do not unduly counteract the purposes of this chapter and are mitigated pursuant to an approved mitigation plan.
2. Measurement of Wetland Buffers. Wetland buffers shall be measured from the wetland edge as delineated and marked in the field using the 1987 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Wetland Delineation Manual and current regional supplements or as may be revised in WAC 173-22-035 and 173-22-080 or the most recent approved federal manual and regional supplements.
b. The buffer has a slope greater than 30 percent or is susceptible to erosion and standard erosion-control measures will not prevent adverse impacts to the wetland. In such cases, the buffer shall be increased to include the slope or the standard buffer shall be drawn from the top of the slope, whichever provides greater protection.
4. Averaged or Reduced Buffer Widths. Buffer widths may be averaged or reduced if an applicant receives approval as provided in this section. An applicant may request either (1) buffer averaging, or (2) buffer reduction with enhancement. A combination of these two buffer modification approaches shall not be used.
(5) For Class 1 and 2 wetlands, the buffer width shall not be reduced by more than 20 percent in any one place. For Class 3 wetlands, the buffer width shall not be reduced to less than 50 feet in any one place.
(6) All exposed areas are stabilized with native vegetation, as appropriate.
d. Buffer Enhancement Plan. As part of the buffer reduction request, the applicant shall submit a buffer enhancement plan prepared by a qualified professional and fund a review of the plan by the City’s wetland consultant. The plan shall assess the habitat, water quality, stormwater detention, ground water recharge, shoreline protection, and erosion protection functions of the buffer; assess the effects of the proposed modification on those functions; and address the six criteria listed in subsection (F)(4)(c) of this section.
5. Buffer Conditions Shall Be Maintained. Except as otherwise specified or allowed in accordance with this chapter, wetland buffers shall be retained in an undisturbed condition.
c. Stormwater Management Facilities. Grass-lined swales and dispersal trenches may be located in the outer 25 percent of the buffer area of Class 2 and 3 wetlands only. All other surface water management facilities are not allowed within the buffer area.
A. Mitigation Shall Achieve Equivalent or Greater Ecological Functions. Mitigation for alterations to wetlands and buffers shall achieve equivalent or greater ecologic functions than exist in the impacted wetland and buffer. Mitigation plans shall be generally consistent with the Department of Ecology Guidelines found in Wetland Mitigation in Washington State – Part 2, Version 1, March 2006, Publication No. 06-060-011b.
2. Out-of-kind replacement will best meet formally identified regional goals, such as replacement of historically diminished wetland types.
C. Buffers for Mitigation Shall Be Consistent. All mitigation sites shall have buffers consistent with the buffer requirements of this chapter, unless determined by the city manager through a variance or a reasonable use exemption that a different buffer would provide adequate protection to the critical area.
1. Restoring wetlands on upland sites that were formerly wetlands.
2. Creating wetlands in upland areas, considering degraded areas first.
3. Enhancing significantly degraded wetlands.
4. Preserving high quality wetlands that are under imminent threat.
3. Off-site locations shall be in the same subdrainage basin unless established regional or watershed goals for water quality, flood or conveyance, habitat or other wetland functions have been established and strongly justify location of mitigation at another site.
F. Mitigation Timing. Where feasible, mitigation or restoration projects shall be completed prior to activities that will disturb wetlands. In all other cases, mitigation shall be completed immediately following disturbance and prior to use or occupancy of the activity or development. Construction of mitigation projects shall be timed to reduce impacts to existing wildlife and flora.
1. Acreage Replacement Ratios. The following ratios shall apply to creation or restoration that is in-kind, on-site, the same class, timed prior to or concurrent with alteration, and has a high probability of success. These ratios do not apply to remedial actions resulting from unauthorized alterations; greater ratios shall apply on a case-by-case basis. These ratios do not apply to the use of credits from a State-certified wetland mitigation bank. The first number specifies the acreage of replacement wetlands and the second specifies the acreage of wetlands altered.
The required acreage replacement ratios for wetlands within the jurisdiction of the Kenmore shoreline master program are different from these standards. See KMC 16.65.010(C) for required wetland mitigation ratios in the shoreline jurisdiction.
e. The impact was an unauthorized impact.
(3) The mitigation is successfully installed for a period of one year prior to the wetland being impacted. Successful installation shall be determined by a qualified biologist.
b. When a decreased replacement ratio is allowed, the mitigation shall be monitored for a period of no less than 10 years.
H. Wetlands Enhancement as Mitigation.
1. Impacts to wetlands may be mitigated by enhancement of existing significantly degraded wetlands. Applicants proposing to enhance wetlands must produce a critical areas report that identifies how enhancement will increase the functions of the degraded wetland and how this increase will adequately mitigate for the loss of wetland area and function at the impact site. An enhancement proposal must also show whether existing wetland functions will be reduced by the enhancement actions.
2. At a minimum, enhancement acreage shall be double the acreage required for creation or restoration.
1. Banks shall only be used when they provide significant ecological benefits including long-term conservation of critical areas, important species, habitats, and when they are consistent with the City comprehensive plan and create a viable alternative to the piecemeal mitigation for individual project impacts to achieve ecosystem-based conservation goals.
2. The bank shall be established in accordance with the Washington State Draft Mitigation Banking Rule (Chapter 173-700 WAC) or as revised, and Chapter 90.84 RCW and the federal mitigation banking guidelines as outlined in the Federal Register Volume 60, No. 228, November 28, 1995. These guidelines establish the procedural and technical criteria that banks must meet to obtain State and federal certification.
A. Stream Classification. Streams shall be designated Type 1, Type 2, Type 3, and Type 4 according to the criteria in this section.
1. Type 1 streams are those streams identified as “shorelines of the State” under Chapter 90.58 RCW, including the Sammamish River and the main stem of Swamp Creek.
b. Natural streams that have intermittent flow and are used by salmonid fish.
b. Natural streams that have intermittent flow and are used by fish other than salmonids.
4. Type 4 streams are those natural streams with perennial or intermittent flow that are not used by fish.
A. Establishment of Stream Buffers. The establishment of buffer areas shall be required for all development proposals and activities in or adjacent to streams. The purpose of the buffer shall be to protect the integrity, function, and value of the stream and provide habitat for heron and other wildlife. Buffers shall be protected during construction by placement of a temporary barricade, on-site notice for construction crews of the presence of the stream, and implementation of appropriate erosion and sedimentation controls. Native vegetation removal or disturbance is not allowed in established buffers.
Required buffer widths shall reflect the sensitivity of the stream or the risks associated with development and, in those circumstances permitted by these regulations, the type and intensity of human activity and site design proposed to be conducted on or near the critical area.
2. Measurement of Stream Buffers. Stream buffers shall be measured perpendicularly from the ordinary high water mark.
b. The buffer has a slope greater than 30 percent or is susceptible to erosion and standard erosion-control measures will not prevent adverse impacts to the stream. The buffer should be measured from the toe of the slope. In such cases, the buffer shall be increased to include the slope or the standard buffer shall be drawn from the top of the slope, whichever provides greater protection.
b. As part of the buffer reduction request, the applicant shall submit a buffer enhancement plan prepared by a qualified professional and fund a review of the plan by the City’s wetland consultant. The plan shall assess the habitat, water quality, stormwater detention, ground water recharge, shoreline protection, and erosion protection functions of the buffer; assess the effects of the proposed modification on those functions; and address the six criteria listed in subsection (B)(4)(a) of this section.
5. Buffer Conditions Shall Be Maintained. Except as otherwise specified or allowed in accordance with this chapter, stream buffers shall be retained in an undisturbed condition.
c. Stormwater Management Facilities. Grass-lined swales and dispersal trenches may be located in the outer 25 percent of the buffer area. All other surface water management facilities are not allowed within the buffer area.
7. Building Setback. A building setback is required from the edge of the buffer per KMC 18.55.270.
7. Crossings are minimized and serve multiple purposes and properties whenever possible.
c. The location occurs on-site except that relocation off-site may be allowed if the applicant demonstrates that any on-site relocation is impracticable, the applicant provides all necessary easements and waivers from affected property owners and the off-site location is in the same drainage sub-basin as the original stream.
i. All work will be carried out under the direct supervision of a qualified biologist.
E. Stream Enhancement. Stream enhancement not associated with any other development proposal may be allowed if accomplished according to a plan for its design, implementation, maintenance and monitoring prepared by a civil engineer and a qualified biologist and carried out under the direction of a qualified biologist.
A. Stream Mitigation. Mitigation of adverse impacts to riparian habitat areas shall result in equivalent functions and values on a per function basis, be located as near to the alteration as feasible, and be located in the same subdrainage basin as the impacted habitat.
4. Type 1 streams as defined in these regulations.
5. Bald eagle habitat shall be protected pursuant to the Washington State Bald Eagle Protection Rules (WAC 232-12-292).
B. All areas within the City meeting one or more of these criteria, regardless of any formal identification, are hereby designated critical areas and are subject to the provisions of this chapter.
A. Habitat Management Plan. A habitat management plan is required when the priority habitats and species maps or natural heritage program maps provided by the City, or other information, indicate the presence of areas with which critical species listed as endangered or threatened under federal or State law have a primary association.
1. All habitat management plans shall be prepared in consultation with the State Department of Fish and Wildlife. Habitat management plans for critical species listed as endangered or threatened shall be approved by the Department of Fish and Wildlife.
(1) All lakes, ponds, streams, and wetlands on, or adjacent to, the subject property, including the name (if named), ordinary high water mark of each, and the stream type or wetland class consistent with this chapter.
(2) The location and description of the fish and wildlife habitats of importance on the subject property, as well as any potential fish and wildlife habitats of importance within 200 feet of the subject property as shown on maps maintained by the City.
(3) The location of any observed evidence of use by a listed species.
b. An analysis of how the proposed development activities will affect the fish and wildlife habitats of importance and listed species.
c. Provisions to reduce or eliminate the impact of the proposed development activities on any fish and wildlife habitats of importance and listed species.
(7) The preservation or creation of a habitat area for the listed species.
B. Alterations shall not degrade the functions and values of habitat. Fish and wildlife habitat areas of importance may be altered only if the proposed alteration of the habitat or the mitigation proposed does not degrade the quantitative and qualitative functions and values of the habitat. All new structures and land alterations shall be prohibited from habitat areas of importance, except in accordance with this chapter.
C. Nonindigenous species shall not be introduced. No plant, wildlife, or fish species not indigenous to the region shall be introduced into a fish and wildlife habitat area of importance unless authorized by a State or federal permit or approval.
D. Mitigation shall result in contiguous habitat. Mitigation sites shall be located to achieve contiguous wildlife habitat corridors in accordance with a mitigation plan that is part of an approved critical areas report to minimize the isolating effects of development on habitat areas, so long as mitigation of aquatic habitat is located within the same aquatic ecosystem as the area disturbed.
E. Mitigation shall achieve equivalent or greater biological functions. Mitigation of alterations to habitat areas of importance shall achieve equivalent or greater biologic functions and shall include mitigation for adverse impacts upstream or downstream of the development proposal site. Mitigation shall address each function affected by the alteration to achieve functional equivalency or improvement on a per function basis.
F. Approvals shall be supported by the best available science. Any approval of alterations or impacts to a fish and wildlife habitat of importance shall be supported by the best available science.
1. Establishment of Buffers. The city manager shall require the establishment of buffer areas for activities in, or adjacent to, fish and wildlife habitats of importance, when needed to protect fish and wildlife habitats of importance. Buffers shall consist of an undisturbed area of native vegetation, or areas identified for restoration, established to protect the integrity, functions and values of the affected habitat. Buffer enhancement may be required. Required buffer widths shall reflect the sensitivity of the habitat and the type and intensity of human activity proposed to be conducted nearby, and shall be consistent with the management recommendations issued by the State Department of Fish and Wildlife.
A. Endangered, Threatened, and Sensitive Species.
1. No development shall be allowed within a fish and wildlife habitat of importance or buffer with which State or federally endangered, threatened, or sensitive species have a primary association except as otherwise approved through this chapter. For fish habitat of importance on lands regulated under the Kenmore shoreline master program, development also must meet the use and development requirements of the Kenmore shoreline master program.
2. Whenever activities are proposed adjacent to a fish and wildlife habitat of importance with which State or federally endangered, threatened, or sensitive species have a primary association, such area shall be protected through the application of protection measures in accordance with a critical areas report prepared by a qualified professional and approved by the City. Approval for alteration of land adjacent to the fish and wildlife habitat of importance or its buffer shall not occur prior to consultation with the Department of Fish and Wildlife and the appropriate federal agency.
3. Bald eagle habitat shall be protected pursuant to the Washington State Bald Eagle Protection Rules (WAC 232-12-292). Whenever activities are proposed adjacent to a verified nest territory or communal roost, a habitat management plan shall be developed by a qualified professional. Activities are adjacent to bald eagle sites when they are within 800 feet of an active nest, or within a quarter mile (2,640 feet) of an active nest and in a shoreline foraging area. The City shall verify the location of eagle management areas for each proposed activity. Approval of the activity shall not occur prior to approval of the habitat management plan by the City and the Washington State Department of Fish and Wildlife.
B. Great Blue Heron Rookery.
1. A buffer equal to the distance of a 900-foot radius measured from the outermost nest tree in the rookery will be established around an active rookery. This area will be maintained in native vegetation. For the Kenmore heron rookery located adjacent to the Kenmore park-and-ride lot, the buffer excludes the area south of the north edge of the State Route 522 right-of-way and west of the east edge of the 73rd Avenue NE right-of-way.
2. Between January 1st and July 31st, no clearing, grading or land disturbing activity shall be allowed within 900 feet of the rookery unless approved by the City and Washington State Department of Fish and Wildlife. For the Kenmore heron rookery located adjacent to the Kenmore park-and-ride lot, the area south of the north edge of the State Route 522 right-of-way and west of the east edge of 73rd Avenue NE right-of-way is excluded.
3. Approval of permits for activities within the heron rookery buffer shall not occur prior to the approval of a habitat management plan by the City and the Washington State Department of Fish and Wildlife.
d. Any impacts to the functions or values of the habitat conservation area are mitigated in accordance with an approved critical areas report.
2. Structures that prevent the migration of salmonids shall not be allowed in the portion of water bodies currently or historically used by anadromous fish. Fish bypass facilities shall be provided that allow the upstream migration of adult fish and shall prevent fry and juveniles migrating downstream from being trapped or harmed.
A. Erosion Hazard Areas. Erosion hazard areas are those areas identified by the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Natural Resources Conservation Service or identified by a special study as having a “moderate to severe,” “severe,” or “very severe” erosion potential.
7. Areas with a slope of 40 percent or steeper and with a vertical relief of 10 or more feet. A slope is delineated by establishing its toe and measured by averaging the inclination over at least 10 feet of vertical relief.
4. The type of subsurface geologic structure.
Settlement and soil liquefaction conditions occur in areas underlain by cohesionless, loose, or soft-saturated soils of low density, typically in association with a shallow ground water table.
4. Are certified as safe as designed and under anticipated conditions by a qualified engineer or geologist licensed in the State of Washington.
1. Buffer Required for Erosion Hazard Areas. No buffer is required from an area categorized as only an erosion hazard area.
2. Buffer Required for Landslide Hazard Areas. A buffer shall be established from all edges of landslide hazard areas. The size of the buffer shall be determined by the city manager to eliminate or minimize the risk of property damage, death or injury resulting from landslides caused in whole or part by the development, based upon review of and concurrence with a critical area report prepared by a qualified professional.
a. Minimum Buffer. The minimum buffer shall be equal to the height of the slope, as measured from the toe to the top, or 50 feet, whichever is greater.
b. Buffer Reduction. The buffer may be reduced to a minimum of 10 feet when a qualified professional demonstrates to the city manager’s satisfaction based upon review of a special study that the reduction will adequately protect the proposed development, adjacent developments and uses and the subject critical area.
c. Increased Buffer. The buffer may be increased where the city manager determines a larger buffer is necessary to prevent risk of damage to proposed and existing development.
d. Building Setback. A building setback is required from the edge of the buffer per KMC 18.55.270.
c. Such alterations will not adversely impact other critical areas.
g. Development shall be designed to minimize impervious lot coverage.
5. Vegetation Shall Be Retained. Unless otherwise provided or as part of an approved alteration, removal of vegetation from an erosion or landslide hazard area or related buffer shall be prohibited.
6. Seasonal Restriction. Clearing shall be allowed only from May 1st to October 1st of each year; provided, that the City may extend or shorten the dry season on a case-by-case basis depending on actual weather conditions, except that timber harvest, not including brush clearing or stump removal, may be allowed pursuant to an approved forest practice permit issued by the City or the Department of Natural Resources.
7. Utility Lines and Pipes. Utility lines and pipes shall be permitted in erosion and landslide hazard areas only when the applicant demonstrates that no other practical alternative is available. The line or pipe shall be located above ground and properly anchored and/or designed so that it will continue to function in the event of an underlying slide. Stormwater conveyance shall be allowed only through a high-density polyethylene pipe with fuse-welded joints, or similar product that is technically equal or superior.
c. Dispersed discharge upslope of the steep slope onto a low-gradient undisturbed buffer demonstrated to be adequate to infiltrate all surface and stormwater runoff, and where it can be demonstrated that such discharge will not increase the saturation of the slope.
b. Access roads and utilities may be permitted within a landslide hazard area and associated buffer if the City determines that no other feasible alternative exists.
10. Prohibited Development. On-site sewage disposal systems, including drain fields, shall be prohibited within landslide hazard areas and related buffers.
11. Slopes Created by Previous Grading. Artificial slopes meeting the criteria of a landslide hazard area based on slope steepness and height that were created through previous permitted grading may be further altered or graded provided the applicant provides information from a qualified professional demonstrating that the naturally occurring slope, as it existed prior to the permitted grading, did not meet any of the criteria for a landslide hazard area and that a new hazard will not be created.
B. Seismic Hazard Areas. Activities proposed to be located in seismic hazard areas shall meet the standards of KMC 18.55.640, Performance standards – General requirements.
4. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) floodway.
A. Development proposals shall not reduce the effective base flood storage volume of the floodplain. Grading or other activity which would reduce the effective storage volume shall be mitigated by creating compensatory storage on the site or off the site if legal arrangements can be made to assure that the effective compensatory storage volume will be preserved over time. Grading for construction of livestock manure storage facilities to control nonpoint source water pollution designed to the standards of and approved by the City is exempt from this compensatory storage requirement.
B. All elevated construction shall be designed and certified by a professional structural engineer licensed by the State of Washington and shall be approved by the City prior to construction.
Lots and structures located within flood hazard areas may be inaccessible by emergency vehicles during flood events. Residents and property owners should take appropriate advance precautions.
4. All electrical, heating, ventilation, plumbing, air conditioning equipment and other utility and service facilities shall be floodproofed to or elevated above the flood protection elevation.
F. All new construction shall be anchored to prevent flotation, collapse or lateral movement of the structure.
c. Any repair or reconstruction of streets, utilities or pads in an existing mobile home park which equals or exceeds 50 percent of the value of such streets, utilities or pads.
5. Buried utility transmission lines transporting hazardous substances shall be buried at a minimum depth of four feet below the maximum depth of scour for the base flood, as predicted by a professional civil engineer licensed by the State of Washington, and shall achieve sufficient negative buoyancy so that any potential for flotation or upward migration is eliminated.
I. Critical facilities may be allowed within the flood fringe of the floodplain, but only when no feasible alternative site is available. Critical facilities shall be evaluated through the conditional or special use permit process. Critical facilities constructed within the flood fringe shall have the lowest floor elevated to three or more feet above the base flood elevation. Floodproofing and sealing measures shall be taken to ensure that hazardous substances will not be displaced by or released into floodwaters. Access routes elevated to or above the base flood elevation shall be provided to all critical facilities from the nearest maintained public street or roadway.
A. The requirements which apply to the flood fringe shall also apply to the zero-rise floodway. The more restrictive requirements shall apply where there is a conflict.
2. Appropriate legal documents are prepared in which all property owners affected by the increased flood elevations consent to the impacts on their property. These documents shall be filed with the title of record for the affected properties.
3. Substantial improvements of existing residential structures meeting the requirements for new residential structures in KMC 18.55.710.
D. Post or piling construction techniques which permit water flow beneath a structure shall be used.
E. All temporary structures or substances hazardous to public health, safety and welfare, except for hazardous household substances or consumer products containing hazardous substances, shall be removed from the zero-rise floodway during the flood season from September 30th to May 1st.
2. The structures shall be on lots in existence before November 27, 1990, which contain less than 5,000 square feet of buildable land outside the zero-rise floodway.
2. Construction of sewage treatment facilities shall be prohibited.
H. Critical facilities shall not be allowed within the zero-rise floodway except as provided in subsection J of this section.
I. Livestock manure storage facilities and associated nonpoint source water pollution facilities designed, constructed and maintained to the standards of and approved in a conservation plan by the City may be allowed if the City reviews and approves the location and design of the facilities.
A. The requirements which apply to the zero-rise floodway shall also apply to the FEMA floodway. The more restrictive requirements shall apply where there is a conflict.
B. A development proposal including, but not limited to, new or reconstructed structures shall not cause any increase in the base flood elevation.
C. New residential or nonresidential structures are prohibited within the FEMA floodway.
2. The actual as-built elevation to which the structure is floodproofed, if applicable.
B. The engineer or surveyor shall indicate if the structure has a basement. | https://www.codepublishing.com/WA/Kenmore/html/Kenmore18/Kenmore1855.html |
In addition to instilling in students the flexibility to readily adapt to changing technologies, teachers must foster learning environments that encourage critical thinking, creativity, problem-solving, communication, collaboration, global awareness, and social responsibility. Critical thinking has been an important issue in education, and has become quite the buzzword around schools the common core state standards specifically emphasize a thinking curriculum and thereby requires teachers to elevate their students' mental workflow beyond just memorization—which is a really good step forward. Problem-solving skills are necessary in all areas of life, and classroom problem solving activities can be a great way to get students prepped and ready to solve real problems in real life scenarios.
Health and physical education in the new zealand curriculum (1999) defines critical thinking as examining, questioning, evaluating, and challenging taken-for-granted assumptions about issues and practices and critical action as action based on critical thinking (page 56. Problem solving activities: how to develop critical thinking skills in kids learning to think critically may be one of the most important skills that today's children will need for the future ellen galinsky, author of mind in the making, includes critical thinking on her list of the seven essential life skills needed by every child. Critical thinking and problem-solving for the as early childhood educators, the inquiry process in the classroom to the activities and thinking processes of. To do this, they must use critical thinking skills like problem-solving, predicting and explaining encouraging this kind of thinking early in a child's life prepares her for understanding the books she'll read on her own later on.
Critical thinking is very important in the new knowledge economy the global knowledge economy is driven by information and technology one has to be able to deal with changes quickly and effectively. The need to focus on science in the early childhood classroom is based on a number of factors currently affecting the early childhood community first and foremost is the growing understanding and recognition of the power of children's early thinking and learning. Science is often sadly neglected in the early childhood classroom (johnson, 1999) perhaps this is because science is perceived and presented as too formal, too abstract, and too theoretical - in short, too hard for very young children and their teachers (johnson, 1999, p 19. Critical thinking is an also a crucial component of the beginning reading curriculum (fitzpatick, 1994), as it boosts reading comprehension and story knowledge. Looking for patterns is an important problem-solving strategy because many problems are similar and fall into predictable patterns a pattern, by definition, is a regular, systematic repetition and may be numerical, visual, or behavioral.
In preschool, students are beginning to develop their math problem-solving skills let's discover some great age appropriate workbooks and preschool problem-solving activities to help preschoolers develop these essential mathematical and critical thinking skills, including ideas for centers, online games, and more activities. In early childhood education, critical thinking skills and creative problem-solving abilities are goals for children's development imagining, trying new ways of doing things, and experimenting help develop critical thinking in children and foster creative problem solving. Every educator is in a position to teach students how to gather information, evaluate it, screen out distractions, and think for themselves because critical thinking is so important, some believe that every educator has the obligation to incorporate the application of critical thinking into his or her subject area.
Critical thinking, communication, collaboration, and creativity now the challenge is building the four cs into k-12 education discussions on this topic are pending at the federal and state levels. There are six major obstacles to creative thinking that could be preventing you from learning how to improve your problem solving skills for business success any one of them, if you fail to recognize and remove it, can hold you back. Why does play belong in early childhood classrooms play is critical for healthy development and learning much has been written about the cognitive, social, emotional, and language benefits of play, as well as the types and stages of play that take place in early childhood classrooms.
In problem solving they apply the critical thinking strategies they have learned collaboration integrating meaningful learning experiences that promote critical thinking skills is essential in cultivating a classroom of 21st century learners. Foster preschoolers' critical thinking and problem solving through movement this video was funded by the connecticut office of early childhood to support implementation of the connecticut early learning and development standards (elds).
The importance of critical thinking for young children critical thinking is essential life skill learn why it is so important and how you can help children learn and practice these skills. Group problem solving is important to young children because many diverse ideas are generated both individual and group processes should be included in the early childhood classroom becoming skillful at problem solving is based on the understanding and use of sequenced steps. The need to teach higher order thinking skills is not a recent one education pundits have called for renewed interest in problem solving for years as far back as 1967, raths, jonas, rothstein and wassermann (1967) decried the lack of emphasis on thinking in the schools they noted that. Innovation, critical thinking, and problem solving - the same competencies that partnership for 21 st century skills identified as essential for our future workforce in addition, academic.
2018. | http://dmessayxfxg.presidentialpolls.us/describe-why-problem-solving-and-critical-thinking-is-essential-in-an-early-childhood-classroom.html |
The Transdisciplinary Mindset
The Transdisciplinary Mindset is inclined to boundary cross, innovate and collaborate, approach complex environments with ontological flexibility, focused on interconnectivity, as practiced through systems thinking, and engages in reflective practice.
Transdisciplinarity is a collaborative effort that sits on the spectrum of cross-disciplinary approaches. At CGU, transdisciplinarity is defined by:
- Working around a complex problem important to society.
- Inclusion of diverse stakeholders working together toward and re-framing a resolution of that problem.
- Disciplinary self-reflection that is both cultural and professional, with reflective judgment and negotiation driving the collaborative process.
- Innovative approaches emerging from the collaborative process.
Identifying Problems
Complex: Many actors; No Central Controller; Strongly coupled; Non-linear relationships; Robust/resilient; Emergent.
‘Wicked’: Lacking definitive formulation; No stopping rule; Good v bad solutions, not T v F; Uniqueness of every problem; Discrepancies explained in multiple ways; Any wicked problem could be viewed as a symptom of another problem; Planners responsible for outcomes that result from the actions they take.1
‘Real-world’: Dynamic and Discontinuous; Simultaneously juggling other problems; Ill-defined; Interaction of problem-solver with environment; Iterative.2
The great ideas and solutions to complex, wicked, real world problems are:
- crafted by teams because no one works alone, and we only get better when we learn from each other,
- never done so you need an ongoing process, not just a checklist of tasks, and
- matters because it’s what’s driving our world forward.3
Abilities and Domains
The Transdisciplinary Studies Program, in conjunction with our transdisciplinary studies colleagues at other research institutes and universities, has identified the following abilities and domains as critical components in fostering a transdisciplinary mindset.
Abilities
- Communicating Values: transdisciplinarians are able to identify, ground, and communicate assumptions and normative values in topics related to the problem(s) under consideration.
- Reflective Practices: transdisciplinarians are reflective about their own perceptions and biases concerning disciplinary concept(s).
- Effective Collaboration: given a real-world topic and its accompanying conflicts and uncertainties, transdisciplinarians are able to identify and frame clear, relevant problems with others who have contrasting perspectives or opinions.
- Integrative Skills: transdisciplinarians are able to translate real-world problems into viable research questions, to identify and integrate adequate research method(s) and to apply conceptual knowledge to specific contexts to investigate these questions and to co-produce knowledge with society.
- Imaginative Solutions: transdisciplinarians are able to explore and develop solutions for real-world problems, while being aware of the possibility of unintended consequences of these solutions and taking responsibility for these consequences.
Competency Domains
Each of these abilities is further grounded, in part or full, in the following competency domains, which embody the transdisciplinary mindset through both research and practice.
Thinking Styles
Systems Thinking: “An enterprise aimed at seeing how things are connected to each other within some notion of a whole entity.” In other words, it is a “way of looking at phenomena and problems through a holistic lens, including how components of a given systems affect one another as well as affect the system as a whole.”
Design Thinking: A cyclical process in which a team defines a goal, designs a prototype, tests the prototype, and reiterates this until the goal is achieved. Design-thinking focuses on the intention of an intervention or product (and evaluating its success), in contrast to finding a universal truth or theory.
Strategic Thinking (from ‘strategic management’): In an organizational setting, this refers to the generation and application of effective plans that are in line with the organization’s objectives in order to create a competitive advantage. In strategic thinking, an effective strategy is divided into 1) process, 2) content and 3) context. At the heart of strategic thinking is creativity and inventiveness.
Temporal Focus: The degree to which individuals think about the cognitive constructs of past and future (and their fields of study) and how these relate to the present, as well as how the study of chronological concepts can be applied to other fields.
Intentionality/Mindfulness: In contrast to causal frameworks, a set of perspectives focusing on agency, meaning-making, wisdom, and a moment-by-moment awareness of both thoughts and feelings as valid ‘ways of knowing’.
Problem-Based Learning: A constructivist pedagogy based on student collaboration around open-ended, complex questions to develop skills for use in future practice. It is an active learning set of techniques that drive both the process and the motivation for learning.
Literacies
Information Literacy: The ability to define problems in terms of information needs and apply a systematic approach to locate, evaluate, and apply the given information. Critical thinking is applied to evidence, and so users of this literacy are capable of not only telling ‘fact from fiction’ but also understand how information can be curated according to intention.
Cultural Literacy: The ability to understand and participate fluently in communication through cultural products and artefacts, emphasizing narrative, rhetoric, comparison, interpretation and critique for the learner to better understand and utilize cultural and disciplinary contexts.
Ethical Literacy: The ability to reflect on, articulate, and respond to issues concerning morality and ethics across relativist to essentialist perspectives. This type of literacy combines the ethical and value-dimensions of a profession/field/group with policy knowledge and technical skill.
Disciplinary and Topic Literacy: An understanding of the knowledge base, lexicon, and skills used in a given discipline. Objectives in this category of literacies is to be able to process and create literature that contributes to the conversations/debates particular to a specific discipline or topic.
Effective Collaboration Skills
Negotiation: a “form of social interaction that incorporates argumentation, persuasion, and information exchange into reaching agreements and working out future interdependence.” In a collaboration, this pertains to interest-based negotiation in which the relationship is treated as a valuable element of what is at stake, while seeking an equitable agreement.
Communication: in collaboration (and conflict resolution) this refers to constructive, positive communication (eg. active listening, giving feedback, using respectful language) as well as finding or creating a common language for shared understanding across boundaries. It also emphasizes choosing effective tools, techniques and modalities appropriate for the task(s) at hand, the stakeholders, and conditions dictated by context.
Team building and teamwork: one of the pillars of organizational development based on improving the effectiveness of a team, this specifically refers to aligning members around goals, developing working relationships, and improving communication and trust.
Leadership and followership: Understanding the balance in hierarchical as well as heterarchical organizational structures, as well as the sets of skills required in leaders and followers, specifically in boundary-crossing contexts.
Collaborative Creativity: innovation and emergence in collaborative settings and finding ways to facilitate this type of collaboration. This often describes an approach within collaborative problem-solving that emphasizes idea generation and selection rather than implementation.
Integration of Methods and Perspectives: integration of multiple disciplines in collaborations around complex problems. Integration can emphasize a cognitive, structural, or cultural process. Important questions include what factors are necessary, sufficient and permissive for integration at different levels to occur.
Scholarship
Applied/Community-based Research: research which equitably involves community members, organizational representatives, and researchers in all aspects of the research process. This research often focuses on including community participation, resulting in better understanding of situated problems and empowering citizens to take more control within their communities.
Reflection in- and on- Action: reflection in-action is an awareness of the situation as it happens, and includes the agility, empathy, and self-awareness of one’s own assumptions and biases to change tactics if necessary. Reflection on action is a reflection after a situation has occurred, and a working towards understanding and improving in the future.
Transdisciplinary Case-Study: a specific type of case study focusing on unstructured, complex, large-scale, real-world issues, often including methods for modeling, forecasting, strategy building, and project management. These cases connect academic to non-academic spaces and actors which are go producers of knowledge in the case-study.
Quantitative/Analytical Skills: the ability to visualize, articulate, and solve problems based on available quantitative information. Quantitative methodologies emphasize objective measurements, statistical data, and computational techniques. Often this is “hypothesis-testing” research.
Qualitative Skills: subjective, observable, but not experimentally measured or examined skills, including critical thinking, creativity, resilience, etc. Qualitative methods emphasize the values in an inquiry and how meaning is made. Often this is “hypothesis-generating” research.
Complexity Theory: based in systems theory and used in organizational settings, used to discuss complex systems; their adaptability, dynamicism, and resilience. It is the study of how order, patterns and structure appear in complex adaptive systems, and it focuses on emergent phenomena over deductive and inductive reasoning.
Problem Framing/Hypothesis (re-)Generating: when collaboratively working through complex systems, an iterative process used to reframe a problem from various perspectives, both to help understand its complexity as well as to solve it. It comes from a synthesis from conflict resolution and the cognitive sciences.
Again, these core abilities and competency domains embody transdisciplinarity through both research and practice. These are the “things” that transdisciplinarians should do to develop a transdisciplinary mindset because the great ideas and solutions to complex, wicked, real world problems are crafted by teams, are never “done,” and are what matters in driving our world forward.3
Transdisciplinary Annotated Bibliography (Condensed)
If you would like to learn more about the transdisciplinary mindset, we recommend the following works.
Mindset
Introductory Reading:
Sousanis, Nick. Unflattening. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015. https://ccl.on.worldcat.org/oclc/893709203
A graphic novel that explores the human condition and the need to reframe our ways of knowing through reflexivity, systems thinking, and complexity. A must-read!
A Deeper Dive:
Ausburg, Tanya. “Becoming Transdisciplinary: The Emergence of the Transdisciplinary Individual.” World Futures: The Journal of General Evolution 70, no. 3-4 (2014): 233-247. https://ccl.on.worldcat.org/oclc/5820240229
Ausburg discusses the traits of a transdisciplinary individual, with an emphasis on the roles of creative inquiry, cultural diversity, and cultural relativism.
Pohl, Christian. “What is Progress in Transdisciplinary Research?” Futures 43, no. 6 (2011): 618-626. https://ccl.on.worldcat.org/oclc/4923943658
A discussion of transdisciplinary thought-styles, which links the individual to a larger community. According to Pohl, a thought-style resembles a mindset in that it is fluid and subjective.
Reflexivity
Introductory Reading:
Schon, Donald A. The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think In Action. New York: Basic Books, 1983. https://ccl.on.worldcat.org/oclc/8709452
A discussion on how reflection-in-action works and how to foster this creativity in future professionals.
A Deeper Dive:
Ryan, Anne. Reflexivity and Critical Pedagogy. Edited by Tony Walsh. Boston: Brill Sense, 2018. https://ccl.on.worldcat.org/oclc/1060183217
Reflexivity as essential in creating sites for transformative possibilities in education, for teachers and students alike.
Interperspectivity
Introductory Reading:
Giri, Ananta Kumar. “The Calling of a Creative Transdisciplinarity.” Futures 34, no. 1 (2002): 103-115. https://ccl.on.worldcat.org/oclc/4923912427
A discussion on the process of creating a transdisciplinary individual, with a focus on the concepts of interperspectivity, disciplinary embeddedness, and the transgressive nature of transdisciplinary inquiry.
A Deeper Dive:
Rajan, R. Sundara. Beyond the Crisis of European Sciences. Shimla: Indian Institute of Advanced Study, 1998. https://ccl.on.worldcat.org/oclc/41003056
Rajan, a philosopher, discusses transcendence of life and disciplines, and how disciplines transform over time.
Design Thinking
Introductory Reading:
Brown, Tim and Jocelyn Wyatt. “Design Thinking for Social Innovation.” Stanford Social Innovation Review, (Winter 2010). https://ssir.org/articles/entry/design_thinking_for_social_innovation
A seminal article in design thinking. An introduction to the principles of good design and how these can be applied to tackle complex problems. Brown and Wyatt illustrate these principles with examples of successful design implementations across the globe.
A Deeper Dive:
Stanford University d.school Public Library. “Library of Ambiguity.” Accessed March 31, 2022. https://dlibrary.stanford.edu/ambiguity
A one-stop-shop for an introduction into design thinking and practice. There are downloadable resources for projects to elicit design thinking, ranging from short worksheets, games, and reflection prompts, to long-form assignments.
Systems Thinking
Meadows, Donella H. Thinking in Systems: A Primer. Edited by Diana Wright. London: Earthscan, 2009. https://ccl.on.worldcat.org/oclc/225871309
An accessible yet thorough discussion of the principles of systems thinking and how these principles can be used to better understand the world around us.
Complexity Theory
Introductory Reading:
Holland, John H. Complexity: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014. https://ccl.on.worldcat.org/oclc/7333167814
John H. Holland, one of the leading figures in the field of complexity research, introduces the key elements and conceptual framework of complexity. Discussions range from complex physical systems such as fluid flow to complex adaptive systems such as the interdependent ecosystems of rainforests.
A Deeper Dive:
The Santa Fe Institute. “Complex Systems Theory.” Accessed March 31, 2022. https://complexsystemstheory.net/complexity-explorer/
Courses open to the community based out of the Santa Fe Institute, a leading school in complexity sciences. These courses range from introductions into the world of complexity to systems, chaos, agent-based modelling, non-linear dynamics, and fractals.
Effective Transdisciplinary Collaboration
Introductory Reading:
Klein, Julie Thompson. “Interdisciplinary Teamwork: The Dynamics of Collaboration and Integration.” In Interdisciplinary Collaboration: An Emerging Cognitive Science, edited by Sharon J. Derry, Christian D. Schunn, Morton Ann Gernsbacher, 23 – 50. Mahwah, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum, 2005. https://ccl.on.worldcat.org/oclc/55671474
Klein discusses the core components of interdisciplinary collaboration, including teams and leadership to project structure and goals.
A Deeper Dive:
Klein, Julie Thompson. Beyond Interdisciplinarity: Boundary Work, Communication, and Collaboration. New York: Oxford University Press, 2021. https://ccl.on.worldcat.org/oclc/1259522833
Klein discusses the core components of interdisciplinary collaboration, including teams and leadership to project structure and goals.
Communication
Introductory Reading:
Bammer, Gabriele. “Communication” Integration and Implementation Insights: A community blog providing research resources for understanding and acting on complex real-world problems. Accessed March 31, 2022. https://i2insights.org/category/main-topics/communication/
A blog that touches on all things related to inter- and transdisciplinarity, with a particular focus on team science, collaboration, and communicating across boundaries.
A Deeper Dive:
Lotrecchiano, Gaetano R. and Shalini Mistra, eds. Communication in Transdisciplinary Teams. Informing Science Press, 2020. https://ccl.on.worldcat.org/oclc/1136720947
A collection of essays on transdisciplinary topics, including: the roles of language and collaborative knowledge in transdisciplinary teams, viewing transdisciplinary learning and engagement through the lens of complexity, and challenges and opportunities in conducting collaborative transdisciplinary research, among others.
Please note these resources are under active development. If you have questions or would like to learn more, please contact us. | https://my.cgu.edu/transdisciplinary/resources/ |
Business College Preparation Needs An Upgrade
Questions about the readiness of college business students isn’t a new concern; therefore, why does this continue to be an issue for businesses who hire them?
According to Payscale’s 2016 Workforce-Skills Preparedness Report, managers are frustrated with college graduates’ writing proficiency and public speaking skills. These topics aren’t always or are minimally developed in college classrooms. Another point frequently raised is related to graduates lack of effective critical thinking skills. A source of these deficits is related to curriculums, which too often focus on memorization and regurgitation versus developing independent thinking and analytical resources — and this must change.
The challenge is that numerous professors continue to use traditional styles and sometimes outdated teaching methods. These approaches typically require students to take copious notes, complete a significant writing assignment, and have a few testing checkpoints. These activities can lead to the capture of theoretical knowledge; however, these experiences don’t always translate to practical readiness.
Students need to be challenged with active and ongoing engagement instead of only having a few graded assignments. The goal of college classes shouldn’t be to teach students to regurgitate information. Students – especially business students – should be challenged with active and collaborative learning environments in addition to passive teaching models to develop higher-order thinking.
The benefits of these combined approaches are that:
* professors can better assess students’ critical thinking skills and abilities;
* it supports team-based learning;
* increases opportunities for students to support each other’s growth;
* it fosters relationship building that otherwise might not develop.
As someone with almost 20 years of schooling, almost 10 years’ experience managing multi-million dollar programs, and approaching 10 years teaching college students/professionals, I’ve used these collective experiences to create – as some students describe my teaching style – a non-traditional methodology. My goals are to develop employable resources who think independently, purposefully, critically, and strategically.
My classes focus on the development of students’:
* Critical Thinking / Thick-Skin – Taught to develop, analyze, convey, and defend their positions in a group setting;
* Public Speaking Skills – Presentations are delivered in multiple formats (individual / group);
* Independence – Assignment requirements and sometimes guidelines are provided to students, but they’re given freedom of expression to meet the objectives — as sometimes better or more creative solutions are developed by allowing flexibility;
* Team-Based Deliverables – Multiple opportunities are provided for students to collaborate inside and outside of the classroom to achieve common goals.
During the semester, students participate in:
* Class Meetings – At the beginning of every class, anything that the entire class should know or discuss is reviewed. This forum provides students with opportunities to ask questions, receive immediate feedback, and learn from others’ similar to business team meetings.
* Current Events Discussions Emphasizing Critical Thinking – Students must be prepared to discuss a current events topic of their choosing every week. By allowing students to pick from a variety of potential subjects, the articles selected are usually aligned with students’ interests. This approach makes the assignment more meaningful and can also lead to increased engagement than if the topic was selected for them. Furthermore, these discussions use topical subjects to provoke students in active learning, teach them to think critically, and provide immediate feedback. The benefit is that students learn to deliver an executive summary, communicate key points, identify a topic’s pros and cons, and also learn to become comfortable with providing their reflections.
* Weekly Homework Assignments – Every week, students complete three or four short-answer writing assignments related to class discussion topics. These submissions emulate email communication that might be reviewed in business environments. Moreover, this information provides valuable input about a students’ writing abilities and thought processes with periodic reviews and feedback.
* Project-Based Deliverables – Students work as a team to complete a couple of deliverables, which include group and individual components. For the final project, students leverage the information learned, skills developed, and teaming abilities to complete a class deliverable. By having students work together multiple times, it provides valuable opportunities for the class to understand and benefit from the value of teamwork. Moreover, it helps to demonstrate in a practical way that more can be accomplished working together than can be achieved through individual successes.
Another interesting component is that there aren’t any written exams; instead, all testing checkpoints are oral examinations. This approach teaches students to be more proficient at presenting information, along with improving their ability to think quickly — especially in pressure situations. The purpose of the oral exams aren’t necessarily to make students uncomfortable, but instead to prepare them for future business conversations and challenges to their positions. In most business environments, employees are seldom asked to take an exam; however, business professionals are required to present information to individuals or groups.
The antiquated models of students working independently to achieve – not always earn – a grade needs to change. Starting on the first day of class, students should be part of an integration process that transforms individual learning into a dynamic and effective learning organization. The teaching goal shouldn’t be for students to simply convey terminology that’s captured, regurgitated, and not always fully processed or understood; instead, the organizational goal should be to create collaborative learning environments. As a result, these types of organizations can teach students to engage in team development, practice multiple communication styles, leverage their critical thinking skills, and work strategically to achieve common goals.
Some might argue that this approach isn’t fair to those who do better with written exams. This might be true; however, my students – in completing a variety of interactive learning activities – are actively challenged to use their communication, time management, problem solving, critical thinking, negotiation, and other skills throughout the semester. Furthermore, another benefit of increased student interaction is that additional data points can be collected to aid in the development of a comprehensive assessment of students’ progress — along with having multiple opportunities to make adjustments throughout the semester with shared ‘teachable moments’ that everyone can benefit… including me as the instructor.
Teaching students shouldn’t be about the pursuit of a perfect grade, which arguably isn’t always a sufficient measurement of understanding but really just a data point at a moment in time. The goal in teaching students should be excellence and not perfection, as excellence will happen as long as students put forth their best effort. Unfortunately, too many individuals falsely believe that a higher grade point average translates to intelligence or an elevated ability, which is an overused and unnecessary bias.
History has demonstrated that there are many individuals who weren’t good students or test takers. Nevertheless, these individuals still had brilliant minds that didn’t fully develop in environments with strict evaluation criteria or a standardized approach to teaching. As a result, schools generally and institutions of higher learning specifically must create dynamic learning environments that allow for flexibility in the achievement of learning goals and objectives that won’t unnecessarily stifle non-traditional learning.
From a personal perspective, I was (for the most part) a challenged student because I’m not a linear thinker. Also, I don’t always do well on standardized or written exams, but I can easily deliver information verbally. Moreover, I don’t like to be limited by inflexible instructions, which can sometimes lead to frustration and at times withdrawal. Notwithstanding, once I was in supportive environments or classes that permitted independent thought and creativity, I delivered my best performance.
Students must be given opportunities to develop solutions using their analytical skills, which can lead to increased comprehension and better outcomes. I’ve learned – through personal experiences and the fortune of working with struggling students – that those who have educational challenges are generally more than capable of doing the work. However, these students sometimes need instructors to recognize their capabilities and help them to deliver course requirements a different way. If college business students are expected to excel immediately in dynamic work environments, then students should be better taught to meet these demands — which can be achieved by developing collaborative and dynamic learning environments that better prepare students to identify, analyze, and resolve opportunities inside and outside of the classroom. | https://slyoung.com/2021/02/%E2%80%8B%E2%80%8B%E2%80%8B%E2%80%8B%E2%80%8B%E2%80%8B%E2%80%8B%E2%80%8B%E2%80%8B%E2%80%8B%E2%80%8Bbusiness-college-preparation-needs-an-upgrade%E2%80%8B/ |
A cry for developing student's creativity, critical thinking, communication, collaboration and citizenship skills?
Organizers at P21 believe that “all learners need and deserve 21st century learning opportunities to thrive as tomorrow's leaders, workers, and citizens” (p21.org). In order for the United States to remain competitive with other high performing countries, we must change our school systems to reflect those of other high performing systems.
Many US school systems focused their efforts on math and English concepts so the students would perform well on assessments under No Child Left Behind (NCLB). However, what researchers have found is that the assessments that the educators use in other high performing countries, Hong Kong, Finland, Singapore, Australia and Canada--do not test reading and math skills. These high performing countries are not assessing their students using multiple choice types of tests. Program and International Student Assessment (PISA, 2012) has found that the education system in these countries has students reading, writing, producing and analyzing data. Therefore, the education system in the United States needs to shift our focus to also assess our students on more higher order type of assessments and performance tasks.
Education administrators need to shift the focus per the P21 Framework. In order for the United States to remain competitive in global markets, we need to change how we assess our students. We need to remind the students they will be building their communication, creativity, critical thinking, collaboration and citizenship skills-the 5C’s.
Citizenship, Communication, Creativity, Critical Thinking, and Collaboration skills help to prepare students for success in college and careers beyond high school. “Learning takes place throughout life in many places and spaces. From birth through (students’) careers, learners need a broad range of experiences that develop their skills, dispositions and abilities to succeed (P21.org).
Communication—students share their written and oral thoughts questions, ideas with each other.
Creativity—students think about or come up with new, innovative ways or different approaches to solving problems. Students can demonstrate their creativity through the use of technological or artistic approaches.
Collaboration-students work interdependently to reach a goal together.
Citizenship- students understand there are procedures, processes and guidelines by which a good citizen will follow.
Critical Thinking-the student comes to a solution by linking knowledge across disciplines and subjects.
In order for the US to remain competitive in the global marketplace and the student to succeed in college and careers beyond the 21st century students must develop the skills in the area of the 5C’s.—communication, creativity, collaboration, critical thinking and citizenship. | http://www.learninginnovationlab.com/harris-21st-century-workforce-readiness-4-cs.html |
It is possible for educators to make better choices about how and when to teach to the test than the alarmist newspaper articles and editorials would seem to suggest. This article from the Center for Comprehensive School Reform and Improvement aims to help readers think beyond simple compliance with federal law or basic implementation of programs.
According to that logic, teaching to the test is as unavoidable as a force of nature, as inevitable as gravity. And the choice between good instructional practice and good test scores is really no choice at all, since those who opt not to bow to the pressure will reap harsh consequences under tough accountability systems.
Such claims often are taken at face value. But what do we really know about the phenomenon? Does high stakes testing always force educators to "dumb down" instruction to focus on rote skills and memorization? Do schools that spend a lot of time on test preparation and "drill and kill" instruction actually perform better on standardized tests than those that do not? Those might sound like easy-to-answer questions, but the answers to those questions are surprising. Many forms of teaching to the test are as unnecessary as they are harmful.
What's wrong with teaching to the test?
The phrase "teaching to the test" is used widely but seldom defined, causing much confusion about what it means and whether it is bad or good. Indeed, in a recent editorial in the Washington Post, the respected education reporter Jay Matthews claimed that teaching to the test simply means aligning classroom instruction and curriculum to standards; the practice is a good one that should be supported.3 Teachers rushed to tell Matthews that what he described was not the kind of teaching to the test that they and their colleagues are worried about.
Assessment expert W. James Popham helps to clarify the difference. He defines two kinds of assessment-aware instruction: "curriculum teaching" and "item-teaching."4 Curriculum teachers focus on the full body of knowledge and skills represented by test questions even though tests can employ only a sample of questions to assess students' knowledge about a topic. For example, if students will be tested on fractions, curriculum teachers will cover range of knowledge and skills related to fractions so students understand what fractions are, know how to manipulate them mathematically, understand how to use them to solve more complex problems, and are able to communicate with and about them. Item teachers narrow their instruction, organizing their teaching around clones of the particular questions most likely to be found on the test — and thus teach only the bits of knowledge students are most likely to encounter on exams. For example, item teachers might drill students on a small set of vocabulary words expected to be assessed rather than employing instructional strategies that help students develop the kind of rich and broad vocabulary that best contributes to strong reading comprehension.
Popham also contends that "because teaching either to test items or to clones of those items eviscerates the validity of [tests]... item-teaching is reprehensible. it should be stopped."6 But the problems with teaching to the test go beyond the fact that it interferes with test validity. Parents and educators are much more concerned with how it affects the curriculum and classroom instruction itself.
For example, some worry that item teaching and other test-preparation strategies are taking over more of the weeks and months prior to testing. "They are losing a week of instruction to testing, which is bad enough," lamented a commentator in the Chicago Sun-Timeslast March. "But the test week comes on top of two or more weeks spent teaching kids how to take the test effectively."7 Others worry that the negative effect on instruction stretches back to august and September, with "drill and kill" strategies that substitute memorization for understanding and strangle good instruction all year long.
According to Lauren Resnick and Chris Zurawsky, the combination of accountability, the lack of a clear curriculum, and cheaper off-the-shelf tests is a recipe for bad teaching. "When teachers match their teaching to what they expect to appear on state tests of this sort," they write, "students are likely to experience far more facts and routines than conceptual understanding and problem-solving in their curriculum.... Narrow tests...can become the de facto curriculum."8 Resnick and Zurawsky do not object to accountability per se, but warn that it can lead to inappropriate instruction if it is not backed up with strong curricula and aligned assessments.
Levy, Murnane, and other economists argue that young people who are denied the opportunity to develop such advanced skills will be at an increasing disadvantage in the changing economy of the 21st century.10 That means educators who settle for "drill and kill" instruction — or who do not at least balance such instruction with more complex assignments — will be trading long-term benefits to students for short-term gains on standardized tests.
The decision to narrowly teach to the test might be bad for students in the long run, but is it really inevitable? Is there an unavoidable trade-off between helping students develop advanced problem-solving and communication skills they will need later in life and helping them perform better on standardized tests while they are in school? More to the point, do "drill and kill" strategies for teaching to the test actually produce higher test scores than other forms of instruction?
The researchers conducted a three-year study analyzing classroom assignments and student gains on standardized tests across more than 400 Chicago classrooms in almost 20 elementary schools. Nearly 2,000 classroom assignments were scored based on a rubric that evaluated the extent to which the assignments called for "authentic intellectual work" from students — applying basic skills and knowledge to solve new problems; expressing ideas and solutions using elaborated communication; and producing work related to the real world beyond the classroom. Note that the definition of authentic instruction does not simply mean "creative" assignments that ask students to use their imaginations but rather "disciplined inquiry," in which students apply imagination and logic, as well as "the basics" — vocabulary words, facts, algorithms — to complete tasks that go beyond answering multiple-choice questions.
For example, one sixth-grade mathematics assignment that scored high on the researchers' rubric asked students to assume they had $10,000 to invest in a stock. Students selected and tracked their own stocks, reading the newspaper and using their knowledge of fractions to calculate gains and losses. At the end of 10 weeks, students decided whether to buy more of the stock or to sell it, and they presented an oral report describing the results of their investment and their decision to unload or reinvest. In contrast, a low-scoring assignment asked sixth graders to complete a worksheet adding or subtracting pairs of simple fractions, such as 4/5 - 2/5.
The researchers called the more advanced assignments "authentic" precisely because they were thought to more closely mimic the kinds of tasks adults perform in their jobs. And, indeed, although the rubrics were developed well before Levy and Murnane conducted the economic study described earlier, their criteria for evaluating classroom assignments seem to closely parallel the kinds of "expert thinking" and "complex communication" skills the two economists found to be in ever greater demand in today's workplace.
Newmann, Bryk, and Nagaoka then analyzed student test-score gains on the commercially developed, nationally norm-referenced Iowa Test of Basic Skills (ITBS) assessment and the state-developed Illinois Goal Assessment Program (IGAP) exams. The results were startling. In classrooms where teachers employed more authentic intellectual instruction, students logged test-score gains on the ITBS that exceeded the national average by 20 percent. However, students who were given few authentic assignments gained much less than the national average. A similar pattern emerged when researchers examined results on the IGAP assessments.
To be sure of their findings, the researchers took into account cross-classroom differences in students' prior-year test scores as well as race, gender, and poverty levels. They also conducted a check to examine whether more advanced students disproportionately were getting the more demanding assignments. Surprisingly, the answer was no — the distribution of highly authentic assignments was determined by teachers' own "dispositions and individual choices" rather than by the designated level of students they taught. Moreover, both high- and low-achieving students benefited from the more demanding, authentic assignments.
Those results strongly suggest that accountability and standardized tests need not be in conflict with good instruction, and that Resnick and others are wrong to assume that off-the-shelf tests require teachers to give up teaching higher level skills. "Fears that students will score lower on conventional tests due to teacher demands for more authentic intellectual work appear unwarranted," the researchers concluded. "To the contrary, the evidence indicates that assignments calling for more authentic intellectual work actually improve student scores on conventional [standardized] tests."12 in other words, teaching to the test by "dumbing down" instruction offers only a kind of fool's gold, promising a payoff that it does not deliver. The choice between good instruction and good test scores is a false one.
The researchers hypothesized that using basic skills to perform complex intellectual tasks actually helps students better internalize such skills and apply them across a wide range of tasks, including standardized tests. However, they also cautioned that no one instructional strategy can serve all purposes. For example, some students might need to practice basic fraction problems before moving on to the more complex project involving stocks. Thoughtful teachers employ a variety of strategies to ensure that students develop basic skills and can apply those skills to complex tasks grounded in real-world challenges.
Many experts also agree that some forms of direct test preparation can be healthy in small doses, and it might even be necessary for tests to provide valid results. For example, students unfamiliar with the test-question format might need help understanding how to answer certain kinds of items so they truly can show what they know. However, a little teaching about test format goes a long way, and engaging in more test preparation than absolutely necessary can depress scores, since it takes time away from the kinds of classroom assignments that help students master the content the test will assess.
But some schools will need more than simple stubbornness to resist the lure of teaching to the test. Many teachers and administrators clearly do feel pressure to engage in "item teaching" and rote instruction; and, especially in states that use off-the-shelf norm-referenced exams, educators increasingly worry that they might be sacrificing higher scores if they do not. It is time to overturn the common assumption that teaching to the test is the only option schools have when faced with high-stakes testing. Over-reliance on "drill and kill" and test-preparation materials is not only unethical in the long-term but ineffective in the short-term. Because there really is no trade-off between good instruction and good test scores, this is that rare case when educators can have their cake and eat it, too.
3Mathews, J. (2006, February 20). Let's teach to the test. The Washington Post, p. A21. Retrieved June 30, 2006, from http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/02/19/AR2006021900976.html 4 Popham, W. J. (2001, March). Teaching to the test? Educational Leadership, 58(6), 16'20.
5Shepard, L. A. (1997). Measuring achievement: What does it mean to test for robust understanding? Princeton, NJ: ETS.
6Popham, W. J. (2001, March). Teaching to the test? Educational Leadership, 58(6), 16'20.
9 Levy, F., & Murnane, R. J. (2004). The new division of labor: How computers are creating the next job market. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Jerald, C.D. ( July, 2006). Teach to the Test? Just Say No. Washington, DC: The Center for Comprehensive School Reform and Improvement. www.centerforcsri.org. | http://www.readingrockets.org/article/teach-test-just-say-no |
careers, and follow a course of action to prepare themselves for a selected career.
CTE Competencies Addressed:
FACS 8.1.2 Assess interests, skills, and expectations about the world of work.
FACS 8.1.4 Evaluate factors
affecting career decisions and careers.
Bloom’s Taxonomy Level:
Knowledge
Comprehension
Application
Analysis
Synthesis
Evaluation
Integrated Course Competencies/SOLs Addressed:based on integrated
course(s) selected
NETS-S Technology Standard Addressed: (check all that
apply)
1. Creativity and Innovation - demonstrate creative thinking,
construct knowledge, and develop innovative products and
processes using technology
2. Communication and Collaboration - use digital media and
environments to communicate and work collaboratively,
including at a distance, to support individual learning and
contribute to the learning of others.
3. Research and Information Fluency - apply digital tools to
gather, evaluate, and use information.
4. Critical Thinking, Problem-Solving & Decision-Making -
use critical thinking skills to plan and conduct research, manage
projects, solve problems and make informed decisions using
appropriate digital tools and resources. | https://www.edocr.com/v/4jv8xb04/globaldocuments/ctemarzanostrategyintegratedactivitylessonplantemp |
In my last blog posting, I outlined an overview of the challenges of effectively assessing learning in the context of Engineering Design projects. An Engineering Design challenge supports the development and mastery of content knowledge through application. It requires students to solve a somewhat messy problem by following a process. And it connects your classroom to the real world.
Project-based learning has far more layers than direct instruction, so it makes sense that you need more ways to think about and structure assessment. At ProjectEngin, we typically look at balancing three main areas:
Content and Skills
Product and Process
Individual and Group
In traditional instruction and assessment, the focus is on content, product, and individual. You may already have effective methods to provide both formative and summative assessment for all of those. Most of the teachers we work with find that the challenges lie in developing assessments that focus on the aspects that are hallmarks of project-based learning – skills, process, and collaborative group work. It is worth looking at the categories above in order to structure project assessments to complement what you already use. Here are some thoughts and tips on the both the “how” and “how much” of each category. In my final blog posting on assessment, I will look at key points, methods, and rubrics for formative and summative assessment in all these areas.
Content and Skills
Content assessment can range from more traditional quiz/test formats to performance tasks. Most Engineering Design projects are done in groups and it can be difficult to assess content understanding for individual students on a group basis. This is one area where a version of the tests or quizzes you may have previously used can be helpful. Keep in mind the standards you are following and don’t drill down to the smallest fact. An individual assessment that checks for general understanding as a background for the project insures that all students have a reasonable starting point. Most of the teachers we work with will use a quiz on key concepts at this point, with a provision for retakes if needed. Remember that in addition to checking for understanding of concepts, you want to be certain that all members of the group have the background they need to succeed. Additional evidence of content understanding can be a required component of the final presentation and it can also be part of the required documentation in the Engineering Notebook, making the connection between concepts and design decisions. Most teachers find that it is easier to make assessment of content understanding a component of the individual grade for the project.
Assessing skills is a challenge. Unlike content, there are no clear boundaries or discrete checkpoints; our mastery of skills generally follows an often non-linear continuum. Rubrics are generally the most effective form of skills assessment. As mentioned in the last blog posting, the Buck Institute has some great resources and rubrics on its PBLWorks website. Student self-assessment of improvement in terms of the 4 C’s is also helpful. The Department of Defense’s Education Activity program has created a good compilation of rubrics for both teacher and student assessment of 21st century skills. The document also has some good resources and references.
Most teachers are comfortable assessing collaboration, communication, and critical thinking. Assessment of creativity is often a bigger challenge. No one should ever be told that they are not creative; that just perpetuates an incorrect fixed mindset about creativity. Assessment of creativity should be strictly formative and it should provide constructive feedback. There should also be a high degree of student involvement in understanding (perhaps even designing) and employing the rubric or feedback form. As Ken Robinson points out in his book, Out of Our Minds, far from being an innate gift, creativity can be taught but doing so presents assessment challenges. “The educational value of creative work lies as much in the process of conceptual development, as in the creation of the final product. Assessment needs to take this into account…” (Robinson, 2011 ed.). This brings us to a consideration of product versus process.
Product and Process
Traditional assessments typically focus on the product. A multiple-choice test shows us little about the thought process that lead to the answer, or final product. Artifacts such as papers and presentations are often assessed in their final form with little focus on the research or editing process. But there is an enormous amount of critical thinking and creativity inherent in constructing and revising those artifacts. One of the benefits of using the Engineering Design Process to frame projects is that various steps in the process highlight those skills as well as content development.
In our experience, putting more weight on the final product in assessments has a “beauty contest” effect. Students are more likely to take a “hands-on” approach, skipping over much of the “minds-on” learning that you hoped to promote. A physical prototype will look better, go faster, or fly higher but much of the development will be occur in a trial-and-error method to see what works. A focus on the process will enable you to stress the need for planning, research, decision-making, and connections to curricular concepts. An Engineering Notebook allows students to document the decisions and connections that are part of the process. It can be used as a formative and summative document to assess the group’s work as they move toward a solution. Much of the transferable learning is in the process and I suggest that you consider making your assessment of how well it was employed at least 65% of the final project grade. As educators, we are all aware that we cannot keep up with the explosion in knowledge. Developing a way to think about and use that knowledge is a lifelong skill that should be one of the key learning goals in our classrooms.
Individual and Group:
This is typically the most challenged part of any project assessment. There can be pushback from both students and parents, particularly those used to high marks on the individual assessments that make up most recorded grades. It is important that you have a clear explanation, identifiable guidelines, and as much transparency as possible. It makes sense to have a group component in your overall assessment since the work was done collaboratively and, in most cases, the project was designed to make it necessary to have a team approach to successfully complete it. But you need to be attentive to the fact that group dynamics are rarely perfect in a classroom environment. Student
That individual component of the grade can be made up of content assessments, peer review, and your own observations of time-on-task along with any student self-assessment of skills. The group grade can be based on the final product and presentation (product), the Engineering Design Notebook (process) and your assessment of the group’s use of the Engineering Design Process and their problem-solving skills. You may also want to add a group self-assessment as well. Just be sure you have made all your assessment components and guidelines clear and reasonably weighted based on the project tasks and the learning goals.
In the third part of this series, rubrics and milestones for formative and summative assessments will be provided. Start thinking about how you want to structure the components of what you assess. Keep some of what you already use to assess content, products, and individuals while considering how to add consideration of skills, process, and collaborative efforts. If your students are going to be ready for a future that demands innovation and collaboration, that needs to be part of your classroom today. | https://www.projectengin.com/post/assessing-what-matters-part-2-of-3 |
Critical Thinking Skills Guideby Becton Loveless
Critical thinking is important. Generally speaking, critical thinking refers to the ability to understand the logical connections between ideas. When a person understands these connections, it makes it easier to construct logical arguments based on those ideas. It also becomes easier to evaluate the arguments that other people make to see if those arguments are based on sound reasoning. Since critical thinking involves connecting important concepts and ideas, critical thinkers often find it easier to solve problems in a systematic fashion. Critical thinkers can also prioritize which ideas are most relevant to their own arguments.
From this general idea of what critical thinking involves, it should be easy to see why critical thinking would be important to students. Students who become critical thinkers are better equipped to deal with a wide range of problems that they encounter in school. These student are better able to build new concepts upon previous ideas that they’ve learned. This is a useful skill throughout school. Advanced mathematics are built upon simpler math ideas. Science experiments require basic understanding of various substances used in the lab. Advanced argumentation is rooted in the simple ability to identify information that supports the argument’s basic premise.
Despite all the potential advantages that may come with possessing critical skills, these skills are not themselves taught directly in school. Such skills may be inadvertently taught during the course of various lessons and school work but, for the most part, critical thinking skills aren’t typically directly addressed. There are no classes committed to teaching critical thinking skills alone, leading teachers across multiple subjects to have to find ways of integrating critical thinking into their lessons independently.
Critical Thinking by the End of High School
Entering college, students have hopefully learned several advanced critical thinking skills that will support them through their college work. Specifically, there are six critical thinking skills that will support upper high school students and college students. These skills can help students to performed better in a range of subjects.
Identification
Identification is important to critical thinking because it refers to the ability for a student to identify the existing problem and what factors impact that problem. This first critical thinking skill is what gives students the ability to see the scope of the problem and start thinking about how to solve the issue. In a new situation, learners ask what the problem is, why it might be happening, and what the outcome is. From this initial set of questions, they come to an understanding of the problem’s scope and potential solutions.
Research
Research of a problem cannot begin until identification has taken place. Once identification occurs, a learner can start researching that problem. How much research is necessary will depend on the scope of the problem. Mathematic problems, for instance, may rely on researching examples of the problem and reviewing more fundamental formulas. More complex problems, such as addressing large social issues, still rely on the same process of understanding the scope of the issue and identifying what materials need to be referenced to address the problem. Research is also important when it comes to understanding claims. Students should be able to hear a statement, question it, and verify that statement using objective evidence discovered through research. This is in contrast to the uncritical response of simply accepting the statement.
Identifying Biases
Identifying bias is one of the more difficult skills for students to grasp. Everyone has bias, including students themselves. A learner needs to be able to identify bias in the materials that they’re looking at that might impact what’s being written. Authors may write things that favor a certain points of view, which would impact how much a reader could trust the material. On the other hand, students should also be able to examine their own biases. It’s important not to write in favor of one’s own view, which become increasingly important as a person progresses upward in their studies through higher education. It’s important for student to challenge their own perspectives but also to challenge the evidence that they read.
Making Inferences
The ability to make inferences is a critical skill for students to learn as they learn how to analyze data and piece together information. During the course of putting together information, it’s always important to learn how to draw conclusions based on that information. Students need to be able to look at a body of evidence and make a determination of what that data might mean. Not all inferences will be correct, so students also need to be able to reassess their inferences as new data comes up or as existing evidence is reassessed.
Determining Relevance
To make correct inferences and formulate arguments, students need to be able to determine the relevance of the information that they receive. This is not an issue of examining bias so much as being able to identify the information that’s appropriate to solving a problem or making an argument. This is particularly important as students get into more advanced areas of research. For instance, as students start getting asked to write papers, they need to be able to search through primary and secondary documents that can support their argument. The more skilled that a student becomes at being able to determine the relevance of these documents, the less time students will have to spend sorting through irrelevant documents that don’t support their research.
Curiosity
Perhaps counterintuitively, it’s also important for people to learn how to curb their curiosity. Curiosity is important in that it drives research and exploration of a topic. However, consistent with the need to determine relevance is the need to identify where to end a line of inquiry. Curiosity can send people exploring any number of topics during research that only burns time instead of informing a student’s research. The more skilled a student becomes at learning how to end certain paths of research the more they can focus on supporting their studies and finding evidence that will work in their research.
Teaching Critical Thinking Skills
Actually teaching critical thinking skills is something that teachers have instincts about and teach inadvertently without actually understanding how their lessons actually impact those skills. In truth, teachers should try to make critical thinking integral to their instructional design. Almost any instructor can begin teaching critical thinking by simply modeling the behavior for their students. They can assess information, its sources, and its biases. But to get in-depth with critical thinking skill, teachers also need to present broad problems and scenarios that students need to explore for themselves. By presrnting a problem or scenario that needs to be addressed and allowing students time to detbae the issue, they can be guided to see the value of other argument while learning how to construct their own arguments. This is also a process through which students can learn how to identify information that will help them present those arguments. Teachers can also provide feedback on these argumetns to help students improve their research and argumentation process in the future.
Another important part of teaching critical thinking skills includes asking questions. The questioning approach helps students to reassess their own perspectives and the evidence of others. When bringing up a topic or problem, instructors should ask some of the following:
- What do you think about this issue and why do you think that?
- Where did you get your information on this issue and why do you believe it?
- What is the implication of what you’ve learned and hat conclusions can be reached?
- How do you view the problem and your information, and what other view could you take on it?
The importance in these lines of questions is to make students consider their own perspectives as well as contrary evidence. By asking these questions, students get to reevaluate what they believe and questions whether they actually should believe it. Sometimes people hold certain beliefs without truly understanding why they believe it. By asking questions about one’s own knowledge, it becomes possible to understand one’s own knowledge base more deeply and discard of information that may be inaccurate or too heavily biased.
There are also writing activities that teachers can use as well. During writing, students can be asked to write freely about any number of topics. The point of this free writing session is to let students arrive at a conclusion about what they believe about a topic. This isn’t a critical thinking phase of writing but is instead simply meant to allow student freedom to reach a conclusion about what they believe. After the student has freely explored the topic, they move onto the critical thinking phase of their writing project. At this stage, the student begins to examine what sort of biases impacted the position they took on the topic and review their conclusions. The student determines whether their inferences were accurate. This is essentially a reflective period in which students need to refine their writing and attack their own work to make it better while continually asking themselves whether their evidence is sound and whether their biases impacted the final work.
Critical Thinking Barriers
There are often several barriers that keep students from fully developing critical thinking skills. Ironically, one of the biggest problems to critical thinking is the existing curriculum a school is using. Particularly when curriculum is heavily standardized, it makes it difficult for teachers to find opportunities to teaching critical thinking. Too heavy of a focus on teaching to standardized tests, including curriculum oriented toward making sure that students hit certain test scores, often means heavily fact based teaching that expects rote memorization. This leads to few chances to actually ask open questions in which students can question their knowledge base and critically assess a given situation.
There are, of course, other barriers to critical thinking. Sometimes, the problem lies with the fact that teachers are simply unused to teaching these skills. Partly as a result of feeling pressured to achieve highly standardized test scores, teachers often focus too much on fact teaching and rarely get into asking the sort of open ended questions that can help to cultivate critical thinking. However, even when they have the opportunity to do so, teachers sometimes lack the training necessary to encourage critical thinking among students. Teachers may know many activities to teach students with without a concrete idea of how each contributes to the development of such skills. Teachers tend to be trained in how to pass along content rather than encouraging critical thinking.
One of the major problems that teachers face is an issue of time. Teaching content knowledge or teaching to the test involves passing along content that can help teachers teach the information that will help students pass their exams. Passing along vast quantities of information for rote memorization can be done efficiently by simply giving students lots of information to learn. A significant amount of information can be passed along within a class when teaching to an exam, but it’s much harder to teach critical thinking skills. Teaching critical thinking, on the other hand, requires instructors to set aside extensive periods of time to questioning and debate. Considering that teachers already struggle sometimes to fit in all of their activities, it’s difficult to ask them to accommodate large periods of time for passing along critical thinking skills. Creatively finding solutions to this problem requires teachers finding small periods in which to fit in critical thinking discussions, perhaps through the use of smaller question and answer activities during lectures. Or, teachers can try to change the format of their classes completely to make them more hands on, engaging environments in which critical thinking is ongoing. | https://www.educationcorner.com/critical-thinking-skills.html |
This is the title of Montreat College’s current QEP.
What does QEP stand for and what is it about?
Quality Enhancement Plan (QEP). Accredited schools of higher education choose a major initiative every five years to address areas where they want to enhance learning. Montreat College has chosen critical thinking as the focus of this initiative. The stated purpose of T2I is to develop the critical thinking skills of students so that they can graciously impact the world around them.
What is the desired student outcome of T2I?
That students have enhanced ability to:
- Identify: Students will be able to identify or derive alternative interpretations of data or observations.
- Explain: Students will be able to explain how new information can change their understanding and ability to address a problem, so they can graciously and effectively engage with the world.
- Recognize: Students will be able to recognize new information that might support or contradict a hypothesis.
Why focus on Critical Thinking?
Prior to the implementation of the QEP, Montreat College did not have a unified plan of action for campus-wide development of critical thinking for students. The lack of college-wide intentional planning created a gap in student learning and development. This hindered students from acquiring the personal and professional skills to graciously impact the world around them and implicitly allowed personal opinion and emotional reasoning rather than creative thinking, problem-solving, and communication of multifaceted ideas.
Why are we concerned with students developing critical thinking for gracious world impact?
In conjunction with learning the skills for critical thinking T2I also encourages “gracious impact” with these skills. To be gracious is to act with humility and in charitable consideration of those with whom one is interacting, remembering the dignity and worth of all people inherent in the Imago-Dei. Undergraduate curricula focusing primarily on critical thought is a great starting point however, such a skill set is of limited use if students cannot communicate learned truths in a way which graciously impacts the world.
How does Montreat assess SLOs?
All of the instruments we are using to assess critical thinking have been built into the curriculum and/or assessment cycle. There are no additional requirements for students to fulfill. In order to measure the effectiveness of T2I through multiple measures, including the Association of American Colleges and Universities (AAC&U) VALUE Rubrics a macro-level and micro-level assessment plan has been established. For example, an intro-level Education course assignment focusing on critical thinking will be identified, a sample of student submissions will be selected, a committee of non-Education Department faculty will assess these submissions using the Montreat College T2I Critical Thinking Rubric and the results of this assessment will be reported to the Education Department for inclusion in their annual program assessment. All results are provided to specific departments following the completion of each annual assessment cycle. The results of each academic year will be utilized to inform the practices and goals of the following academic year.
How is the QEP connected to the Mission of Montreat College?
T2I is a means of improving the overall College curriculum by supporting the College’s mission: Montreat College is an independent, Christ-centered, liberal arts institution that educates students through intellectual inquiry, spiritual formation, and preparation for calling and career. T2I will be integrally Christ-centered through the focus on asking difficult questions, communicating and dialoguing about these questions and the use of a discipleship model in the Fellowship of Philosophers program. All of these are hallmarks of the ministry and teaching of Jesus Christ. Students, faculty, and staff will tackle contemporary issues, going into the depths of intellectual inquiry – beyond rote memorization to adaptive skills that allow for success in many fields and are integral to spiritual formation, growth, and development.
Preparation for calling and career will be an important and welcomed byproduct of T2I. The world’s most desired employers are continually seeking knowledge that goes beyond mere book smarts: they want applicants who can be creative, graciously critical and go beyond superficial standards of excellence. Finally, students will impact the world for Jesus Christ as only critical thinkers can, having a unique ability to affect change in a cynical world.
What do I need to do?
Students
- Participate in the activities provided for you through the QEP.
- Think about the way you approach course content: ask questions, analyze the material, make connections between your classes, etc.
- Be a friend of critical thinking and encourage your peers to ask questions and seek deeper understanding.
- Consider being a part of the Fellowship of Philosophers or a Wandering Philosopher.
Staff
- Be prepared to answer questions the SACSCOC On-site committee may have about the QEP
- Read QEP documents.
- Create opportunities for engaging students in conversation that requires and empowers them to critically think.
- Ask questions (email Megan Clunan at [email protected])
Faculty
- Read the QEP Report
- Participate in the activities and professional development provided for you through the QEP. | https://www.montreat.edu/about/t2i/faq/ |
21ST Century learning has achieved a paradigm shift in the education system, fostering complex skill sets like critical thinking, creativity, collaboration, and decision making and problem-solving. Since developing these skills are becoming a central part of our teachings, the need to understand how to assess these skills has become equally important.
So the current approaches to assessing and evaluating these skills have to be redefined as well.
Vega schools, ranked by Educationworld (2020-21) among The Top 5 schools in Gurgaon, focuses on engaging its learners in complex, non-routine activities to face the changing global phenomenon. The skill that is needed to develop is therefore complex and non-routine hence our assessment process is designed in such a way that we are continuously improving our learners and instructor’s performance.
Our goals for the Assessment process are:
- Learners be able to demonstrate what they have learned
- The final project/product should be able to reflect the content knowledge that they have learned
- Identify gaps in understanding
- Help with the individual needs
- Learners should be able to reflect on their choices, article and define their choices
Our Problem-based learning pedagogy is a child-centric, inquiry-based instructional model in which learners engage with an authentic, “messy” problem that requires further research in order to get to a reasoned solution. Learners identify gaps in their knowledge, conduct research, and apply their learning to develop solutions and present their findings.
In this blog, we will discuss different ways students can be assessed on their learning while engaged in the PBL process. Since PBL employs many different types of learning, how learners can be assessed, can vary. Appropriate assessors include faculty members, student, peers, and self reflection.
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
The first type of assessment followed by Vega Schools is Formative assessment. It is a continuous on-going process in the improvement cycle of the learners where we evaluate how a learner is handling and internalising the material throughout the course.
Common formative assessments include Games, group work, projects, quizzes, and presentation
Basics Features of Formative Assessment
- Done on a regular basis.
- Doesn’t need to be paperwork-a quick in-class game or show and tell activities can be used to evaluate student/s progress
- Learning leaders have the flexibility to assess students
- The assessment activities keep learners engaged while sticking to the syllabus
- The ongoing process helps the teachers to evaluate their teaching process.
- Formative assessment’s goal is to monitor students’ learning to provide ongoing feedback that can be used by teachers to improve their teaching and by students to improve their learning.
- The evaluation includes a small part of the content
SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT
This form of assessment evaluates the performance of the learners towards the end of the course.
Features of summative assessment
- It assesses the exact information the learner has learned by recounting what they have learned in form of tests, half-yearly or final exams, reports, and end-of-class projects.
- The assessment tests are created to understand the learners’ total understanding of the class material.
- It tries to evaluate the student’s long term knowledge.
- Learners have to do some serious reflecting and critical thinking to bring together the information from an entire course.
- It prepares the students for the next class/session
- The final combination of the results/grades with the rest of the class helps gauge the progress of every learner.
- The goal is to evaluate learners at the end of the session by comparing it against some standard or benchmark.
- The evaluation includes complete chapters or content Areas.
Formative assessment can be used to look at the progress in student learning and summative to evaluate what they have learned as a whole. By the end of the class, it will give the student a great understanding of what they have learned and let us know how well we are doing in conveying the information to them
STUDENT LED CONFERENCE
The third type of assessment is the STUDENT LED CONFERENCE at Vega schools, one of the best schools in Gurugram where it is the learners who present their learning to their parents. In an SLC role are reversed with the parents being the students and the learner being the teacher (Learning Leader)The student explains to their parents what they have achieved, strategies utilised for understanding various concepts, application of the same in real-life scenarios. It usually happens at the end of the course where the learner takes ownership of his learning and presents a portfolio or project report. .It is with this confidence that skills such as articulation, presentation, collaboration, analytical and more such skills needed for the real world are displayed at SLCs.
Features of SLC
- The student facilitates the meeting from start to finish.
- The learners engage in their achievement and progress, strength, weakness, and take ownership of its results leading to which they develop skills like planning, responsibility, self_reflection, communication and most importantly critical thinking
- SLC fosters parent’s involvement
- Learning leaders also get an insight on how to make the learning environment more effective for their students.
- SLC promotes collaboration between home and school
- Placing the onus of responsibility on the student to explain his or her progress helps students, including the struggling learners, get a view of their learning progress and develop accountability necessary for them to improve or to sustain academic success.
What does a typical SLC look like?
- A day is fixed in advance and parents are notified
- Parents visit the school on the scheduled day to attend the SLC
- The child welcomes his/her parents and invites them into the class
- Briefly explain the format and objectives of the student-led conference, reminding the family to save questions for the end.
- Shows the portfolio of work to provide evidences of their achievements and struggles during this meeting. and progress reports to the parents and discusses in detail in the presence of the teacher
- Does some activities/games with the parents to show how learning happens in the class
- Ask parents if they have any questions.
- Gives the parents a feedback form to fill up and thank them for coming
We at Vega Schools, top schools in Gurgaon, want our learners to take the initiative to guide their own learning by discussing what they need to succeed as well as to be able use tangible examples from their learning to determine and monitor their learning goals. One way to do this is through student-led conferences.
PROJECT EXHIBITIONS
The final technique to evaluate progress and ensure the success of our learners at Vega Schools,one of the good schools in Gurgaon is through Project Exhibition. It is a high stake demonstration of mastery that occurs at the end of the school sessions where learners present their learning information of a project, essay, art and craft, display of models. Project exhibitions are also a part of the summative assessment but the process of building up to a final exhibition includes ongoing assessment, feedback, reflection and revision. It is mainly the illustration of the practical application of the knowledge –focusing on DOK 4 level.
Project exhibitions enable children to immerse themselves in real life problem solving and learning, rather than experience one way lectures. It ensures that they learn in ways that closely resemble how they will work in future businesses and jobs of the future. It also equips them with the very skills that will be required to make them successful in the real world.]
Features of Project Exhibitions
- Learners start preparing for it during the starting of the session and they keep on updating it during the learning process.
- Number of Project Exhibitions depend on the age of the learner and the time devoted depends on the learner again.
- It is presented by children divided into groups.
- Exhibitions require students to speak publicly, present evidence, utilise engaging visual displays when explaining and otherwise demonstrate mastery to educators, peers, and others from outside the everyday school community.
- Projects allows students to demonstrate a variety of skills including communication, technical, interpersonal, organizational, self-management, problem-solving, and decision making skill
Project work challenges students to think beyond the boundaries of the classroom, helping them develop the skills, behaviours, and confidence necessary for success in the 21st-century. Project Designing creates environments that help students question, analyze, evaluate, and extrapolate their plans, conclusions, and ideas, leading them to higher–order thinking.
To understand how the iLead Cycle,( created by Dr. Steven Edwards, Co-Founder, of Vega Schools, top 10 schools in Gurgaon), was used to teach the concept of Shape to our learners and how they were evaluated at the end, please visit our blog https://vega.edu.in/shapes/ dated 19th November 2020.
Our children are taught to think laterally and out of the box differently and perform differently. We can standardized tests from now until forever but we can’t standardize children. We are always seeking out ways to develop their unique skills and perspectives through engaging assessment and evaluation programs to foster DEEPER LEARNING. Our aim is to ensure that the learners learning curve moves forward at their own pace, using teaching and assessment strategies that are adapted to individual learners. | https://vega.edu.in/the-pbl-way-of-innovative-assessments/ |
Do schools kill creativity, asks Ken Robinson in the much-watched TED talk. I am inclined to say, they do. Of course, educational systems do not work in a vacuum, but are a reflection of the society they function in.
India’s educational system is modelled on the mass education system that developed in the 19th century in Europe and later spread around the world. Tracing the roots of the movement, the goal is clear — to condition children as “good” citizens and productive workers. This suited the industrial age that needed the constant supply of a compliant workforce with a narrow set of capabilities. The educational environment even today resembles factories with bells, uniforms and batch-processing of learners. They are designed to get learners to conform.
From an economic standpoint, the environment today is very different. In a complex, volatile and globally interconnected world, new-age skill-sets are essential. Wired magazine estimated that 70 per cent of today’s occupations would become automated by the end of this century. What will be the role of humans in this new economy? Linear, routine thinking will have no advantage. It calls for flexibility, adaptation, new thinking, paradigm shifts, and innovation — and that is the language of creativity. Creativity is an essential 21st century skill.
So, how would an educational system built around creativity look like? I use the word creativity here in its broadest sense — the nurturing and igniting of a human being’s latent talent and abilities to the fullest potential. From a scientific perspective, creativity is an aptitude for new, original and imaginative thinking. Let us consider some key aspects of an educational system with creativity at its core.
Outcomes: In a creative educational system, the infinite range of human abilities and talents finds an equal place. Creative learning produces growth in both cognitive and affective dimensions and leads to the production of outcomes that are rich and complex, original and expressive. There is a harmonious development of body, mind and spirit. Outcomes include the development of higher-order thinking skills, creativity, problem-solving ability, self-awareness and aesthetic sensibilities.
Pedagogy: Several studies suggest that the innate creativity and curiosity of children are lost in the conventional schooling methods. In creative classrooms, the teacher and students are participants in the learning process. Pedagogies take into account the diversity of learning styles, involve all the senses and body, and are fundamentally experiential in nature. The learning environment challenges students to use complex thinking, provide time to think and play with new ideas and encounter knowledge in varied ways to lead to personal and meaningful insights. Classrooms are playgrounds for exploration, inquiry and reflection.
Assessments: Current assessment mechanisms largely rely on a one-time, high-stake standardised testing measuring a narrow range of abilities. Studies indicate that gifted students underachieve in these assessments, and up to 30 per cent of high school dropouts may be highly gifted. Assessments that nurture creativity are built for intrinsic motivation and enable growth on one’s unique path. They are flexible, cover diverse dimensions and rely extensively on self-assessment. They encourage students to raise questions, probe, create possibilities and give play to imagination.
Content: Today, there is an inbuilt hierarchy of content in education. For the 21st century economy, content knowledge has little meaning without the skills of creativity, problem-solving, and human connection. In a creative system, any kind of creative potential has an equal chance of blossoming, be it in languages, maths, art or any other. Creative thinking, imagination and expression are the core focus across all content. There is cross-pollination of subjects and an infusion of art, aesthetics and design into the mainstream.
Globally, there is a growing body of thinkers, parents and educators concerned with the system. Creativity, design thinking and metacognition are being recognised as 21st century skills. Finland went against the tide in its education policies and has generated interest for its high scores. It follows a highly decentralised and flexible structure with high-quality teachers who have autonomy over curriculum and student assessments. There is no standardised testing, and teaching is a coveted profession.
A nation’s educational system can unfold from its innate strengths, and uniqueness. India can take inspiration from its days of educational and intellectual excellence. Learning was infused with music, art and poetry. Higher-order thinking, self-awareness, deep inquiry, aesthetics, intuition, discussions and debates were integral to education. Creativity in many ways was pervasive in the goals, methods and content of education.
The draft of India’s new education policy is expected. What direction will India take in the journey forward? Will it conform to the familiar, or create its unique path? | https://creativiti.in/2018/11/02/for-creativity-over-conformity-in-classrooms/ |
Standardized testing has been part of the US educational system since the mid-1800s and even skyrocketing after the 2002 No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) has mandated annual testing in all the states. However, American students have slipped from 18th in the 2000 world math rankings to 31st place in 2009, with a similar decline in science, while there has been no change in reading.
Now, these and other failures in the system have been blamed on teacher quality, rising poverty levels, tenure policies and, increasingly, on standardized testing. While proponents say that the tests are objective and fair in measuring student achievement, opponents claim otherwise, that their use promotes a narrow curriculum and drill-like teaching to the test, that would undermine the country’s ability to produce critical thinkers and innovators. To come up with a wise opinion on this matter, let us take a look at the pros and cons of standardized testing.
List of Pros of Standardized Testing
1. It is a reliable and objective measure of student achievement.
Without these tests, policy makers would have to depend on tests that are scored by individual teachers and schools that have a vested interest in producing favorable results. Particularly, multiple-choice tests are graded by machine, which means that they are not subject to human bias or subjectivity.
2. It has a positive effect on student achievement.
Almost all research on student testing, including high-stakes and large-scale standardized tests, have found a positive effect on student achievement. This is according to a peer review and a 100-year analysis of testing that was completed in 2011 by scholar Richard P. Phelps.
3. It focuses on essential content and skills.
Focusing on content and skills, standardized testing can eliminate a waste of time in doing activities that do not produce learning gains and motivate students to excel. As stated by the Department of Education, “If teachers cover subject matter required by the standards and teach it well, then students will master the material on which they will be tested–and probably much more.”
4. It is inclusive and non-discriminatory.
This is because the tests ensure content is equivalent for all students. Arguing that using alternate tests for children from minority groups or exempting those with disabilities would be unfair to such students, former Washington DC school chancellor Michelle Rhee says, “You can’t separate them, and to try to do so creates two, unequal systems, one with accountability and one without it. This is a civil rights issue.”
5. It is approved by most parents.
A research poll by the Associated Press-NORC Center for Public Affairs found that 75% of parents say that standardized testing is a solid measure of their children’s abilities, while 69% state that it is good for measuring a school’s quality. Most of these parents even say that tests should be utilized to identify areas where students need extra help.
6. It prevents stress on the part of the students.
According to the US Department of Education, “Although testing may be stressful for some students, testing is a normal and expected way of assessing what students have learned.” Also, study by the University of Arkansas found that a huge number of students do not exhibit stress, and even show a positive attitude towards standardized testing.
List of Cons of Standardized Testing
1. It measures only a small portion of what makes education meaningful.
According to the late Gerald W. Bracey, PhD and education researcher, there are certain qualities that standardized tests cannot measure, such as critical thinking, creativity, motivation, resilience, curiosity, persistence, reliability, endurance, empathy, enthusiasm, self-discipline, self-awareness, civic-mindedness, leadership, compassion, courage, sense of beauty, resourcefulness, honesty, sense of wonder and integrity.
2. It consumes more of instruction time for monotonous test preparation.
It has been observed that some schools allocate more than a 25% of the year’s instruction to test preparations, and others have imposed extra measures to avoid being shut down, such as daily two and a half hour preparation sessions and test practice on vacation days. At the Monterey High School in Lubbock, Texas, students were even prevented from discussing an anniversary of the 9/11 Attacks because they were too busy with preparing for the tests.
3. It is drastically narrowing the school curriculum.
The Center on Education Policy has reported that since 2001, almost half of school districts in the US had reduced the time spent on social studies, science and the arts by an average of 145 minutes each to focus on math and reading. And according to a 2007 survey of 1,250 government, civics and social studies instructors showed that three-quarters of those teaching current events less often cited the tests as the reason.
4. It is expensive.
Since the implementation of the NCLB, testing costs have increased and placed a burden on state education budgets. The Texas Education Agency revealed that the state spent USD9 million in 2003 to test students, while the cost to the state’s taxpayers from 2009 to 2012 had been projected to be around USD88 million every year.
5. It is inadequate as an educational evaluation tool.
The multiple-choice format that is used on standardized testing is seen as an insufficient tool for assessment, and instead, encourages a simplistic way of thinking, where there are only correct and wrong answers that do not seem to be applicable in real-world situations. Also, such a format is biased towards male students, who are found to adapt more easily to the game-like point scoring of multiple-choice questions.
6. It could prevent children to prepare for a productive adult life.
Standardized testing, especially if done excessively, might teach children to be good at taking tests, but it does not prepare them for a productive adult life. A good example of this is China displacing Finland at the top of the 2009 PISA rankings because, as explained by Deputy Principal of Peking University High School Jiang Xueqin, “Chinese schools are very good at preparing their students for standardized tests. For that reason, they fail to prepare them for higher education and the knowledge economy.” Now, China is trying to depart from the drill-and-kill test preparation, which has only produced “competent mediocrity, as Chinese educators admitted.
Final Thought
The key to the success of standardized testing is balance, which means that people who are in charge should step back and consider both the good and the bad sides of such a program. This way, they will find a way to help students succeed without being too stressed out.
Brandon Miller has a B.A. from the University of Texas at Austin. He is a seasoned writer who has written over one hundred articles, which have been read by over 500,000 people. If you have any comments or concerns about this blog post, then please contact the Green Garage team here. | https://greengarageblog.org/12-primary-pros-and-cons-of-standardized-testing |
The Center for Assessment is partnering with PBLWorks to provide tools and resources supporting project-based instruction and assessment of 21st Century skills. In early 2020, we produced literature reviews and learning continua to support critical thinking, collaboration, complex communication, and self-direction (think “rubrics” used to inform instruction as opposed to scoring and grading performance). Additionally, we wrote a series of blog posts in which we shared key lessons for teaching, assessing, grading, and reporting on 21st Century skills. This post extends our original posts with a focus on the success skill of nurturing creativity. All of the literature reviews and blog posts in this series can be found on the 21st Century skills resource page on the Center for Assessment website.
Creativity is a multidimensional construct that has been considered from different perspectives and disciplines. There is not just one way for a person to be creative or one set of characteristics that differentiate the creative person. In this post, I rely on what is known from the research to (1) define creativity; (2) discuss how creativity develops over time; (3) describe how classroom-based instruction and assessment can be applied to nurture creativity; and (4) provide recommendations for assessment design and use.
What is Creativity?
Plucker, Beghetto, & Dow (2004) propose a clear and useful definition of creativity for educators:
Creativity is the interaction among aptitude, process, and environment by which an individual or group produces a perceptible product that is both novel and useful as defined within a social context (p. 90).
Creativity includes both general and context-specific knowledge, skills, and dispositions. Moreover, judgments of creativity can occur through multiple lenses, which are often characterized in relation to four “Ps” (Rhodes, 1961):
- The person: personality features and dispositions of an individual
- The process: the observable learning and thinking involved in a creative act
- The product: something that gets produced through the creative process
- The press: the environment and other social factors that influence the creative process
Each creative component – person, process, product, and press – includes a range of sub-components that can be taught and learned (Patston et al., 2021), and that influence an individual’s creative potential.
Each person has individual qualities and attributes that play a key role in the development of creative skills and capacities. Examples of these attributes include curiosity, resilience, openness to new experiences, willingness to take sensible risks, and a tolerance for ambiguity.
The creative process involves concrete skills and strategies that are set into motion with an initial problem or question. Possible answers and solutions are generated and later selected through both divergent (idea generation) and convergent (critical selection) thinking strategies. Throughout the process, ideas and possibilities are analyzed from multiple perspectives, new or unexpected connections are established, and alternative solutions are considered and selected for implementation.
The product provides evidence for evaluating the creativity of a person or product within a social context. Thus, understanding how social and contextual factors influence judgments of creativity is essential in developing creative potential.
And the press, including numerous physical environmental, and psychological factors, can be manipulated to either enhance or inhibit creativity within an individual or environment (e.g., the classroom).
The Development of Creativity
Kaufman and Beghetto (2009) presented a developmental progression of creativity over the lifespan. Their 4C Model is a framework for conceptualizing levels of creative expression, and it introduces several potential paths of creative development. Most K-12 students demonstrate creative processes and products representative of the first two categories: Mini-c and Little-c creativity.
Mini-c creativity: Mini-c creativity occurs as an individual learns something new. It represents a person’s creative process of constructing personal knowledge and accommodating new information to generate new understandings. For example, a student proposes a viable way to solve a problem but struggles to communicate why it is the best solution.
Little-c creativity: School-age learners often work at Little-c level if they engage in purposeful practice in a subject area or sporting event. For example, a student may demonstrate Little-c creativity when they solve a complex problem, create a poem or short story, compose a song during music practice, or find a better way of positioning their body when preparing to hit a baseball. At Little-c, creativity becomes a worthy goal in its own right, regardless of how a product is judged by an external audience.
Pro-c creativity: Pro-c creativity represents individuals who are “professional” creators—they apply creative thinking in a profession—but have not reached eminent status.
Big-C creativity: Big-C creativity is reserved for unimpeachable eminence regarding the creative contribution, such as by classical composers (e.g., Beethoven), scientists (e.g., Einstein), Pulitzer Prize winners (e.g., Doris Kearns Goodwin), and historical figures (e.g., Franklin D. Roosevelt).
Pedagogy That Supports the Development of Creativity
Although more research is needed to fully understand the impact of instructional approaches on students’ creativity, several studies (e.g., Amabile, 1988; Cremin & Chappell, 2021; Davies, 2013) offer preliminary guidance for educators. Studies suggest that the following practices nurture students’ creativity:
- Generating and exploring ideas in a psychologically safe environment
- Encouraging autonomy and agency by prioritizing choice and providing time for students to experiment with ideas
- Making learning fun by balancing spontaneity and freedom with goal-oriented aims and rules
- Solving complex problems through authentic and extended projects with real-world experts
- Encouraging risk-taking; for example, when a teacher models how to approach a task, experiment with possible solutions, and practice resilience before stepping back and providing support to students as needed
- Co-constructing ideas and collaborating with the teacher, professional experts, and other students
- Modeling creativity by thinking aloud and prioritizing discussion and critique
Are Assessment and Creativity Fundamentally at Odds?
The answer is no—when assessment is delivered and used effectively. An assessment’s effectiveness in nurturing creativity depends on its intended purpose and use. Assessment tends to suppress creativity when it is used— or perceived to be used—to
- influence competition and comparisons among students,
- motivate performance (i.e., using grades to reward or punish), or
- as a summative evaluation of a student’s work product or thinking process.
Using assessments in these ways can cause anxiety, undermining students’ motivation and capacity for creativity (Bolden et al., 2020; Henessey & Amabile, 1987).
Moreover, high-stakes testing can discourage instruction that supports creativity and creative thinking, especially in low-performing schools. The pressure to raise scores on such tests can intensify a focus on drill-and-kill skills, influence more traditional and rigid instruction, detract from activities that encourage exploration and discovery, and discourage teachers and students from focusing on higher-order skills like critical thinking and problem-solving (Jones et al., 2003; Guthrie, 2002).
A large body of research shows that formative assessment, or assessment for learning, is a powerful tool for improving instruction and learning (Black & Wiliam, 1998; Hattie, 2008) and, importantly, for nurturing and enhancing students’ creative potential.
Teachers evoke students’ creative potential by using a variety of assessment tools and strategies to (a) provide frequent, descriptive, and detailed feedback, (b) highlight areas of creative strength and opportunities for creative growth, and (c) provide opportunities for student self-assessment and reflection. Therefore, it behooves educators to develop or adopt explicit definitions of creativity, and to select a range of assessments of creativity that produce holistic evidence and that align with these accepted definitions.
Implications for Classroom Assessment Design and Use
Many of the instruction and assessment lessons that emerged from our review of other 21st Century skills apply to creativity. Like most 21st Century skills, there are no precise end-of-grade level or end-of-grade span proficiency standards or empirically validated learning progressions for creativity.
Consequently, it is unclear how students develop competence in the domain of creativity. There are no expected levels of creativity at certain markers in time or within specific contexts or subjects. There do exist, however, a few research-based learning frameworks of how students demonstrate less- to more- sophisticated forms of creativity, among other success skills (e.g., Lucas et al., 2012; OECD, 2020; Ramalingam et al., 2020). These learning frameworks are analytic and multi-dimensional (typically involving four or five levels of student performance), but they are not broken down by grade level.
An additional challenge with assessment use relates to rubrics. Rubrics entail scoring and grading, and grading can have negative effects on learning (Shepard, 2019)—especially for creativity (Amabile, 2020). We at the Center recommend that the evaluative language of a rubric not be used (Evans, 2020; Thompson, 2020). Instead, we believe that research-based continua are needed that describe creativity from less to more sophisticated. These continua would be pilot tested on student work in local contexts to evaluate the extent to which they accurately reflect how students across socio-cultural contexts and conditions demonstrate competence in the domain. As part of our work with PBLWorks, we created draft continua for 21st Century Skills (including continua for creativity), which should be piloted soon in classrooms.
These continua should provide useful, formative information that teachers could use during creative problem-solving activities to guide instruction and provide feedback to students. Pilot testing will determine if the continua provide useful feedback to students, parents, and teachers for instructional purposes. For example, being given specific behaviors to look for during creative problem-solving activities would help teachers know what skill to teach.
Further, students could keep these behaviors in mind as they work to improve their creativity skills. Annotated student work samples from across disciplines and types of assessment tasks would be especially useful in helping teachers recognize markers (i.e., learning milestones) for the essential dimensions of creativity in student work products and artifacts.
Conclusion
Treffinger (2009) suggested, rather than “how creative are you?” a more meaningful question is “how are you creative? Individuals vary not only in their level of creativity but in their style of creativity as well (e.g., Selby et al., 2004). Effective assessment of creativity involves a profile of aptitudes, skills, behaviors, and motivations, which can make assessment of creativity a challenging endeavor, particularly in classroom settings where time is a scarce commodity.
Nonetheless, extensive research suggests that measuring and assessing creativity is not only possible; it can be used in powerful ways to develop and optimize the creative potential of students. Doing so requires gathering data from multiple sources to understand the richness and breadth of creativity, in an appropriate context, and for appropriate purposes. | https://www.nciea.org/blog/instructing-and-assessing-21st-century-skills/ |
Scientific Adventures with "Sierra Dave"!
Teacher: Sierra Dave aka Dave Hymes
Ages: 8-11, plus all family members are invited to hike with us!
Mat Fees: $30
Class Fees:
Fall: 11 weeks: $260 or $250 if taking 2 or more classes
Winter: 10 weeks: $245 or $235 if taking 2 or more classes
Spring: 10 weeks: $245 or $235 if taking 2 or more classes
Fall: How water shapes our planet
Winter: Earthquake!
Spring: The Flora and Fauna of Santa Clarita Valley
This course is a combination of Earth Science lessons in class and hands-on observation in the field. Students will observe concepts learned in class with hikes to local areas of interest. This fall, our 11-week course will focus on the role of water in shaping the Earth, and the role of humans in altering the landscape with water. Winter and Spring sessions will have a completely different focus!
Each week we will explore how water shapes our planet. We discuss and explore local areas of interest to show examples of how water affects the surface of the Earth. The first two weeks of the class will be an introduction to Earth Science and Geomorphology, with fun, hands-on activities.
Week 1: An Introduction to Earth Science. Physical Geography and Geology. Learning about different landforms, and how they were created. We will discuss the adventures that we will be taking during the class to see local examples of landforms, how they were created and how water has played a part.
Hands-on Learning: Using clay, we will build some basic landforms such as mountains, valleys and streams!
Week 2: An introduction to Geomorphology, with a focus on the role of water in shaping the Earth’s landscapes. We will also talk about hiking safety, and the specific areas that we will be visiting during this course.
Hands-on Learning: We will build a water erosion station by utilizing soil and water, and create a “rainstorm”, in order to show how water affects the land.
Week 3: Field Trip to Vasquez Rocks – An example of Sedimentary rocks, created by the force of water, wind and earthquakes, uplifted by faulting. Take a short hike around Vasquez Rocks to see a great example of Sandstone that has been uplifted by faulting.
Week 4: Getting water down to southern California from the Sierra Nevada. We will discuss William Mulholland’s role in diverting water from the east slopes of the High Sierra to the Los Angeles basin via the Los Angeles Aqueduct, and its effects on Southern California.
Hands-on Learning: We will demonstrate how water is distributed, diverted and stored, using simple materials in class.
Week 5: Field Trip to the Santa Clara River. We will learn about the sources of the river, flood potential and the hazards of human development into potentially unsafe areas.
Week 6: A discussion of The St. Francis Dam disaster of 1928. Starting with an introduction to the local rock types and earthquake faults, we will discuss the cause and effects of the failure of the St. Francis Dam on March 12th of 1928.
Hands-on Learning: We will build a reservoir in class, and demonstrate what happens when it is suddenly drained.
Week 7: Field Trip to the St. Francis Dam area. We will hike into San Francisquito canyon and observe the remnants of the dam failure.
Week 8: We will discuss streams and reservoirs near the Santa Clarita Valley, with a focus on Castaic Lake, Pyramid Lake and Piru Creek.
Hands-on Learning: We will investigate how water is distributed on Earth.
Week 9: Field Trip to see the Pyramid Lake Dam, and a hike into Piru Creek Canyon (Frenchman’s Flat).
Week 10: An Introduction to Weather and Climate. We will discuss Droughts, Fires and Floods, and their effects on the land. We will focus on the climate and weather of Southern California, and its effect on local landforms. We will also learn about how to read topographic and meteorological maps.
Hands-on Learning: We will learn about our local geography by having students create their own map in class.
Week 11: Field Trip to Placerita Canyon – Seeing the effects of drought on the land. We will hike into Placerita Canyon and examine the effects of the most recent drought and fires in the area. | https://www.hucklearning.org/sierra-adventures-val-2019 |
Animals and plants are “geomorphic agents”, shaping the landscape around them through their daily activities of feeding, building homes, reproducing, and seeking safety. A recent article in Reviews of Geophysics focuses on the burrowing activities of various invasive species found in aquatic environments, examining how they modify the landscape and increase the risk of erosion. Here, one of the authors gives an overview of how the presence of different species can change geomorphic and hydrological processes, and suggests where additional research is needed to better understand their impact.
How do plants and animals influence the landscape?
Wherever plants and animals exist on Earth, they influence natural processes and modify the environment around them. This happens on a variety of scales from the movement of individual grains of sediment – for example, as fish forage for food on a riverbed – to the transformation of landscapes – for example, as beavers fell trees to build dams and create ponds to live in.
The actions of different species in different types of environment can be ‘positive’ – in that they create or protect landforms, encourage the restoration of degraded environments, or increase biodiversity – or ‘negative’ – in that they disturb the landscape, break down landforms, destroy habitats, and reduce biodiversity.
Why are invasive species a particular concern?
The geomorphic activities of plants and animals in their native environments tend to be part of a well-balanced natural system. However, the introduction of non-native species can be quite disruptive to the natural landscape, and sometimes also causes damage to the economy and to human health.
Our review focuses on invasive species that make burrows in aquatic environments. Non-native species are introduced to new locations mainly through human activities; in the case of aquatic environments through commercial shipping, the aquarium and exotic pet trade, the fur trade, and aquaculture.
Many creatures excavate burrows to create space for reproduction or refuge. In aquatic environments – such as rivers, lakes, estuaries and saltmarshes, as well as artificial drainage channels and flood defense structures – burrowing activities can cause erosion, increase the risk of flood, and lead to habitat loss.
Which invasive species are of particular concern in different parts of the world?
Aquatic burrowing invaders include crustaceans, fishes, reptiles, and mammals. Our review looked at the distribution of 10 different species and found that over 120 countries, states and territories in the world have at least one of these invasive non-native populations.
As part our review, we searched multiple online invasive species databases.
The most globally widespread are the coypu (Myocastor coypus) and red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkii), which have established invasive populations in Africa, Asia, Europe and North America.
Other species, such as the isopod (Spharoma quoianum) are currently more geographically constrained in the United States of America but have the potential to spread.
Smaller animals excavate smaller burrows, but often occur in larger numbers and may also dig more burrows. This means that the impacts from smaller and less conspicuous animals such as aquatic invertebrates may rival those of larger mammals.
How does burrowing modify geomorphic and hydrological processes in aquatic environments?
The impacts of burrowing occur at different time and spatial scales. Consider, for example, a burrow in a muddy riverbank.
The excavation of an individual burrow will generate a relatively small input of sediment to the water body over a short time period. But multiple burrows across a larger area have the potential to generate more substantial changes to landforms and erosion rates over longer periods of time.
The creation, daily use, expansion, or even abandonment of burrows will alter the internal structure of the bank, likely weakening it, change the way water moves through the bank, and modify the flow of water around burrow entrances.
Additionally, the presence of a burrow and its occupant can modify the chemistry of the surrounding water and sediment which, in turn, can influence susceptibility to erosion.
Do we know how much damage burrowing species cause?
There are increasing reports of damage to aquatic environments, artificial drainage networks, flood defense infrastructure, and historic waterside landmarks, but there is a lack of research directly quantifying the impacts on instability and erosion. In part, this is due to the challenges of conducting such research. Erosion processes are highly variable over short distances and are episodic in nature so they are notoriously difficult to accurately quantify through field research.
What are some of the unresolved questions where additional research, data or modeling is needed?
It would be helpful if there were a model that could conceptualize the various geophysical effects of burrowing in an integrated way.
Our work brings together established models from soil science and fluid mechanics to hypothesize the range of effects that may be expected based on existing understanding of erosion processes in different environments. This provides a framework for future research.
Further research is needed to test the hypotheses set out in our conceptual model. In particular, we need a better understanding of how the size, shape and density of burrows created by different species influences the geotechnical, hydrological, and hydraulic processes that drive erosion. We need to understand how the impacts might vary for different sediment types and different types of aquatic environment.
Answering these questions will require a combination of computational modelling, laboratory experimentation and field research.
—Gemma L. Harvey ([email protected];
Citation:
Harvey, G. L. (2019), Invasive species drive erosion in aquatic environments, Eos, 100, https://doi.org/10.1029/2019EO133013. Published on 18 September 2019.
Text © 2019. The authors. CC BY-NC-ND 3.0
Except where otherwise noted, images are subject to copyright. Any reuse without express permission from the copyright owner is prohibited. | https://eos.org/editors-vox/invasive-species-drive-erosion-in-aquatic-environments |
Earth’s major systems are the geosphere (solid and molten rock, soil, and sediments), the hydrosphere (water and ice), the atmosphere (air), and the biosphere (living things, including humans). These systems interact in multiple ways to affect Earth’s surface materials and processes. The ocean supports a variety of ecosystems and organisms, shapes landforms, and influences climate. Winds and clouds in the atmosphere interact with the landforms to determine patterns of weather.
Possible solutions to a problem are limited by available materials and resources (constraints). The success of a designed solution is determined by considering the desired features of a solution (criteria). Different proposals for solutions can be compared on the basis of how well each one meets the specified criteria for success or how well each takes the constraints into account.
Human activities in agriculture, industry, and everyday life have had major effects on the land, vegetation, streams, ocean, air, and even outer space. But individuals and communities are doing things to help protect Earth’s resources and environments.
Digitized information can be transmitted over long distances without significant degradation. High-tech devices, such as computers or cell phones, can receive and decode information—convert it from digitized form to voice—and vice versa.
Research on a problem should be carried out before beginning to design a solution. Testing a solution involves investigating how well it performs under a range of likely conditions.
Rainfall helps to shape the land and affects the types of living things found in a region. Water, ice, wind, living organisms, and gravity break rocks, soils, and sediments into smaller particles and move them around.
Matter of any type can be subdivided into particles that are too small to see, but even then the matter still exists and can be detected by other means. A model showing that gases are made from matter particles that are too small to see and are moving freely around in space can explain many observations, including the inflation and shape of a balloon and the effects of air on larger particles or objects. | https://ngss.nsta.org/CommunityResource.aspx?ID=KeaJCU/EeHg_E |
6.13.4.4. Determine the meaning of symbols, equations, graphical representations, tabular representations, key terms, and other domain-specific words and phrases as they are used in a specific scientific or technical context relevant to grades 6-8 texts and topics.
6.13.7.7. Compare and integrate quantitative or technical information expressed in words in a text with a version of that information expressed visually (e.g., in a flowchart, diagram, model, graph, table, map).
6.13.9.9. Compare and contrast the information gained from experiments, simulations, video, or multimedia sources with that gained from reading a text on the same topic.
6.14.7.7. Conduct short research projects to answer a question (including a self-generated question), drawing on several sources and generating additional related, focused questions that allow for multiple avenues of exploration.
6.14.1.1. Write arguments focused on discipline-specific content.
6.14.1.1.e. Provide a concluding statement or section that follows from and supports the argument presented.
6.14.2.2. Write informative/explanatory texts, as they apply to each discipline and reporting format, including the narration of historical events, of scientific procedures/ experiments, or description of technical processes.
6.14.2.2.f. Provide a concluding statement or section that follows from and supports the information or explanation presented.
8.1.1.1. The student will understand that science is a way of knowing about the natural world that is characterized by empirical criteria, logical argument and skeptical review.
8.1.1.1.1. Evaluate the reasoning in arguments in which fact and opinion are intermingled or when conclusions do not follow logically from the evidence given.
8.1.1.2. The student will understand that scientific inquiry uses multiple interrelated processes to investigate questions and propose explanations about the natural world.
8.1.1.2.1. Use logical reasoning and imagination to develop descriptions, explanations, predictions and models based on evidence.
8.1.3.2. The student will understand that men and women throughout the history of all cultures, including Minnesota American Indian tribes and communities, have been involved in engineering design and scientific inquiry.
8.1.3.2.1. Describe examples of important contributions to the advancement of science, engineering and technology made by individuals representing different groups and cultures at different times in history.
8.1.3.3. The student will understand that science and engineering operate in the context of society and both influence and are influenced by this context.
8.1.3.3.2. Understand that scientific knowledge is always changing as new technologies and information enhance observations and analysis of data.
8.1.3.3.3. Provide examples of how advances in technology have impacted the ways in which people live, work and interact.
8.1.3.4. The student will understand that current and emerging technologies have enabled humans to develop and use models to understand and communicate how natural and designed systems work and interact.
8.1.3.4.1. Use maps, satellite images and other data sets to describe patterns and make predictions about local and global systems in Earth science contexts.
8.1.3.4.2. Determine and use appropriate safety procedures, tools, measurements, graphs and mathematical analyses to describe and investigate natural and designed systems in Earth and physical science contexts.
8.2.1.1. The student will understand that pure substances can be identified by properties which are independent of the sample of the substance and can be explained by a model of matter that is composed of small particles.
8.2.1.1.1. Distinguish between a mixture and a pure substance and use physical properties including color, solubility, density, melting point and boiling point to separate mixtures and identify pure substances.
8.2.1.1.2. Use physical properties to distinguish between metals and non-metals.
8.2.1.2. The student will understand that substances can undergo physical and/or chemical changes which may change the properties of the substance but do not change the total mass in a closed system.
8.2.1.2.4. Recognize that acids are compounds whose properties include a sour taste, characteristic color changes with litmus and other acid/base indicators, and the tendency to react with bases to produce a salt and water.
8.2.3.1. The student will understand that waves involve the transfer of energy without the transfer of matter.
8.2.3.1.1. Explain how seismic waves transfer energy through the Earth and across its surfaces.
8.3.1.1. The student will understand that the movement of tectonic plates results from interactions among the lithosphere, mantle and core.
8.3.1.1.1. Recognize that the Earth is composed of layers, and describe the properties of the layers, including the lithosphere, mantle and core.
8.3.1.1.2. Correlate the distribution of ocean trenches, mid-ocean ridges and mountain ranges to volcanic and seismic activity.
8.3.1.1.3. Recognize that major geological events, such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and mountain building, result from the slow movement of tectonic plates.
8.3.1.2. The student will understand that landforms are the result of the combination of constructive and destructive processes.
8.3.1.2.1. Explain how landforms result from the processes of crustal deformation, volcanic eruptions, weathering, erosion and deposition of sediment.
8.3.1.2.2. Explain the role of weathering, erosion and glacial activity in shaping Minnesota's current landscape.
8.3.1.3. The student will understand that rocks and rock formations indicate evidence of the materials and conditions that produced them.
8.3.1.3.1. Interpret successive layers of sedimentary rocks and their fossils to infer relative ages of rock sequences, past geologic events, changes in environmental conditions, and the appearance and extinction of life forms.
8.3.1.3.2. Classify and identify rocks and minerals using characteristics including, but not limited to, density, hardness and streak for minerals; and texture and composition for rocks.
8.3.1.3.3. Relate rock composition and texture to physical conditions at the time of formation of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rock.
8.3.2.1. The student will understand that the sun is the principal external energy source for the Earth.
8.3.2.1.1. Explain how the combination of the Earth's tilted axis and revolution around the sun causes the progression of seasons.
8.3.2.1.2. Recognize that oceans have a major effect on global climate because water in the oceans holds a large amount of heat.
8.3.2.1.3. Explain how heating of the Earth's surface and atmosphere by the sun drives convection within the atmosphere and hydrosphere producing winds, ocean currents and the water cycle, as well as influencing global climate.
8.3.2.2. The student will understand that patterns of atmospheric movement influence global climate and local weather.
8.3.2.2.1. Describe how the composition and structure of the Earth's atmosphere affects energy absorption, climate and distribution of particulates and gases.
8.3.2.2.2. Analyze changes in wind direction, temperature, humidity and air pressure and relate them to fronts and pressure systems.
8.3.2.2.3. Relate global weather patterns to patterns in regional and local weather.
8.3.2.3. The student will understand that the water cycle is an open system with many inputs.
8.3.2.3.1. Describe the location, composition and use of major water reservoirs on the Earth, and the transfer of water among them.
8.3.2.3.2. Describe how the water cycle distributes materials and purifies water.
8.3.3.1. The student will understand that the Earth is the third planet from the sun in a system that includes the moon, the sun, seven other planets and their moons, and smaller objects.
8.3.3.1.1. Recognize that the sun is a medium-sized star, one of billions of stars in the Milky Way galaxy, and the closest star to Earth.
8.3.3.1.2. Describe how gravity and inertia keep most objects in the solar system in regular and predictable motion.
8.3.3.1.4. Compare and contrast the planets and the moons of our solar system in terms of their size, location and composition.
8.3.3.1.5. Use the predictability of the motions of the Earth, sun and moon to explain day length, the phases of the moon, and eclipses.
8.3.4.1. The student will understand that in order to maintain and improve their existence, humans interact with and influence Earth systems.
8.3.4.1.1. Describe how mineral and fossil fuel resources have formed over millions of years, and explain why these resources are finite and non-renewable over human time frames.
8.3.4.1.2. Recognize that land and water use practices in specific areas affect natural processes and that natural processes interfere and interact with human systems. | https://newpathworksheets.com/science/grade-8/minnesota-standards |
Landforms Located Along the River Tees, County Durham
The River Tees is not necessarily one of the most famous rivers in the United Kingdom, but in its relatively short passage to its mouth from its source in the marshy moors of the Pennine Hills, the river produces a diverse array of landforms, which vary as it progresses downstream through its drainage basin. Beginning in a saturated moor as a mere trickle of water over 600m above sea level, it emerges progressively larger, producing waterfalls, gorges and V-shaped valleys with interlocking spurs in its upper course, meanders and oxbow lakes in the middle course and flood plains, levees and deltas as it reaches its mouth. Text Box: In the upper course of the River Tees, the steep gradient of the land results in vertical erosion, mainly through abrasion and hydraulic action to be the dominant process occurring with the river at this stage. The Tees starts from its source in a saturated moor in the Pennine Hills. The abundant water trickles downwards, due to the high gravitational potential energy it possesses, which can be converted to kinetic energy due to the steep gradient. These mere trickles of water develop into the River Tees. Various tributaries add to the volume of water and the river uses its abundant kinetic energy to vertically erode away at the bed and banks, with its steep gradient encourages erosion vertically through abrasion and hydraulic action. Weathering of the valley sides adds material to the river, helping to erode the bed and banks even further through the sandpapering effect of abrasion. Interlocking spurs remain due to erosion, protruding resistant rock from the valley sides, around which the river is forced to wind. Text Box: Waterfalls and rapids are other landforms that define the upper course of the Tees, both brought about by the processes assisting vertical erosion. The Tees flows over layers of Whin Sill, hard resistant rock which is mounted upon layers of sandstone, limestone and shale which are comparatively soft and easily eroded away by the river. Rapids can be seen to form when layers of Whin sill and soft rock are located together flatly and thinly, with the water being exposed to only some softer rock which is eroded away. These rapids can eventually develop into waterfalls as the softer rock is eroded away leaving a precipitous vertical edge, with Whin Sill being layered on top of the softer rock. The undercutting of the soft rock results in the collapse of hard, resistant rock. This process repeats constantly, with the retreating waterfall forming a gorge. Vertical erosion plays an evident part in defining the features of the upper course of the Tees. Text Box: The middle course of the Tees comprises of less of the versatility seen in the upper course, with the most recognizable features in the landscape being highly similar. With the middle course, the gradient of the land decreases dramatically and becomes much flatter. This factor results in the abrupt conversion of potential energy held by the river into kinetic energy. Combined with the increased water received from tributaries and a widened smoother channel and relatively low wetted perimeter compared with the volume of water (which was not present in the upper course), the river has great amounts of kinetic energy held within it and less friction in a flat landscape. Therefore the fast flowing current begins to erode the banks of the river laterally, employing the processes of abrasion and hydraulic action to cut away at the banks. The fastest current, or Thalweg, flows naturally on the outside of the river when it bends and the slower current flows on the inside of the river when it bends. This results in processes of erosion dominating on the outside of the river and deposition on the inside. Meander bends develop from theses processes which migrate sideways and downstream due to the erosion and deposition occurring in the river. Landforms at the meanders include slip off slopes on the inside of the bend with point bar deposits. On the outside bank, undercutting of the bank forms slight river cliffs which could collapse with persistent erosion. Text Box: Meanders may also migrate to form oxbow lakes, with the processes of erosion narrows the neck of meander which can be breached at a time of flood, when excess water is discharge into a river. A new straighter course can then be followed by the river, leaving an abandoned meander which eventually dries up leaving a meander scar with deposited material from the stagnant water at its bottom. Lateral erosion can be seen to cause these meanders and oxbow lake features which change the landscape of the rivers middle course. The dominant river processes once again changes in the lower course of the river, where the gradient becomes much flatter and the water of the river meets a large and relatively still body of water. The river contains far less energy at the lower course with there being no gravitational potential energy to convert into kinetic energy at the flat lower course of thText Box: e Tees. Floodplains and levees are formed as water bursts the channel and layers of silt deposits are left to from a flat floodplain. Due to friction and lack of energy, the heaviest and coarsest deposits are dropped closer to the banks, building up a natural embankment called a levee. Higher rates of deposition occur at the estuary upon Text Box: meeting the sea. As the Tees has not the energy in its flow to hold material in suspension any longer, these materials are deposited at the estuary forming large flats of sand. At the lower course, a delta s formed at the Tees with deposits blocking the main channel out to the sea, causing the river to divide into several distributaries. Over time, constant deposition leads to the expansion of the delta and the creation of marshy land. The amount of material deposited is too great to be taken away by the current and so a delta is created at the mouth. Deposition is the key process that causes the formation of there landforms in the lower course. Changes in river energy result in changes in the dominant processes of the rive which in turn affects the way the landscape is shaped and what landforms are found at each stage of the rivers course. The high amounts of potential energy and steep gradient meant that landforms such as waterfalls and V-shaped valleys were formed by the processes of abrasion and hydraulic action acting vertically in vertical erosion. The decrease in gradient and increase in river energy levels through increased water and proportionally less wetted perimeter to volume, meant that the high amount of kinetic energy were used to erode thorough abrasion and hydraulic action laterally forming meanders with river cliffs and oxbow lakes. In the lower course the flat gradient and lack of energy means that any material transported by the river is deposited which creates estuaries, levees and deltas. It is clear that changes in the profile can have a significant impact of the landforms found at each stage of the rivers course. In conclusion the landforms found at each stage of the river are of great variety, but can be rationalized by considering the effect the profile has on the energy levels and dominant processes that occur in the river. The high gradient at the upper course encourages vertical erosion, with the less steep middle course has an abundance of kinetic energy to erode laterally. The lower course has relatively little kinetic energy which means that deposition is the major process which occurs. It is understandable that these processes define the landforms at each stage of the rivers course, and are responsible for the great versatility seen in the landscape as the river progresses.
Landforms Located Along the River Tees, County Durham 7 of 10 on the basis of 1866 Review. | http://essay911.org/17921-landforms-located-along-the-river-tees-county-durham.html |
Where we are...
The Process of Studying Landforms
Internal Processes: building up landforms
External Processes: breaking down landforms: forces in atmosphere + hydrosphere
Denudation: disintegration, wearing away, and removal of rock material; implies a lowering of earth's surface (via wearing away, not internal processes)
McKnight 9.5: The Hydro Cycle
Weathering and mass wasting enhanced by presence of water: hydro cycle
But erosion is fundamentally the result of the presence of water
Fluvial Processes: any environmental processes involving the flow of water
1. Impact of Fluvial Processes on the Landscape
McKnight 16.1: Fluvial Process Photo
1a. Traditional Theory of Landform Development: The Geomorphic Cycle
McKnight 16.35a, b, c, d: Davisian Geomorphic Cycle
1b. Critique of Davisian Cycle Theory: Crustal Change and Slope Development
McKnight 16.36: Slope Retreat: Penck
Further problem: both Davis and Penck assumed uniformity of bedrock and tectonics
Much variation in bedrock, regolith, soil around the earth: some soft, some hard
Crustal movement (vertical, horizontal) also varies: excessive uplift, minimal uplift
McKnight 16.37: Dynamic Equilibrium
Simultaneous uplift (internal forces) and denudation (external forces, primarily water)
Dynamic equilibrium rather than evolution
Both Davisian evolution and Dynamic Equilibrium theories explain some landforms
Key: geographic variations (where) in bedrock and tectonic activity vital to understand
2. Fundamental Definitions and Concepts of Fluvial Processes
McKnight 16.2: Valleys and Interfluves
2a. Valleys and Interfluves
2b. Drainage Basins - Watersheds
2c. Erosion
Weathering >> Mass wasting >>
Two basic types of erosion: by overland flow and steam flow
Erosion by Overland Flow
Beginnings of erosion: on interfluves
McKnight 16.5: Splash erosion
Erosion by Streamflow
Channeled flowing water has more ability to erode material
Erosive effectiveness
2d. Transportation: of rock particles via overland or streamflow
McKnight 16.7: Transport of particles
stream load: material carried by stream flow: three components
Any stream varies in the amount of material it can transport:
Competence: measure of the particle size a stream can transport, expressed by the diameter of the largest particle that can be moved; varies with flow speed and amount
Capacity: measure of the amount of solid material a stream has the potential to transport, expressed as the volume of material passing a given point in the stream channel during a given time interval
2e. Deposition
Alluvium:
Changes in gradient, channel widening, or change in direction
Most material deposited in sitting bodies of water: lakes, oceans
3. Stream Channels
Reiterate: fluvial processes: those that involve running water
Overland flow relatively simple
Streamflow more complicated: four characteristics of individual streams and rivers
3a. Structural Relationships
The course of a stream channel is guided and shaped by the nature and arrangement of the underlying bedrock
McKnight 16.15: Dendritic Drainage Pattern
McKnight 16.16: Trellis Drainage Pattern
McKnight 16.17: Trellis and Dendritic Drainage Patterns
McKnight 16.18: Radial Drainage Pattern
McKnight 16.19: Centripetal Drainage Pattern
3b. Channel Flow
McKnight 16.9: Friction and Streamflow
3c. Turbulence
3d. Channel Changes
McKnight 16.11: Straight and Meandering channels
Straight: uncommon and usually caused by underlying geologic structure
McKnight 16.12: Meandering Stream
Meandering: serpentine pattern
McKnight 16.13: Braided channel
4. Stream Systems
4a. Drainage Basins
McKnight 16.3: Drainage Basins
McKnight 16.4: Stream Order
4c. Permanence of Flow
Perennial streams: permanent, year round flow
Intermittent (ephemeral) stream: flow only part of the year
5. Shaping and Reshaping of Valleys by Fluvial Processes
Horizontal and vertical reshaping of valleys
5a. Valley Deepening
McKnight 16.21: Base Level
Limits to deepening (vertical erosion): base level
Deepening caused by hydraulic power of flowing water, prying and lifting by moving water, abrasion
Deepening most effective in upper reaches of streams: steepest slopes
McKnight 16.22: Knickpoints
McKnight 16.B: Niagara Falls
5b. Valley Widening
McKnight 16.23: Meanders and Lateral Erosion
McKnight 16.24: Valley Widening
5c. Valley Lengthening
McKnight 16.25: Headward Erosion
Headward Erosion: key location
Delta Formation: also lengthens valleys
5d. Deposition in Valleys
While valleys are deepened, widened, and lengthened over time deposition of sediments does occur
McKnight 16.29: Flood plain
McKnight 16.31: Natural Levees
Floodplain slightly higher along edges of stream channel
5e. Steam Rejuvenation
McKnight 16.33
McKnight 16.34: Entrenched Meanders
Sum: Fluvial Processes: any environmental processes involving the flow of water
1. Impact of Fluvial Processes on the Landscape
2. Fundamental Definitions and Concepts of Fluvial Processes
3. Stream Channels: Key Characteristics of individual streams and rivers
4. Stream Systems: how streams and rivers relate to each other
5. Shaping and Reshaping of Valleys by Fluvial Processes
E-mail: [email protected]
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(Natural News) Around three billion years ago, an asteroid crashed into Mars, forming a 75-mile wide crater known as the Lomonosov Crater. Researchers believe that the asteroid impact that made this crater also created a “mega tsunami.” This cataclysmic natural disaster would have created a wall of water a thousand feet high hurtling through the planet which, at this time, would have looked a lot more blue than it is today.
This wall of water, according to the researchers, who published their findings in the Journal of Geophysical Research, would have slammed into Martian land, creating strange landforms on the planet. Researcher Francois Costard, a scientist working for the French National Center for Scientific Research, has been advocating this theory as a way to explain the formation of certain geographic features on the Martian surface.
In 2016, a separate study conducted by a separate group of astronomers suggested that two mega tsunamis, caused by an asteroid impact, devastated the Martian landscape. This theory, much like Costard’s, is based on an in-depth analysis of Mars’ surface features.
Formations on Martian surface may have been caused by mega tsunami
This study was led by a team of researchers from the French National Center for Scientific Research. They investigated 10 different impact craters north of a Martian region known as Arabia Terra. (Related: NASA’s Mars orbiter takes a breathtaking photo of a 50-foot crater; impact could have occurred between 2016 to 2019, say experts.)
Scientists believe that a tsunami played a crucial role in shaping the landscape of Arabia Terra. The landscape of this region is filled with unusual deposits that form a geological phenomenon known as thumbprint terrain, so named because of how it resembles the lines on a human thumbprint.
Costard and the other researchers traced the orientation of the thumbprint terrain to try and figure out which direction the mega tsunami would have originated.
The team examined craters based on their diameter, location and geomorphic characteristics. This helped them pick 10 impact craters on Arabia Terra. Costard and his colleagues studied these 10 craters and, from their investigations, they were able to zero in on the Lomonosov Crater as the most likely source of the mega tsunami.
The Lomonosov Crater is around 75 miles wide and has a broad, shallow rim. According to Costard, this may be the result of “an impact into a shallow ocean as well as its subsequent erosion from the collapsing transient water cavity.” This suggests that the area was underwater at the time of the asteroid impact.
“The likely marine formation of the Lomonosov crater,” the team continues in their study, “and the apparent agreement in its age with that of the Thumbprint Terrain unit (~3 Ga), strongly suggests that it was the source crater of the tsunami. These results have implications for the stability of a late northern ocean on Mars.”
The scientific consensus believes that the water on Mars disappeared around 3.7 billion years ago, not long after the planet’s core cooled down and solidified and its magnetic field disappeared. This event withered away the planet’s atmosphere, and without an atmosphere, Mars was not able to retain its surface water.
However, more and more evidence has popped up suggesting that Mars was able to cling onto huge amounts of water long after its magnetic field collapsed. Some suggest that it may have even been able to hold onto its water for a billion years afterward. While scientists aren’t sure how this is possible, the evidence from the thumbprint terrain and the Lomonosov crater demonstrated that Mars still had a whole ocean about three billion years ago.
This study adds another piece to the puzzle of what scientists know about how Mars went from being a water world, similar to Earth, to the red planet it is known as today.
Sources include: | https://naturalnews.com/2020-05-16-asteroid-lomonosov-crater-caused-tsunami-on-mars.html |
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Southern Permafrost Survey
Mars is globally covered with permafrost, where soil temperatures are permanently below the freezing point of water. Bitter cold temperatures dominate the Martian equatorial regions, with an annual-mean temperature of the soil colder than -50 C, and colder still at middle and high latitudes. Therefore, any water present in the Martian soil or atop the soil surface must be in the form of ice. Icy-soil and surface-ice deposits influence the formation of Martian landforms, much as they do on Earth. Glacial deposits form characteristic flow features that indicate thick piles of water ice in a slow viscous motion, even when they are covered by dust and soil hiding the bright ice. Periglacial landforms are features found commonly on the margins of glaciers, where icy soil plays the most important role. Incredibly regular polygonal patterns, sorted stone circles and ridges, collapse pits and scalloped scarps, and smooth ice-cored mounds, commonly dot terrestrial landscapes. They form naturally as ice in the pore space between soil grains undergoes seasonal melting freezing cycles, or thermal expansion and contraction cycles. Early images of Mars from the Viking orbiters revealed a wide array of large scale features of a potentially glacial or periglacial origin at low resolution. Mars Global Surveyor provided greater details, but many of the diagnostic shapes and textures are typically only a meter in scale. HiRISE provides us with a new window to observe these features.
Major science questions for this theme.
What is the distribution of water ice in the Martian subsurface? The distribution of periglacial landforms allows us to globally map ice deposits. What is the history of surface ice deposits and the Martian climate? Climate cycles on Mars, similar to Earth's ice ages, could have resulted in glacial deposits, potentially anywhere on Mars in the past, thus relic landforms hint at the past, and at the history of water on Mars. Is ice accessible for future exploration? Some periglacial landforms reveal hidden ice in the subsurface that can be sampled and analyzed by future landed spacecraft or even future human explorers.
Relationship to other science themes.
The comings and goings of ice in the Martian environment relates to a wide range of landforms and other natural processes and nearly every other science theme. Melting of surface and subsurface ice deposits may lead to the formation of rivers and streams and other fluvial features if enough water is released to erode the surface. Likewise, evaporation of buried ice results in collapse, erosion, and general mass wasting of the surface. Water frosts come and go on Mars, an integral part of seasonal processes and the longer climate cycles that form glacial and periglacial features. The polar deposits of Mars comprise enormous glacial masses of ice. Volcanic flows can interact with ice to create special landforms through steam explosions and chilling fluid lavas.
Features of interest potentially visible at HiRISE scale.
Much of the middle and higher latitudes of Mars exhibit polygonal patterns tens of meters across, rather like a giant honeycomb exposed at the surface. Thermal contraction polygons are the most common periglacial feature on Earth, the results of seasonal cracking of ice-cemented soils. Polygon size, intersection angles, and trough depth are all clues to their origin and age. Such characteristics can distinguish permafrost polygonal patterns from other polygon-forming processes such as giant mud cracks or lava cooling cracks.
.
Active Fan Terrain on South Polar Cap
Mars' seasonal polar caps are composed primarily of carbon dioxide frost. This frost sublimates (changes from solid directly to gas) in the spring, boosting the pressure of Mars' thin atmosphere. In the fall the carbon dioxide condenses, causing the polar caps to reach as far as ~550 degrees latitude by late winter. In the study of seasonal processes we observe the caps as they wax and wane to investigate both large scale effects on Mars as well as the local details of the sublimation and condensation processes. By learning about current processes on a local level we can learn more about how to interpret the geological record of climate changes on Mars. Mars Observer Camera (MOC) images from the Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft have shown an astonishing array of exotic landscapes as the southern seasonal cap sublimates, including spots, "spiders", and fans. A region we plan to investigate near the south pole has been called the "cryptic" terrain because it seems to stay quite cold even after the disappearance of bright frost.
Major Science Questions for This Theme
What happens in the spring as the seasonal cap sublimes? What happens in the fall as frost condenses? What controls the extent of the seasonal polar cap each year? What controls the sublimation and condensation of the seasonal frost on a local level (topography, albedo of underlying terrain)? What is going on in the cryptic terrain at the southern polar cap? How do dust storms affect the local weather at the polar cap edge? What are the wind patterns and how do they change over the course of a season? Are geysers active as the caps sublimate? Is that what causes the spots and fans?
Relationship to Other Science Themes
This theme is closely related to the climate change and polar geology themes. Polar geology is primarily focused on the permanent polar deposits in contrast to this theme which is concerned with behavior of the seasonal cap. Climate change is an extension of seasonal processes in which we look for long-term trends that surpass seasonal variability.
Features of Interest Potentially Visible at HiRISE Scale
One example of many phenomena we would like to observe is the evolution of a "spot" to a "fan" as the seasonal cap retreats in the spring. Is a spot formed in a locally dark region that gets warmer faster than its surroundings, then grows? Is the darker material very fine and does it get blown across the surface of the brighter surrounding ice to form a fan? Or is the darker material lofted by Triton-like plumes such as those observed by Voyager 2? The high resolution and high signal-to-noise ratio of the HiRISE images along with stereo coverage will give us our best ever view of these unearthly terrains.
.
South Pole Residual Cap Monitoring
Mars has experienced climate change on many different timescales over its 4.5 billion year history. Cycles in its orbital eccentricity, obliquity and season of perihelion determine the solar insolation that affects where reservoirs of water and carbon dioxide will be stable (north pole vs. south pole vs. atmosphere vs. subsurface). This theme is focused on looking for current evidence of ongoing climate change. Past climates are addressed by the polar geology, fluvial processes and stratigraphy themes. Current climate change is detected by finding evidence that Mars' volatiles (H2O and CO2) are moving from one reservoir to another. Mars Observer Camera (MOC) data show this process underway for example in the "Swiss Cheese" terrain at Mars' south pole (see Figure 1). More CO2 is being eroded than is being replaced from year to year, which indicates that the CO2 reservoir at the south pole is not in equilibrium with Mars' current climate. MOC has been monitoring this change since 1999 by taking images of the same terrain every year. HiRISE will extend the MOC coverage into the future.
Major science questions for this theme
Is Mars experiencing global climate change right now?
Relationship to other science themes
This theme is closely related to the seasonal processes and polar geology themes. Polar geology is primarily focused on the permanent polar cap and the past climate record conserved in the polar layered deposits. Climate change is an extension of seasonal processes in which we look for long-term trends that surpass seasonal variability.
Features of interest potentially visible at HiRISE scale
One indicator that Mars may be currently experiencing global change is the evolution of the swiss cheese terrain. Other indicators such as formation of new gullies are covered by the fluvial processes theme.
.
Small Valleys
A review of existing images of Mars reveals a diverse landscape. In some instances, such as around volcanoes and in valleys, a casual glance suggests the features are much like those here on Earth. Closer inspection, however, often confirms differences in scale and or subtle characteristics relative to their more familiar terrestrial counterparts.
These same images also reveal a Mars that is often very different form the Earth. Some locations are marked by huge jumbles of blocks forming chaotic terrain, whereas others are buried beneath blankets of dust. Bizarre “thumbprint,” “Swiss cheese,” and other surface textures also occur.
Current limits on the resolution of Mars images often preclude distinguishing the of processes responsible for shaping a landscape. The geomorphic thresholds that influence the efficiency and intensity of surface modification by different processes can often be hard to define. Indeed, different processes can sometimes produce very similar appearing landforms. Detecting the subtle, diagnostic signatures of past water erosion versus wind or other processes often requires the high resolution imagery that will be obtained by HiRISE. It is the analysis of HiRISE images that may provide some of the clues for a better understanding of the evolving Martian landscape.
.
Barchan Dune Changes in Hellespontus Region
Aeolian geology is the study of landforms formed by wind (Aeolus is the wind god in Greek mythology). On Mars, where other processes such as fluvial erosion, volcanism, and tectonism are slow, intermittent, or do not occur in the present era, aeolian activity is the most dynamic geologic process in non-polar areas. Numerous depositional and erosional landforms attributable to wind activity are present. On a large scale seen from previous orbiters these include dunes, ripples, yardangs, wind tails, and dust devil tracks. At the small scale seen from landers and rovers, drifts, erosional moats, wind tails, ripples, and ventifacts are found. HiRISE, with its high resolution, color imaging, and ability to produce precise digital elevation models at small scales, should significantly advance our understanding of Martian aeolian processes, providing a link between features seen with older, lower resolution imaging systems and those observed at the landing site scale.
Major science questions for this theme
Do aeolian bedforms (dunes and ripples) migrate at the scales visible to HiRISE (< 1 m) over the period of the MRO mission (at least two Mars years)? In other words, are some dunes and ripples active or did they form in a different climate, when wind speeds may have been greater? If the bedforms are active, what is the rate of migration?
What are the origins and ages of bright vs. dark aeolian bedforms?
How rapidly does aeolian material infill topography and how does this vary over the planet?
What are the mechanisms and rates of removal of material by the wind and how does this vary with terrain age, lithology, and geology?
Relationship to other science themes
By their very nature, aeolian processes modify pre-existing surfaces, either through the redistribution and deposition of fines or the deflation or abrasion of material. In this sense, the aeolian theme crosses over all the other themes, leaving its imprint on all classes of Martian geology. Probably the greatest overlap is with the seasonal processes, climate change, and landscape evolution themes. Seasonal processes outside of the polar caps are predominantly aeolian, with global dust storms, dust devils, and wind streaks occurring on annual and smaller time scales. The wind speeds and sand loading that is possible in the present-day Martian climate seems insufficient to produce many of the observed aeolian landforms, such as dunes, megaripples, and yardangs, implying that past climatic regimes, when wind speeds may have been higher, are required. These aeolian processes integrated over time scales of many seasons and multiple climatic changes (probably driven by quasi-periodic variations in Mars orbital elements) have significantly contributed to landscape evolution through infilling of topographic lows, removal of topographic highs, and redistribution of material.
Features of interest potentially visible at HiRISE scale
The high resolution of HiRISE provides the ability to image and derive topography of features at meter and smaller scales, thereby helping to answer questions that could previously not be pursued with much confidence. We will be able to measure the height and spacing of dunes and ripples and monitor if the bedforms are moved by winds over the life of the MRO mission. Images of landslides on the brinks of dunes will provide information on the stability and lithification (via chemical cementation or ice) of sand. For yardangs, detailed morphometry from high resolution images and stereo DEMs may reveal notches, forms that on Earth are attributable to the height of peak abrasion by saltating sand. Fluting in mantled material seen at small scales should reveal the direction of winds that caused removal. Layering in yardang/mantled material seen by HiRISE will provide evidence on whether the material is of lacustrine (fine layers), volcanic (more massive), or some other origin.
.
Candidate ExoMars Landing Site
.
Gully Monitoring
"Mass wasting" is a geologic term that encompasses the rapid downhill movement of rocks and fine particles due to the force of gravity. One of the most common and generic types of mass wasting features on Earth are landslides, but there are many others such as rock falls, debris flows, soil creep, and debris avalanches.
Landslides or any other mass wasting feature, require some type of triggering mechanism to induce the movement of particles under gravity. Some of these mechanisms include volume expansion of fractures (i.e. cracks) in rocks by freeze/thaw processes, increase in soil pore pressure (i.e. water content), undermining or removal of less-resistant material below a stronger material layer, and strong vibrational forces produced from above (e.g., meteorite impact) or below ground (e.g., volcanic eruption, earthquake).
On Mars, two of the most common mass wasting features are landslides and dust avalanches (also referred to as slope streaks). Some of the most spectacular landslides in the solar system are found in the Valles Marineris canyon system on Mars and exhibit many of the classic characteristics of landslides on Earth. These characteristics include a semi-circular main scarp in the source region, a hummocky (i.e. irregular) or blocky surface in the upper portion of the deposit, surface ridges parallel to landslide flow direction in the middle portion of the deposit, and a lobate outer margin that has some significant thickness (e.g., tens to hundreds of meters). Dust avalanches are common on dune faces, crater interior walls, mesa slopes, and canyon scarps. The streaks are thought to occur when dust and/or other small particles on a sloped surface begins to move due to sublimation of a thin layer of water frost or by the over-steepening of slopes in localized dusty air fall deposits.
For more information about landslides on Earth, click here.
Major Science Questions for This Theme
What are the current and past rates for mass wasting in various terrains on Mars?
Do slope streaks involve water in their triggering and subsequent downslope movement?
What triggers large landslides (e.g., Marsquakes, tectonic oversteepening of slopes, fluvial and/or eolian undercutting of slopes, weakening of rock materials from hydrothermal, physical, or chemical weathering)?
Can one type of mass wasting feature be clearly distinguished from another on the basis of boulder frequency and distribution?
Features of Interest Potentially Visible at HiRISE Scale
Boulders: The sizes, shapes, sorting, colors, and distribution of boulders (~0.5 meters or larger in diameter) tell us a great deal about the transport process of mass wasting features. For slope streaks or other small mass wasting features, stereo coverage from HiRISE images may help resolve the topography or morphologies that are diagnostic of these processes.
Ridges: small ridges that can be seen in HiRISE images, but are too small or subtle to be seen in Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC) images, may be an indicator of a change in direction or rate of movement for landslide deposits or other larger mass wasting features. Faults—small offsets in the deposit layers such as along fractures or faults—may be an indicator compressional flow of materials in parts of the mass wasting feature.
.
Mound with Light-Toned Slopes and Ridges at Base
.
Fans and Polygons
.
Spider Terrain
.
South Pole Residual Cap Yearly Monitoring
.
Monitor Defrosting South Mid-Latitude Dunes in Moc Image E05-00762
.
Polygons in Impact Crater
.
An Enigmatic Feature in Athabasca Lava Flows
Mars is fundamentally a volcanic planet. Geologic mapping of Mars shows that about half the surface seems to be covered with volcanic materials that have been modified to some extent by other processes (such as meteorite impacts, blowing wind, and floods of water). Mars has the largest volcanoes in the entire Solar System. The great volumes of erupted lava have had a profound impact on the entire planet, extracting heat and selected chemicals from within, adding large amounts of acidic gas to the atmosphere, and providing heat to melt frozen water in the crust. Mars cannot be understood without studying its volcanoes.
HiRISE provides the ideal tool to study some of the most puzzling aspects of Mars volcanism. One example is: what were the eruptions that formed the giant lava flows like? Did the lava ooze quietly out of the ground or did it come blasting up in massive explosions? Detailed pictures of the vents are essential for answering these questions.
We know that lava flows on Earth are usually fed by fountains or lakes of lava. HiRISE has already found examples of ancient lava lakes on Mars, but the evidence for fountains is more difficult to find. But we are finding exciting hints of cinder cones on Mars. The pictures from other cameras have been too fuzzy to show these kinds of details. Another high priority is to image places where both lava and water have come gushing from the ground. These are places where microbes that might live in the deep, warm, wet parts of the crust could have been brought to the surface. Finding scientifically interesting spots that are safe to land future rovers is one of the primary goals for the MRO mission.
.
Gully Monitoring
.
South Pole Residual Cap Change Detection
. | https://p4-r5-01081.page4.com/_blog/3515-mars-chroniken---mars-im-focus-von-hirise-high-resolution-imaging-science-experiment/ |
Aug 8, 2011 ... A landform is a feature on the Earth's surface that is part of the terrain. Mountains, hills, plateaus, and plains are the four major types of landforms. ... Mountains, plains, and buttes (like these) are all landforms. Photograph by ...
https://www.eartheclipse.com/geology/what-are-landforms-and-major-types-of-landforms-on-earth.html
Landforms are the natural features and shapes existent on the face of the earth. Landforms possess many different physical characteristics and are spread out ...
https://sciencing.com/list-7644820-different-types-landforms.html
Many different types of landforms make up Earth's topography. Several major categories of landform define that smaller portion of the planet not covered by ...
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_landforms
Landforms are categorised by characteristic physical attributes such as elevation, slope, orientation, rock exposure, and soil type. ... Beach – Area of loose particles at the edge of the sea or other body of water; Raised beach – A .... Silt deposition landform at the mouth of a river; River island – Exposed land within a river.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landform
Terrain (or relief) is the third or vertical dimension of land surface. ... In cartography, many different techniques are used to ...
https://kidsgeo.com/geology-for-kids/landforms/
Landforms are the classifications we give to the shapes of the land aroud us. ... four major landforms. Plateaus fall under different categories based on their size.
https://schooltutoring.com/help/earth-sciences-types-of-landforms/
Apr 16, 2012 ... Landforms are defined as the natural physical features found on the surface of the earth created as a result of various forces of nature such as ...
http://www.eschooltoday.com/landforms/common-types-of-landforms.html
Types of landforms. There are hundreds of landform types scattered all over the planet earth. Some of them are more common and spectacular than others.
http://worldlandforms.com/landforms/list-of-all-landforms/
List of Landforms on Earth. Types of Landforms and Definitions. Alluvial fan: land formation that occurs when sedimentary materials such as rocks, gravel, and ...
http://www.edu.pe.ca/southernkings/landforms.htm
Landforms are natural features of the landscape, natural physical features of the earth's surface, for example, valleys, plateaus, mountains, plains, hills, loess, ... | https://www.reference.com/web?q=Different+Types+of+Landforms+on+Land&qo=relatedSearchNarrow&o=600605&l=dir |
Soils release more carbon per annum than current global anthropogenic emissions (Luo and Zhou, 2006). Soils emit carbon dioxide through mineralization and decomposition of organic matter and respiration of roots and soil organism (Houghton 2007) Evaluation of the effects of abiotic factors on microbial activity is of major importance in the context of mitigation greenhouse gases emissions. One of the key greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide (CO2) and previous studies demonstrate that soil CO2 emission is significantly affected by temperature and soil water content. There are a limited number of studies that examine the impact of bulk density and soil surface characteristics as a result of exposure to rain on CO2 emission, however, none examine their relative importance. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of soil compaction and exposure of the soil surface to rainfall and their interaction on CO2 release. We conducted a factorial soil core experiment with three different bulk densities (1.1 g cm-3, 1.3 g cm-3, 1.5 g cm-3) and three difference exposures to rainfall (no rain, 30 minutes and 90 minutes of rainfall). Water was poured on to the cores not exposed to rain and those exposed for 30 minutes through a gauze to ensure all cores received the same volume of water. Immediately the rainfall treatments the soil cores were incubated and soil CO2 efflux and water content were measured 1, 2, 5, 6, 9, and 10 days after the start of the incubation. The results indicate soil CO2 emissions and rate changes significantly through time and with different bulk densities and rain exposures. The relationship between rain exposure and CO2¬ is positive: CO2 emission was 53% and 42% greater for the 90 min and 30 min rainfall exposure, respectively, compared to those not exposed to rain. Bulk density exhibited a negative relationship with CO2 emission: soil compacted to a bulk density of 1.1 g cm-3 emitted 32% more CO2 than soil compacted to 1.5 g cm-3. Furthermore we found that the magnitude of CO2 effluxes depended on the interaction of these two abiotic factors. Given these results, understanding the influence of soil compaction and raindrop impact on CO2 emission could lead to modified soil management practices which promote carbon sequestration.
|Formato:||A stampa|
|Data di pubblicazione:||2012|
|Titolo:||Effects of soil compaction, rain exposure and their interaction on Soil Carbon Dioxide emission|
|Autori:||Novara, A; Armstrong, A; Gristina, L; Quinton, J;|
|Autori:|
|Tipologia:||Articolo su rivista|
|Citazione:||Novara, A., Armstrong, A., Gristina, L., & Quinton, J. (2012). Effects of soil compaction, rain exposure and their interaction on Soil Carbon Dioxide emission. EARTH SURFACE PROCESSES AND LANDFORMS, 4.|
|Tipo:||Articolo in rivista|
|Digital Object Identifier (DOI):||10.5194/se-4-255-2013|
|Appare nelle tipologie:||01 - Articolo su rivista|
File in questo prodotto: | https://iris.unipa.it/handle/10447/51262 |
In this study, the selection of suitable crops and the water management were considered as the main pillars of sustainable agriculture in dry deserts. The main objective is to use remote sensing and GIS for setting a suitable cropping pattern and estimate the crop water requirements in arid desert area. A newly reclaimed area located to the west of the Nile Delta was selected for this work. A Landsat ETM+ and a Shuttle Radar Topography Mission data were processed using ENVI 4.7 software for landforms mapping. The recognized landforms comprised; old deltaic plain, aeolian plain and depression with alluvial deposits. The mapped units were represented by 24 soil profiles and 36 observation points. The soil profiles were morphologically described, sampled and analyzed. A GIS soils database was established using the landform map and the results of the land surveying and soil analysis. Based on land characteristics (i.e., soils, water and climate) the suitable crops for each landform were proposed. The land surface temperature (LST) and Crop evapotranspiration (ET) are estimated from Landsat ETM+ thermal band by using the Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL). The water requirements of the proposed crops were calculated and the irrigation management is discussed with respect to the soil properties. Results indicated that partial land uses could be achieved the agricultural sustainability in such area.
Science Alert
INTRODUCTION
The scarceness of fertile soils and water resources in cultivated dry deserts
imposes considerable attention in both cropping pattern and water requirements.
In Egypt, most of the newly developed lands were situated along the western
fringes of the Nile Delta. The cost of reclamation of such regions for canals,
pumping stations, main roads, electricity transmission facilities, utilities
and related buildings is rather high (MALR, 1994). Therefore,
the land suitability for crops in this area is an essential action in order
to maintain the sustainable development of investment as well as the sustainable
usage of the soils. Land evaluation is a vital link in the chain leading to
sustainable management of land resources. It is assigned the indispensable task
of translating the data on land resources into terms and categories, which can
be understood and used by all those concerned with land improvement and land
use planning (FAO, 1991, 2007).
In arid regions, water resources are naturally limited and the challenge to
produce more food under water shortage is real (Bouman,
2007). The accurate estimation of Crop Water Requirements (CWR) in such
areas is a must. Traditional methods of estimating the CWR are based on the
crop coefficient (Kc) approach that requires the determination of reference
Evapotranspiration (ETo) and Kc. Potential evapotranspiration is then determined
as a product of the ETo and Kc (FAO, 1998). Values of
Kc from a reference table assume homogeneity over a respective area and may
contribute to an error in estimating crop water requirements due to their empirical
nature (Ray and Dadhwal, 2001). In the view of this
limitation, new techniques for estimating actual evaporation and transpiration
is being developed using spatial and temporal information. The quantification
of CWR using satellite data is the optimum way to independently and regularly
measure of water requirements on a field-by-field basis over large land areas.
In the area under investigation, typical field sizes of newly reclaimed lands
range between 10 and 30 acres (GARPAD, 1997). These sizes
require high resolution images (e.g., Landsat ETM+) to extract spatial information.
Soil properties and landforms are most significant factors controlling the Irrigation
Water Management (IWM). Moreover, soil information database can improve the
estimation of the current and the future land potential productivity and can
help identifying land and water use limitations (FAO/IIASA,
2008). This study aims to use remote sensing data and GIS to create a soil
database, propose suitable crops and estimate their water requirements for the
newly reclaimed arid desert located to the west of the Nile Delta.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study area: The area under investigation is located to the west of the
Nile Delta and extended between 30° 31 30 and 30° 46
04 E longitudes and 30° 19 45 and 30° 31 15
N latitudes, (Fig. 1). It covers an area of 113.49 km2.
This area has always been confined as a possible area for reclamation and utilization
due to its location and the presence of ground water that is suitable for irrigation
(El-Maghraby, 1990). It is considered as an extremely
arid region where, the mean annual rainfall is 41.4 mm, mean annual evaporation
is 1715.6 mm, mean temperature is 21°C, wind speed average is 3.4 m sec-1
and the mean relative humidity is 48%. (Egyptian Meteorological
Authority, 1996). The main landforms exhibit the west Nile Delta region
are, river terraces, levees, flood plain, old deltaic plain and windborne deposits
(Sadek, 1984). The Pleistocene formations which are composed
of sand and gravel in this area are of assorted sizes bordering the cultivated
areas where they form a series of various elevation terraces (Hermina
and Klitzsch, 1989).
Establishing soils database: The Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus
(ETM+) records 7 spectral bands in the visible, infrared and thermal portions
of the electromagnetic spectrum.
The spatial resolution of this sensor is 30 m (except thermal band-6 of 60
m resolution). The Scan Line Corrector (SLC) of the Landsat 7 was failed in
May 31, 2003, creating a scanning pattern of wedge-shaped gaps. The Landsat
7 still to gain data with the SLC-off, generating images of about 22% missed
data (Storey et al., 2005). To recover the capability
of the image, the SLC-off data is exchanged with calculated values from the
histogram-matched scenes using ENVI 4.7 software. Landsat ETM+ image acquired
during the year 2010 (pass 177/row 39) was used, the image was enhanced by using
ENVI 4.7 software. To improve the contrast and enhancing the edges, the image
was stretched using linear 2%, smoothly filtered and their histograms were matched
according to Lillesand and Kiefer (2007). The atmospheric
correction was done to reduce the noise effect using FLAASH module. Image was
radiometrically and geometrically corrected to accurate the irregular sensor
response over the image and to correct the geometric distortion due to Earth's
rotation (ITT, 2009). The Digital Elevation Model (DEM)
of the study area (Fig. 2) was extracted from the Shuttle
Radar Topography Mission (SRTM). The SRTM is a respected space data of land
surface that obtained by accurate positioned radar scanning earth at 1-arc seconds
intervals. This data could be combined with multispectral images to realize
better view of the landscape. The Landsat ETM+ image and SRTM data were processed
in ENVI 4.7 software to identify the different landforms and establish the soil
database (Dobos et al., 2002; Zinck
and Valenzuela, 1990). A semi detailed survey was carried out throughout
the investigated area in order to gain an appreciation on soil patterns, land
forms and the landscape characteristics. A total of 60 ground truth sites were
studied in the field from which twenty four soil profiles and thirty six observation
points were collected to represent the different preliminary mapping units.
The morphological description of the profiles was carried out according to the
guidelines outlined by FAO (2006) and the soil color is
defined according to Munsell Color Charts (SSS, 1975).
Sum of 67 disturbed soil samples was collected and prepared for laboratory analyses.
A total of 9 water samples were collected from the irrigation sources (artesian
wells) in the study area, where each landform was represented by one water sample.
Representative soil and water samples were collected and analyzed according
to USDA (2004) and Klute (1986).
The obtained data from land survey and laboratory analyses were recorded in
the attribute table of the landform map using Arc-GIS 9.2 software. The standard
deviation of soil properties in each landform was computed using SPSS.13 software.
Land suitability for crops: The land suitability classification for
crops was carried out according to FAO (1985, 2007)
methodology using the following data:
Satellite based estimations
Land surface temperature (LST): The thermal bands of Landsat ETM+ (band
6) manifests the amount of infrared radiant flux (heat) emitted from different
surfaces. The long infrared waves are radiations that are detected as heat energy;
therefore, the thermal IR band well correlate with the temperature of the surfaces
it scans (EOSC, 1994). For the current study, six available
Landsat ETM+ images band 6, of path 177 and row 39, acquired during the period
3/7/2008 and 19/05/2009 are employed. Satellite detectors acquire thermal data
and store it as Digital Numbers (DN) with a range of 0-255. The DN values were
transformed to temperature degrees in Celsius as follows:
Converting the DNs to radiance values as:
where, CVR is the cell value as radiance, CVDN is the cell digital number,
G and B are the gain and the bias obtained from the image header file (NASA,
2002).
Converting the radiance to degrees in Celsius as:
where, T = Temperature in Celsius, K1 = 666.09 and K2 = 1282.71, (NASA,
2002).
Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI): NDVI show patterns of
vegetative growth by indicating the quantity of actively photosynthesizing biomass
on a landscape (Burgan et al., 1996). The NDVI
can be assessed as follows:
where, NIR is the near infrared band (DN values) and RED is the red band (DN values).
The obtained NDVI values are located in the range (-1 to 1), the negative values
point to non vegetated surfaces, while the positive values indicate vegetated
surfaces (Burgan and Hartford, 1993).
Crop evapotranspiration (ET): The estimation of the crop ET by Surface
Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL) requires several data input i.e.,
NDVI, emissivity, broadband surface albedo and LST, these inputs are obtained
from digital image processing (Bastiaanssen et al.,
1998). The broadband albedo is estimated from the weighting factors of the
multispectral bands, while the surface emissivity is calculated from NDVI, (Liang
et al., 1999). Calculation of the net incoming radiation and soil
heat flux is done by using Bastiaanssen (1995) procedure,
while the sensible heat flux is determined after Tasumi et
al. (2000). The difference between air and soil temperature for the
hot pixel is calculated and the air density is obtained consuming
meteorological data of relative humidity. Maximum air temperature is obtained
from the El Tahrir climatic station at the time of the satellite overpass. The
ET was calculated using SEBAL from the instantaneous evaporative fraction (Λ)
and the daily averaged net radiation, Rn24 according to Hafeez
(2003) as follows:
where, λE is the latent heat flux, Rn is the net radiation absorbed or emitted from the earths surface, Go is the soil heat flux, Ho is the sensible heat flux (W m-2), ET24 = daily ET (mm day-1); Rn24 is the average daily net radiation (W m-2) and LST is the land surface temperature as °C.
The difference between (Λ) and the evaporative fraction resulting from
the 24 h integrated energy balance is marginal and may be neglected (Brutsaert
and Sugita, 1992; Crago, 1996; Farah,
2001). For 24 h or longer, Go can be ignored, so, the net available
energy (Rn-Go) can be reduced to net radiation (Rn). The use of remote
sensing data accurately provides the spatial distribution of the calculated
ET24. However, this calculation can not be used directly where the
ET24 is commonly affected by the local climatic conditions and moisture
content in the field, which fluctuate hourly. Therefore, simulating daily records
is required to obtain accurate results of seasonal ET. Missing values of ET24
could be obtained by calculation of daily ETo using the modified Penman-Monteith
method (Tasumi et al., 2000). The crop ETc (mm
d-1) could be calculated as:
where, Kc is the crop coefficient obtained after FAO (1998).
RESULTS
Landforms: Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is a 3D electronic model of
the lands surface (Brough, 1986). It provides better
functionalities than the topographic maps. A DEM can be employed to offer varieties
of data that can assist in mapping of landforms and soil types. Information
derived from a DEM, i.e., surface elevation, slope % and slope direction, could
be used with the satellite images to increase their capabilities for soil mapping
(Lee et al., 1988). The landforms of the study
area were delineated by using the digital elevation model, Landsat ETM+ and
ground truth data. The produced map was imported into a Geo-database as a base
map (Fig. 3), the following landforms were recognized:
Soils: The morphological description and some physical and chemical
analyses of the investigated soils are shown in Table 1-3.
Standard Deviation (SD) of soil properties (Table 4) represents
the high homogeneity of soils within each landform. The obtained data show that
the soils of the study area are, in general, characterized by very pale brown
(10 YR 7/3) to pale brown (10 YR 6/3). The soil texture is sandy in the aeolian
plain landforms, while it differs from loamy sand to gravely sand in the old
deltaic plain. Surface gravel is few in the aeolian plain landforms, while it
differs from few to many on the surfaces of old deltaic plain. Soil structure
is single grained, except for the soils of low and moderately high terraces,
which have a weak sub-angular blocky structure. These types of soil structure
indicate initial stage of soil development that may be related mainly to an
increase in sand percentage and a decrease in Organic Matter (OM) content. Soil
stickiness and plasticity are none to slight as they coincide with the soil
texture. The particle size distribution shows that the medium and fine sand
is dominated in the soils. The soil profiles in the different landforms are
deep as the soil depth differs from 110 to 160 cm. The hydraulic conductivity
of the soils changes from rapid (23.7 cm h-1) to moderate (15.9 cm
h-1), which is mainly due to the sandy texture, single grain texture
and low OM content. Field capacity and wilting point ranged between 13.5 to
15.3% and 4.5 to 7.4%, respectively. The percent of OM is very low in the different
landforms of the study area as it not exceeds 0.81%.
Calcium carbonate changes from 12.4% in the soils of eroded terraces to 3.5%
in the undulating sand sheet landform. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) values
ranged from 1.8 to 8.5 dS m-1, the high values characterized the
soils of the old deltaic plain which could be ascribed to its high CaCO3
content. The Exchangeable Sodium Percent (ESP) varies from 9.5 to 15.5,
representing a high positive correlation with EC (0.895**), CaCO3
(0.761**) and fraction <0.125 mm (0.588*).
Irrigation water: Table 5, shows some chemical properties
of the irrigation water in the study area. The data reveal that it is characterized
by low salinity as the electrical conductivity ranges between 0.8 and 1.2 dS
m-1. The concentrations of soluble Na, Mg, Cl and HCO3
are located in the ranges of (6.3-8.9), (0.2-1.9), (7.2-8.9) and (0.5 and 0.9)
meq L-1, respectively. The pH values differ from 7.3 to 7.5 and boron
(B) concentration varies from 0.7 to 1.2 ppm. According to Ayers
and Westcot (1994) the irrigation water was classified as high quality in
the different landforms except for MT, LT, US and LA units which have a moderate
limitation of Cl, Mg and B concentrations.
Land suitability for crops: One of the most important factors affect the agricultural sustainability is the classification of land according to its suitability for crops. In this study the land suitability was obtained for the following land uses:
The land suitability classes for the above mentioned land uses were obtained
from matching crop requirements and land characteristics i.e., soil, water and
climate. The results indicated that the most suitable land uses (S1 and S2)
in the area are, peanut, sunflower, maize, soya bean, pea, potato, sorghum,
tomato, watermelon, apple, date palm, citrus, fig, grape and olive. Crops sensitive
to the high values of both relative humidity and the atmospheric temperature
i.e., Onion, Cabbage and Pear (Sys et al., 1993;
FAO, 1985) were classified as marginally or not suitable
(S4 and N). Citrus is very sensitive to Boron (Maas, 1984)
and so it was classified as marginally or not suitable except for ET and GA
landforms. Boron concentration in irrigation sources in these two units is less
than 0.75 ppm. The land uses of barley, maize, peanut, soya bean, sugar beet,
sunflower, wheat, alfalfa, pea, potato, sorghum, tomato, watermelon and olive
are mainly affected by the soil factors i.e., texture, salinity and sodicity
(Abd El-Kawy et al., 2010; Aldabaa
et al., 2010; Ali et al., 2007). Consequently,
their suitability classes were differed from site to another. The landforms
of old deltaic and aeolian plains (i.e., HT, MT, LT, ET, GS and US) have several
limitations related to the soil, so few suitable land uses are obtained. Table
6 represents the most suitable crops for each landform in the study area.
Crop water requirements: The common problem of the predictable methods
for ETc estimations is that they can only provide accurate ET estimations for
a homogeneous region around a meteorological station. However, this problem
is solved from a technical point of view by remote sensing (Tsouni
et al., 2008). The SEBAL model was used for estimating ET and mapping
its spatial distribution and seasonal variation over the area. A sum of 6 Landsat
(ETM+) satellite images (dated to 03 July, 05 Sep. and 26 Dec./2008 and 27 Jan,
16 Mars and 19 May/2009) were processed to generate ET maps for winter and summer
seasons. Land Surface Temperature (LST) was derived for all acquired images,
averages of LST in winter and summer seasons are shown in Figure
4 and 5. The obtained data indicate that the calculated
averages of LST during the winter 2009 differ from 15.6 to 23.3°C, while
it differs from 26.3 to 33.2°C in the summer 2008. It is noticed that the
gently undulating alluvium, almost flat alluvium, high terraces and eroded terraces
have the highest values of surface temperature in both winter and summer. Daily
reference evapotranspiration (ET24) was computed, the spatial distribution
and seasonal variation are represented in Fig. 6 and 7.
The obtained data refers that the winter values of ET24 differ from 2.5 to 3.72
mm/day while the computed summer values vary from 4.21 to 5.32 mm/day. These
results were matched with soil and crop data to estimate the water requirements
for the most suitable crops by using the CROPWAT 8.0 software produced by FAO
(1992). The Leaching Requirement (LR) in the different landforms was calculated
considering the salinity of irrigation water and the soils using the model developed
by Rhoades and Merrill (1976). Table 7
represents the estimated CWR and LR for the most suitable land uses (S1 and
S2).
DISCUSSION
Soils are well-known as the essential part of the landscape and their features
are mainly controlled by the landforms on which they are formed. In the area
under investigation, the soils represent a high correlation with associated
landforms. Accordingly, results of crop suitability and water management were
discussed considering the landform level. It was found that the soil water constants
in the study area are mostly controlled by the particle size distribution. Thus,
the lowest values of Wilting Point (WP) were observed at Low Terraces (LT) and
low elevated alluvium units (LA). As consequently the highest values of the
Available Water (AW) were expected. While high and eroded terraces (HT and ET)
have the highest values of WP and FC, hence, low values of available water were
found. This result may be due to high content of sand (2-1, 1-0.5 and till 0.250
mm) which reflects the dominant coarse pores (Huang et
al., 2006) regardless the high amount of CaCO3. This means
that CaCO3 does not have any role as cement material in these landforms,
where they have a single grain structure. Increasing HC value was recognized
in these landforms, whereas, the improvement of hydro-physical properties through
increasing organic matter content is necessary (Hudson,
1994). Under these conditions, irrigation intervals should be very short
in LT and LA than any other landforms to set up low discharge emitters avoiding
water loss through evaporation and deep percolation. Short intervals will take
place in case of the high and eroded terraces according to the slope aspect
(gently undulating and undulating topography) saving system pressure and fulfill
high uniformity of water distribution. According to the high EC and ESP values
specially in the soils of eroded terraces, leaching requirements must be added
to the irrigation water to drive salts away active root zone. In some cases
the excessive amount of leaching water should be applied before cultivation
until salts reach a suitable level for crops. In most homogeneous aeolian plain
values of the soil water constant (FC, WP and AW) range between 13.5 to 15.4,
5.8 to 6.6 and 7.6 to 7.9% on the volume basis. The HC reach its highest values
in the aeolian plain, where it ranges between 19.8 and 23.7 cm h-1.
These could be ascribed to their own characteristics e.g., sandy texture, single
grain structure and weak cementation. The clear homogeneity in all the studied
features of these landforms except slope gradient means that the application
of a small amount of irrigation water is needed to eliminate water loss by the
ways mentioned above. So, lateral length and emitters discharge, relative to
soil HC, are the most important parameters in irrigation system design. The
depression landscape contains two landforms i.e., gently undulating alluvium
(GA) and low elevated alluvium (LA). In the LA values of HC, FC and WP decrease
by about 15.5, 5.9 and 25.4%, while the AW, CaCO3, EC and ESP values
were increased behave the contrary situation. Accordingly, irrigation intervals
would be shortened in gently undulating alluvial rather than almost flat landform.
In scheduling irrigation, it is important to identify the critical periods in
which plant water stress has the most pronounced effect on growth and yield
of crops. Since, this is also directly related to the nutrient requirements
by the crop. Analyses of soil, water and climatic factors indicated that the
soil texture and boron concentration in irrigation water limited the suitability
of wheat, barely and onion (Maas, 1984). The suitability
of maize, soya bean, peanut and sorghum was limited by the coarse soil texture,
high salinity and ESP (FAO, 1985). The cultivation of
apple and banana is limited by soil salinity (Maas, 1986),
atmospheric temperature and relative humidity, while olive and date palm trees
were moderately limited by the soil texture and salinity. In old deltaic plain
(i.e., HT, MT, LT and ET) cropping system was limited by cultivation of 10 crops
i.e., Date palm, fig, grape, peanut, olive, tomato, sorghum, sunflower, watermelon,
potato. Constrains of this unit are soil texture, soil salinity and exchangeable
sodium percentage. In the aeolian plain (i.e., AS, GS, US) the crop suitability
is only limited by the coarse soil texture and thus more crops (14 crops of
S1 and S2) were recommended. In the landforms of Gently Undulating (GU) and
low elevated alluvial (LA) moderate limitation of soil salinity and sodicity
affect the suitability of the salt sensitivity crops. In view of that, sustainable
agriculture in the study area faces several limitations and requires considerable
attention related to the choice of appropriate crop and water management.
CONCLUSION
Analysis of the results of this study can be conclude that numerous constrains related to soil properties, climatic conditions and water quality face the agricultural sustainability in the dry desert. To overcome these constrains; crop type and water management must be compatible with the land resources. Remote sensing and GIS techniques facilitate the selection of the suitable crops and improve the estimations of irrigation water requirements. The application of these techniques in the study area indicate that the most suitable crops are peanut, sunflower, maize, soya bean, pea, potato, sorghum, tomato, watermelon, apple, date palm, citrus, fig, grape and olive. The crop suitability in the investigated area is limited by coarse soil texture, soil salinity, relative humidity and boron concentration in irrigation water. The seasonal land surface temperature and evapotranspiration over the study area were estimated by using SEBAL model, the result offer an accurate data to estimate the water requirements for the recommended crops. The quantities of irrigation water required for one crop differ widely from landform to another due to the soil salinity variations that affect the leaching requirements. In some cases (e.g., soils of old deltaic plain), salts must be leached from soil profiles to ensure that a subsequent crops salt tolerance will not be exceeded. Achieving agricultural sustainability in this area requires significant efforts related to farm management, which should be in line with available land resources. | https://scialert.net/fulltext/?doi=ijss.2012.116.131&org=10#ref |
Although the present environmental conditions on Mars prohibit the generation of significant volumes of liquid water, observations of several very young landforms, such as gullies and recurrent slope lineae, have been interpreted as signals for aqueous processes. To explore the range of conditions under which such features can be formed on Earth, a field site in northern Victoria Land, East Antarctica, was geomorphologically investigated. Despite the small size of the ice-free area, the site displays gullies, water tracks and other traces of liquid water. The gullies show clear evidence of sediment transport by debris flows, and are typical of paraglacial processes on steep slopes in a recently deglaciated area. Water tracks appear in different forms, and seem to recur seasonally in the austral summer. Melting of snow and surface glacier ice is the major water source for both debris flows and water tracks. The observations presented here highlight the potential for hyperarid polar deserts to generate morphogenetically significant amounts of meltwater. The gullies are morphologically analogous to Martian gullies, and water tracks on steep slopes appear very similar to recurrent slope lineae. The observations suggest that even small ice-free sites in continental Antarctica may enable observations which can serve as a basis for working hypotheses in Mars analogue studies, and future field work should consider more areas in Antarctica in addition to the McMurdo Dry Valleys to search for Mars analogue landforms.
- © 2018 The Author(s). Published by The Geological Society of London. All rights reserved
Please note that if you are logged into the Lyell Collection and attempt to access content that is outside of your subscription entitlement you will be presented with a new login screen. You have the option to pay to view this content if you choose. Please see the relevant links below for further assistance. | https://sp.lyellcollection.org/content/467/1/267 |
# Climatic geomorphology
Climatic geomorphology is the study of the role of climate in shaping landforms and the earth-surface processes. An approach used in climatic geomorphology is to study relict landforms to infer ancient climates. Being often concerned about past climates climatic geomorphology considered sometimes to be an aspect of historical geology. Since landscape features in one region might have evolved under climates different from those of the present, studying climatically disparate regions might help understand present-day landscapes. For example, Julius Büdel studied both cold-climate processes in Svalbard and weathering processes in tropical India to understand the origin of the relief of Central Europe, which he argued was a palimpsest of landforms formed at different times and under different climates.
## Sub-disciplines
The various subbranches of climatic geomorphology focus on specific climatic environments.
### Desert geomorphology
Desert geomorphology or the geomorphology of arid and semi-arid lands shares many landsforms and processes with more humid regions. One distinctive feature is the sparse or lacking vegetation cover, which influences fluvial and slope processes, related to wind and salt activity. Early work on desert geomorphology was done by Western explorers of the colonies of their respective countries in Africa (French West Africa, German South West Africa, Western Egypt), in frontier regions of their own countries (American West, Australian Outback) or in the deserts of foreign countries such as the Ottoman Empire, the Russian Empire and China. Since the 1970s desert geomorphology in Earth has served to find analogues to Martian landscapes.
### Periglacial geomorphology
As a discipline periglacial geomorphology is close but different to Quaternary science and geocryology. Periglacial geomorphology is concerned with non-glacial cold-climate landforms in areas with and without permafrost. Albeit the definition of what a periglacial zone is not clear-cut a conservative estimate is that a quarter of Earth's land surface has periglacial conditions. Beyond this quarter an additional quarter or fifth or Earth's land surface had periglacial conditions at some time during the Pleistocene. In periglacial geomorphology noted researchers include Johan Gunnar Andersson, Walery Łoziński, Anders Rapp and Jean Tricart.
### Tropical geomorphology
If the tropics is defined as the area between 35° N and 35° S, then about 60% of Earth's surface lies within this zone. During most of the 20th century tropical geomorphology was neglected due to a bias towards temperate climates, and when dealt with it was highlighted as "exotic". Tropical geomorphology do mainly differ from other areas in the intensities and rates at which surface processes operate, and not by the type of processes. The tropics are characterized by particular climates, that may be dry or humid. Relative to temperate zones the tropics contain areas of high temperatures, high rainfall intensities and high evapotranspiration all of which are climatic features relevant for surface processes. Another characteristic, that is not related to present-day climate per se, is that a large portion of the tropics have a low relief which was inherited from the continent of Gondwana. Julius Büdel, Pierre Birot and Jean Tricart have suggested that tropical rivers are dominated by fine-grained suspended load derived from advanced chemical weathering, and this would make them less erosive than rivers elsewhere. Some landforms previously thought as typically tropical like bornhardts are more related to lithology and rock structure than climate.
## Morphoclimatic zones
Climatic geomorphologists have devised various schemes that divide Earth's surface into various morphoclimatic zones; that is, zones where landforms are associated to present or past climates. However, only some processes and landforms can be associated with particular climates, meaning that they are zonal; processes and landforms not associated with particular climates are labelled azonal. Despite this, azonal processes and landforms might still take on particular characteristics when developing under the influence of particular climates. When identified, morphoclimatic zones do usually lack sharp boundaries and tend to grade from one type to another resulting in that only the core of the zone has all expected attributes. Influential morphoclimatic zoning schemes are those of Julius Büdel (1948, 1963, 1977) and of Jean Tricart and André Cailleux (1965). Büdel's schemes stresses planation and valley-cutting in relation to climate, arguing the valley-cutting is dominant in subpolar regions while planation is so in the tropics. As such this scheme is concerned not only with processes but also with end-products of geomorphic activity. The scheme of Tricart and Cailleux emphasizes the relationship between geomorphology, climate and vegetation. An early attempt at morphoclimatic zoning is that of Albrecht Penck in 1910, who divided Earth in three zones depending on the evaporation-precipitation ratios.
A 1994 review argues that only the concepts of desert, glacial, periglacial and a few coastal morphoclimatic zones are justified. These zones amounts to about half of Earth's land surface, the remaining half cannot be explained in simple terms by climate-landform interactions. The limitations of morphoclimatic zoning were already discussed by Siegfried Passarge in 1926 who considered vegetation and the extent of weathered material as having more direct impact than climate in many parts of the World. According to M.A. Summerfield large-scale zoning of the relief of Earth's surface is better explained on the basis of plate tectonics than on climate. An example of this are the Scandinavian Mountains whose plateau areas and valleys relate to the history of uplift and not to climate.
Piotr Migoń has questioned the validity of certain morphoclimatic zonation schemes since they are named after processes, like planation, that might not occurring at all in large swathes of the zone. Referring to the 1977 scheme of Büdel Migoń states:
Is it really helpful to have the Volcanic Cordillera of Mexico, coastal ranges of southeast Brazil, plains of East Africa, the escarpments of Western Ghats and the mountains of Taiwan in the same zone, labelled as the ‘peritropical zone of excessive planation’?
## Historical development
During the age of New Imperialism in the late 19th century European explorers and scientists traveled across the globe bringing descriptions of landscapes and landforms. As geographical knowledge increased over time these observations were systematized in a search for regional patterns. Climate emerged thus as prime factor for explaining landform distribution at a grand scale. The rise of climatic geomorphology was foreshadowed by the work of Wladimir Köppen, Vasily Dokuchaev and Andreas Schimper. William Morris Davis, the leading geomorphologist of his time, recognized the role of climate by complementing his "normal" temperate climate cycle of erosion with arid and glacial ones. Nevertheless, interest in climatic geomorphology was also a reaction against Davisian geomorphology that was by the mid-20th century considered both un-innovative and dubious. Early climatic geomorphology developed primarily in continental Europe, chiefly France and Germany. The discipline emerged in the 1940s with works of Carl Troll, Emmanuel de Martonne, Pierre Birot and Julius Büdel. The foundation of climatic geomorphology in Germany lies according to Hanna Bremer in Albrecht Penck, Siegfried Passarge and Alfred Hettner's preference of field observations over theory. Likely it was Büdel, a student of Brückner and Penck, who coined the term "climatic geomorphology". In the English-speaking world the tendency was not explicit until L.C. Peltier's 1950 publication on a periglacial cycle of erosion. This was however an isolated work whose theme was not followed up by other English-language authors.
In 1968 came the first English translation of the "continental system" of climatic geomorphology. The following year climatic geomorphology was criticized in a 1969 review article by process geomorphologist D.R. Stoddart. The criticism by Stoddart proved "devastating" contributing to a decline in the popularity of climatic geomorphology in the late 20th century. Stoddart criticized climatic geomorphology for applying supposedly "trivial" methodologies in establishing landform differences between morphoclimatic zones, being linked to Davisian geomorphology and by allegedly neglecting the fact that physical laws governing processes are the same across the globe. In addition some conceptions of climatic geomorphology, like that which holds that chemical weathering is more rapid in tropical climates than in cold climates proved to not be straightforwardly true. Writing in 1974 Michael Thomas noted works on geomorphology in the tropics were often qualitative and in some cases even "impressionistic", but that there was "a small but growing number of quantitative studies". Another critical view is that of Eiju Yatsu who noted that climatic geomorphology relied much on "good observations which are hard to demonstrate and to learn. Description, mapping, and photos are the means of documentation. These are not easy to reproduce by others in other areas. Thus there is a strong subjective component."
Despite having diminished in importance, climatic geomorphology continues to exist as a field of study producing relevant research. More recently, concerns over global warming have led to a renewed interest in the field. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatic_geomorphology |
Why should students learn about landforms?
By studying about landforms, children can learn about the diversity of our world, and gain an appreciation that will make them want to preserve it for future generations. Activities can help students begin to define the different types of landforms.
How do you introduce a landform in a lesson plan?
Introduce the lesson by telling and discussing with students interesting facts about the Earth. For example: One-fourth of the Earth’s surface is covered by land. The land on the Earth is not the same everywhere. These different physical features found on the surface of the Earth are called landforms.
What are landforms and water features?
Types of Landforms
|Landform||Definition|
|Canyon||A deep narrow valley with steep sides and often with a stream flowing through it|
|Cape||A point of land that extends out into the sea or a lake|
|Delta||Wetland that forms as rivers empty their water and sediment into another body of water|
What are the 5 major land features?
The five major terrain features are: Hill, Ridge, Valley, Saddle, and Depression.
What is landform development?
Tectonic plate movement under the Earth can create landforms by pushing up mountains and hills. Erosion by water and wind can wear down land and create landforms like valleys and canyons. Both processes happen over a long period of time, sometimes millions of years.
What are the different land and water?
Earth Sciences: Types of Landforms
- Mountains. Mountains are landforms higher than the surrounding areas.
- Plateaus. Plateaus are flat highlands that are separated from the surroundings due to steep slopes.
- Valleys.
- Deserts.
- Dunes.
- Islands.
- Plains.
- Rivers.
What landform starts with the letter G?
Gorge – Deep ravine between cliffs. Gully – Landform created by running water and/or mass movement eroding sharply into soil. Natural levee – Ridge or wall to hold back water.
Why is it important to learn about water?
This seems like an obvious question. We need to understand water quality in order to protect our health, and also the health of ecosystems. The dissolved minerals in water can cause corrosion of pipes, staining of bathroom fixtures, and influence how well washing machines clean our clothes.
What do you learn about landforms?
Landforms are the different physical features of the Earth’s surface. The mountains, hills, valleys, plateaus, plains, and deserts that we all know are just a few examples of landforms.
What is a landform for kids?
A landform is a word that describes a form of land. Each type of landform is defined by its size, shape, location, and what it is made of. Landforms do not include man-made features, such as canals, ports and many harbors; and geographic features, such as deserts, forests, and grasslands.
How do you explain landforms to students?
The usual definition is that a landform is a natural feature of the solid surface of the earth.
What is the difference between landforms and bodies of water?
Landform vocabulary words include mountain, hill, cliff, plateau, plain, mesa, and canyon. Bodies of water words includes lakes, ocean, river, pond, waterfall, gulf, bay, and canal.
What is an example of a landform?
The English Channel is an example of this landform. Coast – the area of land beside an ocean or sea. Since all continents have land accessible to water, there are coastlines all around the world, but usually the most popular are the tourist destinations. The Mediterranean Coast and the Pacific Coast are examples of famous coastlines.
What can we learn from local landforms?
Landforms_,_ features which make up the Earth’s surface, vary widely around the world. From deserts to glaciers, canyons to continents, islands to swamps, you can learn a lot from your local landforms. From climate to the crops grown locally, landforms play a huge role in how humans live and function on the planet.
What is it called when a land is surrounded by water?
Island – an area of land completely surrounded by water. The Philippines, Japan, New Zealand, and Indonesia are nations consisting entirely of islands. Isthmus – a narrow strip of land with water on both sides that joins two larger land masses. An isthmus connects North and South America.
What is an example of a Gulf landform?
The Gulf of Mexico, the world’s largest gulf, and the Persian Gulf are examples of gulfs. Harbor – natural harbors are landforms where part of a body of water is protected from the rough waters of open ocean exposure. | https://www.wazeesupperclub.com/why-should-students-learn-about-landforms/ |
Biological weathering occurs when plants break up rocks with roots or root exudates. The process is slow, but may strongly influence landscape formation. Biological weathering increases with soil thickness until optima for biotic activity are reached, but decreases when soils get thicker and biotic activity has less influence on weathering.
The first application that included biological weathering in LAPSUS, was Temme and Veldkamp’s study in South Africa.
Case Studies: » South Africa
Technical InformationThe original implementation of biological weathering was developed by Minasny and McBratney, 2006.
Where ep (m) is the volume of biological weathering, P0 (m t-1) is the maximum weathering rate of bedrock, k1 (t-1) is the weathering rate constant when soil thickness > hc, and k2 (t-1) is the rate when soil thickness ≤ hc. Pa (m t-1) is the biological weathering rate at steady state. Soil thickness hc (m) where maximum biological weathering occurs is given by:
The main criticism of this implementation is that it is not a function of topographic position, and hence that water is always assumed present in optimal amounts given current soil thickness (Minasny and McBratney, 2006). In reality, equally thick soils on crests, slopes, and in valleys would hold different amounts of water as a result of their position, and weathering rates would be influenced. For our case study area, where an excess of water was deemed improbable, a simple approach was chosen that assumes that rainfall has a positive linear effect on biological weathering.
Another disadvantage of the implementation of (Minasny and McBratney, 2006) is the fact that the influence of vegetation on weathering is implicitly dependent on soil thickness only. In reality, under constant soil thickness, changing vegetation would change the values of the four constants mentioned above. Because it is not known how that would occur, a simple approach was chosen that assumes that vegetation cover V (-) has a positive linear effect on weathering, through increased root burrowing.In the resulting implementation, the four constants of (Minasny and McBratney, 2006) have been redefined as those occurring under conditions of maximum vegetation cover and rainfall:
With raint and rainmax in (m).
In this implementation, weathering is assumed independent of lithology, but changes can be readily made. Fig. 1 shows the resulting rate of weathering under changing soil thickness, when rain is rainmax , V = 1, and the other parameters have the values.
References
- Temme, A.J.A.M., Veldkamp, A, 2009: Multi-process Late Quaternary landscape evolution modelling reveals lags in climate response over small spatial scales. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 34 (4): 573-589
- Minasny, B. and McBratney, A.B., 2006. Mechanistic soil-landscape modelling as an approach to developing pedogenetic classifications. Geoderma, 133(1-2): 138-149. | https://www.wur.nl/en/Research-Results/Chair-groups/Environmental-Sciences/Soil-Geography-and-Landscape-Group/Research/LAPSUS/Modules/Biological-Weathering.htm |
Physical geography is the study of Earth’s seasons, climate, atmosphere, soil, streams, landforms, and oceans.
What is physical geography?
physical geography. The scientific study of the natural features of the Earth’s surface, especially in its current aspects, including land formation, climate, currents, and distribution of flora and fauna. Also called physiography.
What is physical geography and its examples?
Physical geography is the study of the earth’s surface. An example of physical geography is knowledge of earth’s oceans and land masses. noun. 7. (geography) The subfield of geography that studies physical patterns and processes of the Earth.
What is physical geography kid definition?
Physical geography is the study of the Earth’s surface, such as the continents and oceans. Physical geographers often use maps to study the differences in landforms, or natural features, around the world. Physical geographers also study how landforms change.
Where is physical geography?
Physical geography integrates and inter-relates landforms, water, soils, climate, and vegetation as the major natural elements of the environment. The focus of physical geography is on the zone of the land, ocean, and atmosphere containing most of the world’s organic life.
What is physical geography and its importance?
Physical geography studies the features and dynamic processes of landform, climate, hydrology, soil and ecology, as well as their interactions and future trends. Among these varied topics, landform evolution and climatic change and their interactions are the most fundamental elements in physical geography.
What are 4 examples of physical geography?
- Geomorphology: the shape of the Earth’s surface and how it came about.
- Hydrology: the Earth’s water.
- Glaciology: glaciers and ice sheets.
- Biogeography: species, how they are distributed and why.
- Climatology: the climate.
- Pedology: soils.
How do you use physical geography in a sentence?
Physical-geography sentence example. Her fascination with the surface of the earth led her to study physical geography. The actual and past distribution of plants must obviously be controlled by the facts of physical geography.
Why is physical geography a science?
Physical geography focuses on geography as a form of earth science. It tends to emphasize the main physical parts of the earth – the lithosphere (surface layer), the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), and the biosphere (living organisms)—and the relationships between these parts.
What are characteristics of physical geography?
Physical characteristics include land forms, climate, soil, and natural vegetation. For example, the peaks and valleys of the Rocky Mountains form a physical region. Some regions are distinguished by human characteristics. These may include economic, social, political, and cultural characteristics.
What are the types of geography?
- Physical geography: nature and the effects it has on people and/or the environment.
- Human geography: concerned with people.
- Environmental geography: how people can harm or protect the environment.
Who is the father of geography?
Eratosthenes, the ancient Greek scholar is called the ‘father of geography. He was the first one to use the word geography and he also had a small-scale notion of the planet that helped him to determine the circumference of the earth.
Why do we study geography for grade 1?
Studying geography helps us to have an awareness of a place. All places and spaces have a history behind them, shaped by humans, earth, and climate. Studying geography gives a meaning and awareness to places and spaces. It also helps students with spatial awareness on the globe.
How do you study physical geography?
- Mnemonic devices.
- Organize the information.
- Use “chunking”
- Visualize information.
- Association.
- Frequent Reviewing.
What is physical geography PDF?
Physical geography is a process, conducted by people, of integration and synthesis of ideas and observations to advance scientific understanding of Earth’s surface and atmosphere and to apply this knowledge to the greater good of the planet and its people.
What are the 5 types of geography?
The five themes of geography are location, place, human-environment interaction, movement, and region. These themes were developed in 1984 by the National Council for Geographic Education and the Association of American Geographers to organize and facilitate the instruction of geography in K-12.
What is physical geography long answer?
Physical geography is the study of the processes that shape the Earth’s surface, the animals and plants that inhabit it, and the spatial patterns they exhibit.
What are called physical features?
Physical characteristics Gross physical features or landforms include intuitive elements such as berms, mounds, hills, ridges, cliffs, valleys, rivers, peninsulas, volcanoes, and numerous other structural and size-scaled (e.g. ponds vs.
What are geographic factors?
Geographical factors: climate, landscape, natural resources and stability.
What is meant by physical features of a country?
Places are jointly characterized by their physical and human properties. Their physical characteristics include landforms, climate, soils, and hydrology. Things such as language, religion, political systems, economic systems, and population distribution are examples of human characteristics.
What are the components of physical geography?
Physical geography undertakes the study of the earth with its four major components viz: a) Lithosphere, b) Hydrosphere, c) Atmosphere, and d) Biosphere. All these four components with their varying spatial and temporal aspects have produced different characteristics features on the earth.
What are the main concerns of physical geography?
The definition of physical geography is any form of geography that pertains to the natural world and natural phenomena. It is primarily concerned with the spatial relations and distribution of landforms and phenomena in the natural world and does not typically include human life or impacts.
What topics are in physical geography?
- Water and carbon cycles.
- Hot desert systems and landscapes.
- Coastal systems and landscapes.
- Glacial systems and landscapes.
- Hazards.
- Ecosystems under stress. Human geography.
- Global systems and global governance.
- Changing places.
What are two important physical features?
Answer: landforms, bodies of water, climate, natural vegetation and soil. landforms, bodies of water, climate, natural vegetation and soil.
What are the 5 importance of geography?
Geography helps students to understand the physical world, such as land, air, water, and ecology. It also helps them to understand human environments, such as societies and communities. This also includes economics, social and cultural issues, and sometimes morals and ethics. | https://scienceoxygen.com/what-is-physical-geography-in-simple-terms/ |
What do you mean by Physical Geography?
Physical geography is also known by the name of geosystems or physiography and is one of the two main sub-fields of the geography subject. Physical geography deals with the study of natural science and various sources and patterns which are present exclusively in our natural environment. The main motive of the study of physical geography is to know the spatial characteristics of the various happenings associated with the earth’s different spheres and layers. Our natural atmosphere consists of different layers which are atmosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere and geosphere. It is the bit of the built environment which is the main domain of the human geography.
As the name suggests, ‘Physical’ geography, it is mainly concerned with the several spheres of environment which reside on our planet. The Earth is split into many spheres such as biosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, pedosphere and lithosphere.
What are the different sub branches for physical geography?
Physical Geography is divided into various other sub-branches to make things understand easily:
1. Hydrology
Hydrology is the branch of physical geography which is concerned with the total amounts of water which is constantly moving and also the quality of the water whether is good or bad. It also studies the water accumulating on the land surface and is notified as the hydrological cycle of our environment. Hydrology consists of the rivers, glaciers, lakes, sea, aquifers and studies the dynamics which are predominantly involved in these water bodies. Engineering is an important part for studying this branch as the hydro dynamics are largely clumsy and need expertise to have a look at. The study shows that the earth science side has helped with the research work and study of this field work. Like all the other branches of physical geography, hydrology also has some sub-fields which helps in examining the different aspects, they are: Eco hydrology and limnology.
2. Geomorphology
Geomorphology is the subject which deals with the study of the surface of the earth. It also studies all the processes which helped in shaping the earth’s surface, the way it is now. It helps in defining a linear process which is occurring in the present and also which have occurred in the past. Geomorphology also has two sub-fields which are fluvial geomorphology and desert geomorphology. These fields deals with the study of some specific landforms which consists in various environments. One of the common thing between these fields is that the fact that these are all united by the core processes which shaped them, which was mainly tectonic or climatic processes. The various dynamics and landform history is studied by geomorphology and also predicts the changes which re going to appear because of the combination of field observation, some numeric modeling and physical experiment. Some of the topics of geomorphology also touches the fields of soil science experimentation.
3. Glaciology
The study of ice sheets and glaciers or anything which is related to cryosphere or commonly known as ice is called glaciology. Ice sheets are grouped under the name of continental glaciers and glaciers as alpine glaciers. The research work done in this subject is moreover same but the dynamics of both ice sheets as well as glaciers are differently oriented. The ice sheets tends to be shaped by the interaction between the present climate and its changes and the ice sheets, on the other hand the glaciers are concerned with the impact that they have with the landscape. There are various other sub-fields which are there in glaciology, snow hydrology and glacial geology. These two fields also examine the different different processes and factors of the glaciers and ice-sheets.
4. Biogeography
Biogeography deals with the science of various geographic patterns which classifies the species distribution as well as the various patterns of it. Alfred Russell Wallace is known as the father of this fields study. He approached this field with a descriptive and outlook approach and have made some good observations. Evolution and plate tectonics have played a very significant part in the founding of the main observations for this field. These have become the main stimulus for biogeography. There are five main sub fields of biogeography: zoogeography, Phytogeography, paleobiography, island biography and phylogeopgraphy.
5. Meteorology
It is the interdisciplinary study of our atmosphere which focuses mainly on the weather processes having very short term forecasting. It is one of the most scientific study of the physical geography. The studies and conclusions derived, dates back to many years and decades. The 18th century is considered a significant leap in the study of meteorology as amazing phenomenon and events were observed during this time. These are usually illuminated events.
6. Climatology
Climatology is the study of climatic conditions which are also called as the weather conditions which are studied and averaged over a long period of time. This subject covers both the nature of macro or global and micro or local climatic conditions. The anthropogenic as well as natural influences which occur on them are also studied. The sub fields which divide different parts of this subject are, tropical cyclone rainfall climatology as well as the paleoclimatology. The climatic study differences are divide on the basis of the various different regions.
7. Pedology
Pedology is the study of soil science in our natural environment. It signifies the major two branches of the soil science. Edaphology is the other branches of the soil science study. Pedology is one of the important study subjects in the physical geography, and emphasizes on the interactions that are made between the climate, which comprises of the water, air and temperature, soil life, which comprises of the plants, animals and micro-organisms, and the minerals which are present in the soils. The studies mainly reveals effects as well as the position of the soil landscape and is termed as laterization.
These were the important sub-branches which together holds the physical geography. Some other branches which are also there are, Coastal geography, Oceanography, Paleography, landscape Ecology and the environmental geography.
As we have seen that physical geography is a very vast subject and have many sub-branches as well as sub-fields to be studied upon. Sometimes, all these make up a very complex and complicated work study, which results in non-completion of projects and assignments which the students gets from their schools or colleges. But now, you don’t have to worry about those lengthy and complex projects or assignments. We are here, with a team of highly professional tutors who are ready to help you with your work. Whether it is a homework, a project or an assignment, we will work upon it with full precision and will guarantee a work which is both 100% plagiarism free as well as is completed within the completion deadline. Our tutors are highly professional and are dedicated with the work. We are 24*7 available to help the students and also provide services on an affordable price range. We will assure that the students get maximum marks or grades for their work and also get an easy understanding on the subject matter. Physical geography study is a very important to understand our planet’s working process and hence students need some expertise help like ours to get through with it. Contact us or visit our website, myassignmenthelp.net for more information on various services and offers. We are just a call away for help. | https://www.myassignmenthelp.net/physical-geography-assignment-help |
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Journal
Polish Journal of Soil Science
2018
|
51
|
1
|
Article title
The relations between the rainfall erosivity index AI and the hydraulics of overland flow and sediment concentration in sandy soils
Authors
Maaliou Aziz
,
Mouzai Liatim
Content
Full texts:
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Title variants
Languages of publication
EN
Abstracts
EN
The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of rainfall erosivity index AI on the hydraulics of overland flow parameters such as the flow velocity, the flow depth, the flow regime, overland flow power and on soil surface characteristics, such as surface roughness and sediment concentration. The erosivity index AI represents six rainfall intensities, 31.40 mm·h-1; 37.82 mm·h-1; 69.49 mm·h-1; 81.85 mm·h-1; 90.39 mm·h-1 and 101.94 mm·h-1 generated by a rainfall simulator. To simulate the soil plot, a soil tray was filled with remolded agricultural sandy soil. The results found have shown that the AI represents better the rainfall than rainfall intensity and related to drop diameter with a power function. Overland flow never exceeded the laminar and subcritical regime; the Reynolds number reacted differently with AI and rainfall intensity, whereas the Froude number has similar reaction with both parameters. Re, Fr and n follow with AI logarithmic, linear and power functions respectively. Finally, AI is a good predictor of soil erosion.
Keywords
EN
rainfall simulator, soil tray, erosivity index AI, overland flow regime, sediment concentrations
Publisher
Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej
Journal
Polish Journal of Soil Science
Year
2018
Volume
51
Issue
1
Physical description
Dates
published
2018
online
01 - 04 - 2018
Contributors
author
Maaliou Aziz
author
Mouzai Liatim
References
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Brandt, C.J., 1988. The transformation of rainfall energy by a tropical rain forest canopy in relation to soil erosion. Journal of Biogeography, 15: 41–48.
Bryan, R.B., 1979. The inflence of slope angle on soil entrainment by sheetwash and rainsplash. Earth Surface Processes, 4: 43–58.
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Laws, J.O., Parsons, D.A., 1943. The relationship of raindrop size to intensity. Transactions of the American Geophysical Union, 24: 452–460.
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Meyer, L.D., 1958. An investigation of methods for simulating rainfall on standard run-off plots and a study of the drop size, velocity, and kinetic energy of selected spray nozzle. Purdue University. Special Report, 81, p.42.
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Pauwelyn, P.L.L., Lenvain, G.J.S., Sakala, W.K., 1988. Iso-erodent map of Zambia. Part I: the calculation of erosivity indices from a rainfall data bank. Soil technology, 1: 235–250.
Polyakov, V. O., Nearing, M. A., 2003. Sediment transport in rill flw under deposition and detachment conditions, Catena, 51: 33–43.
Sukhanovskii, Yu., P., 2007. Modifiation of a rainfall simulation procedure at runoff plots for soil erosion investigation. Eurasian Soil Science, 2: 195–202.
Sukhanovskii, Yu., P., Khan, K., Yu., 1983. Erosion characterization of rain. Pochvovedenie, 9: 123–125.
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Wischmeier, W.H., 1959. A Rainfall erosion index for a universal soil loss equation. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 23: 246–249.
Wischmeier, W.H., Smith, D.D., 1978. Predicting rainfall erosion losses. Agricultural Handbook No.537. Washington, D C.
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Zhang, G.H., Liu, B.Y., Liu, G.B., He, X.W., Nearing, M.A., 2003. Detachment of undisturbed soil by shallow flw. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 67: 713–719.
Zhao, Q., Li, D., Zhuo, M., Guo, T., Liao, Y., Xie, Z., 2015. Effects of rainfall intensity and slope gradient on erosion characteristics of the red soil slope. Stochastic Environmental Research Risk Assessment, 29: 609–621.
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Document Type
Publication order reference
Identifiers
DOI
10.17951/pjss.2018.51.1.41
YADDA identifier
bwmeta1.element.ojs-doi-10_17951_pjss_2018_51_1_41 | http://psjd.icm.edu.pl/psjd/element/bwmeta1.element.ojs-doi-10_17951_pjss_2018_51_1_41 |
Natural flood management : Upland catchments
Natural flood management is defined as the alteration, restoration or use of landscape features to mitigate the impact of flooding. This catchment-based approach is an evolving area of work in the uplands which is being developed by a range of partners including the Environment Agency and Natural England.
Wildfire is probably the greatest threat to peat. Areas of bare peat are unstable and subject to wind and water erosion. Eroded peat is washed into watercourses along with silt from any mineral base material that has become exposed as the peat is removed. This has implications for water quality on catchments as well as adding to the debris that can increase the frequency and impact of flood events.
Research into the effectiveness of various land management techniques including peat restoration is still in its infancy, but partners are looking at how this could be applied to upland catchments within the South Pennines. For example, Water@Leeds, part of the University of Leeds has applied a hydrological model to identify the impact of land management upon flow to a 5.7 km² headwater tributary for the River Calder. Re-vegetation modelling was conducted under a series of rainfall events. Different land cover regimes in different parts of the catchment have been evaluated with regards to impacts on flow. They have identified that the establishment of sphagnum adjacent to streams and watercourses could provide some potential for a modest reduction of flood peaks.
Download our report on ‘natural flood management’ solutions within the Colden Water Catchment
The enclosed video shows a realisation of Sphagnum regeneration in riparian buffer strips which could increase flood attenuation during a storm rainfall event. | https://www.pennineprospects.co.uk/local/naturalflood+management |
During 2014–15, 155,308 ML of water was delivered to Gippsland's Snowy River, while an important project continued to investigate the relationship between environmental water and Australian bass populations.
The Snowy River environmental water releases aimed to support the rehabilitation of the river below Jindabyne Dam and maintain the shape of the river channel (recognising that it is not possible to restore or maintain the Snowy River to its former size with only one-fifth of its former flow volume).
Liz Brown, Environmental Water and Strategic Projects Coordinator with East Gippsland Catchment Management Authority, said investigations were continuing into how environmental water can be managed to provide the maximum environmental benefit to the Victorian section of the Snowy River.
"The focus initially has been on investigating whether Australian bass can be supported to spawn using environmental water," Liz said.
"Australian bass are a significant species in the estuary. They are one of the major predator species and they are also a popular angling species. Little is known about their life cycles in Victorian waters with most of the limited research done to date occurring in New South Wales rivers."
The project has also improved understanding of the landforms of the lower Snowy River, specifically by knowing the interplay between water flows and constriction of the river estuary mouth.
"We now have a good hydrodynamic model of the estuary which can be used to predict conditions, including salinity, temperature and water levels, under different flows and estuary mouth conditions," Liz said.
"This will be invaluable in predicting the response of any future environmental flows on selected parameters in the estuary." | https://vewh.vic.gov.au/news-and-publications/stories/helping-bass |
Geography is the study of the physical features of the earth and its atmosphere, and of human activity as it affects and is affected by these, including the distribution of populations and resources and political and economic activities. In other words Geography is the study of places and the relationships between people and their environments. Geographers explore both the physical properties of Earth’s surface and the human societies spread across it. They also examine how human culture interacts with the natural environment and the way that locations and places can have an impact on people. Geography seeks to understand where things are found, why they are there, and how they develop and change over time.
There are basically two main branches of Geography;
-
Physical Geography:
Physical Geography is divided into various other sub-branches to make things understand easily:
1. Hydrology
Hydrology is the branch of physical geography which is concerned with the total amounts of water which is constantly moving and also the quality of the water whether is good or bad. It also studies the water accumulating on the land surface and is notified as the hydrological cycle of our environment. Hydrology consists of the rivers, glaciers, lakes, sea, aquifers and studies the dynamics which are predominantly involved in these water bodies. Engineering is an important part for studying this branch as the hydro dynamics are largely clumsy and need expertise to have a look at. The study shows that the earth science side has helped with the research work and study of this field work. Like all the other branches of physical geography, hydrology also has some sub-fields which helps in examining the different aspects, they are: Eco hydrology and limnology.
2. Geomorphology
Geomorphology is the subject which deals with the study of the surface of the earth. It also studies all the processes which helped in shaping the earth’s surface, the way it is now. It helps in defining a linear process which is occurring in the present and also which have occurred in the past. Geomorphology also has two sub-fields which are fluvial geomorphology and desert geomorphology. These fields deals with the study of some specific landforms which consists in various environments. One of the common thing between these fields is that the fact that these are all united by the core processes which shaped them, which was mainly tectonic or climatic processes. The various dynamics and landform history is studied by geomorphology and also predicts the changes which re going to appear because of the combination of field observation, some numeric modeling and physical experiment. Some of the topics of geomorphology also touches the fields of soil science experimentation.
3. Glaciology
The study of ice sheets and glaciers or anything which is related to cryosphere or commonly known as ice is called glaciology. Ice sheets are grouped under the name of continental glaciers and glaciers as alpine glaciers. The research work done in this subject is moreover same but the dynamics of both ice sheets as well as glaciers are differently oriented. The ice sheets tends to be shaped by the interaction between the present climate and its changes and the ice sheets, on the other hand the glaciers are concerned with the impact that they have with the landscape. There are various other sub-fields which are there in glaciology, snow hydrology and glacial geology. These two fields also examine the different different processes and factors of the glaciers and ice-sheets.
4. Biogeography
Biogeography deals with the science of various geographic patterns which classifies the species distribution as well as the various patterns of it. Alfred Russell Wallace is known as the father of this fields study. He approached this field with a descriptive and outlook approach and have made some good observations. Evolution and plate tectonics have played a very significant part in the founding of the main observations for this field. These have become the main stimulus for biogeography. There are five main sub fields of biogeography: zoogeography, phytogeography, paleobiography, island biography and phylogeopgraphy.
5. Meteorology
It is the interdisciplinary study of our atmosphere which focuses mainly on the weather processes having very short term forecasting. It is one of the most scientific study of the physical geography. The studies and conclusions derived, dates back to many years and decades. The 18th century is considered a significant leap in the study of meteorology as amazing phenomenon and events were observed during this time. These are usually illuminated events.
6. Climatology
Climatology is the study of climatic conditions which are also called as the weather conditions which are studied and averaged over a long period of time. This subject covers both the nature of macro or global and micro or local climatic conditions. The anthropogenic as well as natural influences which occur on them are also studied. The sub fields which divide different parts of this subject are, tropical cyclone rainfall climatology as well as the paleoclimatology. The climatic study differences are divide on the basis of the various different regions.
7. Pedology
Pedology is the study of soil science in our natural environment. It signifies the major two branches of the soil science. Edaphology is the other branches of the soil science study. Pedology is one of the important study subjects in the physical geography, and emphasizes on the interactions that are made between the climate, which comprises of the water, air and temperature, soil life, which comprises of the plants, animals and micro-organisms, and the minerals which are present in the soils. The studies mainly reveals effects as well as the position of the soil landscape and is termed as laterization.
These were the important sub-branches which together holds the physical geography. Some other branches which are also there are, Coastal geography, Oceanography, Paleography, landscape ecology and the environmental geography.
8. Palaeogeography:
Palaeogeography is the study of the distribution of the continents through geologic time through examining the preserved material in the stratigraphic record.
9. Coastal Geography:
Coastal geography is the study of the constantly changing region between the ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography (i.e. coastal geomorphology, geology and oceanography) and the human geography(sociology and history) of the coast.
10. Oceanography:
This is a branch of geoscience that deals with the physical and biological properties and phenomena of the sea.
11. Geomatics:
The branch of geo science that deals with the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data relating to the earth’s surface.
12. Environmental Geography:
Environmental geography focuses on the physical environment and its effect on humans.
-
Human Geography:
Human geography focuses on the role that human play in the world. Human geography focuses on understand processes about human populations, settlements, economics, transportation, recreation and tourism, religion, politics, social and cultural traditions, human migration, agriculture, and urbanization.
1. Economic Geography
Geographers under this branch normally study the manner in which products are usually produced and consequently distributed in their respective niche markets. In addition to this, they also study the way in which wealth is distributed in various regions over the planet. In general, the structures which control and influence the conditions of the economy are usually dissected microscopically here.
2. Population Geography
In most cases, scholars usually equate population geography to demography even though this is usually not the case. This is mainly owing to the reason that population geography is deeper than the study of the patterns of a group of people with regards to birth, marriage & death as is the case with demography. Geographers who are involved in this discipline normally study the population of regions in much more detail. This means that they normally look at the manner in which the population of a given area is distributed, how the people there migrate, and the rate as well as pattern of the population growth.
3. Medical Geography
In this branch, geographers normally study the patterns in which particular diseases spread. This means that pandemics & epidemics are usually studied here as well as common illnesses, general health care and death as well.
4. Military Geography
Geographers who practice this discipline normally conduct their research and studies within the military fraternity. They mainly study the manner in which military facilities are distributed as well as the best ways in which the troops can be able to utilize the facilities that they have at their disposal. In addition to this, the branch also covers the techniques that can be implemented in developing solutions to the common problems that military units commonly face.
5. Political Geography
This is a very interesting branch of geography that is involved in the investigation of every aspect of politics. This is with regards to the boundaries of a country, the states it has and the development strategies that it has in place. In addition, there are other details which are also covered such as: Voting, sub-divisions, diplomacy and international organizations.
6. Transportation Geography
Geographers who are involved in this branch of geography are usually involved in the research of the available networks for transportation. This includes both the public ones as well as private ones. Once the networks have been studied, ways in which to maximize their use in the movement of people and products can be explored.
7. Urban Geography
With the development of urban cities worldwide, the branch of urban geography came into play since it enables researchers to study these trends much more effectively. In addition to this, these geographers are able to investigate potential locations that are suitable fore development for the tiniest of villages to sprout into the desired huge cities. | https://techdairy.net/introduction-to-geography-and-its-branches/ |
4 edition of The landforms of the humid tropics, forests and savannas found in the catalog.
The landforms of the humid tropics, forests and savannas
Jean Tricart
Published
1972 by Longman in [London] .
Written in English
Edition Notes
|Statement||[by] J. Tricart; translated [from the French] by Conrad J. Kiewiet de Jonge.|
|Series||Geographies for advanced study|
|Classifications|
|LC Classifications||GB399 .T713|
|The Physical Object|
|Pagination||xvi, 306 p.|
|Number of Pages||306|
|ID Numbers|
|Open Library||OL5474549M|
|ISBN 10||0582481570|
|LC Control Number||73177838|
This coloring page is a great addition to your unit studies on biomes and landforms. Print 2 to 4 to a page to save paper, to turn into mini books or banners, and to make just the right size for interactive notebooks. Keep this in your early finisher folder for no-prep $$$ ON THIS RESOURCE.
Rinconete and Cortadillo
nature, function and development of the chorus in the comedies of Aristophanes
Yearling Biographies of Great Americans: Louis Armstrong: Ambassador Sachmo; Amelia Earhart; Pioneer in the Sky; Helen Keller: Toward the Light; John F. Kennedy: New Frontiersman; Martin Luther King: Man of Peace; Jr., Eleanor Roosevelt
Trial of modernity
Capital gains taxes in the short run
Report of Working Party on Automatic Inspection
sea coast
Auditory Skills Curriculum (Auditory Skills Instructional Planning System Series/1st Component)
Liber veritatis, or, A collection of prints after the original designs of Claude Le Lorrain in the collection of...the Duke of Devonshire
blind musician.
Harmony at the Keyboard
Gentle Folk
Gallatin County; gateway to Illinois.
The landforms of the humid tropics, forests, and savannas (Geographies for advanced study) [Tricart, Jean] on *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. The landforms of the humid tropics, forests, and savannas (Geographies for advanced study).
Landforms of Humid Tropics, Forests and Savannas (Geographies for Advanced Study) (1St Edition) by Jean Tricart, C.J.K. De Jonge (Translator) Hardcover, Pages, Published ISBN / ISBN / Book Edition: 1st Edition.
The Landforms of the Humid Tropics, Forests, and Savannas by Jean Tricart Unknown, Pages, Published Rentals not available: Digital not available: No copies of this book were found in stock from online book stores and marketplaces.
Alert me when this book Author: Jean Tricart. The landforms of the humid tropics The tropical zone, between the Tropic of Cancer (°N) and the Tropic of Capricorn (°S), covering about a third of the Earth's land surface, is often thought of as dense, humid forest frequently incorrectly termed jungle, but The landforms of the humid tropics actually be divided into three major zones on the basis of climate: wet zones, the humid tropics, often characterized as hot wetlands (Douglas, ) usually nearer the.
Humid landforms. Landforms created by running water dominate the land surface of earth. However, although the role of water is seen everywhere, it is seen at its best in those regions where the climates are wet enough to support a forest vegetation with a continuous canopy.
The more specialized climatic geomorphology of the humid tropical forests and savannas be- gins with an outline of climatic variables, weathering processes, and major environmental subdivisions. Tricart discusses how worldwide processes, such as fluvial and littoral agencies, are modified in tropical environments.
author takes the humid tropics as the most characteristic case of landform evolution through water erosion and deposition and treats humid temperate lands, previously accepted as the ‘normal’ pattern of landform evolution, as a variation of the situation in the humid tropics. The book emphasises the basic principles of chemical, physical andFile Size: 9MB.
Nonetheless, this region -- a belt along the equator between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn -- features a diversity of striking landforms, from rolling plains to massive The landforms of the humid tropics.
Climatically, the tropics are generally defined by year-round warmth and high humidity. The book highlights three areas: • Geology, landforms and geomorphic processes in the humid and arid tropics • Source-to-sink passage of water and sediment from the mountains to the sea • Anthropogenic alteration of natural geomorphic rates and processes, including climate Size: KB.
The landforms of the humid tropics, forests and savannas. London: Longman. MLA Citation. Tricart, Jean. The landforms of the humid tropics, forests and savannas / J.
Tricart ; translated by Conrad J. Kiewiet de Jonge Longman London Australian/Harvard Citation. Tricart, Jean. The Landforms of Humid Tropics, Forests and Savannas by Tricart, J.
and a great selection of related books, art and collectibles available now at Landforms test The landforms of the humid tropics. STUDY. PLAY. Landform.
Most intense chemical forests and savannas book occurs in humid tropical climates. Limestones weather in most climates, more resistant in dry. Granites weather forests and savannas book all climates. Between tropical forest and savanna.
Aquent entisol. Periodically saturated with water. Tropical dry forests occur under similar seasonal climates to savannas.
They have closed canopies and are generally deciduous in the dry season; although in some savannas, especially in Latin America, trees are evergreen.
In Latin Forests and savannas book, dry forests occur on richer, less acid soils than savannas, Cited by: 9. The landforms of the humid tropics of the humid tropics, forests and savannas. [London], Longman, (OCoLC) Material Type: Internet resource: Document Type: Book, Internet Resource: All Authors / Contributors: Jean Tricart.
Tropical forests include mangroves, dense evergreen forests, semi-deciduous, transitional, gallery and fresh swamp forests. In mountainous areas around the equator, tropical cloud forests occur. These dense evergreen forests are located at elevations between and m in humid, marine, and equatorial : Alain Atangana, Alain Atangana, Damase Khasa, Scott Chang, Ann Degrande.
Professor Bruijnzeel is the author of two other books and the co-editor of Forests, Water, and People in the Humid Tropics also published by Cambridge University Press () and UNESCO as part of the International Hydrology Series.
In he received the prestigious Busk Medal from the Royal Geographical Society/5(3). Savanna Landforms Savannas are never mountainous. They sometimes contain landforms such as plateaus. Savanna are often found alongside deserts, but never contain them.
The tall grasses is due to the amount of water they receive, but they have few to none trees. Savanna's. The landforms of the humid tropics, forests and savannas / J. Tricart ; translated by Conrad J. Kiewiet Tropical geomorphology / Avijit Gupta; Tropical geomorphology; a study of weathering and landform development in warm climates [by] Michael F.
Humid landforms / Ian Douglas. Get this from a library. The landforms of the humid tropics, forests, and savannas. [Jean Tricart]. The text is supported by a large number of illustrations, including satellite images.
Student exercises accompany each chapter. Tropical Geomorphology is an ideal textbook for any course on tropical geomorphology or the tropical environment, and is also invaluable as a reference text for researchers and environmental managers in the : Avijit Gupta.
Some of the landforms of the humid tropics are very old. Landform generations are mostly due to tectonics instead of climate. At the present state of knowledge proof of ancient and palaeoforms Author: H.
Bremer. This contribution deals with the soils of the humid and sub-humid tropics, i.e. the inter-tropical belt with a dry season of maximum 3 months.
Soil formation and weathering in this environment are intense. Physical and physicochemical processes lead to deep weathering zones, high clay contents, and the destruction of primary mineral lattice. Kabeya, Naoki Shimizu, Akira Nobuhiro, Tatsuhiko and Tamai, Koji Preliminary study of flow regimes and stream water residence times in multi-scale forested watersheds of central Cambodia.
Paddy and Water Environment, Vol. 6, Issue. 1, p. Chaves, Joaquín Neill, Christopher Germer, Sonja Cited by: The Tropical Rainforest made up 14% of the Earth's surface, now there are only about 6% left that covers the land.
This 6% of land features mountains, valleys, flood plains, streams, rivers, and a little bit of wetlands. It also contains high and lowlands, beaches, as well as some karsts. A mountains the natural elevation on the Earth's crust. Condition: Good. This is an ex-library book and may have the usual library/used-book markings book has hardback covers.
In good all round condition. No dust jacket. Please note the Image in this listing is a stock photo and may not match the covers of the actual item,grams, ISBN Seller Inventory # Chapter ULI SEASONALLY HUMID TROPICAL TERRAINS (SAVANNAS) H.
ZEEGERS and P. LECOMTE INTRODUCTION Savanna climates are tropical climates having an annual rainfall ranging between and mm and well-contrasted dry and wet by: Rainforest, luxuriant forest, generally composed of tall, broad-leaved trees and usually found in wet tropical uplands and lowlands around the Equator.
Rainforests usually occur in regions where there is a high annual rainfall of generally more than 1, mm (70 inches) and a hot and steamy climate. This climate is also called as Sudan type of climate.
Savanna type of climate is located between 5°° latitudes on either side of the equator (fig. Thus, savanna climate is located between equatorial type of climate (Af) and semi-arid and subtropical humid climate.
TOPICSUMMARY Forest clearance in the tropics will continue in order to satisfy the demands of the growing population. All nutrient cycles involve interaction between soil and the atmosphere and involve many food chains.
Savannas are areas of tropical grasslands that can occur with or without trees and shrub. Savannas cover about one-quarter of. Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Generally found in large, discontinuous patches centered on the equatorial belt and between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, Tropical and Subtropical Moist Forests (TSMF) are characterized by low variability in annual temperature and high levels of rainfall (> centimeter annually).
The zone, a transitional climatic region separating tropical desert from humid sub-tropical savanna and forests, experiences temperatures that are less extreme than those of the desert. Average annual rainfall is – millimetres (– in), but is very unreliable; as in much of the rest of India, the southwest monsoon accounts for.
Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands is a terrestrial habitat type defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature.
The biome is dominated by grass and/or shrubs located in semi-arid to semi- humid climate regions of subtropical and tropical latitudes. Learn and landforms regions climate with free interactive flashcards. Choose from different sets of and landforms regions climate flashcards on Quizlet.
Tropical rain forests primarily exist in South America, Africa and southeast Asia. The forests contain more than 15 million species of plants and animals that rely on the hot, humid biome in order. Savannas are frequently in a transitional zone between forest and desert or prairie.
Savanna covers 20% of the Earth's land area. The largest area of savanna is in Africa. Faniran, A. and L. Jeje. Humid Tropical Geomorphology: A study of the geomorphological processes and landforms in warm humid climates.
Longman, London. Fjeldsa Fjeldsa and Lovett Furley Hopkins, B. Ecological processes at the forest-savanna boundary. In Nature and Dynamics of Forest-Savanna Boundaries.
A distinctive feature of uncleared rain forest tracts in the Queensland humid tropics is the occurrence of physiognomically abrupt boundaries between rain forest and eucalypt-dominated vegetation (Unwin ; Harrington and Sanderson ).A tall open forest formation dominated by tall (>40 m) eucalypts (e.g., Eucalyptus grandis and E.
resinifera) typically forms a narrow fringe ranging in Cited by: As you can see from the map to the right, the tropical rainforests are, indeed, located in the tropics, a band around the equator from ° N (the Tropic of Cancer) to ° S (the Tropic of Capricorn) (red lines on map, right).
Because the Earth tilts degrees on its axis as it travels around the sun, at some point in the year (the solstices, June 22nd in the north, December 22nd in. The TRF, the climax vegetation of the humid tropics.
is diverse and complex (Wilson and Peters, ; Myers, ), and occupies about 10% of the worlds land area. Distribution of different types of vegetation within the humid tropics is described in the report by the Forest Resource Assessment Project (FAO, ).
Tropical Rain Forest Climate The average year's climate is very humid. The rain forests receives a lot of rainfall because of its moist and hot temperature. This type of climate is found near the equator, meaning that the direct sunlight hits the land and sea more than anywhere else.
Forests @ Grasslands @ Shrubs @ Tropical Evergreen Forests @ Tropical Deciduous Forests @ Temperate Evergreen Forest @ Temperate Deciduous Forests @ Mediterranean.Deforestation Hunting Pollution Drought threats Forest fire threats Animal Species Geographic Location Collective Authors.
"09 Tropical Dry Forest." Wikispaces. N.p. Web. 8 Apr Collective Authors. "Tropical Dry Forest, Tropical Deciduous Forest, Savanna." Marietta.This product includes plans ebook activities to help you teach landforms/biomes to your primary class!
The ebook includes: pond, ocean, forest, rainforest, beach, volcano, mountain, arctic, tundra, savanna, tropics, prarie, desert, countryside, city p. 1 How to use this product! p 2 Landform color poster including: pond, ocean, forest, rainforest, beach, volcano, mountain, desert p.
Half 4/4(24). | https://jufecykoliwonehas.perloffphoto.com/the-landforms-of-the-humid-tropics-forests-and-savannas-book-9022xn.php |
Mars is full of evidence that running water once crisscrossed its surface. Many scientists argue that in its early days, the red planet was nearly blue—a relatively warm place with lakes and even an ocean around its north pole. But a sophisticated climate model suggests instead that Mars started out as a cold, icy planet.
Today, even though the planet appears completely sterile, it's still a driving question whether Mars has ever had the conditions for life to begin, or at least to survive.
The quest for life on Mars needs to answer two questions: When was Mars wet? And for how long?
Mars today is bone-dry and colder than Antarctica. Although it must have formed originally with lots of water and air, its weak gravity couldn't keep water vapor and other gases from escaping to space.
But we're sure that during its first billion years or so, before the atmosphere escaped, Mars had rain and snow. Scientists think there was probably water enough for a large ocean in the lowlands around its north pole.
The evidence is compelling. Orbiting spacecraft have mapped landforms that can only be riverbeds, water-carved canyons and coastlines from a former ocean basin. Robot landers have photographed features in rocks, like crossbeds in sandstone, that only flowing water can produce. And they've found chemical evidence of minerals, like clays and gypsum, that require water to form.
The presence of water proves Mars once had what scientists call habitable conditions. But it's not enough just to establish that water once existed. The evidence from Earth suggests it takes many millions of years, and a specific range of physical and chemical conditions, for life to arise.
The evidence allows some scientists to argue that Mars was warm and wet very early, between 4 and 3 billion years ago. (All the planets are about 4.6 billion years old.) Others hold that conditions must have been dry and frozen most of the time, with brief periods of warmth and running water after geologic events like major volcanic episodes or large asteroid impacts. The prospects for life on Mars depend strongly on these details.
Yet a third group of researchers is approaching the history of Mars from another direction. They ask questions like, How do you build a Mars that starts out warm and wet? What kinds of global climate were once possible on Mars?
Robin Wordsworth is one of those people. His research team at Harvard has a state-of-the-art computer model that can reproduce any given planet and its atmosphere in three dimensions. It's aimed at rocky exoplanets in general, not just Mars. He trained the model on Mars with the help of colleagues Laura Kerber of Caltech, Raymond Pierrehumbert of the University of Chicago, François Forget of the Laplace Institute in Paris and James Head of Brown University.
Wordsworth's study, accepted for publication in the Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets, uses his global atmospheric model to recreate the Martian climate 3 or 4 billion years ago. We know several things about that time: the sun was about three-fourths as bright as it is today, the Martian poles were tilted much more strongly, the planet's greenhouse atmosphere was much thicker than today and most of its surface features were the same as they are today.
Wordsworth ran two different versions of ancient Mars by manipulating the atmosphere. One had a relatively thin atmosphere, a frozen ocean and was cold, averaging -55 degrees Fahrenheit. The other had an extra-thick atmosphere, was heated by an extra-hot sun and was warm enough to support liquid water and rainfall, averaging 50 degrees Fahrenheit.
The model proceeded to calculate how the winds would blow, how clouds would form, where rain and snow would fall and how the streams would flow.
In the warm scenario, the model predicted high precipitation in certain regions like Arabia Terra and the Hellas basin, but water-carved landforms are scarce in those places. Likewise it predicted a "rain shadow" downwind of the great Tharsis bulge, but features made by water are abundant there instead.
In the cold scenario, the steep axial tilt of Mars (nearly twice its present value, at 41.8 degrees) meant that snow and ice accumulated not around the poles but around the equator, especially in the highlands. This concentrated water-carved landforms in that region too, which is where they're found today.
In general, Wordsworth found it hard to make a warm Mars work at all. It required unrealistic conditions, and the results didn't match the landscape. It was easier to have a cold Mars that could be warmed up every once in a while. Orbital changes, volcanism, and cosmic impacts could all do the job and send water coursing over the Martian surface, leaving the telltale signs that remain today.
This is a pioneering study that relies on many simplifying assumptions. But it strongly suggests that Mars in its youth was white, not blue, before it turned red. Still unknown is whether Mars was ever green. | https://www.kqed.org/science/58350/young-mars-the-red-planet-started-out-white |
Fluvial landforms at the morphological-unit scale (~ 1-10 channel widths) are typically delineated and mapped either by breaking up the one-dimensional longitudinal profile with no accounting of lateral variations or by manually classifying surface water patterns and two-dimensional areal extents in situ or with aerial imagery. Mapping errors arise from user subjectivity, varying surface water patterns when the same area is observed at different discharges and viewpoints, and difficulty in creating a complete map with no gaps or overlaps in delineated polygons. This study presents a new theory for delineating and mapping channel landforms at the morphological-unit scale that eliminates in-field subjective decision making, adds full transparency for map users, and enables future systemic alterations without having to remap in the field. Delineation is accomplished through a few basic steps. First, near-census topographic and bathymetric data are used in a two-dimensional hydrodynamic model to create meter-scale depth and velocity rasters for a representative base flow. Second, expert judgment and local knowledge determine the number and nomenclature of landform types as well as the range of base flow depth and velocity over each type. This step does require subjectivity, but it is transparent and adjustable at any time. Third, the hydraulic landform classification is applied to hydraulic rasters to quickly, completely, and objectively map the planform pattern of laterally explicit landforms. Application of this theory will reveal the true natural complexity, yet systematic organization, of channel morphology.
- Publication:
-
Geomorphology
- Pub Date:
- April 2014
- DOI:
- 10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.12.013
- Bibcode: | https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014Geomo.210...14W |
Contributed by:
Valeria Rodriguez | Science Teacher | Miami, FL, USA
This video is a summary of a class demonstration. The video served as a review of what our class did that students could re-watch later.
Here, the students are observing the Flowing Water Model using #streamTables to get evidence about whether landforms remain after geologic processes that formed them stop happening. | https://www.wevideo.com/education-resources/inspiration/modeling-a-geologic-process |
an album, step by step. That page can give you a broad overview of the process. In the studio,
the first stage is typically Basic Tracks. This is when drums and bass are recorded, usually
to scratch guitar, vocals, and a click track. After all the drums and bass are completed (sometimes
in two separate stages), artists typically move on to the other rhythm instruments. It makes the most
sense to build from the foundation up, laying down the strong timekeeping elements first, and then
progressing on to melodic instruments. Usually, little filler parts such as percussion and key parts
are added last to help fill in any unwanted space.
This of course assumes a typical rock band. For singer-songwriters, the entire
process might be recording the guitar and voice live, or whatever combination of instruments performed.
What we feel is the best method, regardless of instrumentation, is to lay the strong timekeeping
elements first, and then move on. In today's drum-machine perfect world, a click track makes a lot
of sense - and we often recommend recording with one. It keeps time square, and allows more options
later down the recording process.
Once basic tracks are recorded, additional parts are Overdubbed, meaning they
are played to the existing tracks. Again, progressing from the strong time keeping parts to the more
melodic parts is always best in our experience. We feel that recording the main melody line, often a
lead vocal, is best done with the track as full as possible. This gives a singer the best possible
chance of developing the emotion everyone has worked into the track. However, be careful of recording
background vocal parts before the lead. Some people can do this quite well, but usually, it gets
constraining to try to lock the lead vocal to the BGVs timing.
After all the tracks are recorded, a cursory check should be done on a rough mix
to make sure everything is complete and correct. Often, engineers and producers will perform a few
final edits, create composite tracks of vocals and leads, and then prep for mixing!
Mixing is the stage where all the elements are combined to deliver the final track.
Mixing can be very straightforward, almost pushing up the faders and printing, to very complex mixes
taking a few days per song. It's really dependant on the nature of the production. Something with more
tracks takes longer to weed through, and every time during tracking someone said "we'll just take out
whatever we don't want in the mix" add at least an hour to the mix. Seriously!!!
After all the songs are mixed, typically the mixes get Tweaked, or little revisions,
perhaps a word is too low here or maybe the solo should be a little louder. We also like to spend one
last day running all the mixes in the sequence of the album to a final master, and then listen to the
whole print start to finish.
At Mixed Emotions Music, we can deliver audio on 24 Bit or 16 Bit DAT, CD Audio,
or various data formats such as Sound Designer II, .wav, AIFF, or MP3. It's important to call your
mastering facility to determine which format they accept before you decide to commit!!! Often, having
the mastering house call us (or vice versa) will help remedy any possible confusion, and helps us to
determine the highest quality format to deliver your master on. We don't perform mastering services
here at Mixed Emotions Music, but we're happy to provide you with the phone numbers of quality
mastering facilities here in Boston and also in NYC.
Every project should have the material mastered at a competent facility. Often
times, this last step is the biggest difference between albums of similar scope and budget. By not
skimping on this crucial final step, you can present your material at its very best.
Copyright © 2020 Mixed Emotions Music, Brock Bouchard
For comments or issues with this site please contact our web master. | http://www.mixedemotionsmusic.com/Prepare/StepsInvolved.aspx |
# Stem mixing and mastering
Stem-mixing is a method of mixing audio material based on creating groups of audio tracks and processing them separately prior to combining them into a final master mix. Stems are also sometimes referred to as submixes, subgroups, or buses.
The distinction between a stem and a separation is rather unclear. Some consider stem manipulation to be the same as separation mastering, although others consider stems to be sub-mixes to be used along with separation mastering. It depends on how many separate channels of input are available for mixing and/or at which stage they are on the way towards reducing them to a final stereo mix.
The technique originated in the 1960s, with the introduction of mixing boards equipped with the capability to assign individual inputs to sub-group faders and to work with each sub-group (stem mix) independently from the others. The approach is widely used in recording studios to control, process and manipulate entire groups of instruments such as drums, strings, or backup vocals, in order to streamline and simplify the mixing process. Additionally, as each stem-bus usually has its own inserts, sends and returns, the stem-mix (sub-mix) can be routed independently through its own signal processing chain, to achieve a different effect for each group of instruments. A similar method is also utilised with digital audio workstations (DAWs), where separate groups of audio tracks may be digitally processed and manipulated through discrete chains of plugins.
Stem-mastering is a technique derived from stem mixing. Just as in stem-mixing, the individual audio tracks are grouped together, to allow for independent control and signal processing of each stem, and can be manipulated independently from each other. Most of the mastering engineers require music producers to have at least -3db headroom at each individual track before starting stem mastering process. The reason for this is to leave more space in the mix to make the mastered version sound cleaner and louder. Even though it is not commonly practiced by mastering studios, it does have its proponents.
## Stem
In audio production, a stem is a group of audio sources mixed together, usually by one person, to be dealt with downstream as one unit. A single stem may be delivered in mono, stereo, or in multiple tracks for surround sound.
In sound mixing for film, the preparation of stems is a common stratagem to facilitate the final mix. Dialogue, music and sound effects, called "D-M-E", are brought to the final mix as separate stems. Using stem mixing, the dialogue can easily be replaced by a foreign-language version, the effects can easily be adapted to different mono, stereo and surround systems, and the music can be changed to fit the desired emotional response. If the music and effects stems are sent to another production facility for foreign dialogue replacement, these non-dialogue stems are called "M&E". The dialogue stem is used by itself when editing various scenes together to construct a trailer of the film; after this some music and effects are mixed in to form a cohesive sequence.
In music mixing for recordings and for live sound, stems are subgroups of similar sound sources. When a large project uses more than one person mixing, stems can facilitate the job of the final mix engineer. Such stems may consist of all of the string instruments, a full orchestra, just background vocals, only the percussion instruments, a single drum set, or any other grouping that may ease the task of the final mix. Stems prepared in this fashion may be blended together later in time, as for a recording project or for consumer listening, or they may be mixed simultaneously, as in a live sound performance with multiple elements. For instance, when Barbra Streisand toured in 2006 and 2007, the audio production crew used three people to run three mixing consoles: one to mix strings, one to mix brass, reeds and percussion, and one under main engineer Bruce Jackson's control out in the audience, containing Streisand's microphone inputs and stems from the other two consoles.
Stems may be supplied to a musician in the recording studio so that the musician can adjust a headphones monitor mix by varying the levels of other instruments and vocals relative to the musician's own input. Stems may also be delivered to the consumer so they can listen to a piece of music with a custom blend of the separate elements. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stem_mixing_and_mastering |
1. Please make sure that ALL audio files are included within your session. Although all the audio files show up when you open the session on your computer that does not mean that the files are in the correct location (if you are using Pro Tools it is the Audio Files Folder). Tip: Try opening the session on a different computer than the one you have been recording with. This will tell you right away if any audio files are missing. Nothing halts a mixing session quicker than missing tracks!
2. If you use a different Digital Audio Workstation (DAW) other than Pro Tools, send us each individual track in the session in separate .Wav files. Make sure that all of the files start at the exact same time in your session. Consolidating each file starting at the beginning of the session will ensure that all audio tracks line up correctly together. Make sure that the sample rate and bit depths are the same you recorded them at. This is not the time to convert the files down to 16 bit/44.1kHz. For example, if you recorded you audio at 24 bit/96khz, the files that you send to us should also be 24 bit/96kHz. These are details that we can work out when we discuss your project.
3. Please make sure that any edits you have made to your audio are clean and do not contain any clicks or pops. Use a cross fade to get rid of any clicks and pops!
4. If you have a specific effect that you have created with an FX processor or a plug-in, please print (record) the effect into the session. Don't assume that we have all of the same processors or plug-ins.
5. If you have a specific blend of instruments, such as an orchestral section or horn section that you prefer to be kept as is in the mix, please print that blend of instruments to a stereo audio track. Please also include individual tracks so that adjustments can be made if necessary.
Preparing For Mastering
Sounding good on the way in translates to sounding even better on the way out. That’s the rule of thumb in music production, and the mastering phase is certainly no exception to this rule. To get the best results for your product, please ensure that your final mixes are properly prepared before you submit them for mastering.
Below are some things to listen for before sending in your final mixes for our mastering service
1.) Peak levels and headroom: Please leave us enough room to work. Check all of your busses and make sure no meters are peaking. Your master buss should peak between -6db and -3db. Also make sure there are no limiters and only mild compression on your master buss if necessary. If the delivered mixes are already heavily limited and running right close to 0dBFS, there is MUCH less that can be accomplished in the mastering phase to correct any problems that may exist
2.) Vocal sibilance: This is one of the issues commonly dealt with during audio mastering, but even with powerful mastering tools, attempts to reduce vocal sibilance will often affect other elements in a mix. Make sure all "SSSS", "SH", and "CH" sounds are properly altered in your mix so that your master will have the clarity and presence it deserves
3.) Final reviews and second opinion: Listen to your final mixes on multiple systems prior to submitting your tracks from mastering. Listen very carefully for any glitches, or undesired sounds that may have occurred during the tracking or mixing phase. Get a second opinion from a music friend or trusted producer that pays close attention to detail. Sometimes a small defect from a mix will become more distinct after the levels are turned up in the mastering phase
What Is Mastering?
We all know that the hit songs we listen to, whether they are from purchased albums or on the radio, are recorded and mixed in studios and then distributed to the world. But in between these two main processes is another process, which is as important and vital in creating top-quality productions. This step is called mastering. It is the final step after recording and mixing before distribution.
What exactly is “mastering”?
The process of mastering involves the improvement of your audio track overall, including EQ and other enhancements. With that being said, your audio tracks will be given maximum clarity and volume, as well as balance and depth. This is also the stage where the archive copy is created. The master copy is the copy sent to manufacturing companies for duplication and reproduction, while the archive copy is sent back to the recording studio for archiving. After which, your albums will be out in the market, ready for competition against other commercially released albums and records.
Why is mastering that important?
With the ever-growing population of artists and producers in the music industry, your competition is increasing exponentially. Working as an artist or producer, especially independently, you do not want to jump in that pool with incomplete tracks. You must have your pieces enhanced to their fullest potential. Mastering works to give your product the necessary edge to surpass the competition.
So what's it all mean?
When an artist or band records several songs, they generally record one song at a time. The resulting variety of outputting levels, volumes and EQ’s requires mastering. A skilled Mastering Engineer can push your project to new heights. They maximize track dynamics, EQ, depth, punch, compression, enhance detail, and edit spacing between tracks on your album, giving the sound and volume throughout its playlist continuity. Without this step, your songs may sound poor and unprepared as a body of work.
Our engineers ensure that the mixing characteristics utilized match your style or genre of music and match them as needed. With mastering completed, a good song can become a hit record, and a good album can become an excellent one. The skillful mastery of your tracks provides a more professional feel, whether they are recorded at home or in high-end studios. Consider CD mastering for your project, as it can produce that punch your albums need for a higher probability of success. | https://www.soundloftstudios.com/faqs/ |
The APERIO is a fully balanced, complete sound reproduction system. Designed as a reference studio monitoring headphone system for high resolution audio production (recording, mixing, mastering), it's also a high-end playback device for consumer use. The APERIO is fully suitable for networking, exceeding typical DLNA limitations and allowing digital audio reproduction of native or DoP 256 fs DSD and higher sample rate PCM formats to 384kHz. | https://www.moon-audio.com/videos/v/warwick-acoustics-aperio-headphone-system-review/228135278 |
In this final instalment, lets look at the Mastering process for Dolby Atmos during Bombay Velvet. The Mastering and workflow help was given by Bharat Reddy and Dwarak Warrier from Dolby India. Dear friend and the resident Dolby Jedi Masters! This step is very little documented online and I will try to explain it as detailed as I can. It would help to have a look at the workflow diagram and the atmos format I have mentioned.
Mastering
One thing that is different in a Film mastering compared to mastering songs for audio is the meaning of the term itself. In the Mastering process for a CD or iTunes etc, great care is taken to ensure the different songs are similar in levels, the dynamics are clean, the song breaks are ok. There will be a master compressor, Limiter, EQ, etc, and many times, the song mix will sound different after mastering. None of this happens in a film mix master!
The reason I mention this is because I was asked quite a few times as to what mastering plugins do I use, what compression is used during the final master etc. The reason is that Film Sound is spread over a very long period and so the mix itself is done to sound the way it is intended to sound. There is no final overall glazing process that I use. I am not sure if that is the case worldwide but I would definitely think so. Any compressor or limiter would be in chain during mixing itself.
Preparing for Mastering
For the mastering, the sessions are prepared with all the start marks and first frame of action (Commonly called as FFOA which stands for the first frame of the reel where the movie starts. It is 48 frames after the beep) and the Last frame of Action (LFOA). Once these are done, the timecodes are entered into the RMU’s (Rendering and Mastering Unit) interface. The control is via a web interface on the RMU itself. Once done, the playback is started 15 seconds before the beep. the reason is to also have a buffer for the file while doing overlaps. This time, since we were running two systems in sync and didnt have an additional system to record the Atmos Printmaster, the final atmos mix was recorded only on the RMU. Simultaneously, the downmix is recorded onto a separate recorder in 7.1 from which we created the 5.1.
The Mastering Process
The Mastering Process involves the RMU recording the mix that we send to it via the 128 inputs on MADI. The process is done reel wise. Basically we run the mix and the RMU records.
The Transport section that you see is only active during mastering. The RMU requires LTC (Linear Time Code) for sync and mastering. Without that, the mastering wouldn’t trigger. The Web interface on the Mastering unit has the option to show where the files are being recorded to. It creates 48kHz and 24bit .wav files. The first 10 are labelled as the beds and the remaining are the objects. So, what is created after a recording pass is :
Ten mono .wav files, which make up the 9.1 bed
One .prm and one .wav file per object
One dub_out.rpl file
The dub_out.rpl file is basically an xml format file that has the details of all the associated wav files that are recorded. The .prm file contains the panner automation that we make on the plugin. This is also recorded and each object will have its associated prm file.
The Encoding
Once the Mastering is done, it has to be encoded into the DCP. The DCP that is made for atmos has some requirements. The Original fils comes from the DCP package that contains the 5.1 mix. Once that is made, the file issent to the dolby consultant with a KDM. KDM stands for Key Delivery Message. It is a license file that specifies the limitations of an encrypted file like when should it play, which theater it should play etc. The KDM is provided for a particular reason. When the consultant gets the DCP with the 5.1 embedded, they have to unwrap it, and add the atmos tracks into it. At this stage, there is one step that is done. Once the mastering is done, it has to be encoded into an MXF format. It is this MXF that is added into the DCP. But, the DCP is always made as a First half and second half each of which is an individual clip. How is it that the atmos that has been mastered reelwise converted into this?
There is a tool that is used which can match the Beep and also “stitch” the multiple reels into a single first half and second half audio. One of he biggest issue is usually sync. The Atmos encoding method allows for the tracks to be slipped as they have buffers to do so.
At this stage, there is one important thing that needs to be considered. It is called overlaps. An overlap is basically any music or sound that extends beyond a reel and needs to be taken into the next reels beginning. This is usually music or the tails. Now, the issue with the digital format is it is sample based. If there is a cut that is made on a sound that contains low frequency then you will hear a click oat the reel change. To prevent this usually the score is ended before the reel ends or has a highpass that can be run at the very end on the transition.
So, once the reels are stitched, the atmos tracks are added into the DCP. The DCP has a naming convention that is followed.
The DCP created by the Atmos encoder is a SMPTE standard. The usual standard followed by Qube or Scrabble is an interop standard although there is talk that the SMPTE will be the standard for DCPs in the future. You can read more about it here. Once all of this is done, we have an Atmos Package that can then be played back in theaters.
This concludes the entire workflow that was used during the mix in Bombay Velvet. I hope you had a great time reading it as I had mixing it and documenting it. I hope it was useful for all of you. Here’s wishing to great soundtracks and techniques and more importantly learning and sharing. Please do watch it in the theaters and let me know your thoughts.
Till next time, Enjoy! | https://film-mixing.com/2015/05/06/bombay-velvet-dolby-it-atmos-mastering/ |
In the first part of a new series, Paul White looks at the practicalities of stereo editing. So, if you plan on compiling your stereo mixes into an album master, you'd better read on. This is the first article in a three‑part series.
I'll start this short series with an overview of the tools required for stereo editing, and I'll be following on from this in the coming months with workshops focusing on the editing process itself. Editing is a subject that doesn't get a lot of coverage, yet it is an important stage in the life of most musical projects and one which often occurs some time after mixing is completed. For those projects that aren't going to be commercially mastered, some of the elements normally associated with mastering may even need to be included at the editing stage.
Editing VS Mastering
I run a small studio in order to keep up to date with recording equipment and techniques, but the majority of such commercial work as I undertake is associated with editing, or combined editing and mastering, for small‑budget independent releases. Clients generally expect to arrive at the studio with a DAT tape containing various different mixes of each of their tracks, and it's my job to create a perfect version destined for the finished album. The client may also want to change the structure of one or more songs by, for example, adding or removing choruses, shortening solos or whatever. All these operations involve high‑precision cut‑and‑paste editing.
A common requirement is for clicks and other unwanted noises to be removed, which isn't always straightforward. Very brief 'digital' clicks can often be dealt with by 'drawing in' an approximation of the correct waveform in the vicinity of the click. However, in other instances an offending section has to be removed and the remaining parts rejoined, often with a crossfade to disguise any discontinuity. This is often the course of action when unwanted noise extends over several cycles of the audio waveform — electrical interference and short physical noises (such as a lip smack, a page rustle, a bow tapping a cello) are common culprits. Some software packages, such as BIAS Peak, are equipped with special tools for removing clicks which may be more effective than trying to do the job manually.
Once the individual songs are completed, they need to be topped and tailed, removing noise immediately preceding and following the track. At this stage unwanted count‑ins are removed and track endings are faded out as necessary — in addition to conventional long fade‑outs, sometimes the very end of a final decaying note will need to be swiftly faded to silence for a smooth, clean ending. After topping and tailing, the songs have to be placed in the correct order, allowing suitable gaps between them. Their levels must also be examined and may need to be adjusted so that all the songs sit together comfortably. Likewise, it may be necessary to equalise tracks mixed at different times to make the album sound more homogenous, and in extreme cases it may be desirable to add a little artificial ambience to an otherwise finished mix so as to make all the songs sound as though they were recorded in the same acoustic space.
The line between editing and mastering can often blur, but my advice would be to leave out overall EQ or any form of dynamic processing if a professional mastering engineer is to pick up the project later. However, if you're planning on creating a production master, then you'll need the ability to equalise, compress and limit, ideally within the digital domain.
Tools Of The Trade
Most mastering is now computer‑based, though Alesis have a hardware mastering system in the pipeline, and viable systems are available to both Mac and PC users. a soundcard or interface with digital I/O is essential for any serious work, though it's always useful to have good A‑D/D‑A converters — jobs still come in on analogue tape, and some projects are best tackled with analogue equalisation. The A‑D converters should ideally be capable of working at 20‑ or 24‑bit resolution, so that when the final file is bit‑reduced for CD mastering, noise‑shaped dithering can be used to retain as much of the original dynamic range as possible. Sample‑rate conversion is also a facility you may need from time to time, because 48kHz masters, such as are made on consumer digital recorders, should always be changed to 44.1kHz format if destined for CD production.
Once you've got your computer and your audio interface sorted out, you'll need to fit a separate drive for audio, ideally one with a capacity of 3Gb or more. Although a finished album seldom takes up more than 750Mb, you need to allow extra space for storing alternate takes, temporary files and, in some cases, image files of the completed tracks or album. Any modern drive should be fast enough for stereo editing, but get the fastest you can anyway and always ensure you use an AV drive — a drive that looks after its thermal recalibration during times when it's not being asked to record or deliver audio.
Perhaps the most important decision is which software to use, because although there are numerous packages out there with the capability for waveform editing, few have the precision tools needed to edit between sections of a song. It's nice to be able to see the waveform on either side of an edit, but what's more important is to be able to listen repeatedly over an edit point while nudging region boundaries in small (preferably user‑definable) increments. This allows you to get the timing absolutely right for any programme material — drum beats in pop music may make edit points very visible in a waveform display, but in classical music such visual cues may be almost non‑existent.
Slicing And Dicing
The first step in any project is to divide the audio file up into regions. There's invariably some sort of overview waveform, showing you how the whole file looks, from which you can access a main waveform window where you zoom in to define regions accurately with a cursor. However, audio scrubbing is also a must, as it's often necessary to identify an edit point by ear when the shape of the waveform provides insufficient clues. Another useful feature of many software editors is the ability to mark region boundaries by setting edit points on the fly usually by hitting a key on your computer keyboard. Providing you have a reasonable sense of rhythm, you can get very close to the perfect edit point using this method, especially if the music has a clearly defined beat.
But getting the timing right often isn't enough to avoid a small but audible click at your edit point, especially if the edit isn't masked by a drum beat, so a means of crossfading between regions is also pretty vital. One point to make here is that some packages only give you the means to loop around a single edit, but this isn't so good if the region following the edit is only a single beat long — not a regular occurence, I'll grant you, but I have had to insert individual beats before now. The limitation in only being able to loop around one edit is that the section following the edit may not be long enough for you to get a feel for how the edit is working. If you can loop around two edits, on the other hand, you get to hear the newly inserted beat or section in context, enabling you to judge whether the edits and timing are OK.
For those projects that aren't going to be commercially mastered, some of the elements normally associated with mastering may need to be included at the editing stage.
An editing workstation ought also to allow you to normalise and adjust the gain of different regions, as well as providing the facility to create fade‑ins and fade‑outs (either destructively or non‑destructively). Less necessary, but still immensely useful, is the ability to equalise, compress, limit and otherwise process regions or selected sections of your sound file. If the software supports plug‑ins, so much the better — you can choose the best tools for each specific job. Most of the time I can get by using just the Waves L1 limiter and Q10 parametric equaliser, but occasionally it's extremely useful to have access to other functions, such as denoising or stereo width manipulation.
Doing, Undoing, Redoing
Something to check out is how the software you're thinking of using handles removing a short section from the middle of a file and then joining up the two ends. Programs such as BIAS Peak can do this non‑destructively, only permanently changing the file when you press Save. Sound Designer II, however, actually erases the selected data from disk before shifting all the following material to close up the gap — when you're working with an album‑length file, this can mean a 20‑minute delay while the whole file is rewritten, which is clearly not ideal when you're trying to work quickly.
Virtually all editing software permits at least one level of undo, but with SDII, undoing an edit like the one described takes almost as long as doing it. Furthermore, if you inadvertently set an edit in motion, you can't cancel it until the process is complete without the risk of corrupting the audio file. Once the calculation is complete, there can also be a further delay of several minutes while the overview waveform is redrawn. Some types of edit need to be made permanent, but nobody seems to have come up with quite the right way of doing it yet. If you do lots of edits before hitting Save in a system that only recalculates the audio file when you save, then you'll lose all your edit data if your computer crashes prior to saving. On the other hand, if all destructive edits are calculated as soon as you do them, you could face hours of waiting during a typical project. The logical way to get around this, and one that nobody seems to have implemented yet, it to have two save modes: one to save your temporary edit data and another to update the file. That way you could put off the time‑consuming process of rewriting the file until a convenient time without worrying about data loss in a crash.
It's always useful to have good A‑D/D‑A converters — jobs still come in on analogue tape, and some projects are best tackled with analogue equalisation.
Already there are several software packages dedicated to stereo editing, though I can only comment on the ones I've actually tried. Digidesign's Sound Designer II (Mac only) has been around for years now, but although it's fallen behind its competitors in some areas, I still find it the fastest and most reliable system for commercial work. Having said that, programs like Steinberg's Wavelab (PC), Sonic Foundry's Sound Forge (PC), BIAS Peak (Mac) and TC Spark (Mac) are much more sophisticated in many respects, especially in their ability to support real‑time effects plug‑ins other than TDM. The way of the immediate future seems to be VST plug‑in support, but don't be seduced by such frills if the core tools don't do the essential basics of the job.
If you tend to mix your songs so they don't require any further editing, the audio side of most MIDI + Audio sequencers is easily up to the job of stringing an album together, and because most use VST plug‑ins, you can also do a reasonable amount of signal processing. All allow you to change the level of a section of audio as well as applying fade‑ins and fade‑outs, while gain changes or fades can usually be drawn in as an envelope. Alternatively, a package such as Emagic's Waveburner (currently Mac only), provides a simple way of compiling finished songs into an album, and as a bonus, it includes CD‑burning capability including PQ coding and ISRC subcode entry.
Monitoring
Other than the computer workstation itself and a DAT machine for loading in clients' work, you'll also need a suitable monitoring system. If your compiled album is going to be mastered professionally, then your monitors only need to be accurate enough to reveal any distortions or noises that need taking care of. On the other hand, if you're planning to take the project to the mastering stage and deliver a master tape or CD‑R from which an album can be pressed, you're going to need the most accurate monitoring system you get hold of. The monitors should be set up symmetrically, just as in a traditional studio setup, and your working environment should be as quiet as possible, which means putting your noisy PCs and drives in a ventilated cupboard rather than having them sitting on the desk in front of you.
In Part 2, I'm going to work through a typical editing session, starting with loading the audio into the computer.
A Brief History Of Editing
The art and mechanics of editing audio have not only evolved, but revolved too in the history of recorded sound. Sixty‑odd years ago when recorded sound was a new thing, there were really only two approaches: recording to disc (coarse groove at 78rpm) or to the optical sound track on the outer edge of a film.
Film can only be edited at the picture frame boundaries, so the audio editing resolution was restricted to specific finite points in time — just like modern data‑reduced digital audio formats, which also have 'frame boundaries'. The actual cutting of the film (and soundtrack) was normally performed on a special cutting block with pins to locate the film's sprocket holes and hinged blades to ensure the cut was in the correct place. Sections of the film would be joined using glue or a special transparent adhesive tape. Deciding where to edit the sound could be done both aurally and visually, because 'variable area' soundtracks display the actual waveform of the recorded sound. Selecting the appropriate place for an edit could often be done by sight alone, in much the same way as with a modern DAW.
Records could be edited too, after a fashion. Since the grooves were relatively widely spaced, and the record revolved so fast, the stylus could be raised after the wanted sound, moved across the record and dropped back just ahead of the next wanted audio! It took a little skill and practice, but live broadcasts of pre‑recorded material were edited on the fly this way for many years.
The advent of recording tape made the task of editing a whole load easier and more precise since there were no frame boundaries restricting where edits could be made. Rocking the tape slowly back and forth against the head could, with a little experience, allow extremely accurate location of good editing points. Again, most digital audio workstations provide a simulation of this audio scrubbing process.
The tape is physically cut either with brass scissors (brass can not be magnetised) or with a single‑sided razor blade and a special editing block. Most editing blocks provide three angled slots at 45, 60 and 89 degrees to the axis of the tape. If you imagine a signal recorded across the full width of the tape, an angled cut effectively causes the outgoing audio to fade out and the incoming sound to fade in, typically over a period of about 15mS depending on the speed of the tape. This crossfade reduces the 'thump' which tends to accompany sudden transitions across an edit point. And guess what — all DAWs impose a short cross‑fade at the edit points for the same reasons.
The 45‑degree slope is fine for a full‑width mono recording but causes a few problems with half‑track stereo recordings. The sloping cut means that one channel changes before the other and causes a 'flashing' edit where the stereo image seems to flick briefly over to one side and back again. Using a steeper angle reduces the effect, hence the introduction of the 60 degree angle, and being careful not to clip the start of incoming or outgoing audio also helps enormously. The 89 degree angle is only used when it is necessary to make simultaneous cuts in both channels, perhaps for manual declicking of a noisy record transcription, for instance. | https://www.soundonsound.com/techniques/stereo-editing-part-1 |
Recently, while taking notes during a personal mentoring session with Quincy Jones, I stopped writing. All of a sudden, something he said hit me so hard I knew I would never forget it.
Quincy was talking about a world-wide cultural trend he has observed since the mid 1990’s. A trend of declining hard work. A trend of less and less apprenticeships and mentorships. A trend of lowered work-ethic discipline. A trend which has taken root in, amongst other industries, our very own Music Industry. Ironically, the downtrend is exactly opposite to the uptrending innovations of the high-tech computer industry, which has seen astronomical product growth and previously unimaginable technical achievements during the same time period.
Quincy also pointed out that the declining trend within the Music Industry is not something that has taken hold of everyone; it is not so bleak that everyone is trapped within it. There are plenty of examples of people who work hard, who work ethically and who are excellent teachers and excellent students within our industry. It’s just that the overall international downward trend is undeniable.
Basically, he was describing a phenomenon I had already researched. And something I already knew.
The moment I realized that I didn’t really, fully understand what he was trying to get me to see – was the moment I stopped writing and started thinking hard about what he was saying.
And right here is where the power of a mentorship – or any form of effective education -- is invaluable: Being inspired to act on knowledge and acting on it effectively, consistently and with success out of personal pride and/or in order to show your mentor/teacher that you appreciate his or her efforts -- and especially to be able to share with others what you have learned. That is the true power of effective education. It can transform an entire industry, nation or world, one person at a time. When effective education is in place, the results speak for themselves. And that’s when a student can demonstrate that he or she actually understands a subject.
And truthfully, there is always room to learn more.
1. The habit of working hard and steadily.
The word Industry comes from the Latin word Industria; which means active, diligent.
– both working hand in hand.
The PURPOSE is to create a pleasant listening experience for the end-user, and to enhance not only the quality of the sound of the recording, but even more importantly - the emotional impact of the music itself for the listener.
And in order to carry out those processes, one must be Industrious. If one is to achieve the highest quality Mastering possible on any particular recording, there is an attitude, an approach – a WAY of mastering music that you will find is shared by all great Mastering Engineers. It’s a very professional and thorough approach to both the Scientific and the Artistic Process.
It can be summed up in two words: Quality Control. Quality Control is an approach of how you work. It can be developed. It can be taught. It can always be improved in an individual. And if you make it your priority, something very interesting will happen to your career. Though it will seem counter-intuitive, you will find yourself getting more done faster – and with much higher quality. Seems at first like it would slow you down. It doesn’t.
What slows down careers and people is a LACK of quality control.
I found this common denominator 100% prevalent amongst successful Mixing and Mastering Engineers. In fact, I found Quality Control playing a much larger role now than in the pre-digital recording era, back in the analog days. Why? Because of the number of choices available to anyone in any single digital mixing or mastering session are astronomical. So the need for Quality Control has increased tremendously. How much Quality Control does the pilot of a single engine Cessna airplane need to exercise. Quite a bit. But now – compare that to the amount of Quality Control needed to fly a 747. With technology comes not only freedom, but a greater need for discipline and control.
And so, in putting together this Blog, I realized that our industry is lacking an up-to-date definition of Mastering itself. Because what Mastering actually is has changed – even over the last 5 years.
In the real world today, there are four different approaches and applications of Mastering, but currently there is only one definition. I realized that a new definition was needed to clearly define each separate approach and application. Note: For the purpose of Licensing your own music, pay particular close attention to the fourth approach to Mastering.
Mastering in the audio recording domain is a set of actions taken by the Mastering Engineer (or not - if the recording has passed his standards without Mastering) that governs the final outcome of how a recording will sound, with the final goal being to create a pleasant listening experience for the end-user, on any medium and to enhance not only the quality of the sound of the recording, but even more importantly - the emotional impact of the recording itself for the listener. Every action taken by the Mastering Engineer falls under one heading: Quality Control.
“Mastering is the last creative step in the audio production process, the bridge between Mixing and Replication (or Distribution).” – Bob Katz “Mastering Audio – The Art and The Science” Second Edition. Focal Press. Traditional (Final) Analog Mastering is done in the analog domain as compared to the computer driven digital domain. In analog mastering, all (or most) of the gear used is tape-based and analog driven. This form of mastering is actually on the increase throughout the word, as the number of Vinyl records being manufactured, distributed and sold increases every year. In the U.K., the Mastering process is viewed more as the first step in distribution, whereas in the U.S., it is viewed more as the final step of recording. This term includes the word “Final” to distinguish traditional mastering approaches (done as a final step) from newer approaches of Stem Mastering and Independent Mastering.
“Mastering is the last creative step in the audio production process, the bridge between Mixing and Replication (or Distribution).” – Bob Katz “Mastering Audio – The Art and The Science” Second Edition. Focal Press. Traditional (Final) Digital Mastering is done in the digital domain as compared to the tape driven analog domain. In digital mastering, all (or most) of the gear used is digital-based and computer driven. This form of mastering is done by professional Mastering Engineers who receive stereo files of mixed sessions from Mixing Engineers and returns fully mastered files to the client. This form of mastering also includes adding meta-data, codes and tracking information to industry standards that helps identify and follow a recording through the international system of digital distribution and sales. This form of mastering can also be used as part of the process of creating a Vinyl record, and often is. In the U.K., the Mastering process is viewed more as the first step in distribution, whereas in the U.S., it is viewed more as the final step of recording. This term includes the word “Final” to distinguish traditional mastering approaches (done as a final step) from newer approaches of Stem Mastering and Independent Mastering.
Stem Mastering is actually a combination of both Mixing and Mastering. Stem Mastering consists of the Mastering Engineer receiving stem files (in this case the stem files, rather than being each individual instrument and/or vocal track exported separately, would be grouped stem files; that is – submixes of groups of instruments and/or submixes of groups of vocals pre-mixed by the mixing engineer, with each stem file starting at the exact same point, making it easy for the Mastering Engineer to quickly line them up and get to work) and taking those stem files and first Mixing them, and then Mastering them. Examples of stem file sub-mix groups would be: VOCALS (sometimes broken down into LEAD VOCALS and BACKING VOCALS), GUITARS, KEYBOARDS, BASS, DRUMS, ORCHESTRATION; or another example of stem file sub-mix groups would be: VOCALS and INSTRUMENTS. When the Mastering Engineer receives the stem files, he loads them up into his workstation and the first thing he does is Mixes the tracks to his taste. The Mastering Engineer may export a final stereo Mix of these sub-mixes prior to Mastering, or he may Master the stem files separately and export the combination of Mastered stem files as the final master of the song. The advantage of Stem Mastering for the client as well as the Mastering Engineer is that if the Mastering engineer hears something such as a problem with a vocal performance in the second chorus, let’s say – he might cut and paste something from the first chorus and use it instead – or if he hears a problem with the relationship between the guitars and the drums (let’s say the guitars were mixed too loud) – with Stem Mastering, he can bring the level of the sub-mix group of guitars down exactly where he feels they should be – rather than trying unusual situations to bring them down if he only had a single stereo mix down of the entire song. Rather than have to give the mix back to the Mixing Engineer and asking him to fix something and then send it back, the Master Engineer has more control over the final product, because, though he cannot mix individual items such as the Kick Drum or one particular Guitar, he can adjust GROUPS of instruments and/or vocals and achieve a product overall closer to his liking. The possible disadvantage is that the artist and/or mixing engineer might not like what the Mastering Engineer Mixes/Masters compared to their own tastes.
a. I adjusted the input gain knob on the pre-amp slowly while test-recording, noting down where the settings were at any given moment by talking into the mic, stating what exactly I was adjusting at that moment, so I could listen to the effect of any change or adjustment during playback and know what was causing any good or bad effect on the signal being recorded.
b. Recording the mic without any vocals at all – just the “silence” of the room, while making both major and fine adjustments on the pre-amp; while noting down in writing what was being adjusted and how (including any numbers or readouts of the equipment or meters) at any given bar on the track.
c. I then played back the “silence” and listened very carefully for the quietest noise floor by turning the volume up considerably, paying very close attention that no sudden spikes of signal are sent to the speakers. I made a final note of where the “silent” mic signal was the quietest, with little or no noise being recorded onto that track. This revealed to me the best settings that would translate into the best Mastering for that recording. This is an example of carrying out the role of “Independent Mastering Engineer” PRIOR TO RECORDING.
You can find out about many more examples and exactly how to apply them in the course.
All four applications of Mastering utilize tools such as Compressors, Limiters, Multi-Band Compressors, Multi-Band Limiters, Soft Clippers, Maximizers, etc. A very clear and thorough definition for each along with visual graphics, videos and animation are included in the course so that you will UNDERSTAND what you are doing when you are preparing a Mix for Mastering, and if you so decide, when you Master yourself.
a) Mastering Music, as it is actually practiced in 2013 (and priorly) has not been codified and standardized in our industry, and so, the subject of Mastering presents itself as an ethereal cloudy mist of “secret knowledge” as it were. I guess another way of saying this is: the subject of Mastering Music hasn’t really fully presented itself ever. There are several pioneers who have done an incredible job of giving us glimpses beyond that mist; with two good examples being Bob Katz and Steve Massey.
b) As you will learn on the course itself, even amongst top Pro Music Industry Mastering Engineers, there are no set standards of 1. Loudness. 2. Monitor Levels and 3. Standard Step-by-Step Guidelines or Checklists for How To Master. (The course “Mysteries Of Mastering Solved” does contain both Guidelines and Checklists for How To Master). Each Mastering Engineer in the past was taught differently with a different philosophy, different goals and different priorities. Some are more workable and some less. This course standardizes the workable approaches to Mastering. You will also learn on the course that a certain related industry DOES have set standards for 1, 2 and 3 above – and you will learn why the Music Industry missed out and was not forged and maintained with the same standards. The good news is, and you will ALSO learn everything there is to know about this on the course – the industry is changing. Certain standards of loudness and monitoring levels and guidelines are beginning to arrive to our industry. Though it may take some time to implement them, one of my main goals through the release of the course, is to speed up that process internationally -- so that you no longer feel like you’re the only one who is frustrated, in the dark and has no clue as to what all the tutorials and articles are really trying to say. Believe me, you are not alone. Though the standards differ between the U.S. and Europe at this time (and a third independent standard is also taking hold) my belief and vision is that the world will see one International Standard of Loudness in the not-so-distant future. In fact, the U.S. and European governing bodies which are beginning to implement the two main standards are both finding that adjustments and changes need to be made – and they’re making them – towards the end of arriving at a fully workable system.
The best news about the course for you is that whether you choose to Master yourself (actually not hard to do when you can cut through the “Mist And The Mystery”), or whether you decide to send your mixes out to be mastered, learning this material will make you a far better mixing engineer than you could imagine. So I should post that as a warning: Side Effects – you may experience intense loss of fatigue, worry, frustration and depression with a noticeable acceleration of speed, feelings of relief and more free time (more sleep!) while the quality of your mixing goes out the roof! So there, consider yourself warned.
You will soon learn how closely related Mixing and Mastering are. A lot closer than you may have thought previous. And you will also learn something very valuable and very close to home – you may not realize right now how much you already know about Mastering. Even if you only have a rudimentary grasp of digital recording, you are already well on your way to becoming a great Mastering Engineer. In fact, those who have more experience may find a need to “unlearn” a few things first in order to match and exceed the quality of Major Label Mastering.
We live during a very exciting period of Audio Recording history.
Both Aaron Davison and I are extremely fortunate in being able to connect with you so that we can help you navigate your way to success. | http://www.howtolicenseyourmusic.com/blog/the-music-industry |
In sound recording and reproduction, audio mixing is the process of optimizing and combining multitrack recordings into a final mono, stereo or surround sound product. In the process of combining the separate tracks, their relative levels are adjusted and balanced and various processes such as equalization and compression are commonly applied to individual tracks, groups of tracks, and the overall mix. In stereo and surround sound mixing, the placement of the tracks within the stereo (or surround) field are adjusted and balanced.: 11, 325, 468 Audio mixing techniques and approaches vary widely and have a significant influence on the final product.
Audio mixing techniques largely depend on music genres and the quality of sound recordings involved. The process is generally carried out by a mixing engineer, though sometimes the record producer or recording artist may assist. After mixing, a mastering engineer prepares the final product for production.
Audio mixing may be performed on a mixing console or in a digital audio workstation.
In the late 19th century, Thomas Edison and Emile Berliner developed the first recording machines. The recording and reproduction process itself was completely mechanical with little or no electrical parts. Edison's phonograph cylinder system utilized a small horn terminated in a stretched, flexible diaphragm attached to a stylus which cut a groove of varying depth into the malleable tin foil of the cylinder. Emile Berliner's gramophone system recorded music by inscribing spiraling lateral cuts onto a vinyl disc.
Electronic recording became more widely used during the 1920s. It was based on the principles of electromagnetic transduction. The possibility for a microphone to be connected remotely to a recording machine meant that microphones could be positioned in more suitable places. The process was improved when outputs of the microphones could be mixed before being fed to the disc cutter, allowing greater flexibility in the balance.
Before the introduction of multitrack recording, all sounds and effects that were to be part of a recording were mixed simultaneously during a live performance. If the recorded mix was not satisfactory, or if one musician made a mistake, the selection had to be performed over until the desired balance and performance was obtained. The introduction of multi-track recording changed the recording process into one that generally involves three stages: recording, overdubbing, and mixing.
Modern mixing emerged with the introduction of commercial multi-track tape machines, most notably when 8-track recorders were introduced during the 1960s. The ability to record sounds into separate channels made it possible for recording studios to combine and treat these sounds not only during recording, but afterward during a separate mixing process.
The introduction of the cassette-based Portastudio in 1979 offered multi-track recording and mixing technology that did not require the specialized equipment and expense of commercial recording studios. Bruce Springsteen's recorded his 1982 album Nebraska with one. in 1982, and the Eurythmics topped the charts in 1983 with the song "Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This)", recorded by band member Dave Stewart on a makeshift 8-track recorder. In the mid-to-late 1990s, computers replaced tape-based recording for most home studios, with the Power Macintosh proving popular. At the same time, many professional recording studios began to use digital audio workstations or DAWs, first used in the mid-1980s, to accomplish recording and mixing previously done with multitrack tape recorders, mixing consoles, and outboard gear.
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Main article: Mixing console
A mixer (mixing console, mixing desk, mixing board, or software mixer) is the operational heart of the mixing process. Mixers offer a multitude of inputs, each fed by a track from a multitrack recorder. Mixers typically have 2 main outputs (in the case of two-channel stereo mixing) or 8 (in the case of surround).
Mixers offer three main functionalities.
Mixing consoles can be large and intimidating due to the exceptional number of controls. However, because many of these controls are duplicated (e.g. per input channel), much of the console can be learned by studying one small part of it. The controls on a mixing console will typically fall into one of two categories: processing and configuration. Processing controls are used to manipulate the sound. These can vary in complexity, from simple level controls, to sophisticated outboard reverberation units. Configuration controls deal with the signal routing from the input to the output of the console through the various processes.
Digital audio workstations (DAW) can perform many mixing features in addition to other processing. An audio control surface gives a DAW the same user interface as a mixing console.
Outboard audio processing units (analog) and software-based audio plug-ins (digital) are used for each track or group to perform various processing techniques. These processes, such as equalization, compression, sidechaining, stereo imaging, and saturation are used to make each element as audible and sonically appealing as possible. The mix engineer also will use such techniques to balance the "space" of the final audio wave; removing unnecessary frequencies and volume spikes to minimize the interference or "clashing" between each element.
The frequency response of a signal represents the amount (volume) of every frequency in the human hearing range, consisting of (on average) frequencies from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz (20 kHz.) There are a variety of processes commonly used to edit frequency response in various ways.
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The mixdown process converts a program with a multiple-channel configuration into a program with fewer channels. Common examples include downmixing from 5.1 surround sound to stereo,[a] and stereo to mono. Because these are common scenarios, it is common practice to verify the sound of such downmixes during the production process to ensure stereo and mono compatibility.
The alternative channel configuration can be explicitly authored during the production process with multiple channel configurations provided for distribution. For example, on DVD-Audio or Super Audio CD, a separate stereo mix can be included along with the surround mix. Alternatively, the program can be automatically downmixed by the end consumer's audio system. For example, a DVD player or sound card may downmix a surround sound program to stereo for playback through two speakers.
Any console with a sufficient number of mix busses can be used to create a 5.1 surround sound mix, but this may be frustrating if the console is not specifically designed to facilitate signal routing, panning, and processing in a surround sound environment. Whether working in an analog hardware, digital hardware, or DAW mixing environment, the ability to pan mono or stereo sources and place effects in the 5.1 soundscape and monitor multiple output formats without difficulty can make the difference between a successful or compromised mix. Mixing in surround is very similar to mixing in stereo except that there are more speakers, placed to surround the listener. In addition to the horizontal panoramic options available in stereo, mixing in surround lets the mix engineer pan sources within a much wider and more enveloping environment. In a surround mix, sounds can appear to originate from many more or almost any direction depending on the number of speakers used, their placement and how audio is processed.
There are two common ways to approach mixing in surround. Naturally, these approaches can be combined in any way the mix engineer sees fit.
Recently, a third approach to mixing in surround was developed by surround mix engineer Unne Liljeblad. | https://db0nus869y26v.cloudfront.net/en/Audio_mixing_(recorded_music) |
Mix bus compression. Do you do it? Should you do it? First off, let me explain what I’m talking about.
When you’re mixing a song, regardless of what DAW you’re using, all of your audio tracks are being fed into a single mix bus. This is normally represented by a master fader of some sort.
When you’re first starting out mixing, the main goal is to mix everything at a decent level without clipping your master bus. As long as you’re happy with your mixes, you can keep doing this…and you don’t have to read the rest of this article.
However, a lot of mix engineers use some sort of compression on the master bus. They’ll slap a compressor or limiter on the master fader. There are several reasons to do this…and not all of them are necessarily “good” reasons.
Let’s take a quick look at a few examples of why you might want to use compression on your entire mix.
Scenario #1 – You’re client wants a demo CD to play in the car.
This is a common request. You finish up a recording session, and before the artist goes home, she would like to take something with her to listen to between now and the next session. (If you’re an artist, you know what I’m talking about. You just want something to listen to, right?)
In this situation, you could simply do a bounce of the song, burn it to CD and send her on her merry way. However, chances are your phone will ring thirty minutes later, and she’ll say, “Something’s wrong with this recording. It’s too quiet! It doesn’t sound as loud as my other CDs.”
What your client may not know is that the audio on a finished, mastered CD has gone through a LOT of compression. Her music will need to be both mixed and mastered before it will be at a relatively “normal” volume.
You can try to explain this to her, and explain why it’s not a faulty recording, but there’s the chance she may start to doubt you a little.
I know, I know. This is probably an extreme example, but it can certainly happen. For this reason, a lot of engineers will simply throw a compressor and/or limiter on the master bus right before bouncing the song down for the client. Since the client knows it’s a rough mix, she won’t expect it to sound perfect, but at least it will be plenty loud.
Scenario #2 – You want your mixes to sound like they’ve been mastered.
In the first scenario, we applied compression/limiting to the mix for the sake of the client, NOT the mix.
However, as you’re working on a project, and listening to your various mixes, you may get the urge to squash them with some compression and limiting to make them sound more like a “polished,” finished, mastered recording.
Here’s where things can get dangerous. Now you’re changing the sound of the mix. Mixing and mastering were meant to be two completely independent phases. When you start trying to mix AND master at the same time, you’ll inevitably do a poor job of both.
What ends up happening is you use too much compression, and you begin to rely on the compressor and limiter to achieve that “sound” you’re going for. This is a backwards work flow.
You should use the normal methods of mixing — EQ and compression on individual tracks, effects, automation, etc. — to make your mixes sound good. As soon as you start relying on the mix bus compression to save you, you’re going down the wrong path.
This isn’t to say you shouldn’t use ANY compression during mixing, but you need to be clear as to why you’re using it. Keep mixing and mastering separate. | https://www.prosoundweb.com/in-the-studio-using-compression-on-your-master-fader/ |
In this final instalment, lets look at the Mastering process for Dolby Atmos during Bombay Velvet. The Mastering and workflow help was given by Bharat Reddy and Dwarak Warrier from Dolby India. Dear friend and the resident Dolby Jedi Masters! This step is very little documented online and I will try to explain it as detailed as I can. It would help to have a look at the workflow diagram and the atmos format I have mentioned.
One thing that is different in a Film mastering compared to mastering songs for audio is the meaning of the term itself. In the Mastering process for a CD or iTunes etc, great care is taken to ensure the different songs are similar in levels, the dynamics are clean, the song breaks are ok. There will be a master compressor, Limiter, EQ, etc, and many times, the song mix will sound different after mastering. None of this happens in a film mix master!
The reason I mention this is because I was asked quite a few times as to what mastering plugins do I use, what compression is used during the final master etc. The reason is that Film Sound is spread over a very long period and so the mix itself is done to sound the way it is intended to sound. There is no final overall glazing process that I use. I am not sure if that is the case worldwide but I would definitely think so. Any compressor or limiter would be in chain during mixing itself.
For the mastering, the sessions are prepared with all the start marks and first frame of action (Commonly called as FFOA which stands for the first frame of the reel where the movie starts. It is 48 frames after the beep) and the Last frame of Action (LFOA). Once these are done, the timecodes are entered into the RMU’s (Rendering and Mastering Unit) interface. The control is via a web interface on the RMU itself. Once done, the playback is started 15 seconds before the beep. the reason is to also have a buffer for the file while doing overlaps. This time, since we were running two systems in sync and didnt have an additional system to record the Atmos Printmaster, the final atmos mix was recorded only on the RMU. Simultaneously, the downmix is recorded onto a separate recorder in 7.1 from which we created the 5.1.
The Mastering Process involves the RMU recording the mix that we send to it via the 128 inputs on MADI. The process is done reel wise. Basically we run the mix and the RMU records.
The dub_out.rpl file is basically an xml format file that has the details of all the associated wav files that are recorded. The .prm file contains the panner automation that we make on the plugin. This is also recorded and each object will have its associated prm file.
Once the Mastering is done, it has to be encoded into the DCP. The DCP that is made for atmos has some requirements. The Original fils comes from the DCP package that contains the 5.1 mix. Once that is made, the file issent to the dolby consultant with a KDM. KDM stands for Key Delivery Message. It is a license file that specifies the limitations of an encrypted file like when should it play, which theater it should play etc. The KDM is provided for a particular reason. When the consultant gets the DCP with the 5.1 embedded, they have to unwrap it, and add the atmos tracks into it. At this stage, there is one step that is done. Once the mastering is done, it has to be encoded into an MXF format. It is this MXF that is added into the DCP. But, the DCP is always made as a First half and second half each of which is an individual clip. How is it that the atmos that has been mastered reelwise converted into this?
There is a tool that is used which can match the Beep and also “stitch” the multiple reels into a single first half and second half audio. One of he biggest issue is usually sync. The Atmos encoding method allows for the tracks to be slipped as they have buffers to do so.
At this stage, there is one important thing that needs to be considered. It is called overlaps. An overlap is basically any music or sound that extends beyond a reel and needs to be taken into the next reels beginning. This is usually music or the tails. Now, the issue with the digital format is it is sample based. If there is a cut that is made on a sound that contains low frequency then you will hear a click oat the reel change. To prevent this usually the score is ended before the reel ends or has a highpass that can be run at the very end on the transition.
So, once the reels are stitched, the atmos tracks are added into the DCP. The DCP has a naming convention that is followed.
The DCP created by the Atmos encoder is a SMPTE standard. The usual standard followed by Qube or Scrabble is an interop standard although there is talk that the SMPTE will be the standard for DCPs in the future. You can read more about it here. Once all of this is done, we have an Atmos Package that can then be played back in theaters.
This concludes the entire workflow that was used during the mix in Bombay Velvet. I hope you had a great time reading it as I had mixing it and documenting it. I hope it was useful for all of you. Here’s wishing to great soundtracks and techniques and more importantly learning and sharing. Please do watch it in the theaters and let me know your thoughts.
Hi, congrats to the whole sound team of BOMBAY VELVET. Thank you so much for sharing your knowledge and am pretty sure I will be returning to it for future ref. The most useful thing I have ever read about the journey of Mixing from Beg. to End in ATMOS format. The great 10 episodes article is Invaluable and inspiring. I just love these kind of behind the scene in Movie making When it comes to Mixing. It just gives me an idea how others work. The most important thing is the way you explained and presented each stage of mixing briefly from start to end in the middle of such busy sessions of mixing is quiet impressive. Keep them coming. Hoping there will be something similar covering the Sound Design for films. I wanted to post the comment after watching the film but I cd not because I am quiet busy in mixing. Certainly I will come back to you after watching the film. Finally that was brilliant in depth journey you made all to travel along with you.
Hi Radha Krishna. Thank you so much for these kind words. It really is very encouraging to read such comments. I tried to make it as simple as possible in this. I didnt write a lot about the sound design because it was done by Kunal and I didnt want to write about something that I hadnt directly done. I have written about all he did in the design process through out and in pieces, but yes not as a separate post in Sound Design because the journey was about mixing and I didnt want to side track from that. 🙂 Thank you again for reading the blog. All the very best!
Hi! I’ve been reading al your posts about Dolby Atmos.
I trying to figure out if Atmos is an option to consider for my next documentary (it will be played in a cinema that has a Dolby Atmos system).
It’s a documentary on a very small budget and I will be doing the post-production myself. I use a 2x Intel xeon i7 workstation with 32gb of memory. For editing I use Premiere Pro CC and use audition CC and iZotope RX4 for the sound edit.
Now am I correct that buying ProTools wich has the Dolby Atmos Panner plug-in is not enough to get this to work? Cause I also read something about needing a Dolby’s outboard Rendering and Mastering Unit (RMU), is that a must? It sounds expensive, I tried google, but couldn’t figure out what it was.
If just the ProTools software would do the trick then I’m still concerned about the DCP export. I now use wraptor dcp in Premiere with their media encoder, wich works perfect, but I now read in your post that it needs a workarround with other programs to get it to work for Dolby Atmos:-) Am I correct?
Thanks for your time and great blog!
Actually you won’t be able to do an atmos mix if it isn’t an atmos studio. The mastering happens only in the dolby unit called an RMU. And only Dolby or approved vendors can make the DCP for atmos. No one else can. So I think you will need to approach an atmos facility to mix.
Thanks for the quick replay!
That’s bad news, haha. But I kinda expected it.
I’ll keep following this blog, you are very in depth! | https://film-mixing.com/2015/05/06/bombay-velvet-dolby-it-atmos-mastering/ |
A sound engineer manages and delivers prerecorded and live audio by electronic means through various formats. A sound engineer has a wide variety of career options. Some examples include audio engineer for a video game company, mastering engineer for a CD-manufacturing plant, front-of-house sound engineer for a theater, broadcast engineer for a radio station, and monitor mix engineer for a touring rock show.
Strong interpersonal skills for handling multiple revisions and/or changes in real time.
The work environment for a sound engineer can generally be divided into two categories: live and studio. Live sound engineers work in clubs, arenas, theaters, houses of worship and outdoor venues. Studio sound engineers work in recording, broadcast, mixing and mastering studios.
In some settings, such as small- to medium-sized rock clubs, sound engineers also function as de-facto stage managers, which means they will manage timing and logistics of the movement of bands on and off the stage.
A professional sound engineer who works full-time earns approximately $30,000 to $70,000 per year.
In general, sound engineers work non-traditional hours, although studio engineers at video game, animation and movie houses work normal business hours.
The majority of live sound engineers are self-employed, although there are large professional audio companies that employ engineers and generally pay a salary (but also may require a travel commitment). Studio engineers usually work as part of an organization, so they are employed by either a creative services firm or directly by a client company. | http://www.cvtips.com/career-choice/sound-engineer-career-facts.html |
Producer/engineer Chuck Ainley (left) visits Mike Spitz in 2007 at the AES Convention in New York City's Javits Convention Center.
The ATR group in York, Penn., comprising ATR Services and ATR Magnetics, announced that one of its owners, Michael Spitz, passed away peacefully on October 12 at age 59, following a courageous battle with cancer (according to obitsforlife.com).
Spitz founded ATR Services in 1991 after leaving Ampex, introducing a series of technical improvements and products to enhance the audio excellence of the Ampex ATR 102 recorder and other tape machines.
Products such as ARIA discrete electronic modules, HDV-2 tube mastering electronics, and the VS-20 high-resolution variable speed controller have been used by recording and mastering engineers to accurately pitch analog master tapes and provide the best possible audio fidelity and accurate playback.
In 1998 ATR Services developed the first practical 1-inch, 2-track studio recorder based on an ATR 102 platform, which proved to be extremely popular for mixing by offering extended dynamic range and excellent bass response at 30 ips.
Following the exits of 3M, BASF/EMTEC, and Quantegy from the analog tape market, ATR Services' sister company, ATR Magnetics, was formed in 2004. The only existing U.S.-based analog tape manufacturer, ATR Magnetics produces a well respected range of high output analog audio mastering tape, winning a TEC Award in 2008.
In 2011 ATR consolidated both divisions—hardware and tape—into a new 13,000-square-foot facility in York, Penn.
Spitz had joined Ampex Corporation in Redwood City, Calif., as a product engineer for the company's Audio Video Systems Division. These systems included all late model products in the professional audio recorder range like the ATR102, ATR124 and MM1200.
Before joining Ampex, he was on staff at Philadelphia's legendary Sigma Sound Studios for six years in the 1970s. He worked as both a recording engineer with major label credits and later as a technical service engineer specializing in the studio's numerous Ampex and 3M recorders.
Prior to Sigma Sound, Mike started as a live sound engineer at the Latin Casino in Cherry Hill, N.J. His earliest audio work experience, in the late 1960s, was in high fidelity (hi-fi) sales, where he became familiar with home playback equipment from high end manufacturers like Audio Research, Decca, Quad, Magneplaner, etc.
Spitz was a devoted and loving husband, father, son and brother to his family. Besides his wife and mother, he leaves a daughter, Lauren N. Spitz; a son, Mark B.G. Spitz; a sister, Alyce L. Soffer and a nephew, David B. Soffer—all of York.
The family requests in lieu of flowers that memorial contributions be made to the SPCA of York County, 3159 Susquehanna Trail North, York, PA 17406, or to a charity of your choice.
Visit ATR Services at www.atrservice.com and ATR Magnetics at atrtape.com. | https://www.mixonline.com/technology/michael-spitz-atr-services-1954-2013-380152 |
For the sake of overviewability i’ll try to first layout a list of things I learnt through experimenting, researching and tutoring myself, to reach the final goal of publishing. Following that i’ll talk about my experience and journey, and try to explain in more depth each topic: important things I retained, major breakthroughs, external resources I used, and whatever details else.
Disclaimer: I am, after all, still an amateur.
The album, naturally, has some flaws. I won’t be able to write down literally everything I know and did happen. The following text are my views and ponderations on the topic, so it should be read as that.
If you disagree with any information here let me know why 🙂
1 — Recording
Learned what hardware and software setup I needed to record myself to make my own record. Also, room acoustics and other.
2 — Music theory
Learned how to conjugate and play instruments together to create music. Some basics.
3 — Drums
Learned basic drum playing, then digital drum machines.
3.5 — Extra recording
Very early recording (using some of the early knowledge mentioned above). It’s amazing how much better I got
4 — Singing
Learned how to get better at singing — and did it. (It was a difficult wall to overcome).
5 — Software Instruments
Learned how to play instruments with the computer keyboard and with a MIDI keyboard, and add texture to my music I couldn’t have been able to otherwise. (Music theory came very handy for this).
6 — Mixing
Learned to mix, at least decently. (I didn’t expect it to be this hard).
7 — Mastering
Learned it’s not the same as mixing, and how to do it well enough (through someone else’s workflow).
8 — Finishing
Learned to say “this is complete, finished”. (This is a subjective/opinion chapter — I had trouble getting over this step).
9 — Album art
Learned basic photo editing to create a picture I had a crazy idea for.
10 — Music Video
Learned only how to use certain tools in iMovie. I mostly just experimented my way to an outcome.
11 — Publishing
Learned how to publish songs to streaming platforms.
12 — Promotion
Learned and developed some strategies as an attempt to get listened to. (Still struggling)
13 — Overview
Self titled
tl;dr: There’s really not one. There’s this introduction, the in-depth chapters, and a conclusion/overview. If you want to listen to the album — it’s called Ununited by Romes — Spotify | Apple Music | Youtube | … — maybe you want to listen while reading the article
I) Hardware
a) Audio Interfaces
Have you ever wondered how to record your guitar to the computer?
The very first thing I acquired to record myself was an Audio Interface.
Most audio interfaces (like mine) have a microphone (pre-amp) channel and, often, a second line channel, for instruments like guitars or keyboard.
If you are using a mic, you need a pre-amp. Microphones produce weak signals (mic level) which must be boosted up to line level. This is what a pre-amp does. It may be integrated in to the microphone or the mixer or the audio interface or a stand alone unit, but there is one somewhere with any microphone you use.
When plugged into my computer I can change the sound input to this audio interface. This way my DAW (Digital Audio Workspace — the software I use to record (more on this later)) detects input sound from whatever is entering the audio interface.
b) Microphone Types
You can get very specific with microphones. I used a regular dynamic mic my grandfather found in his garage.
Here’s a short and concise explanation on main microphone types: The Different Types Of Microphones Explained
c) Cables
I used one standard cable I bought at a standard music store to connect my guitar and keyboard to the second line on the audio interface
II) Software
A digital audio workstation (DAW) is an electronic device or application software used for recording, editing and producing audio files.
I started out by using Garage Band — a free option for Mac. There might be other free DAWs for Linux and Windows, but since I haven’t used any, I’ll leave that research for whoever needs it. Garage Band allowed me to record tracks and I edit the sound, for example, through digital amps.
It was great but when I started learning more about production I migrated to Logic Pro X. Garage’s projects run in Logic.
Logic Pro X allowed me to do more. Logic Pro X, and other professional DAWs, give more access directly to plugins and to manipulating them. With Logic Pro X I started my mixing journey. A story told further on. I stuck with Logic Pro X until the end — it worked for me.
a) Microphone Stand
Right from the start I bought a microphone stand so I could sing while playing guitar. This proved to be very useful when recording. I could play while singing, it was the best way to record my acoustic guitar, I could also just sing (for some songs) without holding the mic, and also experiment stuff like recording vocals from the other side of the room (wasn’t actually included in any song).
b) MIDI Keyboard
Maybe halfway through the album I was offered a small midi keyboard. I was, without a problem, getting by without this midi keyboard — your computer keyboard, in most DAWs, can be played to generate midi tracks. I’ll get into more detail on this further on. This midi was used to more easily play and improvise with digital instruments.
c) Microphone Pop Filter
Unfortunately I didn’t get the chance to buy a microphone pop filter, but It would have been a really useful addition to my setup — it’s a noise protection filter that helps reduce/eliminate plosives
Plosive thumps on vocal recordings are caused by strong blasts of air that result from certain consonant sounds hitting the microphone and creating large pressure changes. It’s far better to prevent them rather than attempting to fix them in the studio.
I had to use alternative methods to reduce plosives, like changing the microphone angle, and singing from further away, to avoid them.
IV) Room acoustics
I read some about room acoustics. I couldn’t afford to soundproof my room, I didn’t try at all. Soundproofing might help reduce noise reflections, but it’s not desirable to make your room “dead”. Read more on your own about soundproofing if you think you require it. I decided not to.
It’s good to sing / for the mic to be around the center of the room. Being near the walls means capturing more reflections. In “the center” you are more likely to get a more defined sound.
V) Recording
I think my first major breakthrough was understanding sound level. This means — at what volume/level should you record?
The first tracks I recorded were constantly clipping. I knew nothing about this.
Clipping occurs when your recording levels are too loud. The interface and/or the DAW cut all the excess loudness from the track, distorting it. This leads to a big quality loss, and unwanted distortion on what you recorded. You also have no headroom (loudness space to work on the track).
When the recording level goes above 0dB you are almost certainly clipping. When I had a well more defined workflow, I was recording at levels that peaked at 6–8dB (this means — the loudest parts of the recording didn’t exceed 8 to 6 db.) This was enough headroom to then mix the track.
From here I started recording some guitar parts to the DAW, and experimenting.
If you don’t know music theory at all, you can still make music. I used to do this — played notes arbitrarily on an instrument on top of another, and changed the notes around until they sounded right with the music — then: memorize, and play to record.
Discovering music theory allowed me to dwell into more full compositions, and compose with way less effort.
Music theory came to me in the form of randomly seen youtube videos, peers mentioning it, and some threads on HN.
I’ll just talk about a major breakthrough for me — keys — the best way I can explain it (not very technical).
For further studies, reference a great (CC) book (that I found on HN front page): Music Theory for Musicians and Normal People
I) So… Keys!
A key signature designates notes that are to be played higher or lower than the corresponding natural notes and applies through to the end of the piece or up to the next key signature.
As this was easier for me to visualize on the piano, I’ll also mention how I saw it there.
Or, as I saw it at the time: “There is a set of 7 notes I can play” — “I can pick a sequence of notes — some white and some black keys — and if I only play these notes, whatever I do, it’ll sound “good”” (might be tasteless tho)
-Expanding this to a broader context, I discovered (I think also on HN) a website called guitar dashboard
Whenever I started composing, I’d open up guitar dashboard, select a key (the letters in the middle column), and play only chords from the circle that changed with the key I chose.
(To play the chords in the key, look at the outer ring of the circle.
[EDIT 22/3, thank you Rohit Kumar]
> Green is for a major chord (big Roman numeral),
> Blue is for a minor chord (small Roman numeral)
> Red is for a diminished chord (small Roman numeral).)
After recording that, I’d look at the tab part of the webpage — and play on top of those chords all the notes I could play (which are the ones that appear onscreen).
For adding, for example, piano, I’d just note down which notes were half a step up or down — and play them, improvising over the chords until I found something I liked.
II) Tempo
Tempo is a musical term for the pace, or speed of a piece.
It took me a while to learn to use a metronome. In my case this was particularly important. Since most times I would start out by recording my guitar solo, when I would add the drums nothing would fit together. I was playing completely out of tempo.
The instruments must play together — not each one by itself. When playing at the same time as other musicians, tempo’s will align, however, when recording one thing first, then a second one, and then a third, everything can go wrong very fast. I would record without a metronome.
I started figuring out the tempo of my songs. To do this I used a website like “tap for beats per minute”, sometimes a mobile app. I tapped along to the beats of my song and it would give me the bpm (beats per minute). I’d insert the bpm in my DAW and then start the metronome.
From there on forward I’d play to the tempo (For one track (Circles) I discovered it changed twice throughout the song (for the chorus) and had to figure out how to do that on the software) and then I would be able to add the drums and all other instruments without any major problems.
III) Doing whatever you want
You can make great songs sticking to just a key, and to basic theory, in a lot of ways — one of the songs (Controlo Emocional), my most basic track, was made following simple music theory rules. I just changed key once during the song for an “Outro” part. Changing keys is, well, literally that — changing from one key to another. This is most times done using a chord in common in between the two different keys.
However, once I got the hang of playing instruments in the same key, I mostly stopped using visual tools like guitar dashboard (that while good, kept me locked onto what I was seeing on my screen) and started playing more by feeling. I stopped being aware always of what key I was in (I don’t have the musical formation to always know this) but the key knowledge in the back of my brain helped me stay good sounding within reason, while allowing me to make mistakes, and keep those accidental mistakes to stir the music. I’d change the key accidentally, but roll with it. I started being able to adapt myself to the key changes, and with this, being able to improvise ( to define ) notes with instruments over my recorded foundation. This was particularly helpful to grasp on the MIDI Keyboard, because I was able to play any digital instrument with it, and only having to get used to playing keyboard notes along with the song, and not every instrument I used
What I mean by all this is that musical theory took me through playing within a set of rules, but I kept changing up the situation those rules were applied in. I did whatever I wanted and some of these basics helped me keep up with my changing and experimenting mind.
When I first started including drums into my tracks I was playing an electric drum kit, and plugging the output into my audio interface.
Wait: How did I learn to play the drums?
Three years ago, in High School, me and some friends formed a band. I was playing mostly chords on the guitar, however, during some breaks in the studio the drummer taught me some basics:
“Keep the rhythm by hitting the hi-hat… 1.. 2.. 3.. 4..
Hit the kick on 1, hit the snare on 3”
(I’m sure if you google about drum basics you’ll find more than enough videos to give you something to hold on to, so you can start playing!)
The other times, on breaks, as soon as they would leave the room to smoke I’d drop my guitar and move to the drums, and practice randomly until they arrived — I’d show her what I accomplished, she’d say “terrible — and give me some new small tip”. This did NOT happen a lot of times. Practicing makes you more at ease very fast — but even at the start I found out it wasn’t impossible to play drums — no “superhuman coordination skills” — I mean, you probably do, to be a pro, but to get playing, mostly everyone would be able to grasp it fast enough. After I left the band I didn’t play drums for quite some time. (BTW, there’s nothing quite like playing on a real drum kit. The sound, the power…)
Then, i think it was Christmas, 2018, my cousin gave me his electronic drum kit — I started recording the guitar and playing along to it — whatever way I could.
Coming back to the first sentence, I stopped using the electronic drum kit in the final recordings. It had a few problems:
1) The sound quality wasn’t the best,
2) It was hard keeping up with the small tempo variations recorded for the other instruments
Despite recording with a metronome, sometimes fluctuations happened and I didn’t notice them. I figured I needed to record the drums first — and the rest on top. However not being the best drummer it was hard for me to play without any other instrumental reference / guide.
My solution — I wanted to keep the drum kit freedom — but make it usable. From a certain point on forward, I started playing along the song on the physical drum kit until I was set on a beat, and then, I would open up the midi track editor and recreate beat by beat (at first) what I had played live. Sometime later on, with the midi keyboard I would play all the drum hits I could with my fingers (each key is assigned to a type of beat) and whatever I couldn’t play at the same time on the keyboard I’d add later.
So now, after having added the drums — I would mute all the tracks that helped me “create” the drums, and replay them all — this time to tempo and sound of the digital drum kit.
This is an attempt I saved of what I mentioned above — playing drums on top of the recorded guitars — and you can kind of hear that it wasn’t working out. And why this comes before the singing chapter
It’s also a great display of progress — this song made the album, can you tell which one it is?
(And yes, that’s what I named it after finishing: terriblebutatakenonetheless.mp3)
Singing…!
As everything else, this is subjective, but it’s harder to convince yourself that you sound good. So this chapter is about how I got better.
Just like the other chapters, this one involves practicing a lot. Up until some point I got way better by just singing consciously along to songs or to my own melodies, you have to become aware of your singing being the same note as what’s playing — just a little concentration is required.
However, big improvements started when I began getting more comfortable with my voice, and stopped performing as if I was someone else.
This comfortableness came with more calculated practice which I conducted through a book called Set Your Voice Free by Roger Love.
I really have enjoyed the book until now (I haven’t finished it yet!), and what I read helped me a lot.
Major breakthroughs include:
a) Diaphragmatic Breathing
Breathing is the foundation for singing. Master your breath to get much farther.
Diaphragmatic breathing, sometimes called belly breathing, is a deep breathing technique that engages your diaphragm, a dome-shaped sheet of muscle at the bottom of your ribcage that is primarily responsible for respiratory function.
When you inhale, the diaphragm contracts and moves downward. This movement sets off a cascade of events. The lungs expand, creating negative pressure that drives air in through the nose and mouth, filling the lungs with air.
When you exhale, the diaphragm muscles relax and move upwards, which drives air out of the lungs through your breath.
(Read more about this breathing here: How To Breathe With Your Belly)
This type of breathing allows you to have way more control over your diaphragm, and therefore over the amount of air you use when singing.
So I practiced this breathing until it became pretty much natural.
With this newly found control, I learned that for a better singing sound I should release air in a fluid, continuous motion.
-To avoid bursting out air for each word, but instead, keeping a constant output of air while singing the verse.
b) Technical practice
I realised how much I benefited from practicing vocal exercises, technical exercises as opposed to just singing songs.
There are a handful of exercises of these online. More specific ones might differ from male to female — our vocal ranges are different.
(As I only had contact with exercises from the book, I don’t want to link any other, for it’s unknown to me)
I started practicing with these exercises.
The process is mildly dull however you do notice results soon after.
Practice, practice, practice…
c) Warm up before Recording
At first I’d jump right into singing, and get mildly frustrated easily, as I would not be able to have confidence and control over what I had just started singing.
At some point in time I read somewhere about how important warming up was. I started doing it.
Doing some vocal exercises / warm ups before singing made me unblock my voice more (it gets rusty overnight), and after them, singing my song sounded way more effortless and less frustrating.
I used some youtube videos before I started reading the book, then I would use the same book vocal exercises that I also used for practicing.
(Here are those videos (they worked well enough for me): 5 MINUTE VOCAL WARMUP (there are longer versions xd))
Software instruments — Custom sounding synths, recreating instruments I don’t have.
Nowadays there is a gigantic collection of sounds to use as a sampled instrument. Logic Pro comes with loads of those.
The big breakthrough here was the overall discovery of their existence and usage.
I included a few digital tracks besides the drums in most songs on the album.
These were:
The harpsichord in Reverse Glimpse
The flute, harp, nylon piano and organ in Too Late
In the beginning I would play them on the computer keyboard (you press cmd+k on a logic digital track for an emulated keyboard)
But further and ultimately I used the MIDI Keyboard mentioned in the Recording section.
For the track Reverse Glimpse I defined a sequence of keys to play and then looped them.
For Too Late, using up what I had learned in (2) Music Theory about keys, I improvised the flute and harp on top of the song — the first take made it to the final version.
PS: They’re very useful for making sounds at game jams, where I usually don’t have any instruments with me
Oh boy… even writing this is hard.
I went through so many guides on mixing. So many videos. It would be impossible to go over all the information I consumed. However I’ll add here some basics/breakthroughs I now stick to. I’m currently reading a book on mixing and I’m sure that in a few weeks I could write more about this. For that reason, I’m going to go over the fundamental things I believed at the time of the recording, and were what shaped the released songs. This could be enough for you to get started on mixing your own songs, but not much more — again, I am not a professional!
Extra: It’s very helpful to define your own workflow and use it as a base for mixing your tracks.
a) Make sure all your tracks aren’t clipping
Reference (1) Recording for what I mean.
b) Use your faders
Before anything else. Just setting each instrument to the best fitting volume in the whole mix will greatly improve how it sounds. Later on, when applying effects, you probably will need to correct the volumes and set them all good again. But setting them in the beginning once as well will improve your ability to analyse the sounds.
A strategy I used is to set all the faders (volumes) to 0 and bring them up slowly, one by one, and then adjust them, so they all sit together well.
Note: I won’t be able to explain what all of these “effects/plugins” are, the article would just go on and on forever. Google at your own risk about what EQ, Compressors, etc on your own. I will assume you’ll do the needed research if you want to understand this bit.
c) EQ
Each instrument produces a big range of frequencies, but you want some to stand out more than others. For example, a bass sound is defined by low frequencies.
All tracks mixed up will be “fighting” in the same frequency space.
c.1) Using EQ to get rid of undesired frequencies and a clearer sound.
I) High-pass filters
On the simplest level, a high-pass filter is just a filter (sometimes called a low-cut) that attenuates low frequencies below a certain cutoff frequency and allows frequencies above to pass
I used a high-pass used on instruments like guitars, vocals and other tracks that built up unimportant low frequencies that can be cut out. This does not means you should cut out all the low frequencies from every instrument except the bass and the drum kick, however, if your low-end / bass sounds are sounding muddy, this might be a solution to get a clearer bass and kick sound in the overall mix.
II) Custom
Additionally, you can identify problems with your sound and use EQ to fix them.
This might mean:
Frequencies that are giving unpleasant sounds, like clicks or high pitched noise — you can remove these with EQ by almost completely reducing those specific frequencies to nothing.
A muddy sound in a certain frequency range, for example, if two guitars are “fighting” for the same frequency range, you might apply a little bit of EQ reduction on those frequencies on one of the guitars, so the other one has a clearer sound
c.2) Using EQ to enhance your track
This step comes down more to practicing and knowing the music and what you want. You’re listening to your guitar but you think the high end could be a bit louder-so you do it with EQ.
What I mostly did, since I have no deep knowledge on frequencies, was start out from presets and then adjust them to sound more to what I wanted. It’s easier having a base of altered EQ. I must have tried all the different presets dozens of times. When learning it is about doing and trying. Experimenting. You learn through this
d) Compression
Compression is quite a hard topic to talk about. From my studies I understood that compression… compresses!
This means it compresses the louder (that exceed your threshold) sounds and puts them nearer the sound level of the rest of the track. It also compresses the lowest sounds and ups their volume a bit. The way it compresses is defined by how the knobs are turned. Here’s a nice explanation on compressors (The Beginner’s Guide to Compression) — you might want to investigate later on on how to use compressors in your DAW, however the way they work is universal.
I used compressors in most instruments to get a bit of a tighter sound — but not all, for not everything needs to be compressed unnecessarily.
e) Reverb
I used it for two main purposes:
I) creating a space
Since some instruments are outputting signal directly into the audio interface, others, like microphones, capture the room sound, and there’s also digital instruments, a good way to create the feeling of “same room” is to add a little bit of the same reverb to all of the instruments. (Fine tuning for those that need more or less)
You can read more about this here: The Smart Way To Use Reverb In Your Mix
Another benefit is the simplicity and effectiveness of running all (or most) of your tracks through one reverb. It can instantly glue your tracks together giving your mix a subtly cohesive sound. This is great because it takes no time at all, is easy to setup, and can really improve the sound of your mix. If you’re dropping reverbs on individual tracks, there’s a good chance you’ll have lots of reverb types setup and you’ll potentially create a disjointed sound.
II) as an effect
I’m a fan of accentuated reverb on voices and instruments. This purpose has more to do with taste than with anything else. Add a reverb to an instrument — now turn stuff around.
Do you like what it sounds like ? Perfect — that’s done : Change more knobs or remove the reverb altogether — maybe that’s too much.
f) More effects
I used a lot of effects besides the more “base” ones mentioned above.
These effects were used by trial and error. They include:
I) Delay
In essence, repeating what you played but only after a delay. After going crazy on the knobs it can mean reversed sounds coming back to you or repeating so fast it sounds like an animal screaming. Weird stuff can happen — it’s a lot of fun.
II) Distortion
I like the warm fuzzy sound distortion adds to an instrument. If used in very small doses it can add impact to your track
III) Everything else
Effects are fun. I experimented a lot with them. Turn one up, chain connect another one, add a third one, remove all but the last, rotate virtual knobs, experiment experiment…
Mastering, turns out, is not the same as mixing.
Mastering is the final step of audio post-production. The purpose of mastering is to balance sonic elements of a stereo mix and optimize playback across all systems and media formats. Traditionally, mastering is done using tools like equalization, compression, limiting and stereo enhancement.
It’s a production technic. After the tracks are mixed at volume levels (like -8db), they’re bounced, and then edited (the whole song, not instrument by instrument) to make them more loud (all songs are quite loud, staying a lot of time at around -0db), and shape the overall sound of the track.
I was quite surprised when I was suggested to handle the mastering of all my songs separately in the same file.
This means, bouncing each mixed song (and making sure it has some headspace (this means keeping it peaking at levels around -8db)), and then creating a new different project to handle them all together. This helps keeping all the tracks at a consistent volume and sound. This way you can also edit how the songs end and start in relation to each other. Overall shaping the album sound al together helps.
There’s no point in trying to get breakthroughs here because the following guide has just about everything I learned (because I learned from it).
I used a free template and based myself on a guide from a mixing website online: The 6 Life-Saving Tips For Mastering in Logic Pro X (the template is linked in the guide)
I really can’t tell it any better than that website, so, if you’re looking for how I did my mastering — just open up the guide.
Both Mastering and Mixing are highly complex topics, I had to research a lot and experiment with everything a lot. It is not “easy”.
For a few months I recorded songs, I mixed those songs. I removed all the mixing. Mixed them all over again. Removed all the tracks but the drums. Recorded everything again. Sang and sang and sang take after take. Mixed everything again. Re-mixed everything one more time.
I listened and listened and listened to my own songs thinking how unfinished they were.
Look at how many times I sang Controlo Emocional. The last version is probably not even the best — but I’ll keep improving and do the next song better.
I was too harsh on myself. It’s hard to be your own critic. It’s hard to judge your own work. Friends and family told me that it was good! I didn’t really listen and kept on reworking the same songs. I learned a lot, that’s true, but I could have been learning along new songs and new ideas.
It’s harder to be impartial when you’ve learned to the same thing over and over a million times. You get desensitised. Listen to everyone around you — and consider stopping. This does not mean to not try your best — it means be aware that you are doing your best, and that you will keep on learning, this is not the end.
Finally, when I was completely saturated I decided — this is nuts. I’m going around and around, I must finish this and move on to the next step, and then to the next project.
And so I gave myself a deadline. I had two weeks to finish the album. So I did. It’s not perfect — I’d have to learn forever it to be perfect (and also have way better equipment) — but I’ll learn along other projects. Sticking to that would have no benefit.
Also, the less time you take mixing and mastering, the less you grow tired of the song you’re working on, resulting in better judgment.
At this point I’m going through what I particularly did, because there’s not much I can teach about photo taking. The only thing I learned is that I like posterization a lot.
(Posterization or posterisation of an image entails conversion of a continuous gradation of tone to several regions of fewer tones, with abrupt changes from one tone to another. This was originally done with photographic processes to create posters.)
For my album cover I took a picture. A particularly interesting picture — I stood upside down holding a chair. Further down is the original picture.
Then I applied posterization and changed a bit the colours of the picture, to highlight the bananas and the chair what I was able to.
This is the finished result, aka my album cover
And the following picture is the original foto
I honestly don’t like the end result that much. I think the beginning is way too slow, and that the rest gets quite better.
For my music video I did nothing more than recording random things on my normal iPhone 6. I recorded in Peniche (the sea images), in Alcochete and some other random places.
I added a lot of filters, repetition and reverse to the footage I had.
This was the end result:
EDIT: I created one more videoclip (21/3).
For this one I did 600 different frames on Photoshop. I started with a black screen and kept adding stuff and saving almost every “change” as a frame. I just experimented along the whole way. I used my mouse to draw and only the default presets the software had.
The result is at least interesting:
To get published with a streaming platform you must have a contract with it.
1. You may make this contract yourself — which is quite complicated and you probably require a lawyer to do it for you. It’s also not so obvious as to how to do it, I just read it was possible.
2. You can join a label — a label will handle distribution and marketing for you.
3. You can sign up at a distributor — this is what I did.
Distributors… distribute your music. It’s an awesome way for independent artists to release their songs with almost no trouble whatsoever.
I used one of the distributors recommended by Spotify — DistroKid. They release your music to all platforms in their program.
I researched a bit about distributors before deciding which one to take.
DistroKid’s cheapest plan lets you release as many songs as you like for 20$ a year. This plan doesn’t allow you to set a release date for the song, the next more expensive one does (I’m using the cheapest).
As long as you keep paying your anual fee, your songs will remain live. However if you want to, you can pay “Legacy” for an album or song to stay forever in stores independently from the annual fee. DistroKid doesn’t charge streaming/downloads fees.
CDBaby is the second option I considered for releasing my album. CDBaby charges per album (something like the legacy distrokid fee), however covers a small fee from streams and downloads.
After checking out both options (and some others) I decided to go with DistroKid
I uploaded my songs to their platform. After 7 days they said it was ready to go. 3 days later I received an email saying I was added to AppleMusic and some hours later that I was added to Spotify!
Side Note: DistroKid has a referral program. If anyone is planning on signing up with distorted I’d be really happy if you used my referral link. It’s a 7% discount and I win 5$ on the platform (which would be great for me to reduce costs): My DistroKid Referral Link
Promoting your work is quite the hard bit.
Few days before releasing the album I published the album art on my social network, and the video music for circles, on instagram, twitter and facebook.
When I released the album I shared it and asked some friends who told me they liked it to share.
Some of my friends did, and posted on their own stories/profiles.
My dad also posted the album on facebook (and got a reply from one of my university professors! — they had studied together in college ahah)
Overall 60 people listened to my album. Some 5–10 listeners liked and saved my stuff. 30 follows on Spotify from these friends.
But my objective was not to get direct listens, but yes listeners who came to me suggested by playlists / algorithms.
I republished a track on twitter with the hashtag #newmusic and because I got 10 likes I was added to a playlist called #listige (???)
I posted on some subreddits related to music and also at r/addmetospotify that added me to a playlist of reddit musicians.
“””
Hello ____!
I’m a solo composer, producer and musician from Portugal, I releas —
“””
I wrote emails. Sent about 10–15 emails to blogs and people.
I know that is nothing. I was writing a different email every time I found out about someplace to send my music to. I decided to write this article first and then I’ll write one smart email to send it to way more places more easily.
(BTW, I didn’t get one reply from those I sent.)
Promotion is difficult. Time and money is required. I’ve got time…
Besides, you need to have something really good.
I thought about using ads. Then I thought — maybe for the next album — I’m not sure I’m confident enough in this one.
What a journey.
It’s crazy how much time I put into learning and working for this. I’d do it all over again (and I will — I want to create more music, more albums).
A lot of time spent inside my room. My parents and siblings heard me sing the same sentences over and over countless times.
I’m studying computer science in college, I would record at weekends or at night. I got frustrated a lot along the way — it was NOT easy.
However, I took my time — there is no rush to finish your side project (besides getting tired of it) — after all, your side project keeps you going, and you keep your side project going. It’s a two sided relationship but they’re both you.
After these months cultivating this project I’m now ready, just after I’m done sending the last emails, to call it *complete* — and start a new one.
…I’m thinking about a game… really focused on the soundtrack…!
Thank you for reading, Romes.
P.S: If you have any questions I’d be happy to answer them! | https://newjacks.net/how-i-recorded-an-album-on-my-own-in-my-room/ |
Good stereo creates an illusion. The better the stereo, the better the illusion, specifically a perception of harmonically rich, lifelike sounds occurring a real-life space. The guidelines and questions accompanying these tracks will help you appreciate the rewards superior sound delivers.
This guide sets out to demonstrate the difference superior sound can make. Purely in terms of quality, once you become aware of various sonic and spatial distinctions, be they ever so subtle, you will all the more relish the music you love.
Why uncompressed you ask?
Uncompressed audio formats store the data that is captured during a sound recording in such a way that no degradation occurs after the final studio mastering of the material. That means the sound recordings we provide contain all the detail, all the expression and all the ambience that are ignored by lossy compressed formats such as MP3 and WMA. Listen and you\'ll see.
Here are some music tracks in uncompressed WAV format from an album that highlight clarity, dynamics, resolution, soundstage and timbre. | https://store.treoo.com/services/audioguide/test-tracks.html |
Mastering for Spotify® and Other Streaming Services Are You Listening S2 Ep4 – (part 3)05.08.2020
The question comes into our head, do I have to push the level up really, really high so that my track sounds as loud as the next thing that's going to play, or if I push the level up really high, and the streaming service then turns it down, is it gonna sound worse? Have I pushed the level so high that it ends up damaging the audio?
And then when it gets turned down, that damage becomes even more apparent than it might have been otherwise. So, there's conundrum, there's a problem here. Many people will use the idea of loudness normalization as an argument for not pushing level at all.
And I think that's a mistake
If we use any standard, playback level, as an arbitrary way of defining the artistry of our work we run the risk of making mistakes, or at lest not making tracks sound as good as we can, and not making our tracks work for the artist as well as they possibly can work. So, ultimately, for my money, what I prefer is to make a track sound as good as possible, at as high of level as possible. That's an abstracted idea, there's no single number that I'll use. It varies with genre, it varies with artist, and what the artist needs.
But to make sure I'm making something sound as good as possible, so that it will work in any different playback paradigm. There're some thoughts about streaming and mastering audio in this day and age of streaming, and how we think about preparing audio for streaming out to the listener. In the next episode, I'm going to dive into loudness, which is a related topic, but I'm gonna talk about loudness on its own, for its own sake, in mastering, So I hope to see you there. Also, if you have any questions or comments, but especially questions, please leave them in the comments area underneath this video. | http://radiowienerwald.at/2020/08/05/mastering-for-spotify-and-other-streaming-services-3/ |
Mastering, a kind of audio post production, is the process of preparing and moving taped audio from a source containing the final mix to a data storage medium (the master); the source from which all copies will be produced by means of methods such as pressing, duplication or replication.
In recent years digital masters have ended up being normal although analog masters, such as audio tapes, are still being utilized by the production industry, significantly by a few engineers who have actually chosen to focus on analog mastering.
Mastering needs vital listening; however, software tools exist to help with the process. Outcomes still rely on the method taken by the engineer, the accuracy of studio displays, and the listening environment. Mastering engineers might likewise need to apply restorative equalization, vibrant range compression, and stereo reconfiguration procedures in order to optimise sound for all playback systems. | https://www.groovephonics.com/what-is-mastering/ |
This may be a statement of the obvious, but converting a decimal to a fraction is the opposite of converting a fraction to a decimal which you do by dividing the numerator by the denominator. For example the fraction 1/2 is the decimal 0.5 which you get by dividing 1 by 2.
The strategy you use depends on the type of decimal you have. Let's do these from easiest to hardest.
These are also called terminating decimals because they don't go on forever.
Example 1: Convert 0.45 to a fraction.
Step 1: Let x = 0.45.
Step 2: Count how many numbers there are after the decimal point. In this case, there are 2.
Step 3: Multiply both sides by 100, because 100 has 2 zeroes. We get 100x = 45.
Step 4: Solve for x. In this case x = 45/100. Using the Euclidean Algorithm to reduce the fraction, we get x = 9/20.
You can tell if it is a simple repeating decimal number if the repeating part starts with the first number after the decimal point.
Example 2: Convert 4.372372372... to a fraction.
Step 1: Let x = 4.372372. Call this equation #1.
Step 2: Count how many numbers there are in the repeating part. In this example, the repeating part is 372. So there are 3 numbers in the repeating part.
Step 3: Multiply both sides by 1000, because 1000 has 3 zeroes. We get 1000x = 4372.372372... Call this equation #2.
Solving for x, we get x = 4368/999. Using the Euclidean Algorithm to reduce the fraction, we get x = 1456/333.
These are the ones where there are some numbers after the decimal point before the repeating part. About as much fun as watching a documentary with your parents.
Example 3: Convert 2.173333... to a fraction.
Step 1: Let x = 2.173333. Call this equation #1.
Step 2: Count how many non-repeating numbers there are after the decimal point. In this case, there are 2.
Step 3: Multiply both sides by 100, because 100 has 2 zeroes. We get 100x = 217.3333... Call this equation #2.
Solving for x, we get x = 1956/900. Using the Euclidean Algorithm to reduce the fraction, we get x = 163/75. | https://mathwizz.com/algebra/help/help16.htm |
What is x if #-4(x+2)^2=-20#?
3 Answers
Approximate values of
Explanation:
How do we find the value of
Divide both sides of the equation by
Subtract
We now have a quadratic equation.
Use the quadratic formula to find the values of
Quadratic formula:
Using Eqn.1, we get
Substitute the values in the quadratic formula above:
Using a spreadsheet software or a calculator, we get
Hence, approximate values of
Hope it helps.
Explanation:
Let's start by dividing both sides by
Let's take the square root of both sides to get
Subtracting
Hope this helps!
Explanation:
First, divide both sides by
Expand/simplify the left hand side:
Subtract
This is now in standard form,
Use the quadratic formula
Hope this helps! | https://socratic.org/questions/what-is-x-if-4-x-2-2-20 |
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Inequalities
Like equations there are procedures for solving inequalities . Some of these are exactly the same as equations, some are not. The following chart details the similarities and differences.
|Equations||Inequalities|
|Add or Subtract anything on both sides||Add or Subtract anything on both sides|
|Multiply or Divide anything on both sides||Multiply or Divide any POSITIVE number on both sides. If you Mult. Div. a negative number you must reverse the inequality.|
|Can use properties like Priciple of Zero Products , Principle of Zero Quotients, Principle of Powers…||Can use sign charts, rules for absolute value , test points|
____________________________________________________________________
Solving Linear Inequalities
To solve linear inequalities the procedure is virtually the same as for linear equations. The only difference is that you must be careful when multiplying or dividing on both sides.
EX.
Here dividing is the same because 2 is a positive number .
EX.
Notice that when I divided by -2 the inequality reversed because -2 is a negative number.
Nonlinear Inequalities
To solve nonlinear inequalities, the standard approach is to use a sign chart. To do this:
1.) Get everything on one side
2.) Factor, or reduce fractions until the inequality is composed of multiplication and
division of linear or irreducible factors on one side , and zero on the other.
3.) Determine where signs can change (zeros and undefineds).
4.) Create chart with one row for each factor, and one column for each region between
zeros and undefineds .
5.) Determine the sign of each factor in each region to fill in chart.
6.) Add a final row representing the product/quotient of all factors, and fill in.
EX. Solve the following inequality.
x2 + 5x + 4 < 0
( x + 1 ) ( x + 4 ) < 0
The zeros are -1 and -4.
|Factor||-inf to -4||-4 to -1||-1 to inf|
|x+1||-||-||+|
|x+4||-||+||+|
|Product
|
(x+1)(x+4)
|+||-||+|
The last line gives the sign of the expression on the left. In this case we want to know where this is less than zero, or where it is negative. The only region which satisfies this is -4 to -1. So the answer in interval notation (-4,-1). | https://softmath.com/tutorials-3/cramer%E2%80%99s-rule/inequalities-2.html |
Twice a number added to half of itself equals 24. Find the number.
Let the number be x. Then, twice of this number = 2x and half of this number = 12x.
According to the question, 2x+12x=24
Multiplying both sides by 2, we get 4x + x = 48
⇒5x=48⇒5x5=485 [dividing both sides by 5]⇒x=9.6
Hence, the required number is 9.6. | https://byjus.com/question-answer/twice-a-number-added-to-half-of-itself-equals-24-find-the-number/ |
Edexcel Mathematics C2 Important Points and Example Questions (Chapters 1 & 2)
Revision notes on important points and fomulae of S1, including some example questions. From the Edecel syllabus.
- Created by: Laura Gardner
- Created on: 11-05-11 17:02
CHAPTER 1- ALGEBRA AND FUNCTIONS
1. Simplifying fractions by division:
When dividing an algebraic fraction including x's, you take the powers away depending on what you divide by.
When simplifying fractions by factorisation, you get rid of similar expressions on the top and bottom.
2. Dividing polynomials:
3. Factorising polynomials using the factor theorem: e.g. show that (x-2) is a factor of x³+x²-4x-4 by the factor theorem:
f(x)= x³+x²-4x-4
f(2)=(2) ³+(2)²-4(2)-4=0 therefore (x-2) is a factor of x³+x²-4x-4.4.
4. Using the remainder theorem to find the remainder when dividing polynomials: just use normal division of polynomials as shown above.
CHAPTER 2-SINE AND COSINE RULE
1. Use the sine rule to find a missing side:
When you know two angles and one of the opposite sides.
2. Use the sine rule to find a missing angle:
When you know two sides and one of their opposite angles.
Note that sometimes you can have two solutions for a missing angle, because when the angle you are finding is larger than the given angle, there are two possible results. This is because you can draw two possible triangles with the data.
3. Use the cosine rule to find a missing side:
You can use the cosine rule to find an unknown side in a triangle when you know the lengths of two sides and the angle between the sides. The cosine rule is: | https://getrevising.co.uk/revision-cards/edexcel_mathematics_c2_important_points_and_example_question |
Thank you for the opportunity to help you with your question!
We must solve the equation 1500e^(-1.4x) = 300. Dividing both sides by 1500, we get e^(-1.4x) = 1/5.
The LHS can be rewritten as 1/e^(1.4x), so we have 1/e^(1.4x) = 1/5.
Multiplying both sides by e^(1.4x) * 5, we get 5 = e^(1.4x).
Now take the natural logarithm of both sides: ln(5) = ln(e^(1.4x)). Because, in general, ln(e^z) = z, we get
ln(5) = 1.4x, so x = ln(5)/1.4 ~ 1.609/1.4 = 1.15 years.
CHECK: 1500 * e^(-1.4 * 1.15) = 1500 * e^(-1.61) = 1500/5.0028 ~ 300.
sorry, i meant that the equation was T(x)=1,500e^-0.4x
OK. In my opinion, you would be better off trying to do the problem based on the steps I showed, replacing each occurrence of 1.4 with 0.4 and recalculating, than having me do it. If you have trouble doing so, let me know.
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Solving Inequality Problems
An absolute value equation is an equation that contains an absolute value expression.The equation $$\left | x \right |=a$$ Has two solutions x = a and x = -a because both numbers are at the distance a from 0.To solve an absolute value equation as $$\left | x 7 \right |=14$$ You begin by making it into two separate equations and then solving them separately.$$x 7 =14$$ $$x 7\, \, =14\, $$ $$x=7$$ or $$x 7 =-14$$ $$x 7\, \, =-14\, $$ $$x=-21$$ An absolute value equation has no solution if the absolute value expression equals a negative number since an absolute value can never be negative.
Even though the right side was a -10, the number we were dividing both sides by, was a positive 5.Even the best athletes and musicians had help along the way and lots of practice, practice, practice, to get good at their sport or instrument.To get the most out of these, you should work the problem out on your own and then check your answer by clicking on the link for the answer/discussion for that problem.But, when a variable is less than or greater than a number, there are an infinite number of values that would be a part of the answer.is less than 4' means that if we put any number less than 4 back in the original problem, it would be a solution (the left side would be less than the right side).A manufacturer has 600 litres of a 12 percent solution of acid.How many litres of a 30 percent acid solution must be added to it so that the acid content in the resulting mixture will be more than 15 percent but less than 18 percent?Basically, we still want to get the variable on one side and everything else on the other side by using inverse operations.The difference is, when a variable is set equal to one number, that number is the only solution.Graph: Since we needed to indicate all values greater than or equal to -5, the part of the number line that was to the right of -5 was darkened.Since we are including where it is equal to, a closed hole was used.
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We do not ask why you are unable or not willing to do it on your own once you contact us with words like “Help me do my homework.” You must have your reasons, and our main concern is that you end up getting a good grade.
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The only work left will be filler writing to explain your thought processes. | https://www.vega-distribution.ru/solving-inequality-problems-4161.html |
To solve equations involving fractions, the main step is to isolate the variable, convert the fractions into whole numbers, and then solve the equations as normal. When solving algebraic equations, treat both sides equally. Removing all the extra information on one side of the equation provides the solution. Other types of equations with fractions can be solved with the cross-multiplication method.
For a simple fraction example, take x/3 + 3/5 = 4. The first thing to do is convert 3/5 to a decimal for easier calculations; it converts to 0.6. This leaves the equation as x/3 + 0.6 = 4. Subtracting 0.6 from 4 leaves 3.4, so the equation is now x/3 = 3.4. Multiply both sides by 3, leaving the solution as 10.2. Remember that if the denominators of fractions are the same, you can work with the numerators as normal.
To solve proportional equations, use the cross-multiplication method of multiplying numerators by opposite denominators, then solving for the variable. For example, the equation 3/5 = 9/x is solved by multiplying 5 by 9 to yield 45, also multiplying 3 by x. The reduced equation is 3x = 45. Dividing both sides by 3 shows x to be 15. | https://www.reference.com/math/solve-basic-fraction-equations-4f9f10fce8c8eb42 |
Like many who are familiar with Guardians of the Galaxy, I immediately fell in love with Groot. And then Marvel one-upped the cuteness with Baby Groot and it was on. When Brother came out with their Marvel iBroidery designs and actually had Groot options to embroider onto something, I think, like, I literally squealed out loud. And after I embroidered this design onto some fresh linen, the size was perfect for a project that I wanted to both figure out and conquer: the Billfold embroidery Wallet. In the event y’all wanted to make your own Baby Groot Billfold embroidery wallet (which I’m thinking ya’ll will), this post will document this project journey in tutorial-fashion.
Machine Used
- DreamWeaver XE VM6200D (AKA Felicia) with Embroidery Hoop
- I am Groot (KAC010) iBroidery Design
Supplies Used
- SA5810 Pacesetter® Medium-weight, tear away stabilizer
- Brother Embroidery Thread
- Art Gallery Fabrics Soft Sand Linen & Adobe Clay Solid Smooth Denim
- Double Sided Fusible Foam Stabilizer
- Clear Vinyl
- Denim/Jeans Needle size 16/100
- Optional: Fabric Glue
Fabric Cut List
Linen
- Two 9” x 4” rectangles (one with I am Groot design centered on the right half of the rectangle)
- One 8.75” x 7.5” rectangle
- One 12.5” x 4” rectangle
- One 8.75” x 1.5” & four 4” x 1.5” strips
Denim
- One 8.75” x 7.5” rectangle
- One 28” x 1.5” strip
Double Sided Foam Fusible Stabilizer
- One 9” x 4” rectangle
Clear Vinyl
- One 4” x 3” rectangle
Woven Fusible Interfacing
- One 4” x 3.75” rectangle
Note: Before you embroider the I am Groot design onto the main fabric, make sure that there is enough excess to the left of the design to cut out the 9” x 4” rectangle. This tutorial also uses the design shrunk down to the smallest possible size on my machine, Felicia. For best results, use software to recalculate stitches.
MAIN BODY: Using a steam iron, fuse the two 9” x 4” linen rectangles onto the fusible foam stabilizer. With a ruler, mark the center of the fused rectangle with an erasable pen on the long sides, in the seam allowance.
With the center marks as your guide, sew a line down the center of the billfold.
Totaling 9 lines, sew four lines 2 mm apart to the left and right of this center stitch line. Set this main body aside.
CREDIT CARD SECTION: Fold both the linen and denim 8.75” x 7.5” rectangles in half to make two 8.75” x 3.75” folded rectangles. Set aside. Also fold the 12.5” x 4” rectangle accordion-style with the first two folds being 1.5” apart, then alternating 2” & 1.5” until you have the three pockets for credit cards. For a visual, the pattern for folding begins on the right side of the image below.
Since this credit card section is going to create a secret pocket behind it, you need to secure it by ironing the 4” x 3.75” fusible interfacing to the back of what you just folded. Once secure, take one of the 4” x 1.5” strips and fold it in half length-wise to make a skinny 4” x 0.75” folded strip. Since the credit cards will go on the left side of the billfold, line the raw edges of this strip to the back inside edge of the folded section and stitch with slightly less than a ¼” seam allowance. Bring the folded edge of this binding strip to the front of the folds and top stitch in place, making sure that the binding extends beyond the original stitch-line. Set this credit card section aside.
Note: This Double-fold Binding Technique will be utilized for all binding in this billfold. Instead of repeating the previous instructions, it will say “Use the Double-Fold Binding Technique” where appropriate.
IDENTIFICATION SECTION: Take the other three 4” x 1.5” strips and fold them in half length-wise with a steam iron. Now take the 4” x 3” clear vinyl and stick one of the 4” sides inside of the fold of one of these strips until the vinyl is all the way flush within the crease. Stitch the vinyl in place ¼” from the fold. Do the same with the other 4” edge and a different strip. Fold the linen raw edges the linen over the stitch line, finger press and edge stitch. Do this for both strips. You can leave these sections with raw edges right now as they will be bound later.
With the final 4” strip, use the Double-Fold Binding Technique on the left side of the vinyl piece.
ASSEMBLY: Align both the credit card and identification sections on the left and right edges (respectively) of the 8.75” x 3.75” folded linen with the fold on top. If there is any excess for either section, trim it at this time to be flush with the bottom and top of the folded denim. Fold the 8.75” x 1.5” strip in half lengthwise and align the raw edges behind the top of the folded denim and clip/pin all sections along the top. Use the Double-Fold Binding Technique on the top to secure all interior pieces together.
With the billfold exterior face down, layer the 8.75” x 3.75” folded denim and assembled interior facing up with raw edges aligned on the bottom.
The denim & interior are intentionally ¼”shorter and thinner than the exterior. DO NOT TRIM. Stretch the top two layers on the bottom, pinning/clipping as you go, until the left and right edges meet. With a stitch length of 5 mm, baste the sides and bottom of the three layers together. Fold and press the 28” x 1.5” denim strip in half length-wise and use the Double-Fold Binding Technique to bind the perimeter of the billfold. For the top edge of the billfold, sew slowly and make certain to only bind the ¼” excess. We don’t want to sew the section that will hold all your cash closed, now do we?
Tip: Before topstitching the exterior binding, I used fabric glue set with an iron to keep the fold-over in place.
Now you’re done so pat yourself on the back because you made yourself a Dancing Baby Groot Billfold Wallet!!! Woohoo!
Use any of our designs to create your own custom billfold embroidery wallet that showcases your own personality. If you have any questions or comments or just want to leave us some feedback you can use the contact form on the following link HERE. | https://animeandgameembroidery.com/2019/10/20/tutorial-dancing-baby-groot-billfold-wallet/ |
Suppose the polygon has V vertices.Then sum of interior angles is (V - 2)*180 degrees = 1980 degrees => V - 2 = 1980/180 = 11 => V = 13 A polygon with V vertices has V*(V-3)/2 = 13*10/2 = 65 diagonals.
Let its sides be x and use the formula: 0.5*(x squared-3x) = 230 So: x squared-3x-460 = 0 Solving the quadratic equation gives x positive value of 23 Therefore the polygon has 23 sides irrespective of it being a regular or an irregular polygon. Check: 0.5*(23^2-(3*23)) = 230 diagonals
It must have 15 sides to comply with the formula:- 0.5*(152-(3*15)) = 90 diagonals So: 360/15 = 24 degrees and 180-24 = 156 degrees Therefore: each interior angle measures 156 degrees
Providing that it is a regular polygon then let its sides be x: So: 0.5*(x2-3x) = 464 diagonals Then: x2-3x-928 = 0 Solving the equation: x = 32 sides Total sum of interior angles: 30*180 = 5400 degrees Each interior angle: (5400+360)/180 = 168.75 degrees
Let its sides be x and rearrange the diagonal formula into a quadratic equation:- So: 0.5(x^2-3x) = 252 Then: x^2-3n-504 = 0 Solving the quadratic equation: gives x a positive value of 24 Therefore the polygon has 24 sides irrespective of it being irregular or regular
Area of the rhombus: 0.5*7.5*10 = 37.5 square cm Perimeter using Pythagoras: 4*square root of (3.75^2 plus 5^2) = 25 cm
1 Let the sides be n and use the formula: 0.5*(n2-3n) = diagonals 2 So: 0.5*(n2-3n) = 170 => which transposes to: n2-3n-340 = 0 3 Solving the above quadratic equation gives n a positive value of 20 4 So the polygon has 20 sides and (20-2)*180 = 3240 interior angles 5 Each interior angle measures: 3240/20 = 162 degrees
Let the number of sides be n and so:- If: 0.5*(n^2 -3n) = 275 Then: n^2 -3n -550 = 0 Solving the above quadratic equation: n has positive value of 25 Each interior angle: (25-2)*180/25 = 165.6 degrees
Consider a regular polygon with n sides (and n vertices). Select any vertex. This can be done in n ways. There is no line from that vertex to itself. The lines from the vertex to the immediate neighbour on either side is a side of the polygon and so a diagonal. The lines from that vertex to any one of the remaining n-3 vertices is a diagonal. So, the nuber of ways of selecting the two vertices that deefine a diaginal seem to be n*(n-3). However, this process counts each diagonal twice - once from each end. Therefore a regular polygon with n sides has n*(n-3)/2 diagonals. Now n*(n-3)/2 = 4752 So n*(n-3) = 9504 that is n2 - 3n - 9504 = 0 using the quadratic equation, n = [3 + sqrt(9 + 4*9504)]/2 = 99 sides/vertices. The negative square root in the quadratic formula gives a negative number of sides and that answer can be ignored.
Let the diagonals be x+5 and x:- If: 0.5*(x+5)*x = 150 sq cm Then: x2+5x-300 = 0 Solving the above by means of the quadratic equation formula: x = +15 Therefore: diagonals are 15 cm and 20 cm The rhombus has 4 interior right angle triangles each having an hypotenuse Dimensions of their sides: 7.5 and 10 cm Using Pythagoras' theorem: 7.52+102 = 156.25 Its square root: 12.5 cm Thus: 4*12.5 = 50 cm which is the perimeter of the rhombus Note: area of any quadrilateral whose diagonals are perpendicular is 0.5*product of their diagonals
2520 to get this. You must get the number of sides(16) subtract it by 2, then multiply it by 180. Subtracting it by two is actually the number of triangles inside the polygon showing the possible number of all available non-intersecting diagonals. so in general. The number of non-intersecting triangles multiplied by 180 degrees.( which is the number of degrees in one triangle.
Perimeter = 29 cm so each side is 7.25 cm. The triangle formed by the diagonal and two sides has sides of 7.25, 7.25 and 11.8 cm so, using Heron's formula, its area is 24.9 square cm. Therefore, the area of the rhombus is twice that = 49.7 square cm. | https://math.answers.com/Q/What_is_the_perimeter_of_a_regular_polygon_when_each_side_is_4_cm_and_has_90_diagonals_showing_work |
On the body two peach - pink reserves on a dark brown band. In the reserves on both sides neoclassical heads. On the front and back a trophee. Burnished gold on the upper - lower section and interior as well. Condition: very good minor gold fading.
X W 6.1 in. H 12.5 cm x W 15.5 cm x 7.5 cm. Ithin 14 days of receiving the item. While we are not liable for these additional charges and have no control over them, we do encourage buyers to research these prior to purchasing items from us. The item "Antique French Empire porcelain gilded 19th c Sevres style creamer hand painted" is in sale since Wednesday, November 4, 2020.
This item is in the category "Collectibles\Kitchen & Home\Dinnerware & Serveware\Cups & Saucers". The seller is "lemanti0" and is located in Wommelgem. This item can be shipped worldwide. | https://antiquefrenchporcelain.com/antique-french-empire-porcelain-gilded-19th-c-sevres-style-creamer-hand-painted.html |
Mental maths involves completing short mathematical problems without the use of a pen and paper or a calculator. It is not only useful in school, but in everyday life, such as working out change; sharing items between a group of people and working out when to leave in order to arrive at the correct time.
Mental maths can be used in place of more formal methods. For example, what is 47 + 65? It’s easier to do this in your head if you break the numbers down into their digits’ values: 40 + 60 = 100 and 7 + 5 = 12. Add those two totals and you get the answer of 112.
Improving mental maths skills is a priority of ours at Glebe. Exercising mental maths skills helps to exercise both sides of the brain and has been strongly associated with better memory skills.
To aid with exercising our mental maths skills, every week, the children undertake a Glebe Challenge. This involves the children completing a sheet of mental maths problems within a 5-minute time frame.
Each category and what they entail is detailed below:
Copper
Number bonds to 10 and 20, including inverse
Bronze
Silver
Fractions: ½, 1/3, ¼ and ¾
1-12 times tables including inverse and related division facts
Gold
Fractions of amounts (numerator of 1)
Fractions of amounts (mixed numerators)
Simple equivalent fractions
Decimals
Percentages
Square roots
X and ÷ by 10, 100 and 1,000 of decimals
X 9 and x 99
Platinum
Cube roots
% of amounts
Multiplying fractions by whole numbers
Dividing decimals
Power of 4
Conversion of units
Dividing fractions by whole numbers
Fractions x fractions
Multiplying by 0.1, 0.01 and 0.001
BODMAS
Adding and subtracting fractions
Dividing by decimals
There are six sheets within each category which become more difficult as they progress. Your child will receive a certificate upon successful completion of each level. This is repeated weekly until children can successfully pass the level within the required time. Should your child be stuck on the same level for an extended amount of time, interventions will take place to help them reach their target. | https://www.glebe.hillingdon.sch.uk/page/?title=Glebe+Challenge&pid=185 |
Division in algebraic equations can be confusing. When you throw x's and n's into an already difficult type of math, then the problem may seem even more difficult. By taking a division problem apart piece by piece, however, you can reduce the complexity of the problem.
- Paper
- Pencils
Always factor the equation completely before you begin to isolate the variable. If there is a common factor, factor it out. For instance, 6x + 12 has a common factor of 6. You would need to simplify this to 6(x + 2).
Never forget to do the same thing to both sides of the equation. If one side is divided by 2, the other side must be divided by 2, as well.
Copy your equation on a separate sheet of paper. For the first example, use 3n/5 = 12.
Begin by isolating the variable (n). In this equation, the first thing is to remove the /5. To eliminate division, you do the opposite operation -- which is multiplication. Multiply both sides of the equation by 5. (3n/5) * 5 = 12 * 5. This gives 3n = 60.
Isolate the variable by dividing by 3 on both sides of the equation. (3n/3 = 60/3). This gives n = 20.
Check your answer. (3*20)/5 = 12 is correct.
Solve more complex equations in the same manner. For example, (48x^2 + 4x -70)/(6x -7) = 90. The first goal is to isolate the variable. This requires simplifying the left hand side of the equation.
Factor the numerator and denominator of the equation completely. In this equation, the denominator is already simplified. You need to factor the numerator. The numerator factors into (8x + 10) (6x - 7).
Cancel the common factor. The 6x - 7 on the numerator and the 6x - 7 on the denominator cancel each other. This leaves 8x + 10 = 90. Solve for x by subtracting 10 from both sides and dividing by 8. You end up with x = 10.
Check your answer. (48 * 10^2 + 4 * 10 - 70)/(6 * 10 - 7) = 90. This gives you 4770/53 = 90, which is correct.
Things You'll Need
Tips
Warnings
About the Author
Nicole Harms has been writing professionally since 2006, specializing in real estate, finance and travel. When she's not writing, she enjoys traveling and has visited several countries, including Israel, Spain, France and Guam. Harms received a Bachelor of Science in Education from Maranatha Baptist Bible College. | https://sciencing.com/divide-equations-2331472.html |
The reason being that division by zero is not allowable for reasons very simply stated. Let a and b be any two numbers, and then consider the equation:
a x 0 = b x 0
If division by zero is allowable, you can then simply divide both sides of that equation by zero to get a=b for all a and b. Since a and b can be any two numbers, it would then follow that every number is equal to every other number! Which, of course, is nonsensical. For that reason alone, division by zero cannot be allowed.
You will sometimes hear it said that the result of dividing by zero is infinity, but for a mathematician the result of dividing by zero is simply undefined. Apart from anything else, the question would arise, “Which infinity?” Since the end of the nineteenth century, following a discovery by the German mathematician Georg Cantor, it has been known that there is more than one infinite number and that, in fact, there are an infinite number of infinite numbers! These infinite numbers are strange things, and they obey very different rules compared to ordinary finite numbers.
For example, if A an B are two infinite numbers, and B is the larger of the two, then A+B=B. On the face of it, if you subtracted B from both sides of that equation you could obtain the result that A (an infinite number) is equal to zero. As was the case with division by zero, that result is clearly nonsensical. For that reason, not only does division by an infinite number have to be ruled out, but so does subtraction of an infinite number!
The infinite number corresponding to the number of natural numbers is commonly denoted as N by mathematicians. Now you might think that if you took some subset of the natural numbers, say all the even numbers, 2, 4 , 6 , 8, and so on, then there would be fewer of even numbers than there are natural numbers – after all you are missing out every other number. But contrary to expectations and common sense, the number of even numbers is also N. So if you have a set of N numbers, you can take N numbers out of that set, and still be left with N numbers!
If all this is making your head spin, then it should be said that these transfinite numbers (as they are called) are really just the play thing of pure mathematicians, and that they have no real practical application. | http://www.actforlibraries.org/transfinite-numbers-yes/ |
In the section on multiplying and dividing using powers, we concentrated on writing numbers as a multiplier and a power of ten. Alternatively the numbers could be written with fractional powers of 10 as:
325 = 102.512, 625 400 = 105.796, 0.00256 = 10-2.592
This is more complicated than power notation and requires a calculator or set of tables and is principally of use when dealing with logarithms:
Logarithms are the reverse of powers.
The logarithm is the power of a number to a particular base. Taking ten as the base, and writing the logarithm to base 10 as 'log10':
log10(100) = log10(102) = 2
log10(1000) = log10(103) = 3
log10(0.01) = log10(10-2) = -2
We saw above that an alternative way to write numbers is to use fractional powers of 10, so that 325 = 102.512, 625 400 = 105.796 and 0.00256 = 10-2.592.
We can therefore express these numbers as logarithms to base 10:
log10(325) = 2.512
log10(625 400) = 5.796
log10(0.00256) = -2.592
Why bother? Well logarithms are useful for a number of reasons, one of which is to do complex multiplications without a calculator. When multiplying two numbers you can arrive at an answer by looking up the log10 of the two numbers, adding the logs and then looking up the antilog10 of the result. In today's world of calculators this technique is not used much, but again it is sometimes a quick way to estimate the result of awkward and complex calculations. Occasionally, you may use logarithms and antilogarithms when solving equations. For instance:
If 10x = 625 400, then x = log10 (625 400) = 5.796
Similarly, you can work out a power of a number using logarithms. To work out the square of 5624, first find the log10(3.75) and then multiply this by 2 (the power). The antilog10 of the result (7.5) is 3.162 x 107, which agrees with the answer that my calculator gives (31 629 376). The reverse of this operation is to find the square root of the answer, which can be written as (3.162 x 107)0.5. Dividing the log10(7.5) by two gives a result of 3.75, whose antilog10 equals 5624, which is where we started!
As with powers, logarithms can have different bases. A common base used for both powers and logarithms is the constant e. Logarithms using the base e are called natural logarithms or Naperian logarithms and use the symbol ln (not loge)
Powers and logarithms using base e are very useful for calculation of population growth, which is covered in a separate resource on the NuMBerS site. For the mathematically curious, this also contains an explanation of e. | http://numeracy-bank.net/?q=t/ari/pal/5 |
Looking to get rid of some of that nightstand clutter? Check out Sharadha's Bedside Organization DIY tutorial!
Materials
Felt (https://amzn.to/2ojkVAS)
Scissors (https://amzn.to/2ofoms6)
Pencil / chalk (https://amzn.to/2PL3fKL)
Steps
Draw measurements on paper
87” x 30”
This is meant for a double size bed, which measures approx 53” wide. So if you’re doing this for a different sized bed, adjust accordingly.
Add 6” for material to hang over bed, plus an additional 11” for the pouches.
This goes on both sides, so double those measurements.
Cut main base piece:
87” x 30”
Cut pouch pieces
11” x 30”
6” x 30”
Finish the top edge of the pouch pieces with a zig zag stitch.
Lay them on top of each other, match the ends up. Take a cup, place a the corner, trace the ends and trim. This will give a nice even rounded look.
Working with just the pouch pieces, stitch 3 lines that are 7.5” apart to create 4 even small pouches
Lay this piece on the base, matching ends together. Pin in place. Now let’s stitch over our middle seam to the top.
Using 5” seam allowance, stitch all the pieces together.
To finish the edges nicely, zig zag all the way around. | https://www.thecoralchannel.com/post/bedside-organization |
Home › Calcite on Sphalerite, Trepca Complex, Mitrovica, Kosovska Municipality, Kosovo, Mined 2012, Small Cabinet 4.5 x 6.0 x 7.5 cm, $200. Online 4/6/15. SOLD.
Calcite on Sphalerite, Trepca Complex, Mitrovica, Kosovska Municipality, Kosovo, Mined 2012, Small Cabinet 4.5 x 6.0 x 7.5 cm, $200. Online 4/6/15. SOLD.
A nice mound of very high quality high luster black sphalerite ringed with semi-transparent lustrous calcite. A few calcites are locally included with shiny boulangerite. Complete to all sides and in top condition. Mined 2012. | https://northstarminerals.com/products/calcite-on-sphalerite-trepca-complex-mitrovica-kosovska-municipality-kosovo-mined-2012-small-cabinet-4-5-x-6-0-x-7-5-cm-200-online-4-6-15 |
Features:
- Used Book in Good Condition
ISBN: 0873536304
Number Of Pages: 83
Publisher: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Details: What is the relationship between fractions and rational numbers? Can you explain why the product of two fractions between 0 and 1 is less than either factor? How are rational numbers related to irrational numbers, which your students will study in later grades?
How much do you know... and how much do you need to know?
Helping your upper elementary school students develop a robust understanding of rational numbers requires that you understand this mathematics deeply. But what does that mean?
This book focuses on essential knowledge for teachers about rational numbers. It is organized around four big ideas, supported by multiple smaller, interconnected ideas essential understandings. Taking you beyond a simple introduction to rational numbers, the book will broaden and deepen your mathematical understanding of one of the most challenging topics for students and teachers. It will help you engage your students, anticipate their perplexities, avoid pitfalls, and dispel misconceptions. You will also learn to develop appropriate tasks, techniques, and tools for assessing students understanding of the topic.
Focus on the ideas that you need to understand thoroughly to teach confidently. | https://www.southerncrossconsultancy.com/products/developing-essential-understanding-of-rational-numbers-for-teaching-mathematics-in-grades-3-5 |
Background: Nature has been a source of medicinal products for millennia, with many useful drugs developed from plant sources. Following discovery of the penicillins, drug discovery from microbial sources occurred and diving techniques in the 1970s opened the seas. Combinatorial chemistry (late 1980s), shifted the focus of drug discovery efforts from Nature to the laboratory bench.
Scope of review: This review traces natural products drug discovery, outlining important drugs from natural sources that revolutionized treatment of serious diseases. It is clear Nature will continue to be a major source of new structural leads, and effective drug development depends on multidisciplinary collaborations.
Major conclusions: The explosion of genetic information led not only to novel screens, but the genetic techniques permitted the implementation of combinatorial biosynthetic technology and genome mining. The knowledge gained has allowed unknown molecules to be identified. These novel bioactive structures can be optimized by using combinatorial chemistry generating new drug candidates for many diseases.
General significance: The advent of genetic techniques that permitted the isolation / expression of biosynthetic cassettes from microbes may well be the new frontier for natural products lead discovery. It is now apparent that biodiversity may be much greater in those organisms. The numbers of potential species involved in the microbial world are many orders of magnitude greater than those of plants and multi-celled animals. Coupling these numbers to the number of currently unexpressed biosynthetic clusters now identified (>10 per species) the potential of microbial diversity remains essentially untapped.
Published by Elsevier B.V. | https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23428572/ |
This book is written for students who have taken calculus and want to learn what “real mathematics" is. We hope you will find the material engaging and interesting, and that you will be encouraged to learn more advanced mathematics. This is the second edition of our text. It is intended for students who have taken a calculus course, and are interested in learning what higher mathematics is all about. It can be used as a textbook for an "Introduction to Proofs" course, or for self-study. Chapter 1: Preliminaries, Chapter 2: Relations, Chapter 3: Proofs, Chapter 4: Principles of Induction, Chapter 5: Limits, Chapter 6: Cardinality, Chapter 7: Divisibility, Chapter 8: The Real Numbers, Chapter 9: Complex Numbers. The last 4 chapters can also be used as independent introductions to four topics in mathematics: Cardinality; Divisibility; Real Numbers; Complex Numbers.
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Elementary Abstract Algebra: Examples and Applications
Contributors: Hill and Thron
Publisher: Justin Hill and Chris Thron
This book is not intended for budding mathematicians. It was created for a math program in which most of the students in upper-level math classes are planning to become secondary school teachers. For such students, conventional abstract algebra texts are practically incomprehensible, both in style and in content. Faced with this situation, we decided to create a book that our students could actually read for themselves. In this way we have been able to dedicate class time to problem-solving and personal interaction rather than rehashing the same material in lecture format.
(2 reviews)
A Cool Brisk Walk Through Discrete Mathematics
Contributor: Davies
Publisher: University of Mary Washington
A Cool, Brisk Walk Through Discrete Mathematics, an innovative and non-traditional approach to learning Discrete Math, is available for low cost from Blurb or via free download.
(2 reviews)
Introduction to Game Theory: a Discovery Approach
Contributor: Nordstrom
Publisher: Jennifer Firkins Nordstrom
Game theory is an excellent topic for a non-majors quantitative course as it develops mathematical models to understand human behavior in social, political, and economic settings. The variety of applications can appeal to a broad range of students. Additionally, students can learn mathematics through playing games, something many choose to do in their spare time! This text also includes an exploration of the ideas of game theory through the rich context of popular culture. It contains sections on applications of the concepts to popular culture. It suggests films, television shows, and novels with themes from game theory. The questions in each of these sections are intended to serve as essay prompts for writing assignments.
(4 reviews)
Multivariable Calculus
Contributor: Shimamoto
Publisher: Don Shimamoto
This book covers the standard material for a one-semester course in multivariable calculus. The topics include curves, differentiability and partial derivatives, multiple integrals, vector fields, line and surface integrals, and the theorems of Green, Stokes, and Gauss. Roughly speaking the book is organized into three main parts corresponding to the type of function being studied: vector-valued functions of one variable, real-valued functions of many variables, and finally the general case of vector-valued functions of many variables. As is always the case, the most productive way for students to learn is by doing problems, and the book is written to get to the exercises as quickly as possible. The presentation is geared towards students who enjoy learning mathematics for its own sake. As a result, there is a priority placed on understanding why things are true and a recognition that, when details are sketched or omitted, that should be acknowledged. Otherwise the level of rigor is fairly normal. Matrices are introduced and used freely. Prior experience with linear algebra is helpful, but not required.
(1 review)
Quantitative Problem Solving in Natural Resources
Contributor: Moore
Publisher: Iowa State University
This text is intended to support courses that bridge the divide between mathematics typically encountered in U.S. high school curricula and the practical problems that natural resource students might engage with in their disciplinary coursework and professional internships.
(1 review)
An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers
Contributor: Moser
Publisher: The Trillia Group
This book, which presupposes familiarity only with the most elementary concepts of arithmetic (divisibility properties, greatest common divisor, etc.), is an expanded version of a series of lectures for graduate students on elementary number theory. Topics include: Compositions and Partitions; Arithmetic Functions; Distribution of Primes; Irrational Numbers; Congruences; Diophantine Equations; Combinatorial Number Theory; and Geometry of Numbers. Three sections of problems (which include exercises as well as unsolved problems) complete the text.
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Introduction to Financial Mathematics Concepts and Computational Methods
Contributor: Fahim
Publisher: Florida State University
Introduction to Financial Mathematics: Concepts and Computational Methods serves as a primer in financial mathematics with a focus on conceptual understanding of models and problem solving. It includes the mathematical background needed for risk management, such as probability theory, optimization, and the like. The goal of the book is to expose the reader to a wide range of basic problems, some of which emphasize analytic ability, some requiring programming techniques and others focusing on statistical data analysis. In addition, it covers some areas which are outside the scope of mainstream financial mathematics textbooks. For example, it presents marginal account setting by the CCP and systemic risk, and a brief overview of the model risk. Inline exercises and examples are included to help students prepare for exams on this book.
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Statistical Thinking for the 21st Century
Contributor: Poldrack
Publisher: Russell Poldrack
Statistical thinking is a way of understanding a complex world by describing it in relatively simple terms that nonetheless capture essential aspects of its structure, and that also provide us some idea of how uncertain we are about our knowledge. The foundations of statistical thinking come primarily from mathematics and statistics, but also from computer science, psychology, and other fields of study.
(1 review)
Geometry with an Introduction to Cosmic Topology
Contributor: Hitchman
Publisher: Michael P. Hitchman
Motivated by questions in cosmology, the open-content text Geometry with an Introduction to Cosmic Topology uses Mobius transformations to develop hyperbolic, elliptic, and Euclidean geometry - three possibilities for the global geometry of the universe. | https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/subjects/mathematics?page=2 |
Consulting and collecting numbers has been a feature of human affairs since antiquity-from the pyramids to tax collection to head counts for military service-but not until the Scientific Revolution in the seventeenth century did social numbers such as births, deaths and marriages begin to be analysed. The Triumph of Numbers explores how numbers have come to assume a leading role in science, in the operations and structure of government, in the analysis of society, in marketing and in many other aspects of daily life.
The late I.B. Cohen shows how number problems of government, science and engineering led to the invention of the computer. He shines a new light on familiar figures like Thomas Jefferson, Ben Franklin and Charles Dickens, and he reveals Florence Nightingale as a passionate statistician. Cohen has left us with an engaging and accessible history of numbers, and an appreciation and understanding of the essential nature of statistics.
Suitable for self study. Use real examples and real data sets that will be familiar to the audience. Introduction to the bootstrap is included – this is a modern method missing in many other books.
Praise for the "Third Edition ""Future mathematicians, scientists, and engineers should find the book to be an excellent introductory text for coursework or self-study as well as worth its shelf space for reference." –MAA Reviews " Applied Mathematics, Fourth Edition" is a thoroughly updated and revised edition on the applications of modeling and analyzing natural, social, and technological processes. The book covers a wide range of key topics in mathematical methods and modeling and highlights the connections between mathematics and the applied and natural sciences.
The "Fourth Edition" covers both standard and modern topics, including scaling and dimensional analysis; regular and singular perturbation; calculus of variations; Green’s functions and integral equations; nonlinear wave propagation; and stability and bifurcation. The book provides extended coverage of mathematical biology, including biochemical kinetics, epidemiology, viral dynamics, and parasitic disease. In addition, the new edition features: Expanded coverage on orthogonality, boundary value problems, and distributions, all of which are motivated by solvability and eigenvalue problems in elementary linear algebra Additional MATLAB(R) applications for computer algebra system calculations Over 300 exercises and 100 illustrations that demonstrate important concepts New examples of dimensional analysis and scaling along with new tables of dimensions and units for easy reference Review material, theory, and examples of ordinary differential equations New material on applications to quantum mechanics, chemical kinetics, and modeling diseases and viruses Written at an accessible level for readers in a wide range of scientific fields, "Applied Mathematics, Fourth Edition" is an ideal text for introducing modern and advanced techniques of applied mathematics to upper-undergraduate and graduate-level students in mathematics, science, and engineering. The book is also a valuable reference for engineers and scientists in government and industry.
This book provides an undergraduate introduction to discrete and continuous-time Markov chains and their applications. A large focus is placed on the first step analysis technique and its applications to average hitting times and ruin probabilities. Classical topics such as recurrence and transience, stationary and limiting distributions, as well as branching processes, are also covered. Two major examples (gambling processes and random walks) are treated in detail from the beginning, before the general theory itself is presented in the subsequent chapters.
An introduction to discrete-time martingales and their relation to ruin probabilities and mean exit times is also provided, and the book includes a chapter on spatial Poisson processes with some recent results on moment identities and deviation inequalities for Poisson stochastic integrals. The concepts presented are illustrated by examples and by 72 exercises and their complete solutions.
This book developed from classes in mathematical biology taught by the authors over several years at the Technische Universität München. The main themes are modeling principles, mathematical principles for the analysis of these models and model-based analysis of data. The key topics of modern biomathematics are covered: ecology, epidemiology, biochemistry, regulatory networks, neuronal networks and population genetics. A variety of mathematical methods are introduced, ranging from ordinary and partial differential equations to stochastic graph theory and branching processes.
A special emphasis is placed on the interplay between stochastic and deterministic models.
Modern computer-intensive statistical methods play a key role in solving many problems across a wide range of scientific disciplines. This new edition of the bestselling Randomization, Bootstrap and Monte Carlo Methods in Biology illustrates the value of a number of these methods with an emphasis on biological applications.
This textbook focuses on three related areas in computational statistics: randomization, bootstrapping, and Monte Carlo methods of inference. The author emphasizes the sampling approach within randomization testing and confidence intervals.
Similar to randomization, the book shows how bootstrapping, or resampling, can be used for confidence intervals and tests of significance. It also explores how to use Monte Carlo methods to test hypotheses and construct confidence intervals.
Providing comprehensive coverage of computer-intensive applications while also offering data sets online, Randomization, Bootstrap and Monte Carlo Methods in Biology, Third Edition supplies a solid foundation for the ever-expanding field of statistics and quantitative analysis in biology.
, The Theory of Diffusion, The Theory of Turbulence, and Probability in Classical and Modern Physics. However, it was the intention of the Committee that these terms should be interpreted broadly and that the speakers should avail themselves of considerable freedom in determining the actual contents of their papers. In particular, it was understood that the term "theory of diffusion" was to be interpreted so as to cover a wide variety of relations between probability and differential equations. The three themes were dealt with in the order in which they have been mentioned, and the papers appear here in the order in which they were given.
Multidimensional scaling covers a variety of statistical techniques in the area of multivariate data analysis. Geared toward dimensional reduction and graphical representation of data, it arose within the field of the behavioral sciences, but now holds techniques widely used in many disciplines.
With the development of new fitting methods, their increased use in applications, and improved computer languages, the fitting of statistical distributions to data has come a long way since the introduction of the generalized lambda distribution (GLD) in 1969. Handbook of Fitting Statistical Distributions with R presents the latest and best methods, algorithms, and computations for fitting distributions to data. It also provides in-depth coverage of cutting-edge applications.The book begins with commentary by three GLD pioneers: John S.
Ramberg, Bruce Schmeiser, and Pandu R. Tadikamalla. These leaders of the field give their perspectives on the development of the GLD. The book then covers GLD methodology and Johnson, kappa, and response modeling methodology fitting systems. It also describes recent additions to GLD and generalized bootstrap methods as well as a new approach to goodness-of-fit assessment. The final group of chapters explores real-world applications in agriculture, reliability estimation, hurricanes/typhoons/cyclones, hail storms, water systems, insurance and inventory management, and materials science. The applications in these chapters complement others in the book that deal with competitive bidding, medicine, biology, meteorology, bioassays, economics, quality management, engineering, control, and planning.
This is a history of the use of Bayes theoremfrom its discovery by Thomas Bayes to the rise of the statistical competitors in the first part of the twentieth century. The book focuses particularly on the development of one of the fundamental aspects of Bayesian statistics, and in this new edition readers will find new sections on contributors to the theory. In addition, this edition includes amplified discussion of relevant work.
“Elementary Statistics: A Step By Step Approach” is for introductory statistics courses with a basic algebra prerequisite. The book is non-theoretical, explaining concepts intuitively and teaching problem solving through worked examples and step-by-step instructions. In recent editions, Al Bluman has placed more emphasis on conceptual understanding and understanding results, along with increased focus on Excel, MINITAB, and the TI-83 Plus and TI-84 Plus graphing calculators; computing technologies commonly used in such courses. | http://booklan.ir/product-category/books/science-and-math-cd4/mathematics-pwa/applied-mf3/probability-and-statistics-am1/?add_to_wishlist=103374 |
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