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CCNY is looking for a full-time Evaluation Associate who will report to our Director of Analytics and Evaluation.
This individual will be responsible for evaluating and researching various (physical and behavioral health, social and human services, education, arts) programs, including developing evaluation designs and instrumentation; collecting, coding, analyzing, and interpreting quantitative and qualitative data; conducting interviews, focus groups and systematic observations; and reporting evaluation findings.
Duties include:
● Develop and implement program evaluations for human service programs, including appropriate sampling methodology.
● Follow a utilization-focused evaluation paradigm when working with customers to evaluate the impact of their interventions.
● Design, develop, and implement evaluation instruments (surveys, etc.)
● Design, develop, and implement evaluation plans for clients.
● Perform supplemental analysis such as evaluability analysis, ROI, cost studies.
● Create accurate and meaningful reports of evaluation results for both internal and external stakeholders.
● Develop working relationships and partnerships with community partners and stakeholders.
● Conduct and write Literature Reviews on particular topics.
● Manage and monitor the implementation of data collection for programs.
● Evaluate client data on a macro, mezzo, or micro level for descriptive statistical trends.
● Train clients on evaluation and analytics concepts.
● Able to follow data visualization standards for the department consistently.
● Able to use business intelligence tools (Excel, Tableau, PowerBI) to deliver analytics to customers.
● Develop descriptive statistics based on given datasets.
Required Skills/Qualifications:
● 2-4 years of paid experience with evaluation and/or analytics.
● Graduate Degree in Social Work, Public Health, or related field.
● Experience with Excel and statistical software such as SPSS/PASW, SAS, R, or Minitab
● Knowledge of relational databases.
● Teamwork-focused/collaborative work style.
● Ability to travel to customer sites.
● Experience in presenting evaluation findings to internal and external staff, customers and stakeholders.
● Demonstrated ability to successfully plan large projects with multiple deadlines, deliverables, and detail-oriented tasks.
Successful candidate will achieve:
- On-time delivery of project deliverables.
- Accurate and professional project deliverables.
- Superior customer service and customer satisfaction with all project deliverables.
- Community presence as evidenced by participation and attendance at specific workgroups and events.
CCNY offers an excellent benefits package, which includes unlimited paid time off. If interested and qualified, please submit your resume and cover letter to [email protected]. | https://ccnyinc.org/were-hiring-2/ |
Grow your skills on how to write chapter 3 of your thesis or dissertation, it is known as methodology. A successful chapter 3 should help the tutor to understand the steps and method taken within study.
And it’s becoming more important every day.
In today’s guide, you’re going to learn everything you need to know how to write chapter 3 methodology of your thesis or dissertation from this dissertation writing service. First!
Let’s do this.
- What is Chapter 3
- How To Write Chapter 3 Methodology
- Pro Tips for Writing a Thesis Methodology
What is Chapter 3 (Methodology)?
The methodology part of your thesis is an integral section of the thesis because it shows the reader or the audience the process you employed in coming up with your findings. The techniques you used to collect and present data are stated in this part of the thesis. A well-written methodology thus justifies how you reached the conclusions of your thesis and clears any doubt on the reader’s side about how you arrived at your findings. Your thesis methodology will thus tell the readers the following details about your research;
- The type of research you carried out
- The methods of data collection you used
- The data analysis methods you used
- Any other materials you used in your research
- The reasons for choosing the above-listed methods or techniques or tools
How To Write Chapter 3 Methodology
When writing your thesis methodology, you shall use past tense and follow the following steps.
- Explain the methodological approach
- Describe the data collection methods used
- Describe methods of data analysis to the audience
- Justify Your Methodology
Explaining the methodological approach
In the first part of your thesis methodology, you will familiarize the readers with the overall approach you had towards the research. Start by reminding your reader of the research problem and questions you were investigating.
A good example would be; did you aim to investigate a certain phenomenon or were you describing the characteristics of something or were you simply establishing a cause and effect relationship between one item and another.
Once you have re-stated the research problem you were researching, you can then state the type of data you needed for solving that problem. State if;
- You needed quantitative data or qualitative data for the research problem
- You collected primary data or you used secondary data.
- You can also tell your readers if you collected gathered experimental data by controlling and manipulating variables or whether you collected descriptive data through observation.
After establishing these points, you can further state why you think the approach you used above was the most reliable in addressing the research question.
You can further tell the reader if these were the standard methodologies in the particular field of study, and if there are other reasons for choosing the particular methodology, you can state it.
If there were ethical considerations involved in choosing your methodologies, you can state that.
Lastly, you can tell the criteria for validity and reliability in the type of research you carried out.
Description of the data collection methods used
There are two main methods of data collection in a thesis;
- Quantitative methods
- Qualitative methods.
Quantitative methods for data collection
In quantitative methods, you can collect the data by performing experiments and tests, or you can state if you used surveys or existing data. Let’s look at each below;
- Surveys as a data collection method
If you used surveys, state when and how the survey was conducted. Tell the reader how you designed your questionnaires and the structure of your questions (did you use multiple-choice questions or yes/no questions etc.). You can further state the sampling method you used to select the respondents for your thesis.
How were the surveys conducted, did you do it through phone calls or emails, or Google surveys. And state the sample size and the response rate to your questionnaires. The questionnaire used shall be included in the appendix so that the readers can clearly understand what type of data you collected.
- Use of Experiments as a data collection method
If you used experiments to gather data in your thesis, you shall tell the readers how you designed your experiments. And also how the participants were recruited for the experiment. If you manipulated and measured the variables, state how you did that. Most importantly, list the tools and technologies you used for the experiment.
- Use of existing data as a data collection method
In your thesis methodology, if you used existing data, such as archival data, you can state the criteria you used to select the sources of your data, which data range did you use? And how was the data you have used originally produced? That gives a clear idea of the validity of your data.
Qualitative methods of data collection
If you used qualitative methods to collect data for your thesis, you shall state in detail how you went about that process. Qualitative methods are flexible and subjective so tell the audience your approach and the choices you made.
You will explore things such as the criteria you used to select the participants or sources. You can also state the context in which your research was carried out and the role you played in the data collection methods. Tell the readers if you were actively involved or if you were just a passive observer in the process. Some of the common methods for collecting data in qualitative methods are;
- Use of interviews or focus groups for collecting data;
If you used interviews,
- State how you found and selected the participants.
- State the number of participants you used in your thesis and why.
- State how you interviewed the participants, and how were the interviews? State if they were structured or semi-structured or unstructured.
- State how long the interviews took and if you were recording the participants or writing down information as they speak.
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- Participant observation as a data collection method
In case you used observation as a method in your thesis;
- State to the readers which community of people you observed and if there is a way you gained access to that group of people.
- How long did you spend carrying out the research and what was the location?
- Tell the readers what role you played in that particular community and how you were collecting your data for the time you were there (whether through audio-visuals or taking notes).
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- Use of existing data;
If you used existing data in your qualitative research, tell your readers what type of materials you analyzed and how you collected and selected them.
Describing your methods of data analysis to the audience
If you were carrying out quantitative research which produces data in figures, you will state if you analyzed your data using statistical tests such as simple linear regression. If you used statistical software such as SPSS, mention that.
Data is often prepared before analysis by checking for missing data or sometimes removing outliers. If you did that, state it.
How did you present the data? If you made presentations through pie charts and graphs, state it.
On the other hand, if you carried out qualitative research that collects non-numerical data. You can tell the audience if you analysed the data by coding and categorizing ideas and themes to interpret the meaning of the data you gathered.
If you used content analysis which involves categorizing and discussing the meaning of words and specific phrases, state that so that the audience can understand.
If you used mixed methods which involve both qualitative and quantitative research methods to analyze data and present multiple findings, you should state that. Mixed methods usually help researchers verify data from two or more sources.
Justify Your Methodology
In this part of the thesis methodology, you want to convince the reader that you picked the best methods for collecting, analyzing, and presenting your data. This ties back to the thesis questions you set out to answer and the literature review you have conducted, tell the audience why other methods were not suitable for the research questions. Convince the audience of the quality and validity of your methods especially if you didn’t take a standard approach in the analysis of the data you collected.
You can also state to the reader the limitations of the methods you used in your thesis but don’t forget to justify why these were outweighed by the strengths of your methods.
Pro Tips for Writing a Thesis Methodology
- To write a thesis methodology, choose a research method that is easy to achieve. As a researcher, you only have limited resources in terms of time and money. You don’t want to use a method that is too demanding of the limited resources. If you will need access to certain equipment for measuring data, consider their access and availability.
- If there are relevant sources you can cite, cite them. Show the reader that the methodology you picked followed established practices for that type of research. You can further expound on how you evaluated different methodologies and settled on the specific one you used for the research.
- When writing a thesis methodology, write for the audience. Your methodology has to be clear, tell your reader why you chose a certain method especially if it is an uncommon method in your field of study. If you are using established methods then you won’t have to justify a lot why you preferred them.
- If there are obstacles you encountered during the analysis of data, state how you handled them and minimized their impact on the findings. This is to prevent major criticisms of your approach to data collection and analysis and prove that you did a thorough job in your thesis methodology. | https://essaymojo.com/writing-guide/thesis-methodology-chapter-3/ |
This course is an introduction to the basic principles and techniques of doctoral scholarship. It will expose DBA participants to the principles of scientific research and to contemporary research methods. It will guide them into writing their research proposal and designing their dissertation research.
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Learning Outcomes
Participants will understand the logic and structure of the DBA dissertation. They will define their research objectives and research questions. They will learn how to critically read research articles and will be introduced to research design and to the techniques of writing research papers. They will also be introduced to literature research methods.
Research in Strategic Management
Research in Strategic Management
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Course Objectives
This DBA seminar is designed to introduce you to the key phenomena examined in the field of strategic management. Following the conventional classification, we will survey a selected set of studies of strategy at business, corporate, and international levels. We will focus on the content of the strategic choice and explore the factors leading to that choice as well as its consequences. We will review primarily how management theories are applied to explain the rationale behind each strategic choice. In addition, we will also touch upon research methods in strategic management field.
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Learning Outcomes
The primary purpose of this course is to help you develop a critical appreciation for the phenomena, theoretical frameworks, data, methodology, and current questions that animate the field. Specifically, you will be able to:
Master research process skills critical to success in an academic career such as the ability to think clearly and communicate effectively both orally and in written form.
Qualitative Research Methods
Qualitative Research Methods
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Course Objectives
This part of the course introduces students to the characteristics of a coherent qualitative research design, skills in theory building, strengths and weaknesses of the qualitative data collection methods of interviewing, observation, and photography/film, data analysis methods of coding and categorizing, the requirements for a practical/theoretical contribution, and the ability to communicate results in the written format of a dissertation.
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Learning Outcomes
Students are encouraged to work on their dissertation topic. In a series of exercises students will: translate an interest/topic/problem into a coherent and viable qualitative research design; identify recent, relevant literature to open a promising route of inquiry; pose questions using the three data collection methods of interviewing, observation, and photography/film; identify and code data elements; detect similarities and differences between their codes and relations and those appearing in the literature; and formulate one logical argument using qualitative data that credits and extends existing knowledge. Finally, students will learn to recognize the appropriate voice, format, and content appropriate for dissertation using qualitative data and to fully address the concerns of the advising committee.
Quantitative Research Methods
Quantitative Research Methods
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Course Objectives
This course is aimed at developing a methodological foundation for writing a doctoral dissertation. It will introduce students to the structure of quantitative empirical analysis for their research. An emphasis will be placed on how to identify/collect the right data, how to analyze the data with the right methods, and how to interpret the results. Statistical estimation and hypothesis testing will be the main goals across all methods used in class.
The course format will be a mixture of lectures, discussion, and lab sessions. Although prior knowledge in quantitative methods is not required for this course, some background knowledge will be certainly helpful. But, the course will start with the introduction of the basic concepts and tools in quantitative analysis first.
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Learning Outcomes
After the course, students are expected to be able to handle a variety of quantitative approaches to analyze data and make decisions for business. They will understand the requirements for selecting the right type of data and how to select a quantitative method for a given research problem.
The challenges driven by the uncertainty in today’s business environment require that managers make quality decisions. Good decisions require good information, and the information is eventually produced by the analysis of the data. Through this course, students will find that quantitative methods are usefully applied for this purpose.
Frontiers of Leadership Research
Frontiers of Leadership Research
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Course Objectives
Leadership is the most studied topic in management research. Research on leadership is multi-disciplinary in nature, covering areas such as organizational behavior, human resource management, strategic management, marketing, finance, social psychology, sociology, political sciences and so forth. The goal of the course is to provide students with advanced theories in leadership. The emphasis is on theoretical underpinnings, major theoretical themes in leadership research, and state of the science. Students completed this course should be able to develop research projects pushing the frontier of leadership research.
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Learning Outcomes
Upon completion of this course, students should be able to:
Doctoral Seminars
Doctoral Seminars
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Course Objectives
Research is the systematic process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to increase the understanding of a phenomenon under study. The DBA participant will contribute to the understanding of the management phenomenon under study essentially through an applied and empirical approach, and will communicate that understanding through a series of “deliverables” such as the concept paper, the literature review, the research proposal and defense, the dissertation pre-defense and finally the written DBA dissertation and its defense.
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Learning Outcomes
Doctoral seminars aim at improving the research outcomes and contributions of the individual participants.
Research Proposal Defense
Research Proposal Defense
Concept
A Research Proposal is the most important first step towards executing the DBA dissertation. The proposal is a unique manuscript in that sense that it describes with all necessary details how the dissertation is an original contribution to knowledge or to management practice.
Purppose
The general purpose of a Research Proposal is to describe what the final dissertation will most probably be. However, the Research Proposal should not be considered as the final draft of the structure of the DBA dissertation as things will necessarily evolve over time through further readings and exchanges with your dissertation advisor. The subject and methodology might also be discussed and refined during the Research Proposal Defence and during the dissertation Pre-Defence which involve the dissertation advisor as well as other faculty members.
Research Deliverables
Concept Paper
Literature Review
Research Proposal
Assessed elements
Concept Paper
Literature Review
Research Proposal
Check Points
Doctoral Seminar 1
- Review Progress of Literature Review
Doctoral Seminar 2
- Review Progress of Research Proposal
Phase 2
Successful completion of Phase 2 leads to the Euro-Asia Doctorate in Business Administration
RESEARCH DELIVERABLES
Preliminary dissertation draft
Preliminary dissertation draft
The preliminary dissertation draft shows the ability of the participant to empirically implement the research approved during the research proposal Defence and in many instances improved through further exchanges with the dissertation advisor. The empirical investigation implies a precise methodology including data collection procedures and effective data collection. All data planned for the final dissertation need not be collected at this stage. However, data analysis must be performed as well as presentation of empirical results and interpretation of results, even if these results may yet be partial.
Final dissertation document
Final dissertation document
The final DBA dissertation paper demonstrates the ability of the candidate to conduct an original and independent research in management. The research must be theoretically founded, methodologically sound and must offer original contributions to knowledge and/or practice.
ASSESSED ELEMENTS
Dissertation Pre-Defense
Dissertation Pre-Defense
The Pre-Defense is aimed at helping DBA participants improve their dissertation work before they hand in their final dissertation and defend their research. It also enables participants to test the oral presentation of their dissertation and improve upon it. At the end of the seminar, participants will be in a position to correct and complete their dissertation in order to successfully defend it in front of the dissertation committee.
At the end of the Pre-Defense, the candidate leaves the room and the Pre-Defense committee decides whether or not the candidate will be admitted to the final defense (Viva Voce). The chairman will then announce to the DBA candidate the decision of the committee, as well as the required changes to the dissertation.
Viva Voce (Final Dissertation Defense)
Viva Voce (Final Dissertation Defense)
The final dissertation Defence is an oral presentation of the DBA dissertation in front of the Defence committee. The Defence committee is composed of at least three members including the dissertation advisor and at least one faculty member of Kedge Business School. The purpose of the Defence is (1) to demonstrate that the dissertation is commensurate with the standards for original research in management, (2) to demonstrate that the ethics and standards governing research in management have been followed. | https://executive.kedge.edu/executive-programmes/euro-asia-executive-dba/Programme |
The C&A core team reviews documentation that they receive. Some of the documentation could include the following:
The Project Manager or ISSR document the application characteristics which includes the following steps:
The ISSO coordinates the completion of the BIA, which includes the following steps:
Note: Some information resources are developed under the direction of one executive sponsor in one organization and transferred to an executive sponsor in another organization for Phase 7 of the C&A process (Release and Production).
Once the BIA is completed, the Business Relationship Management portfolio manager ensures that the EIR is updated and amends the POA&M to include integrating information security controls in the information resource and the deliverables associated with the C&A process.
The POA&M, a key document in the security certification and accreditation package, describes actions taken or planned by the executive sponsor to correct deficiencies in the security controls and to address remaining vulnerabilities in the information resource. The POA&M identifies:
The POA&M is updated throughout the information resource lifecycle for changes to the hardware, software, firmware, and the surrounding computing environment. | https://about.usps.com/handbooks/as805a/as805_4_011.htm |
To specify the requirements for the conduct of periodic security risk assessments on the District of Columbia Government (hereafter known as District)’s information technology infrastructure to evaluate the District’s current security posture, identify gaps and determine appropriate corrective actions.
2. Authority
DC Official Code § 1-1401 et seq., provides the Office of the Chief Technology Officer (“OCTO”) with the authority to provide information technology (IT) services, write and enforce IT policies, and secure the network and IT systems for the District. This document can be found at: https://code.dccouncil.us/dc/council/code/sections/1-1402.html.
3. Applicability
This policy applies to all District workforce members responsible for application identity and role definition on behalf of the District, and/or any District agency/District/entity who receive enterprise services from OCTO. In addition, this policy applies to any providers and third-party entities with access to District information, networks, and applications.
4. Policy
4.1. Security Categorization
District’s agencies must:
- Categorize information and the system per applicable federal laws, Executive Orders, directives, policies, regulations, standards, and guidance.
- Document the security categorization results in the security plan for the information system.
- Ensure the security categorization decision is reviewed and approved by the authorizing official or authorizing official designated representative.
4.2. Risk Assessments
District’s agencies must:
- Conduct assessments of risks, including the likelihood and magnitude of the harm, from the unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction of the information system and the information it processes, stores, or transmits.
- Document risk assessment results in a Risk Assessment Report (RAR).
- Review risk assessment results annually.
- Disseminate risk assessment results to all agencies and relevant personnel.
- Update the risk assessments at least annually or whenever there are significant changes to the system or environment of operation (including the identification of new threats and vulnerabilities) or other conditions that may impact the security state of the system.
4.3. Risk Assessment | Supply Chain Risk Assessment
District’s agencies must:
- Assess supply chain risks associated with the third-party supplied software, devices, system components, etc., and
- Update the supply chain risk assessment annually, when there are significant changes to the relevant supply chain, or when changes to the system, environments of operation, or other conditions may necessitate a change in the supply chain.
4.4. Vulnerability Monitoring And Scanning
District’s agencies must:
- Monitor and scan for vulnerabilities in all District owned systems hosted applications, and network devices annually or sooner due to system change, upgrades, etc., and when new vulnerabilities potentially affecting the system are identified and reported.
- Employ vulnerability monitoring tools and techniques that facilitate interoperability among tools and automate parts of the vulnerability management process by using standards for:
- Enumerating platforms, software flaws, and improper configurations.
- Formatting checklists and test procedures; and
- Measuring vulnerability impact.
- Analyze vulnerability scan reports and results from vulnerability monitoring.
- Remediate legitimate vulnerabilities within the remediation timeline specified in the District’s Vulnerability Management Policy or according to an organizational assessment of risk;
- Share information obtained from the vulnerability monitoring process and control assessments with the system owners to help eliminate similar vulnerabilities in other systems; and
- Employ vulnerability monitoring tools that include the capability to readily update the vulnerabilities to be scanned.
4.5. Vulnerability Scanning | Privileged Access
District agencies' information systems must implement privileged access authorization to all District agencies' systems for all vulnerability scanning activities.
4.6. Risk Response
District agencies must have a documented guideline for responding to risk by developing a Risk Treatment methodology. Upon the delivery of a security and privacy assessment report, District agencies must ensure that an appropriate response to, or treatment of, the identified risk is determined before a plan of action and milestones entry is generated.
5. Exemptions
Exceptions to this policy shall be requested in writing to the Agency’s CIO and the request will be escalated to the OCTO Chief Information Security Officer (“CISO”) for approval.
6. Definitions
The definition of the terms used in this document can be found in the Policy Definitions website. | https://octo.dc.gov/node/1523606 |
Security development and operations overview
How does Microsoft implement secure development practices?
Microsoft's Security Development Lifecycle (SDL) is a security assurance process focused on developing and operating secure software. The SDL provides detailed, measurable security requirements for developers and engineers at Microsoft to reduce the number and severity of vulnerabilities in our products and services. All Microsoft software development teams must follow SDL requirements, and we continuously update the SDL to reflect the changing threat landscape, industry best practices, and regulatory standards for compliance.
How does Microsoft's SDL improve application security?
The SDL process at Microsoft can be thought of in terms of five phases of development: requirements, design, implementation, verification, and release. It begins by defining software requirements with security in mind. To do meet this goal, we ask security-relevant questions about what the application must accomplish. Does the application need to collect sensitive data? Will the application perform sensitive or important tasks? Does the application need to accept input from untrusted sources?
Once relevant security requirements have been identified, we design our software to incorporate security features that meet these requirements. Our developers implement SDL and design requirements in the code, which we verify through manual code review, automated security tooling, and penetration testing. Finally, before code can be released, new features and material changes undergo final security and privacy review to ensure all requirements are met.
How does Microsoft test source code for common vulnerabilities?
To support our developers in implementing security requirements during code development and after release, Microsoft provides a suite of secure development tools to automatically check source code for security flaws and vulnerabilities. Microsoft defines and publishes a list of approved tools for our developers to use, such as compilers and development environments, along with the built-in security checks executed automatically within Microsoft build pipelines. Our developers use the latest versions of approved tools to take advantage of new security features.
Before code can be checked into a release branch, the SDL requires manual code review by a separate reviewer. Code reviewers check for coding errors and verify that code changes meet SDL and design requirements, pass functional and security tests, and perform reliably. They also review associated documentation, configs, and dependencies to ensure code changes are documented appropriately and will not cause unintended side-effects. If a reviewer finds problems during code review, they can ask the submitter to resubmit the code with suggested changes and additional testing. Code reviewers may also decide to block check-in entirely for code that does not meet requirements. Once the code has been deemed satisfactory by the reviewer, the reviewer provides approval, which is required before code can proceed to the next deployment phase.
In addition to secure development tools and manual code review, Microsoft enforces SDL requirements using automated security tooling. Many of these tools are built into the commit pipeline and automatically analyze code for security flaws as it is checked in and as new builds are compiled. Examples include static code analysis for common security flaws and credential scanners that analyze code for embedded secrets. Issues uncovered by automated security tools must be fixed before new builds can pass security review and be approved for release.
How does Microsoft manage open-source software?
Microsoft has adopted a high-level strategy for managing open-source security, which uses tools and workflows designed to:
- Understand which open-source components are being used in our products and services.
- Track where and how those components are used.
- Determine whether those components have any vulnerabilities.
- Respond properly when vulnerabilities are discovered that affect those components.
Microsoft engineering teams maintain responsibility for the security of all open-source software included in a product or service. To achieve this security at scale, Microsoft has built essential capabilities into engineering systems through Component Governance (CG), which automates open-source detection, legal requirement workflows, and alerting for vulnerable components. Automated CG tools scan builds at Microsoft for open-source components and associated security vulnerabilities or legal obligations. Discovered components are registered and submitted to the appropriate teams for business and security reviews. These reviews are designed to evaluate any legal obligations or security vulnerabilities associated with open-source components and resolve them before approving components for deployment.
Related external regulations & certifications
Microsoft's online services are regularly audited for compliance with external regulations and certifications. Refer to the following table for validation of controls related to security development and operation. | https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/compliance/assurance/assurance-security-development-and-operation |
Network documentation helps enterprises resolve problems more quickly and create more reliable networks. But documentation needs to include various components to be effective.
One of the most important aspects of administering a network is to conduct frequent network documentation updates...
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Enjoy this article as well as all of our content, including E-Guides, news, tips and more.
and auditing. These steps provide a centralized representation of an organization's network, which is a critical component in delivering against business goals.
Network admins should document some basic parts of the network: LAN software, LAN hardware, network diagrams, usernames (ID numbers) and network numbers.
Benefits of network documentation
Network documentation provides several potential benefits, according to Abinet Girma Abebe, senior network engineer at SICE Canada Inc., in Toronto. Some of those benefits include the following:
- The process enables IT teams to fix known problems that occur repeatedly in a timely manner without having to do extensive research into the problems.
- Network documentation can be used as a source of knowledge from past employees, as well as help in the training, integration and onboarding of new personnel.
- It helps the organization achieve network consistency by having every team member follow certain desired processes and procedures that are tried, tested and documented.
- It can reduce mistakes that result from network outages.
How to document the network
When beginning the process of network documentation, teams should first create policy and guidelines that specify what to include in the documentation. They can then include a brief introduction about the network, looking at topology, business requirements and other factors.
Next, teams should outline the various details within the documentation, which includes different components, Girma Abebe said. The major components network teams should include in documentation are the following:
- high-level design, or HLD;
- low-level design, or LLD;
- final document that shows how the network was built (as-built);
- device inventory;
- IP schema;
- IP address management;
- topology diagrams (physical/logical);
- methods of procedure;
- company network security policy; and
- firmware and software.
All these components can't be included in a single document. Further, everything likely won't be stored in writing only. So, an organization may need to use different tools to store this information. To manage IP address and device inventories, network teams commonly use different tools depending on the company's preference, Girma Abebe said. He recommended using automated tools for discovery and maintenance.
"From my experience, network documents that are kept in writing are stored in shared folders in remote file servers, which are part of the Active Directory domain," Girma Abebe said. "These documents are easily available for everyone, and access can be allowed or restricted based on domain policies. But I believe they lack version control."
Instead, Girma Abebe suggested teams use Git and store documents on GitHub and GitLab, which provide more version control and collaboration.
Finally, whenever teams make changes, they should update document names to reflect the date, month and year of the update. The updated documentation should also include a version number.
Network diagrams
Documenting a network typically involves creating a diagram that illustrates how an organization's servers, routers and switches are connected. This diagram serves as a network blueprint and usually accounts for both physical and logical connections. It also reminds teams of what they've done to the network and why. The diagram should reside in storage that is distributed, redundant, secure and easy to access, according to Eric Chou, principal engineer at A10 Networks.
Abinet Girma AbebeSenior network engineer, SICE Canada Inc.
Teams should update the network documentation as often as possible, especially when they introduce a new component or process. Network pros should review maintenance, network compliance and security policy documents at least once a year, Chou said.
Network cabling documentation
Organizations should also conduct network cabling documentation as part of the overall diagram. This process shows the physical path cables take throughout the network and how devices and endpoints are interconnected. This documentation is invaluable in data security and privacy assessments, as well as regulatory compliance.
Network auditing
Before an organization can begin the process of conducting a network audit, it must first inventory what is on the network. An inventory includes collecting host identification information, such as IP addresses, network interface card (NIC) hardware addresses and DNS entries for all network nodes.
Some of the most important benefits of network auditing are it provides an organization with insights on where security vulnerabilities may lie and aids in risk management assessment reviews. Network professionals should be aware that this information may be on hand in most environments but often contains errors. In most cases, NIC information and media access control addresses won't be recorded.
By conducting an inventory review before starting an audit, organizations can verify information they have on hand and resolve inconsistencies that may be revealed.
Often, network teams don't emphasize network documentation enough, although they understand its benefits, Girma Abebe said.
"We are often focused on solving the current problems and meeting our immediate target needs, so sometimes, there is a tendency to consider it as time wasted," Girma Abebe said. "We should reject this mentality and consider it a critical component of our daily job. Network documentation needs to be clear and simple, updated and version-controlled, and available for everyone responsible." | https://www.techtarget.com/searchnetworking/tutorial/Network-documentation-and-auditing |
While the big benefit of open source is the large developer community around it, that can also be its flaw. Open source projects have vulnerabilities that plague projects that are not well-maintained. If left unchecked, these vulnerabilities can compromise entire systems that rely on these open source tools. In the following, we will talk about securing the application stack against such vulnerabilities and how to use OWASP Dependency-Check.
According to the 2021 security report by Open Source Security and Risk Analysis (OSSRA), an average of 528 open source components were found per application in 2020, a surge from 84 components in 2016.
Although well-documented, developers tend to overlook the application security challenges that such vulnerabilities adopt from third-party libraries and frameworks. This enables hackers to compromise the project.
Hence, it became critical that organizations focus on the software supply chain, including third-party components. Therefore, developers need a solution that can be integrated with the application code and be used to track vulnerabilities in the external dependencies. One such solution is OWASP Dependency-Check, an open-source solution designed to help developers manage and ensure security in applications.
OWASP Dependency-Check empowers development teams to mitigate open-source security threats, thereby securing the application.
In this article:
- Understanding OWASP Dependency-Check
- Dependency-Check: Determining Vulnerabilities
- 11 Different File Type Analyzers
- Dependency-Check Report
- OWASP Dependency-Check: Advantages
Understanding OWASP Dependency-Check
OWASP Dependency-Check is a Software Composition Analysis (SCA) tool that actively scans through a project’s dependencies, detects and reports publicly disclosed vulnerabilities, ensuring application security. Unfortunately, the number of published open source software vulnerabilities shot up by over 50% in 2020, as per a report by White Source. This is alarming, considering over 95% of developers lean on open-source components for their projects.
As applications use libraries throughout the execution, they are given absolute freedom to access and transfer any data and write to any file. Therefore, a vulnerable library exposes the entire application to a hacker – to execute transactions, access, and transfer data to the internet.
Dependency-Check was built by The Open Web Application Security Project (OWASP), a non-profit organization formed for application security. The solution is free to use, easy to integrate, and quick to report actionable information to ensure the security of your application.
Dependency-Check: Determining Vulnerabilities
Before we understand how Dependency-Check determines vulnerabilities, let us understand what Analyzers are.
Analyzers are dedicated projects that execute the entire dependency scanning process. Also known as a sniffing tool, analyzers are responsible for examining every data packet to verify its relevancy and record its information. They can be used for data retrieval and error scanning.
OWASP Dependency-Check provides two types of analyzers – File Type Analyzers and Experimental Analyzers.
11 Different File Type Analyzers
The tool contains multiple file type analyzers that executes a specific task:
1. Archive
Extracts and scans archive content
2. Assembly
Needs .NET framework or Mono runtime
3. Jar
Scans archive manifest metadata, and Maven Project Object Model files
4. RetireJS
5. Node.js
Gathers a bill-of-materials after parsing a package.json
6. Node Audit
Requires internet access and uses APIs to expose vulnerable node.js libraries
7. NugetConf
Parses specification XML using XPath
8. Nuspec
Parses specification XML using XPath
9. OpenSSL
Parses OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER macro definition
10. OSS Index
Similar to Node Audit, it uses internet to use APIs and report vulnerabilities not listed in the NVD
11. Ruby bundler-audit
Responsible of executing bundle-audit reports and adding the results in final report
Experimental Analyzers
In addition to these, Dependency-Check also features some experimental analyzers. These are not widely used due to the high probability of generating false positives and false negatives. The development team needs to be mindful of the following analyzers:
1. Autoconf
Scans project configuration files for AC_INIT metadata
2. CMake
Extracts project initialization and version setting commands
3. CocoaPods
Scans specification file to extract dependency information
4. Composer Lock
Extract exact version of dependencies by parsing PHP Composer Lock files
5. Go lang mod
Determines dependencies used
6. Go lang dep
Parses dependency file directly from the lock file
7. PE Analyzer
Obtains dependency information from PE Headers
8. Python
Scans Python source files for setuptools metadata
9. Pip: Regex
Scans Python Pip requirements.txt files
10. Ruby Gemspec
Scans Gemspec initialization blocks for metadata
11. SWIFT
Takes care of swift package file
Dependency-Check scans through the file and collects information about the project dependencies through a series of analyzers. This information collected – known as evidence – is bucketed into three categories: vendor, platform, and version information. It is then tagged with a confidence level (low, medium, high, and highest). The confidence rating is a method of flagging the potential vulnerability that must be verified.
Example: The JarAnalyzer of the Dependency-Check accumulates data from the Manifest, pom.xml, and the package names within the JAR files scanned. After gathering the necessary information, it employs a process to place this information into one or more buckets of evidence.
The Common Platform Enumeration (CPE) of the dependency is determined, and the result is assigned a level of confidence. This level of confidence is based on the lowest confidence rating of the evidence used. The identified CPE is recorded in the Lucene Index and subsequently cross-checked against the Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures (CVE) entries in the National Vulnerability Database (NVD), a free-to-use database of known information-security vulnerabilities.
Dependency-Check automatically updates itself with the NVD data as soon as it is run. These updates ensure that the reports show only the most recent data.
The results are compared and made available in various formats like HTML, XML, CSV, and JSON for developers to take appropriate action. However, the Dependency-Check tool doesn’t take the context of your dependencies when reporting the vulnerability scores. So, developers must verify if the vulnerability exposes their code.
Dependency-Check Report
Familiarity with the following terms will help you read the Dependency-Check report:
● Dependency
Filename of the dependence scanned
● CPE
Common Platform Enumeration identifiers
● CVE Count
Number of associated CVEs
● CPE Confidence
Reliability of CPE identified
● Evidence Count
Data extracted from dependency that was used to identify CPE
Once developers receive the report after the dependency check, they need to verify if the CPE was identified correctly by sorting false positives and false negatives. This sorting is explained below:
False Positive
The Dependency-Check methodology is likely to raise false positives in the reports, which can be suppressed using the suppress button next to each CPE identified in the HTML report. By clicking the button, you can copy the XML into a suppression XML file.
False Negative
To identify false negatives, you can use the ‘Display: Showing Vulnerable Dependencies’ feature of the database to review the dependencies that do not have a CPE match. Upon identifying a vulnerable dependency without a CPE match, you can create evidence to determine the CPE.
Once developers address the false positives and false negatives, they need to review if the identified CVEs are vulnerable to their software environment. However, one key thing to note is even if a CPE is found multiple times, the report will list it only once. This offloads the responsibility onto the developers to determine the locations where vulnerability mitigation is needed.
OWASP Dependency-Check: Advantages
OWASP Dependency-Check enables developers to track and eliminate any known vulnerabilities onboarded from an open source.
It ensures application security by safeguarding the software supply chain. Therefore, Dependency-Check has become a go-to tool for developers because of the following advantages:
1. Free tool
As OWASP Foundation is a non-profit organization, the Dependency-Check tool is free. The development team does not have to go through an approval cycle or face budget constraints. They can download the tool from the internet and start using it without hassle to counter external threats when building applications.
2. Ease of use
Since there is no Proof of Concept (POC) process involved, getting started with the Dependency-Check tool is a three-step process – download, install, and execute. Developers don’t have to go through any documentation to deploy it. As long as you have a good internet connection, it’ll take around ten minutes to get it running.
However, developers will have to download a periodic JSON file to update the local copy of the data if the Dependency-Check tool is used weekly. Meanwhile, the tool will update the NVD feed every time the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) hosts the information.
3. Lightweight
Although the Dependency-Check tool brings a massive support ecosystem for developers to manage their open source security, it is very lightweight. It is relatively smaller in size with a simple process to scan the code. Like mentioned earlier, a regular update of local copy is all the maintenance time it demands of the developers.
4. Reporting
Dependency-Check offers multiple reporting options for developers to check and rectify any open source vulnerabilities effectively. The tool’s export features allow teams to focus on key metrics and review their vulnerability management plan. Instead of collecting every metric available, the development teams can pick the solid vulnerability metrics to mitigate security threats.
The Dependency-Check tool constantly updates the database information to ensure no vulnerability goes unreported.
5. Compatibility
Compatibility of the tool with various languages, technologies, and platforms ensures seamless software security management. It also offers complete support for Java and .NET-based products, experimental support for Node.js, Ruby, and Python projects, and is partially compatible with C and C++ languages. It can be integrated with Maven, Jenkins, and Gradle via plugins and also run through the CLI as an Ant task. Other OWASP tools or third-party solutions can complement the Dependency-Check to make a holistic security management offering. Developers can also have an automation add-on as the tool runs manually.
Summary
OWASP Dependency-Check is a crucial tool for developers to manage application security. It is considered as a minimal or first-level checkpoint against software supply chain threats. This tool can be integrated with other paid tools that provide additional security against vulnerabilities and release a secure product. | https://www.aquasec.com/cloud-native-academy/supply-chain-security/owasp-dependency-check/ |
cPanel has released new builds for all public update tiers. These updates provide targeted changes to address security concerns with the cPanel & WHM product. These builds are currently available to all customers via the standard update system.
cPanel has rated these updates as having CVSSv3 scores ranging from 4.7 to 9.1.
If your deployed cPanel & WHM servers are configured to automatically update when new releases are available, then no action is required. Your systems will update automatically. If you have disabled automatic updates, then we strongly encourage you to update your cPanel & WHM installations at your earliest convenience.
RELEASES
The following cPanel & WHM versions address all known vulnerabilities:
84.0.20 & Greater
78.0.45 & Greater
SECURITY ISSUE INFORMATION
The cPanel Security Team identified the resolved security issues. There is no reason to believe that these vulnerabilities have been made known to the public. As such, cPanel will only release limited information about the vulnerabilities at this time.
Once sufficient time has passed, allowing cPanel & WHM systems to automatically update to the new versions, cPanel will release additional information about the nature of the security issues. This Targeted Security Release addresses 10 vulnerabilities in cPanel & WHM software versions 84 and 78.
Additional information is scheduled for release on January 21, 2020. | https://community.gozenhost.com/d/60-cpanel-security-updates |
PCI DSS 2.0: PCI assessment changes explained
PCI DSS expert Ed Moyle explains how the changes in PCI DSS 2.0 will affect companies during the PCI assessment process.
It's that time again. Versions 2.0 of the Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) and Payment Application Data Security Standard (PA DSS) are making their debut. The Council's "Summary of Changes" document spilled the beans on what to expect from the changes prior to today's official "launch" of PCI DSS 2.0. (Editor's note: This tip is based on information in the Summary of Changes.)
From a PCI assessment standpoint, there are two things to call out about the changes at a macro level before going into the details of the changes themselves: First, the changes are relatively minor. This wasn't entirely expected; a number of industry experts had speculated that the standard would follow a "major release/minor release" paradigm (similar to what you'd see in a software product). Following a "point" release of PCI DSS 1.2 in October 2008, many thought the PCI DSS 2.0 "major revision" this year could mean sweeping change, but this wasn't the way it turned out. The council cites maturity in the standard as the reason for the relatively small number of changes, which means companies can also expect a lesser volume of change in future revisions. For those that were hit hard by the (fairly significant) changes in the 1.x iterations during the past five years, this should be welcome news.
Secondly, the enforcement timing of changes is beneficial: In other words, there is time to respond before organizations are called to task on how they've implemented the changes. Because the changes won't go into effect until January 2011, and because merchants have a year to comply, there is plenty of time to get environments in shape before enterprises actually have to go through an assessment based on the updates.
But these positive developments shouldn't encourage security and compliance managers to slack. Although most of the changes represent a reduction of the scope of controls, there could be a few that might have broader impact depending on your current processes, scope of compliance efforts, and how your company has interpreted the controls in the past. So starting now, look at the changes and update your compliance plan accordingly. It will be time well spent.
PCI 2.0: If anything, mostly a slight reduction of assessment impact
As outlined, most of the changes reflect a decrease in the effort associated with the PCI assessment process, changes that provide additional flexibility for the assessor or for you to generally decrease the scope of assessment effort because they allow interpretive latitude -- both for you and your QSA. That interpretive latitude means less time spent trying to force-fit what you've deployed into narrow parameters; in combination with clarifications about control scope means less time-consuming back-and-forth discussion between merchants/service providers and QSAs about intent and meaning. The following chart outlines areas where the changes have either no impact on PCI assessment effort or that decrease the effort associated with the assessment process:
|Requirement||Proposed Change||Assessment Impact|
|PCI DSS Intro||Clarify that PCI DSS Requirements 3.3 and 3.4 apply only to PAN. Align language with PTS Secure Reading and Exchange of Data (SRED) module.||In most cases, minimal impact on assessment effort. Potential reduction in assessment scope of effort if you or your QSA interpreted 3.3. or 3.4 as applying to other cardholder data in past assessments.|
|Scope of Assessment||Clarify that all locations and flows of cardholder data should be identified and documented to ensure accurate scoping of cardholder data environment.||Potential area of impact (described below)|
|PCI DSS Intro and various requirements||Expanded definition of system components to include virtual components. Updated requirement 2.2.1 to clarify intent of "one primary function per server" and use of virtualization.||Potential area of impact (described below)|
|PCI DSS Requirement 1||Provide clarification on secure boundaries between Internet and card holder data environment.||It isn't clear from the description what this clarification will be. However, since the controls around separation of the CDE from the Internet are relatively unambiguous currently, this is likely to be a minimal impact issue.|
|PCI DSS Requirement 3.2||Recognize that issuers have a legitimate business need to store Sensitive Authentication Data.||The scope of an issuer's business requirements has little bearing on an assessment at a merchant or service provider. Minimal impact to assessment effort.|
|PCI DSS Requirement 3.6||Clarify processes and increase flexibility for cryptographic key changes, retired or replaced keys, and use of split control and dual knowledge.||We don't have enough information to know from the change description how this will change. The intent of the change is to increase flexibility, which suggests reduction in assessment effort.|
|PCI DSS Requirement 6.2||Update requirement to allow vulnerabilities to be ranked and prioritized according to risk.||This moves the requirement more in-line with what firms do; this change allows latitude to reflect that practice during an assessment.|
|PCI DSS Requirement 6.5||Merge requirement 6.3.1 into 6.5 to eliminate redundancy for secure coding for internal and Web-facing applications. Include examples of additional secure coding standards, such as CWE and CERT.||Consolidation in this area means reduced assessment effort as merchants and QSA's are no longer writing up results twice for the same controls.|
|PCI DSS Requirement 12.3.10||Update requirement to allow business justification for copy, move and storage of CHD during remote access.||This change recognizes that business may need to manipulate cardholder data during a remote access scenario. Therefore, businesses that required doing this will no longer have to write up compensating controls to do so.|
As you can see, with the exception of the two areas called out, the items in this list connote relatively little impact on an assessment. It's these other two areas that merchants and service providers may want to keep an eye out for.
Two areas to watch
One of the most significant changes is the clarification of PCI assessment scope (item No. 2 in the change list above). It's still unclear specifically how the scope change will be reflected in the final document, but what is there should be enough for anybody who's been through an assessment to take notice. Specifically, according to this, scope of cardholder data flow diagrams should include all locations and all areas.
That's an "uh-oh" for many firms; as it turns out, many organizations just aren't where they need to be on this point. Producing up-to-date diagrams of cardholder data everywhere in the enterprise may seem negligible at first glance, but in a large retail environment with multiple business units, diagrams might cover only one business unit of many, or a subset of payment flows throughout the whole organization. So this change could very well mean a significant effort to share flow information between business units (since one process might intersect multiple business units) and to ensure all payment flows are accounted for in the documentation. Lack of appropriate documentation has always been one of the primary issues within an assessment context, so this change amps up what was already a known issue.
Secondly, the update for virtualization on the surface seems relatively innocuous; after all, many of us have been asking for a long time how virtualization ties into requirements like "one function per server" (Requirement 2.2.1). However, under the surface, expansion of the definition of "system components" to include virtual components might have additional ramifications beyond just 2.2.1; it could affect other requirements as well. For example, some requirements and test procedures specifically refer to "all system components" (for example, Requirements 10.6, "Review logs for all system components at least daily…", and Requirement 2.2, "Develop configuration standards for all system components…").
Requirements that address "all system components" now implicitly include the virtual environment as well, as do the test procedures. So a test procedure like 2.2.a ("Examine the organization's system configuration standards for all types of system components and verify the system configuration standards are consistent with industry accepted hardening standards") means that not only will an organization need to have a hardening standard for its virtual environment, but its assessor will also need to obtain and review that standard. This might not have been the case in prior assessments.
So overall for merchants and service providers, this version of the standard represents a streamlining of the assessment process, which should help ease the PCI DSS compliance burden somewhat. But the expansion of system components to include virtualization and the updates to required documentation could make those elements of the assessment process more complex, so be sure to address each with your assessor when the time comes for your company's first assessment under PCI DSS 2.0; also, it's a good idea to start the planning now for areas where your current control deployment may not address the entirety of the scope.
About the author:
Ed Moyle is currently a manager with CTG's Information Security Solutions practice, providing strategy, consulting, and solutions to clients worldwide as well as a founding partner of SecurityCurve. | https://searchsecurity.techtarget.com/tip/PCI-DSS-20-PCI-assessment-changes-explained |
. Now, let's do a deeper dive into this process, exploring scenarios in more depth, to reflect more typical resolution processes.
Example process flowchart
The following shows how your team might deal with issues as they arise:
We recommend you create an equivalent process for your team, to have a robust system to resolve issues.
The remainder of this page describes some processes and considerations when you resolve issues.
Fix by upgrade: test your fixes
Even when Snyk automatically creates fix PRs for vulnerabilities, you should still research and test these PRs, as with any change. An upgrade to a dependency may cause a change that breaks other parts of your code, especially if it is a significant upgrade. Do not just click
Fix your vulnerabilities
to magically solve a vulnerability, without your involvement.
Tip
Keep the packages you use up-to-date, by making regular upgrades as part of your normal code maintenance practices; this minimizes the need to major changes which are more likely to impact your code.
So as part of a fix, you should understand the impacts of an upgrade, to ensure that it’s not a breaking change. You do not want to fix a vulnerability, but break the application.
Research impacts
To do this, you’ll need to research the change, examine the impacts, and make any needed secondary changes to your code, to ensure that the upgrade does not cause any problems. To do this, you’ll need to go to the code itself for inspection.
Merge advice may be available to help decide if this is a breaking change; see
Merge advice
.
For significant upgrades, you may decide to ignore the vulnerability temporarily (say, for 30 days), allowing you time to understand the impacts of the upgrade.
Working in your coding environment
Of course, developers don’t just use Github, they will have their own IDE for coding, such as
JetBrains
:
If you have the relevant Snyk IDE extension (see
Snyk for IDEs
), you can review the vulnerability in that IDE, allowing you to inspect the impacts of changes in your own code environment.
You can then manage the PR from your IDE, and push this change up to GitHub as normal.
Processing upgrade fixes
How you process upgrades (whether Snyk Fix PR advice become the actual PR submitted) may be driven by your own team processes. Factors involved may include the level of upgrade (major / minor / patch), the team code processes, and the areas of code impacted.
For example:
A large established team with mature processes and released applications to maintain might have practices to ensure that all developers always check and test all upgrades for breaking changes.
A startup team, with unreleased applications in development, might accept that all developers can process minor or patch upgrades, to aid speedy development.
Your team might have processes that state junior developers must have all changes reviewed by senior mentors before making the change, but that senior developers can have more autonomy for changes.
Your team may have a flexible approach, with processes to mandate different levels of oversight / review based on the size of the upgrade.
You can configure settings for your code repository integration, to disable Snyk’s ability to open fix PRs, if this is seen as too risky - for example, see
GitHub integration
.
PRs for open source / application code
Fixing vulnerabilities in open source libraries (scanned by Snyk Open Source) typically involves upgrading existing packages. After review, you may find impacts (breaking changes) in different files; if so, you’ll need additional changes to those files, with additional PRs.
Fixing vulnerabilities in your own application code (scanned by Snyk Code) typically involves improving quality in specific areas - "fix these lines of code”. These changes may be less likely to cause breaking changes; if so, you may not need to make additional PRs.
Fixing a vulnerability with no suggested fix
If there’s no fix available, Snyk cannot provide a recommendation.
When this occurs, developers will need to provide an alternative solution to address the vulnerability. Possible actions include:
Accept the risk by
ignoring the vulnerability
for a period of time. For example, if this vulnerability is assessed as low-risk for your application at this point:
Ignore the vulnerability until a fix is available:
Research whether the vulnerability is a false positive; if so, you can ignore it permanently:
Change your code: write a code solution to address the vulnerability; perhaps even providing a suggestion for the open source code to address it, contributing to the open source community.
Replacing the vulnerable dependency with other code.
Summary
Upgrading the dependencies in your application can cause breaking changes; Snyk can’t fix your entire code for you, you must ensure all changes are properly understood before making them.
What's next?
You understand now how to understand and resolve a single vulnerability. But how can this work be managed and assigned for your applications for all identified vulnerabilities?
We'll now look at
assigning fix work
, and
managing team work using Reports
.
Previous
Fix your first vulnerability
Next
Assign fix work
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Example process flowchart
Fix by upgrade: test your fixes
Fixing a vulnerability with no suggested fix
Summary
What's next? | https://docs.snyk.io/getting-started/walkthrough-code-repository-projects/fix-your-first-vulnerability-deeper-dive |
Aavalar is looking for an Application Security Consultant for a large financial institution in the Wilmington/Newark area. This is a great role for an individual looking to make a difference in the IT security area. This person must be able to interact with various business units and system administrators.
Consultant’s Title: Security Engineer
Work Location: Wilmington/Newark, DE
Is Telecommuting possible: No
Work environment: Beautiful private office, state of the art technology, with onsite cafeteria, very friendly, business casual.
Who does this position will report to: Team lead
Why is there a need for a consultant/contractor: Growing department with a lot of work that is un-touched.
What is the start date of the contract: ASAP
What is the anticipated length/scope of the contract: Slated for 6 months, could be extended but no guaranteed.
What is the size of department: roughly 5-10 people
What projects will the consultant be involved with: Application Risk. The individual will ensure the Security of all applications and systems running in the BCUS domain. This includes understanding all existing web based (Java & .NET) and other third party applications running in the environment, reviewing security provisions of all new applications and major changes in the environment.
Responsibilities:
– Support projects within the SDLC and Agile environments with applications security testing penetration testing and vulnerability management functions.
– Perform Web / Mobile application security assessments and penetration testing on projects and/or releases; produce detailed risk reports with identified vulnerabilities and remediation recommendations.
– Conduct static and dynamic code analysis as needed to support release cycles.
– Work closely with development team during the envisioning and development process to guide secure design and secure coding practices.
– Manage web application firewall through log analysis, system tuning and
– Evaluate, track, and ensure compliance of high and critical vulnerabilities; develop, maintain and update scorecards to reflect vulnerabilities and communicate to end users.
– Implement security solutions, and provide technical leadership during the design, development, and testing phases of major initiatives.
Role with the group: Security Engineer
Required Skills:
– Knowledge of the software development lifecycle in a large enterprise environment including agile processes and practices.
– Experience with performing manual and automated code review and develop/propose /enforce secure coding standards and policies.
– Knowledge of in the OWASP top 10 and related exploitation techniques, including but not limited to cross-site scripting, SQL injections, session hijacking and buffer overflows to obtain controlled access to target systems.
– Good Understanding of various web application architectures and web technologies ( Java, MS .NET etc.)
– Experience in application firewalls, and intrusion prevention systems (e.g. Mod security) Experience with commercial application scanning tools (DAST) like IBM’s AppScan, HP’s WebInspect, etc.
– Experience with commercial static analysis tools (SAST) like HP’s Fortify, Klockworks etc.
In-depth knowledge of any proxying and/or fuzzing tools such as Paros, Burp, WebScarab, OWASP ZAP etc.
– Familiar with WebServices technologies like XML, SOAP, and AJAX.
– Understanding of server and client side application development, Middleware software’s (Oracle’s WebLogic, IBM’s WebSphere, Apache Tomcat)
– Proficiency in utilization of information security tools such as Nmap, Nessus, Burp Suite, Kismet, and Metasploit; manual techniques to exploit vulnerabilities in networks and applications.
– Industry security certifications preferred (CISSP, CISA, CCNA etc)
Desired Certifications:
Industry certifications preferred CEH, OSCP, GWAPT, LPT or ECSA
Additional certification desirable CSSLP and GSSP
Selling point of the job: Up and coming team and department within the company. A real chance to put your stamp on helping take a major company to the next level with IT security. | http://aavalar.com/application-security-consultant-5563/ |
SUMMARY:
- Overall 6+ Years of experience in IT Industry in Analysis,Design, Development, Implement, Test and Maintenance of Information Security policies, Applications, Cyber Analytics, Auditing and Compliance.
- Experience in Network Security, and excellent skills on tools Cain and Abel, Wireshark, Tcpdump, SPLUNK, ArcSight, Altiris, Kali Linux, McAfee ePO (enterprise Policy Orchestrator) & Qualys.
- Analyzed network protocol, routing protocols on a multi - platform.
- Capturing data filter language and reconstruct a stream of TCP session.
- Monitoring System Security vulnerabilities, Evaluate firewall change requests inflow traffic through the network hub.
- Use of decrypting encrypted passwords, Cryptanalysis attack, recording VoIP conversations.
- Managed required updates on Intrusion Detection Systems, and Security Information and Event Management (SIEM) tool rules.
- Developed Intrusion Detection System tool for a range of network using Java programming.
- Perform security analysis on entire network, perform systems auditing.
- Ability to work in Dynamic environments.
- Critically engaged in developing websites using HTML5, implementing CSS, JQuery, AngularJS.
- Working over distributed network applications run on HTTP.
- 3 years of Security Application development experience.
- Creating web design and import program to GitHub.
- I have 2 years of experience in practicing full software development life cycle.
- Experience in practicing including Agile and water fall methodologies.
- Delivered hands-on training workshops and partnered with business partners to improve training plan for enterprise policies in order to achieve overall compliance.
- Assessed critical business apps for security risks and compliance (SOX & PCI)
- Overhauled computer security incident response team (CSIRT)
- Provided security risk consulting, guidance, analysis, and requirements
- Formulated recommendations for implementing desired level of access controls across multiple platforms, which ensured successful implementation of action plans.
- Evaluated security on various systems and recommend changes to improve network integrity and prevent excessive access and potential risk.
- Conducted information owner identification, user re-certification, and group clean-up projects which insured compliance with corporate and audit policies.
- Developed and documented security evaluation test plan and procedures.
- Collaborated with business and various IT teams to deploy remediation items based on results from Pentest.
- Led technical security tool design, team coordination and security incident response.
- Assisted in the maintenance and administration of compliance systems such as GRC Archer, SharePoint, Relational Security Asset Management, CATSWeb and Remedy.
- Worked with Network Security teams to implement the new Security standards based on new NERC/FERC policies to secure infrastructure and Electric Grids.
- Conducted team project management efforts including facilitating work group meetings, tracking key deliverables, and providing formal status updates to management.
- 2+ years of experience in writing RSAWs and support in NERC/FERC- NPCCand WECCs Audit related evidences.
- Developed procedural and technical documentation for internal processes, technical systems, and technical support.
PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE:
Confidential
IT Lead Information Security Analyst & Compliance Analyst
Responsibilities:
- Lead onCyber Security Investigations involvingCyber Breach, Threatsin AVANGRID Groups network and support to Iberdrola Groups on live potential Cyber threats received from Global Teams(European Iberdrola and Telefonica including DHS & FBI).
- IT Governance Team Technical Lead on Critical Security investigations, Network Security issues, Asset monitoring and Encryption issues.
- Lead on Information SecurityAlerts, Incident Response, and Cyber Forensics and Telecommunication issues.
- Managing AssurX s CATSWeb Tool for Quality Management Software is used for improving quality and com pliance in AVANGRID.
- Experience in using TREND MICRO, InterScan Messaging Security Virtual Appliance tool to identify external intrusions via E-Mails, vulnerable spam mails, additionally validating email headers to avoid hackers entering into AVANGRID environment.
- Identified several vulnerabilities and recommended proper actions on web applications, Servers, Networksinfrastructure Devices that are connected to company servers.
- Responsible for action on Intrusion detection, vulnerability management, and PKI and huge experience in auditing critical incidents.
- Lead on Low Impact and Mixed Impact Network assets policies, procedures, and implementation of security Controls on NERC BES (Bulk Electric System) Assets.
- Responsible on monthly Security Patch reviews (Networks and Renewables) and monthly Indicators Scorecard reports for Senior Team review (Director, Executive Director and C.I.O) of AVANGRID.
- Excellent handling and managing skills on Critical Cyber threats and business confidential information with Team coordination with risk assessments and developing Analysis and reporting.
- Perform Vulnerability scans on Web Applications developed at AVANGRID (including UIL corp. Applications) using Quays.
- Launch Qualys scans/tests on Web-applications and analyze the reports to identify current vulnerabilities.
- Analyze & Build Qualys reports for vulnerability management System Redmine.
- Administer Avangrid Information Security testing using Qualys, SPLUNK Enterprise Security Console & manage vulnerabilities on Redmine.
- Review Egress Firewall Rules to make sure it is configured properly to monitor and protectinternal network.
- Monitor McAfee ePO (policy orchestrator) and Altiris to investigate AVANGRID/IBERDROLA devices to ensure devices were not infected with malware.
- Excellent experience in handling ITSM and Service-Now tools to raise an Incident & Change Requests/Tickets in purpose of information Security reconnaissance and to proper documentation of Audit track to support Global SOC.
- Develop and facilitateIT Sarbanes Oxley Act (SOX) Cycle-24 and Cycle-26 Update process and developing Cycle Narratives process documents in .
- Analyze and Evaluate SOX and Global Controls of AVANGRID (former IBERDROLA U.S.A); Develop/Monitoring and Evaluating evidences to Controlsstandards.
- Review and Designing Controls with complete support on Internal and External Audits performed on AVANGRID IT.
- CIP Certified, trained and supporting in developing NERC CIP documents supported by FERC Regulation.
- Excellent experience on working with External Auditors KPMG and E&Y on managing SOX Applications working on Wintel, Linux, Unix Systems (also SAP applications) and on Databases SQL, Oracle, DB2 & Hana.
- Daily work includesreview of Firewalls, IPS, Networking tools (BlueCoat reporter tool), Vulnerability Scanning Tools, using PowerShell, Vulnerability Management tool (Redmine), SPLUNK ES data review, QUALYS web Applications Scan results. Daily Network Devices alive.
- Lead on SIEM project for ArcSight, control Status and analyze project status for SIEM Evolution and project roll-out and roll-in with SPLUNK.
- Work with users/clients to discuss web applications security issues and gathering incident data and review of security violations to resolve issues with possible mitigation plan.
- Lead on monitoring security events for AVANGRID IT infrastructure and perform associated analysis, escalation, remediation, and incident response.
- Provide required assistance in maintenance of the security vulnerability scanner and support inPenetration Testing, threat and vulnerability remediation process.
- Assist in the research and development of new security technologies and analyze existing procedures, AVANGRID policies and updated security frameworks that keep AVANGRID’s security profile up to date and relevant.
- Analyzingcurrent company practices and solutions.Identified Security vulnerabilities and developed new process to over-come cyber threats.
- Support access control to various applications and confidential information.
- Experience in development, documentation, and maintenance of network security policies, processes,procedures and standards.
- Training new analysts to ensure a proper completion of access requests and solving related issues.
- Communicate with the Corporate Cyber Security team to ensure security policies and procedures are being followed and documented. Also, develop new process based on requirements.
- Involved in Software Development Life Cycle phases as Requirement Analysis, Implementation, and Designing Networks, and Estimation on time-lines for large projects.
Environment: TREND MICRO, CATSWeb, CISCO ASDM-IDM Launcher, BlueCoat Tool, Redmine, SPLUNK ES, ArcSight, QUALYS, Rapid7 Nexpose, SIP Framework, NERC CIP Frameworks, SOX Frameworks, SOX Controls, Archer Tool,ITSM, Service-Now and SharePoint.
Confidential
Lead Information Security Analyst
Responsibilities:
- Reviewed user accounts and access on a monthly basis to ensure regulatory and corporate compliance
- Contributed to and participated in business continuity planning and verification
- Adhered to and enforced corporate policies regarding network security, data, and software usage
- Process re-engineered business protocols to meet the high demand of a changing business environment
- Created, modified, and disabled user accounts base on authorized forms
- Provided internal security consulting for product development and operations of services across organization. Worked with internal groups on their projects to help them achieve their goals while
- Investigated, documented, and gathered information on data security recommendations to protect
- Led intrusion detection, vulnerability management, and PKI and participated in auditing, incident
- Provided systems support as necessary for the diverse needs of the organization.
- Conducted security audit of web applications, identified several vulnerabilities and recommended corrective actions
- Trained business division employees on the need for security essentials
- Performed a review of existing procedures and updated when appropriate
- Completed requests for access to any and all applications using the procedures
- Trouble shot access problems for applications
- Trained new analysts to ensure proper completion of access requests and problem resolution.
- Performed audits; determined compliance with standards such as CobIT, PCI, GLBA, HIPAA, etc.
- Conducted site reviews, performed gap assessments, identified/monitored corrective measures.
- Managed security projects, updated all stakeholders of status/deliverables/work plans/metrics.
- Identified areas for improvement in Security; recommended solutions to achieve clients' goals.
- Prepared and distributed security assessment reports to business.
- Oversaw and conducted vulnerability assessments using Nexpose.
- Work on executing internal and external penetration testing, and providing support team critical vulnerabilities and follow-up on remediation
- Responsible for ensuring daily functionality of security tools and for proper implementation of escalation procedures
- Proposed configuration changes for a production Splunk instance to improve search efficiency and enhance utility for analysts
- Developed field extractions, macros and dashboards in Splunk in an effort to streamline incident
- Configured virtual lab for static and dynamic malware analysis, and analyzed malware samples to extract indicators of compromise
- Threat and Vulnerability Management using Qualys scanner. Used Policies and workflows to identify and rank vulnerabilities in order to evaluate risk. Reported findings to asset owners and management in order to remediate vulnerabilities and remove risk or to acquire formal risk acceptance
- Responsible for SOX reporting for the departments applications to the Auditors.
- Responsible for overseeing ethical hacking of company network.
- Involved in Vendor relations and negotiations for procurement of new hardware and software solutions to be implemented in the network.
- Performed risk assessments to ensure corporate compliance
- Developed agenda for quarterly audit program
- Conducted security event monitoring for corporate wide in-scope applications
- Performed application security and penetration testing using Qualys.
Technologies Used: Wireshark, Qualys, Nexpose, Splunk, ITSM Remedy, TrendMicro, MySQL, SharePoint.
Confidential
Information Security Analyst
Responsibilities:
- Served as the team's primary curator of documentation for security engineering and incident response procedures.
- Worked on security tools such as Wireshark tool to identify the Users IPs to validate alive IPs and purpose of validating ports for devices under troubleshoot.
- Planned and implemented meaningful risk-based and performance-based metrics tools in R for the Information Security Team.
- Wrote tools to create and automate security reports such as stale accounts and administrative group changes enterprise-wide.
- Planned, implemented, and administrated our Guardium database activity monitoring system enterprise-wide.
- Developed security testing framework and performed a full suite of security tests on Android handsets to provide security
- Increased the number of security reviews performed utilizing the same resources
- Assisted in the support and preparation of IT systems and applications risk assessments.
- Reviewed, updated, and maintained all IT and Information Security policies to comply with financial institution regulatory requirements. Tracked and monitored that employees sign policies indicating that they read and agree to abide by policy provisions. Followed up with employees as needed, and respond to questions and concerns related to the policy. Elevated issues as needed to management.
- Documented incident response findings for reported customer and internal information security breaches.
- Supported information security projects that address regulatory compliance gaps.
Confidential
Java Developer
Responsibilities:
- JDBC connection is used to connect My SQL database.
- Insert, retrieve, update and delete queries are used to access the data from MySQL database.
- Coding and developing using Swing, JSP pages.
- Testing various components and application that runs the User interface to show the detection of unauthorized ports.
- Perform network analysis and security analysis and contribute in designing upgraded network tools.
- Analyzing, troubleshooting and evaluating network issues and resolve on-site.
- Ensure the incoming security traffic passes through network.
- Manage, assign, and maintain the list of network addresses.
- Vulnerabilities monitoring at regular time intervals.
- Maintain VPN concentrators, upgrade routers and other network equipment.
- Develop documentation and maintain the security policies, processes, and standards and network security architecture and project plans.
- Immediate responses for security vulnerabilities.
- Creating security layers to develop new level of security with high complexity in network security.
- Managed Java application based on Spring and Hibernate frameworks with XML/XSLT running on Web Sphere
- Developed frontend Java application using JFrameBuilder, Editplus, Java and jQuery
- Used Eclipse IDE to develop Java project with integrate process and environment.
Technologies Used: MySQL, Swing, Spring, XML, JFrameBuilder, Editplus.
TECHNICAL SKILLS:
OS: LINUX, UNIX/AIX, Windows.
Programming Languages: C / C++ or C#, Java J2EE, Shell scripting and Python.
Databases: MySQL, Oracle, DB2 & Hana (SAP Applications)
Technologies: Big Data and Cyber Security (Information Security)
Frameworks: CouldEra, Oracle VM, Apache Hadoop, MapReduce, Spring Framework, ArcSight, SPLUNK, CATSWeb and SharePoint.
IDE: Eclipse
Graph Tools: Gephi
Security Tools: TREND MICRO, SIP, Cisco ASDM-IDM Launcher, Wireshark, BlueCoat, tools on Kali Linux, McAfee ePO, Splunk, CATSWeb& Qualys. | https://www.hireitpeople.com/resume-database/68-network-and-systems-administrators-resumes/164142-it-lead-information-security-analyst-compliance-analyst-resume |
It is well known that most problems of software, computer systems and networks are introduced when changes are made, either during design and development or during use of the systems. Too many changes of computer systems and inadequate documentation of changes and testing after changes is one of the most frequently cited deviations during FDA inspections. Users of the systems, system owners and network administrators are unsure on how to document initial set-up and manage changes. Attendees will learn how to document initial configurations and manage changes in regulated environments.
Areas Covered in the Seminar:
* US FDA and EU requirements for change control
* Defining configuration management vs. change control and change management
* The GAMP IEEE models for configuration management and change control
* How to avoid frequent changes of a computer system
* Reviewing a change control procedure
* Change control for hardware, operating systems and application software
* The change control process for planned and unplanned changes
* Dealing with security patches
* Versioning of software and computer systems
* What to test after changes
* How to document changes
* Going through examples of changes to hardware, firmware, software (operating system, application software), networks, documentation (specifications)
And for easy and instant implementation:
download 10+ documents from special seminar website. | https://www.prlog.org/11849475-configuration-management-and-change-control-for-networks-and-computer-systems.html |
Alternative Fuels and Vehicles: Legislative Proposals [July 28, 2021] [open pdf - 1MB]
From the Introduction: "Congress maintains a continuing interest in reducing petroleum-based fuel consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in transportation. [...] To achieve petroleum consumption and GHG emission reduction goals, Members of Congress introduced numerous legislative proposals that would have promoted the deployment and use of alternative fuels (AFs)--such as biofuels, hydrogen, and electricity--and alternative fuel motor vehicle (AFV) technology--such as flexfuel, fuel-cell, and electric vehicles (see 'Alternative Fuels and Alternative Fuel Vehicles'). The use of alternative fuels and vehicles has the potential to reduce the transportation sector's overall emissions of GHGs, particulate matter, and other air pollutants, by reducing the consumption of petroleum fuels. The potential for any such reduction varies depending on the fuels and vehicles that gain in widespread use compared to their conventional counterparts. [...] Some of these proposals were enacted during the 116th Congress, including provisions to extend existing tax incentives, grant and loan programs, and research and development activities. This report examines provisions within legislative proposals that would support the broader deployment of alternative fuels and alternative fuel vehicles; a discussion of relevant enacted legislation, including definitions of alternative fuels and vehicles found in statute; identification of major barriers and obstacles to increasing deployment of AFs and AFVs; and an analysis of legislation introduced in the 116th Congress." | https://www.hsdl.org/?abstract&did=857114 |
by Jarrett Renshaw and Stephanie Kelly (Reuters) … The administration’s early and extensive outreach reflects that expanding the scope of the U.S. Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) to make it a tool
Tag "Electric Car/Electric Vehicle (EV)"
by David Shepardson (Reuters) The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency plans to propose new, more stringent vehicle emissions rules through at least the 2030 model year by March, according to a regulatory update released
by Evan Halper (Washington Post) Companies see only headaches on the horizon for refineries, undercutting the White House push to boost production — … Oil refineries across the country are being
by David Carpintero (ePURE/EurActiv) This article is part of our special report Biofuels’ role in displacing oil. — Lawmakers are in the difficult final stages of resetting EU renewable energy policy
by Kate Abnett (Reuters) Lawmakers on the European Parliament’s environment committee on Tuesday backed an EU plan to effectively ban new petrol and diesel car sales from 2035, while voting against
(NIEUWS (Google Translation)) Transport 100% electric and on biofuel by 2024 — Albert Heijn, together with its partners, is accelerating the sustainability of transport to stores and customers. From the end
by Giulio Piovaccari (Reuters) Electric vehicles are not the only effective route to reducing carbon emissions produced by the car industry, the head of Italy’s automotive lobby said on Tuesday. Other technologies could
by Matthew Choi (Politico’s Morning Energy) Electric vehicles are still unattainable for many Americans suffering from stifling gasoline prices, and it could really hurt Democrats in November. … GAS PRICE SURGE
(Diesel Technology Forum) … It has also been the focus of industry comments and testimony to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency on its proposed rule establishing future heavy-duty engine emission standards. There are
by Thomas L. Friedman (New York Times) … Because our continued addiction to fossil fuels is bolstering Vladimir Putin’s petrodictatorship and creating a situation where we in the West are
(NACS) Regulators “should encourage innovation to meet environmental performance goals,” NACS says. — NACS on May 13 filed a petition in federal court in Washington, D.C., to challenge the Environmental Protection
(Coryton) … Consequently, Coryton firmly believes that we need to move away from the focusing on the tailpipe emissions as this effectively 1) ignores the upstream carbon emissions associated with
by Arianna Skibell (E&E News) The International Council on Clean Transportation says the proposed zero-emission vehicle credit system, which allows manufacturers to use EV credits to offset emissions, would raise
by Jim Lane (Biofuels Digest) From renewable methanol to green hydrogen for both mobility and stationary applications, Element 1 is proving hydrogen can be made at a scalable size with
Electric Vehicle: India’s Target to Have 20% Ethanol Blended in Petrol by 2025 Could Affect Its Food Security
by Tanvi Deshpande (IndiaSpend.com/Scroll.in) Achieving the target won’t drastically reduce emissions nor will India achieve energy security because of it. — For India to meet its target of 20% ethanol blended
by Anthony Hennen (The Center Square/The Bradford Era) The biofuel industry could dramatically reduce tailpipe emissions from cars and improve air quality, but the effects of the pandemic and government subsidies
(City of Albuquerque) Rule requires more stringent motor vehicle emissions standards to improve air quality — Today the Environmental Improvement Board (EIB) and the Albuquerque-Bernalillo County Air Quality Control Board (AQCB)
(American Transport Research Institute) The American Transportation Research Institute (ATRI) today released a new report that analyzes the environmental impacts of zero-emission trucks (ZET). This analysis, a 2021 top priority of
(F)or an efficient adaptation to climate change, policy makers should remain pragmatic and rely, for the time being, on technology neutrality, measuring and certifying GHG emissions on the whole life
by Philippe Marchand (European Technology and Innovation Platform (ETIP)/Transport Energy Strategies) … Is the recent about turn in Germany regarding the sunset date for sales of the internal combustion engine vehicle
Independent Study Confirms Cost Savings & Emissions Advantages for Heavy-Duty Trucks Running ClearFlame’s Engine Modification Technology
(ClearFlame) Study by Gladstein, Neandross & Associates highlights ClearFlame’s ability to help fleets lower total costs while meeting sustainability goals sooner than current alternatives — ClearFlame Engine Technologies, an Illinois-based company
by Matt Reese and Dusty Sonnenberg (Ohio’s Country Journal) … “In a life cycle analysis of ethanol and electric vehicles, you have to look at the base load of carbon intensity.
by Jim Lane (Biofuels Digest) In the UK, the British Government announced its Energy Security Strategy to create a ‘flow of energy that is affordable, clean and above all secure.
by Meghan Sapp (Biofuels Digest) In Belgium, consequent with the increased ambitions brought by the European Green Deal, and the objective to achieve carbon neutrality by 2050, the European Union (EU) ought
by Rob Hubbard (Minnesota House Public Information/Biobased Diesel Daily) What can Minnesota do to play a role in slowing down climate change? Tim Sexton, Minnesota’s assistant transportation commissioner, believes he has
by Helena Tavares Kennedy (Biofuels Digest) In South Dakota, The American Coalition for Ethanol submitted feedback to the Environmental Protection Agency’s request for comment on the current scientific understanding of greenhouse gas modeling
(U.S. Department of Transportation) Standards to require fleet average of 49 mpg by 2026, save consumers money, and advance U.S. energy independence — The U.S. Department of Transportation’s National Highway Traffic
by Sam Hollier (Campbelltown-McArthur Advertiser) Collusion between retailers, of any type or industry, is a matter for the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC). Our economic system relies on competition
Ethanol Diesel Tech Headed to Ag Fields — ClearFlame CEO Plans to Put Ethanol-Powered Diesel Engines in Ag Equipment, Portable Generators
by Todd Neeley (DTN Progressive Farmer) ClearFlame Engine Technologies’ ethanol-diesel engine will head to the field for testing in a John Deere 9-liter model, perhaps in tractors and harvesters in the
(Diesel Technology Forum) While emerging technologies scale up, the newest generation of advanced diesel technology and renewable biodiesel fuels need to be embraced and take on more of a role
by Minyvonne Burke (NBC News) The bill says that all vehicles of the model year 2030 or later that are sold, purchased, or registered in the state must be electric.
IEEFA: Solar Recharging of Electric Vehicles Is a Far More Efficient Use of Land than Ethanol Crops for Blended Fuel in India
(Institute for Energy Economics and Financial Analysis) War in Ukraine threatens global grain supply as well as oil, making India’s wise use of arable land an imperative — India’s 2025 target for
Sustainable Energy Helped U.S. Rebound in 2021: The Digest’s 2022 Multi-Slide Guide to Sustainable Energy in America
by Jim Lane (Biofuels Digest) The Sustainable Energy in America Factbook is produced annually for the Business Council for Sustainable Energy by BloombergNEF and provides year-over-year data and insights on
by Roxby Hartley (EcoEngineers) California’s Low Carbon Fuel Standard (CA-LCFS) continues to be the largest regional carbon credit market. It’s been successful in driving carbon reduction across the state. CA-LCFS credit
(Ohio Soybean Association/Highland County Press) At a time of growing consensus on the need for greater reliance on domestic fuel sources, the Ohio Soybean Association (OSA) joined other state soybean
by Geogg Cooper (Renewable Fuels Association/Minneapolis Star Tribune) Contrary to the assertions of the March 13 article “Ethanol’s emissions clouding its benefits,” ethanol’s environmental benefits are as clear as the blue sky on
by Sara Counihan (NACS/Convenience.com/Convenience Matters podcast episode) In some regions, an EV emits more carbon than an internal combustion engine vehicle. — … John Eichberger leads the Fuels Institute, and the question
by C. Boyden Gray (Boyden Gray & Associates/Real Clear Politics) … Currently, the EPA regulates fuels and automobiles separately, instead of as a single system. Automakers have the technological know-how to
(Bazarneeti) Members of the National Corn Growers Association want to see some forms of renewable energy subjected to the same scrutiny that applies to biofuels. On Thursday, members voted to commission a
by Michael Wayland (CNBC) Consumers hoping to switch to an all-electric or more fuel-efficient vehicle, while Russia’s invasion of Ukraine pushes gas prices to record highs, will largely be out
by Savannah Bertrand (Environmental and Energy Study Institute) Every gallon of gasoline sold in the United States contains toxic chemicals called aromatic hydrocarbons—mainly mixtures of BTEX chemicals, which stands for benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene,
Fuels Institute Report Webinar: Life Cycle Analysis Comparison: Electric and Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles — March 17, 2022 — ONLINE
Are we ready for the EV revolution?Internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) will remain dominant in the market for decades. How the market can decarbonize most effectively, leveraging EVs when and
by Erin Voegele (Ethanol Producer Magazine) Representatives of the biofuels industry on Feb. 28 filed two separate petitions in with the U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit challenging a final rule
by AJ Taylor (KIOW) At a Senate Environment and Public Works Committee (EPW) hearing this morning, U.S. Senator Joni Ernst (R-Iowa) pressed Pete Buttigieg, the U.S. Secretary of Transportation, about
(Sky News) A survey by Which? finds that a higher percentage of electric car owners reported problems with their vehicle in its first four years, and that electric vehicles also spend
by Geoff Cooper (Renewable Fuels Association) In his first State of the Union Address, President Joe Biden spoke about many of the challenges facing our nation and world today, from the Ukraine invasion
by Alan Guebert (The Hawk Eye) … However, in an interview for an episode of the podcast “Corn Save America,” Jeremy Martin, the director of fuels policy at UCS (Union of
by Arianna Skibell (E&E News) The Biden administration is preparing to reinstate California’s authority to set auto emissions rules that are more stringent than federal standards, taking a major step toward
(NGVA Europe/ADAC) In its ‘Ecotest 2021’, the German ‘Allgemeiner Deutscher Automobil-Club e.V.’ (ADAC) yet again confirmed CNG vehicles as the most environmental friendly. Out of the 112 vehicles that the automotive
by Felix Reeves (Express) Esperts are urging the Government to consider using sustainable fuels in petrol and diesel cars in a possible follow-up to E10 petrol. — With the Government’s
by Erin Voegele (Ethanol Producer Magazine) … Monte Shaw, executive director of the Iowa Renewable Fuels Association, provided an overview of
by Erin Voegele (Ethanol Producer Magazine) Agriculture Secretary Tom Vilsack discussed the important role biofuels and biobased manufacturing play in the
by Erin Marquis (Jalopnik) … A retired engineer partnered with Polestar to solve the problem of getting EVs through one of
by Megan Lampinen (Automotive World) Allen Schaeffer suggests the delivery segment should be looking at the broader carbon footprint factor
A robust renewable fuels policy that recognizes today’s value and the future potential for expanded use of renewable fuels is
(Diesel Technology Forum) A robust renewable fuels policy that recognizes today’s value and the future potential for expanded use of
by Chuck Abbott (Successful Farming) With automakers shifting toward the production of electric cars and trucks, the ethanol industry said on
by Jasmin Melvin (S&P Global Platts) Ethanol group CEO calls out singular focus on EVs; Says ethanol ‘available now to jumpstart decarbonization’
(Renewable Fuels Association) Renewable Fuels Association President and CEO Geoff Cooper will testify at a House Agriculture Committee hearing on January 12 on
by Jim Lane (Biofuels Digest) Pyran also known as the 5-carbon company, net-zero SAF via wet-waste volatile fatty acids, and
by Ariana Fine (NGT News) NGO Energy Vision’s The Refuse Revolution report on alternative fuels and new vehicle technologies for waste
by María Paula Rubiano A. (Grist) New Jersey joins California, Oregon, and Washington in setting ambitious goals to electrify trucks
by Sean Pratt (Western Producer) There is a good news/bad news scenario emerging for canola oil in the European Union’s biodiesel
by Robert Wells (University of Central Florida) An ethanol fuel cell produces less emissions and uses less fuel than combustion
(U.S. President Joe) Biden’s plan could make buying and charging electric cars easier, but electric vehicles are only as clean
by Jennifer A Dlouhy (Bloomberg Quint) The Biden administration is preparing to impose more stringent limits on car and truck emissions
(Diesel Technology Forum) Diesel is the primary power source for over 90 percent of the nation’s transit bus fleet because
(Market Screener) As the United States focuses on tackling climate change, the energy market is seen as a key part of
by Bob Stanton (Government Fleet) … To paraphrase Mark Twain, “The presumptions of the death of the ICE are greatly
by Neil Briscoe (Irish Times) “Electrification of cars is important in reducing emissions but it cannot do it all” —
President Biden’s December 8 Visit to Kansas City Missouri: Perspectives on Infrastructure, Transit Buses, Fuels and Technology
(Diesel Technology Forum) … The President’s policy, which has a strong focus on electrification, should recognize the decarbonization potential from all
by Hyunjoo Jin (Reuters/Times Drive) The billionaire entrepreneur is escalating criticism about the administration and Democrats for a proposal to give
by Robert White (Renewable Fuels Association/Ethanol Producer Magazine) … What is clear, however, is that true energy security and resilience lies
by Mark Dorenkamp (Brownfield Ag News) The president of Minnesota Farmers Union wants to see biofuels policy that accounts for farmers
(Diesel Technology Forum) Picking fuels and technologies to power the trucks and equipment in the future is more than just
(Advanced Biofuels Canada) Advanced Biofuels Canada (ABFC) announced the release of the Biofuels in Canada 2021 (BIC) report, with full
by Matthew Choi (Politico’s Morning Energy) Maine Department of Environmental Protection Commissioner Melanie Loyzim suspended the permits for the New
(RFD TV) Speculation is growing about what’s going on behind the scenes at the EPA as they continue to extend
The Grand Switcheroo: Is the Biden Administration Aiming Corn Ethanol at SAF, Putting Spirit in the Sky?
by Jim Lane (Biofuels Digest) Just back from the AFCC (Alternative Fuels and Chemicals Coalition) event in Washington, and I have
(The Irish Times) Around two-thirds of households in the north rely on kerosene to heat their homes. Some industry insiders
by Keith Reid (Fuels Market News) LEADING FUELS-FOCUSED GROUPS SEE ALTERNATIVE FUELS AS KEY PLAYERS IN A NET-ZERO ENVIRONMENT. …
(Advanced Biofuels Canada/EIN News) Advanced Biofuels Canada (ABFC) announced the release of the Biofuels in Canada 2021 (BIC) report, with
by Tik Root (Washington Post) … The International Energy Association (IEA) reports that transport emissions are still increasing and account for roughly
by Mario Osava (Inter Press Service) The biofuel from this mini biogas power plant in the municipality of Entre Rios
by Erin Voegele (Ethanol Producer Magazine) Rep. John Garamendi, D-Calif., on Nov. 5 introduced the Biomass and Biogas for Electric Vehicles
by Brad Plumer and Hiroko Tabuchi (Wall Street Journal) Ford, G.M. and Mercedes agreed to work toward selling only zero-emissions vehicles
by Michael Bates (NGT News) … Late Friday, the U.S. House of Representatives passed a $1 trillion federal infrastructure spending bill that
(U.S. Department of Energy/Clean Technica) 25 Research, Development, and Demonstration Projects Will Advance Electrification of Freight Trucks, Reduce Vehicle Emissions
(Raizen) Companies sign a memorandum of intent that includes a series of initiatives primarily at the use of ethanol and
by Ellen Rosen (New York Times) Developers say industrial-scale farms are needed to meet the nation’s climate goals, but locals
by Larry Lee (Brownfield Ag News) … (Geoff) ”Cooper says RFA is concerned about the language regarding how the carbon emissions
EcoEngineers is bringing back its popular “Crystal Ball” webinar series to close out this interesting year of renewable energy news
by By Rep. Randy Feenstra (Agri-Pulse) … As gasoline prices skyrocket and President Biden and congressional Democrats are increasingly compelled to
by Natasha Keicher (The Daily Iowan) Some Iowa farmers say biofuels and electric vehicles shouldn’t be pitted against each other,
(AutoEvolution) A gorgeous Azure Purple Bentley Flying Spur Hybrid prototype just drove across Iceland using only energy from waste straw
(U.S. Department of Energy) In our International Energy Outlook 2021, we estimate the global light-duty vehicle (LDV) fleet contained 1.31 billion vehicles
The US Group Leaves Electric Cars Aside and Arrives in Brazil with a Billion-Dollar Bet for the Ethanol-Powered Vehicle Market
by Valdemar Medeiros (Click Oil and Gas (Google Translation)) Qell Acquisition Corp intends to invest in ethanol vehicles, as other
by Jamie L. LaReau (Detroit Free Press) … Costs to drive an EV compared with a gasoline car are detailed in a report Anderson
(Office of Congressman Randy Feenstra (R-IA-04)) “These proposals aim to help consumers and taxpayers save money while also bolstering demand
by Marc Heller (E&E News) Making tractors burn with less pollution has long posed a trade-off: cleaner air, but less power
(ePURE) A new study by automotive research firm JATO has made headlines by revealing that sales of electric vehicles are growing dramatically in
by Will Englund (Washington Post) … Seventy-four times last year, the wind across Upstate New York dropped so low that
by Yasmin Tadjdeh (National Defense) … In a sprawling study, the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine, said battlefields of
by Neil Winton (Forbes) As politicians declare their love for clean electric cars and fall over themselves to be the
ACE Urges EPA Recognize Ethanol’s Role in Reducing Vehicle GHGs and Improving Fuel Efficiency in Final Rule
(American Coalition for Ethanol/GrainNet) The American Coalition for Ethanol (ACE) set forth recommendations today (Sept. 27) on how the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Revised 2023 and
by David Shepardson (Reuters) A group of 21 state attorneys general, the District of Columbia, and several major U.S. cities urged
by Melissa Anderson (Ethanol Producer Magazine) The Defour Group’s Dean Drake, a former GM public policy analyst, says liquid fuels
by Fred Pearce (China Dialogue) Hydrogen may have lost the race to fuel electric cars but it looks a likely
Climate Week Press Release: Advanced Biofuels USA Encourages Participation in Community Climate Change Mitigation Efforts—One Community at a Time
For Immediate Release — September 23, 2021—Frederick, MD — — Building on her recent experience volunteering on Frederick, Maryland’s City and County
One Community at a Time: How to Gain Real GHG Benefits Quickly for Least Cost — Experiences with the Frederick County and City Climate Emergency Mobilization Work Group
by Joanne Ivancic* (Advanced Biofuels USA) Over the past year I have had the opportunity and privilege to participate in
by John Eichberger and Kimberly Okafor (Fuels Institute and Trillium/Love’s respectively) As the world works to decarbonize the transportation energy
by Joshua D. Rhodes (The Conversation) … Relying more heavily on region-specific technologies … would require building more high-voltage transmission
by Matthew Choi and Kelsey Tamborrino (Politico’s Morning Energy) … The draft bill is subject to amendment and already agriculture
by ZeroHedge (OilPrice.com) California’s power grid transition to renewable energy sources appears to be backfiring. The push into clean energy is
by Erin Voegele (Ethanol Producer Magazine) The Iowa Renewable Fuels Association on Aug. 27 issued open letters to Sens. Bernie Sanders,
by Sibélia Zanon (Mongabay; Translated by Maya Johnson) • The RenovaBio program has been encouraging biofuel producers in Brazil to
Klobuchar, Colleagues Urge Schumer, Pelosi to Support Homegrown Renewable Fuels in Reconciliation Package
(Office of Amy Klobuchar (D-MN)) U.S. Senators Amy Klobuchar (D-MN), Tammy Duckworth (D-IL), Tammy Baldwin (D-WI), Tina Smith (D-MN), and Dick
by Floyd Vergara (National Biodiesel Board/Advanced Clean Tech News) … However, while other viable solutions are still being developed, biomass-based
(Pantagraph) … The renewable fuel, produced from plants like corn and soybeans, is big business in the Midwest, providing a
(American Coalition for Ethanol) With the push to net-zero vehicles over the next 10 to 30 years, and with “net
Back by popular demand! EcoEngineers is diving into even more case studies involving decarbonization and greenwashing in our next webinar.
by Doug Durante (Clean Fuels Development Coalition/Biofuels Digest) The release of the highly anticipated revision of the Safe Affordable Fuel Efficient
(Diesel Technology Forum) … Another way to get carbon reductions is to use lower carbon fuels. This is perhaps the fastest way
(Bio Market Insights) A team of researchers from Northwestern University, Illinois have developed a novel means of decarbonising the shipping
“Here’s what the future-of-fuel narrative should be: petroleum industry vs. electric vehicles and renewables, including biofuels. For obvious political reasons, | https://advancedbiofuelsusa.info/tag/electric-cars/ |
Through the Alternative and Renewable Fuel and Vehicle Technology Program (ARFVTP), the Energy Commission invests up to $100 million annually in projects that support adoption of cleaner transportation powered by alternative and renewable fuels.
Electric vehicles have many advantages over traditional internal combustion engines, including zero tailpipe emissions. There are different types of electric vehicles: hybrid electric, plug-in hybrid electric, and battery electric.
Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles are highly-efficient, have zero tailpipe emissions, and can be powered by domestically-produced hydrogen fuel.
Medium- and heavy- duty vehicles range from construction equipment to public transit and school buses, to last-mile delivery trucks. Natural gas vehicles are a cleaner and more efficient alternative to gasoline and diesel vehicles.
Biofuels such as ethanol, biodiesel, renewable diesel, and biomethane have lower carbon emissions than conventional fossil fuels.
To meet the need for a skilled workforce in the state’s growing clean transportation and fuels market, the ARFVTP is investing in manufacturing and workforce training and development, working with a variety of public and private partners. | https://www.energy.ca.gov/transportation/altfueltech/index.html |
The recent European Commission proposal for new CO2 standards for trucks, trailers, and buses, significantly tightens previous emissions limits, while leaving the door open for some Internal Combustion Engines (ICE) vehicles. However, the proposal fails to consider the meaningful contribution of renewable biofuels like biodiesel.
André Paula Santos is the Public Affairs Director at the EBB – European Biodiesel Board.
The Commission’s proposal to revise the EU Regulation for CO2 emissions from Heavy-Duty Vehicles (HDVs) is straightforward and aims to reduce carbon emissions of new vehicles gradually: 45% by 2030; 65% by 2035; and 90% by 2040.
The proposal is a step forward in strengthening the decarbonization of the European HDVs sector, responsible for 6% of the EU’s total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and more than a quarter of the bloc’s road transport emissions. Nonetheless, concerns remain about vehicle technology restrictions and other key aspects that need to be refined in the forthcoming EU legislative process.
Recognition of biofuels decarbonization potential
The proposal maintains the methodology of measuring CO2 emissions at the tailpipe, also known as the “tank-to-wheel” approach, which does not distinguish between fossil and biogenic carbon dioxide emissions.
Fossil CO2 emissions result from the combustion of fossil fuels and have a significant harmful GHG footprint. Biogenic carbon dioxide emissions, on the other hand, result from the combustion of biofuels and are considered by the scientific community to be carbon neutral. This is because the carbon emitted is offset by the carbon absorbed through photosynthesis by the plants from which the biofuel is produced, in a circular process.
Without distinguishing between the two, the Commission proposal fails to incentivize biofuels with a lower GHG emissions footprint and distorts competition between powertrain technologies by misleadingly labelling electromobility as “zero emissions.”
Trucking companies should be incentivized and not discouraged from considering the impact that renewable fuels can have immediate reductions in CO2 emissions from road transport and are available today, as both liquid and gaseous renewable fuels.
Importantly, sustainable biofuels such as biodiesel are already a significant part of the EU’s success story in reducing transport emissions. If supported by coherent and effective EU policies, biodiesel can play a significant role in mitigating uncertainties associated to the development and roll-out of electric heavy-duty vehicles, such as the availability of batteries manufactured in Europe, the pace of the roll-out of charging and fueling infrastructure, etc.
On the contrary, if the EU sets stringent tailpipe targets without providing a mechanism to factor in the contribution of renewable fuels, it will miss an opportunity to provide a strong positive signal to the European biofuels industry, thus jeopardizing the rapid phase-out of fossil fuels in European transport.
The potential of the 90% emission reduction target for 2040
The 90% reduction target proposed by the Commission seems to leave a long-term role to a small share of HDVs running on ICE engines, which is certainly a better starting point for legislators’ discussions compared to a 100% target. However, policymakers must ensure that the final text gives renewable fuels a real chance of further increasing their contribution to reduce transport emissions.
Today biofuels already reduce GHG emissions up to 90% in petrol, diesel, hybrid cars, vans, trucks, and buses, which will continue to predominate on Europe’s roads beyond 2040. Biodiesel in its two forms (FAME: Fatty Acid Methyl Ester, and HVO: Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil) can be used in existing ICE engines with minimal or no modifications, even if used with higher blends like B20, B30, B100 or HVO up to 100%, making it a very cost-effective way of reducing emissions of the existing fleet starting today!
While electrification and hydrogen fuel cell technology are set to play a crucial role in the long term, transitioning to these new technologies will take time. In the interim, the use of biodiesel in ICE vehicles will provide a more practical and socially inclusive solution to reducing carbon emissions.
Therefore, it is crucial that the EU’s revised CO2 Standards for HDVs leave room for ICE vehicles, clearly recognizing the role that carbon neutral fuels such as biodiesel play in decarbonizing heavy-duty transport.
The argument is simple: If the EU chooses to overlook the potential of biodiesel and other renewable fuels to abate road transport’s emissions, stepping up the pace to reduce the EU’s dependence on fossil fuels and quickly shifting to a more sustainable and resilient energy system will be difficult, if not impossible.
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The US Energy Information Administration released its Annual Energy Outlook 2013 (AEO2013) Reference case (the Early Release), which highlights a growth in total US energy production that exceeds growth in total US energy consumption through 2040.
Among its many findings, the Reference case suggests that US primary energy consumption will grow by 7% from 2011 to 2040 to 108 quadrillion Btu. However, energy use per capita declines by 15% from 2011 through 2040 as a result of improving energy efficiency (e.g., new appliance standards and CAFE) and changes in the way energy is used in the US economy. Further, the fossil fuel share of primary energy consumption falls from 82% in 2011 to 78% in 2040 as consumption of petroleum-based liquid fuels falls, largely because of the incorporation of new fuel efficiency standards for light-duty vehicles.
The Reference case—which serves as a basis against which alternative cases and policies to be detailed in the complete AEO2013 to be released next spring can be compared—generally assumes that current laws and regulations affecting the energy sector remain unchanged throughout the projection (including the implication that laws that include sunset dates do, in fact, end at the time of those sunset dates).
Many of the additional cases will reflect the impacts of extending a variety of current energy programs beyond their current expiration dates and the permanent retention of a broad set of programs that currently are subject to sunset provisions.
Increased sales for hybrids and PHEVs. The AEO2013 reference case projects delivered energy consumption in the transportation sector to remain relatively constant at about 27 quadrillion Btu from 2011 to 2040. Energy consumption by LDVs (including commercial light trucks) declines in the Reference case, from 16.1 quadrillion Btu in 2011 to 14.0 quadrillion Btu in 2025, due to incorporation of the model year 2017 to 2025 GHG and CAFE standards for LDVs.
Despite the projected increase in LDV miles traveled, energy consumption for LDVs further decreases after 2025, to 13.0 quadrillion Btu in 2035, as a result of fuel economy improvements achieved through stock turnover as older, less efficient vehicles are replaced by newer, more fuel-efficient vehicles. Beyond 2035, LDV energy demand begins to level off as increases in travel demand begin to exceed fuel economy improvements in the vehicle stock.
Projected sales of alternative-fuel vehicles in the AEO2013 Reference case are lower than in AEO2012, with the majority of the reduction reflected in sales of flex-fuel vehicles (FFVs), which in 2035 are about 1.3 million, or less than one-half the 2.9 million FFV sales in the AEO2012 Reference case.
Sales of battery-powered electric vehicles are 65% lower in the AEO2013 Reference case than the year before, with annual sales in 2035 estimated to be about 119,000. Reductions in battery electric vehicles are offset by increased sales of hybrid and plug-in hybrid vehicles, which grow to about 1.3 million vehicles in 203—about 20% higher than in the AEO2012 Reference case.
Continued fuel economy improvement in vehicles using other alternative fuels, gasoline, and diesel, combined with growth in the use of hybrid technologies (including micro, mild, full, and plug-in hybrid vehicles), limit the use of electric vehicles over the projection. Although about one-half of new LDV sales in 2040 use diesel, alternative fuels, or hybrid technology, only a small share, less than 1%, are all-electric.
Overall findings. AEO2013 offers a number of other key findings, including:
Crude oil production, especially from tight oil plays, rises sharply over the next decade. Domestic oil production will rise to 7.5 million barrels per day (bpd) in 2019, up from less than 6 million bpd in 2011.
Motor gasoline consumption will be less than previously estimated. Compared with the last AEO, the AEO2013 shows lower gasoline use, reflecting the introduction of more stringent corporate average fuel economy (CAFE) standards. Growth in diesel fuel consumption will be moderated by the increased use of natural gas in heavy-duty vehicles.
The United States becomes a net exporter of natural gas earlier than estimated a year ago. Because quickly rising natural gas production outpaces domestic consumption, the United States will become a net exporter of liquefied natural gas (LNG) in 2016 and a net exporter of total natural gas (including via pipelines) in 2020.
Renewable fuel use grows at a much faster rate than fossil fuel use. The share of electricity generation from renewables grows to 16% in 2040 from 13% in 2011. Biomass and biofuels growth is slower than in AEO2012. Biofuels grow at a slower rate due to lower crude oil prices and slower growth in E85 sales.
Net imports of energy decline. The decline reflects increased domestic production of both petroleum and natural gas, increased use of biofuels, and lower demand resulting from the adoption of new vehicle fuel efficiency standards and rising energy prices. The net import share of total US energy consumption falls to 9% in 2040 from 19% in 2011.
US energy-related carbon dioxide emissions remain more than 5% below their 2005 level through 2040, reflecting increased efficiency and the shift to a less carbon-intensive fuel mix.
Other AEO2013 Reference case highlights include:
The Brent spot crude oil price declines from $111 per barrel (in 2011 dollars) in 2011 to $96 per barrel in 2015. After 2015, the Brent price increases, reaching $163 per barrel in 2040, as growing demand leads to the development of more costly resources. World liquids consumption grows from 88 million bpd in 2011 to 113 million bpd in 2040, driven by demand in China, India, Brazil, and other developing economies.
Energy use per 2005 dollar of gross domestic product (GDP) declines by 46% from 2011 to 2040 in AEO2013 as a result of a continued shift from manufacturing to services (and, even within manufacturing, to less energy-intensive manufacturing industries), rising energy prices, and the adoption of policies that promote energy efficiency. CO2 emissions per 2005 dollar of GDP have historically tracked closely with energy use per dollar of GDP. In the AEO2013 Reference case, however, as lower carbon fuels account for a bigger share of total energy use, CO2 emissions per 2005 dollar of GDP decline more rapidly than energy use per 2005 dollar of GDP, falling by 56 percent from 2005 to 2040, at an annual rate of 2.3%.
Net imports of energy decline both in absolute terms and as a share of total US energy consumption. The decline in energy imports reflects increased domestic petroleum and natural gas production, increased use of biofuels, and lower demand resulting from rising energy prices and the adoption of new efficiency standards for vehicles. The net import share of total US energy consumption is 9% in 2040, compared with 19% in 2011. (The share was 29% in 2007.)
Changes to Reference case. The Reference case incorporates a number of key changes, including:
Extension of the projection period through 2040, an additional five years beyond AEO2012.
Adoption of a new Liquid Fuels Market Module (LFMM) in place of the Petroleum Market Module used in earlier AEOs; this provides for more granular and integrated modeling of petroleum refineries and all other types of current and potential future liquid fuels production technologies. This allows more direct analysis and modeling of the regional supply and demand effects involving crude oil and other feedstocks, current and future processes, and marketing to consumers.
A shift to the use of Brent spot price as the reference oil price. AEO2013 also presents the average West Texas Intermediate (WTI) spot price of light, low-sulfur crude oil delivered in Cushing, Oklahoma, and includes the U.S. annual average refiners' acquisition cost of imported crude oil, which is more representative of the average cost of all crude oils used by domestic refiners.
A shift from using regional natural gas wellhead prices to using representative regional natural gas spot prices as the basis of the natural gas supply price. Due to this change, the methodology for estimating the Henry Hub price was revised.
Updated handling of data on flex-fuel vehicles (FFVs) to better reflect consumer preferences and industry response. FFVs are necessary to meet the Renewable Fuels Standard (RFS), but the phasing out of CAFE credits for their sale and limited demand from consumers reduce their market penetration.
A revised outlook for industrial production to reflect the impacts of increased shale gas production and lower natural gas prices, which result in faster growth for industrial production and energy consumption. The industries affected include, in particular, bulk chemicals and primary metals.
Incorporation of a new aluminum process flow model in the industrial sector, which allows for diffusion of technologies through choices made among known commercial and emerging technologies based on relative capital costs and fuel expenditures and provides for a more realistic representation of the evolution of energy consumption than in previous AEOs.
An enhanced industrial chemical model, in several respects: the baseline liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) feedstock data have been aligned with 2006 survey data; use of an updated propane-pricing mechanism that reflects natural gas price influences in order to allow for price competition between LPG feedstock and petroleum-based (naphtha) feedstock; and specific accounting in the Industrial Demand Model for propylene supplied by the LFMM.
Updated handling of the US Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants for industrial boilers and process heaters to address the maximum degree of emissions reduction using maximum achievable control technology. An industrial capital expenditure and fuel price adjustment for coal and residual fuel has been applied to reflect risk perception about the use of those fuels relative to natural gas.
Augmentation of the construction and mining models in the Industrial Demand Model to better reflect AEO2013 assumptions regarding energy efficiencies in off-road vehicles and buildings, as well as the productivity of coal, oil, and natural gas extraction.
Adoption of final model year 2017 to 2025 GHG emissions and CAFE standards for LDVs, which increases the projected fuel economy of new LDVs to 47.3 mpg in 2025.
Updated handling of the representation of purchase decisions for alternative fuels for heavy-duty vehicles. Market factors used to calculate the relative cost of alternative-fuel vehicles, specifically natural gas, now represent first buyer-user behavior and slightly longer break-even payback periods, significantly increasing the demand for natural gas fuel in heavy trucks.
Updated modeling of LNG export potential, which includes a rudimentary assessment of pricing of natural gas in international markets.
Updated power generation unit costs that capture recent cost declines for some renewable technologies, which tend to lead to greater use of renewable generation, particularly solar technologies.
Reinstatement of the Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR) after the court’s announcement of intent to vacate the Cross-State Air Pollution Rule (CSAPR).
Modeling of California’s Assembly Bill 32, the Global Warming Solutions Act (AB 32), that allows for representation of a cap-and-trade program developed as part of California’s GHG reduction goals for 2020. The coordinated regulations include an enforceable GHG cap that will decline over time. AEO2013 reflects all covered sectors, including emissions offsets and allowance allocations.
Incorporation of the California Low Carbon Fuel Standard, which requires fuel producers and importers who sell motor gasoline or diesel fuel in California to reduce the carbon intensity of those fuels by 10% between 2012 and 2020 through the increased sale of alternative low-carbon fuels. | https://www.greencarcongress.com/2012/12/aeo2013er-20121205.html |
For Heavy Goods Vehicles (HGVs), a lot of kinetic energy is lost during braking, Kinetic Energy Recovery Systems (KERS) provides a solution to regenerate and reuse the waste energy. This project aims to provide the numerical evidence of benefits of KERS and give some optimizations to maximize the fuel saving and GHG emission reduction. Numerical models are required to be built to achieve these aims. The software used in this project is Advanced Vehicle Simulators (ADVISOR), which is a Matlab based simulation tool.
Life cycle assessment of advanced lithium ion batteries for use in passenger vehicles
Student: Magdalena Kupfersberger
Supervisors: Professor Anna Korre, Energy Futures Lab, Professor Geoff Kelsall, Department of Chemical Engineering
Electric vehicles (EVs) are seen as a road to low-carbon, or even “zero-emission”, mobility. However, existing literature reveals contradictory results and lack of systematic assessment of the environmental performance of EVs when evaluated on a life-cycle basis. This thesis aims to contribute to a better understanding of GHG emissions associated with lithium-ion battery production as well as the use phase of battery EVs. An attributional Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) with focus on CO2 emissions was carried out in order to compare some of the most dominant and promising battery chemistries. This is the first LCA study in the literature analyzing a combination of novel cathode and anode materials and proprietary data provided by AVL was used in the analysis of the EV’s use phase in order to refine results of existing studies. This LCA is spatially limited to the Chinese market, as both supply and demand for Li-ion batteries continue to be heavily dominated by China.
An Analysis of Liquefied Natural Gas for Heavy Goods Transport in the United Kingdom
Student: Liam Langshaw
Supervisors: Dr Salvador Acha, Department of Chemical Engineering, Dr Marc Stettler, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Transport remains the only major sector in Europe that continues to experience rising greenhouse gas emissions. In particular, heavy goods vehicles face operational constraints, having to travel large distances with high payloads, meaning their potential to be decarbonised is limited. This project investigates the introduction of liquefied natural gas as an alternative fuel in trucks in the United Kingdom on an economic and environmental basis.
Modelling real world electric vehicle usage and charging patterns for vehicle-grid integration
Student: Chen Li
Supervisors: Dr Aruna Sivakumar, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Professor John Polak, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Dr Charilaos Latinopoulos, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Dr Nicolo Daina, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Based on historical records collected from 100 electric vehicles in China, this study aims to recognize patterns of driving and charging behaviour and provide statistical inferences and forecasts. The Charging behaviour prediction model derived from this project is intended for grid operation and infrastructure planning with high EV penetration.
Maritime transportation low-carbon pathways: An evaluation of the solutions to decarbonise the shipping sector
Student: Christophe Minier
Supervisors: Dr Joana Portugal Pereira, Centre for Environmental Policy, Ms Rene van Diemen, Centre for Environmental Policy
International shipping represents almost 3% of total carbon emissions and is contributing significantly to air pollution globally. Therefore, its activities need to reduce their climate impacts and dependance on fossil fuels. This project aims to assess several low-carbon strategies existing in the shipping sector in terms of environmental impact and levelised costs.
Forecasting the material and manufacturing costs of lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles with commodity price feedback
Student: Nathan Murray
Supervisors: Dr Ajay Gambhir, Grantham Institute, Mr Oliver Schmidt, Centre for Environmental Policy, James Whiteside, Wood Mackenzie, Dr Adam Hawkes, Department of Chemical Engineering
The mass uptake of electric vehicles (EVs) is an important pathway to decarbonize transportation. EVs are relatively more energy efficient and lead to less lifecycle GHG emissions than internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). This project investigates how and when EVs will become cost-competitive with ICEVs. Ignoring the effects of transportation demand modulation by urbanization, globalisation, and autonomous driving, the complete electrification of the global road transportation system will most likely occur if: (1) there are enough materials to manufacture vehicles to replace the existing fleet and; (2) the cost associated with mining these materials and manufacturing EVs is economical compared with maintaining or purchasing ICEVs.
The impact of Shared Autonomous Electric Vehicles on the carbon footprint of urban transportation
Student: Hugo Signollet
Supervisors: Dr Koen van Dam, Department of Chemical Engineering, Dr Salvador Acha, Department of Chemical Engineering, Dr Christoph Mazur, Department of Chemical Engineering
Autonomous Vehicles are real and the question is not whether or not they will enter the automotive market but when. Starting from this observation, my thesis aims at exploring the best ways to use this new technology to improve urban transportation and reduce its carbon emissions. In my project, I used Python to model a city and its transportation system. The core of the project is to use this model to analyse the effects on transportation of different scenarios regarding the possible ways to implement Shared Autonomous Electric Vehicles. | http://www.imperial.ac.uk/energy-futures-lab/sef2018/research-themes/transport/ |
by Paul Hollick.
New infrastructure commission report urges zero carbon deadline for new freight vehicles by 2040.
Readers of my posts won’t need to be reminded that diesel-powered freight transport is one of the most – if not the most – important parts of the global economy. Whole books have been written about how quickly society would fall apart in the unlikely event that trucks ever stop running.
This dependence on trucks and LCVs, and in turn their current reliance on diesel engines, has kept freight low on the agenda for decarbonising transport, though we shouldn’t overlook the enormous reductions in freight vehicles’ pollution and fuel consumption over the last two decades.
Below: how NOx and particulate emissions limits for HGVs have fallen since 1992
Even so there would be little point banning new petrol and diesel cars from 2040 if freight remains almost 100 per cent diesel-powered. If that happens, we’re told, road and rail freight’s share of UK greenhouse gas emissions would rise from six per cent today to around 20 per cent of allowed emissions in 2050.
It’s a critical issue for fleets and UK businesses alike. One which calls for the kind of coordinated, forward-thinking approach from the government that’s been so frustratingly lacking around Brexit and company car BIK over the last three years.
Now, a detailed proposal for future UK freight transport planning has been put forward by the National Infrastructure Commission (NIC).
The report says the government must…
”…set the trajectory for a clean freight system, outlining clear, long term objectives that enable the industry to be zero emissions by 2050.”
Fuels, fuelling infrastructure and, significantly, data aggregation are key areas for future government action the report says. It sees data as vital to improving congestion and capacity – which, along with carbon, make up the NIC’s ‘three Cs’.
New data standards
It wants to see a new national freight data standard implemented by 2020. This will provide local authorities and other freight stakeholders with “good, useful data that can inform priorities and decisions” in much the same way many businesses use TMC’s presentation of consolidated data from different sources, e.g. mileage capture, telematics and fuel usage, to find new ways to reduce their fleet and travel costs.
On freight fuels, the NIC report discusses synthetic diesel, biofuels and e-highways (overhead electric wires) as potential routes to zero-emission HGVs. But batteries and hydrogen look most promising, it says.
Hydrogen, though less energy-efficient and therefore more expensive than electricity, may eventually win out as the preferred energy system for heavy road freight because it will permit higher payloads than the equivalent weight and volume of battery storage.
HGV hydrogen infrastructure
The report notes that a completely new hydrogen production and refuelling infrastructure would need to be built along the UK’s freight arteries. One can foresee LCV and car operators turning to hydrogen vehicles to take advantage of it, although hydrogen fuel’s likely price premium over electricity will call for careful data analysis to identify where time/payload considerations would justify the higher cost of hydrogen.
An important take-away from the NIC report is that managing zero-emission freight fleets is going to call for more real-time consolidated information. Certainly much more than the (comparatively) straightforward business of running today’s commercial vehicles on diesel. | https://themilesconsultancy.com/whats-in-the-pipeline-for-hgv-and-lcv-fuels/ |
Clearing the air (inside your car)
Did you know that your biggest daily exposure to air pollutants comes while driving your car to work?
Jan 14, 2020
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Did you know that your biggest daily exposure to air pollutants comes while driving your car to work?
Jan 14, 2020
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Scientists have created an "artificial leaf" to fight climate change by inexpensively converting harmful carbon dioxide (CO2) into a useful alternative fuel.
Nov 04, 2019
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A new Harvard study shows that to achieve the biggest improvements in public health and the greatest benefits from renewable energy, wind turbines should be installed in the Upper Midwest and solar power should be installed ...
Oct 29, 2019
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Diesel engines are widely used in transport the world over. Regulatory and legal efforts are afoot to reduce their use in some countries because of concerns about pollution. However, they are likely to remain a mainstay of ...
Jul 30, 2019
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The UK has gone more than five days without burning coal, the longest streak without burning the fuel since the Industrial Revolution, said Bloomberg. It breaks the previous record from earlier this year, a total of 90 hours.
May 09, 2019 weblog
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Eighteen countries from developed economies have had declining carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels for at least a decade. While every nation is unique, they share some common themes that can show Australia, and the ...
Feb 26, 2019
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Cement production accounts for up to nine percent of global anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions, according to the World Business Council for Sustainable Development. Sabbie Miller, assistant professor in the Department ...
Oct 17, 2018
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Americans have now purchased more than 800,000 electric vehicles, counting both plug-in hybrids and all-electric models. That may sound like a lot of EVs, and it is a big jump from the less than 5,000 that were on the road ...
Jul 27, 2018
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Almost a third of the natural gas fuelling UK homes and businesses could be replaced by hydrogen, a carbon free fuel, without requiring any changes to the nation's boilers and ovens, a pioneering study by Swansea University ...
Jun 11, 2018
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As the Earth continues to heat up, so have calls to dramatically reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid catastrophic climate change. But many experts say that even if all emissions stopped tomorrow, the planet would continue ...
Jun 08, 2018
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LED light bulbs are getting cheaper and more energy efficient every year. So, does it make sense to replace less-efficient bulbs with the latest light-emitting diodes now, or should you wait for future improvements and even ...
Nov 15, 2017
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(Tech Xplore)—Carbon reduction is one part of the battle as countries and organizations do their bit to save our planet. Another goal drawing considerable interest now is carbon removal.
Oct 15, 2017 weblog
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Many communities would be better off investing in electric vehicles that run on batteries instead of hydrogen fuel cells, in part because the hydrogen infrastructure provides few additional energy benefits for the community ...
Nov 14, 2016
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Magali Delmas picks up her smartphone and touches the icon for her home thermostat. She is inside UCLA'S Institute of the Environment and Sustainability, where it is warm. But an icy wind is blowing outside, and she worries ...
Jul 25, 2016
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The ingenuity of four space engineers has created a zero-emission air-conditioning system that doesn't pollute our atmosphere when we turn it on.
Jun 07, 2016
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This is a list of sovereign states by carbon dioxide emissions due to human activity. The data presented below corresponds to emissions in 2004. The data itself was collected in 2007 by the CDIAC for United Nations. The data considers only carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels, but not emissions from deforestation, and fossil fuel exporters, etc.
These statistics are rapidly dated due to huge recent growth of emissions in Asia. The United States is the 10th largest emitter of carbon dioxide emissions per capita as of 2004. According to preliminary estimates, since 2006 China has had a higher total emission due to its much larger population and an increase of emissions from power generation. China is the 91st largest emitter of carbon dioxide emissions per capita as of 2004.
Some dependencies and territories whose independence has not been generally recognized are also included, as they are in source data. | https://techxplore.com/tags/carbon%20dioxide%20emissions/ |
The new draft Climate Change Plan for Scotland was released on 19th January, and contains ambitious targets and clear proposals for using hydrogen to reduce emissions from transport and heat. This plan outlines the new target to reduce Scottish greenhouse gas emissions by 66% by 2032, as compared to the 1990 baseline.
The draft Plan contains a pathway out to 2032, broken down into sector carbon envelopes for Electricity, Residential, Transport, Services, Industry, Waste, Land Use (including Forestry and Peat) and Agriculture. Each sector contains policies and proposals designed to keep emissions within the carbon envelopes. The plan sets out 2032 targets for a fully-decarbonised electricity sector and 80% of domestic heat coming from low-carbon sources. The draft Climate Change Plan also includes extensive references to the potential for hydrogen to support decarbonisation of heat and transport, including:
· Work with partners to determine the best approach to heat decarbonisation for buildings currently heated by natural gas, include consideration of technological solutions, including repurposing of the gas network for use of biogas and/or hydrogen
· By 2035 the transport infrastructure will support both electric and hydrogen powered vehicles
· Low emission vehicles will also play a role in the wider energy system. Electric and hydrogen vehicles will have a role in energy storage
The Climate Change Plan also refers extensively to the Scottish Government’s draft Energy Strategy, due to be published on 24th January 2017. In developing the draft Energy Strategy, the Scottish Government has set out, for the first time, a full statement of its ambitious long-term vision of energy supply and use in Scotland, aligned with greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets. Some of these alternative energy sources may, for example, have the potential to reduce both the cost and the delivery barriers of policies or proposals in the current draft Climate Change Plan, such as the replacement of natural gas by 100% pure hydrogen for space heating in some areas of the gas network.
The Climate Change Plan identifies the role the role that other alternative fuels, such as hydrogen, gas and biofuel, can play in the transition to a decarbonised road transport sector. Specific areas of opportunity for hydrogen and fuel cell technologies include: | http://www.shfca.org.uk/news/2017/1/31/new-climate-change-plan-for-scotland-sets-ambitious-2032-target |
The Honorable Tommy Norment, Jr.
Re: Support for Transportation Electrification Legislation
Dear Virginia General Assembly Leadership,
We are writing to encourage you and your colleagues to make transportation electrification a top priority for the Commonwealth during the 2021 General Assembly. Transportation is the single largest source of greenhouse gas emissions in Virginia, making up 48% of our carbon dioxide emissions. To address this, Virginia must transform its transportation sector while also electrifying the vehicles on the road. Supporting the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) can help to ease this transition and is an important component of our evolving transportation system. EVs provide major benefits for consumers, the local economy, energy independence, public health, and the environment. With your leadership, we can accelerate our progress into an electric mobility future.
This year, Virginia faced recurrent flooding, wildfires raged throughout the West Coast, and countless communities struggled to adapt as a historic number of hurricanes bombarded their shores. The impacts of climate change are already here, causing real, tangible harm and our response must match the severity of the challenge. Virginia recently took significant strides to reduce emissions from the power sector by passing the Virginia Clean Economy Act and joining the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative. Now it is time to build on this progress and address emissions from the transportation sector.
As we work to tackle transportation-related emissions, we must remember that it is a challenge we will have to fight on multiple fronts. Addressing transport-related emissions in the Commonwealth will require us to rethink how we design our communities, what our transit and rail services looks like, and the type of vehicles we drive. Given the breadth of this undertaking, we know that state-level leadership will be more important than ever. We commit to working toward thoughtful, deliberate, and equitable solutions as we tackle transportation-related emissions, and we ask you to join us in this work.
Demand for EVs already exists in the Commonwealth, but Virginia is lacking in pro-EV policies. According to a recent report,1 75 percent of Virginians think it’s important for Virginia to reduce its dependence on fossil fuels, and 71 percent have a favorable view of EVs. This same report shows that over half of Virginians are likely to consider an EV for their next car.
Nearly every auto manufacturer has introduced one or more plug-in electric models, and Virginians deserve access to these vehicles. While many other states have taken steps to support a robust EV market, Virginia has yet to do so. The upcoming 2021 General Assembly session presents a critical window of opportunity to advance the benefits of transportation electrification in Virginia, helping the Commonwealth reap numerous economic, health, and climate benefits associated with the transition to EVs.
Even when charged using Virginia’s current electricity generation mix – which includes natural gas, coal, nuclear, and renewables – an EV averages 70 percent less carbon dioxide emissions compared to a gas powered vehicle. As the Commonwealth works to modernize our grid and move towards 100 percent clean energy sources in accordance with the Virginia Clean Economy Act, the EVs on our roads will get cleaner, too. Powering EVs with 100 percent clean energy helps to completely eliminate these emissions, but EV benefits span far beyond the environment.
Driving an EV instead of a gas-powered car can save consumers thousands of dollars in fuel costs over the life of the vehicle. Virginians spend $25 million dollars per day on imported petroleum, and these savings on fuel purchases give consumers more money to spend in local economies while decreasing our dependence on foreign and out of state oil. Transportation electrification also supports public health. Air pollution from cars, trucks, and buses is linked to asthma attacks, heart attacks, other health complications, along with premature deaths. Furthermore, communities of color in the Northeast and Mid-Atlantic breathe 66 percent more air pollution from vehicles than white residents on average. Since EVs have little or no conventional tailpipe emissions, they can be a key component to improving air quality, reducing transportation-related emissions health burden, and addressing disproportionate impacts.
This legislative session we ask that you join us in supporting transportation electrification and solidify Virginia’s role as a leader on climate policy in the United States.
Respectfully, | https://generation180.org/coalition-letter-of-ev-support/ |
The recent confirmation that the European Union will no longer have a target for biofuels in transport after 2020 is sending shockwaves across the industry, which lashed out at the bloc’s “populist” policies at a Brussels event this week.
“There is no silver bullet” when it comes to reducing carbon dioxide emissions from the transport sector, according to the European Commission, which will outline policy options in a “communication” on the topic in June or July.
“It will assess the different options in a holistic manner,” said Bernd Kuepker, an official at the Commission’s energy directorate who was speaking on Wednesday (11 May) at an event hosted by the Bavarian representation to the EU.
“So it will look at all the different options” including fuel efficiency, the promotion of electric vehicles, and “the shift to advanced renewable fuels,” said Kuepker, who is in charge of renewable energies at DG energy.
Officials confirmed last week that EU regulations requiring member states to use “at least 10%” renewable energy in transport will be scrapped after 2020, effectively dropping a mandate for using biofuels in transport beyond that date.
‘No real alternative’ to 1st generation biofuels
That news is having a chilling effect on biofuel makers, who warned they need regulatory certainty to invest in so-called second generation biofuels that do not compete with food crops.
“We will not invest in any advanced technology unless we are sure that the regulation will stay at least for a period of five to ten years,” said Jörg Jacob, CEO of German Biofuels, a company producing biodiesel from rapeseed oils.
“There is no real alternative today to the first generation biofuels which we are producing,” he said at the event. “There will be in the future – in ten or fifteen years – if the preconditions can be achieved. But up to now, we have a functioning system of biofuels and we should not endanger them by regulations or by political discussions like ILUC,” he stated, referring to the ongoing controversy surrounding the indirect land use change of biofuels.
Discussions about land displacement and food scarcity caused by biofuels are driven more by “ideology” or “populism” rather than science, he added, lashing out at the EU’s decision to drop its biofuels target after 2020.
An EU directive on ILUC adopted last year limits to 7% the use of harmful biofuels which compete with crops grown on agricultural land. It also sets an indicative 0.5% target for second generation biofuels, whose contribution would count double towards the 10% renewable energy target for transport for 2020.
But the distinction between first and second generation biofuels is unhelpful, according to Alexander Knebel, a spokesperson for the German renewable energies agency, who was speaking at the Brussels event.
“There are rather transitions, I would argue,” he said. Citing biogas as an example, Knebel underlined that “the process of methanisation also lends itself to other raw materials” which can all be used in transport.
His view was echoed by Robert Götz, head of renewable energies at the Bavarian ministry of economic affairs, who said the controversy surrounding biofuels’ contribution to deforestation or food scarcity was a distraction.
“In our opinion, there are not yet convincing scientific proof” that biofuels contribute to displacement of food crops for fuel production, Götz said, referring to Indirect Land Use Change, or ILUC.
“It’s a theoretical debate that distracts us from the actual need to take action now,” he claimed.
Götz said it was crucial to continue research on more sustainable second generation biofuels and bring them to market as quickly as possible.
“But conventional and advanced biofuels are not in competition to each other,” he said, adding “we cannot afford waiting for future fuels” to decarbonise the transport sector. “We need to use any kind of sustainable form of energy – whether electricity, conventional or advanced biofuels”.
Trucking, aviation and shipping
Biofuels are seen as a promising alternative to diesel particularly in the trucking sector, where electrification is still a distant prospect.
“To achieve CO2 reductions there, biofuels will still play a role,” said Nienke Smeets, an official from the Dutch ministry for infrastructure and the environment who was speaking at the event.
Member states “can do a lot” to reduce transport emissions at the national level, Smeets said, mentioning tax incentives and subsidies. “But there are a few things we need at EU level,” she added, mentioning “clarity on biofuels legislation post-2020” as “absolutely essential”.
“We need strict CO2 limits for cars in order to get zero emission vehicles on the market. And we also need them for trucks,” Smeets said.
In the Netherlands, the government has passed legislation requiring all new passenger cars to be zero emissions as of 2035, she explained, which means switching to electric mobility for light duty vehicles by that date.
“But we know that for trucks, LNG is a more likely option,” alongside biofuels and hybrid electric solutions, Smeets said, adding hydrogen could also be an option for the longer term.
“For aviation and shipping, we also see a potential for biofuels because there are not that many other options to decarbonise.”
Background
Sustainable 2nd generation biofuels are considered an important element in efforts to decarbonise the transport sector.
The international aviation industry is committed to achieving "carbon-neutral growth" by 2020, but that can only happen with a substantial increase in biofuels use in air transport. The International Air Transport Association (IATA) has set a target of ramping up biofuels use to 10% of all consumption by 2017, saying that they have the potential to reduce the industry's footprint by up to 80%.
Truck makers also see a potential for biofuels in heavy-duty vehicles, where electrification is still a relatively distant prospect. “We already have around 7% biodiesel, but in the future, we will have more Hydro-Treated Vegetable Oil, or HVO. Then we also see natural gas in the form of methane or biogas. And in the longer term, we see Dimethyl ether (DME) as a promising fuel,” said Niklas Gustafsson, Chief Sustainability Officer at the Volvo Group.
The market size for biodiesel in the EU was 10 million metric tons per year in 2012. This is likely to increase to approximately 21 million metric tons by 2020, according to Kaidi Finland, a company making 2nd generation biodiesel from wood-based biomass. | https://www.euractiv.com/section/transport/news/industry-lashes-out-at-populist-eu-biofuels-policy/?nl_ref=12878500 |
Stabenow, Alexander, Peters, Collins, Kildee Introduce Bipartisan Bill to Expand Electric Vehicle and Hydrogen Fuel Cell Tax CreditsWednesday, April 10, 2019
WASHINGTON, D.C. – U.S. Senators Debbie Stabenow (D-MI), Lamar Alexander (R-TN), Gary Peters (D-MI), and Susan Collins (R-ME) along with Congressman Dan Kildee (MI-05) today introduced the Driving America Forward Act, bipartisan legislation to expand the electric vehicle and hydrogen fuel cell tax credits. Under current law, consumers may receive a tax credit of up to $7,500 if they purchase an eligible electric vehicle. However, the tax credits begin to phase out permanently once automakers sell over 200,000 units. The Driving America Forward Act raises the cap and allows purchasers of an additional 400,000 vehicles per manufacturer to be eligible for the tax credit.
“At a time when climate change is having a real effect on Michigan, today’s legislation is something we can do now to reduce emissions and combat carbon pollution,” said Senator Stabenow. “Our bill will help create American jobs and cement Michigan’s status as an advanced manufacturing hub.”
“Ten years ago there were no mass produced electric cars on U.S. highways, and today, there are about one million and automakers are planning to make millions more,” said Senator Alexander. “The all-electric Nissan Leaf that I bought in 2011 had a hard time getting me from the Capitol to Dulles airport and back. Its real range was about 70 miles. Today’s Nissan Leaf can travel 226 miles on one charge. Investing in American research and technology for better electric vehicles is one way to help our country and the world deal with climate change. I’m glad to cosponsor this important legislation, which will encourage even more production of electric vehicles, create good jobs and boost the economy.”
“Expanding tax credits for electric vehicles would benefit consumers and our environment,” said Senator Peters. “Continued investment in advanced technologies of the future will help Michigan stay at the forefront of global auto innovation, spur job growth and move us toward a more sustainable and competitive transportation future.”
“In less than four years, the number of Mainers who own electric cars has more than doubled. This legislation would continue the momentum towards cleaner transportation and help tackle harmful transportation emissions, which produce more than half of Maine’s carbon pollution and threaten our public health, natural resources, and economy,” said Senator Collins. “I encourage our colleagues to join us in supporting the Driving America Forward Act to extend tax credits for electric vehicles and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and make these vehicles more affordable to consumers.”
“This bipartisan legislation helps to address the urgent threat of climate change with bold solutions that help to create jobs in Michigan,” said Congressman Dan Kildee. “Putting more electric vehicles on the road will reduce carbon emissions and support investment in American-made manufacturing. This legislation is a win-win when it comes to protecting our planet and growing our economy.”
Sales of electric vehicles increased by more than 80 percent in 2018 and two manufacturers have already hit the lifetime cap of 200,000 units. Under current law, after an automaker sells 200,000 qualifying vehicles, consumers are eligible to receive the full value of the $7,500 tax credit through the calendar quarter after the cap is hit. The value of the credit to consumers from this automaker then decreases to 50% and 25% over the next 12 months before being phased out entirely.
The Driving America Forward Act raises the cap by allowing purchasers of an additional 400,000 vehicles per manufacturer to be eligible for a $7000 tax credit. Consumers can receive the full value of a $7,000 credit through the calendar quarter after the 600,000th vehicle is sold. The value of the credit to consumers from this automaker then decreases to 50% before being phased out entirely after six months. The bill maintains the $7,500 tax credit for the first 200,000 units sold.
The Drive America Forward Act also extends the hydrogen fuel cell credit for ten years, through 2028. The legislation is also co-sponsored by U.S. Representatives Don Beyer (VA-08), Earl Blumenauer (OR-03), Brian Higgins (NY-26), Jimmy Gomez (CA-34), Stephanie Murphy (FL-07), Jimmy Panetta (CA-20), Terri Sewell (AL-07), and Tom Suozzi (NY-03).
Senator Stabenow championed the electric vehicle tax credit and the production of alternative vehicles here at home in the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009. She has since led efforts to expand the tax credit and create more opportunities for clean energy manufacturing in Michigan and across the country. In addition to being more energy efficient, electric vehicles produce lower emissions on average than conventional gas vehicles do. An average electric-powered vehicle will produce 3.3 fewer tons of CO2 emissions and burn 480 fewer gallons of gas per year compared to an average gasoline-powered vehicle.
The Driving America Forward Act is supported by 60 organizations, including ABB Inc., Advanced Energy Economy, Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers, Alliance to Save Energy, American Lung Association, Association of Global Automakers, BMW of North America, CalStart, Center for Climate and Energy Solutions, CERES, Charge Forward LLC, ChargePoint, ChargeUp Midwest, Clean Fuels Michigan, Consumers Energy, Copper Development Association, DTE, Eaton, Ecology Center, Edison Electric Institute, Electrify America, Electric Auto Association, Electric Drive Transportation Association, Electric Vehicle Charging Association, eMotorWerks, an Enel Group Company, Environmental Defense Fund, Environmental Law and Policy Center, EV Drive Coalition, EVgo, FCA US, Ford Motor Company, FORTH, Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Energy Association, General Motors Company, Greenlots, Honda North America Inc., ITC Holdings Corp., ITS America, League of Conservation Voters, Lyft, Michigan League of Conservation Voters, Motor and Equipment Manufacturers Association, NAFA Fleet Management Association, National Rural Electric Cooperative Association, Natural Resources Defense Council, Nissan North America, Panasonic Corporation of North America, Plug In America, RENEW Wisconsin, Rivian Automotive, LLC, Securing America’s Future Energy, SemaConnect, Siemens Corporation USA, Sierra Club, Silicon Valley Leadership Group, TE Connectivity, Tesla Inc., The Nature Conservancy, Toyota Motor North America, Union of Concerned Scientists, Volkswagen Group of America, and Volta.
“FCA US applauds Senators Stabenow and Alexander's leadership in supporting electric vehicles,” said Shane Karr, Head of FCA US External Affairs. “Measures like the Driving America Forward Act are needed to help grow market demand for electric vehicles.”
“This bill will help Ford grow our electrified vehicle portfolio, which includes iconic models our customers know and love,” said Joe Hinrichs, Ford’s President, Global Operations. “Ford is investing $11 billion in electrified vehicles through 2022. Expanding the existing framework gives our U.S. plants the ability to produce smarter, fuel-efficient vehicles for years to come. It also ensures that American manufacturers can stay competitive in this new automotive era.”
“General Motors believes in an all-electric, zero-emissions future. We are dedicating significant resources and investments to manufacturing and infrastructure here in the United States to drive that vision,” said Mark Reuss, President, General Motors. “We appreciate the support and leadership of the Senators and Representatives; the EV tax credit provides customers with a proven incentive as we work to establish the U.S. as a leader in electrification.”
“We commend Senators Stabenow and Alexander and Congressman Kildee for their leadership on this critical issue,” said Dave Schweitert, Interim president & CEO, Auto Alliance. “This bipartisan bill will help drive deployment and consumer acceptance of these energy-efficient, alternative powertrains. Automakers are investing substantially in electric vehicles, with 58 models on sale and more coming, but overall sales remain low. Consumer tax incentives and rebates, as well as charging infrastructure, are key building blocks to help get more of these energy-efficient vehicles on our roadways.”
“These credits accelerate the growth of the U.S. electric vehicle market which helps protect our air and environment while at the same time boosting American clean vehicle innovation and manufacturing jobs,” said Luke Tonachel, Director, Clean Vehicles and Fuels Group, Natural Resources Defense Council. “We are pleased to see bipartisan support for these related goals and hope this proposal will quickly pass.”
“As we build and grow the clean energy economy, we must continue to invest in tackling the sector that generates the most pollution: transportation,” said Michael Brune, Executive Director of the Sierra Club. “With this bipartisan legislation Senators Stabenow and Alexander recognize the opportunities we have by extending the electric vehicle tax credit and putting electric vehicles in the fast lane.”
“LCV applauds Senators Stabenow and Alexander and Congressman Kildee for their bipartisan legislation to extend electric vehicle tax credits,” said Tiernan Sittenfeld, SVP of Government Affairs, League of Conservation Voters. “At a time when our communities are feeling climate change's impacts, electrifying the transportation sector could not be more important. Transitioning to a clean energy economy for all will create jobs and protect our health and communities—especially low income and communities of color who are hit first and worst by the impacts of climate change. While some in Congress are engaging in political stunts to stymie debate about solutions to climate change, LCV is committed to working with members of Congress, like Senators Stabenow and Alexander, Congressman Kildee, and the hundreds of state and local leaders working to solve this crisis.”
“The future is electric. Electric vehicles are much cleaner and cheaper to operate, and we need to help more people enjoy the benefits of this emerging technology,” said Michelle Robinson, Director of the Clean Vehicles Program of the Union of Concerned Scientists. “We applaud this bipartisan effort to invest in a strong and growing electric vehicle market.”
“EDTA applauds Senators Stabenow, Alexander, Collins and Peters, as well as Congressman Kildee and the many cosponsors of the House legislation, for their continued leadership in electric mobility and advancing this critical bipartisan legislation," said Genevieve Cullen, President, Electric Drive Transportation Association (EDTA). "This bill will ensure that the tax credits for electric drive vehicles continue to work to increase consumer choice and U.S. competitiveness. Electrifying the U.S. fleet of vehicles will allow drivers to reduce their fuel costs, help to reduce greenhouse gases and other pollutants and enhance our energy security through fuel diversity. This legislation updates existing policies to ensure that the U.S. continues to lead in the global market for electric drive technologies.”
“Electric vehicles are cleaner, cheaper to operate and maintain, and allow customers to fuel at home with domestic energy,” said Jason Hartke, President, Alliance to Save Energy. “Study after study has found that tax incentives are working to make them accessible to more Americans and encourage their sales. Without congressional action, the current incentives are essentially expiring, and that’s likely to stunt the growth of electrical vehicles in the U.S. and damage our leadership in a rapidly growing auto sector. Sens. Alexander and Stabenow have really stepped up to the plate here to ensure we don’t let the electric vehicle market stall and fall behind foreign competitors. This bill would go a long way to grow the electric vehicle market and make them affordable for more American families.”
“The nation must act urgently to protect the health of all Americans from air pollution and climate change. Reducing emissions from vehicles is a critical part of the solution,” said Harold P. Wimmer, National President and CEO, American Lung Association. “I applaud Senators Alexander and Stabenow for their leadership on this issue. More electric vehicles on the road, combined with clean, renewable electricity, will help reduce dangerous air pollution and fight climate change at the same time.”
“As a leader in electrification and high power electric vehicle charging systems, ABB supports the Driving America Forward Act, which keeps the U.S. on the forefront of automotive technology,” said Jim Creevy, Vice President, Government Relations, ABB Inc. "This bill ensures more vehicle choices at lower cost, enabling all Americans to choose the car that is the best fit for them, while continuing to drive innovation in one of America’s core industries.”
“As a leading eMobility technology provider committed to being carbon neutral by 2030, Siemens supports this legislation and the opportunity it provides to advance clean transportation options for Americans,” said Chris King, Chief Policy Officer, Siemens Digital Grid. | https://www.stabenow.senate.gov/news/stabenow-alexander-peters-collins-kildee-introduce-bipartisan-bill-to-expand-electric-vehicle-and-hydrogen-fuel-cell-tax-credits |
The Indian automobile industry is one of the largest growing sectors in the world, which further assures to fabricate the country’s economic growth. With the current impact of the automobile industry on the growing pollution, it has been prompted by the government to promote electric mobility to reduce the impact of transportation on the environment and climate change. Since Delhi has been continuously infiltrating the emergency levels, with the atmosphere shrouded under a thick blanket of smog and haze, the Environment Pollution (Prevention) and Control Authority (EPCA) declared a public health emergency in November 2019. Further, the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) forced a complete halt to all construction activities in the national capital and adjoining regions of Faridabad, Gurgaon, Ghaziabad, Noida, and Greater Noida. Other than these precautions, the Delhi government also implemented the Odd-Even road rationing scheme to provide relief.
With one of the world’s largest CNG-propelled public transports, the Delhi government has now launched its journey to provide clean, shared and people-centric mobility solutions. In 2015, the Government of India has instigated the Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles (FAME Scheme), under the National Electric Mobility Mission Plan which aims to promote eco-friendly vehicles in India. Further, to boost up the use of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles, the Government has come up with the FAME II Scheme and launched the National Mission on Electric Mobility & Battery Storage. As per sources, the Government of India has set an ambitious target of 6-7 million sales of hybrid and electric vehicles every year.
In November 2018, a first draft of ‘The Delhi Electric Vehicle Policy’ has been circulated and was subsequently approved by the Delhi Chief Minister, Arvind Kejriwal on 23 December 2019. The EV Policy aims at a faster adoption of electric vehicles with a target of 25% of the vehicles to be Electric Vehicles by 2024. According to Kejriwal, the government will provide a subsidy to promote e-vehicles and stated that the policy will be valid for three years from the date of notification. During the term of the policy, the road tax and registration will be waived off on the Electric Vehicles. The government has targeted to induct around 35,000 electric vehicles within a year, which include two/three and four-wheelers. Furthermore, the government is targeting to register about five lakh EVs in the next five years, which will help save about ₹ 6000 crores in oil and liquid natural gas imports, as well as 4.8 million tonnes of CO2 emissions. This, the government says is equivalent to avoiding nearly one lakh CO2 emissions from petrol cars over their lifetime. The EVs will also help avoid 159 tonnes of 2.5 ppm tailpipe emissions.
“The government will provide a 100% subsidy for the purchase of charging equipment up to ₹6,000 per charging point for the first 30,000 charging points at homes/workplaces. The subsidy is to be routed through DISCOMS who will be in-charge of charger installations,” the Chief Minister asserted.
The substantial goal of EV is to improve Delhi’s air quality by bringing down emissions from transport by the rapid adoption of Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs). Since the majority of pollution is contributed by way of two-wheelers, three-wheelers, buses, and freight vehicles (i.e. all the commercial vehicles), the government would likely focus on the use of Electric vehicles in the above-mentioned categories. Further, to support the use of electric vehicles, the Delhi government has approved to provide a subsidy of Rs 5,000 per kWh of battery capacity, on the purchase of two-wheelers. The policy further suggests making Delhi, the EV capital of India.
Aarti Khosla, Director of Climate Trends (a strategic communications initiative that focuses on climate change and cleans energy transition) stated that “Delhi must plan for a future which is powered from clean energy. A transition from polluting fossil fuels to clean renewable energy will ultimately make the city more liveable and sustainable.”
Implementation of EV Policy
The Delhi government proposed to establish a “dedicated Electric Vehicle cell within the Transport Department” with the apex body being a non-lapsable ‘State EV Fund’ for monitoring and implementing the policy. The funds shall be incorporated from various sources including Pollution/Diesel Cess, Road Tax, an Environment Compensation Charge (ECC), etc. using the ‘Feebate’ concept. Under this concept, polluting vehicles will incur a surcharge (fee) while efficient ones receive a rebate (bate). The CM, Kejriwal has further said that the Cabinet has approved a transport allowance of around ₹4,000 a month to all the Delhi Transport Corporation regular employees.
Despite all the above circumstances, the implementation of Electric Vehicles shall have its advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages of Electric Vehicles
The highest advantage of using an electric vehicle is its green credentials. Fossil fuel-based vehicles are one of the major causes of increased global warming and pollution for which electric vehicles tend to be the best alternative.
- Environmental friendly – Carbon dioxide emissions from traditional vehicles contribute to greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and accelerate climate change. The electric engine within an EV operates on a closed circuit, which restricts the emitting of any harmful gases often associated with global warming.
- Renewable energy – The process for recharging the Electric Vehicle uses renewable energy, which makes the carbon footprint shrinks dramatically by reducing the release of greenhouse gases.
- Health Asset – Reduced harmful exhaust emissions will lead to better air quality which in turn lessens the health problems caused by air pollution. Also, Electric Vehicles produce very little noise as compared to fuel vehicles.
- Safety improvements – Electric Vehicles tend to have a lower center of gravity which makes them much more stable on road in case of a collision. They also lower the risk of major fires or explosions. EVs tend to undergo the same fitness and testing procedures as other fuel-powered vehicles.
- More Efficient – As per sources, an electric vehicle is around three times as efficient as cars with an internal combustion engine.
Disadvantages of Electric Vehicles
While technology has been promoted due to its anti-polluting characteristics, it still has some disadvantages.
- Driving range – Fossil fuel-based vehicles offer better acceleration when compared to electric vehicles which might face the problems of lack of power and reduced range. Thus, it might be skeptical to use electric vehicles for long journeys/ highway drives.
- Longer Recharge time – While it takes a couple of minutes to fuel a petrol or diesel vehicle, an electric vehicle may take about 4-6 hours to get fully charged. Therefore, dedicated power stations as the time taken to recharge them are quite long.
- Inappropriate in areas facing power shortage – Since electric vehicles need the power to charge up, cities/areas already facing acute power shortage are not suitable for electric vehicles. The consumption of more power would likely hamper daily power needs.
- Battery life – Depending on the type and usage of battery, batteries of almost all-electric vehicles need to be replaced every 3 – 10 years. Battery replacement is a longer-term cost that needs to be considered while changing from fuel vehicle to electric vehicle.
Associate Professor at School of Public Health, University of Queensland, Luke Knibbs stated that it is encouraging to see the implementation of such measures in Delhi. “There’s certainly some precedent from other countries that such measures can reduce air pollution levels if they are implemented well and the performance is evaluated. The challenge, however, is that air pollution has many complex sources, some of which are far away, and reducing traffic or construction may not lead to improvements if emissions from other sources, such as landscape fires, increase. Ideally, there would be measures tailored to all of the major sources in Delhi, although this is much easier said than done.”
This article is written by M Nikitha. The author can be contacted via email at [email protected]
For more information and professional consultation regarding environmental matters, our expert environmental lawyers in Chandigarh can be contacted from Monday to Friday between 10:00 am to 6:00 pm and between 10:00 am to 2:00 pm on Saturdays. | https://bnblegal.com/article/delhi-becomes-electric/ |
IZES presentation empowering students for H2 learning pathway
As part of the communication and dissemination activities of the GenComm project Dr. Bodo Groß from the German GenComm Partner IZES gGmbH visited St Malachy’s School in Belfast on Tuesday 15th October and on Friday 18th he visited the Abbey Grammar School in Newry to present to students from the Abbey, Our lady’s Grammar School and St Paul’s Secondary School.
Spreading the green message, Dr Groß presentation centred on alternative mobility concepts and low emission alternative fuels for the future. Dr Groß said: “The main reason why we are working in this field is that we have to reduce CO2 emissions in the transport sector rapidly.” Dr Groß explained that when comparing the three sectors electricity, heat and transport in terms of their share of renewable energy in total demand, the transport sector is the most undeveloped. Electricity as well as Hydrogen produced with renewable energy present two opportunities to reach this goal within the next two decades by using battery (BEV) or fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV). A third opportunity could be synthetic fuels such as RME or HVO. As a conclusion Dr. Groß pointed out, that with the case of BEV the amount of new registered cars in recent year’s increases rapidly. On the one hand, this is due to the well developed infrastructure today, especially the increasing number of charging stations, and on the other hand to the increasing number of different models in different vehicle segments. In case of fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) at present, only a few cars are available in Europe. Most of the new registered FCEV are coming from Korea or Japan. In both cases, the core technology (battery and fuel cells) comes from outside Europe, as well as from Korea and Japan.
The Head of CEIAG (Careers, Education, Information, Advice and Guidance) at Abbey CBS, Annelise Reynolds, said: “The opportunity to hear from industry and research partners is the link between class based and work related learning which allows students to realise what is available to them in education and the wider world for their careers.”
GenComm Project Manager Paul McCormack who attended the presentation said : “The biggest barrier to driving transitions to the emerging low carbon economy is skills shortages. As we scale up the use of low carbon technologies especially in mobility, it requires people with the right set of skills to adapt them. The presentations by Dr Groß highlighted emerging technologies and provided information for the students to make informed choices in their future studies and careers.”
Green jobs help reduce negative environmental impact, ultimately leading to environmentally, economically and socially sustainable enterprises and economies. Green jobs also contribute to the reduction of energy consumption and use of raw materials, reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, minimisation of waste and pollution and protection of ecosystems.
Green skills are those skills needed to adapt products, services and processes to climate change and the related environmental requirements and regulations. They will be needed by all sectors especially in the transport sector as it transitions from fossil fuels to battery electric vehicles (BEV) and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) and at all levels in the workforce. | https://www.nweurope.eu/projects/project-search/gencomm-generating-energy-secure-communities/news/izes-presentation-empowering-students-for-h2-learning-pathway/ |
Download "TOSCA Project Final Report: Description of the Main S&T Results/Foregrounds"
5 TOSCA Project Final Report EC FP7 Project 1 1. Introduction Intra-European transportation generated nearly 25% of all energy-related EC-wide greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in 2010, up from 17% in With ongoing integration of the EU economy, this share is likely to continue to increase. At the same time, such growth in transportation-related GHG emissions is likely to jeopardize the EC s political goal of keeping the global average temperature rise below 2 degrees. The main objective of the TOSCA project is to identify the most promising technology and fuel pathways that could help reduce transport related GHG emissions through To better understand the policy interventions that are necessary to push these (more expensive) technologies and fuels into the market, TOSCA tested a range of promising policy measures under various scenario conditions. The outcomes in each case were then evaluated using different metrics. This report summarizes the TOSCA project results. It continues with assessing the techno-economic characteristics of major transport modes and fuels that are capable of reducing GHG emissions. Section 3 of this report integrates this assessment with a scenario analysis. Finally, section 4 evaluates a range of policy measures and their outcome on technology adoption and CO 2 emission mitigation along with other metrics. Given the numerous studies that underlie this report, reference is made to the work package reports in which all results are thoroughly described and referenced. 2. Techno-Economic Analysis of Transport Systems and Fuels In this step, a techno-economic analysis of major transport modes and fuels was conducted. The starting point is a reference technology, which represents the average new technology in place within the EU-27 states today. Against this baseline, the fuel efficiency improvement potential of alternative technologies and the associated costs are evaluated. Careful consideration is given to potential constraints and tradeoffs. To fully explore the technological potential for reducing GHG emissions, the opportunities for using alternative fuels are also explored. In addition, this analysis evaluates the level of R&D required to achieve technology readiness, the expected point in time when technology readiness is achieved, and several social and user related acceptability metrics, ranging from direct negative impacts such as higher levels of noise to desired ones such as the generation of jobs within the EC. Many of the inputs into these reports are derived from expert surveys, which were conducted by the respective WP1-5 teams. The range of systems that are studied include road vehicles 1 (WP1), aircraft (WP2), railways (WP3), transportation fuels (WP4), and intelligent transportation systems (WP5). In this techno-economic assessment, all calculations are based on social costs, thus ignoring fuel taxes and using a social discount rate of 4% when annualizing investment costs. In section 3 of this study, where consumer and industry decisions are modelled, discount rates appropriate for purchase decisions are used and fuel taxes are included. The carbon intensity of electricity is assumed to be 460 gco 2 equivalent per kwh, i.e., the average 2009 value at the end-use level. In contrast, carbon intensity of electricity is a scenario variable in sections 2 and 3 of this report. 1 Marine vehicles were also studied in WP1 but for brevity the results are omitted here (see WP1 report: Techno- Economic Analysis of Low-GHG Emission Marine Vessels).
6 TOSCA Project Final Report EC FP7 Project Road Vehicles Two reference passenger cars (gasoline and diesel) are selected as representative new vehicles sold in the EU-27 in The reference road freight transport vehicles represent urban delivery, interregional and long distance delivery trucks covering light, medium and heavy duty transport within the EU. The low-ghg emission technology and fuel options evaluated for these modes include Passenger cars Alternative fuels: bioethanol blend (E85) from wood feedstock, hydrogenated vegetable oil (HVO), biosynthetic natural gas (Bio SNG) Plug-in-hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) Battery electric vehicle (BEV) Fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle, with natural gas derived hydrogen (FC-HEV) Light duty trucks Hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) Fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle, with natural gas derived hydrogen (FC-HEV) Medium and heavy duty trucks Resistance reduction (Res. Red.) Idling reduction (Idle Red.) Alternative fuel: Hydrogenated Vegetable Oils (HVO) and biomass-to-liquids (BTL) The feasibility assessment of these technologies and fuels, which is based on expert questionnaire responses, is summarized in Table 1 (see WP1 reports for details). The advanced electric powertrain technologies for passenger cars and light trucks are estimated to achieve technological feasibility within the next 5 to 10 years under the assumption of significant to substantial R&D investments. In contrast, the technology options studied for medium and heavy duty trucks and marine vessels are generally wellestablished today and require insignificant R&D effort. Table 1 Technological Feasibility for Road Vehicles Passenger Cars Trucks Technology-Readiness R&D Requirements (to achieve technology readiness) Most likely LB UB Insignificant Significant Substantial (Company level) (EU-level) ICE Bioethanol blend (E85) X ICE Hydrogenated vegetable oil X ICE Biosynthetic natural gas X Plug-in-hybrid electric vehicle X Battery electric vehicle X Fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle X Resistance Reduction X Idling Reduction X ICE Hydrogenated vegetable oil X Upper bounds (UB) and lower bounds (LB) represent the inter-quartile range of questionnaire responses. R&D requirements for alternative fuels only consider the engine modification aspects (excluding the fuel production process).
7 TOSCA Project Final Report EC FP7 Project 3 Table 2 reports direct and lifecycle energy use and CO 2 emissions for alternative technology and fuel options for automobiles. A plug-in-hybrid electric vehicle delivering a 40 km electric range would reduce the direct vehicle energy consumption by around 50%. Even greater reductions in energy consumption in the order of 70% could be achieved through full battery electric powertrains. However, the associated fuel lifecycle CO 2 emissions strongly depend on the electricity generation mix. Similarly, fuel cell hybrid electric powertrains promise a large potential for reducing vehicle energy use, whereas lifecycle CO 2 emissions greatly depend on the hydrogen production pathway. Table 2 Passenger Car Energy Use and CO 2 Emissions at Technology Readiness Direct (Lifecycle) Energy Use MJ/100km 1,2 Direct (Lifecycle) CO 2 Emissions gco 2 -eq/km 3 Most likely LB UB Most likely LB UB Reference gasoline (235.5) (170.9) ICE Bioethanol blend (E85) (497.1) (439.9) (575.4) 28.8 (66.0) 25.6 (58.6) 33.4 (76.7) ICE Hydrogenated vegetable oil (289.2) (268.4) (289.3) 0 (79.9) 0 (73.9) 0 (79.7) ICE Biosynthetic natural gas (379.0) (336.8) (440.2) 0 (69.2) 0 (61.1) 0 (79.8) Plug-in-hybrid electric vehicle (202.7) (187.3) (59.1) 65.3 (103.9) 42.8 (99.3) 59.3 (137.4) Battery electric vehicle (158.1) 50.0 (154.0) 90.0 (277.2) 0 (64.2) 0 (63.8) 0 (115) Fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle (120.4) 70.0 (119.0) (204.0) 0 (72.5) 0 (71.4) 0 (122.4) 1 Energy use is based on the New European Driving Cycle assuming vehicle kerb weight. 2 Upper bounds (UB) and lower bounds (LB) represent the inter-quartile range of questionnaire responses. 3 Upstream energy use and CO 2 emissions are adopted from WP4 of the TOSCA project. 4 Plug-in-hybrid electric vehicles with 38% electric share using EU electricity mix with CO2 intensity of 460 g CO2-eq/kWh. 5 Hydrogen produced from natural gas is considered as the fuel option for fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle. The direct and fuel lifecycle energy use and CO 2 emissions of light-, medium- and heavy- duty vehicles with alternative technology or fuels are reported in Table 3. The fuel consumption characteristics refer to fully loaded conditions. Light-duty trucks could achieve an 8-10% reduction in fuel consumption by hybridization of the powertrain. In contrast, higher energy consumption savings up to around 55% could be gained with fuel cell hybrid electric powertrains. Continuous reductions in aerodynamic and rolling resistances can reduce the fuel consumption of medium and heavy duty trucks by 6.5% and 5.0%, respectively. In addition, auxiliary power units can reduce idling fuel consumption in heavy-duty trucks by about 5%. Table 3 Truck Energy Use and CO 2 Emissions at Technology Readiness Direct (Lifecycle) Energy Use MJ/1000 tkm Direct (Lifecycle) CO 2 Emissions 1 gco 2 -eq/tkm Reference light duty truck 3,425 (4,110) (304.9) Hybrid electric vehicle 3,131 (3,757) (278.7) Fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle 2 1,538 (2,614) 0 (156.9) Reference medium duty truck 710 (852) 53.1 (63.2) Resistance reduction 664 (797) 49.7 (59.0) ICE Hydrogenated vegetable oil 710 (1,278) 0 (35.2) Reference heavy duty truck (630) 39.3 (46.7) Resistance redution 490 (588) 36.7 (43.9) Idling reduction 501 (601) 37.5 (44.5) 1 Lifecycle CO2 emissions refer to fully loaded condition. 2 Fuel cell vehicles are fuelled with compressed hydrogen from natural gas. 3 Reference heavy-duty truck energy use and CO2 emissions include an average of 8 hours idling per day.
8 TOSCA Project Final Report EC FP7 Project 4 The economic assessment of the technology and fuel options accounts for operating costs, the break-even oil price and CO 2 mitigation costs (Table 4). The estimates carried out suggest that application of alternative fuels such as bioethanol, HVO and synthetic natural gas could be cost-effective at oil prices of per bbl. Advanced powertrain options based on batteries and fuel cells could be cost effective at higher oil prices of per bbl. Although the CO 2 emission mitigation costs for battery and fuel cell vehicles are comparable, the mitigation costs for the former can decrease significantly once less carbonintensive electricity is supplied. In Table 4, the carbon intensity of the average European electricity mix is considered. Table 4 Cost Characteristics of Alternative Car Technology and Fuels at Technology Readiness Operating Costs (incl. Fuel) /km Break-Even Oil Price /bbl Mitigation Costs /ton CO 2 -eq Reference gasoline 23.8 (26.5) ICE Bioethanol blend (E85) 24.0 (29.1) ICE Hydrogenated vegetable oil 25.9 (29.2) ICE Biosynthetic natural gas 27.2 (30.3) Plug-in-hybrid electric vehicle 27.8 (31.7) Battery electric vehicle 29.6 (33.6) Fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle 29.7 (32.4) Operating costs include capital costs, insurance and running costs (i.e., expenditure on maintenance, repair, replacement of parts, service labour, tires, parking and tolls) over 15,000 km annual driving distance. A discount rate of 4% was assumed. Fuel costs exclude taxes. Break-even oil prices and mitigation costs include fuel costs (excluding gasoline and diesel tax) over 15,000 km annual driving distance. Table 5 shows the cost characteristics of technology and fuel options for road freight transport vehicles. The studied technology options are cost effective at an oil price range of per bbl and reflect mitigation costs between ton of CO 2 equivalent. Table 5 Cost Characteristics of Alternative Truck Technology and Fuels at Technology Readiness Operating Costs (incl. Fuel) /tkm Break-even Oil Price /bbl Mitigation Costs /ton CO 2 -eq Reference light truck 22.8 (27.4) Hybrid electric vehicle 24.5 (28.3) Fuel cell hybrid electric vehicle 27.0 (29.3) Reference medium truck 2.3 (3.3) Resistance reduction 2.4 (3.3) ICE hydrogenated vegetable oil 2.3 (3.8) Reference heavy truck 0.6 (1.4) Resistance reduction 0.7 (1.3) 11 <0 Idling reduction 0.7 (1.4) Operating costs include capital costs, insurance and running costs (i.e., expenditure on maintenance, repair, replacement of parts, service labour, tires, parking and tolls), over 100,000 km annual driving distance. A discount rate of 4% was assumed. Fuel costs exclude taxes. Break-even oil prices and mitigation costs include fuel for 18,000, 45,000 and 100,000 kilometre annual driving distance for light, medium and heavy duty trucks, respectively.
10 TOSCA Project Final Report EC FP7 Project 6 Table 7 reports direct and lifecycle energy use by and CO 2 emissions from all considered aircraft. All energy use and CO 2 emission figures relate to a great circle distance of 983 km, the average stage length in Intra-European passenger air transport in 2005 (the well-to-tank figures are derived from the TOSCA WP4 report). An evolutionary design narrow-body aircraft with a carbon fiber composite-intensive airframe could reduce energy use and CO 2 emissions relative to current generation vehicles by about 17-22%, depending on advances in structural weight, aerodynamic efficiency, and engine technology. Even greater reductions in the region of 31-45%, could be achieved by replacing turbofan engines with OR units, the higher values applying if lower cruising speeds can be accepted. Benefits well in excess of 13% are achievable without any technological development whatsoever if flights under 1,000 km currently made by narrow-body turbofan aircraft are carried out instead by turboprops (at comparable load factors). A replacement turboprop might increase this potential to values in excess of 43-47%, at minimal technological risk. If taking into account second generation biofuels produced from cellulosic material, fuel lifecycle CO 2 emissions would decline by some 60% for all aircraft. Finally, advanced air traffic management systems have the potential to reduce energy use and CO 2 emissions from all aircraft designs by another 5-11%. Table 7 Aircraft Energy Use and CO 2 Emissions at Technology Readiness Direct (Lifecycle) Energy Use, MJ/pkm Direct (Lifecycle) CO 2 Emissions, gco 2 /pkm Most Likely LB UB Most Likely LB UB Narrowbody Reference 1.04 (1.26) 76.0 (92.0) Narrowbody Replacement 0.81 (0.98) 0.81 (0.98) 0.87 (1.05) 59.2 (71.6) 59.2 (71.6) 62.9 (76.1) Fast Open Rotor 0.67 (0.81) 0.67 (0.81) 0.71 (0.86) 48.8 (59.0) 48.8 (48.8) 51.8 (62.7) Reduced-Speed Open Rotor 0.58 (0.70) 0.58 (0.70) 0.61 (0.74) 41.9 (50.7) 41.9 (50.7) 44.5 (53.8) Turboprop Reference 0.90 (1.09) 51.5 (62.3) Turboprop Replacement 0.55 (0.67) 0.55 (0.67) 0.59 (0.71) 40.1 (48.5) 40.1 (48.5) 42.5 (51.4) No flight inefficiencies are considered. All flights have great circle distance of 983km and a passenger load factor 80%. From an economic perspective, most of these reductions seem to be manageable. Our rough cost analysis suggests that the Narrowbody Replacement Aircraft would be cost-effective, relative to the Reference Narrowbody, at current oil prices and below. The Fast OR Aircraft may be cost-effective at oil prices starting at 31 per bbl, but the upper bound of our uncertainty range would require an oil price of 147 to achieve cost-effectiveness. The lower fuel burn of the Reduced-Speed OR is offset by its slightly higher DOC figure, so its oil price range for cost-effectiveness is comparable. The Turboprop Replacement Aircraft has an estimated break-even oil price of 55 per bbl, although this figure would be lowered (via reduced acquisition costs) if the type s market share were to increase in future. See Table 8 for details.
12 TOSCA Project Final Report EC FP7 Project 8 Combination of measures above + higher speed Low-carbon electric power + combination as above Passenger Trains Four reference trains are defined, with representative top speeds, load factors, market shares (EU-27), and GHG emissions per passenger-kilometre (pkm). These include high-speed trains (20% market share), an electric intercity train (43%), a diesel-fueled intercity motor coach (12%), and an electric city train (25%). Table 9 reports the technological feasibility and characteristics of the considered future passenger train technologies and measures. Table 9 Technological Feasibility for Passenger Trains Technology-Readiness Most Likely LB UB Insignificant R&D Requirements (to achieve technology-readiness) Significant (Company-Level) Substantial (EU-Level) Low drag X Low mass X Energy recovery X Space efficiency X Eco driving X Energy efficiency Continuous X Low-carbon electric power X Table 10 reports energy use (at public grid) and lifecycle CO 2 -eq emissions as a weighted average of all considered passenger trains, with market share and load factors as in Table 10 Passenger Train Energy Use and CO 2 Emissions in 2050 Energy Use MJ/pkm Lifecycle GHG Emissions 3 gco 2 -eq/pkm Most Likely LB UB Most Likely LB UB Reference average electric train Low drag Low mass Energy recovery Space efficiency Eco-driving Energy efficiency Combination + higher speed Low-carbon el power 1 + combination Reference diesel train Combination of six measures Energy use at public electric grid or train fuel tank. 1 Carbon content of electricity tentatively reduced by 80% compared to 2009 levels. Lower bound of GHG corresponds to 80% reduction, while upper bound corresponds to 60%. 2 High-speed trains are assumed to increase representative top speed from 300 to 370 km/h; intercity trains from 160 to 230 km/h; city trains from 140 to 165 km/h; diesel trains no change. 3 Note: GHG emissions are estimated as fuel lifecycle emissions. For diesel-fuelled trains fuel lifecycle emissions are approximately 20% higher than direct emissions.
13 TOSCA Project Final Report EC FP7 Project 9 Table 11 reports cost characteristics of the studied technologies and measures as an average of all considered electric passenger trains. Table 11 Cost Characteristics of Alternative Electric Passenger Rail Technologies Operating Costs (incl. Fuel) 1, (2009)/pkm Break-Even Electr. Price /kwh Most likely LB UB Most Likely Low drag 9.2 (10.0) 8.1 (8.9) 10.3 (11.1) 10 Low mass 9.2 (10.1) 8.1 (8.9) 10.3 (11.1) 5 Energy recovery 8.9 (9.7) 7.9 (8.6) 10.0 (10.8) <0 2 Space efficiency 8.3 (9.0) 7.2 (7.9) 9.4 (10.1) <0 2 Eco-driving 9.0 (9.7) 7.9 (8.7) 10.1 (10.8) <0 2 Combination + higher speed 8.1 (8.6) 7.0 (7.5) 9.2 (9.6) <0 2 Reference average electric train 9.1 (10.0) 8.1 (8.9) 10.2 (11.0) 9.1 Operating cost includes capital cost, maintenance, crew, charges for track+stations+dispatch, train formation, sales and administration. The 2009 cost structure is assumed, i.e., no improvement of load factors, crew utilization, train maintenance, etc. Long-term capital cost is 4% per year of initial investment. Tonnage-dependent track charges are per gross tkm. Train crew cost is 100 per time-tabled hour for drivers and 70 per hour for others. 1 Electricity price excludes taxes. 2 Negative break-even prices should be interpreted as a beneficial technology with respect to operating cost, also if energy cost is excluded. According to Tables 10 and 11, the most promising technologies are Eco-driving and Energy recovery (electricity regeneration when braking), as these measures are relatively inexpensive to implement. Space efficiency (more seats per meter of train) is very efficient both in terms of GHG emissions and operating cost (8-10% non-energy cost reduction). Low drag will likely be introduced in most passenger trains. Low mass is important in stopping trains (commuter and metro), but may require additional incentives to be introduced on a large scale. City trains with tight stops have the highest potential for improvement, if increased energy recovery at braking and eco-driving techniques are systematically applied. High-speed trains are expected to have the lowest cost, energy use and GHG emissions per pkm, due to their high average load factor and superior aerodynamics. The combination of the six technologies results in average energy and GHG emission reductions of 45-50%, assuming a constant load factor and the same GHG content of electricity (or liquid fuels) as in If GHG emissions are reduced by 60-80% for future average European electricity, rail GHG emissions are estimated to reach 4-11 gco 2 -eq per pkm in electric passenger trains. All electric passenger trains are assumed to have 20-40% higher top speeds by 2050 than year-2009 values, while those of diesel trains remain unchanged. The evaluated technologies are expected to be generally well accepted. However, space efficiency must be improved in a careful way in order not to be detrimental to passenger comfort. A considerable mode shift to rail - and thus realizing the benefit of low GHG emissions for rail in comparison to other modes - would need investment, in particular in rail infrastructure.
14 TOSCA Project Final Report EC FP7 Project 10 Freight Trains Four reference trains are defined, with representative train mass, load factor, market share (EU-27) as well as GHG emissions per net tonne-kilometre (tkm). These trains consist of an electrically propelled ordinary freight train (65% market share), diesel-fueled ordinary freight train (15%), an intermodal electric freight train (19%), and a high value freight train (1%). Table 12 reports the technological feasibility and characteristics of the considered future freight train technologies and measures. Table 12 Technological Feasibility for Freight Trains Technology-readiness Most Likely LB UB Insignificant R&D requirements (to achieve technology-readiness) Significant (Company-Level) Substantial (EU-Level) Low drag X Low mass X Energy recovery X Heavy freight X Eco driving X Energy efficiency Continuous X Low-carbon electric power X Table 13 reports energy use (at public grid) and lifecycle CO 2 -eq emissions as a weighted average of all considered freight trains, with market share and load factors as in Table 13 Freight Train Energy Use and CO 2 Emissions in 2050 Energy Use MJ/net-tkm Lifecycle GHG Emissions 1,3 gco 2 -eq/net-tkm Most Likely LB UB Most Likely LB UB Reference average electric train Low drag Low mass Energy recovery Heavy freight Eco-driving Energy efficiency Combination + higher speed Low-carbon el power a + combination Reference diesel train Combination of six measures Energy use at public electric grid or train fuel tank. 1 Carbon content of electricity tentatively reduced by 80% compared to 2009 levels. Lower bound of GHG corresponds to 80% reduction, while upper bound corresponds to 60%. 2 Ordinary electric freight trains are assumed to increase representative top speed from 90 to 105 km/h; intermodal trains from 100 to 120 km/h; diesel trains and high-value freight trains are assumed to maintain present top speeds. 3 GHG emissions are estimated as lifecycle emissions. For diesel fuelled trains, lifecycle emissions are approximately 20% higher than direct emissions.
17 TOSCA Project Final Report EC FP7 Project 13 fuel. As can be seen, the most promising fuels are wood-based ethanol and BTL. Hydrogen is not shown in this table because of the challenges associated with fuel distribution and storage. Table 16 Lifecycle Energy Use and GHG Emissions for Transportation Fuels at Technology Readiness Fuel Energy use (MJ/MJ fuel ) GHG emissions (gco 2-eq. /MJ fuel ) Total LB UB Renewable Upstream LB UB Direct Lifecycle Gasoline Diesel Jet A Electricity mix (Europe, 2009) * Heavy fuel oil Bioethanol (wood) Bio-SNG (wood) BTL (wood) # CNG HVO Biofuels have by definition zero direct CO 2 emissions, as they will be absorbed by the next generation of energy crops; * per kwh (estimate based on 2007 figures); # UB and LB based on literature estimates. GHG emissions include CO 2, methane (CH 4 ) and nitrous oxides (N 2 O). Table 17 reports the various cost elements associated with the production and distribution of the alternative fuels shown in Table 16. Also shown are mitigation costs compared to the respective reference fuel and the feedstock break-even costs. GHG mitigation costs include lifecycle emissions. Negative values mean that the alternative option provides GHG emission reductions at a lower cost than the reference fuel. Table 17 Cost Characteristics of Transportation Fuels at Technology Readiness Production Costs Distribution Costs Mitigation Costs Break-Even Costs (2009)/GJ Fuel fuel (2009)/GJ fuel (2009)/tonCO 2-eq (2009)/ton feedstock Most Most UB LB UB LB Most likely Most likely likely likely Gasoline Diesel Jet A Electricity Mix (Europe, 2009) Heavy fuel oil Bioethanol (Wood) Bio-SNG (Wood) (130 3 ) 1 BTL (Wood) CNG < 0 (< 0 3 ) - HVO Underlying oil price = US$75/bbl. 2 Excluding refuelling costs (approx. 2.3/GJ). 3 Including refuelling costs. 4 (2009)/100kWh. 5 Based on historical trend.
SUMMARY OF METHODOLOGICAL CHOICES Key methodological choices for the transport refinement project have been discussed extensively in the past months with various industry and non-industry representatives.
Automotive LCAs J. L. Sullivan Argonne National Laboratory Energy Systems Division Argonne National Laboratory When Did It All Start In the early 90 s, fuel economy improvements were an imperative. Why?
e-bio Fuel-Cell Mikio MATSUMOTO Expert Leader, EV System Laboratory, Research Center Nissan Motor Co., Ltd.
Completing a Municipal Carbon Footprint requires an accounting-like inventory of all the sources of GHG in your buildings, fleet, and operations.
Data, tables, statistics and maps ENERGY STATISTICS 215 CONTENTS At a glance 3 www.ens.dk Please feel free to visit the Danish Energy Agency s website for statistics and data www.ens.dk/facts_figures.
This paper outlines the carbon footprint and greenhouse gas assessment for HS2 Phase One. | http://businessdocbox.com/Green_Solutions/65512875-Tosca-project-final-report-description-of-the-main-s-t-results-foregrounds.html |
BRUSSELS, Belgium, August 31, 2016 (ENS) – The accelerating global shift towards low-carbon, circular economies has started, driving Europe’s need to accelerate the transition towards low-emission and zero-emission vehicles – a central pillar of the European Commission’s new mobility strategy.
Speeding up the deployment of advanced biofuels, electricity, hydrogen and renewable synthetic fuels and removing obstacles to the electrification of transport is another pillar forming the structure of the new strategy.
Increasing the efficiency of the entire transport system through digital technologies, smart pricing and further encouraging the shift to lower emission transport modes.
Announced in July in a Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, the new strategy is intended to ensure Europe stays competitive and responsive to the increasing mobility needs of people and goods.
The low-emission mobility strategy “should be seen as one of the tools to modernise the European economy and strengthen its Internal Market,” the Commission said in a statement on July 20.
The Commission is looking into better synergies between the energy and transport systems to make charging of electric vehicles easier and more efficient.
In accordance with Directive on alternative fuel infrastructure , Member States are required to implement common standards, including a common plug for electric vehicles, and roll out infrastructure for alternative fuels.
In co-operation with Member States and the European Standardisation Organisations, the work on better interoperability and standardization for electro-mobility continues.
The Commission said it intends to develop a method for easy price comparison of electricity and other conventional and alternative fuels.
The Commission has already implemented some important improvements on how vehicle emissions are measured and verified. “This is a necessary precondition to ensure that standards have an impact and that consumers can trust them,” said the Commission in the wake of the VW defeat device scandal last year, during which the automaker was caught cheating on emissions tests in the United States.
Emissions from conventional combustion engines will need to be further reduced after 2020, so the Commission is working on post-2020 standards for cars and vans.
Together with this new strategy, the Commission is launching a public consultation to revise the current legislative framework for post-2020 emissions standards for cars and vans.
The Commission is working on improving customer information, reviewing the Car Labelling Directive and the incentives in public procurement rules, in the context of a revision of the Clean Vehicles Directive.
This can be a powerful tool to support deployment, for example, of zero-emission city buses.
The Commission will accelerate work to curb carbon dioxide emissions from lorries, or heavy haul freight trucks, buses and coaches. They currently represent around a quarter of road transport carbon dioxide emissions and their share is projected to grow.
While lorries, buses and coaches have been subject to similar air pollution standards as cars and vans, and are now required to meet them under real driving conditions, the EU has neither fuel efficiency standards for them, nor a system to monitor their carbon dioxide emissions.
Other parts of the world, such as the United States, China, Japan and Canada, have already introduced standards, and some European auto manufacturers participate in these schemes.
Together with this strategy, the Commission invites participation in a public consultation, which focuses on monitoring and reporting of emissions, but also seeks first feedback on standards.
Copyright Environment News Service (ENS) 2016. All rights reserved.
Environment News Service (ENS) © 2016 All Rights Reserved. | https://ens-newswire.com/europe-charts-new-strategy-for-low-emission-mobility/ |
The Australian road vehicles, including conventional internal combustion engine running on petrol or diesel, is considered one of the main sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and environmental air pollution globally. Any methods that could be developed to improve environmental performance, thereby reducing GHG emissions, energy demand, particulate matter and human toxicity from vehicle emissions, can greatly benefit society globally. With the advent of alternative fuels and vehicles, new methods to evaluate their environmental benefits need to be developed. Life cycle assessment (LCA) has gone a long way to ensure that environmental evaluations of all types of vehicles and fuels are performed on a consistent, whole-of-life basis. However, a rigorous analysis of the input data for these LCA evaluations, plus their relatability and sensitivity to the results produced, needs to be undertaken to ensure that society, industry and government can make informed decisions based on the analysis of sound and reliable data. This thesis aims to:
1. examine the GHG emissions, particulate matter and human toxicity-cancer and non-cancer of transportation over a vehicle’s lifetime using the life cycle assessment (LCA) method
2. examine the uncertainty of the input data for LCA evaluations
3. examine the sensitivity of the input data for LCA evaluations
4. apply the results from 1– 3 to a case study
5. make recommendations regarding how LCA can be used to evaluate conventional and alternative vehicle types to ensure a reduction of GHG and toxic emissions.
Internal combustion engine vehicle exhaust emissions are regulated by governments worldwide, and due to this important point, the environmental impact assessment of transportation, including passenger vehicles, public transport buses and heavy-duty truck vehicles is examined over vehicles’ lifetimes. Given the recent uptake of alternative vehicles and fuels, there is now a requirement for vehicles’ environmental impact to be examined over its lifetime. This thesis examines the environmental impact assessment of the road transport sector in Australia. Decision-makers should heed LCA methods in order to reduce the total effect of vehicle exhaust emissions on the environment and human health.
The LCA SimaPro software by PRe´ Consultants has been used to estimate the life cycle energy use and emissions of road transportation using the Australian National Life Cycle Inventory Database (AusLCI). Also, where possible, the case studies developed used Australian emissions sources, detailing the fuel pathway, tailpipe emissions, vehicle manufacture, vehicle maintenance and vehicle disposal over a vehicle’s lifetime, as input for the LCA.
The thesis results indicate that advanced vehicle technologies and vehicles powered by alternative fuels are reducing energy use and emissions by 80%–90% compared to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles that are running on petrol or low sulphur diesel (LSD). Also, the results show that for most vehicles the major contributor to LCA energy use (ranging from 70%–90% of total LCA emissions) occurs during the vehicle operation phase. However, the contribution of the vehicles’ manufacture phase for advanced vehicle technologies is higher (up to 90% of total LCA emissions). Furthermore, although battery electric vehicles have zero tailpipe emissions, the power supply generation creates significant emissions to the environment because electricity is usually generated from non-renewable energy sources (fossil fuels) in Australia.
Additionally, biofuel vehicle LCA results reveal that high biofuel blends, including E85 and pure biodiesel, may be worse options due to the need to change the powertrain design. Consequently, the use of low biofuel blends, including E10 and BD5, is recommended to achieve lower vehicle exhaust emissions without changing the engine design.
In the case of vehicles’ environmental rating, the results indicate that advanced vehicles or vehicles powered by alternative fuels have higher overall ratings or stars (indicating a high ranking), while conventional vehicles have lower scores (indicating a low ranking).
Furthermore, this thesis uses the environmental impact of public buses (Department of Planning Transport and Infrastructure [DPTI] Trial Buses) in the city of Adelaide, South Australia as a case study. The results indicate that the 1905/micro hybrid bus uses significantly less energy and produces fewer GHG emissions and less air pollution compared to other bus models, including the conventional LSD bus, due to many factors, including low fuel usage, high engine efficiency, the driving cycle and driver skills/behaviour.
In addition, in order to demonstrate the accuracy and reliability of the data and methods used to model LCA, this thesis used sensitivity and uncertainty analysis techniques to ensure that the input data was sound and thus able to produce reliable LCA results. The results show that the data used to build LCA human toxicity-cancer and non-cancer is the most unreliable. Moreover, the study used sensitivity analysis to examine how these parameters impact the outcomes. The analyses also show that many parameters, including vehicle occupancy rate, fuel consumption, distance travelled, vehicle manufacture, average load and electricity consumption, significantly impact all LCA results.
Finally, regarding direction for future research, the life cycle of automotive technology should include fuel production, vehicle manufacture, operations and maintenance of the vehicle throughout its lifetime, in addition to scrappage and recycling. The case of an automobile using a new fuel, such as electricity, resulting in little to no air pollution per kilometre travelled but that has much higher environmental impacts when the vehicle is scrapped or recycled, demonstrates why LCA is essential.
Hence, an important objective of this thesis is to make the LCA process transparent and usable for policy analysts. This is important thanks to the advent of new information, and as future technologies develop, LCA needs to be robust and trusted to provide reliable results. | https://theses.flinders.edu.au/view/9ed1e729-6fc3-4a17-82f5-effe0fc2f3f4/1 |
In this episode of The LeXFactor, a lawfully good podcast, Lexicon Brand Manager Lauren Hoffman and CIO Brad Paubel welcome back for a return visit Belinda J. Dantley, Esq., Director for Inclusion and Diversity Education, Professor of Child Advocacy, Saint Louis University School of Law, in addressing how law firms need to showcase their commitment to attracting and retaining diverse talent.
Ms. Dantley provides frank and direct commentary on how law firms need to compete in attracting legal talent during this day and age of socially-conscious professionals – whether it’s those fresh out of law school or attorneys with years of experience.
Belinda details what it means and takes to create inclusive cultures that encompass experiences of people of color; and then implementing “tricks of the trade” such as stay interviews and climate surveys in creating or sustaining a diverse, equitable and inclusiveness culture – download and tune-in now! | https://lexiconservices.com/resources/strategies-for-retaining-diverse-talent-must-address-and-be-diverse-the-lexfactor/ |
The Showcase Gullion’s heritage project is implemented through The Ring of Gullion Landscape Partnership Scheme. The LPS is part of the Heritage Lottery Fund’s programme to conserve and enhance some of the region’s most treasured landscapes. The LPS runs from September 2015 until August 2018.
The total budget for this project is £7,800
This project aims to enable young local musicians to visit other music groups in Ireland and abroad in order to develop their repertoire of tunes from different areas and be exposed to a variety of musical styles so as to enhance the development of their own musical style. The project will allow these young musicians to meet and forge relationships with other young musicians, experience and foster respect for music from the other traditions and cultures of Northern Ireland as well as other cultures from different countries. This project will also help to equip them with the skills and personal capabilities to deal with the challenges of living in an increasingly diverse and complex society. The project will deliver on these aims by developing an exchange programme with other music groups and performing at an event once a year.
To view the full project plan please download the Ring of Gullion Landscape Conservation Action Plan below. | https://www.ringofgullion.org/projects/showcase-gullions-heritage/ |
Diversity & Inclusion
Our focus on inclusion and diversity nurtures the best ideas and attracts the best talent around the globe to help us achieve our purpose to Grow Our World from the Ground Up.
At Nutrien, we are committed to cultivating a respectful and inclusive workplace where we all belong. Bring your full self to work and know that the differences that make each of us unique are respected and valued.
Diverse perspectives propel innovation and creativity. Inclusion and diversity are essential to how we help deliver on our strategy and feed the future.
Join our team of more than 20,000 employees from a variety of experiences, cultures, beliefs and backgrounds. Grow your career with Nutrien
Connecting Employees
To drive diversity and inclusion activities, Nutrien proudly supports a variety of Employee Resource Groups - voluntary, employee-led D&I efforts designed to serve under-represented employee populations and create a more inclusive workplace. | https://www.nutrien.com/careers/diversity-inclusion |
WE ARE HERE TO CREATE CHANGE AND INSPIRE YOU TO JOIN US!
Our story
Vision& Values
Our campaign aims to encourage people from minoritised backgrounds to enter the field of Psychology and see themselves making it into Clinical Psychology. We would like to make the field more inclusive, diverse and representative of the clients we see within the mental health system. We hope to tackle some of the barriers those in services have named as the reasons they may not engage with mental health services such as communication barriers, therapists not fully understanding the impact of race, discrimination and stigma, and also taking into account cultural differences in mental health experiences . We would be keen to hear others’ stories and identify/recognise barriers of which we may not already be aware of.
We also hope to involve professionals within the field in our campaign, to become allies, to help us think collaboratively about these issues in a broader context and help us challenge practises within the field, that do not match the ever-growing diverse society in which we live . This would include having a diverse interview panel for the Clinical Psychology Doctorate programmes, seeing more diverse faces within the field in the hopes of encouraging generations to come to view Clinical Psychology as career option. Ultimately, we hope to build and continue to develop an inclusive workforce that considers the needs of all, including psychological models becoming more culturally inclusive.
The Team
We are a team within the field of Psychology, trying to make Clinical Psychology more diverse.
Annie Phiri
I am passionate about creating a space where people from all races and cultures can find healing. Diversity in Clinical Psychology is important because it will allow the field to become more culturally adaptive and give access to services that reflect different cultures and personal identities. Traditional talking therapies may not be fully representative of cultural needs or create environments where people can feel understood and seen. Creating diversity in the field will help to bring greater understanding to issues faced by marginalised communities.
Rufus May
I have worked in Mental health as a psychologist since 1998. I am passionate about making psychology more accessible and relevant to people from different social and cultural backgrounds. My experiences of being a service user in Hackney Hospital when I was 18 made me aware of the over representation of black people in mental health services and the need to find and support approaches that address this.
Uzair Javid
I’m passionate about making clinical psychology more diverse and accessible to minoritised communities. I hope being involved in this journey can be a way of having more open and honest conversations around systemic racism, oppression, and social inequality and how this can impact on difficulties with mental health. I would like to see increased diversity from underrepresented groups such as minoritised backgrounds, social class, and gender to name a few. Making psychology more appealing and inclusive to the communities and people we see. I want the field of Psychology to take into consideration the narrative of people’s experience of culture, race, and religion when finding meaning and creating understating
Kate Porter
Our lives and the paths we take are shaped by the stories we tell about ourselves. I am passionate about supporting people to tell and retell the stories of their lives that are in line with their preferred identity, their culture and what they give value to. My involvement with this project is based on a hope that Clinical Psychology honors and acknowledges that people’s lives are multi-storied, are rich and diverse and that these stories can be told in a variety of ways.
Adrian Lawrence
I am passionate about cultural representation. In my own spoken word band I had made a point of trying to find players across various cultures and was determined to have gender also represented. As a black male welding ‘exotic’ alloys, I have yet to see the representation in engineering that I sought out within my band. I look forwarding to helping usher in change. | https://www.letsfacechange.com/copy-of-who-we-are |
Ethical Boardroom published a bylined article, “Leading by example,” authored by Russell Reynolds Associates Consultant David Mills. In it, he explains that creating a truly inclusive environment begins at the top. The article is excerpted below.
The case for diversity in corporate leadership has never been stronger and steady advances towards diverse representation are becoming increasingly noticeable.
However, the pace of such progress lags too far behind the challenges that businesses and society face – a clear indicator that there remains much to be done.
“In a world that is changing at a faster rate than ever before, a variety of sensors are essential to enable businesses to effectively interpret different signals, both mitigating risk and seizing opportunity.” FTSE 100, CEO
In most countries, women occupy fewer than 20
per cent of executive roles; and ethnic minorities, even fewer. Boards fare marginally better. Increasingly clear is that simply hiring diverse employees is not enough to create business value. To fully
capitalise on the opportunities that diversity presents, leaders must work to create an inclusive culture that allows employees at every level to contribute their unique perspectives and
maximise their potential.
“We live in a world of exponential change, so it is absolutely critical that organisations have diverse points of view. And yet, despite the speed at which the world is moving, progress toward gender parity is incredibly slow.” FTSE 100 executive director
Research by Russell Reynolds Associates reveals that an organisation’s most senior leaders – CEOs, chairs and board members – play pivotal roles in creating inclusive cultures, irrespective of their own diversity. In our inaugural Diversity and Inclusion (D&I) Pulse Survey, we polled more than 2,100 executives on their employer’s diversity and inclusion efforts and individual perceptions and experiences within the workplace. One of the most striking findings was that when senior leadership (namely, the board and executive committee) champions D&I, key human capital outcomes improve. This conclusion was matched by the 57 interviews with senior leaders in 18 countries across the world, who consistently emphasised the role that the chair and CEO can play in driving D&I.
To read the full article, click here. | https://www.russellreynolds.com/newsroom/leading-by-example |
ABOUT THE PROJECT
OUR MISSION is to foster community through engaging chamber music experiences.
OUR VISION is to share our passion for and belief in the creative process as a life-enriching tool. We are committed to building community through shared concert experiences and the development of innovative and integrated educational experiences.
Founded in the spring of 2018, the Carya String Quartet is a Houston-based ensemble dedicated to performing string quartet repertoire new and old from around the world. Drawn together by Houston’s international and inclusive arts culture, the members- Eugeniu Cheremoush, Laura Cividino, Sonya Matoussova, and Rainey Weber- hail from Moldova, Italy, Russia and Canada, and the United States, respectively. They bring their individual experiences as performers and teaching artists to create inclusive concerts and innovative educational programming, targeting students grades K-12. Through their repertoire, which spans over 200 years, they hope to link the past and the present as they connect the diverse generations that make up their audience. | https://fresharts.org/carya-string-quartet/ |
In this classroom clip, Albuquerque teacher Clara Gonzales-Espinoza introduces a character study of Cinderella by sharing a number of diverse versions of the Cinderella story, chosen to reflect the cultures of her students.
Introducing different versions of "Cinderella"
Clara describes other international versions of the story that students would have access to, based on students' cultures.
What differences do you see in the standards from one grade to the next?
How would you modify this Grade 4 lesson if you wanted to use it with Grade 5 students?
Note from Common Core introduction: Students who are college and career ready come to understand other perspectives and cultures.
In this classroom clip, Albuquerque teacher Clara Gonzales-Espinoza introduces a character study of Cinderella by sharing a number of different versions of the Cinderella story, chosen to reflect the cultures of her students.
Strategies for helping ELLs strengthen their oral language skills and confidence in front of classmates.
An overview of strategies that can be used in reading instruction for ELLs when teaching vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension.
Strategies for building background knowledge, selecting key vocabulary words, and checking comprehension.
Ideas for building upon ELLs' strengths and experiences, fostering a welcoming and inclusive environment for all students, and celebrating diversity through children's literature.
Clara describes the focus on character in the Cinderella lesson plan.
In these interviews, our featured authors discuss the importance of finding your heritage in children's literature. | http://colorincolorado.org/classroom-video/introducing-different-versions-cinderella |
Selecting culturally responsive reading materials, including multicultural and diverse texts, is critical for supporting all students. Diverse texts should reflect different facets of students' identities, including but not limited to race, gender, socioeconomic, and disability status, as well as the intersections of those identities. Engaging with texts that reflect the diverse experiences of all students allows each reader to connect with and see themselves in what they read, encouraging a sense of belonging. Diverse content also exposes students to perspectives that may be different from theirs, expanding their cultural awareness and Background Knowledge. It is important that texts go beyond surface-level diversity and engage with complex social issues to truly support the practice of culturally responsive teaching and the development of critical literacy skills.
Learn how these educators conducted an audit of their elementary classroom libraries to create a collection of diverse, representative texts. By providing rich choices that are mirrors and windows into other cultures, students are able to develop a greater sense of their own identities and widen their viewpoints.
Videos are chosen as examples of strategies in action. These choices are not endorsements of the products or evidence of use of research to develop the feature.
Learn how OurStory allows learners to discover books that celebrate diverse experiences. Through an interactive quiz, learners can explore and read a variety of titles that might interest them.
Multicultural/Culturally Responsive Books
Extensive list of diverse books, including ones to improve inclusivity in instruction
Pitfalls to Avoid in Diversifying Library
Lessons to critically assess diverse literature and its messages
Cultivating Genius
Free CE-credit webinar on building Critical Literacy skills using culturally responsive pedagogy
Social Awareness
A free microcredential to support students' social awareness
Stereotype Threat
Free CE-credit webinar discussing strategies to combat Stereotype Threat in marginalized communities
Importance of Diversity
Research behind the benefits of diversity in library collections and programs
Culturally Responsive Curriculum Scorecards
Rubrics from NYU to evaluate curriculum and teaching materials for culturally responsive components
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Rooted in tradition, prepared for the future.
Grounded in our legacy, JCSU chooses to be inclusive rather than exclusive. A diverse HBCU means that our students and faculty come from a variety of origins, fields of study and personal beliefs.
As the world becomes more connected, our country, our state and even the city of Charlotte has become a melting pot of different cultures. At JCSU, you'll study with like-minded students who are ambitious and driven to be successful - just like you. You'll be able to expand your horizons and learn from your classmates who come from different backgrounds.
Study with people from across the country and around the world.
Our students represent a diverse mix of places, cultures, backgrounds and beliefs. We have students coming from up and down the East Coast and all over the country, including:
- North and South Carolina
- Washington, D.C.
- Maryland
- Pennsylvania
- New York
- New Jersey
International students represent nearly 10% of our current student body. We expect and hope that number continues to grow.
Professors with a global perspective.
Our expert faculty and professional staff come from diverse countries and cultures from all over the world. Faculty come to the classroom with not only extensive knowledge in their field, but also rich international experiences to share. You’ll be exposed to new cultures and ways of thinking, as well as experiences that will position you for success in your life and career.
At JCSU, we employ faculty from:
- India
- Egypt
- Europe
- South America
Go Global!
JCSU actively encourages our students to learn about, and explore firsthand, other cultures and countries. As part of JCSU’s Go Global! initiative, every student gets a passport with admission to the university.
Imagine earning credit hours on location in places like Italy, Egypt, Israel, the West Caribbean or South Africa. Each summer, we offer two-week study abroad programs where you get to do just that.
The information on this page is maintained by the Admissions Department. For more information or questions please contact them directly at 704.378.1010. | https://www.jcsu.edu/admissions/future_students/why_choose_jcsu/diversity |
WE ARE HERE TO CREATE CHANGE AND INSPIRE YOU TO JOIN US!
Our story
We are a team within the field of Psychology, trying to make Clinical Psychology more diverse.
Our campaign aims to encourage people from minoritised backgrounds to enter the field of Psychology and see themselves making it into Clinical Psychology. We would like to make the field more inclusive, diverse and representative of the clients we see within the mental health system. We hope to tackle some of the barriers those in services have named as the reasons they may not engage with mental health services such as communication barriers, therapists not fully understanding the impact of race, discrimination and stigma, and also taking into account cultural differences in mental health experiences . We would be keen to hear others’ stories and identify/recognise barriers of which we may not already be aware of.
We also hope to involve professionals within the field in our campaign, to become allies, to help us think collaboratively about these issues in a broader context and help us challenge practises within the field, that do not match the ever-growing diverse society in which we live . This would include having a diverse interview panel for the Clinical Psychology Doctorate programmes, seeing more diverse faces within the field in the hopes of encouraging generations to come to view Clinical Psychology as career option. Ultimately, we hope to build and continue to develop an inclusive workforce that considers the needs of all, including psychological models becoming more culturally inclusive.
The Team
Annie Phiri
I am passionate about creating a space where people from all races and cultures can find healing. Diversity in Clinical Psychology is important because it will allow the field to become more culturally adaptive and give access to services that reflect different cultures and personal identities. Traditional talking therapies may not be fully representative of cultural needs or create environments where people can feel understood and seen. Creating diversity in the field will help to bring greater understanding to issues faced by marginalised communities. | https://www.letsfacechange.com/who-we-are |
At the center of inclusive pedagogy is our commitment to treat each other the way we would want to be treated if our positions were reversed. First, we must recognize that we come to the choral rehearsal from different positions and that the playing field for each of us has not been equally flat. Acknowledging these biases, we need to wrestle with curriculum. In which ways does our repertoire create an unmarked category of canonical literature and a marked category of ‘other’? When we acknowledge repertoire’s positionality as being an unequal playing field, too, we begin to change the language and choices we make, reducing our tendency to ‘exoticize’ music from cultures outside of the Euro-American, White, Christian, male, heterosexual canon. By investigating each work we teach with a deeper awareness for its cultural origins, removed from its positionality vis-à-vis the ‘canon’, we create an inclusive space that teaches and celebrates singing respectfully.
Recommended Citation
Sieck, Stephen, "Creating a Welcome Place for All Singers" (2017). Diversity Conference 2017. 8. | https://lux.lawrence.edu/diversity_conference_2017/8/ |
In order to create an inclusive environment which fosters inspiration and learning and to share the unique history of the Peninsula and it’s residents, the Palos Verdes Library District is dedicating itself to providing ongoing cultural experiences through small and large scale programs and celebrations. PVLD hopes that this initiative will create bridges between cultures in our community, ensure all members of our diverse community feel welcome and appreciated, and provide enriching and engaging experiences for all.
Each celebration page below includes information about the history of our stories and cultures on the Peninsula, booklists, upcoming events, and more. | https://www.pvld.org/celebrate |
Although ABA Resolution 113 urged "all providers of legal services, including law firms and corporations, to expand and create opportunities at all levels of responsibility for diverse attorneys," the legal profession still has not achieved its goal of having a workforce comprised of people of diverse cultures, backgrounds and experiences.
Our panel of judges, corporate counsel and law firm attorneys will discuss the importance of a diverse, inclusive and bias free workplace. The panelists will provide differing perspectives and share their experiences on how to recognize implicit bias, strategies for dealing with instances of bias and policies and procedures that can be implemented to sustain a diverse and inclusive environment. | https://www.nycla.org/NYCLA/Events/Event_Display.aspx?EventKey=CLE051619&WebsiteKey=80d9b981-d8fc-4862-bcde-1e1972943637 |
Examining how communication is affected by this diversity.
Introduction:
Today’s workforce is truly mixture of different races, ages, genders, ethnic groups, religions and lifestyles (Mor-Barak, 2005). It is the job of the management of the organisation to fit together different pieces of mosaic in a harmonious, coordinated way and utilising the abilities and talents of each employee to its maximum. If skilfully managed, diversity can bring a competitive advantage to an organisation. If not, however, the bottom line can be negatively affected and the work environment can become unwelcoming (Henderson, 2001). Many organisations have recognised that the workforce is changing and they are working to create a work environment in which diversity and difference are valued and in which employees can work to their fullest. They are dealing with the problems that arise when people in the workplace communicate. Businesses must be aware of the impact of cultural diversity on important business factors especially communication and the degree of the effect of cultural diversity on it (Henderson, 2001).
People and the organisation:
Today’s workforce is made up of many types of people. Organisations can no longer assume that every employee has similar beliefs or expectations. Organizations exist to serve human needs. An organisation is only effective as the people who operate it. People are considered the most important resource in any organisation (Mor-Barak, 2005). They are the basic foundation of an organization and the basic unit of change within organisation. The human resource approach focuses on the interaction between people and the organization. If communication between employees is poor, organisation will suffer. When coordination and interaction within the organisation is good, both employees and business will benefit.
Cultural Diversity:
Culture is an important dimension of group diversity that influences communication. Culture is the integrated system of beliefs, values, behaviours and communication patterns that are shared by those socialized within the same social group. Cultural diversity is the variety of human societies or cultures in a specific region, or in the world as a whole. It is also referred to multiculturalism within an organization (Konard et al. 2006). Obvious cultural differences exist between people, such as language, dress and traditions, there are also significant variations in the way societies organize themselves, in their shared conception of morality, and in the ways they interact with their environment (Henderson, 2001).
Diversity in the Workplace:
Workplace diversity refers to the division of the workforce into distinction categories that have a perceived commonality within a given cultural or national context and that impact potentially harmful or beneficial employment outcomes such as job opportunities, treatment in the workplace and promotion prospects, irrespective of job related skills and qualifications (Stockdale and Crosby, 2004). Diversity can be defined differently by different cultures and organisations. A view of business, organisation and human resource literature produced three types of definitions of diversity: Narrow category-based definition (e.g. gender, racial or ethnic differences); broad category-based definition (e.g. a long list of categories including such variables as marital status and education); and conceptual rule definition that is based on variety of perspectives, differences in perceptions and actions (Thiederman, 2008). Some of the distinction categories may either have a positive or negative impact on employment and job prospects in different countries (Albrecht, 2001). Against the backdrop of broad definitions, on the one hand, and the narrow ones on the other, generating a definition of workplace diversity that will be relevant and applicable in different cultures proves to be a challenge. Workplace diversity focused on the similarities and differences of the people that they bring to an organization. It is usually defined broadly to include dimensions which influence the identities and perspectives that employees have such as profession, education and geographic location. As a concept, diversity is considered to be inclusive of everyone (Albrecht, 2001). Diversity initiatives create the workplace environment and organizational culture by making differences work. It is about teaching and learning from others who are different, it is about dignity and respect for all, and about creating workplace environments and practices that encourage learning from others and capture the advantage of diverse perspectives. Most scholars agree that diversity in the workplace utilizes employee skills to the fullest and contributes to the overall growth and prosperity of the organisation. It is based on the idea identities should not be discarded or ignored, but instead, should be maintained and valued (Henderson, 2001).
Managing Diversity:
Increasing cultural diversity is forcing organisations to learn and motivate people with a broader range of value systems. To succeed in managing workforce that is increasingly diverse and multinational, managers need knowledge about cultural differences and similarities among people from different backgrounds (Golembiewski, 2000). They also need to be sensitive to these differences that can contribute to their effectiveness in cross cultural communication. In today’s global business world, a manager has to understand cultural differences and their meanings in business relations. The manager who manages diversity should understand that diversity includes every employee. It is a challenge to successfully apply skills, energy, and commitment of employees to make an organization better. It is of primary importance that the manager understands the cultural beliefs and values of the organisation for effectively managing diversity (Golembiewski, 2000). These beliefs and values group together to create an environment that employee perceive as supportive or not supportive of diversity. Within all organizations there are culturally supportive and non supportive people, policies, and informal structures. Managers should carefully plan and implement organisational systems and practices to manage employees so that the potential advantages of diversity are maximised and disadvantages minimized (Jackson, 1999). It should be the policy of the company not to engage in discrimination against or harassment of any person on the basis of race, colour, national origin, religion, sex, gender identity, pregnancy, physical or mental disability, ancestry, marital status, age, sexual orientation or citizenship. This policy apply to all employment practices, including recruitment, selection, promotion, transfer, merit increase, salary, training and development, demotion, and separation (Henderson, 2001).
The organisations need to understand and accept cultural and communication differences, show respect, empathise and be flexible to communication issues in the workforce environment. It should be knowledgeable about ethical issues and understand values, communicate decisions regarding these issues to employees and keep communication channels open for all employees to feedback information without fear and revenge. Organisation should adapt the policies that directly or indirectly affect the diversity issues (Griffin and Hirsch, 1998). It is important how the organisation addresses and responds to problems that arise from diversity. It must reflect its stance on diversity in its mission statement. If the mission statement articulates a clear and direct commitment to diversity, everyone who comes into contact with that mission statement will grow to understand and accept the importance of diversity. Organisations can also manage diversity through a variety of ongoing practices (Jackson, 1999).
Impacts of diversity on workplace environment:
Workplace diversity provides strengths as well as offer challenges to the organisation. Cultural diversity is meaningful. It helps employees to learn from each other, to understand each other’s differences (Griffin and Hirsch, 1998). Cultural diversity affects the businesses in many ways including the staff recruitment/retention, management styles and decision-making processes, and relationships within organizations. Cultural diversity often improves and develops workplace by helping as learning experiences for employers as well as employees. When an organisation embrace diversity and realize its benefits, it can succeed and compete more effectively (Henderson, 2001). When it actively assess the handling of workplace diversity issues, develop and implement diversity plans, it can increase its adaptability. Different employees bring individual talents and experiences and suggest suggesting flexible ideas in adapting to ever changing markets. An organisation can globally provide service with a diverse collection of skills and experiences. Organisations that encourage workplace diversity in inspire all of their employees to perform to their highest ability. Different strategies are then executed; resulting in higher productivity, profit, and return on investment (Konard et al. 2006).
On the other hand, diversity issues costs money, time and efficiency. If not managed properly it can create problems. Some of the consequences can include unhealthy tensions between employees or with management; loss of business performance and productivity because of increased conflict; inability to attract and retain talented people of all kinds; complaints and legal actions; and inability to retain valuable employees, resulting in lost investments in recruitment and training (Stockdale and Crosby, 2004). Taking full advantage of the benefits of diversity in the workplace is not without its challenges. Perceptual, cultural and language barriers need to be overcome for diversity programs to succeed. Ineffective communication of key objectives results in confusion, lack of teamwork, and low morale. There are always employees who will refuse to accept the fact that the social and cultural makeup of their workplace is changing. The “we’ve always done it this way” mentality silences new ideas and inhibits progress (Albrecht, 2001).
Although cultural diversity presents a challenge, organisations should view it as an opportunity rather than a limitation. When managed properly, cultural diversity can provide competitive advantages for an organisation. An organisation that manages diversity properly can develop cost advantages over other organisations and are in much better position to attract the best personnel. Proper guidance and management of diversity can improve the level of creativity in an organisation (Henderson, 2001).
Intercultural communication:
Diversity in the workplace is strategic force influencing communication (Samovar et al. 2008). Communication in its most basic form is defined as the use of symbols to convey meanings. Culture is the integrated system of beliefs, values, behaviours and communication patterns that are shared by those socialized within the same social group. When persons socialized in different cultures and co-cultures look from the same point in same direction, they often see different things, and these different perceptions shape their communication (Samovar et al. 2008). Being different from others in an organisation can adversely affect communication and coordination. People from different cultures bring different set of assumptions about appropriate ways to coordinate and communicate in an organisation. Understanding how to communicate effectively with people from other cultures has become integral to the work environment of many organisations (Samovar et al. 2009). Managers who manage diversity need to be sensitive to cultural differences that can contribute to the effectiveness in cross cultural communication. Cross cultural communication involves several potential barriers to communication that are related to the use of verbal and non-verbal methods to convey meanings that may or may not be the same in the cultures of origin of the participants (Samovar et al. 2008). Often the message that is communicated, maybe different from the one that was intended because of cultural barriers. The use of different languages often creates barrier to communication because one or both sides are not articulate as they could be in their native tongue. Linguistic diversity is an important aspect of global diversity. Managing a workforce that does not share a common language can present a major challenge to both employees and management (Cragon and Wright, 2008).
Factors effecting communication:
Cultural diversity can have a powerful effect on communication within the organisation. Problems occur between people of different cultures primarily because people tend to assume that their own cultural norms are the right ways to do things. They wrongly believe that the specific patterns of behaviour desired in their own culture are universally valued. They have stereotypes about other cultures that interfere with communication when people interact. Workplace diversity can lead to misunderstandings and miscommunications, but it also poses opportunities to improve both workers and organisations. Managers must be prepared to communicate effectively with workers of different cultural backgrounds. A diverse workforce poses various communication challenges to an organisation.
Misunderstandings, inaccuracies, inefficiencies and slowness are typical communication problems experienced by diverse groups. Communication breakdowns occur when members often assume that the other party understands the message when in fact they do not. People interpret information differently even when the same language is used. Therefore, the message sent is not always the message received. Differences in communication styles and non verbal communication can create problems. Communication problems due to diversity may become magnified because people are afraid or otherwise unwilling to discuss openly about the issues. Trust is an important factor that plays a significant role in intercultural, interracial and inter-gender communication. A lack of trust can result in miscommunication. Accent is another factor creating problems in communication as some people react negatively to different accents. It is even considered rude if someone does not speak in the official language. People make judgements and mental picture (stereotypes) about others based on the kinds of expression they use because of the region (regional jargon) from which they come. The fact that people have different experiences accounts for many of the problems that occur when they try to interact cross culturally. These experiences directly relate to ability to communicate. Cultural, racial and gender differences affect our experiences.
References:
Henderson, G. (2001), Cultural Diversity in the workplace: issues and strategies, Praeger Publishing.
Mor-Barak, M. (2005), Diversity: toward a globally inclusive workplace, SAGE Publishers.
Golembiewski, R.T. (2000), Managing diversity in organisation, University of Alabama Press.
Jackson, S.E. (1999), Diversity in the workplace: Human Resource Initiatives, Guilford Press.
Griffin, R and Hirsch, M.S. (1998), Workplace diversity, Adams Media.
Konard, A. Prasad, P. and Pringle, J. (2006), Handbook of workplace diversity, SAGE Publishrs.
Stockdale, M. and Crosby, F. (2004), The psychology and management of workplace diversity, Wiley-Blackwell.
Thiederman, S. (2008), Making diversity work: 7 steps for defeating bias in the workplace, Kaplan Publishing.
Albrecht, M.H. (2001), International HRM: managing diversity in the workplace, Wiley-Blackwell. | https://www.essaysauce.com/business-essays/cultural-diversity-impacts-the-workplace-in-a-variety-of-positive-and-negative-ways/ |
Committed to transforming the lives of diverse communities through the joy of multi-ethnic, multi-generational, and multi-purpose arts and education.
All Directory Listing information is provided voluntarily by nonprofit organizations. An organization may decline to participate. At a minimum, the organization’s tax exempt status and bank account are verified annually by The Columbus Foundation. The Foundation does not endorse organizations listed in The Giving Store, and encourages you to contact organizations directly with questions.
The restored Lincoln Theatre provides vital services for our community, as we steward this beautiful historic theatre, provide distinctive learning opportunities for children, foster important conversations about timely issues, and celebrate and nurture talented local artists.
MISSION:Our mission is to create quality musical and social experiences for our members and community through a variety of performances. We provide an open, inclusive and fun atmosphere, while promoting the joy of music, friendship and personal growth.
MISSION:Celebrate the possibilities of classic theatre and literature and to lead our diverse community in artistic excellence, education, and creative vision.
MISSION:Educate the citizenry, to preserve the historical artifacts of central Ohio, and to instill pride, love and respect for ourselves, our cultures, and our ways of life. | https://columbusfoundation.org/the-giving-store/nonprofit-directory-listing/LincolnTheatreAssociation/3417 |
The International Baccalaureate programme is designed to provide students with an immersive and multicultural academic experience. Not only are students in this programme involved in rigorous academic studies, but they are encouraged to develop a global perspective that will help them succeed in an interactive economy with many participants from around the world.
The IB programme seeks to develop specific qualities in each of its students, which are better known in the IB community as learner profiles. Schools that offer the IB programme plan their pedagogy and design their academic environment to facilitate the development of the following learner profiles:
Inquirers
Rather than asking students to sit quietly, listen to a lecture and take notes, the IB programme seeks to encourage students to ask questions. Those who developed the IB framework believe that an inquiry-led approach is the best way for students to truly learn the presented material. In order to develop this learner profile, students often engage in open-ended discussion and have plenty of opportunities to create their own theories, test them and record the results. At GIIS, teachers take on the role of facilitator, and students guide the discussion and the lesson with their questions.
Knowledgeable
This learner profile extends beyond acquiring and retaining facts. The IB programme believes that a student becomes fully knowledgeable when they see the benefit of collecting knowledge. They learn the different tools and resources that can be used to acquire new knowledge. Some of the best ways to develop this learner profile among students are to offer exchange programmes between schools that connect students with different cultures and upbringing and interactive conferences that expose students to innovative ways to gather and utilise new knowledge.
Knowledge improves through collaboration
For example, at GIIS, our students participate in the Real World Convention Challenge, an annual event where students showcase their skills and enjoy friendly competition related to learning and knowledge.
Open-Minded
Children are born with an open mind, but educators have to work with students to help them retain that ability to remain open and objective to the world around them. Students who are enrolled in the IB programme are encouraged to keep a global outlook in everything they do. They are often exposed to a diverse range of cultures throughout their educational experience. This helps students develop a better understanding and appreciation for people who are different than them.
Interacting with peers from different culture makes students open minded
At GIIS, we showcase cultural diversity by highlighting the different holidays that are celebrated around the world, such as Deepavali, Halloween and Thanksgiving.
Caring
As children learn to become students, they are often focused on achieving their own goals and acquiring the knowledge they need to succeed. In the IB programme, students are not only taught, but they are also nurtured to become global citizens. They are trained to be caring and empathetic. They are taught to consider the needs of their community as a whole as well as the needs of the environment. At GIIS, our students participate in activities such as the Singapore Kindness Movement, and they also learn to protect the environment by raising awareness about the importance of sustainability.
Communicator
Leaders in any industry are required to be effective communicators, so it's imperative that students start honing their communication skills from an early age. Students are given many different opportunities to engage in discussion and practice their communication skills in the IB programme.
Every student is encouraged to open up and communicate their ideas
At GIIS, teachers encourage two-way communications between students and facilitate dialogue. In addition, they create learning experiences that require students to speak in front of their classmates and others, which gives them a chance to develop the public speaking skills that they will use throughout their adult lives.
At Global Indian International School, the desired IB learner profiles perfectly complement our schools core values. We actively work to develop these learner profiles in our IB students by offering them access to rigorous academic coursework taught by world-class educators and allowing them to work in a dynamic and inclusive classroom setting where discussion is encouraged.
For more information about the IB programme at GIIS, check out our webpage. You might also consider to sign up for our next IBDP open house by checking our upcoming events listed here. | https://news.globalindianschool.org/blog-details?blogId=40806247150 |
Whether you’re a health care executive, administrator or clinician, the words you use to communicate with your team matter. And in today’s polarized world, choosing to use inclusive language for your audience is critical to establishing trust and understanding. Organizations are going to great lengths to adopt comprehensive diversity, equity and inclusion (DE&I) policies, and inclusive communication plays a large part in making these efforts real.
Inclusive language extends beyond traditional written communication – it includes everything from how doctors and clinical staff speak to patients and capture notes in electronic health records (EHRs) to a facility’s onsite signage and social media content, to how teams build a respectful and strong internal culture. When you embrace inclusivity across all channels, you create a welcoming environment not only for patients and customers but also for employees, vendors, business partners and providers. Diversity and inclusion can improve quality of care, advance innovation, reduce overall risk and boost financial performance.
Despite the prevalence of online resources and guidelines, developing clear-cut best practices can be difficult given the ever-evolving nature of inclusive language. The Lovell DE&I team is proud to share a few tips to help you frame the conversation around inclusivity and ensure your organization is constantly working to improve how it communicates with its diverse communities.
Don’t just research your audience – talk to them
Demographic data is important for understanding your audience on a basic level, but to truly grasp an individual or group’s shared experience, you need anecdotal evidence and first-hand feedback. Patient or customer surveys are a fundamental first step, but they often don’t provide the full picture of a given population’s concerns and sensitivities. Conduct focus groups that represent the communities you serve to understand how your audience prefers to be addressed and what your organization can do to better accommodate those needs.
Examine implicit biases
The National Institutes of Health defines implicit bias as “a form of bias that occurs automatically and unintentionally, that nevertheless affects judgments, decisions and behaviors.” In health care, implicit bias can have serious repercussions. Several studies have been conducted on the subject, including one that found white physicians who implicitly associated Black patients with being “less cooperative” were less likely to refer Black patients with acute coronary symptoms for thrombolysis for specific medical care. And when phrases like “less cooperative” get recorded in a patient’s EHR, they perpetuate the cycle of negative stereotypes that can impact clinical outcomes and harm the patient-physician relationship.
Highlight inclusivity in recruitment and retention
When considering inclusive language, organizations tend to focus on patient-facing messages, such as email, direct mail, thought leadership and social media. But research reveals the language used in employee recruitment and retention materials merits special attention as well. According to a Deloitte Millennial survey, 69% of respondents working at organizations they perceive as diverse intended to remain there for at least five years, compared to just 27% of employees who plan to stay for at least five years at companies they feel are less diverse. From job descriptions to onboarding materials, make sure you’re using inclusive language in all communications with employees and job candidates.
One of the easiest ways to accomplish this is by using person-first language – saying “a person who is blind” rather than “a blind person” – which reinforces that the humanity or identity of a person comes before their diagnosis or demographic. Additionally, make sure you’re walking the walk as much as talking the talk by following through on promises to address DE&I initiatives in the workplace, and making time to regularly hear from employees about topics that are important to them.
Focus on words and images
Inclusivity applies to language as well as images, including photos published on your website, promotional materials, social channels and more. Highlight the diversity of your local community by selecting images that represent a swath of different races, genders, ages, abilities, body sizes and skin tones. Be thoughtful in your approach and avoid trying to cover all aspects of diversity in every image you choose – this can be construed as “performative inclusivity/diversity” and end up hurting rather than helping your cause.
Cater to different cultures and languages
Not all visitors to your website will be native English speakers. Removing language barriers is as simple as including links at the bottom of your webpage that allow visitors to access information in multiple languages or including translations on signage throughout your facility. Once you fully audit your audience, you’ll have a better idea of their cultural backgrounds and language preferences.
Using the proper pronouns, selecting the right images and recognizing implicit biases are crucial to communicating in an inclusive manner, but at its core, inclusivity is about learning, evolving and valuing people. And if you’re looking for inspiration, remember that inclusivity in health care can mean the difference between a positive patient outcome and a negative one.
For more resources on inclusive language and how to incorporate it in your communications strategy, reach out to us at [email protected]. | https://www.lovell.com/inclusive-language-in-health-care-why-it-matters/ |
When planning what students will learn, it is important for teachers to support students in understanding how and why ASL media works are constructed and how they relate to the ASL community and culture. This knowledge equips them to respond to ASL media works coherently and critically. Students need to develop the skills to differentiate between fact and opinion; evaluate the credibility of sources; analyse, reflect upon, and respond to bias (e.g., audism, racism, sexism, classism); and recognize and develop sensitivity to discriminatory portrayals of individuals and groups. Therefore, students’ repertoire of language and digital literacy skills should include critically interpreting and reflecting upon the messages they receive from various ASL media works, and the ability to use media technology and strategies to convey their own ideas and information effectively. Skills related to the use of digital media such as the Internet, social media, film, and television are particularly important because of the power to persuade and the pervasive influence that media wields in our lives and in society at large.
To develop students’ media literacy skills, teachers need to ensure that students have opportunities to study ASL language and culture and their relationship to style, form, and meaning in ASL media works. Students can analyse media works to distinguish the different messages of each medium and how the choice of ASL language structures and illustrations can affect their audiences. Students can decipher-deconstruct, synthesize, reflect on, and discuss a wide variety of ASL media works and relate them to their own experiences. They can also benefit from opportunities to use various technologies to create media works of different types (e.g., cartoons, short ASL videos, web pages related to ASL language and culture) using a variety of graphic designs and layouts. As students explore the use of ASL conventions, language features, techniques, and forms in ASL media works, they analyse the roles of the producer and the intended audience when constructing meaning. They also apply the knowledge and skills gained through this analysis of ASL media works to create their own works.
The Value of Conversation
To develop literacy in any language, it is critical for students to develop skills in using a variety of conversational discourse forms in that language. When given frequent opportunities to converse with their peers, students develop an overall sense of the language and its structure. Through conversation, students are able to convey their thinking and learning to others. Conversation skills thus enable students to express themselves, develop healthy relationships with peers, and define their thoughts about themselves, others, and the world.
Interactions with both the teacher and peers in the language being studied are essential to the development of all language skills. Having a conversation is a way to construct meaning. It develops, clarifies, and extends thinking. This is true not only of the prepared, formal dialogues in interviews, discussions, debates, and presentations but also of the informal dialogues that occur, for example, when students work together and ask questions, make connections, and respond to ASL literary works and/or ASL texts, share their learning experiences, or when a teacher models a think-aloud. These forms of interaction through the use of language are important to consider when planning lessons in an ASL program:
- Informal dialogue is used in conversations throughout the school day for a wide range of purposes, such as asking questions, recounting experiences, brainstorming, problem solving, and exchanging opinions on an impromptu or casual basis.
- Discussion involves a purposeful and extended exchange of ideas that provides a focus for inquiry or problem solving, often leading to new understanding. Discussions may involve, for example, responding to ideas in an ASL story or other piece of fiction, or exchanging opinions about current events or issues in the classroom or community.
- Formal dialogue involves the delivery of prepared or rehearsed presentations to an audience. Some examples are ASL storytelling, ASL poetry, role plays, ASL reports, academic conversations about ASL video works, interviews, debates, and multimedia presentations.
Instructional Strategies in ASL as a Second Language Programs
ASL teachers use a variety of instructional approaches and strategies in ASL to support students in deciphering-deconstructing, interpreting, constructing, representing, responding, reflecting, and using interconnected metacognitive and metalinguistic skills. This is accomplished through the gradual release of responsibility model. Initially, the ASL teacher demonstrates the use of comprehension strategies to decipher-deconstruct ASL literary works and ASL texts through modelling and sharing them with students in the classroom or in smaller-group contexts. Students then use inquiry-based collaborative strategies to work with peers to understand ASL literary works and ASL texts. Eventually, students are able to use comprehension strategies independently to understand ASL literary works and ASL texts. The same process is used to construct conversational discourse in ASL, ASL literary works, and ASL texts, as well as for the use of metacognitive and metalinguistic skills throughout the program.
ASL teachers need to provide daily opportunities for students to converse and interact in ASL. Teachers set up learning situations based on authentic communicative tasks, such as requesting information or conveying messages. Learning activities that are based on students’ interests, needs, and desire to converse will achieve the best results in the classroom. As facilitators, ASL teachers select communicative situations, model the effective use of language, and plan activities to enable students to continually develop their ASL language skills in various contexts.
By providing guidance to students as they carry out practice activities and work on tasks and projects, ASL teachers also assume the role of coach. Teachers coach, for example, when they guide a group in a discussion about the advantages and disadvantages of learning another language, or when they model sentence structure and fluency while conversing with students.
Well-designed lessons include a variety of instructional strategies, such as structured simulations, guided inquiry, cooperative learning, and open-ended questions. Teachers can conduct frequent comprehension checks to ensure that students understand the information being conveyed, including both general concepts and specific ASL vocabulary and classifiers. Teachers can use various tools and strategies to support student comprehension, and can encourage students to develop their self-expression in and spontaneous use of ASL by eliciting conversation that increases in fluency, accuracy, and complexity over time. Teachers can also model a variety of strategies that students can use to request clarification and assistance when they have difficulty understanding.
It is essential that ASL be the language of instruction in class so that students have constant exposure to correct models of the language and many opportunities to use ASL. To help students improve their ability to interact in class, teachers can:
- use ASL at an appropriate and deliberate pace to ensure maximum understanding;
- explain concepts explicitly and in a variety of ways to address the needs of all learners;
- give clear instructions that meet individual students’ needs (e.g., numbering the steps in an activity);
- present information in small, manageable pieces;
- check often for comprehension, using a variety of tools and strategies;
- allow sufficient response time when students are interacting in ASL;
- use a variety of strategies to selectively correct students’ errors in conversing and constructing;
- offer ongoing descriptive feedback so that students are aware of which areas need improvement;
- scaffold learning and observe independent practice to support all students in using ASL in both familiar and new contexts.
ASL teachers can use a variety of instructional strategies to support language learners in the acquisition and development of ASL. For example, teachers can:
- design meaningful lessons and activities that are achievable by students and that take into account their background knowledge and experiences;
- provide frequent opportunities for collaboration and practice in pairs, small groups, and large groups;
- provide targeted instruction for students during shared or guided practice to lead them to explore ASL texts or concepts;
- use a variety of teaching strategies when demonstrating how to decipher-deconstruct, interpret, construct, respond, and interact;
- contextualize new ASL vocabulary and classifiers through visuals, ASL literary works, and ASL texts;
- allow students to demonstrate their understanding of a concept in alternative ways (e.g., De’VIA, drama);
- value and acknowledge the importance of students’ cultural knowledge, and literacy skills in other languages;
- encourage students to share information about their own languages and cultures with each other in the classroom.
ASL teachers can also make use of a variety of classroom and school resources to enrich students’ learning. For example, teachers can:
- introduce ASL vocabulary and classifiers and illustrate concepts using pictures, visuals, age-appropriate ASL literary works, ASL texts including media, and real objects;
- reinforce ASL vocabulary and classifiers in various ways (e.g., using ASL word walls, visuals, or anchor charts) to increase students’ understanding and enhance their ability to convey ideas and information;
- use technology to support ASL language and literacy development;
- demonstrate the use of a variety of graphic organizers, including video graphic organizers.
Considerations for ASL as a Second Language Program for Students Requiring Enriched Language Environments
Schools in Ontario serve a diverse student population, both linguistically and culturally. Because students’ previous linguistic experiences vary greatly from one home to another and from one community to another, their skills in using their first language in academic contexts and in second-language acquisition may be at considerably different levels. Some students may already comprehend and use ASL well, others may have used ASL outside of school without formal instruction, while still others have not acquired or developed ASL as a first or second language for a variety of reasons. With this in mind, understanding the different stages of language development and implementing appropriate pedagogical and assessment strategies for students are priorities for teachers in an ASL as a second language program.
Regardless of their language skills, all students bring a rich diversity of background knowledge and experience to the classroom. Students’ linguistic and cultural backgrounds support their learning and also become a cultural asset in the classroom community, whether their backgrounds are in ASL or another linguistic and cultural community. Teachers will find positive ways to incorporate this diversity into their instructional programs and into the classroom environment.
The Sociocultural Awareness Approach in an ASL as a Second Language Program
Sociocultural awareness is addressed in the ASL as a second language curriculum through the use of pedagogical approaches that convey the understanding that the study of ASL language, ASL literary works, and ASL texts, including ASL media works, can be taught only with strong references to the ASL community. Language and culture are inseparable. This principle can be applied to any language and the culture that nourishes it. French and francophone culture are inseparable; Cree and Cree culture are inseparable; ASL and ASL culture are inseparable.
Studying a variety of original ASL literary works and ASL texts, including ASL media works created by ASL people, challenges students to become receptive to new and widely varying ideas, information, and perspectives, and to develop the ability to think independently, collaboratively, and critically using an ASL cultural lens. ASL language and culture can build students’ awareness of all aspects of ASL identity – emotional, moral, cognitive, experiential, perceptual, spiritual, physical, mental, and social. Linda Wall states that “original ASL stories and poetry convey the experiences and emotions of ASL culture”. ASL works created by ASL people are crucial to developing a deeper appreciation of how ASL language and ASL culture are interwoven with a person’s identity. They allow both individuals and a community to transmit their view of reality: their thoughts, feelings, treasured values, beliefs, and priorities. Gaining this insight enables students to enact social change, take ownership of their school culture and school community, and provide support for the ASL community.
Students also learn about cultural references that relate to the ASL community, such as the everyday life of ASL people, ASL community calendars, historical research, and linguistic research. Collectively, this learning enhances their understanding of the ASL community – provincial, national, or global – and reflects how language, values, beliefs, ways of life, customs, and symbols are interwoven.
Human Rights, Equity, and Inclusive Education in ASL as a Second Language
Cultural, linguistic, racial, and religious diversity is a defining characteristic of Canadian society, and schools can help prepare all students to live harmoniously as responsible, compassionate citizens in a multicultural, plurilingual society in the twenty-first century. Learning resources that reflect the broad range of students’ interests, backgrounds, cultures, and experiences are an important aspect of an ASL program. In an inclusive program, learning materials involve protagonists of all genders from a wide variety of backgrounds and intersectionalities. ASL teachers routinely use materials that reflect the diversity of Canadian and world cultures, including those of contemporary sign language cultures (e.g., langue des signes québécoise [LSQ] culture) and of First Nations, Métis, and Inuit peoples, and make such materials available to students. Short ASL stories, ASL epics, television programs, and films provide opportunities for students to explore issues relating to the cultural identity of an ASL community.
In an inclusive and intersectional ASL program, students are made aware of the historical, cultural, and political contexts of both the traditional and non-traditional gender and social roles represented in the materials they are studying. ASL literary works and ASL texts, including ASL media works, relating to immigrant experiences provide rich material for study, as well as the opportunity for students new to Canada to share their knowledge and experiences with others. In addition, in the context of the ASL program, both students and teachers will become aware of aspects of intercultural communication and discourse – for example, by exploring how different cultures interpret the use of eye contact in conversation.
Teachers can choose ASL resources that reflect diversity and intersectionality. They also need to keep in mind that students often deconstruct materials found outside the classroom (e.g., web articles, online videos, and material on social media platforms). It is imperative for the ASL program to create and sustain safe, healthy, equitable, and audism-free learning environments that honour and respect diversity and intersectionality for every student.
The development of critical thinking skills is integral to the ASL curriculum, as discussed in the section “Critical Thinking Skills, Metacognition, and Metalinguistic Skills”. In the context of critical literacy, these skills include identifying and analysing perspectives, values, and issues; detecting bias; and deciphering-deconstructing for implicit as well as explicit meaning. In the ASL program, students develop the ability to detect bias and stereotypes in ASL literary works and ASL texts. When using biased ASL literary works, ASL texts, or non-ASL works containing stereotypes for the express purpose of critical analysis, ASL teachers take into account the potential impact of bias on students and use appropriate strategies to address students’ responses. Critical literacy also involves asking questions and challenging the status quo, leading students to examine issues of power and justice in society related to ASL and the ASL community. Through critical literacy, students can present and argue their perspectives when discussing issues that strongly affect them. ASL literary works and ASL texts, including ASL media works, also afford both ASL teachers and students a unique opportunity to explore the social and emotional impact of different forms of oppression related to audism, racism, sexism, or homophobia on individuals and families, communities, and society. | https://www.dcp.edu.gov.on.ca/en/curriculum/american-sign-language-as-a-second-language/context/some-considerations-for-program-planning-in-american-sign-language-as-a-second-language |
Monday 28th Septembar at 7 p.m.
Timeline of Painting and Painting Techniques
Wednesday 28th October at 7 p.m.
Body Art in Africa
Friday 27th November at 7 p.m.
For a long time, Africans have satisfied their need to express feelings and visions through drawings and colour, creating art on different surfaces: whether on rocks or the human body.
The Saharan region, which holds several hundreds of thousands of engraved drawings and rock images, represented the largest Neolithic painted complex that was produced over a long period of time, dating from 7000 BC to the beginning of the current era. Because of the artistic ability and the clever use of painting materials and surfaces, the artists of Neolithic Sahara, apart from producing sophisticated and expressive pictorial effects, managed, through their works, to achieve a specific chronicle of the prehistoric times of the African continent.
The study of the vast Saharan painting opus is achieved through several thematic units that constituted this art from its early beginnings to historical times. These units are: the history of the study of Saharan painting, Saharan Neolithic, painting techniques (engravings and paintings on rocks) and the timeline of painting. Sahara’s “largest open-air museum in the world“ allows us to take a glimpse into the spiritual life of the peoples of those times, their racial heritage and objects of material culture. The images are an important testimony on geological and cilmatic changes that transformed this region, which once harboured rivers, lakes and savannas, and which over a course of several millennia, turned into the largest desert in the world.
Parallel to rock and cave art, the graphic adornment of the body was also practised and reached its perfection on the African continent. Regardless of the aestetics of the decoration, jewellery or clothing that people wore, the body itself was approached as an art form – body as sculpture, or body as picture, filled with an inexhaustible imagination and creativity. A classification of practices in the realisation of body art that was typical in certain parts of the continent shows two types of interventions made on the human body: temporary (pictures in colour) which are short-lived, and permanent (scarifications, or incisions and tattoos) that mark the body until it cesses to exist. In the majority of cases body art was subjected to generalised criteria that did not refer solely to the field of individual creativity, but, primarily, to the expression of a group set in a specific social context.
Until recently rejected and despised by the „civilised world“, body art seems to correspond with modern fashion trends as an ideal in the search for the root identity of modern people. | http://www.mau.rs/en/archive/138-series-of-lectures-primal-art-paintings-on-rocks,-paintings-on-bodies.html |
"Convey feelings and emotions, through the pictures, This is the goal of the artist Valeria Diaz ".
The artist has excelled by getting through the acrylic paint, and mix media on aluminium, unite beauty and originality, suitable for multiple environments.
Interview
Where did you born?
Recife-PE.
And what is your academic training?
Industrial Design-UFPE- 1987.
How and when you give your first contact with the Arts?
At the age of 07 years already liked to draw and paint.
How did you find this gift?
I found myself drawing.
What are your main influences?
Pop Art, Figurative, Surrealism, Contemporary Art, etc.
What materials do you use in your works?
Like a lot of the fabrics I paint on Aluminum plates and they use various types of media mix as Glitter, high relief and many other.
What is your creative process itself? What inspires you?
It is natural, When I least expect it I am creating things on top of other existing ones or not. What inspires me? The rebellion… (laughs).
When you started effectively to produce or create your works?
From semper, but the market, from 2011.
Art is an intellectual production exquisite, where emotions are embedded in the context of creation, but in art history, we see that many artists are derived from other, following technical and artistic movements through time, you own any model or influence of any artist? Who would be?
Andy Warhol, Dalí, Picasso, Van Gogh, Louise Dear… etc.
What does art mean to you? If you were to summarize in a few words the meaning of Arts in your life…
Art for me is a pulse, is therapy, is the date myself!
QHat the techniques that you use to express your ideas, feelings and perceptions about the world? (Whether it is through painting, sculpture, drawing, collage, photography… or uses several techniques in order to make a mix of different art forms).
I usually get expressed through painting, design and photographs, at the moment, most commonly the painting and Digital Art.
Every artist has his mentor, that person who you have mirrored, you encouraged and inspired you to follow this career, going ahead and taking your dreams the other expression levels, who this person is and how it introduced you in the art world?
I dedicate that answer to the universe… I've always felt the Intuition and the calls of the Universe to go down that road.
You have another activity beyond art? You give lessons, lectures etc.?
Not.
Its major national and international exhibitions and their awards?
Bookstore Culture, Senate, UNAP, Fair of the Louvre, Finland, etc.
Your plans for the future?
Live one day at a time!
Website: vdiaz8.blogspot.com
Facebook Profile: Valeria Pop Art – https://www.facebook.com/valeria.diaz.127
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The Basics of Painting
A painting is a work of art in which an artist conveys his or her ideas through the use of various tools. It is commonly done with a brush, palette knife, sponge, or airbrush. The artist’s intention is to bring forth the subject matter in a way that is expressive and unique to him or her. An example of an early work of art would be a landscape painting. Other examples of paintings are abstract, body, mural, and conceptual art.
Earlier cultures influenced the process of painting by defining subject matter and imagery. In a variety of ways, the process of painting a scene became a form of communication, a means of social interaction, and a means of self-expression. Today, the medium is a combination of high and low culture, embracing different styles and combining them to create a visual representation of a subject. There are many types of paintings, from abstract to representational.
Painting media are applied to a variety of supports, including paper, canvas, wood, clay, and lacquer. The application of paint is typically in a liquid form, and it can absorb into the support material over time. Therefore, the support material is usually covered with a ground. Ground is a mixture of binder and chalk, which forms a nonporous layer between the painted surface and the support. If the surface is porous, it can weaken over time.
Painting is a great way to express yourself and your ideas. There are different techniques and mediums that you can use to create your masterpiece. There are many different types of painting, including encaustic painting and sgraffito. Once you’ve mastered the basics, you can apply more advanced techniques to your own artwork. For example, you can use the term “sgraffito” to describe scratching, hair, and grass. It’s important to understand that there are no rules when it comes to applying sgraffito.
As a beginner, it is important to learn the basics of painting. It is a visual language that combines elements to create volume on a flat surface. Depending on the type of painting, the elements of the medium can represent real phenomena or express a narrative theme. There are many other methods you can use to paint. There are a variety of techniques that can help you create a work of art. However, you must be aware of your own style and preference.
The most basic technique of painting is the technique of applying a paint to a support. It may be oil-painting or gouache, or a pastel or pen and ink. There are also many other media to choose from. The type of painting you choose depends on the purpose of your art. You can use a variety of techniques to make a work of art that is beautiful and expressive. If you’re not an expert in oil paints, consider a pastel or watercolor. | https://www.ccgedicions.com/the-basics-of-painting-3/ |
Visual Arts: In the Classroom and Beyond
Lower School students receive one hour of general art instruction each week. At the middle and upper school levels, art is offered as an elective course. Upper school art students may choose from several concentrations as well as Advanced Placement Studio Art.
The lower school art program at WCA is designed to instruct the student to understand and apply media, techniques and processes to communicate their ideas visually, recognizing that each student’s creativity is a gift from and a reflection of our Heavenly Father, the Creator.
We explore art focused on the categories of: elements of art, art in history, art in cultures and art for the seasons. We look at and examine many different types of art and provide opportunities for the student to understand the visual arts in relation to cross-curricular fields of knowledge. The student is encouraged to approach their artwork with originality, flexibility, fluency and imagination.
Building on the foundations of Art and Design, middle-schoolers delve deeper into the Elements and Principles of Design to further their exploration of 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional art. Examining art through the ages and the relativity of that art to current trends help students to have a greater perception of the world they experience daily and equip them to creatively influence their future. The Middle School program is designed to prepare them to excel at the high-school level and consider an art related career.
Art Foundations: This course is designed to give students experience in creating many different types of art. Students are encourage to create art work that effectively communicates ideas in unique and original ways.
Studio Art: Students in this course strengthen their skills in a wide variety of media and techniques and processes. Students are encourage to create art work that effectively communicates ideas and experiences visually.
AP Studio Art 2D/ AP Studio Art Drawing/ AP Studio Art 3D: Students in this course will develop technical skills and familiarize themselves with the functions of visual elements as they create an individual portfolio of work for evaluation at the end of the course.
AP Art History: This course explores major forms of artistic expression including architecture, sculpture, painting and other media from across a variety of cultures. Students will learn about the purpose and function of art as they develop their ability to articulate visual and art historical concepts in verbal and written form.
Many works of art generated in the classroom are entered and win prizes and mentions in art competitions, such as Occasion for the Arts. High performing art students who have show an aptitude and desire to improve as artists may also be inducted into the WCA Chapter of the National Art Honor Society. Many of our students finest works of art often take a home in our Student Art Gallery, a full exhibit area of the school with donated works and travelling exhibits from the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts. | https://private-christian-school.williamsburgchristian.org/arts/visual-arts/ |
As Art teachers, we are often asked what Art is any good for? We always reply, “Could you really imagine a world without Art?” No creative advertisement signs. No pictures in children’s books. No designs on packaging. Try and imagine what life would really be like if Art did not exist, just how dull would the world be?
In the words of Michelangelo, ‘A man paints with his brains and not with his hands.’ Studying Art is a great way to develop imagination and become an independent thinker. Students learn about artists and art movements and how to analyse paintings and objects. They will explore the formal elements of art and develop technical skills in a variety of media culminating in the creation of original compositions. Art allows students to develop their imagination, curiosity and engagement with the world around them.
The Art department is comprised of specialist Art staff and Art rooms. The large open plan classroom is divided into two main work spaces each with interactive whiteboards and an extensive range of equipment to teach painting and drawing, print-making, ceramics, sculpture, and digital media. We have several computers equipped with art and design software, cameras and a kiln. The rooms have been vibrantly decorated with a combination of student work and informative Art displays.
Structure of lessons
Art in Key Stage 3 is focused on short projects which develop basic 2D and 3D skills. Students develop their understanding of topic related study, learning how to analyse imagery and evaluate the work of artists and related art movements in order to help them to create their own style. Year 7 Art is also a chance for students to learn basic skills and techniques and build their confidence working with a range of materials. Lessons have a strong emphasis on individual tuition with class discussions and practical demonstrations taking place regularly. This should hopefully ease students into the vast world of Art and allow them to be comfortable with the skills, so that they can start using their own creative imaginations as the year progresses.
Every child is an Artist
Pablo Picasso
Topics covered
Year 7 begin the Autumn with a project introducing them to the formal elements of Art and Design where they look closely at each of the key design principles such as line, tone, colour and form learning a variety of basic techniques. They continue to develop these skills in the spring focusing on ‘Portraits’ where they look closely at the Fauvism art movement and learn how to draw a self-portrait step by step. They complete their studies in the summer term sketching and painting landscapes.
The skills students will learn this year are
Structure of lessons
Art lessons in Year 8 are practical task orientated with a strong emphasis on individual tuition. Class discussions and practical demonstrations take place regularly. Year 8 Art is a chance for students to apply the basic skills learnt during year 7 and use a range of techniques and materials to begin creating their own pieces. They will begin to look at several artists and art movements in more depth and use this to inspire their own work. They also begin to evaluate their own and others work in more detail and begin forming opinions about different types of Art.
Topics covered
In year 8 students focus on exploring art work from different cultures. They begin with a project inspired by the circus and fairground taking inspiration from decorative and abstract art. They will design their own carousel horses and produce a clay tile design. In the spring and summer terms they will move on to examining art from around the world with a real focus on pattern and technique. Students will ‘visit’ Mexico to examine day of the dead masks, Africa to create textile patterns and Australia to design their own aboriginal animals. In the summer term they will collate all their ideas to produce a final piece representing their understanding of the cultures studied.
The skills students will learn this year are
Key Stage 3 assessment
Students are assessed by Baseline testing at the start of Year 7 and 8 to monitor skills and knowledge gained. Individual feedback takes place throughout lessons in relation to expected levels and achievement and artwork is marked and graded, with comments written outlining WWW and EBI. We encourage the students to self-assess their work and also provide constructive critique for their peers. This skill is essential in art and we like the students to do this using key vocabulary in order to expand their critical understanding and prepare for art at KS4.
Students in Year 9 begin their GCSE Art course by developing and honing their skills. They will study observational drawing, watercolour painting, pencil shading and rendering techniques together with gaining a more in-depth knowledge of Art history focusing particularly on 20th century Art movements including Pop Art, Surrealism and Expressionism.
Year 10 students learn how to structure their research and development skills and begin to create a portfolio of work on a chosen title or theme. In Year 11 GCSE Art students refine and complete their projects and complete a final design piece. In the January they are issued with an Externally set task which will be submitted with their portfolio to the OCR Examiner for marking and moderation in the summer term.
The skills and qualities Students need to succeed in this course are
The over-riding quality needed to study Art is a love for the subject. You will also need:
GCSE Art students are monitored and assessed against their expected sub level grade for each Term. Individual feedback takes place throughout lessons, in relation to anticipated minimum grades and achievement using the four OCR assessment objectives. Artwork is marked and graded, with comments outlining ‘what worked well’ and ‘how designs and skills could be improved to further raise grades’. A Mock Exam is set and graded in year 11 to conclude the portfolio element of the GCSE. The final GCSE set task is a 10 hour (2day) exam which is marked internally and moderated by OCR examiners.
*The GCSE Art qualification comprises a portfolio of work (60% of the overall mark) and an externally set task (40% of the overall mark.)
On successful completion of the GCSE Art qualification, with students gaining a Grade B or higher, the AQA A Level Art: Fine Art option is the next pathway, followed by a Foundation Course at college and/or Degree Level study at University.
Studying Art at GCSE and A level is a stepping stone to a career in Art and Design or Teaching. Many of the Art students at The N.E.W. Academy have furthered their studies by completing Foundation Courses at Art Colleges, but the majority have been accepted directly onto BA Degree courses at Universities around the UK. Courses such as Architecture, Textiles, Fashion, Footwear, Jewellery, Furniture, Ceramics, Glass, 3D, Graphics and Interior Design are a popular choice, as are Fine Art Degrees which incorporate Sculpture, Printmaking, Painting, Drawing and Photography.
Mrs L. Swift (Head of Art)
Other subjects in Performance, Arts and PE: | http://www.onewa.co.uk/our-academy/curriculum/art/ |
Dan Meluzin has not surrendered to the magnetic power of digital technologies, but rather to their consequences, the growing pressure of the world of media, advertising, celebrities, consumption and the related transformations of culture and the superficialization of the perception of social values. He presented himself as a vital, self-confident and provocative artist who revitalized painting through the triviality and shoddiness of his themes. He drew his inspiration from the work of Van Gogh, from his method of working with paint, color and light, as well as from classical and postwar Modernism, Pop art in particular, which he transformed in his own painting concept. Based on some Pop art practices he is usually referred to as a successor of Pop art, which, however, is only one aspect of his work. The fundamental connecting element is media, the world of advertising and consumer traps, of which Meluzín picked several basic themes: fruit, cakes, Milka chocolate, flowers, the world of women – perfume and lipstick, portraits, tennis. In composition solutions he uses the Pop art principle of series, repetition and the arrangement of paintings in rows one above the another. The mechanical technique refers to a stereotypical cliché which Meluzin counterbalances by his excellent painting. The subject of his paintings is elaborated from precise depictions up to free painting abstract structures, and collages of images... It features a wide range of techniques, from pure chiaroscuro through gestic painting, dripping, stains, pastes and collages. As an observer he records events and the consumption way of life benevolently, perhaps with elements of hedonism and indulgence. His relation to the phenomenon of painting and his ability to uncover such aspects can be related to the tradition of Flemish and Dutch colorists and painters of various types of still lifes. Meluzin does not assume a critical position, however the themes of his work allow spectators to discover hidden contexts.
Eva Trojanová
Dan Meluzin was born in Bratislava in 1974. From 1990 to 1999 he studied at the Academy of Fine Arts and Design in Bratislava in the studio of prof. Rudolf Sikora. During this time he also participated in internships at Slippery Rock University in Pennsylvania (1995), and at Cité Internationale des Arts Paris (1998 and 2000). He lives and works in Bratislava. | https://www.danubiana.sk/en/vystavy/pozorovatel |
Thousands of years ago, in the Paleolithic age, the ancient man was able to unleash his thoughts on a series of paintings. This amazing exercise caused an evolutionary change in world history. There are many milestones on this long journey. It is a process of time, struggle and discovery. It can be interpreted as one of the greatest expressions in human history. For thousands of years, people of various civilizations have been releasing their own emotions applying diverse art mediums and techniques. Within this journey, water-based paintings have been used by many societies in ancient times. Pharaohs painted their temples and tombs. Greeks painted pottery. Romans painted frescoes on the walls. The end of medieval religious painting saw the dawn of a new era.
The revival of the classical culture of Renaissance in Europe, revolutionized the history of art. During the Renaissance, artists sketched on paper using graphite pencils. Renaissance masters Da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael used natural chalks for drawings that became the reason for the growth of pastels. Jan Van Eyck discovered the secret of oil painting. The end of the Renaissance, the Mannerist Art, broke the rules and created an illusion that transcends nature. A beautiful and exaggerated style was created by Baroque and Rococo Art with oil medium. Neo-classicism restored to the art of Greek-Roman grandeur. Romanticism gave victory to imagination and individualism. Realism was the mirror of the life of the working class and the peasantry. In these art trends, Rembrandt, Goya and Courbet used brushes as well as palette knives to create their paintings.
At the end of Neo-classicism, Romanticism, and Realism, art took a new turn. It was a transformational exercise. A group of controversial and independent artists who broke the traditions of the Academy were capturing the inevitable effects of the natural light of nature. They were the Impressionists who created a pictorial language in the material world using their own brush and canvas. There was a powerful art movement that advanced a mild revolt against the Impressionists. They were the Post-impressionists who transcended all the boundaries of art at the time. Paul Cezanne, Vincent Van Gogh and Paul Gauguin were the pioneers of this amazing artistic trend. Rough colours on flat surfaces and emotional distortions of forms were used in Fauvism and Expressionism.
Cubism, Futurism, Suprematism and Constructivism were the art movements that commented on modern life in the 19th century. Modernist sense began with the works of Cubist artists Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso. They invented collage and mixed media. Dada and Surrealism were revolutionary art movements of the 20th century. Abstract Expressionism is a development of abstract art that began in New York in the 1940s and 1950s. Pop art is an art movement based on modern popular culture. It was born of consumerism. Pop artist Andy Warhol explored effects of acrylic, printmaking techniques and created new approaches to the medium. Postmodernism is a trend that developed from the mid to the late 20th century. Within this historical narrative, humankind has used a variety of mediums ranging from animal blood on cave-surfaces to modern digital technology for their visual expressions.
Acrylic on Palette Knife
Acrylic is a type of paint found in the mid 20th century. Acrylic paints give artists an alternative to toxic, expensive, slow-drying oil paints, which are commonly applied to the base with a brush or other equipment. Applying acrylic with a palette knife gives a different result. The term knife is often used in a different way, particularly when describing the medium and surface technology with the painting of an artist's knife. Knives are made of plastic or wood and metal. Available in a variety of shapes and sizes, paint knives and palette knives, though similar, are not the same. A palette knife is a long, straight blade or spatula used to mix paint. It is not meant to be used to paint on canvas. Painting knives usually have semi-flexible metal blades and wooden handles. Using a knife gives the painting a different result and texture.
The Legend of Oil Painting
Oil painting is a medium consisting of pigments suspended in drying oils. Oil colours are made by mixing dry powder pigments with most commonly selected refined linseed oil. The quality and nature of this medium create different fusions of tones or colours and unique textural variations. Traditionally, paint layers are transferred to the painting surface using brushes. Top-grade oil brushes are made in two types: red-sable weasel and bleached hog-bristles. The use of a painting knife or other version of the artist’s palette knife, is a convenient tool for applying oil colours on canvas. Generally, the canvas is made from linen or cotton fabric. By the end of the 15th century, canvas became the most popular basic material for oil medium. The origin of oil paints was discovered in Buddhist paintings in the Bamiyan Valley of Afghanistan, Central Asia, dating back to the 5th century.
Painting with Acrylic
Acrylic is a fast drying paint that serves as a medium for any type of pigment, and is a very versatile medium used in modern art. Acrylic is highly enhanced with pigment richness and paint quality and can be applied to both the transparent brightness of the dye and the stickiness of the oil paint. Acrylic has the unique quality to bond to many different surfaces and mediums. The artist can change the appearance, texture, flexibility and other characteristics of the acrylic paint surface. Acrylic can be used on a paper, canvas and a wide range of other materials. It is considered to be more approachable and tuned than other mediums and has been successfully adopted by many modern professional artists. Acrylic artist application training can cover a wide range of variations and contributes directly to the aesthetic value of art.
Watercolour is an extremely old painting tradition, also known as aquarelle, which dates back thousands of years. Watercolours are made of pigments suspended in a water-based solution. The pigments are ordinarily transparent dry colouring materials. The medium is most commonly mixed with water to create translucent layers of colour on a surface of the paper. The rise of watercolour paintings as a serious artistic endeavour progressed over the years. To create watercolour paintings, many techniques were used by applying a series of monochrome washes one over the other. Watercolour is often combined with gouache or “body colour”, an opaque (non-transparent) water-based paint containing a white element derived from chalk, lead or zinc oxide. The technique of water-based paintings belongs to the history of many cultures. Historians believe that watercolour paintings first appeared in the Paleolithic cave paintings in Europe.
Art by: Ravindra Rathnasiri
Collage - New Medium in Modern Art
The French term collage was coined by Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso, who used collage techniques in their Cubist paintings. The collage method was effectively used in the works of artists of Dada and Surrealist movements. Collage is a technique of artistic production, made of many materials, but most are made of paper or wood, often featuring cut and pasted photos, painted forms or 3D objects. Continuing from modernist to contemporary art, the invention and innovative approach of collage attracted artists because of its aesthetic value and unique, cohesive process. An artistic technology of a collage is the production, printed or "invented" materials, such as bits of newspaper, fabric, wallpaper etc., on a board or canvas. Collage artists are pushing the boundaries and changing the demands of traditional art, creating new dimensions in the contemporary art world.
Watercolour - Unique Art Tradition
During the Renaissance period, watercolours gained a popularity as an advanced artistic medium. It was particularly common for book illustrations and book-guides to be made using watercolours during the 19th century. From the mid 18th to the mid 19th centuries, the watercolour tradition developed with different types of monochromatic landscapes. Since the 1800s, artists who followed New Romantic Watercolour Style often applied the paint on rough textured papers. Well-known English landscape painter, John Constable developed a unique watercolour style that blends with nature and created beautiful landscapes with a deep personal view of the countryside. William Turner, a London-born artist, was the most talented, successful and controversial landscape painter of the 19th century, who had been active in the academy throughout his life. Most of the time, English artists were credited with establishing watercolour as an independent, mature painting medium.
Pastel - Wide Range of Colours
Pastel is a medium of art that uses a wide range of colours. The name "pastel" comes from Pastelum, a Latin term used in the medieval period. Pastel originated in the 16th century in Northern Italy and became the largest popular medium by the 18th century. Pastel or crayon has a pale soft and delicate shade made of pure powder ground pigments bound with gums or resins. Once coated with colour on paper, they look soft, fresh and bright. Soft pastels are the most commonly used form of pastels. Crayon uses different methods with the uniqueness of the medium. Pastels were primarily used for portraiture and were later widely used by many modern master artists because of the wide range of bright colours available.
Pencil or Graphite Stick
The word is derived from the Latin term peniculus, which means brush. Pencils are made in the traditional form of wood-shaft and graphite sticks. Its lead is a form of carbon, called graphite. A pencil is a dry and preferred medium of many artists. Pencil drawings are less than chalk, charcoal, pen and ink. However, graphite usage has increased steadily among artists, architects and designers. In the late 18th century, the ancestor of the modern pencil was built in the form of a natural graphite pole attached to a cylinder in a wooden hole. These high quality graphite pencils were widely used by 19th century artists and pencil drawing is widely used in the academic and basic arts. One of the most sensitive users of graphite pencils in the 19th century was the French artist Edgar Degas.
Perfection of Oil Painting
In Europe, the transitional era of oil painting began with the Renaissance in Northern Europe in the 15th century and then eventually became the principal medium of the Modern Art world. The oil painters apply colours to the raw canvas to produce shading, depth and surface variety by using the properties of oil paint. This concept is called alla prima. Including texture, colour mixing, brushstroke and application processes, there are different painting techniques used in oil painting depending on the era and style. Dutch artist Jan Van Eyck was the most credited artist in Northern Europe, who discoverd and learned the practice with oil medium. Jan Van Eyck experimented oil painting techniques for his wood panel works. During the Impressionist period, oil pigments were put into tubes and artists were free to move outdoors.
Chalk Pastel and Oil Pastel
Unlike other mediums, pastels are not mixed before being placed on paper. A visual blend of colours can be achieved by mixing closely with pastel paper. One of the great advantages of pastels over other mediums is the colour contrasts that can be achieved. Two of the most popular types of pastels are chalk and oil. Each one is made of the same pigment. The history of pastels dates back to the Renaissance. This medium is said to have originated in Northern Italy and has become one of the favourites of Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo. They used chalk for sketching. There were only a few shades of black, white and red at the time. In the 18th century, pastels gained considerable popularity, particularly in England and France. At this time, it was "fashionable" to paint with a combination of pastel and gouache paint.
Mixed Media - Breaking all Boundaries
Mixed media is an experiment with materials. This term is used for works of art made from more than one substance. Mixed media art is a mix of different creative mediums for making works of art that include two or more methods. A number of important developments in modern art have involved various combinations of materials, especially painting and sculpture. An open minded approach to the use of mix media to create art has enabled artists to create masterpieces. The use of mixed media for art emerged during 1910 -1912 with Picasso and Georges Braque using a variety of materials in their cubist collates. Assemblies and collages are two common examples of art using different media, including the use of materials such as fabric, paper, wood and found objects. Mixed media is about breaking the boundaries between different art forms.
Art by: Lakisha Fernando
Digital Painting
Digital painting is a continuously evolving art form in which the artist uses various painting techniques to create images directly on the computer by means of a graphics tablet with stylus and software. A graphics tablet allows the artist to work with precise hand movements simulating a real pen and drawing surface. Digital painting is distinct from computer-generated (CG) arts and digital manipulation of photographs, in the sense that the artist uses painting techniques and various applications to create the images "from scratch", which are original in construction and in content. The main difference between digital and traditional painting is the non-linear process. That is, an artist can often arrange his painting in layers that can be edited independently. Also, the ability to undo and redo the steps and the ability to adjust colour and lighting frees the artist from a linear process.
Art is a diverse range of human activities in creating visual or performing artifacts, expressing the artist's ideas or technical skill, intended to be appreciated for their beauty or emotional power. The mediums of art are combined with different and unique techniques to communicate people’s imaginations.
Over the last 15 years, Sri Lanka Telecom brought the value, beauty, reflection, pride and immortality of Sri Lankan culture and nature to the public through the annual calendar, in different artistic ways. To continue this great effort, Sri Lanka Telecom proudly brings “Narration of Art” as the calendar theme for the year 2020 to re-emphasize the value of art and to project historical background and different artistic methods to the future generations.
Resource Person:
Lanka Darshanie De Silva, Senior Lecturer, Visual Arts and Design and Performing Arts Unit,
Department of Fine Arts, Faculty of Humanities, University of Kelaniya.
Artists: Asitha Amarakoon, Chathuranga Gamage, Gayathri Adikari, Lakisha Fernando, Manohari Hewage,
Mewan Fonseka, Pulasthi Ediriweera, Ravindra Rathnasiri, Sandamali Kamalchandra
Designed & Published by: Corporate Branding Division, Sri Lanka Telecom PLC. | https://slt.lk/en/calendar2020 |
Fire Station has announced its Youth Summer Programme offering unique opportunities for young artists.
Creatives will have the chance to explore new mediums and work under the mentorship of four multidisciplinary artists: Hazim Al Hussain, Noof Al Theyab, Noora Al Saie and Paula Bouffard, who each will conduct their own personal workshops for the public.
The programme runs throughout August and events are scheduled five times a week with workshops comprising:
Hazim Al Hussain: Acrylic Painting Techniques
Date: July 31-August 4
In the first week of the programme, participants will investigate different painting methods and techniques using acrylic paint. They will be studying colour, perspective, harmony, and contrast to produce an integrated painting.
Noof Al Theyab: Resin Art
Date: August 7-11
Participants will learn how to use resin and experiment with different moulds and materials to create their own personal artwork.
Noora Al Saie: Hey, it is Moving!
Date: August 21-25 2022
In the third week of the programme, people will explore the different types of animations and will be guided on how to move random favourite daily objects and bring them to life.
Paula Bouffard: Fabric Patterning & Design
Date: August 28-September 1
During the final week of the programme, guests will learn how to print on fabric using different techniques and explore several surface design basics, carve printing blocks and experiment with simple shapes and colours.
Khalifa Al Obaidly said: “It’s not the first year that Fire Station has run a special programme to support young artists. We see this as an important mission of our institution that helps to support the young generations of creators. This year is no exception – during their master classes four artists will present their unique artistic approaches, show various techniques and help participants to unleash their creative potential.”
Registration for the programme will be available through the Fire Station calendar one week prior to the workshop. ✤
GO: VISIT HTTPS://FIRESTATION.ORG.QA/EN/CALENDAR/ TO REGISTER. | https://factqatar.com/youth-summer-programme/ |
Covering more than 100 techniques and mediums for drawing, painting, and mixed media, The Everything Art Handbook is an all-inclusive, go-to resource for artists of all skill levels.
A refreshing, accessible compendium of art materials and techniques, The Everything Art Handbook is the perfect all-inclusive resource for beginning artists wanting to experiment and play with a variety of art mediums and techniques.
The Everything Art Handbook is divided into sections focusing on different types of mediums and art concepts. Each section includes a basic overview of the topic, instructions for selecting and working with the right tools and materials, step-by-step sample artwork, and helpful sidebars with advice from professional artists.
Expand and refresh your artistic skills with these and more topics:
- Getting started, including how to set up a studio and where to find inspiration
- Art fundamentals, such as value and light, perspective, and composition
- Color basics, including complementary colors, primaries, secondaries, and neutrals
- Drawing techniques for working with graphite, charcoal, colored pencil, pastel, pen and ink, and more
- Painting techniques for working with oil, acrylic, and watercolor
- Mixed media tools and techniques, including stamping, encaustics, and textures
Using clear, informative explanations for achieving the best results, The Everything Art Handbook is an approachable reference guide for contemporary artists of any skill level. | https://www.chapters.indigo.ca/en-ca/books/the-everything-art-handbook-a/9781633221727-item.html?ref=isbn-search |
Art at Sancta Maria College education explores, challenges, affirms, and celebrates unique artistic expressions of self, community, and culture. It embraces our Special Character and values and leads students to express their ideas through many types of media including paint, photography and sculpture. Learning about the arts stimulates creative action and response by engaging and connecting thinking, imagination, senses, and feelings. In the arts, students learn to work both independently and collaboratively to construct meanings, produce works, and respond to and value others’ contributions. They learn to use imagination to engage with unexpected outcomes and to explore multiple solutions.
Arts education values the students’ experiences and builds on these with increasing sophistication and complexity as their knowledge and skills develop. Through the use of creative and intuitive thought and action, learners in the arts are able to view their world from new perspectives. Through the development of arts literacies, students, as creators, presenters, viewers, and listeners, are able to participate in, interpret, value, and enjoy the arts throughout their lives.
The global world we live in is dependent on visual communication and creative industries are rapidly expanding.
Design students are encouraged to heighten their ability to analyse and decipher the visual world they are immersed in and to push boundaries and explore possibilities in the production of their own design work.
This course seeks to encourage personal performance in Practical Arts. This course allows students the opportunity to explore a wide range of painting and drawing processes and techniques. They will have the opportunity to develop ideas in paint and develop an individual style of painting based on an understanding of contemporary painting concepts and processes. The ideas explored provide a valuable basis for further study in Art and Design at tertiary level. Students will pursue a wide range of painting and drawing techniques and have the opportunity to work on individual topics and to develop personal ideas.
At Year 12 students may enter the exciting world of Art Photography. Using digital technology they will not only learn how to take photographs but also how to manipulate them and add special effects.
This course encourages students to analyse methods and ideas in sculpture, producing original work that shows extensive knowledge of different aspects of creating art sculpture. | https://www.sanctamaria.school.nz/college-life/academic/subject-information/art |
There are many types of art around the world. Each is different and characterized by various elements.
One type of art is contemporary art.
Here is what you need to know about this type, how to differentiate it from other styles, and so forth. Shall we get started?
Meaning of contemporary art
Contemporary art is a broad term for art produced in the last 50 years. It has been subject to many changes and developments, including using new materials and techniques and an increasing emphasis on the subject matter.
Contemporary art can be found in many different forms.
Some artists specialize in one particular contemporary art form, while others are more likely to experiment with different styles and media. Most artists enroll in a contemporary art licensing agency before selling their artworks.
Forms of contemporary art
Contemporary art is a broad umbrella term encompassing many types of work. The seven forms of this type of art include the following:
1- Painting
Painting is one of the most common forms of contemporary art. This art form has existed for centuries and is still an ongoing practice today.
Painting is a medium used by artists to express their emotions and experiences and represent something else. Many different techniques can be used to create paintings—from drawing with ink and paint on paper to painting on canvas or wooden panels to painting with spray paint on a wall!
Today’s popular subject matter includes nature scenes, animals, portraits (both realistic and abstract), landscapes, and all kinds of urban settings.
2- Sculpture
This is a form of art in which an object is formed by shaping or combining hard materials. Sculptures can be three-dimensional or two-dimensional and can be static or dynamic. A sculpture is an object created, in any material, by the union of at least one form of metal (such as bronze) with plaster of Paris. The term sculpture covers the physical objects and artworks made from them.
3- Architecture
Architecture is a form of contemporary art that utilizes the design and creation of buildings, space, and spaces within buildings to express ideas, feelings, and concepts.
Architecture can be applied to any medium and used to create art in any form. Buildings can be built through various methods, including the use of building materials such as concrete and steel, or they can be constructed using other means such as stone or wood.
4- Poetry
Poetry is a form of contemporary art characterized by its ability to express an individual’s innermost thoughts and the way that many different people can read them.
Poetry can be found in many forms, including haiku, sonnets, or free verse. Poets use these forms to express their feelings about life uniquely. The poems in poetry are usually short and easy to read; they can be as short as two lines or as long as twenty-four lines.
5- Music
This has always been an essential part of Western culture, but there were fewer formalized ways for musicians to express themselves before modern music began being created in the late 20th century.
Today, musicians use many different media types to create their work: they can make music using traditional instruments like violins or drums and make songs using computers.
6- Literature
This is a form of art that uses language to create a work of art.
Literature is not limited to books or stories. It can also be found in other forms, including poems, plays, and novels.
7- Dance
Dance can be used to express the artist’s feelings, ideas, and even political beliefs. Dance may also be used to communicate with others more efficiently than through verbal speech or writing.
The best way to understand dance is to watch it performed by an expert dancer. You can see how the dancer moves their body in such a way as to tell a story or communicate an idea.
Conclusion
Contemporary art has improved dramatically in the last few decades. The forms of contemporary art are constantly evolving and changing, with new styles being introduced each year. | https://arthouseonlinegallery.com/art/contemporary-art/what-is-contemporary-art/ |
There are various types of paint. The art of painting is both old as well as modern, as well as is typically defined by a specific design. There are various materials made use of to paint, as well as various techniques are also utilized for different styles. The materials made use of to repaint include oil, watercolor, as well as shade ink. All of these tools have their very own unique history, and this chapter provides an introduction to a few of them. If you are interested in discovering more concerning painting, read on to find out more concerning the different types of paints.
Color is broken down into three elements: hue, strength, as well as worth. High blue hues, for example, often tend to show up cooler than high red or yellow tones. This distinction depends on the variety of colours utilized in the style. As an example, if a paint features an extreme yellow, it will certainly look cold while a paint that integrates a blue shade will look warm. Numerous Asian as well as European painters have made use of this visual propensity. road line painting
The use of lines in a paint has several ramifications. Altering the instructions of light will confuse audiences, while abrupt changes in darkness will certainly develop an aesthetic confusion. Moreover, a painting’s scale and also percentages are very important, as adjustments in these areas will certainly interrupt an audience’s perception. Furthermore, facial attributes must be well balanced, as well as any type of abrupt or extreme changes in one location will persuade their understanding. Frequently, a paint’s make-up is a reflection of how the musician sees the globe, as well as how this influences them.
There are numerous sorts of mediums utilized in painting. Supports include paper, timber, canvas, plaster, clay, lacquer, and concrete. Painting is generally applied in fluid kind, but its porous nature can trigger it to take in the paint and also deteriorate the assistance product. Consequently, a ground is made use of in between the support material and also the painted surface area. Typical ground is called “gesso”.
While the composition of a paint is necessary, it likewise plays an essential role in its general style. The composition of a paint identifies the positioning of the subject, the background aspects, and every piece of the canvas. Composition likewise consists of the use of proportion. This is specifically essential in accomplishing a balance in between the topic, history, and foreground components. These components work together to produce a pleasing painting. The structure of a paint is important in conveying its message.
Abstract paints are one more form of art. Pure abstract jobs actively turn down realistic look and also revel in the subjective nature of the work. Along with shade, texture, and also materials, pure abstract work is a wonderful means to reveal yourself. Jackson Pollock’s drip paints are a timeless example of this, and also are frequently really dynamic. Mark Rothko, on the other hand, reduced the subject to only 3 colors in his color-field jobs. Eventually, this strategy has been the leading design in the art globe. road line painting in Sweden
An additional kind of painting is oil paint. Oil paints are extremely functional as well as are the most utilized type of paint. They include pigment mixed with linseed oil, which is made use of as a binder. Oil paint was thought to have actually originated in Europe around the fifteenth century, though some cave paintings dating back to the 7th century reveal that oil based paints were made use of even earlier than that. This method has a lengthy background of use, and also is the very best for beginners.
Paint is a really old kind of art, exercised by human beings throughout history. One of the earliest well-known paintings, in Arnhem Land, Northern Australia, is greater than 60,000 years of ages. The Grotte Chauvet cave paintings are renowned for their black and ochre depictions of rhinoceroses, lions, buffalo, as well as mammoths. This material was not always readily available to artists, nonetheless. In the ancient past, painters usually made use of the exact same tool for both landscapes as well as portraits, yet today, there are no well-known examples of paint in this manner.
Paints are constructed from several ingredients, including a car, a waxy paste that guarantees bond. The assistance can be a canvas, a timber panel, paper, or perhaps wall surfaces. When the support is ready, a white nontransparent guide is used. The ground itself is a blend of pigments and also wax. Paints adhere to the surface area of the assistance and also fill in the pores of the support. Paint is an old, innovative procedure.
An artist should comprehend appearances. The elements of beauty, such as colors, forms, as well as angles, are required to be a good painter. Paint calls for expertise of how to make use of these components, along with correct devices to apply them. Luckily, this can be learned through technique, which will raise your skill and also make you extra marketable. So, what are the important skills required to be an excellent painter? Keep reviewing for some essential tips to boost your paint skills.
Oil paints: Oil paint is maybe one of the most functional kind of paint. This paint is made of pigment as well as linseed oil, which works as a binder to hold the pigment in place. Oil paints initial developed in Europe around the fifteenth century, but murals located in Afghanistan reveal using oil based paints as very early as the 7th century. And with its adaptability, oil paints are an important part of several sorts of art.
Products for canvas and other surface areas: Canvas and paper are one of the most usual sorts of paintable surface areas. Both sorts of materials are offered in unprimed and also primed kinds. Although canvas is much more popular than paper, canvas and paper are reasonably economical. Paper, nonetheless, is just one of the most flexible and adaptable types of art, with a range of appearances as well as dimensions. A selection of documents are readily available, including watercolor paper and also drawing paper, which are particularly created wet media.
Mediums: Different types of paints have different residential properties and also are used for various functions. You may wish to select the most flexible medium to suit your painting needs. Watercolors are cheap and easy to use, but they are often tough to manage as well as can not paint dark colors on top of light ones. Attempt oil paints, which maintain their colors for longer, making them an excellent choice for beginners. If you have actually never painted in the past, you could intend to consider finding out just how to paint with oils, oil, or gouache. road line painting
Techniques: While drawing as well as paint are both forms of art, one is more difficult than the other. For example, oil as well as chalk paint on canvas produce a drawing-like feel that is similar to a picture. Oil paints additionally take longer to completely dry, so you ought to intend your painting schedule as necessary. If you are repainting in a colder environment, it is best to use another medium. This way, you can maintain the paint completely dry without the risk of revealing your walls to dirt. | https://columbiaberlin.com/2022/08/12/paint-tips-you-need-to-discover-now/ |
Spectroscopy: Showing art in its best light
Spectroscopy is the study of the interaction of light with matter. Different molecules interact with light in various different ways according to their characteristic functional groups. For example, the infrared spectrum of a molecule can be obtained if the molecule absorbs light in the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum. If the molecule scatters light instead of absorbing it, its Raman spectrum can be observed. (See here for more information on infrared spectroscopy, and here for more detail on Raman spectroscopy.) These techniques can help to determine the likely structure of a molecule, and are often used in the lab in conjunction with other chemical structure-determining techniques. It is little wonder then how a spectroscopic technique, which relies so much on the use of light, came to be utilised by the art world, considering the number of artists (impressionist painters, for example) whose work is influenced by the interaction of light with the objects of their pieces.
These spectroscopic methods can be used to benefit art in a number of ways. One such example is the identification of the specific pigments that were used in a painting. Spectroscopy provides a non-destructive form of analysis of paint fragments, although in order for these paint fragments to be analysed, they often must be removed from the painting itself. Knowing exactly which pigments were used in a piece of art has several benefits. If it has been damaged, a painting can be properly restored using the original pigments so that there are no colour mismatches. Identification of pigments can also play a vital role in determining whether or not a painting is authentic, or whether it is indeed from its assumed time period. Synthetic dyes such as mauveine (the first synthetic organic dye 1) for use in paints appeared in the late 19th century, so the authenticity of any painting dated before this time period but which contains synthetic dyes can be investigated.
Spectroscopic applications do not stop there. Earlier this year, Emma Stoye reported in Chemistry World about a Renoir portrait whose background colour was found to have faded over time 2. Using Raman spectroscopy, scientists identified the light-sensitive red dye used in the 1883 painting and digitally enhanced the painting so as to view it in its intended glory. Science is all about seeing the world as it truly is, after all.
Spectroscopy: Showing art in its best light by Debbie Nicol was edited by Ross McFarlane.
References
- For more info, “synthetic dye” is a good Google term.
- Interesting ChemistryWorld article on the topic. | https://the-gist.org/2014/07/spectroscopy-showing-art-in-its-best-light/ |
Taught by a leading Conservator – Restorer and teacher in France, Pierre-Alain Le Cousin, who will instruct students on the fine art of finishing decorative objects. Particular attention will be spent on French Polishing and the use of wax finishes. As a leading expert in the field of restoration and conservation, Pierre-Alain will be able to share with the students many techniques and insights that would be difficult to get elsewhere. In this course, he will discuss the basics (the ‘mouse’, the different types of shellacs, the different types of waxes), he will present different recipes for using shellac for varnishing, and for filling, different wax recipes, the use of resin based shellac for filling. This will be a very hands on course as Pierre-Alain, will show students how to apply the shellac and wax, how to apply black shellac and shellac for brasses. If times allows, Pierre-Alain will also demonstrate the use of painting techniques in restoration. | http://thewooburncraftschool.com/craft-courses/french-polishing-and-wax-finishes/ |
What is a Tsunami?
Tsunamis are giant waves caused by earthquakes or volcanic eruptions under the sea. Out in the depths
of the ocean, tsunami waves do not dramatically increase in height. But as the waves travel inland, they
build up to higher and higher heights as the depth of the ocean decreases. The speed of tsunami waves
depends on ocean depth rather than the distance from the source of the wave. Tsunami waves may
travel as fast as jet planes over deep waters, only slowing down when reaching shallow waters. While
tsunamis are often referred to as tidal waves, this name is discouraged by oceanographers because tides
have little to do with these giant waves.
**
Tsunami (pron: 'soo-nar-me') is a Japanese word; 'tsu' meaning harbour and 'nami' meaning wave. The
phenomenon is usually associated with earthquakes, landslides or volcanic eruptions in, or adjacent to
oceans, and results in sudden movement of the water column. Until recently tsunami were called tidal
waves, even though the event has nothing to do with tides.
A tsunami is different from a wind generated surface wave on the ocean. The passage of a tsunami
involves the movement of water from the surface to the seafloor which means its speed is controlled by
water depth. Consequently, as the wave approaches land and reaches increasingly shallow water it
slows. However, the water column still in deeper water is moving slightly faster and catches up,
resulting in the wave bunching up and becoming much higher. A tsunami is often a series of waves and
the first may not necessarily be the largest.
When a tsunami travels over a long and gradual slope, it allows time for the tsunami to grow in wave
height. This is called shoaling and typically occurs in shallow water less than 100m. Successive peaks
can be anywhere from five to 90 minutes apart. In the open ocean, even the largest tsunami are
relatively small with wave heights of less than one metre. The shoaling effect can increase this wave
height to a degree such that the tsunami could potentially reach an onshore height of up to 30 metres
above sea level. However, depending on the nature of the tsunami and the nearshore surroundings, the
tsunami may create only barely noticeable ripples.
Interesting fact: Tsunami can travel at speeds up to 950km/h in deep water which can be represented by
the speed of a passenger jet.
More facts
A tsunami is a series of ocean waves that sends surges of water, sometimes reaching heights of over
100 feet (30.5 meters), onto land. These walls of water can cause widespread destruction when they
crash ashore.
These awe-inspiring waves are typically caused by large, undersea earthquakes at tectonic plate
boundaries. When the ocean floor at a plate boundary rises or falls suddenly it displaces the water
above it and launches the rolling waves that will become a tsunami.
Most tsunamis, about 80 percent, happen within the Pacific Ocean’s “Ring of Fire,” a geologically
active area where tectonic shifts make volcanoes and earthquakes common.
Tsunamis may also be caused by underwater landslides or volcanic eruptions. They may even be
launched, as they frequently were in Earth’s ancient past, by the impact of a large meteorite plunging
into an ocean.
Tsunamis race across the sea at up to 500 miles (805 kilometers) an hour—about as fast as a jet
airplane. At that pace they can cross the entire expanse of the Pacific Ocean in less than a day. And
their long wavelengths mean they lose very little energy along the way.
In deep ocean, tsunami waves may appear only a foot or so high. But as they approach shoreline and
enter shallower water they slow down and begin to grow in energy and height. The tops of the waves
move faster than their bottoms do, which causes them to rise precipitously.
A tsunami’s trough, the low point beneath the wave’s crest, often reaches shore first. When it does, it
produces a vacuum effect that sucks coastal water seaward and exposes harbor and sea floors. This
retreating of sea water is an important warning sign of a tsunami, because the wave’s crest and its
enormous volume of water typically hit shore five minutes or so later. Recognizing this phenomenon
can save lives.
A tsunami is usually composed of a series of waves, called a wave train, so its destructive force may be
compounded as successive waves reach shore. People experiencing a tsunami should remember that the
danger may not have passed with the first wave and should await official word that it is safe to return to
vulnerable locations.
Some tsunamis do not appear on shore as massive breaking waves but instead resemble a quickly
surging tide that inundates coastal areas.
The best defense against any tsunami is early warning that allows people to seek higher ground. The
Pacific Tsunami Warning System, a coalition of 26 nations headquartered in Hawaii, maintains a web
of seismic equipment and water level gauges to identify tsunamis at sea. Similar systems are proposed
to protect coastal areas worldwide.
Overview
When considering how tsunami waves propagate, or travel across the ocean, it is important to
understand wave behavior. Before discussing tsunami waves, this unit defines what a wave is and
describes wave characteristics. Comparing wind-generated waves and tsunami waves is useful for
understanding the force, scope and potential danger of large tsunamis.
Using data from past tsunami events and known wave characteristics, scientists have developed models
for calculating tsunami travel times to deliver warnings to communities that may be impacted by a
tsunami. These models make use of complex data based on the size and location of an earthquake, the
depth of the ocean as determined by bathymetric measurements, the distance to a given location, the
shape of the coastline in impact zones, and past run-up heights.
Tsunami warning center scientists have developed models to predict the tsunami travel times for certain
high risk locations. When an earthquake of magnitude 7.5 or higher is generated along a coastal area,
warning centers may be able to warn communities of an impending tsunami and give a time estimate of
when the first wave will arrive.
How to Prepare for a Tsunami
Tsunamis are a series of waves caused by a massive disturbance of water. In general, tsunamis are not
particularly threatening, as they constantly happen every day around the world, often in the middle of
the ocean. In fact, most tsunamis don't reach much higher than regular ocean waves on the beach. But
in some cases, the tsunami will develop into potentially destructive waves. If you live in a coastal area,
it's imperative that you know what to do should this situation arise. | https://www.sundaynice.com/2017/01/what-is-tsunami-how-to-prepare-for.html |
This lesson can be accomplished by conducting an actual beach profile, or using online beach profile data.
Summary
Using beach profile data from Ocean City, Maryland, investigate coastal erosion and sediment transport.
Beach sand originates mainly from rivers and streams which carry it directly to the ocean. Sand also comes from the gradual weathering of exposed rock formations and cliffs along the shore, and from the deterioration of shell, coral, and other skeletal fragments. Wave action, wind, and currents move sand up and down the coast. This movement is called longshore transport. Sand is also moved onshore and offshore by waves, tides, and currents. During storms, high-energy waves often erode sand from the beach and deposit it offshore as submerged sandbars. This sand is then moved back onshore by low-energy waves in periods of calm weather. Sand that is moved offshore by winter storms, leaving steep narrow beaches, is returned to the shore by the gentle waves of summer, creating wide, gently sloping beaches.
Erosion and accretion of sediment on coasts are natural processes influenced by the beach slope, sediment size and shape, wave energy, tides, storm surge, and nearshore circulation, among other things. Human activities such as dredging, river modification, removal of backshore vegetation, and installation of protective structures such as breakwaters can profoundly alter shorelines, mainly by affecting the sediment supply.
Changes to our shorelines affect our transportation routes, our communities, and our ecosystems; therefore, it is important to monitor them. Researchers can determine shoreline locations with information gathered from topographic maps, aerial photos, Global Positioning System (GPS) surveys, and beach profiles. By analyzing trends over time, future changes can be predicted. Planners and developers can use the predictions for planning future use of the shoreline. | http://masweb.vims.edu/bridge/datatip_print.cfm?Bridge_Location=archive0500.html |
There is typically a distinction between short waves, which are waves with periods less than approximately 20 s, and long waves or long period oscillations, which are oscillations with periods between 20-30 s and 40 min. Water-level oscillations with periods or recurrence intervals larger than around 1 hour, such as astronomical tide and storm surge, are referred to as water-level variations. The short waves are wind waves and swell, whereas long waves are divided into surf-beats, harbour resonance, seiche and tsunamis.
Natural waves can be viewed as a wave field consisting of a large number of single wave components each characterised by a wave height, a wave period and a propagation direction. Wave fields with many different wave periods and heights are called irregular, and wave fields with many wave directions are called directional. A wave field can be more or less irregular and more or less directional.
Short Waves
Types of waves
The short waves are the single most important parameter in coastal morphology. Wave conditions vary considerably from site to site, depending mainly on the wind climate and on the type of water area. The short waves are divided into:
- Wind waves, also called storm waves, or sea. These are waves generated and influenced by the local wind field. Wind waves are normally relatively steep (high and short) and are often both irregular and directional, for which reason it is difficult to distinguish defined wave fronts. The waves are also referred to as short-crested. Wind waves tend to be destructive for the coastal profile because they generate an offshore (as opposed to onshore) movement of sediments, which results in a generally flat shoreface and a steep foreshore.
- Swell are waves, which have been generated by wind fields far away and have travelled long distances over deep water away from the wind field, which generated the waves. Their direction of propagation is thus not necessarily the same as the local wind direction. Swell waves are often relatively long, of moderate height, regular and unidirectional. Swell waves tend to build up the coastal profile to a steep shoreface.
Fig 5.1 Irregular directional storm waves (including white-capping) and regular unidirectional swell.
Wave generation
Wind waves are generated as a result of the action of the wind on the surface of the water. The wave height, wave period, propagation direction and duration of the wave field at a certain location depend on:
- The wind field (speed, direction and duration)
- The fetch of the wind field (meteorological fetch) or the water area (geographical fetch)
- The water depth over the wave generation area.
Swell is, as previously stated, wind waves generated elsewhere but transformed as they propagate away from the generation area. The dissipation processes, such as wave-breaking, attenuate the short period much more than the long period components. This process acts as a filter, whereby the resulting long-crested swell will consist of relatively long waves with moderate wave height.
Wave transformation
The following types of transformation are mainly related to wave phenomena occurring in the natural environment. When the waves approach the shoreline, they are affected by the seabed through processes such as refraction, shoaling, bottom friction and wave-breaking. However, wave-breaking also occurs in deep water when the waves are too steep. If the waves meet major structures or abrupt changes in the coastline, they will be transformed by diffraction. If waves meet a submerged reef or structure, they will overtop the reef. These phenomena will be further explained in the following.
The following types of wave transformation occur mainly in connection with ports and the like. If the waves meet a steep structure, reflection will take place, and if the waves meet a permeable structure, partial transmission will take place. These phenomena will not be discussed further.
Here is a summary of the transformation types to be found in nature:
- Depth-refraction is the turning of the direction of wave propagation when the wave fronts travel at an angle with the depth contours at shallow water. The refraction is caused by the fact that the waves propagate more slowly in shallow water than in deep water. A consequence of this is that the wave fronts tend to become aligned with the depth contours. Currents can also result in refraction, so-called current-refraction.
Fig 5.2
Wave refraction (and breaking).
- Diffraction can be seen when there are sheltering structures such as breakwaters. Diffraction is the process by which the waves propagate into the lee zone behind the structures by energy transmittance laterally along the wave crests.
Fig 5.3
Wave diffraction in a port (from a numerical simulation with a short wave model).
- Shoaling is the deformation of the waves, which starts when the water depth becomes less than about half the wavelength. The shoaling causes a reduction in the wave propagation velocity as well as shortening and steeping of the waves.
‘Fig 5.4
Shoaling
- Bottom friction causes energy dissipation and thereby wave height reduction as the water depth becomes more and more shallow. Friction is of special importance over large areas with shallow water.
- Depth-induced wave-breaking of individual waves starts when the wave height becomes greater than a certain fraction of the water depth. As a rule of thumb, the wave height of an individual wave at breaking is often said to be around 80% of the water depth, but this is a very approximate figure. Breaking waves are generally divided into three main types, depending on the steepness of the waves and the slope of the shoreface:
- Spilling takes place when steep waves propagate over flat shorefaces. Spilling breaking is a gradual breaking which takes place as a foam bore on the front topside of the wave over a distance of 6– 7 wavelengths.
- Plunging is the form of breaking where the upper part of the wave breaks over its own lower part in one big splash whereby most of the energy is lost. This form of breaking takes place in cases of moderately steep waves on moderately sloping shorefaces.
- Surging is when the lower part of the wave surges up on the foreshore in which case there is hardly any surf-zone. This form of breaking takes place when relatively long waves (swell) meet steep shorefaces.
Fig 5.5
Depth-induced wave-breaking: spilling, plunging and surging.
- Wave set-up is a very important phenomenon in the surf-zone hydrodynamics. This is a local elevation in the mean water level on the foreshore, caused by the reduction in wave height through the surf-zone. The wave set-up is proportional to the wave height at breaking. As a rule of thumb, the wave set-up is 20% of the offshore significant wave height. Gradients in wave set-up, e.g. in partly sheltered areas near port entrances, will generate local circulation in the surf-zone towards the sheltered area.
- Wave swash or Wave uprush is the propagation of the waves onto the beach slope. The swash consists of an onshore phase with decelerating upwards flow (uprush or swash) and an offshore phase with accelerating downwards flow (downrush or backwash)
- Wave run-up is the sum of the wave set-up and the wave swash. The wave run-up is this the maximum level the waves reach on the beach relative to the still water level. The run-up height exceeded by 2% of the run-up events is denoted R2%. The relationship: R2% = 0.36g1/2tanß H01/2 T has been obtained in studies by Holman (1986) and Nielsen and Hanslow (1991). Tanß is the beach slope, and H0 and T are the significant wave height and period at deep water. For typical storm waves this gives: R2% ~ 6 tanß H0.
- White-capping or top-breaking is steepness-induced wave-breaking, which occurs in deeper water when the wave height becomes too large compared to the wavelength. White-capping can be observed at the part of Fig 5.1 which shows irregular directional storm waves.
- Wave-overtopping takes place when waves meet a submerged reef or structure, but also when waves meet an emerged reef or structure lower than the approximate wave height. During over-topping, two processes important to the coastal processes take place: wave transmission and the passing of water over the structure.
Fig 5.6
Wave-overtopping of breakwater in a flume test (upper) and in nature.
Statistical description of wave parameters
Because of the random nature of natural waves, a statistical description of the waves is normally always used. The individual wave heights often follow the Rayleigh-distribution. Statistical wave parameters are calculated based on this distribution. The most commonly used variables in coastal engineering are:
Fig 5.7
Time-series of individual waves or surface elevations
- The significant wave height, Hs, is the mean of the highest third of the waves in a time-series of waves representing a certain sea state. This corresponds well with the average height of the highest waves in a wave group. Hs computed on the basis of a spectrum, is referred to as Hm0.
- The mean wave period, Tm, is the mean of all wave periods in a time-series representing a certain sea state.
- The peak wave period, Tp, is the wave period with the highest energy. The analysis of the distribution of the wave energy as a function of wave frequency (period-1) for a time-series of individual waves is referred to as a spectral analysis. Wind wave periods (frequencies) often follow the so-called JONSWAP and Pierson-Moskowitz spectra. The peak wave period is extracted from the spectra. As a rule of thumb the following relation can be used: Tp ~ 5.3 Hm01/2.
- The mean wave direction, m, which is defined as the mean of all the individual wave directions in a time-series representing a certain sea state.
These parameters are often calculated from continuous or periodic time-series of the surface elevations; typically the parameters are calculated once every one or three hours, whereby a new discrete time-series of the statistical wave parameters is constructed. This time-series is thereafter analysed statistically to arrive at a condensed description of the wave conditions as follows:
- Wave height distribution represented by Hs vs. percentage of exceedence. This often follows a Weilbull-distribution
- Directional distribution of the wave heights, which is often presented in the form of a wave rose
- Scatter diagram of Tp vs. Hs
Fig 5.8
Wave spectrum: Hm0=1m, T02=3.55s, Tp=5s (corresponding to peak frequency of 0.2 s-1)
Analyses of extreme wave conditions are performed on the basis of max. wave heights in single storm events or on the basis of annual max. wave heights. These analyses are often presented as exceedence probability vs. wave heights.
Fig 5.9a
Wave height duration exceedence distribution; example from Rødsand, Denmark.
Fig 5.9b
Wave Rose; example from Malacca Strait.
Fig 5.9c
Scatter diagram, Tp vs. Hs, Faroe Islands.
Fig 5.9d
Extreme value analysis of wave height; threshold value = 2 m, Weibull distribution.
Wave climate classification according to wind climate
The different wind climates, which dominate different oceans and regions, cause correspondingly characteristic wave climates. These characteristic wave climates can be classified as follows:
- Storm wave climate. This is related to subtropical, temperate and arctic climates dominated by the passage of many depressions. At an exposed, open coast this climate is characterised by very variable wave conditions, both with respect to height, period and direction distributions. This type of climate often results in a wide littoral zone dominated by a sandy coastal profile with bars and a wide sandy beach backed by dunes.
- Swell climate. This typically occurs along coastlines near the equator, where the swell is generated by the so-called trade winds. Near the equator the heating of the air masses is particularly high. This causes the air masses to rise, which in turn generates a thermal depression near the surface. This depression causes winds to blow in from the north and from the south. The area where these winds meet is called the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The winds blowing towards the ITCZ are called trade winds. Due to the rotation of the earth, their directions are NE north of the ITCZ and SE south of the ITCZ. Near ITCZ the wind climate is predominantly calm; this area is called the doldrums. The trade winds mainly occur over the oceans as they are overruled by the monsoons near the continents. Trade winds are moderate and persistent. The wave climate generated by the trade winds is also moderate and persistent throughout the year. As it mainly occurs over oceans away from the coastlines, the associated wave climate along adjacent coastlines is mainly in the form of swell characterised by relatively small and long persistent waves travelling in a constant direction. A swell climate normally gives rise to a relatively narrow sandy littoral zone with an abrupt shift to a gently sloping outer part of the littoral zone dominated by finer sediments. Other swell climates occur in other areas. They are the result of extreme wind conditions in areas far from the coast, so that the swell climate is developed while the waves travel large distances. This is, for example, the case on the north-west coast of Mexico and the coast of California, where the swell wave climate dominates during the summer months with swells developing from tropical storms in the south and from waves originating in the southern hemisphere. This is an important wave climate from a coastal point of view since these waves tend to move sand from the shoreface onto the beach.
- Monsoon wave climate. The monsoon climate is characterised by seasonal wind directions. During the summer, local depressions over tropical landmasses cause the wind to blow from the sea towards land. The Inter Tropical Convergency Zone intensifies these tropical summer depressions. In Southeast Asia the summer monsoon is referred to as the SW-monsoon. The summer monsoon is warm and humid. The winter monsoon, which is caused by local high pressure over land, blows from the land towards the sea. In Southeast Asia the winter monsoon is referred to as the NE-monsoon. The winter monsoon wind is relatively cold and dry. The monsoon wind climate is thus characterised by winds from the sea during the summer and winds from land during the winter. The above phenomenon is valid for major continental landmasses only, where as minor landmasses within the monsoon area can experience onshore winds during winter. An example of this is the East Coast of the Malaysian Peninsula, which is predominantly exposed during the NE-monsoon. Monsoon winds are relatively moderate and persistent for each monsoon season. This means that the corresponding wave climates are also seasonal and normally characterised by a relatively rough summer climate and a relatively calm winter climate. The summer climate can, in absolute terms, be characterised as moderate and relatively constant in direction and height. The monsoon climate typically results in a fairly narrow sandy inner littoral zone, shifting to a gently sloping outer part of the littoral zone dominated by finer sediments.
Here, fix the degree signs
- Tropical cyclone climate. Tropical storms are called hurricanes near the American continents, typhoons near SE-Asia and Australia, and cyclones when occurring near India and Africa. Tropical storms are generated over tropical sea areas where the water temperature is higher than 27 degrees centigrade. They are normally generated between 5N and 15N and between 5S and 15S. From there they progress towards the W–NW in the Northern Hemisphere and towards the W–SW in the Southern Hemisphere. Cyclones do not penetrate the area between 5N and 5S, as wind circulation cannot occur so close to the equator. An average of 60 tropical cyclones is generated every year. Tropical cyclones are characterised by wind speeds exceeding 32 m/s and they give rise to very high waves, storm surge and cloudburst. Tropical cyclones occur as single events, peaking during September in the Northern Hemisphere and similarly peaking during January in the Southern Hemisphere. Tropical cyclones are rare and therefore recording programmes seldom document the resulting waves. A tropical storm will normally have great impact on the coastal morphology when it hits, but the coastal morphology will first and foremost be determined by the normal wave climate, which can be either monsoon or swell climates.
Long Waves
The long waves are primarily second order phenomena of shallow water wave processes. The four main types of long waves are described in the following.
Surf beat
Natural waves often show a tendency to wave grouping, where a series of high waves follows a series of low waves. This is especially pronounced on open sea-coasts, where the incoming waves may be of different origins and will thus have a large spreading in wave heights, wave directions, and wave periods (or frequencies). Wave grouping will cause oscillations in the wave set-up with a period corresponding to approx. 6 – 8 times the mean wave period; this phenomenon is called surf-beats. Surf-beats near port entrances are very important in relation to mooring conditions in the port basins and sedimentation in the port entrance.
Fig 5.10
Wave set-up (upper), surf beat generated harbour resonance, recorded by a tide gauge, in a small port (middle) and circulation caused by the gradient in the wave set-up.
Harbour resonance
Harbour resonance is forced oscillation of a confined water body (e.g. a harbour basin or a lagoon) connected to a larger water body (the sea). If long-period oscillations are present in the sea, e.g. due to wave grouping or surf-beats or seiche, large oscillations at the natural frequency of the confined water body may occur. Oscillations at the first harmonic, which are the simplest mode of resonance, are often called the pumping or Helmholz mode.
Harbour resonance normally has periods in the range of 2 to 10 minutes. It is especially important in connection with the mooring conditions for large vessels, as their resonance period for the so-called surge motion is often close to that of the harbour resonance. In addition the associated water exchange may cause siltation.
Seiche
A seiche is the free oscillation of a water body, probably caused by rapid variations in the wind conditions. Seiche can occur in closed water areas, such as lakes or lagoons, and in semi-closed water bodies, such as bays. The period of the seiche oscillation is typically in the range of 2 to 40 minutes. Seiche can influence a port in the same manner as surf-beats. It is important to establish whether seiche is present in an area through field investigations, and if so, to take it into account in the layout of the port. Surf-beat influence within a port is often caused by an inexpedient layout. The influence of surf-beat is not applicable for seiche, as seiche is not limited to the nearshore zone. This means that if seiche motion is present in an area, it will inevitably penetrate the entrance. However, its impact on the port may be minimised through a proper layout.
Tsunami
A tsunami is a single wave, which is generated by sub-sea earthquakes; it typically has a period of 5 to 60 minutes. Tsunami waves can travel long distances across the oceans; they are similar to shallow water waves, which means that the speed v is calculated as the square root of the product of the water depth and the acceleration of gravity, v = (gh)1/2. Consequently, tsunamis travel very fast in the deep oceans. If the water depth is 5000 m, the speed will be more than 200 m/s or about 800 km/hour. A tsunami is normally not very high in deep water, but when it approaches the coastline, the wave will be shoaling and can reach a height of more than 10 m. Tsunamis are rare and coastal projects seldom take them into account. However, in very sensitive projects, such as nuclear power plants located in the coastal hinterland, the risk must be considered.
Currents
The various types of currents in the sea, which may be important to coastal processes in one way or another, are described in the following.
Currents in the Open Sea
Tidal currents are formed by the gravitational forces of the sun, the moon and the planets. These currents are of oscillatory nature with typical periods of around 12 or 24 hours, the so-called semi-diurnal and diurnal tidal currents. The tidal currents are strongest in large water depths away from the coastline and in straits where the current is forced into a narrow area. The most important tidal currents in relation to coastal morphology are the currents generated in tidal inlets. Typical maximum current speeds in tidal inlets are approx. 1 m/s, whereas tidal current speeds in straits and estuaries can reach speeds as high as approx. 3 m/s.
Fig 5.11
Tidal currents in tidal inlet (Caravelas in Brazil).
Wind-generated currents are caused by the direct action of the wind shear stress on the surface of the water. The wind-generated currents are normally located in the upper layer of the water body and are therefore not very important from a morphological point of view. In very shallow coastal waters and lagoons, the wind-generated current can, however, be of some importance. Wind-generated current speeds are typically less than 5 per cent of the wind speed.
Storm surge current is the current generated by the total effect of the wind shear stress and the barometric pressure gradients over the entire area of water affected by a specific storm. This type of current is similar to the tidal currents. The horizontal current velocity follows a logarithmic distribution in the water profile and has the same characteristics as the tidal current. It is strongest at large water depths away from the coastline and in confined areas, such as straits and tidal inlets.
Current in the Nearshore Zone.
Shore-parallel currents
The longshore current is the dominant current in the nearshore zone. The longshore current is generated by the shore-parallel component of the stresses associated with the breaking process for obliquely incoming waves, the so-called radiation stresses, and by the surplus water which is carried across the breaker-zone towards the coastline. This current has its maximum close to the breaker-line. During storms the longshore current can reach speeds exceeding 2.5 m/s. The longshore current carries sediment along the shoreline, the so-called littoral drift; this mechanism will be discussed further in Section 6.
The longshore current is generally parallel to the coastline and it varies in strength approximately proportional to the square root of the wave height and with sin2b, where b is the wave incidence angle at breaking. As the position of the breaking line constantly shifts due to the irregularity of natural wave fields and since the distance to the breaker-line varies with the wave height, the distribution of the longshore current in the coastal profile will vary accordingly.
Shore-normal currents
Rip currents At certain intervals along the coastline, the longshore current will form a rip current. It is a local current directed away from the shore, bringing the surplus water carried over the bars in the breaking process back into deep water. The rip opening in the bars will often form the lowest section of the coastal profile; a local setback in the shoreline is often seen opposite the rip opening. The rip opening travels slowly downstream.
Fig 5.12
Distribution in longshore current in a coastal profile and rip current pattern. Cross-currents along the shore-normal coastal profile Cross-currents occur especially in the surf-zone. Three contributions balance each other:
- Mass transport, or wave drift, is a phenomenon occurring during wave motion over both sloping and horizontal beds. Water particles near the surface will be transported in the direction of wave propagation when waves travel over an area. This phenomenon is called the mass transport. In the surf-zone the mass transport is directed towards the coast.
- Surface roller drift. When the waves break, water is transported in the surface rollers towards the coast. This is the so-called surface roller drift.
- Undertow. In the surf-zone, the above two contributions are concentrated near the surface. As the net flow is zero, they are compensated for by a return flow in the offshore direction, which is concentrated near the bed. This is the so-called undertow. The undertow is important in the formation of bars.
Two-dimensional currents in the nearshore zone
Along a straight shoreline, the above-mentioned shore-parallel and shore-normal current patterns dominate. The currents discussed in this sub-chapter are two-dimensional in the horizontal plane due to complex bathymetries and structures in the nearshore zone.
Two-dimensional current patterns occur, especially in the following situations:
- When the bathymetry is irregular and very different from the smooth shore-parallel pattern of depth contours characteristic of sandy shorelines, and also when the coastline is very irregular. This can, for example, be at partially rocky coastlines or along coastlines where coral reefs or other hard reefs are present. Irregular depth contours give rise to irregular wave patterns, which again can cause special current phenomena important to the understanding of the coastal morphology. Irregular bathymetry combined with an irregular coastline adds further to the complexity of the wave and current pattern. Reefs provide partial protection against wave action. However, they also generate overtopping of water and compensation currents behind the reef. At low sections of the reef or in gaps in the reef, the surplus water returns to the sea in rip-like jets. This is the pattern for both submerged reefs and emerged reefs with overtopping during storms. Such current systems are of great importance to the morphology behind the reef. Changes in reef structure, natural or man-made, can cause great changes in the morphology.
- In the vicinity of coastal structures, such as groynes, coastal breakwaters and port structures. Such structures influence the current pattern in two principally different ways: by obstructing the shore-parallel current and by setting up secondary circulation currents.
The nature of the obstruction of the shore-parallel currents of course depends on the extension and shape of the coastal structure. If the structure is located within the breaker-zone, the obstruction leads to offshore-directed jet-like currents, which cause loss of beach material. If the structure is a port, the current will follow the upstream breakwater and finally reach the entrance area. The currents in the entrance area will both influence the navigation conditions and cause sedimentation, consequently the design of the entrance is important. It must provide a smooth and predictable current pattern so its impact on navigation is acceptable, sedimentation must be minimised and the bypass of sand must be optimised. The answer is a smooth layout of the main and secondary breakwaters combined with a narrow entrance pointing towards the prevailing waves.
At the leeward side of coastal structures, special current patterns caused by the sheltering effect of the structure in the diffraction area can develop. Sheltered or partly sheltered areas may result in circulation currents along the inner shoreface as well as return currents leading to deep water. The reason for this is that the wave set-up in the sheltered areas is smaller than in the adjacent exposed areas and this generates a gradient in the water-level towards the sheltered areas. These circulation currents in the sheltered areas can be dangerous for swimmers who are using the sheltered area for swimming during rough weather. Another problem is that the sheltered areas will be exposed to sedimentation and such areas must, therefore, be avoided when planning small ports.
Fig 5.13
Lee circulation patterns for a coastal breakwater and a small port. The optimal shape of a small port, avoiding the lee area.
If the structure extends beyond the breaker-zone, the shore-parallel current will be directed along the structure, where the increasing depth will decrease the speed. The current will deposit the sand in a shoal off the breaker-zone upstream of the structure. In the case of a major port, the longshore current will not reach the entrance area. In the lee area of a major coastal structure, the effect of return currents towards the sheltered area will also be pronounced, but the current circulation pattern will be smoother and less dangerous for swimmers. The sheltered areas will act as a sedimentation area adding severely to effects of the lee side erosion outside the sheltered area of such structures. Once again, sheltered areas should be avoided.
- Adjacent to special morphological features such as sand spits, river mouths and tidal inlets. The current patterns and the associated sediment transport at such locations can be very complicated. Only a few general comments will be given in this overview of currents and their impacts.
In tidal inlets and river mouths there are often concentrated currents in the gorge section of the mouth, but seawards of this area the current pattern expands and the current speed decreases. This is also the case landwards of the gorge section in tidal inlets. The gorge section is often deep and narrow, whereas the expanding currents on either side tend to form the ebb and flood shoals respectively. The ebb shoal tends to form a dome-shaped bar on littoral transport shorelines, on which the littoral transport bypasses the mouth/inlet.
Fig 5.14
Ebb and flood shoals at tidal channel, Cay Calker, Belize. This area is mainly exposed to the tidal currents, whereas the wave climate is very mild. | https://marinespecies.org/i/index.php?title=Waves&oldid=2666 |
Formation process of tsunami
The formation of tsunami can be roughly divided into four stages: generation, propagation, amplification and ascension.
The main cause of tsunami is earthquake, once the crust has vertical disturbance, the sea surface follows it, and then affected by the gravity field, waves are then transmitted from the source to the surrounding areas by a gravitational field. In the process of transmission, because the energy attenuation is very small, the tsunami can transmitted the energy generated by the earthquake through the tsunami wave, from deep water to shallow water, across the ocean, to the other side. When the tsunami wave approaches the shore, the effect of the bottom bed will cause the tsunami wave to be lifted along with the terrain due to the shallow water depth, in addition, the velocity of the tsunami wave will also be slowed down due to the shallow water depth, therefore, the tsunami will be slower as it gets closer to the shore, and the tsunami behind will accumulate, resulting in the amplification of the whole tsunami wave heights. This is the third process: tsunami amplification. The destructive power of tsunami with amplified wave heights to coastal areas increases with the increase of wave heights. Next, the tsunami will reach land and begin to destroy it. A tsunami can reach the highest point on land, called ascent. In the process of ascending, it was the tsunami that caused the disaster. The inland tsunami will move forward in a flood-like manner, even thousands of meters away. It can take up to an hour for a tsunami to reach inland before it subsides. Unlike floods, when a tsunami moves forward, the front edge of the tsunami will first destroy buildings or structures by impact, or weaken the strength of structures. The following tsunami itself contains a strong turbulence mechanism, which will erode the surface coverage and cause serious loss of road or housing roadbed. It is more destructive than a flood. In severe cases, the tsunami will travel upstream and then return to the sea, which creates a second degree of erosion.
Damage process of tsunami
Energy from the interior of the water pushes the water upward, forcing energy to propagate horizontally along the water surface under the action of gravity, and further away from the original crustal movement site. In the case of earthquakes, the tremendous force of the earthquake gives the tsunami incredible speed.
The ability of a tsunami to maintain speed is directly affected by the depth of the water. The deeper the water, the faster the tsunami moves; conversely, the slower it moves. Unlike normal waves, the driving energy of a tsunami travels through water rather than moving on the surface. So when a tsunami moves through deep water at hundreds of kilometers per hour, it is almost imperceptible above the water line. Tsunamis usually do not reach a height of 1 m until they are close to the coast.
Usually, a tsunami comes to shore as a series of powerful and rapid tides, rather than as a single giant wave. When a tsunami reaches land, it hits shallower bodies of water. Shallow water and coastal water act as a compression of energy passing through the water body. As the wave velocity decreases, the wave height increases significantly (compressed energy pushes water upward). As a typical tsunami approaches land, its speed drops to about 50km/h and its wave height may reach 30m above sea level. In this process, the wavelength decreases significantly with the increase of wave height. Then there may be a raging tide-a large vertical wave with a sharp roll in the front. Fast floods usually follow rage tides, making them particularly destructive. After the initial shock, other waves will follow within 5 to 90 minutes - after traveling a long distance as a series of waves, the tsunami waves begin to drain all their energy onto land.
During the tsunami impact, the most dangerous places are within 1.6km of the coastline (due to floods and scattered debris) and less than 15m above sea level (due to the height of the waves causing the impact). | https://drr.ikcest.org/tutorial/p8e4b |
The recent gales have stirred angler’s interest as well as the seabed, with the cod hunters in particular desperate to get out and about on the beaches pulverized by the storm. However, in the wake of the big waves it is worth looking at the venue at low tide to see what effect the breakers have had on the underwater features and contours.
The power of the sea may not be able to move mountains but it can certainly shift the position of sandbanks, gulleys, rocks and in extreme cases large boulders. The constant thorough beating of the waves on a shoreline can substantially change not just the clean sandy areas but can bring down cliffs and shift kelp beds. Previously productive, fish holding areas may have been shifted or eliminated entirely and the angler who does not reconnoitre their chosen fishing mark may be casting their lures or baits over a barren area. The seas may also have brought new snags inshore or have strewn kelp and other tackle hungry weed over the seabed.
A visit to a beach after a big blow can produce a decent supply of bait as shellfish, razorfish in particular, are often dislodged from their previously safe havens in the sand as the wave action churns up the seabed. This supply of bait for the angler has the added bonus of being free feed for the fish and they will regularly move into an area to mop up after the winds have dropped.
What Are Waves?
Waves at sea are disturbances that cause energy to be transported through the water with little or no transportation of the water itself. In other words, although a wave can appear as a moving “wall” of water, the water molecules themselves are not being transported just their energy. Everyone will have seen the seagull sitting on the surface of the water bobbing about on the waves. The bird moves up and down as the waves pass beneath it but stays more or less in the same position.
All waves have the same basic characteristics, the highest part of a wave is the crest; the lowest part is called the trough. The vertical distance between the wave crest and trough is the wave height and the amplitude, the maximum disturbance, is half this distance. The distance from a certain point on one crest or trough to the same point on the next crest or trough is the wavelength. The period is the amount of time it takes for succeeding crests to pass a specified point.
Wave Terminology
Most waves are formed by the wind when downdrafts depress the surface of the sea momentarily. A ridge and depression are formed and, like the ripples in a pond when a stone is dropped, the wave travels away from its origin. Smaller waves can catch up with each other and combine to grow larger.
Three factors control the size of waves:
- the strength of the wind;
- the duration of the wind;
- the distance of open water the wave travels, known as the fetch.
Generally, the coastlines facing the open Atlantic will experience bigger waves then those on the North Sea coasts due to the distance of open water out to the west of Europe. Due to its accompanying high wind strengths, a low-pressure system will generally produce larger waves than a high-pressure system.
Why Do Waves Break?
Waves in deep water have a symmetrical “sine-wave” shape, where the crest and trough are smooth curves of equal size and shape. As a wave approaches the shore, the sea bottom depresses the trough, and the wave grows taller. At the same time, friction with the bottom causes the lower part of the wave to slow down while the top continues to move at the same speed. Eventually, the wave topples over or “breaks.”
The shape of the shoreline determines how a wave breaks. Shallow, sloping beaches cause waves to “spill” or gently break down the face. Slightly steeper beaches cause “plunging” breakers with a curling break or tunnel; these are the classic surfing waves. Beaches that are steeper still can create “collapsing” waves that break by falling all at once along the crest. “Surges” are very powerful waves that form on steep beaches during storms. They do not actually break; rather they heave or roll up the beach with tremendous force that can cause damage to property and shorelines.
A wave will generally break when the height of the wave is around 75 to 80% of the depth of the water, hence a one metre high wave will break when it arrives over a depth around 1.25 metres and a two metre wave when the depth shallows to 2.5 metres. As they break, the waves lose their energy that is lost as turbulence resulting in the stirring up of the sediments.
Shoreline Effects
In calm conditions, waves will deposit sediment on sand or gravel beaches as it falls out of suspension as the gentle flow of the wave, or swash to give it its technical name, moves up the beach. During high winds and storms, the breakers produce strong currents below the waves, the backwash, which draws the water, sand, pebbles and rocks back from the shore and causing erosion. The waves can substantially change the shape of a beach particularly during the winter months when winds are generally higher. A beach will normally be steeper shelving in winter than in summer.
If the waves hit the beach at an angle a movement is set up which is known as a longshore current or drift. This drift causes a movement of sand and pebbles along the beach in the same direction as the wind and waves. This movement will only stop when it meets an obstruction such as a headland, breakwater or the groynes that are common on east coast beaches in the UK.
Extreme storms can completely destroy sandbanks situated at extreme casting range. On a longer time scale, waves also erode bedrock and sandstone cliffs, and create forms such as sea caves and sea stacks such as the Old Man of Hoy.
When wave approach a headland or approaches the shore at an angle the waves are bent or refracted towards the headland as the part of the wave striking the land slows rapidly, while the rest of the wave continues at its original speed. The converging waves on either side of the headland cause increased erosion which can form sea caves or arches. Conversely, the shallow areas between the headlands that form coves often result in small hidden beaches.
The Effect on Marine Life
Waves, combined with tides and currents, help supply nutrients to marine plants and animals that live along the shorelines. Waves push water up the shore and when the waves are higher than normal, they extend the intertidal zone farther up the shore.
As they carry sediment with them, waves affect the type of habitat that develops along a particular shoreline. For example, sand and gravel shorelines occur because waves and currents have eroded sediment from one source and deposited it another.
If a storm changes the characteristics of a beach from a gentle rise to a steep slope the intertidal habitat will be altered this may not only affect the fish habitats but also the availability of bait for the collectors. Weed dislodged by a storm and thrown up the beach will provide nourishment for shoreline plants and animals even if it is a pain when retrieving tackle.
Check The Effects
So before rushing out the door immediately after a big blow, take a bit of time and consider how the power of the waves may have affected your favourite venue. A quick survey at low water may save you fishing an unproductive mark or losing gear on snags which nature has plonked down right where you want your baits to be fishing. | https://planetseafishing.com/features/wave-power/ |
A tsunami (plural: tsunamis or tsunami; from lit. “harbor wave English pronunciation:, also called a tsunami wave train, and at one time incorrectly referred to as a tidal wave, is a series of water waves caused by the displacement of a large volume of a body of water, usually an ocean, though it can occur in Tsunamis are a frequent occurrence in Japan; approximately 195 events have been recorded. Owing to the immense volumes of water and the high energy involved, tsunamis can devastate coastal regions.
and other (including detonations of underwater and other, and other disturbances above or below water all have the potential to generate a tsunami.
The historian was the first to relate tsunami to but the understanding of a tsunami’s nature remained slim until the 20th century and is the subject of ongoing research. Many early, and texts refer to tsunamis as “seismic sea waves.”
Some conditions, such as deep that cause, can generate a, called a which can raise several metres above normal levels. The displacement comes from low within the centre of the depression. As these reach shore, they may resemble (though are not) tsunamis, inundating vast areas of land.
Etymology and history
The Russians of, with their ships tossed inland by a tsunami, meeting some Japanese in 1779 The term tsunami comes from the Japanese composed of the (tsu) meaning (nami), meaning ” (For the plural, one can either follow two ordinary English practice and add an s, or use an invariable plural as in the Japanese.)
The Essay on Analysis Of The Great Wave Off Kanagawa By Hokusai
... the picture, we could not infer if the wave is a tsunami or a small wave coming onto shore. Since this painting is ... exactly the same and are wearing the same garments. The water itself has the same repetitive pattern throughout, the stripes of ... is commonly referred to as The Great Wave. Hokusai Katsushika was one of the greatest Japanese printmakers of the 19th century. The ...
Tsunami are sometimes referred to as tidal waves. In recent years, this term has fallen out of favor, especially in the scientific community, because tsunami actually have nothing to do with The once-popular term derives from their most common appearance, which is that of an extraordinarily high. Tsunami and tides both produce waves of water that move inland, but in the case of tsunami the inland movement of water is much greater and lasts for a longer period, giving the impression of an incredibly high tide. Although the meanings of “tidal” include “resembling” or “having the form or character of” the tides, and the term tsunami is no more accurate because tsunami are not limited to harbours, use of the term tidal wave is discouraged.
There are only a few other languages that have an equivalent native word. In the, the word is aazhi peralai. In the it is (Depending on the dialect. Note that in the fellow language of, a major language in the alon means “wave”.) On island, off the western coast of Sumatra in Indonesia, in the the word is smong, while in the it is emong.
The cause, in my opinion, of this phenomenon must be sought in the earthquake. At the point where its shock has been the most violent the sea is driven back, and suddenly recoiling with redoubled force, causes the inundation. Without an earthquake I do not see how such an accident could happen. The Roman historian described the typical sequence of a tsunami, including an incipient earthquake, the sudden retreat of the sea and a following gigantic wave, after the devastated
While Japan may have the longest recorded history of tsunamis, the sheer destruction caused by the and tsunami event mark it as the most devastating of its kind in modern times, killing around 230,000 people. The Sumatran region is not unused to tsunamis either, with earthquakes of varying magnitudes regularly occurring off the coast of the island
The Essay on Floods, Tsunami, Cricket Worldcup, Earthquake
... greatest strength of the tsunami waves was in the east-west direction. The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was an undersea earthquake that occurred at ... of the seismic tidal waves in the different part of the world was that people saw sea water disappearing away from the ... beaches in the minutes before the giant wave lashed back with infernal ...
Generation mechanisms
The principal generation mechanism (or cause) of a tsunami is the displacement of a substantial volume of water or perturbation of the sea This displacement of water is usually attributed to either earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions, or more rarely by meteorites and nuclear tests. The waves formed in this way are then sustained by gravity. Tides do not play any part in the generation of tsunamis.
Tsunami generated by seismicity
• Tsunami can be generated when the sea floor abruptly deforms and vertically displaces the overlying water. Tectonic earthquakes are a particular kind of earthquake that are associated with the Earth’s crustal deformation; when these earthquakes occur beneath the sea, the water above the deformed area is displaced from its equilibrium position. More specifically, a tsunami can be generated when associated with or destructive move abruptly, resulting in water displacement, owing to the vertical component of movement involved. Movement on normal faults will also cause displacement of the seabed, but the size of the largest of such events is normally too small to give rise to a significant tsunami.
The energy released produces tsunami waves.
Tsunamis have a small (wave height) offshore, and a very long (often hundreds of kilometers long, whereas normal ocean waves have a wavelength of only 30 or 40 metres which is why they generally pass unnoticed at sea, forming only a slight swell usually about 300 millimetres (12 in) above the normal sea surface. They grow in height when they reach shallower water, in a process described below. A tsunami can occur in any tidal state and even at low tide can still inundate coastal areas.
Characteristics
When the wave enters shallow water, it slows down and its amplitude (height) increases.
The wave further slows and amplifies as it hits land. Only the largest waves crest.
Tsunamis cause damage by two mechanisms: the smashing force of a wall of water travelling at high speed, and the destructive power of a large volume of water draining off the land and carrying all with it, even if the wave did not look large.
While everyday have a (from crest to crest) of about 100 metres (330 ft) and a height of roughly 2 metres (6.6 ft), a tsunami in the deep ocean has a wavelength of about 200 kilometres (120 mi).
The Essay on The Clean Water Act Of 1977
... items. First, the composition water: water is odorless, tasteless and a transparent liquid. Though in large quantities water appears to have a bluish ... officer. Because of the widespread destruction and death to the sea bearing animals, the Exxon company forfeited over one billion ... nesting along the shore were killed, along with several thousand sea mammals. The captain of this tanker soon lost his ...
Such a wave travels at well over 800 kilometres per hour (500 mph), but owing to the enormous wavelength the wave oscillation at any given point takes 20 or 30 minutes to complete a cycle and has an amplitude of only about 1 metre (3.3 ft This makes tsunamis difficult to detect over deep water. Ships rarely notice their passage.
As the tsunami approaches the coast and the waters become shallow, compresses the wave and its velocity slows below 80 kilometres per hour (50 mph).
Its wavelength diminishes to less than 20 kilometres (12 mi) and its amplitude grows enormously. Since the wave still has the same very long the tsunami may take minutes to reach full height. Except for the very largest tsunamis, the approaching wave does not but rather appears like a fast-moving Open bays and coastlines adjacent to very deep water may shape the tsunami further into a step-like wave with a steep-breaking front.
When the tsunami’s wave peak reaches the shore, the resulting temporary rise in sea level is termed run up. Run up is measured in metres above a reference sea level. A large tsunami may feature multiple waves arriving over a period of hours, with significant time between the wave crests. The first wave to reach the shore may not have the highest run upAbout 80% of tsunamis occur in the Pacific Ocean, but they are possible wherever there are large bodies of water, including lakes. They are caused by earthquakes, landslides, volcanic explosions. | https://educheer.com/term-paper/oh-my-lord-cherish-in-my-heart-the-love-for-knowledge-3/ |
Cliff erosion* Much of the sediment deposited along a coast is the result of erosion of a surrounding cliff, or bluff. Sea cliffs retreat landward because of the constant undercutting of slopes by waves. If the slope/cliff being undercut is made of unconsolidated sediment it will erode at a much faster rate than a cliff made of bedrock. * A natural arch is formed when a headland is eroded through by waves. * Sea caves are made when certain rock beds are more susceptible to erosion than the surrounding rock beds because of different areas of weakness. These areas are eroded at a faster pace creating a hole or crevice that, through time, by means of wave action and erosion, becomes a cave. * A stack (geology), stack is formed when a headland is eroded away by wave and wind action. * A Stack (geology), stump is a shortened sea stack that has been eroded away or fallen because of instability. * Wave-cut notches are caused by the undercutting of overhanging slopes which leads to increased stress on cliff material and a greater probability that the slope material will fall. The fallen debris accumulates at the bottom of the cliff and is eventually removed by waves. * A wave-cut platform forms after erosion and retreat of a sea cliff has been occurring for a long time. Gently sloping wave-cut platforms develop early on in the first stages of cliff retreat. Later, the length of the platform decreases because the waves lose their energy as they break further offshore.
Coastal features formed by sediment* Beach * Beach cusps * Cuspate foreland * Dune, Dune system * Mudflat * Raised beach * Ria * Shoal * Spit (landform), Spit * Strand plain * Surge channel * Tombolo
Coastal features formed by another feature* Lagoon * Salt marsh *Mangrove, Mangrove forests *Kelp forest, Kelp forests *Coral reef, Coral reefs *Oyster reef, Oyster reefs
Other features on the coast* Concordant coastline * Discordant coastline * Fjord * Island * Island arc * Machair
In geologyThe identification of bodies of rock formed from sediments deposited in shoreline and nearshore environments (shoreline and nearshore ''Facies (geology), facies'') is extremely important to geologists. These provide vital clues for reconstructing the geography of ancient continents (''paleogeography''). The locations of these beds show the extent of ancient seas at particular points in geological time, and provide clues to the magnitudes of tides in the distant past. Sediments deposited in the shoreface are preserved as lenses of sandstone in which the upper part of the sandstone is coarser than the lower part (a ''coarsening upwards sequence''). Geologists refer to these are ''parasequences''. Each records an episode of retreat of the ocean from the shoreline over a period of 10,000 to 1,000,000 years. These often show Lamination (geology), laminations reflecting various kinds of tidal cycles. Some of the best-studied shoreline deposits in the world are found along the former western shore of the Western Interior Seaway, a shallow sea that flooded central North America during the late Cretaceous Period (geology), Period (about 100 to 66 million years ago). These are beautifully exposed along the Book Cliffs of Utah and Colorado.
Geologic processesThe following articles describe the various geologic processes that affect a coastal zone: * Attrition (weathering), Attrition * Ocean current, Currents * Denudation * Deposition (geology), Deposition * Erosion * Flooding * Longshore drift * Marine sediments * Saltation (geology), Saltation * Sea level change ** eustatic ** isostasy, isostatic * Sedimentation * Coastal sediment supply ** sediment transport ** Solution (chemistry), solution ** subaerial processes ** Suspension (chemistry), suspension *
Wildlife
AnimalsLarger animals that live in coastal areas include Puffin, puffins, Sea turtle, sea turtles and Rockhopper penguin, rockhopper penguins, among many others. Gastropoda, Sea snails and various kinds of
Coastal fish
PlantsMany coastal areas are famous for their kelp beds. Kelp is a fast-growing seaweed that can grow up to half a meter a day in ideal conditions. Mangroves, Seagrass, seagrasses, macroalgal beds, and salt marsh are important coastal vegetation types in tropical and temperate environments respectively. Restinga is another type of coastal vegetation.
ThreatsCoasts also face many Human impact on the environment, human-induced environmental impacts and coastal development hazards. The most important ones are sea level rise, and associated issues like
Sea level rise due to climate change
PollutionThe pollution of coastlines is connected to
Marine pollution
Marine debris
Microplastics
Global goalsInternational attention to address the threats of coasts has been captured in
StatisticsWhile there is general agreement in the scientific community regarding the definition of coast, in the political sphere, the delineation of the extents of a coast differ according to jurisdiction. Government authorities in various countries may define coast differently for economic and social policy reasons. | http://theinfolist.com/html/ALL/s/coast.html |
THE PHYSICS OF TSUNAMI
The disastrous Tsunami of December 2004 took most of us by surprise. Prior to that many of us were not even familiar with the name of Tsunami, and most of us did not even know how to pronounce it Tsunami is a Japanese word, in which ‘tsu’ means harbour and ‘nami’ means wave. The word is pronounced as soo-nah-mee or tsoo-nah-mee. After the 2004 calamity, the possibility of future tsunamis destroying our lives and the environment makes it necessary for us to understand how and why it occurs.
Television images of last year’s tsunami are still fresh in our minds. We know tsunami means the sea comes and hits the coast line in a series of waves that are immense in size and force. The waves that rise are generated due to a rapid displacement of water in the sea or even in a lake by earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions or even meteorite collisions. The most common cause is, however, the occurrence of undersea earthquake, or an undersea land slide caused by an earthquake. The vertical displacement of the sea floor alongside plate boundaries of the earth’s crust can also cause tsunamis.
The movement of oceanic plates slipping below continental plates, which is known as seduction earthquakes can also cause large displacement of water. Studies have revealed that events that have an impact on the ocean like a falling meteorite or an explosive volcano throwing huge debris in the sea can also cause sudden and quick expansion of water.
Tsunamis are also referred to as tidal waves, though that’s a misnomer since tsunamis are not related to tides at all. Though tsunamis can have devastating effects on the coastal regions their occurrence are often not felt by ships sailing in the deep ocean. That is because it does not affect the sub-surface of the ocean, it simply involves a series of waves that assume the characteristics of a violent onrushing tide as they hit land.
Tsunamis are events that do not affect the surface water alone but its force can be felt deep under the ocean. They carry immense energy, propagate at high speeds and can travel great transoceanic distances. A tsunami can be felt long after the event that caused it occurred, so there may be several hours between its creation and its impact on a coast. The total energy of a Tsunami wave is spread over a large circumference as the wave travels, so the energy per linear meter in the wave decreases as the inverse power of the distance from the source.
A single tsunami event may involve a series of waves called a train. In open water, these waves have very long wavelengths that spread up to hundreds of kilometers and they seem colossal when compared to the wind generated waves on the ocean that have a mere wavelength of 150 meters.
The waves travel at high speed across the ocean ranging from 500 to 1,000 km/h. As the wave approaches land, because of the increasing shallowness of the sea the waves lose their speed and therefore begin to gather together with the wave-front becomes steeper and taller. While a person at the surface of deep water would probably not even notice the tsunami, the wave can increase to a height of 30 m or more as it approaches the coastline and compresses.
Tsunamis propagate outward from their source and diffract around landmasses. They may be asymmetrical and affect one direction more than the other. Though Tsunamis cannot be prevented or predicted with accuracy, the scientific community has developed a Tsunami warning system that studies under sea land and water movement in order to foresee any possible disaster occurring due to a Tsunami.
Sometimes animals can warn us against a Tsunami by their peculiar behaviour when they begun to disperse to higher areas. Certain tsunami prone countries like Japan have build tsunami resistant walls, floodgates and channels. | https://www.newspeechtopics.com/essay-writing-on-the-physics-of-tsunami/ |
On July 28, 2021 tsunami warning sirens sounded in coastal towns along southern Alaska and the Alaska Peninsula. A M8.2 earthquake 70 miles offshore from Chignik prompted the National Tsunami Warning Center to issue a tsunami warning for much of coastal Alaska. Several communities issued evacuations, including Chignik Bay, Chignik Lagoon, City of Kodiak, False Pass, Homer, King Cove, Nelson Lagoon, Old Harbor, Sand Point, Seward, and Unalaska. The Chignik tsunami warning was cancelled a few hours after the earthquake.
Fortunately, the tsunami caused by the earthquake was smaller than might be anticipated for an earthquake of this size. Many factors can influence tsunami height, including underwater landslides or earthquake depth. At the moment, we have no data about underwater landslides triggered by the Chignik earthquake. The depth of the earthquake, about 20 miles, meant there was not much movement on the surface of the ocean floor. The resulting initial waves were under a foot high (see Figure 1). A shallower earthquake could have resulted in more uplift of the ocean floor, generating a much larger tsunami. For example, in 2009 a M8.1 earthquake in Samoa that was 10 miles deep generated a wave height of approximately 9 feet, about the height of a one-story building. The tsunami caused a large amount of damage and killed 189 people. In 2014, a M8.2 in Chile at a depth of about 15 miles generated a tsunami of approximately 7 feet, causing widespread damage.
Measuring the initial wave of a tsunami doesn’t tell the whole story. Tsunamis are trains of waves that arrive over the course of hours, and often over a full day. Initial waves are rarely the largest. Looking at NOAA tide gauge records for this event (Figure 2) can give us valuable insight into how larger tsunamis might behave in different communities.
The tide gauge records for Sand Point and King Cove in Figure 2 clearly show larger waves arriving after the initial wave. These two communities had the closest available tide gauges to the earthquake source. In Sand Point, shallow water and harbor resonance (when energy bounces back and forth in an enclosed area) caused wave heights to increase in later waves.
The location of a community and the underwater landscape surrounding it affect how the tsunami manifests locally. In deep ocean, tsunami waves may travel 500 mph or more, faster than a jet plane. Shallow water slows the waves down. For example, because of Seldovia’s sheltered location inside Cook Inlet the tide gauge there recorded smaller, later waves than what were recorded in Cordova and Seward, which are more exposed to deep water. Waves arrived in Sitka earlier than in other communities closer to the earthquake origin, because the wave speed across the deep waters of the Gulf of Alaska is faster than in the shallow waters of the continental shelf.
Yakutat’s proximity to the deep Gulf of Alaska allowed waves to reach the coast soon after the earthquake. The waves then resonated within the enclosed bay, causing the repetitive pattern seen in Figure 2.
Tsunami waves were recorded in Kahului Harbor, HI and Crescent City, CA. Hawaii’s location in the middle of deep ocean puts it at risk from nearly all tsunamis originating in Alaska. Crescent City, CA, has underwater landscape features and a harbor orientation and shape that amplify incoming tsunami waves. A tsunami from the 1964 M9.2 earthquake in Alaska killed 11 people, damaged hundreds of homes, and destroyed 30 square blocks downtown in Crescent City.
When a large earthquake such as the Chignik M8.2 occurs, but we avoid the danger of a big tsunami, it provides an unparalleled learning opportunity for everyone. How did the tsunami spread and how did it behave in each community? How quickly and successfully did your community evacuate? Is there room for improvement? In the midst of such an event, tsunami warnings must happen within minutes, whereas the information about the earthquake mechanism and depth that trigger the tsunami take much longer to decipher. The Alaska Earthquake Center works to provide tools for communities to understand and prepare for tsunami hazards. Knowing your tsunami risk before disaster hits could save your life. Explore the online tool at tsunami.alaska.edu to determine whether your house, workplace, or school is in the inundation/flood zone. Check with your local agencies about evacuation routes and safety ahead of time. | https://earthquake.alaska.edu/why-small-tsunami-not-false-alarm |
Environmental Implications of Japan's Geology 19, Horyuji Gate (AD 607), Nara, survivor of many earthquakes.
Horyuji Gate (AD 607), Nara, survivor of many earthquakes. -- This very old structure is persuasive evidence of the durability of wooden buildings during earthquakes. In its nearly 1,400 year history, it has survived countless earthquakes, emerging relatively unscathed because of the flex inherent in wooden structures.
Environmental Implications of Japan's Geology 12, Avalanche scar, Mt. Iwate.
Avalanche scar, Mt. Iwate. -- This steep slope on Mt. Iwate has several avalanche scars marked by patches of bare rock and the absence of trees. Avalanches are most common where deep snow falls on steep slopes. In Japan, moisture-laden air masses from the surrounding oceans can produce very heavy snowfall in the mountains. This, combined with frequent earthquakes which can act as triggers, mean that avalanches are another natural hazard the Japanese have to contend with.
Landscapes of Japan, 18, Coastal features, straight Pacific coast: wave-eroded sea cliffs, wave-cut terrace, Mizushirazaki.
Coastal features, straight Pacific coast: wave-eroded sea cliffs, wave-cut terrace, Mizushirazaki. -- Japan has about 18,000 miles of coastline whose configuration differs from place to place depending upon the interaction between shoreline erosive processes and earth crustal movement. At Mizushirazaki, the trend of rocks and geological structures is nearly parallel with the coast resulting in a fairly straight coastline. (Compare this coastline with that shown in slide 1.19.) Waves are actively eroding and undercutting the base of sea cliffs causing them to collapse into the water. As the coastline retreats in this manner, a flat wave-cut bench is produced offshore a few feet below sea level. The flat surface covered with trees above the cliffs is an old wave-cut bench that has been uplifted above sea level by crustal movement. -- Notice the small beaches that have formed from sediment deposition in areas sheltered behind rock promontories.
Landscapes of Japan, 04, Steep gradient, downcutting stream. The Sacred Bridge at Toshogu Shrine, Nikko.
Steep gradient, downcutting stream. The Sacred Bridge at Toshogu Shrine, Nikko. -- As rivers downcut and reduce their gradient, they tend to eliminate rapids and waterfalls. Because of more-or-less constant uplift in Japan, rivers typically have not been able to accomplish this. This river has rapids and falls indicating a steep gradient. There are no flat surfaces adjacent to the stream to indicate that it is shifting laterally. This is a small, fast-flowing, actively downcutting, short river typical of most of the rivers of Japan. | https://digitalccbeta.coloradocollege.edu/search?mode=facet&facet=Topic&val=Environment-Environmental%20Challenges |
- There are many actions you can undertake to help protect marine wildlife.
The lookout offers good views of the two types of coastline occurring along the suburbs of Quinns Rocks and Mindarie.
Looking north, a southern side of the triangular Quinns Beach or the cuspate foreland is visible. At its most seaward point, an artificial headland was installed in 1977. The Quinns Beach is bounded by cliffs and Mindarie Marina to the south and a series of nearshore reefs and cliffs to the north (at the level of Jindalee). Changes in sediment transport at Quinns Beach are affected by complex patterns of wave climate. Offshore waves are modified through processes of shoaling, breaking, refraction and diffraction across the system of three offshore reefs before arriving to the nearshore zone. These processes are further affected by seasonal changes.
The coastal limestones in the City of Wanneroo are considered some of the best developed compared with other similar areas around the world. There are numerous examples of well-developed large solution tubes with lithified roots and the alternating bays and rocky limestone headlands with the bays containing sandy beaches backed by steep limestone cliffs. These can be found along the Mindarie foreshore, including features like a natural arch, dolines, numerous solution tubes, layers of fossil soils and caves.
The limestone rocks we see today have been exposed for about 5,000 years when the present sea level generally prevailed. The limestone coastal rocks are dynamic, environmentally sensitive to marine erosion, to salt crystalisation, wind and spray erosion and rain impact. Torrential rains can trigger structures that might have looked stable before. Therefore the stability of cliffs can change overnight and may present a hazard.
However, the designated coastal path provides nice views of the cliffs and other limestone features. Ospreys can be seen sitting on the cliffs or fishing just off the coast.
Top tips for conserving marine wildlife
- Take your rubbish such as discarded fishing gear, bait straps, plastic bags or any plastic items home to save marine animals from a slow death;
- If you find any floating bags and other plastic at sea or on the coast, please pick it up and take away with you;
- When boating, “go slow for those below”, especially over seagrass beds, shallow areas and channels where dolphins, turtles and other marine wildlife feed;
- Fish for the future – abide by fish size, bag and possession limits set by the Department of Fisheries;
- If you find a stranded, sick, injured or entangled dolphin, turtle, seal, whale or seabird, please call 24-hour Wildcare Helpline on (08) 9474 9055; and
- If you find a tagged turtle or other animal, please note the tag number and contact the Department of Parks and Wildlife.
REFERENCES
- Cardno (2015) Quinns Beach Long Term Coastal Management. Coastal Processes and Preliminary Options Assessment Report. Report prepared for the City of Wanneroo. | https://www.wanneroo.wa.gov.au/info/20098/walking_trails/361/mindarie_foreshore_and_kinsale_park_trail/3 |
“O LORD God Almighty!
Where is there anyone as mighty as you, LORD?
Faithfulness is your very character.
You are the one who rules the oceans.
When their waves rise in fearful storms, you subdue them.
You are the one who crushed the great sea monster.
You scattered your enemies with your mighty arm.
The heavens are yours, and the earth is yours;
everything in the world is yours–you created it all.”
Psalm 89:8-11 NLT
**There is a video version of this lecture here: https://youtu.be/AABQaGmEUkE
**The exam is based on the content in these notes, so please print them off to study from.
Oceans cover approximately 70% of the Earth’s surface. This percentage appears to have changed as sea level has changed throughout Earth’s history: currently sea level is estimated to be 200 metres higher than during the last ice age. There is evidence that at times past, sea level was much higher than present and/or that mountains were lower than present … The Earth is a dynamic environment in which, over billions of years, things have changed dramatically.
Oceans are deepest in trenches which appear to be associated with tectonic subduction zones; the deepest are in the Pacific Ocean, off the coast of Asia (remember plate tectonics in Chapter 13 4CE, Chapter 12 3CE). These may seem counter-intuitive. We tend to assume oceans would be deepest in the middle. In fact, due to subduction under continental plates they are often deepest just offshore and, due to new crustal formation where plates are spreading, they are relatively shallow in the middle.
Seawater is a solution composed of water and dissolved elements, principally:
- Chlorine (Cl) and sodium (Na) – i.e. NaCl or salt
- Other chemicals including magnesium, sulphur, calcium, potassium, and bromine
- Water does dissolve 57 of the 92 naturally occurring chemical elements (remember the periodic table of the elements?), so most naturally occurring chemical elements are found in sea water, although in very small quantities.
- Commercially, salt (NaCl), magnesium, and bromine are “mined” from sea water.
The global average percentage of these dissolved elements is approximately 3.5% or 35 parts of dissolved elements per thousand parts of water.
- Brine refers to water that has a higher concentration of dissolved chemicals than 3.5%. Typically this occurs in tropical and subtropical regions where there is much evaporation from the oceans (the dissolved minerals do not evaporate, thus their concentration increases as water evaporates). The Persian Gulf, for instance, has a salinity of 4.0% because of high evaporation and little precipitation.
- Brackish refers to water that has lower concentration of dissolved chemicals than 3.5%. Typically this occurs in more northerly or more southerly waters (less evaporation), particularly where large rivers or much runoff introduces large amounts of fresh water into the ocean, diluting the salinity of the ocean water. The Baltic Sea (northern Europe), for instance, has a salinity as low as 1.0%
For more on seawater salinity and a map of global salinity.
I. Ocean Structure
A. Physical Structure
Define and know Figure 16.4 4CE, p. 495, “The ocean’s physical structure” (Figure 16.2 3CE, p. 487):
- Mixing zone: the surface area, where heat from the sun and atmosphere and the mixing effect of winds influence the water properties.
- Thermocline transition zone: the temperature decreases with depth. This zone is only marginally influenced by surface heating and movement (wind).
- Deep cold zone: water is near 0°C and is unaffected by any surface weather or movement — cold, dark, and still … always!
B. Ocean Currents
An ocean current is a continuous, directed movement of seawater generated by forces acting such as wind, the Coriolis effect, and local topography. For today’s ocean currents, click on this excellent website.
On the ocean surface, currents (flows of water in one direction) are caused by wind stresses on the upper layers of the ocean. Wind friction results in water movement in the top 100 metres.
Because of the effect of the earth’s rotation, currents move at right angles to wind direction; to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the south. (Figure 6.18, “Major ocean currents”, 4CE, p. 165 (3CE, Fig. 6.20, p. 155)
In general, surface currents direct water from the equator to the poles .
Deep ocean currents provide the feedback mechanism by which water is redirected toward the equator. Water travels back toward the equator along the ocean floor (Figure 6.20, “Deep ocean circulation”, 4CE, p. 168 (3CE, Figure 6.22 p. 159)). This global movement of warm surface water poleward and deep water movement from the poles toward the Equator is called the thermohaline circulation. It is often described as a global conveyor belt.
You don’t need to know all the details. Do know that surface currents tend to move warm water poleward (this has major climate influences) and deep currents tend to move cold water back toward the Equator
C. Ocean Zones
- Ocean Basins – refer to open ocean areas, 3-6 kilometres deep, typically underlain by younger, thinner crustal material than the continents.
- Continental Slope – refers to the steep slope at the edge of most continents where the seabed drops to deep water.
- Continental Shelves – refer to relatively shallow underwater extensions of the continents from the coast to the continental slope (approx. 200 m deep). (e.g. Grand Banks off Newfoundland)
- Littoral zone (Latin for “shore”) extends from:
- the deepest point in the ocean where storm waves can disturb the ocean floor (normally a depth of about 60 m)
to
- the highest point on the shore that storm waves can reach.
See Figure 16.5, 4CE, p. 498 “The littoral zone” (Figure 16.3 3CE, p. 488). This is where the majority of landforms are actively being formed and modified by weathering, mass wasting, and erosion.
D. Tides
Tides refer to the rhythmic daily rise and fall of the ocean surface.
Tides vary from as little as 1 metre (in the Mediterranean Sea) to 15.5 metres in the Bay of Fundy (and its arm, the Minas Basin) … cool animation of high and low tides in the Bay of Fundy, and the example of Scott’s Bay, NS. How high tides will be (the difference between high and low tide) is predictable because they are caused by physical forces – especially the relative position of the sun – earth – moon.
Study Figure 16.6, “The cause of tides”, 4CE, p. 499 (3CE, p. 491)!
Simply put, the ocean waters respond to the gravitational pulls of the moon (primarily) and the sun (secondarily):
- the moon’s gravitational pull counteracts the earth’s gravitational pull at two points:
a. at the point on the earth’s surface directly beneath the moon
b. at the point on the earth directly opposite (a)
2. at these two points water is less tightly held to the earth and “bulges” away (we describe this as a “high tide”).
3. because the earth rotates on its axis and the moon revolves around the earth, these points of high tide are constantly changing; moving at a rate of 3000 km/h.
4. it takes 24 hours, 30 minutes for the moon to return to the same point above the earth; during that time two tidal rises occur:
a. one when the moon is directly overhead, and
b. one when the moon is directly opposite.
5. but tides are not of a constant magnitude. Over about a 28 day cycle, tides vary from a maximum high tide, to a minimum high tide and back to a maximum high tide. This is due to the influence of the sun’s gravitational pull.
6. when the sun and moon are pulling together (full and new moons), the greatest gravitational forces are at work and the greatest tidal ranges occur (spring tides … animation). A tide that occurs when the difference between high and low tide is greatest; the highest level of high tide.
See Figure 16.6, examples a and b.
7. when the sun is pulling at right angles to the moon (1st and 3rd quarters of the moon), gravitational effects are somewhat balanced, resulting in minimum tidal ranges (neap tides … animation). A tide that occurs when the difference between high and low tide is least; the lowest level of high tide.
See Figure 16.6, examples c and d.
8. tidal ranges are also strongly influenced by local sea bed and coastal landforms.
In reality, ocean tides are not quite so simple. If our planet had no continents, tides would simply be bulges of water moving westward with the moon and sun. Because of land masses, however, tides are actually a complex system of rotating and trapped waves. In the North Atlantic, waves mainly rotate anti-clockwise, with small rises in the middle of the ocean and higher amplitudes around coastlines, especially in northwest Europe and Britain. Here is an amazing video of actual tides created by NASA: Global Ocean Tides (NASA). The data used in this visualization run for slightly longer than one Earth day.
In areas with substantial tides tidal power has been explored as a power generating option (e.g. Bay of Fundy). This has substantial environmental impact, however, because a dam has to be built across the mouth of a bay. This does interfere with fish and other marine life which raises environmental concerns. See Figures 16.7 and 16.8 “Tidal range and Tidal power” (4CE, pp. 500-501; Fig. 16.7 3CE, p. 492).
II. Littoral (Coastal) Systems
In this course we will focus on the littoral (coastal) zone. Within most littoral (coastal) environments, there are four main zones:
- Offshore zone – where wave action does not reach sea floor
- Nearshore or Inshore zone – where waves energy reaches the sea floor
- Foreshore zone – where waves start to break
- Backshore zone – above normal wave activity
Identify and study these four zones on Figure 16.5 4CE, p.498, “The littoral zone,” (Figure 16.3 3CE, p. 488).
-
Offshore Zone
Coastal processes are driven by water moving landward in the form of waves. Waves are, in turn, generated by wind. Wind, moving over the water surface, sets up an oscillation within the water; individual water particles move in a circular manner. (See Figure 16.9, “Wave formation and breakers,” 4CE, p. 502 (Fig. 16.8; 3CE, p. 494)).
Water particles themselves do not travel forward with the wave; the energy of the wave is transmitted from one particle to another, causing the wave (but not the actual water molecules) to move forward (Note “path of water particles” on Figure 16.9a/16.8a). The water, itself, does NOT move forward with the wave in the open ocean/offshore zone! Only the energy moves forward, transmitted from water particle to water particle
Waves are described in terms of:
- fetch: stretch of water over which wind blows to create wave action
- wavelength – horizontal distance between crests (related to wind speed/fetch)
- height – vertical distance from wave crest to wave trough
See Figure 16.9a/16.8a, 4CE, p.502 (3CE, p. 494)!
In the offshore zone, waves have no effect on the sea floor. They manifest themselves as swells, rounded undulations. Waves normally do not “break” unless severe winds push the tops over.
-
Nearshore Zone
Waves begin to affect the sea floor when the water depth is less than half of the wavelength. At this point the horizontal (forward) movement of the wave energy is impeded by friction with the floor.
As a result, the wave moves faster at the surface and slower on the sea floor, causing the wave to “pile up” (decreasing wavelength, increasing height), and ultimately fall over on itself (break). These waves are breakers. As waves break, the water particles themselves actually move forward, in the nearshore zone.
Within this zone, fine grained sediment on the sea floor may be moved landward, resulting in a rocky bed.
-
Foreshore Zone
When a wave breaks, the oscillating motion of the particles gives way to forward motion; the wave (including the water) runs landward, spending its energy as it counteracts the forces of gravity and friction (with the beach) and as it collides with the backwash of other waves.
In this zone, waves move in distinctive ways:
- as incoming waves – breakers – and swash (the water that “runs” up a beach after a wave has broken)
- as outflowing water – backwash – the water that “runs” down the beach back into the ocean.
- as rip currents – localized, faster flowing currents cutting back through the foreshore zone (up to 1 m/s);
- as longshore currents – water moves laterally down the coast because waves hit at an angle, or to counteract the effects of local topography. One consequence is the longshore or beach drift of sediment (as much as 30 cm/s to 120 cm/s). Annually 200,000 cubic metres of sand is moved by this process at Santa Barbara, CA; 40,000,000 cubic metres in the Netherlands.
- wave refraction – waves are “bent” by coastal topography. Where incoming waves strike the shore at an angle, they bend parallel to the coast due to friction with the shore.
See Figures 16.10 “Wave refraction and coastal straightening” and 16.11 “Longshore current and beach drift,” 4CE, pp. 503-504 (Fig. 16.9 and 16.10; 3CE, pp. 495-6).
-
Backshore Zone
This zone is above the normal effect of wave activity (see the backwater salt marshes on Brier Island, NS, right). However during strong winds and severe storms it may be influenced by wave activity.
Read the section on tsunamis and seismic sea waves. We introduced these in Chapter 13/12. Note: tsunamis are not “tidal” waves at all. They are caused by earthquakes and thus seismic sea waves. Tides have nothing to do with them!
III. Coastal Landforms
A. Landforms of Erosion
Study Figure 16.13, 4CE, p. 508 (Fig. 16.12; 3CE, p. 498), “Erosional coastal features.”
Erosional coastlines — coasts that are characterized by landforms sculpted by erosion (as opposed to deposition) — are typical of west coasts in northern, mid-latitude regions (like North America and Europe). In these regions the dominant winds are westerlies, exposing the coastlines to numerous, high-energy storms. Consequently the coastlines are rugged, heavily eroded by wave actions, and depositional landforms (like beaches) can be few and far between.
Landforms on coastlines with much erosion include:
-
- Marine cliffs – formed by water, suspended sediment and, rocks and boulders that are pushed by wave action (especially during storms) against the cliffs. Also, the repeated wetting and drying of the rock face facilitates the growth of salt crystals in cracks and joints. These salt crystals help to erode cliffs. The material eroded by either wave action or salt crystals falls at the cliff base. These rocks can then become active agents of erosion as they are buffeted against the cliff by the waves.
- Erosion is often greatest just below the ocean surface, creating a wave-cut notch at the base of the cliff. Cliffs are often “undercut” right at sea level, where eroded boulders and rocks are hurled against the cliff by waves.
- As cliffs retreat because of erosion, a gently sloping wave-cut platform or shore platform (a rocky platform between the cliff and sea) often develops at sea level. This, in turn, reduces the rate of erosion on the cliff itself.
- Because of variations in the intensity of waves or in rock resistance to erosion, some coastal areas may erode more quickly than others. A headland-and-bay coastline develops. Typically the headlands are rocky outcrops while the bays contain beaches formed of fine material eroded from the headlands
- Marine caves and arches – where weaknesses occur in massive rocks (due to cracks, joints, or material with little resistance), caves or arches may create dramatic features.
- Sea Stacks – are isolated outcrops of resistant rock. New Brunswick’s Hopewell Rocks (flowerpot rocks) – right – are sea stacks, with dramatic wave cut notches at the base.
B. Landforms of Deposition
Depositional coastlines — coasts that are characterized by landforms created by deposition (as opposed to erosion) — are typical of east coasts in northern, mid-latitude regions (like North America and Europe). Because the dominant winds are westerlies, these coastlines are more sheltered. This does not mean they cannot get occasional violent storms! But overall, the weather is less stormy. Typically east coasts also have larger rivers than west coasts, bringing more sediment which can be used to create depositional landforms.
Landforms on coastlines with much deposition include:
Beaches are formed by the deposition of sediment from actively eroding marine cliffs, from material transported by rivers and wind, and by storm waves scouring the ocean bed.
This sediment (from fine sand to large stones), is shaped by swash and backwash into wedge shaped deposits, beaches. Beaches always form at the head of bays. The sediment is washed down from the headlands toward the end/head of the bay.
Beach Profiles
The shape and character of a beach varies according to the type of sediment, the wave energy and local topography. However a basic pattern is evident:
- in summer, sand and other fine material accumulates because waves are relatively low energy; the result is a low benchlike ridge called a summer berm.
- in winter, high energy storm waves often cut this back, washing away the finer sediment, leaving a higher, coarser winter berm. This is often where all the seaweed and other debris is piled up in a long line.
- during windy periods, sand may be redistributed to form dunes just inland. These often develop vegetation over time and become more and more stabilized.
Beach Sorting
Sediments tend to be sorted according to size:
- vertically – bands of fine/coarse sediment often run the length of the beach, in response to the variable wave/water energy
- laterally – due to wave refraction and longshore drift, waves tend to move finer material and leave coarser material behind. On a straight shoreline, coarse material is left where the waves come from; fine material is moved along.
In a bay, coarse material is left at the headlands; fine material accumulates as a beach at the head. See Figures 16.10 Coastal straightening” 4CE, p. 503 (Fig. 16.9; 3CE, p. 495) and Figure 16.14, 4CE, p. 509 (Figure 16.13, 3CE, p. 499) “Depositional coastal landforms…”
Bars and Spits
Study Figure 16.14, 4CE, p, 509 (Figure 16.13, 3CE, p. 499) “Depositional coastal landforms…”
Sediment moved by drift, when it comes to a bay, tends to keep going straight. This results in a spit, a narrow, finger-like ridge of sediment protruding into open water, called a barrier spit or barrier bar.
On occasion, a spit or bar may close off an entire bay, creating a lagoon. The spit which closes off the lagoon is called a bay barrier.
If a spit connects the mainland with an island, it is a tombolo.
Barrier beaches and barrier islands are long, narrow depositions of sand, just offshore, parallel to the coast. The southeastern U.S. coastline is dominated by these features
See Figures 16.16, 4CE, p. 511 (Figures 16.15, 3CE, p. 501) “Barrier island chain…”
and Figure 16.18, 4CE, p. 512 “Coastal change…” (Figure 16.16, 3CE, p. 503) “Hurricane Georges takes its toll.”
Wetlands, Mudflats and Marshes
Fine sediments which accumulate in very sheltered inlets, estuaries and behind spits create wetlands–mudflats and marshes.
Initially, the landscape simply consists of deposits of sediments – mudflats.
As time passes, vegetation may become established on these mudlfats, creating salt water marshes. These tend to further stabilize as the vegetation traps further sediment and organic material accumulates. In tropical regions these may further develop into mangrove swamps.
IV. Coral-Reef Coastlines
See Figure 16.18, 3CE, p. 504 (2CE, p. 540) “Worldwide distribution of living coral formations,”
and Figure 16.19, 3CE, p. 505 (2CE, p. 541) “Coral forms”
Coral reefs develop in locations with specific criteria:
- low wave energy
- warm (20°C+), tropical waters (30°N to 25°S)
- free of suspended sediment (clear)
- rich in nutrients
Coral reefs develop as corals and algae (living organisms) secrete rocklike deposits of calcium carbonate (limestone) on the sea floor. As coral colonies die, new ones are built on top, accumulating as successive layers. Click here for a cool movie, to watch coral grow!
When coral reefs reach the surface they are actively eroded, resulting in flat top reefs covered during high tide, exposed (and eroded) during low tide. Fine, white sand beaches result from the deposited erosional material.
Coral reefs area a valuable resource as some of the most diverse and productive ecosystems on earth. They are also great tourist attractions.
- Fringing reefs are built as platforms attached to the shore. They are widest in front of headlands where wave action assures clean water and an abundant food supply.
- Barrier reefs lie offshore, separated from the mainland by a lagoon. Narrow gaps or passes occur in the reef to allow water to flow out of the lagoon, back to the ocean. They are particularly common around volcanic islands associated with mid-oceanic ridges.
- Atolls are
roughly circular coral reefs enclosing lagoons, but without any land inside. Some atolls have developed to form coral island chains. Most of the world’s atolls are in the Pacific Ocean (such as the Tuamotu Islands, Caroline Islands, Marshall Islands, and the Coral Sea Islands) and Indian Ocean (the Atolls of the Maldives, the Laccadive Islands, and the Outer Islands of the Seychelles). The foundation of these reefs and islands is invariably volcanic rock, which has led to suggestions that they were originally formed around low volcanic islands, which, as sea level rose with deglaciation, subsided beneath the sea. Meanwhile the reefs, as living entities, continued to rise with the water level. Atolls have no rock or mineral material except calcium carbonate, thus only vegetation which requires few additional nutrients (e.g. palm trees) can grow. Fresh water is also non-existent except in the form of precipitation.
Coral reefs are fragile ecosystems — changes in any of their essential conditions (water pollution, water temperature, sea level changes) put reefs at risk. Much research is now engaged in preventing the destruction of coral reef environments.
The largest coral reef system Australia’s Great Barrier Reef is most threatened, with potentially only 5% of its surface area potentially being living coral within a few years:
- NOAA page on climate change and coral reefs
-
- Storms to starfish: Great Barrier Reef faces rapid coral loss: study | Reuters
- National sea simulator to offer insights into Great Barrier Reef perils | Environment | theguardian.com
Reefs in the Caribbean have also been seriously depleted due to the effects of climate change, pollution, overfishing and degradation:
Coral bleaching occurs when coral is exposed to a temperature above what it can stand for more than a month. It can expel the algae that live inside it and provide it with food. This leaves the coral a ghostly white and with no source of energy. A percentage of coral won’t re-acquire their algae and die. Over a period of time, many reefs that have experienced this coral bleaching will recover, as new corals grow, but some will be permanently lost. See Scientists racing to prevent wipeout of world’s coral reefs, Coral Bleaching event 2015
There are excellent websites on coral reefs, a great starting place with links to over 620 other organizations, visit the International Coral Reef Alliance.
V. Coastline and Ocean “Issues”
A. Preventing Beach Erosion or “Beach Nourishment” (the new “buzz” word)
People like beaches … but they are easily eroded. Wave action erodes cliffs, rocks, and sand.
Consequently several strategies have been employed to protect or stabilize them.
In order to protect shorelines from erosion two approaches may be taken:
- Protective – people build breakwaters, sea walls, dikes, barriers, etc. These are very expensive and may be destroyed during storms. In areas of substantial cliff erosion, an artificially created shore platform, made of boulders or chunks of concrete, have been tried (with some limited success around Point Grey, Vancouver, for example)
- Constructive – people create features that encourage beach building processes.
The most effective of these are groins, walls built at right angles to the shore (made of wood, rock or concrete). Sand accumulates on the updrift side. If groins are placed closely together, they can create a wide, erosion resistant beach. On sandy coastlines groins (made of wood, rock or concrete), tend to restrict longshore currents and drift, “trapping” sand on the updrift side, enhancing beaches.
For a good overview of beach nourishment strategies, visit this site.
The USGS has a great Center for Coastal and Watershed Studies, too.
B. Rising Sea Levels
As global warming is occurring one of the predicted consequences will be a rise in the sea-level of a few metres, inundating low lying areas. The acceleration is due mostly to anthropogenic global warming that is driving the thermal expansion of seawater while melting land-based ice sheets and glaciers. The current trend is expected to further accelerate during the 21st century.
See NASA Sea Level Page for current measurements
This rise in sea level would occur for two reasons:
- global warming would raise the temperature of the upper layers of the ocean (to a depth of a few hundred metres) – the resulting thermal expansion would cause sea level rise
- global warming would increase the rate of continental ice accumulations, increasing the volume of the oceans. If all continental ice were to melt, sea level would rise 60 m.
Global warming has been occurring since at least 1880 . Difficulties related to local sea level variations by tides, currents, topography etc. confuse the issue. However, sea levels clearly have risen about 80 mm by 1980 (a rate of approx. 1.2 mm/year since the early 1900s), and are currently rising at an accelerated rate of 2.4 mm/year.
Sea level in some parts of Atlantic Canada has risen 30 cm in the last 100 years. Homes, cottages and other infrastructure built near the coast are increasingly vulnerable to flooding as sea level rises and more frequent and intense storms batter the coastline.
Future projections of these rates, however, vary greatly. For instance, global warming also would result in more precipitation, causing glacier and ice-cap growth, balancing out sea level rise?
Average estimates, however, suggest a further 1 m rise by the mid-21st century, causing serious problems for major coastal cities, loss of vast amounts of agricultural land, flooding, and the exposure of inland areas to severe maritime storms.
The cost of protective dikes etc. is enormous. They may or may not be effective anyway.
One positive note – if reef-building corals keep up by intensifying their rate of growth (as they appear to do, their increased production of calcium carbonate would reduce the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, slowing the rate of global warming. If the corals could not keep pace, however, they could become extinct.
Future trends are unclear … so are future consequences and responses.
C. Warming Temperatures
With climate change, ocean temperatures are rising: 2017 Was the Hottest Year for the World’s Oceans – Latest Stories
This has several consequences including the potential for
- more intense hurricanes (see Chapter 11 or take the other course!) and In a Warming World, the Storms May Be Fewer But Stronger (NASA)
- changing ecosystems
- A swordfish and a loggerhead turtle in B.C. coastal waters? Scientists say warming seas are to blame (2018)
- Record warm ocean temperatures pose threat to B.C. salmon (2017)
- Warming Oceans Drive East Coast Fish to Cooler Waters (Scientific American)
- Warming Waters Could Shift Salmon, Other Species on West Coast (Scientific American)
D. Ocean and Beach Pollution
Pollution is an increasing concern in oceans and coastal environments.
- Beach Pollution tends to come from
- Wet weather discharges resulting from precipitation, such as rainfall and snowmelt. They include storm water runoff, sewer and sanitary sewer overflows. Storm water runoff accumulates pollutants such as oil and grease, chemicals, nutrients, metals, and bacteria as it travels across land. Sewer overflows contain a mixture of raw sewage, industrial wastewater and storm water, and have resulted in beach closings, shellfish bed closings, and aesthetic problems.
- Trash and other solid material that reach rivers, bays, estuaries and oceans eventually wash up on beaches. This includes plastic bags, bottles and cans, cigarette filters, bottle caps, and lids.
- Ship discharges. Discharges from all kinds of vessels are a source of pollution that can affect beaches. Such discharges include trash, fishing gear, ballast water, and water from sinks and showers.
- Ocean Pollution comes from many sources including boats, discharges from rivers, and debris from storms, hurricanes, etc. Plastics are a particular concern. Plastics tend to concentrate in “gyres” vast circular currents in the centre of oceans (below).
- The Great Pacific Garbage Patch is a vast area of more than 79,000 tonnes of ocean plastic in a 1.6 million square kilometre area of the North Pacific Ocean, between Hawaii and California, mostly composed of microplastics less than 0.5 cm in diameter (Great Pacific Garbage Patch is 16 times bigger than previously estimated)
Worth reflecting on …
Matthew Arnold, a Christian poet in the late nineteenth century wrote a poem entitled “Dover Beach” in which he struggles with the tension between science and Christian faith evident in his day (the Victorian / early Darwinian era). How does this poem illustrate the conflict between science and Christian faith? In what way are the troubled thoughts of Arnold (and Sophocles) like the sea? What hope does he see? How is this poem relevant to us today (consider the last stanza!)?
Dover Beach
The sea is calm to-night.
The tide is full, the moon lies fair
Upon the straits; -on the French coast the light
Gleams and is gone; the cliffs of England stand,
Glimmering and vast, out in the tranquil bay.
Come to the window, sweet is the night air!
Only, from the long line of spray
Where the sea meets the moon-blanch’d land,
Listen! you hear the grating roar
Of pebbles which the waves draw back, and fling,
At their return, up the high strand,
Begin, and cease, and then again begin,
With tremulous cadence slow, and bring
The eternal note of sadness in.
Sophocles long ago
Heard it on the Aegean, and it brought
Into his mind the turbid ebb and flow
Of human misery; we
Find also in the sound a thought,
Hearing it by this distant northern sea.
The Sea of Faith
Was once, too, at the full, and round earth’s shore
Lay like the folds of a bright girdle furl’d.
But now I only hear
Its melancholy, long, withdrawing roar,
Retreating, to the breath
Of the night-wind, down the vast edges drear
And naked shingles of the world.
Ah, love, let us be true
To one another! for the world, which seems
To lie before us like a land of dreams,
So various, so beautiful, so new,
Hath really neither joy, nor love, nor light,
Nor certitude, nor peace, nor help for pain;
And we are here as on a darkling plain
Swept with confused alarms of struggle and flight,
Where ignorant armies clash by night.
How do you feel about Arnold’s insights? Do you agree? Feel free to discuss this quote on the course discussion site (see the syllabus for details …)
Have a look at these clips with physicist, David Wilkinson:
- Is Science useful as part of an exploration of Christianity? http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uxgh4f4b9Bg&list=PLB3B77E1AA52C13B5
- Difficulties with Faith and Science http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NP8vZba0Aos&list=PLB3B77E1AA52C13B5
To think about these issues further:
Rebecca Watson writes: “It is easy to forget that we human beings are not the be all and end all of God’s magnificent creation. From one perspective we are simply creatures in it. From another perspective we are unique in his creation in being made in the image of God (Gen. 1:27). However, both the beauty and abundance of marine life and the biblical passages concerned with the sea show that the oceans and the life in them are of intrinsic value to the creator. Perhaps the best passage illustrating this is from Psalm 104.
There is the sea, vast and spacious,
teeming with creatures beyond number – living things both large and small.
There the ships go to and fro,
and Leviathan, which you formed to frolic there …”
(Dr Rebecca Watson is a Research Associate at the Faraday Institute, Cambridge, working on ‘The sea in Scripture’, conducting a study of the biblical material on the oceans in order to develop a biblical theology of the sea. The aim is to apply this to how Christians should treat the ocean, the creatures living in it and the resources it contains.)
To review …
Check out the resources at www.masteringgeography.com
This page is the intellectual property of the author, Bruce Martin, and is copyrighted © by Bruce Martin. This page may be copied or printed only for educational purposes by students registered in courses taught by Dr. Bruce Martin. Any other use constitutes a criminal offence. | https://rossway.net/16a-b-coastal-landforms/ |
Tsunamis (pronounced soo-ná-mees), also known as seismic sea waves (mistakenly called “tidal waves”), are a series of enormous waves created by an underwater disturbance such as an earthquake, landslide, volcanic eruption, or meteorite. A tsunami can move hundreds of miles per hour in the open ocean and smash into land with waves as high as 100 feet or more.
From the area where the tsunami originates, waves travel outward in all directions. Once the wave approaches the shore, it builds in height. The topography of the coastline and the ocean floor will influence the size of the wave. There may be more than one wave and the succeeding one may be larger than the one before. That is why a small tsunami at one beach can be a giant wave a few miles away.
All tsunamis are potentially dangerous, even though they may not damage every coastline they strike. A tsunami can strike anywhere along most of the U.S. coastline. The most destructive tsunamis have occurred along the coasts of California, Oregon, Washington, Alaska and Hawaii.
Earthquake-induced movement of the ocean floor most often generates tsunamis. If a major earthquake or landslide occurs close to shore, the first wave in a series could reach the beach in a few minutes, even before a warning is issued. Areas are at greater risk if they are less than 25 feet above sea level and within a mile of the shoreline. Drowning is the most common cause of death associated with a tsunami. Tsunami waves and the receding water are very destructive to structures in the run-up zone. Other hazards include flooding, contamination of drinking water, and fires from gas lines or ruptured tanks.
Before a Tsunami
- Talk to everyone in your household about what to do if a tsunami occurs. Create and practice an evacuation plan for your family. Familiarity may save your life. Be able to follow your escape route at night and during inclement weather. You should be able to reach your safe location on foot within 15 minutes. Practicing your plan makes the appropriate response more of a reaction, requiring less thinking during an actual emergency.
- If the school evacuation plan requires you to pick your children up from school or from another location. Be aware telephone lines during a tsunami watch or warning may be overloaded and routes to and from schools may be jammed.
- Knowing your community's warning systems and disaster plans, including evacuation routes.
Know the Terms
Familiarize yourself with these terms to help identify a tsunami hazard:
Warnings
A tsunami warning is issued when a tsunami with the potential to generate widespread inundation is imminent or expected. Warnings alert the public that dangerous coastal flooding accompanied by powerful cur¬rents is possible and may continue for several hours after initial arrival. Warnings alert emergency management officials to take action for the entire tsunami hazard zone. Appropriate actions to be taken by local officials may include the evacuation of low-lying coastal areas, and the repositioning of ships to deep waters when there is time to safely do so. Warnings may be updated, adjusted geographically, downgraded, or canceled. To provide the earliest possible alert, initial warnings are normally based only on seismic information.
Advisory
A tsunami advisory is issued when a tsunami with the potential to generate strong currents or waves dangerous to those in or very near the water is imminent or expected. The threat may continue for sev¬eral hours after initial arrival, but significant inundation is not expected for areas under an advisory. Appropriate actions to be taken by local officials may include closing beaches, evacuating harbors and marinas, and the repositioning of ships to deep waters when there is time to safely do so. Advisories are normally updated to continue the advisory, expand/contract affected areas, upgrade to a warning, or cancel the advisory.
Watch
A tsunami watch is issued to alert emergency management officials and the public of an event which may later impact the watch area. The watch area may be upgraded to a warning or advisory - or canceled - based on updated information and analysis. Therefore, emergency management officials and the public should prepare to take action. Watches are normally issued based on seismic information without confirmation that a destructive tsunami is underway.
Information Statement
A tsunami information statement is issued to inform emergency manage¬ment officials and the public that an earthquake has occurred, or that a tsunami warning, watch or advisory has been issued for another section of the ocean. In most cases, information statements are issued to indicate there is no threat of a destructive tsunami and to prevent unnecessary evacuations as the earthquake may have been felt in coastal areas. An information statement may, in appropriate situations, caution about the possibility of destructive local tsunamis. Information statements may be re-issued with additional information, though normally these messages are not updated. However, a watch, advisory or warning may be issued for the area, if necessary, after analysis and/or updated information becomes available.
During a Tsunami
- Follow the evacuation order issued by authorities and evacuate immediately. Take your animals with you.
- Move inland to higher ground immediately. Pick areas 100 feet (30 meters) above sea level or go as far as 2 miles (3 kilometers) inland, away from the coastline. If you cannot get this high or far, go as high or far as you can. Every foot inland or upward may make a difference.
- Stay away from the beach. Never go down to the beach to watch a tsunami come in. If you can see the wave you are too close to escape it. CAUTION - If there is noticeable recession in water away from the shoreline this is nature's tsunami warning and it should be heeded. You should move away immediately.
- Save yourself - not your possessions.
- Remember to help your neighbors who may require special assistance - infants, elderly people, and individuals with access or functional needs.
After a Tsunami
- Return home only after local officials tell you it is safe. A tsunami is a series of waves that may continue for hours. Do not assume that after one wave the danger is over. The next wave may be larger than the first one.
- Go to a designated public shelter if you have been told to evacuate or you feel it is unsafe to remain in your home. Text SHELTER + your ZIP code to 43362 (4FEMA) to find the nearest shelter in your area (example: shelter 12345).
- Avoid disaster areas. Your presence might interfere with emergency response operations and put you at further risk from the residual effects of floods.
- Stay away from debris in the water; it may pose a safety hazard to people or pets.
- Check yourself for injuries and get first aid as needed before helping injured or trapped persons.
- If someone needs to be rescued, call professionals with the right equipment to help. Many people have been killed or injured trying to rescue others.
- Help people who require special assistance—infants, elderly people, those without transportation, people with access and functional needs and large families who may need additional help in an emergency situation.
- Continue using a NOAA Weather Radio or tuning to a Coast Guard station or a local radio or television station for the latest updates.
- Stay out of any building that has water around it. Tsunami water can cause floors to crack or walls to collapse.
- Use caution when re-entering buildings or homes. Tsunami-driven floodwater may have damaged buildings where you least expect it. Carefully watch every step you take.
- To avoid injury, wear protective clothing and be cautious when cleaning up.
Resources
Find additional information on how to plan and prepare for a tsunami and learn about available resources by visiting the following websites:
- NOAA Tsunami program
- Federal Emergency Management Agency
- American Red Cross
- USGA Pacific Coastal & Marine Science Center
Listen to Local Officials Learn about the emergency plans that have been established in your area by state and local government. In any emergency, always listen to the instructions given by local emergency management officials. | https://www.horrycountysc.gov/departments/emergency-management/other-hazards/tsunamis/ |
Introduction:
- The word “tsunami” is borrowed from the Japanese tsunami 波 t, meaning “harbor wave”.A tsunami is a set of waves caused by the displacement of a set of waves in a body of water into an ocean or large lake. Earthquakes below the surface of the water, volcanic eruptions, and other underwater explosions (including explosions, landslides, glaciers, meteorite impacts, and other disturbances) can cause a tsunami. The normal waves are created by wind or tides, tides are formed as a result of the gravitational pull of the moon and sun, and tsunamis cause water movements.
Tsunamis are Ocean Waves triggered by:
- Large earthquakes that occur near or under the Ocean.
- Volcanic eruptions.
- Submarine landslides.
- Onshore landslides in which large volumes of debris fall into the water.
Overview Creation of Tsunamis:
- Tsunamis are usually made up of multiple floods, like fast tides with strong currents.
- When tsunamis approach the coast, they act like a very fast-moving tide, extending inland much farther than normal water.
- If the disturbance caused by the tsunami occurs near the coast, as a result, a tsunami can reach coastal communities within minutes.
- The general rule is that if you see a tsunami, it is too late to overcome it.
- Even small tsunamis (6 feet high, for example) are associated with very strong currents that can remove someone from their feet.
- Due to the complex interactions with the coast, tsunami waves can last for many hours.
- As with many natural phenomena, tsunamis can range in size from micro-tsunamis detectable only by sensitive instruments on the ocean floor to mega-tsunamis that can affect the coastlines of entire oceans.
Tidal waves
- Tidal waves are sometimes called tidal waves.
- This once-popular concept originates from the most common occurrence of the tidal wave, which is an unusually wide tidal path.
- Tidal waves and tides create waves of water moving inland, but in the case of a tidal wave, the movement of water can be much greater and indicates an incredibly large and strong tide.
- In recent years, the term “tsunami” has fallen out of favor, especially in the scientific community, because the causes of tidal waves have nothing to do with the cause of the tides, it results from the pulling of the moon and sun, not the motion of water.
- Although the meaning of “tide” includes “commemorate” or “the shape or character of the tides,” maritime people and maps discourage the use of the word wave.
Fig 1: Tsunami wave apocalyptic water view urban flood Storm
Source image: https://pixabay.com/images/search/tsumnami
Seismic wave
- The term Seismic Wave also refers to an event because waves are usually caused by movements such as earthquakes.
- Before the use of the word tsunami began in English, scholars often insisted on using the term tsunami wave instead of the tsunami wave.
- Like a tsunami, ocean waves are not fully timed, as a force other than earthquakes – including submarine landslides, volcanic eruptions, submarine eruptions, landslides or ice falling into the ocean, weathering, and the effects of meteorites.
- Velocity waves can form with water exchange.
Movement of Tsunami
- When a tsunami occurs, its speed depends on the depth of the ocean. In the deep ocean, a tsunami can move as fast as a jet, at more than 500 mph, and its wavelength, from crest to crest, can be hundreds of miles.
- Sailors at sea usually do not notice a tsunami when passing under them; in deep water, the top of the wave rarely reaches more than three meters higher than the swelling of the ocean.
- The NOAA Deep Sea Survey and Report on Deep Ocean Tsunami (DART) systems can detect minor changes in altitude and transmit this information to tsunami alert centers.
Tsunami Effects on Humans
- Major tsunamis are significant threats to human health, property, infrastructure, resources, and savings.
- The effects can be long-lasting and feel far beyond the shoreline. Tsunamis usually cause the most serious damage and casualties near their source, where there is little time for warning.
- Large tsunamis can also hit distant shorelines and cause widespread damage. The tsunami in the Indian Ocean in 2004, for example, affected 17 countries in Southeast and South Asia and East and South Africa.
Prediction of Tsunami
- Scientists cannot predict when and where the next tsunami will occur. But tsunami warning stations know which earthquakes are likely to create tidal waves and can send messages whenever possible.
- They monitor deep-sea and coastal seawater network systems designed to detect tidal waves and use information from these networks to predict the impact of coastal areas and guide local evacuation decisions.
- The tsunami warning capabilities have been dramatically improved since the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.
- NOAA scientists are working to further improve the work of alert centers and help communities be prepared to respond.
Causes of Tsunamis
Subduction Zones:
We know about Mostly tsunamis are caused by earthquakes in the subduction zone, an area where oceanic plate enters the mantle under tectonic forces. The friction between the subductive plate and the top plate is enormous. This friction prevents a slow and stable subduction speed and instead the two plates “fit together”.
Accumulated Seismic Energy:
As the blocked plate continues to descend into the jacket, the movement causes a slow distortion of the overlapping plate. The result is an accumulation of energy very similar to the energy stored in a compressed spring. Energy can accumulate on the mainboard over a long period of time – decades or even centuries.
Earthquake Causes Tsunami:
The energy accumulates in the upper plate until it exceeds the friction forces between the two blocked plates. When this happens, the top plate is fixed back in an unfenced position. This sudden movement is the cause of the tsunami – because it gives a huge pressure to the water above. At the same time, the inner areas of the upper plate are suddenly lowered.
Tsunami Races Away from the Epicenter:
The moving wave begins to move from where the earthquake occurred. Some water moves over the ocean and, at the same time, the water flows into the land to flood the nearby coast.
Rapidly Across Ocean Basin:
Fast-moving travel along the ocean. The map on this page shows the suddenness of a tsunami triggered by an earthquake off the coast of Chile in the 1960s, crossing the Pacific Ocean, and arriving in Hawaii in about 15 hours with Japan in less than 24 hours.
Video: Tsunami Ocean Wave
Source: https://pixabay.com/videos/waves-wave-tsunami-beach-ocean-31629/
Prevention majors of Tsunami Disaster Situation
Prevention Majors Before Tsunami
- If you are in a Tsunami prone region you first need to save or protect yourself from an earthquake.
- Immediately try to get to the high land place as far inland as possible.
- Switch away from the sea to the elevated ground outside of flood threat zones to shield yourself from the impact of a tsunami.
- Keep on the lookout for tsunami warning signals, such as a sudden rising or drainage of coastal waters.
- After any major earthquake Always alert to the emergency information and alerts.
- DO NOT WAIT TO EVACUATE! If you see the natural indication of a tsunami or get an official tsunami warning, get out as quickly as possible.
- Often follow local emergency response authorities’ orders. They send you the most up-to-date tips depending on the danger in your neighborhood.
- Always has a backup plan to the shelter with friends and family, if possible
- Go out to see if you’re on a cruise.
- Learn about the tsunami risk in your region whether you live near or often visit a coastal area. Maps of evacuation areas and roads are accessible in some at-risk areas. Inquire for city planning if you’re a tourist.
- Learn to recognize the warning signals of a possible tsunami, such as an earthquake, a strong roar from the sea, or irregular ocean activity, such as a rapid increase or wall of water, or sudden drainage of water exposing the ocean floor.
- Know and follow the community’s contingency plans, as well as your routes to and from work, education, and recreation.
- Choose a shelter that is at least a mile inland and 100 feet above sea level.
- Establish an out-of-state line with your family’s emergency communication plan. Have a schedule for where you would meet if you become divided.
- Consider earthquake insurance and a flood insurance policy through the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP).
Prevention Majors During Tsunami
- When you’re in a tidal zone and there’s an earthquake, the first thing you can do is shield yourself from the quake. Down, Cover, and Hang On is a term that means “down, cover, and hold on.”
- Kneel flat on your hands and knees. With your arms, cover your head and hands.
- When there are natural signs or official tsunami warnings after the shaking ceases, get to a high and far inland position as soon as possible.
- If you are not in a tsunami danger zone and get a tsunami warning, keep put until authorities tell you otherwise.
- If you’re advised to leave, do so immediately. A wave with an arrow pointing to higher ground is also used to signify escape routes.
- If you’re on a cruise, turn around and go out to the shore, facing the waves.
Prevention Majors After Tsunami
- Always carry a radio for getting the alerts and authorities for information about the current situation.
- Floodwaters can contain harmful waste, so stop wading through them. Water may be deeper than it appears.
- Be aware of the possibility of electrocution. Water may be electrically charged by underground or downed power lines. Don’t try to touch any electrical equipment if you are standing in water.
- If you are experiencing medical help, call to local helpline number and let them tell you about your actual situation.
- Always stay far away from the damaged buildings, roads, and bridges, and other affected bodies during the Tsunami shock.
- If you’re distressed, take care of your body and talk to someone.
- The most important major is to safe first yourself then help others and save more lives. | https://geolearn.in/what-is-tsunami/ |
- Hidden in plain sight: imperceptible to the naked eye, very long waves are unexpected adversaries for our coastal defence protection against flooding during violent storms.
- Shallow beaches are essential in our hybrid soft-hard coastal defence system – Size matters in the protection against violent storms: wider beaches reduce the wave impact on the dike.
- Complexity begets complexity: the complex shape of our coastal defence system leads to complex hydrodynamics – Accurate prediction of the wave impact on the dike and buildings requires state of the art numerical modelling to avoid over-conservative design.
- Using the more detailed insight in physical processes and the validated numerical tools acquired in the CREST project, the complete calculation methodology for safety assessments and risk calculations can be improved.
- Large-scale experiments on overtopping wave loads (WALOWA project) suggest that the impact force acting on dike mounted vertical walls with shallow foreshores can be estimated using a hydrostatic pressure assumption.
- A new experimental dataset is available of 2D wave flume physical modelling of (individual) wave overtopping and impacts on dikes with very shallow foreshores (very relevant to the Belgian coast). The dataset also includes high spatial resolution measurements of surface elevations along the foreshore slope, allowing a more detailed study of long waves.
- A new experimental dataset is available of 3D wave basin physical modelling of (individual) wave overtopping and impacts on dikes with very shallow foreshores (very relevant to the Belgian coast). This dataset includes long-crested, obliquely incident long-crested and short-crested wave tests, allowing the study of 3D effects at the dike and directional spreading of the waves.
- The spectral wave period at the toe of the dike, Tm-1,0,t is used in all overtopping and wave impact prediction formulas. An existing semi-empirical formula for Tm-1,0,t was validated using data from mildly sloping shallow foreshores, but returns an overestimated value for the case of steep shallow foreshore slopes. A modification of the formula has been carried out, making it applicable and more accurate for use in cases with steeper shallow foreshore slopes.
- A significant effect of the foreshore slope angle and the dike geometry (promenade length, inclusion of storm wall,…) on the wave overtopping and wave impact force is discovered. A modification of the existing prediction formulas is ongoing.
- Long waves (or infragravity waves) significantly affect the wave-induced structural response (overtopping, wave impact) of dikes for the case of very shallow foreshores. However, very little is actually known about these long waves in the nearshore region during storm conditions, especially along the Belgian coast. Dedicated field measurements are strongly recommended.
- Long waves feature strong reflection from a dike with shallow foreshore, while they might break on mildly sloping beaches in the surf zone and reflect much less from the shoreline in case no dike is present. The presence of the dike therefore affects long wave reflection on mildly sloping beaches. Further research into the role of the dike in this process, might lead to further insight into changes in the hydrodynamics and their influence on the surf zone morphodynamics during storm conditions.
- Active wave absorption in physical models should be tuned to include both reflected long waves and seiches (if the wave paddle stroke length allows it) when testing coastal structures with a very shallow foreshore. Otherwise, build-up of long wave energy will significantly affect the measurements of wave-induced structural response.
- Measured experimental wave impact forces have a low repeatability, because of a high dependence on small changes in environmental conditions. On the other hand, repeatability is important to reduce uncertainty in prediction formulas derived from experiments and for validation of deterministic numerical models. Low-pass filtering of the measured signal of the impact forces in the post-processing step, effectively removing mostly the stochastic part of the dynamic impact types, improves repeatability.
- Smaller elements of buildings, such as windows and doors, usually have a higher natural frequency than the recommended low-pass filter for experimentally measured impact forces and are affected by the stochastic part of the dynamic impact types. Therefore, a dynamic impact force safety factor should be applied to a calculated maximum force (determined from low-pass filtered force measurements) for the design of such elements.
- Directional spreading, expressing the degree of short crestedness of real sea waves, is an essential parameter in the design of beach nourishments and structures for coastal safety. The higher its value, the lower the long wave height is at the dike toe, leading to lower overtopping and impact force. Modification of existing prediction formulas is ongoing. However, there is little known about the amount of directional spreading actually occurring nearshore during storm conditions along the Belgian coast. More analysis of existing field measurements is strongly recommended, in addition to continued and more dedicated field measurements.
- First order wave generation at the offshore boundary in nearshore experimental and numerical models introduces spurious, non-physical long waves, which affect the maximum individual overtopping volume and the mean wave overtopping discharge. This is especially true for mean overtopping discharge values in the order of 10 l/m/s and lower. Second order wave generation prevents such spurious long waves and is therefore recommended.
- The numerical model SWASH is able to provide an accurate estimation of the maximum force per impact event on dike-mounted vertical walls, by assuming hydrostatic pressure only for the calculation of the force on the vertical wall. Including non-hydrostatic pressure effects might improve results further, particularly for dynamic wave impacts. However, spurious pressure/force oscillations are observed when including the non-hydrostatic pressure. No explanation for this numerical effect has been found yet.
- The numerical model SWASH significantly underestimates the impulse of the force per wave impact event on a dike-mounted vertical wall in shallow foreshore conditions, indicating that the wave impact flow is not modelled correctly. More detailed Navier-Stokes models such as OpenFOAM and DualSPHysics are necessary for a more accurate flow modelling along the vertical wall, leading to a better estimation of the duration of wave impact forces.
- Maximum individual wave overtopping and impact is affected by the wave generation method (seed effect). This effect was tested for a mean overtopping discharge, q, of about 15 l/m/s, and is expected to increase even more for smaller mean overtopping discharges (e.g. q ≈ 1 l/m/s, currently the limit used in the safety assessment). Additional in-depth research into this issue is necessary.
- Modelling beach morphodynamics during a storm is a key aspect in understanding and accurately predicting wave overtopping. The sand transport along the beach profile during a storm (beach morphodynamics) triggers profile changes which need to be included in the modelling of wave overtopping over a dike with a very shallow foreshore (very relevant to the Belgian coast). | https://crestproject.be/en/node/110 |
What is a Tsunami?
Source: © Ig0rzh | Megapixl.com
Tsunamis are massive catastrophic waves caused by underwater volcanos and earthquakes. These waves travel in the outward direction from the source at speeds of up to 500 miles per hour. The speed of Tsunami waves is directly proportional to the depth of the ocean rather than the distance from the source location. Tsunamis can cause huge losses to life and infrastructure.
What are the causes of Tsunami?
Tsunamis are caused by underwater geological events that occur at the tectonic plate boundaries. There are three main causes of a Tsunami. Let us discuss them one by one.
Source: © Designua | Megapixl.com
- Earthquake: Underwater earthquakes cause most Tsunamis on the seafloor. When a tectonic plate interacts with another tectonic plate by passing aside or when a plate having higher density subducts under a different plate having lower density, overlying water displaces suddenly. The resulting waves start travelling in the outward direction from the place of origin.
- Landslide: Landslides can take place under the ocean, just like on lands. Steep and sediment-loaded areas at the edge of the continental slope are more vulnerable to landslides. During the event of an underwater landslide, a large mass of sediments moves in the downward direction under the effect of gravity. The movement of sediments displaces the water and generates tsunami waves that travel in the outward direction from the place of origin.
- Volcanic Eruption: Underwater volcanos are also one of the reasons for tsunamis; however, it is the most uncommon reason among all. Volcanos push the ocean water in the outward direction causing the tsunami waves.
How are Tsunamis different from regular waves?
Wind-generated waves arise due to the flow of air and cause water movement near the surface, whereas tsunamis involve the movement of water from the ocean floor to the surface. The speed of tsunamis is controlled by water depth, whereas wind-generated waves don't have any relation with the water depth. Wind-generated waves have a time difference of about 5 to 15 seconds between two crests, whereas a tsunami's period generally ranges from 5 to 60 minutes. The energy of a wind-generated wave breaks as they lose energy offshore, while tsunamis act like a flooding wave and their height is around 20 feet high.
What is the size of a tsunami?
The speed of tsunamis depends on the depth of water at which a tsunami got triggered. The velocity of a tsunami is equal to the square root of the water depth into gravity. The average speed of tsunamis is around 475mph at around 15,000 feet, whereas at 100 feet, the velocity drops to around 40mph.
The size of tsunamis ranges from mere inches to hundreds of feet. In deeper zones, the size of tsunamis is nearly a few feet, and its effects can't be noticed even in ships due to their longer period. However, the height of waves can increase over ten times. The height of tsunamis affects greatly along the coast, and the size gets amplified by the seafloor features.
Summary
- Tsunamis are massive catastrophic waves that travel in the outward direction from the original source at speeds of up to 500 miles per hour.
- Underwater earthquakes, landslides, and volcanic eruptions are some of the major reasons for tsunamis.
- The size of tsunamis is limited to few inches in deeper zones, whereas the size increases as waves reach the coast.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
Where do most of the tsunamis take place?
Most of the tsunamis occur in the Pacific Ocean because of a large number of earthquakes at the plate margin of the Pacific Ocean basin known as the "Ring of Fire". Around 90% of the world's total earthquakes take place along the Ring of Fire. A number of subduction zones are associated with the deep-sea trenches offshore of Indonesia, Japan, Alaska, and Chile. The region produced a number of earthquakes that triggered various tsunamis and devastated significant human lives in the Hawaiian Islands.
Where have the biggest tsunami disasters occurred?
A number of tsunami events took place in the past and caused significant loss to man and artificial infrastructure. In 2004, around 225,000 people in fourteen countries lost their lives due to the tsunami in the Indian Ocean. It was a powerful earthquake that was triggered near Sumatra islands that caused waves up to heights of 100 feet. The second most devastating event took place in the year 2011 in Japan due to the underwater earthquake on the country's eastern coast. The earthquake triggered waves of up to 133 feet in height and caused 15,000 deaths. The event also damaged Fukushima nuclear plant.
The third most devastating earthquake took place in 1964, with a 9.2 magnitude earthquake in Alaska. The event killed around 139 people, destroyed many buildings along the coastline and fired up oil storage tanks in the area.
What are the effects of tsunamis?
There are various devastating effects of tsunamis. Let us have a look at them one by one.
- Destruction: Most of the destruction is caused by two mechanisms - the first one is the destructive power due to the large volume of water, and the second one is due to the smashing force of the water wall. The weight of water destroys buildings and objects.
- Death: Tsunamis cause a large number of deaths. Thousands of people are killed by tsunamis. People living in the coastal areas don't have time to escape, and tsunamis' violent force causes instant deaths.
- Environmental Impacts: Tsunamis doesn't only destroy human lives but also cause damage to plants, animals, and other natural resources. Solid wastes and debris caused by the disaster caused critical environmental problems. | https://kalkinemedia.com/definition/t/tsunami |
In the past century, the remarkable Great Lakes waves that swept fishermen from piers and plucked swimmers from beaches have gone by many names.
“Freak wave.” “Wall of water.” “Killer seiche.”
A team of Midwestern scientists has re-examined a number of these historic accounts and determined some of these notable swells fall under a relatively obscure category: meteotsunami. These episodes still aren’t well understood by the public and are often confused with other incidents.
[ More: Lake Michigan’s deadly ‘freak wave’ of 1954 is Chicago folklore. Turns out it was a meteotsunami. And they happen pretty often. ]
Here’s what you should know:
What is a meteorological tsunami?
A meteotsunami, a portmanteau of “meteorological tsunami,” is a long wave generated by strong atmospheric disturbances. These waves, which can be several feet tall and many miles long, can last between two minutes and two hours, dramatically raising local water levels before receding. Many times, it’s difficult to discern these waves due to their size and scope. To the naked eye, these events often resemble a storm surge or lakefront flooding.
What is the difference between a meteotsunami and a tsunami?
Meteotsunamis are caused by a combination of spiking air pressure and driving winds, creating a large wave front. While similar, tsunami waves are triggered by earthquakes or landslides, and can grow to be much taller.
Where can meteotsunamis develop and why are they so severe in the Great Lakes?
Meteotsunamis have rocked coastal areas across the globe, including Croatia, South Africa and Japan. In the United States, the East Coast, Gulf of Mexico and Great Lakes are most prone to destructive meteotsunami waves.
Meteorological tsunami
The Ludington, Mich., breakwater was underwater for a short time April 13, 2018, at the height of a meteorological tsunami on Lake Michigan. Todd Reed photographed the flooded pier from Stearns Park moments after a hail and rainstorm swept ashore. Only 9 minutes later, Reed captured the much-lower-than-normal water level as the floodwaters washed back into Lake Michigan. According to experts, this is the only verified photographic evidence of a meteorological tsunami event on the Great Lakes. Todd Reed photo.
However, in the Great Lakes, the danger from these waves can be heightened. Because they are enclosed basins, meteotsunami waves can pinball back and forth from one shore to another before they dissipate. As scientists saw in the deadly 1954 event, a westerly squall can rumble over Lake Michigan and generate a meteotsunami aimed at Michigan and Indiana shores, but there’s a chance that wave will reflect back toward Chicago where the weather is fair and swimmers may not realize what is happening.
When and where are meteotsunamis most common in the Great Lakes?
Meteotsunami activity is most prevalent in late spring and early summer, coinciding with the bulk of severe thunderstorm activity.
Formation of a meteotsunami depends on a number of factors, including speed, intensity and direction of the storm. The depth of water and shape of the lake also contribute.
Southern Lake Michigan, where waters are shallow and fast-moving thunderstorms are prevalent, is a hot spot for meteotsunamis. Research suggests Chicago sees the most per year on average (29) in the Great Lakes, in part because the curvature of eastern Lake Michigan causes waves to rebound off western shores and roll back to Chicago.
Buffalo, N.Y., on the eastern end of Lake Erie, the shallowest Great Lake with an oblong east-west orientation, experiences the second most (17).
What are the risks posed by meteotsunamis? And what can I do to take precautions?
Time and time again, these swells have proved capable of washing people offshore. They have toppled boats close to shore. And, after they’ve finished crashing inland, they roll away from the shore, sometimes creating strong rip currents that can pull swimmers into deep waters.
While very little, if any, safety information concerning meteotsunamis exists, tsunami preparedness material advises people onshore to move far inland and seek higher ground. Boaters are encouraged to navigate to deeper waters because waves build and amplify as they move into shallower water.
If caught in a rip current, swimmers are urged to flip to their back, float with the current and then swim parallel to the shoreline until they are out of the current and then swim to shore.
To hear from witnesses of the deadly 1954 meteotsunami in Chicago and learn more about the phenomenon, read our full story here. | https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-met-cb-lake-michigan-meteotsunami-waves-20190424-story.html |
plot (narrative theory) The events of a story as a sequence of connected actions, with the actions motivated by the intentionality of the characters, shaped by conflicts within and between characters and within the physical and environmental circumstances of the story, which includes the historical and social setting.
Plot as the navigational and nautical origin indicates, sets a direction and an intended journey which may or may not proceed according to plan. Plot can be recounted without reference to character, stating what happened, but in a dramatic story, plot is dependent on character, and a story might even be considered as a demonstration, a test, an ordeal of a conception of character. It is the connection to the characters that creates the immersion and drama of the story for the audience. Character makes action purposeful and both speech and external action will be taken to indicate interiority: the character's personality and their identity. Character in a narrative is mimetic, it is not a reality, but it is perceived as a reality.
In his discussion of narrative film in Story (1999) Robert McKee indicates a useful understanding of character and what aspects of character should be articulated in the plot. In McKee’s analysis a character can have three types of conflict: internal psychological conflict, their personality in conflict, inner moral and emotional conflict. They can have interpersonal conflict, which is conflict between characters in their social roles and between their personalities, and then there is conflict between the character and their society: their role and identity as it is socially defined through historical and personal circumstances. What this three part model of character illustrates is how much character can be related to the story, and what should be revealed in the action of the plot.
McKee’s view is that a successful story will show and make use of all three aspects of character. So a story should set an internal conflict in the characters, a conflict between the characters and a conflict between the characters and the society. Conflict is somewhat vague concept, but there is very little conflict in a story where a character can’t decide whether or not to buy cheese sandwich, but far more conflict if the character is at a formal dinner where as a guest they don’t want to insult their hosts, but the food they are offered repels them, and they know that refusing the food will be a public insult and will result in public censure. So, a simple plot point conflict, a character needing to decide something can be about the issue itself, choosing or not choosing a cheese sandwich, or the conflict can involve the character in different ways, raising the drama of the conflict, because what is at stake is important for the character.
Robert McKee also indicates a difference in plot between tightly constructed and loosely structured plot. The loosely constructed plot is episodic, events happen to the characters in different situations, and in plotting a narrative where the main story is a journey story, this journey can be for one specific task, a mission, tightly plotted, or a story can narrate a number of encounters during a journey, so it is loosely plotted. When story events are episodic they will still develop from the initial situation where the characters are established and then move to a related situations, without necessarily progressing the same events. With a character on a journey they meet someone, move on and then meet someone else: the different characters aren’t connected by any specific plot, but they will be important to the character in some way. The loosely plotted story will often be about what is important to the character, rather than resolving a crisis, an external problem.
In terms of unity of action, a tightly plotted story is overall a single action, which can be recognised as a type of story: a heist, a romance, a ghost story, so a central single concern, and a loosely plotted story is a set of small scale stories, where each of these has a unity of action, and they are connected by the central character/s. In a story about a boxer there could be the story about a single boxing match: the preparation for the one fight, the fight with each short round developing events and these boxing rounds continuing until the fight is won or lost: a tightly plotted story. Or a story about a boxer could be about their being matched against a range of opponents at different stages in their career: so a story with separate episodes. What remains in both plots is the story of the boxer and their character. Both need character to be defined in the story, and for character to develop as story event progress.
A point that McKee makes in relation to this conception of plotting is that a story that is tightly plotted will be received as poorly told if it lapses into loosely plotted and vice versa. There’s an expectation from the audience in terms of the story they are being told and the type of plot. This expectation of form is part of the unity of action in terms of the realism of a story. A drama could turn into a musical, but then this would be a change of form: to have an action story, stop and move into a pause for another aspect of the character’s lives, to add episodes unconnected to the main action, would be a change of plotting that might also be rejected: the plot has stepped away from the main story and this is felt as a frustration by the audience.
Two matters can seem to confuse what a story is and why it should be considered to be so dependent on plot. One is that some stories appear to have very little visible plot, not much happens in terms of dynamic external, physical action. A psychological story can set up a dilemma, or a tension that is unresolved, and so there is very little physical, externally dramatic action around this, but there is a tension, a suspense in the story, and this can hold the audience if they are connected to the internal life of the characters. What is key here is signalling what this tension is, it can be comic or dramatic, and it will usually be an internal conflict for a character even when it’s created by social circumstances: how a character will behave when their normal social circumstances change. If there is little action with no plot, and so no sense of tension, then there is just slowness rather than psychological suspense.
To consider how this type of plot, a story that depends upon internal psychological conflict, appears as a narrative film one can watch part of a film, or a number of different films without the sound being played. In some of the films there will be little on screen action: there will be characters, seen silent, seen talking, where the plot can’t be understood in the visual narration of the story. In other films with no sound playing the external action, chasing, hiding, running, climbing, fighting, can identify the major plot line of the story. For a psychological plot with the sound playing on the film the dialogue and often the music will make the intentions and conflicts of the characters clear, what they want, what challenges they face and the tension that is articulated by the characters can be understood by the audience even when they are in stasis. As McKee notes plot causes conflicts and so plot can be external large scale action or close, intimate, psychological story.
The usual separation here, when dialogue reveals the dramatic situation, is to say that there are character based stories, with little action and plot based stories with external action, but this is deceptive, because if the characters aren’t involved in actions which are related to a plot, then these actions are without purpose, no matter how active they are. Action can be external or internal: plot is not just external large scale action, car chases, escapes, it can be small actions, the actions of people reacting, responding, stating things so that the context of a small action gives it dramatic meaning. If a scene involves two characters playing a game of tennis, this is physical action, but unless the game or what happens during the game develops the plot, it is just two people playing tennis.
Character needs to be established to make the plot purposeful and often this is done so that the audience is not fully, consciously aware, that these facets of personality have been put in place: small actions can set out character and develop a plot. To consider a plot where small actions or even stasis becomes significant: a character decides not tell reveal a secret and holds this in place and problems occur related to this secret. This situation is the basis for a plot, and if there is a story related to the secret, the central character may do and say nothing, but the audience will know that there is a tension in hiding a secret and they will have some sense of what this entails for themselves and for the character in the story: the audience can understand the viewpoint of the secret keeper. Being silent is not a plot, being silent for a reason is part of a plot.
Plots are often summarised by recounting the main action of the story, summarising through climatic events and circumstances , but the story is narrated in a plot through many actions, and this can be an action that indicates interior action, thoughts, decisions, reactions, emotions, it can also be external physical action, hiding, seeking, confronting, rowing, where the visual action has a clearer narrativity than a small gesture: a pause, a look, a fidget, that in fact can carry, in the context of the narrative, as much significance as any other action that is an important part of the narrative. In a mystery story there will often be a tell, a small mistake that reveals the criminal, and this action will have massive significance because this small mistake for the character has been built into the narration of the story and it reveals a major element of the plot.
An issue that can arise in the sound off/sound on test, not playing the audio when watching a film, to consider how a film is being plotted is that this can suggest that in one type of narrative film the story is dialogue driven and so the visual elements, the staging, blocking, direction and physical acting are less significant in a dialogue based plot because the words count more than anything.. The screenplay for this sort of plot may have little or no directions for action so action seems less important. What is true however is that in filming dialogue scenes they can be well staged or badly staged to reveal plot and character, and the visual action, the physical relationship between characters, close, distant, open, closed, their posture, their gestures, looks, statements, reactions, emotions will all add or detract from the success of the scene.
The screenplay gives the dialogue and must set up the characters, establishing the plot and tell the story, but the performance of the actors, the quality of the direction and the blocking articulate the drama of the plot and narrate the story. In a podcast, radio, audio drama there’s a practice of over articulating the speech and declarations of the characters so that their emotions are clear in the voice, but this would seem false as part of an on screen performance, where a look, a gesture, a move towards and a move away signals significant action, giving meaning to what is said: in a film a move, a look, a gesture can indicate acceptance, rejection, hatred, suspicion adoration. Just because the dialogue is needed to ensure that character and plot are understood does not reduce the drama and narrative that can be conveyed in the voice and physical performance and the staging and filming of this. It is just that this interpersonal physical action needs the context of the dialogue to clarify what the interaction conveys in terms of character and this part of the narration of the film is developed by the actors and the director: minimal gestures are not part of a screenplay as this is pre-deciding the direction, which can be unhelpful to performance and directing.
Rather than considering stories to be plot based or character based, depending on the type of action or in terms of having more or less plot it is better to be clear that character always motivates action, action reveals character and a plot makes action meaningful as part of a story: the type of action may differ, it may be highly active physical action or it may be close psychological action, but both need to be in place for a dramatic narration. Often films will have a mix of large scale action where visuals dominate and others scenes where dialogue takes place, the dialogue is carrying the main narrative, but the small scale visual action still reinforces and clarifies what is said.
The second matter that seems to confuse plot, making plot seem less essential, is when the story has a mystery or there is a major plot revelation at the end of the story, so that an important element of the plot is hidden for most of the film. What can be clarified here is that not knowing what is going on is not a plot, but a mystery, wanting to find out the secret is a plot, and following a mystery being investigated is a story.
In storytelling the mystery can be and often is declared: What has happened to Alice? Who stole the diamonds? And a declared problem sets the path and the plot for a mystery tale. The characters are in pursuit and this pursuit will set them challenges, tests, successes and failures. What is important to mention here is that the off screen events, the mystery that is not revealed, needs to have a plot and needs to have agency in the story: the identity of the mystery character might or might not be openly revealed, but their actions will directly effect the plot of the story which the audience is following. In a poorly written mystery there will be one action to establish the mystery and then the rest is disconnected to it. As an example of mystery without story action: a woman receives a message that her father who she thought was dead is alive, is this true? The mystery plot of this story can’t be developed and resolved over packing a suitcase to travel, getting on plane: these are actions that might accompany this story, but they are not dramatic actions. The plot needs to develop over resolving this mystery, actions that reveals or conceals, or else by changing the narration, dropping the mystery, and having the plot being about the meeting between daughter and father and what happens because of this. In this example it’s possible to see where events in life, what would happen in actuality, packing, travelling are not dramatic events in the story: the daughter receiving the letter is a dramatic event, but the everyday tasks of going somewhere to meet the father are not essential action: ellipsis removes the need to show all the action of a story. In a story like this, the story of a search, a plane journey might be shown as a single two second shot of a plane travelling, which conveys all the necessary plot, or the journey on the plane might be used to have an exposition scene, a dialogue scene, or an event so that the daughter’s internal feelings are made clear. This longer scene does not make the plane journey important, only what happens during the journey Often a story in screenplay form and in the first version of the editing the film will have redundant material and this can be removed to clarify the plot and enhance the drama.
When in a film narrative a mystery is declared then the plot follows this mystery, or in some stories the mystery is completely unknown to the audience and is only revealed at the end: what has really been going on is a complete change of plot: the twist ending revealing a dramatically changed situation. A film with a big reveal at the end, is a plot that relies on misdirection: the audience are led to believe particular events, or even the reality of a story is told through misdirection. To offer examples of some of the kinds of plot twists: the final revelation of the plot is that the characters are only alive inside the mind of a single character so everything that has happened before this has been an illusion. Or a story is told in an order, as a plot that is then re-ordered to reveal a different narrative, what the audience thought was happening in sequence was actually happening at the same time. These different approaches to story are familiar, they can be dramatically effective, but what is crucial is that the misdirection, these event has to have plot and tell an effective story in itself. There can’t be haphazard events, there’s needs to be plot in the misdirection. Misdirection is a trick on the audience, it’s not a story in itself, but a major plot point. If a story were about a person forming a friendship, but the real intention of one of the friends was to harm the other, this plan to harm might be hidden until the very end, but the forming of the friendship would need to be an involving story. What will often happen in this type of story, the big reveal, is that this revelation will often take place before the final part of the story, before the climatic events, and either the audience will learn at this point what has been hidden and some of the characters do not, or both the audience and the characters will know, and then this leads to the climatic events of the narrative. The issue here is narration related to audience knowledge and the character’s knowledge of the story.
Hiding a major plot element is a technique of narration: a choice of how to tell a story, it is not the story. If the big reveal, the plot twist is left to the very end, rather than before the climax of the action, then this will often create an unresolved story, a cliffhanger, the audience will have learned something that will be known or unknown to the characters in the story, and this will create a significant change to how the plot is understood: the killer is caught, but their accomplice who is thought to be an innocent stays free and this killer is unsuspected: a cliffhanger ending, an event that creates a tension that is not resolved in the story. This is narrating the story to be dramatic: leaving off at a certain point, so that the audience aren’t given the story outcome for certain actions, but a story cannot be constructed just to have a cliffhanger or a twist as this makes the plotting up to this point in the narrative redundant: hiding something is not inherently dramatic or involving. The filmmaker will know that there is a big secret to reveal, but this is just one plot point and having incidental events for two hours and then a big plot point is not a successful dramatic structure.
What is clear in the mystery plot is that the main plot, the action of the story, has to have a plot that develops character and action, it can’t just be people not knowing what is going on. Here, again, the difference between life and story plotting for drama comes to the fore. In life we can often be unclear what is happening and we are confused: someone who’s said they have arrived at a meeting point are not at that meeting point. Confusion in life is not the same as narration in a story. A story can set up tensions, unknowns, uncertainty, conflict, but inaction for no reason is not story. Just because the door of a room is closed does not make it a mystery until someone tries to enter the room and they find it locked or they are stopped from entering, then there can be a mystery about why the door is locked and the story is the search for this reason.
The issues of minimal physical events, and of a mystery story hiding a major plot element, can suggest that plot is not necessary for a story, but rather than this stories are told through different forms of narration that sets out character and plot and tell the story in different ways: plot is not lacking in a mystery, but is carefully revealed in relation to different aspects of the story and the audience’s understanding of the characters’ actions in the story.
A test for a successfully narrated story, to consider its plotting is to see if events can be removed and make no difference to the coherence of the plot: if they can then they are not necessary to the story, and this is why there is a process of editing in screenwriting and also in the editing of the film: the screenwriting shapes the story and the editing refines it, developing the plot through several ‘cuts’ versions of the film. The filming produces material to narrate the story and film editing structures and refines the narration and the plot. This editing process happens in prose writing as well. In terms of format a story can be long or short in terms of running time for the narrative, but within this format, a two hour film, a four part series with, four one hour episodes, the story can be well told or badly told. Having redundant events, events that have not clear connection to a main plot just overload and undermine the story. There’s a difference between a storyteller who adds telling details and the over-telling of a story so that’s baggy, repetitive and unstructured.
One particular issue in screenwriting is that there are often screenplays that don’t have enough plot, its padded out with inessentials, here more events, incidents are needed, there needs to be other significant events created for the story. This is not quite the same issue as having a very confused telling of a story. Everything in a thinly plotted story may be clear, but so little happens that there are only a few moments of drama in the film. An inexperienced writer can find it hard to bring plot elements together, to leave out what is not essential and also they can have difficulty creating enough plot. Assessing the success or failure of a plot and creating enough plot for a dramatic story are skills that needs to be developed in terms of storytelling and being a screenwriter. The idea of rescuing a weak story, hoping that a poorly plotted script or thinly plotted script can be delivered through the film making is a falsehood. Many films are made on the basis of a weak script, and this tells in the final film.
In relation to plotting in prose writing and plotting in narrative film there are differences related to story narration in these two mediums. Will Turco in The Book of Literary Terms (1999) sets out three types of narration for prose fiction: The are plotted stories based on complications and problems, so external and internal challenges, conflicts, ordeals, as in dramatic narrative film plotting. There are also in prose writing stories of character, character sketches long or short, and there are stories of atmosphere. In writing the character based prose story, setting out how a character reacts, thinks, feels, understands, every situation relates to an interiority and this is action in prose, it’s not mimetic action, its internal narration and focalisation. Film can have internal narration, internal focalisation, but this is the exception in realist drama. In a written story, a novel about hunger, the narration can be from the focalisation of the starving character and convey each thought of the character, but in a mimetic film there would need to be the external showing of this character and to present internal life the narration might offer a prose-style voice over narration or else the internal life would need to be dramatised, with the character given articulation through dialogue and external action. Prose narration is not film narration.
A prose story of atmosphere, is quite unusual in itself, and a film, the medium of film can certainly convey atmosphere, but this is not a plot. Prose writing and film narration both uses complications, but it is rare for a film to have just atmosphere, or be narrated throughout. So, the forms of narration in prose are not mirrored in realist mimetic film narrative. These differences are not always understood and carefully considered effectively by filmmakers when they want to narrate a story in film and what will occur is that there will be a film where what a character is doing can be seen on screen, but its not part of a plot. A character drinks a glass of water: if the story is plotted then this will have a dramatic meaning, if a story is not plotted it will be a person having a glass of water, and trying to make this have an atmosphere to make a successful story is not going to be effective. One can’t use camera angles, lighting and music to convey emotions, unless this is connected to plot.
Plotting is often related to plot structure: three-action structure, five-act structure and a variety of structures are offered in screenwriting manuals. Structure contributes significantly to form through control of plotting to match the format, but story structure is not plot. The connection and meaning of events through and understanding of character is the primary dynamic of plotting and storytelling. Returning to the general usage of the term ‘plot’: a plot sets an intention to do something, to go somewhere and action follows from this, and these actions, directly related to the character's intentions are plot of the story. A story structure can and often will have a beginning, middle and end, and one can relate this to how a plot will be established, how complications will develop and then the narrative reaching the end of this plot, but a story, will develop into a plot which has a story structure, because of the events of the story and the skills of storytelling are to craft plot coherently: structure can’t replace a well told plot. The notion that in a feature film screenplay by page 15 certain things must have happened is a simplistic guide and while these sort of rules are used to consider a screenplay they are not necessarily assessing the plot in relation to the articulation of character motivating plot. Structure can seem like a solution to storytelling in film, but it is not. It’s one aspect of the story narration.
Plot can seem to be a set of events, what happens, but the events happen to characters in the story, and character needs to be narrated so that the audience can understand events in personal, psychological terms. The experience of someone telling an exciting story, events that the teller finds exciting, often does not work for the listener because all they are hearing is a stream of events, there's no underlying sense of purpose to the story as there is no sense of purpose defined by character. | http://www.filmnarrative.com/plot.html |
How long does a short story take to write?
How long does a short story take to write?
In terms of full-length short stories (over 1,000 words, according to phoebe’s definition, at least), our recently published authors noted that it might take them anywhere from a month to multiple years to complete a piece.
How do you write a perfect story?
Here are some good rules to know.
- Theme. A theme is something important the story tries to tell us—something that might help us in our own lives.
- Plot. Plot is most often about a conflict or struggle that the main character goes through.
- Story Structure.
- Characters.
- Setting.
- Style and Tone.
What are the 7 literary elements?
Writers of fiction use seven elements to tell their stories:
- Character. These are the beings who inhabit our stories.
- Plot. Plot is what happens in the story, the series of events.
- Setting. Setting is where your story takes place.
- Point-of-view.
- Style.
- Theme.
- Literary Devices.
What are the 5 basic elements of a short story?
They are true masters at combining the five key elements that go into every great short story: character, setting, conflict, plot and theme. The ELLSA web-site uses one of these five key elements as the focus of each of the five on-line lessons in the Classics of American Literature section.
What are the 3 parts of a story?
The three main parts of a story are the CHARACTER, the SETTING, and the PLOT.
Is 1000 words a short story?
However, the word “short” can mean different things, but generally speaking, a short story can be anywhere from 1,000–15,000 words, but most publications only publish short stories between 3000–5,000 words. Anything less than 1000 words is categorized either as a flash fiction or a micro-fiction.
What is a good story?
A good story is about something the audience decides is interesting or important. A great story often does both by using storytelling to make important news interesting. The public is exceptionally diverse. A good story, however, does more than inform or amplify. It adds value to the topic.
How do you write a short romance story?
15 Tips for Writing Short Romance
- DO keep to 2 main characters, maximum 4.
- DO draw the reader in quickly.
- DO provide all the information needed to grasp the who, what, when and where of your story in the first few paragraphs.
- DO have your story take place over a short time span-hours or days work best, years are a no-no.
What is an example of a short story?
Here are some short story examples that might spark a lifelong love for the genre:
- “The Fall of the House of Usher” by Edgar Allan Poe.
- “The Scarlet Ibis” by James Hurst.
- “A Christmas Carol” by Charles Dickens.
- “The Lottery” by Shirley Jackson.
- “The Gift of the Magi” by O.
- “The Necklace” by Guy de Maupassant.
What are the 4 parts of a short story?
There are four elements that really make a story stand out: character, plot, setting, and tension. Balancing these elements is the first step to making your short story amazing.
What are the 8 elements of a short story?
The 8 elements of a story are: character, setting, plot, conflict, theme, point-of-view, tone and style. These story elements form the backbone of any good novel or short story. If you know the 8 elements, you can write and analyze stories more effectively.
How do you start a short story?
5 Ways to Start a Short Story
- Hook readers with excitement.
- Introduce the lead character.
- Start with dialogue.
- Use memories.
- Begin with a mystery.
What does every good story need?
A story has five basic but important elements. These five components are: the characters, the setting, the plot, the conflict, and the resolution. These essential elements keep the story running smoothly and allow the action to develop in a logical way that the reader can follow.
What is a short short?
: an extremely brief short story usually seeking an effect of shock or surprise.
What are the 7 elements of short story?
Did you know there are seven basic elements in every successful story?
- Character. This is so important, because unless your reader feels something for the characters, they won’t care what happens to them, and they won’t read on.
- Plot.
- Setting.
- Point of View.
- Style.
- Theme.
- Literary Devices.
How long is a short story?
The average short story should run anywhere from 5,000 to 10,000 words, but they can be anything above 1,000 words. Flash fiction is a short story that is 500 words or less.
How do you write a short short story?
How to Write a Short Story in 5 Steps
- Pick the mood you want to evoke. This is the feeling or emotion you want to give to your readers, and what all the elements in your short story will work together to achieve.
- Start with a strong opening.
- Build your story, remembering that you only have a certain number of words.
- Land the ending.
- Edit, edit, edit.
What are the 10 elements of a short story?
The Top 10 Story Elements for Picture Books
- Character. Characters are the heart and soul of any story.
- Conflict. They say that there are only four real conflicts in literature: man vs.
- Plot.
- Dialogue.
- Theme.
- Pacing.
- Word Play.
- Patterns.
What qualifies as a short story?
Short story, brief fictional prose narrative that is shorter than a novel and that usually deals with only a few characters. The short story is usually concerned with a single effect conveyed in only one or a few significant episodes or scenes.
What are the 4 types of literature?
The four main literary genres are poetry, fiction, nonfiction, and drama, with each varying in style, structure, subject matter, and the use of figurative language. The genre raises certain expectations in what the reader anticipates will happen within that work.
What are some ideas for a story?
Here are the best story ideas:
- Tell the story of a scar, whether a physical scar or emotional one.
- A group of children discover a dead body.
- A young prodigy becomes orphaned.
- A middle-aged woman discovers a ghost.
- A woman who is deeply in love is crushed when her fiancé breaks up with her.
What are the 6 elements of a short story?
Eberhardt suggests that we write our story first and then overlay these six elements on it to help polish our work.
- Six elements of short stories:
- Setting.
- Character.
- Point of View.
- Conflict.
- Plot.
- Theme.
- Exercise: Read a short story, then overlay it on the list above to see how the author addresses all these elements.
How do you write a unique short story?
Contents
- Get Started: Emergency Tips.
- Write a Catchy First Paragraph.
- Develop Your Characters.
- Choose a Point of View.
- Write Meaningful Dialogue.
- Use Setting and Context.
- Set up the Plot.
- Create Conflict and Tension.
How can I make my story unique?
Story plots: 7 tips to be more original
- 1: Know common plot clichés within your genre.
- Combine the familiar to make something original.
- Know the 7 basic story plots and avoid their most unoriginal tendencies.
- Vary a familiar plot with unexpected subplots.
- Be guided by original novels within your genre.
How many pages is a short story?
Is there really a market for a short story of 5,000 words (roughly 20 double-spaced manuscript pages)? Some publications and contests accept entries that long, but it’s easier and more common to sell a short story in the 1,500- to 3,000-word range.
What are the 9 elements of a short story?
So, keep in mind that you need a main theme, characters, setting, tension, climax, resolution, plot, purpose and chronology for a powerful story. There’s only one thing left to do then: To translate the dramatic story elements into the structure of a paper.
How many letters are in a short story?
A. There are general guidelines for each literary category: Short stories range anywhere from 1,500 to 30,000 words; Novellas run from 30,000 to 50,000; Novels range from 55,000 to 300,000 words, but I wouldn’t recommend aiming for the high end, as books the length of War & Peace aren’t exactly the easiest to sell. | https://durrell2012.com/how-long-does-a-short-story-take-to-write/ |
What do myths and legends have in common?
A legend is presumed to have some basis in historical fact and tends to mention real people or events. In contrast, a myth is a type of symbolic storytelling that was never based on fact.
What are the common elements of a myth?
Elicit from them that myths—like other stories—contain the following elements: characters, setting, conflict, plot, and resolution. In addition, myths usually explained some aspect of nature or accounted for some human action. Frequently, myths also included a metamorphosis, a change in shape or form.
What is the first characteristic of myths?
1. Natural Phenomenon: A myth is a story that is, or was considered, a true explanation of the natural world (something in nature) and how it came to be. 2. Characters: are often non-human and are typically gods, goddesses, supernatural beings or mystical “first people.”
What is myth explain with reference to its characteristics?
A myth is a classic or legendary story that usually focuses on a particular hero or event, and explains mysteries of nature, existence, or the universe with no true basis in fact. A culture’s collective myths make up its mythology, a term that predates the word “myth” by centuries.
What are 3 characteristics of myths?
common characteristics of myths
- Myths teach a lesson or explain the natural world.
- Myths have many gods and goddesses.
- The gods and goddesses are super-human.
- The gods and goddesses have human emotions.
- Myths contain magic.
- Gods and goddesses often appear in disguises.
- Good is rewarded and Evil is punished.
What is myth give example?
Myth is a legendary or a traditional story that usually concerns an event or a hero, with or without using factual or real explanations. These particularly concern demigods or deities, and describes some rites, practices, and natural phenomenon. Typically, a myth involves historical events and supernatural beings.
What are the types of myth?
The Three Types of Myth
- Aetiological Myths. Aetiological myths (sometimes spelled etiological) explain the reason why something is the way it is today.
- Historical Myths. Historical myths are told about a historical event, and they help keep the memory of that event alive.
- Psychological Myths.
How do you introduce a legend?
How to Write a Legend: Step-by-Step
- Set the story in today’s world.
- Change or add plot details.
- Change a few main events.
- Change the gender of the hero or heroine.
- Change the point of view (example: Tell the legend of St.
- Write a sequel.
- Write a prequel.
- Develop an existing legend into a readers’ theatre script.
How do you start a Greek myth?
Learn the origin story. In any culture’s mythology, the origin story, or the story of how the world came to be, is a good place to start. Try Hesiod’s Theogony for the complex version or here for the simpler one. Study the myths involving Poseidon, Hades, and Zeus.
What are the 7 elements of the story?
Did you know there are seven basic elements in every successful story?
- Character. This is so important, because unless your reader feels something for the characters, they won’t care what happens to them, and they won’t read on.
- Plot.
- Setting.
- Point of View.
- Style.
- Theme.
- Literary Devices. | https://www.mvorganizing.org/what-do-myths-and-legends-have-in-common/ |
I was enlightened, when I took a writing class, as to the many types of fiction there are to read, as well as write. They are based on word count mostly. For me, it is a good resource to keep in mind since I have a romance story I want to write in the future. In reading the description of each type of fiction, I am leaning toward it being a novella or short story.
Novel - An extended piece of fiction, normally at least 40,000 words long. Most novels have multiple characters, a central plot building up to an important climax near the end, and two or more subplots.
Novella - A mid-length work of fiction, shorter than a novel but longer than a short story - typically between 20,000 and 35,000 words. A novella normally has some complexity in plot and characterization, but has fewer characters than a novel and may lack subplots. Also known as the short novel.
Short Story - A short work of fiction, usually under 20,000 words. It is traditionally based on a single plot, event, character, or set of characters, and typically leads quickly to a climax and resolution.
Short-short Story - A very brief story, usually 1,500 words or less. Most short-shorts are based entirely on a simple plot and end in a surprise, irony, or joke.
Vignette - A brief piece of fiction that vividly depicts or describes a person, place, or event. Vignettes need not (and typically do not) have a climax or much plot. Also called slice of life.
Prose Poem - A very brief piece of fiction, usually under 500 words, that emphasizes imagery, rhythm, and other elements of poetry.
Anti-Story - A Work of fiction that takes the form of an essay or other non-fiction work. Examples: Jorge Luis Borge's "Funes, The Memorious" and Woody Allen's "The Irish Genius."
Novelette - Not a literary form at all, but simply a designation used by some magazines for short stories longer than 7,500 or 10,000 words.
This post previously appeared in my former blog, The Writer Today
What type of fiction do you prefer reading and/or writing? | https://www.virginiamartinauthor.net/2015/07/8-types-of-fiction.html |
Whether it’s a short story, novel, or play, every type of story has the same basic elements.
Today, we’re taking a look at the seven key elements of a story, as well as the five elements of plot. Knowing these essential elements will ensure that your story is well-developed and engaging.
What Are the 7 Literary Elements of a Story?
There are seven basic elements of a story, and they all work together. There’s no particular order of importance because they are all necessary.
When you’re writing a story, you might start with one and develop the others later. For instance, you might create a character before you have a plot or setting.
There’s no correct place to start—as long as you have all seven elements by the end, you’ve got a story.
Characters
Every story needs characters. Your protagonist is your main character, and they are the primary character interacting with the plot and the conflict. You might have multiple protagonists or secondary protagonists. An antagonist works against your main character’s goals to create conflict.
There are short stories and even some plays that have only one character, but most stories have several characters. Not every minor character needs to be well-developed and have a story arc, but your major players should.
Your characters don’t have to be human or humanoid, either. Animals or supernatural elements can be characters, too!
Setting
Your story must take place somewhere. Setting is where and when the story takes place, the physical location and time period.. Some stories have only one setting, while others have several settings.
A story can have an overarching setting and smaller settings within it. For example, Pride and Prejudice takes place in England. Lizzy travels through several locations in the country. The smaller settings within the story include individual homes and estates, like Longbourn, Netherfield Park, and Pemberley.
Setting also includes time periods. This might be a year or an era. You can be less specific in your time period, like “modern-day” or “near future,” but it is still an important component of your setting.
Theme
Our next story element is theme. You can think of theme as the “why” behind the story. What is the big idea? Why did the author write the story, and what message are they trying to convey?
Some common themes in stories include:
- Good versus evil
- Coming of age
- Love
- Courage
- Redemption
Themes can also be warnings, such as the dangers of seeking revenge or the effects of war. Sometimes themes are social criticisms on class, race, gender, or religion.
Tone
Tone might be the most complicated of all the story elements. Tone is the overall feeling of your story. A mystery might be foreboding. A women’s literature story might feel nostalgic. A romance might have an optimistic, romantic tone.
Tone should fit both your genre and your individual story. Create tone with writing elements such as word choice, sentence length, and sentence variety. Aspects of the setting, such as the weather, can contribute to tone, as well.
ProWritingAid can help with some of the aspects of tone. In your document settings, change your document type to your genre. The Summary Report will then compare various style aspects to your genre, such as sentence length, emotion tells, and sentence structure. These all play a role in establishing a tone that fits your genre.
Try the Summary Report with a free account.
Point of View
Every story needs a point of view (POV). This determines whether we’re seeing something from the narrator’s perspective or a character’s perspective. There are four main points of view in creative writing and literature.
First person tells the story from a character’s perspective using first person pronouns (I, me, my, mine, we, our, ours). The POV does not have to be from the perspective of the main character. For example, in F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, the narrator, Nick, is mostly an observer and participant in Gatsby and Daisy’s story.
You can also use third person limited to show the story through the eyes of one character. This point of view uses third person pronouns (he, him, his, her, hers, their, theirs). If your story features alternating points-of-view, third person limited only shows one character’s perspective at a time.
First person and third person limited points of view are sometimes referred to as deep POV.
If the story is told from the narrator’s perspective, the POV is typically third person omniscient. Omniscient means all-knowing: the narrator sees all and knows all.
Rarely, stories are written in second person (you, yours). This point of view is more common in short stories than novellas or novels. Fanfiction and choose-your-own-adventure stories use second person more often than traditional creative writing does.
Conflict
Conflict is the problem that drives a story’s plot forward. The conflict is what is keeping your characters from achieving their goals. There are internal conflicts, in which the character must overcome some internal struggle. There are also external conflicts that the character must face.
There are seven major types of conflict in literature. They are:
- Man vs. man
- Man vs. nature
- Man vs. society
- Man vs. technology
- Man vs. supernatural
- Man vs. fate
- Man vs. self
Typically, a story has several small conflicts and a large, overarching internal or external conflict. While all the elements of a story are crucial, conflict is the one that makes your story interesting and engaging.
Plot
Finally, you can’t have a story without a plot. The plot is the series of events that occur in a story. It’s the beginning, middle, and end. It’s easy to confuse conflict and plot.
Plot is what happens, while conflict is the things standing in the way of different characters’ goals. The two are inextricably linked.
Plot is one of the seven elements of a story, but there are also different elements of plot. We’ll cover this in greater detail in the next section.
What Are the 5 Elements of Plot?
Everything, from a short story to a novel, requires not only the basic elements of a story but also the same essential elements of a plot. While there are multiple types of plot structure (e.g. three-act structure, five-act structure, hero’s journey), all plots have the same elements. Together, these form a story arc.
Exposition
Exposition sets the scene. It’s the beginning of the story where we meet our main character and see what their life is like. It also establishes the setting and tone.
Rising Action
The exposition leads to an event known as the inciting incident. This is the gateway to the rising action. This part of the story contains all of the events that lead to the culmination of all the plot points. We see most of the conflict in this section.
Climax
The climax is the height of a story. The character finally faces and usually defeats whatever the major conflict is. Tension builds through the rising action and peaks at the climax.
Sometimes, stories have more than one climax, depending on the plot structure, or if there are two different character arcs.
Falling Action
The falling action is when all the other conflicts or character arcs begin resolving. Anything that isn’t addressed in the climax will be addressed in the falling action. Just because the characters have passed the most difficult part of the plot doesn't mean everything is tied up neatly in a bow. Sometimes the climax causes new conflicts!
Resolution or Denouement
The end of a story is called the resolution or denouement. All major conflicts are resolved or purposely left open for a cliff-hanger or sequel. In many stories, this is where you find the happily ever after, but a resolution doesn’t have to be happy. It’s the ending of a story arc or plot, and all the questions are answered or intentionally unanswered.
Conclusion: Basic Story Elements
The seven elements of a story and the five elements of plot work together to form a cohesive and complete story arc. No one element is more important than the other. If you’re writing your own story, planning each of the basic story elements and plot points is a great place to start your outline. | https://prowritingaid.com/story-elements |
What is the definition of a short story?
I define a short story as a brief, focused fictional piece that contains at minimum the following key elements: plot, setting, characterization, and some sort of resolution.
How long should a short story be?
In my opinion, the optimal length for a short story is between ten and fifty double-spaced pages of text. To me, anything longer than this is a novella (a short novel). Some other ways of defining the length of a short story are:
- Short stories are short enough to be read in a single sitting (from a half-hour to two hours). This definition can be traced back to Edgar Allen Poe, one of the first great short story writers.
- Short stories are less than 5000 words.
- Short stories are shorter than a novel.
How is a short story different from a novel?
In my opinion, the true difference between a short story and a novel is that a short story has a unity of theme, character, and plot that is much more focused than a novel. Here are some other ways of stating the difference:
- Short stories tend to concentrate on one major event or conflict.
- Short stories have only one or two main characters.
- Short stories create a single specific effect.
- Short stories are more compressed than novels.
- Short stories do not have sub-plots.
What are the minimum elements of a short story?
In my opinion, a short story has all of the elements of a novel. Specifically, they tell a story, as the name suggests. One or more characters experience an event or conflict, and that event or conflict has an observable effect on the character or characters. This differentiates a short story from a character sketch, which serves only to illustrate or flesh out a character. It also differentiates a short story from anecdotes or parables, which are often amusing or demonstrate a lesson, but which do not necessarily call for a character to be changed in any real way.
What kind of short stories are there?
Short stories are as varied as novels. They can come from such genres as horror, fantasy, romance, erotica, adventure, and science fiction. They can be action-packed and exciting or introspective and philosophical. They can be romantic, sexy, satirical, cynical, bleak, or optimistic.
I tend to write what are called literary short stories. Literary short stories focus more on character and tone than plot. In most cases, they avoid other genres. I also tend to include a lot of humor in my stories, often unintentionally. That is simply my style. Your style can be whatever you want it to be.
How do YOU define a short story?
It’s your turn to speak up. Please leave your own definition of a short story in the notes below or at least comment on my definition. Feel free to mention your favorite short stories. | https://www.poewar.com/short-story-writing-project-what-is-a-short-story/ |
I. What is the Resolution?
The resolution, also known as the denouement, is the conclusion of the story’s plot. It’s where any unanswered questions are answered, or “loose ends are tied.” Interestingly the phrase denouement comes from the French word dénouement meaning “to untie.” A story with a complete ending is said to have a strong resolution.
Exposition: At the beginning of the story, characters, setting, and the main conflict are typically introduced.
Rising Action: The main character is in crisis and events leading up to facing the conflict begin to unfold. The story becomes complicated.
Climax: At the peak of the story, the main event occurs in which the main character faces the conflict. The most action, drama, change, and excitement occurs here.
Falling Action: The story begins to slow down and work towards its end, tying up loose ends of the plot.
Resolution: Also known as the denouement, the resolution is when conflicts are resolved and the story concludes.
The resolution allows a story to end without trailing off or leaving the reader confused or unsatisfied.
For examples of resolution, consider the short stories below.
Kim was angry at her brother Brandon for stealing her peanut butter and jelly sandwiches from the fridge before school. To teach him a lesson, she loaded hers with hot sauce. Sure enough, at lunch, Brandon’s eyes began watering and he asked her, “What did you do to this sandwich?” “Teach you a lesson!” she replied. Brandon never stole another sandwich again.
In this example, the exposition explains that Kim is angry at her brother for stealing her lunches. The rising action occurs when she plans to teach him a lesson. At the climax of the story, he eats the sandwich and discovers what she’s done. The falling action is when she reveals what she’s done. Finally, the resolution occurs when we learn that Brandon will never again steal another sandwich. This ties up the story and notifies the reader of exactly how it ends.
My dog Brady was acting strange and running to the shed and back to the house. I asked him what was wrong and followed him to investigate. Inside was a black and white cat with four kittens! I got the cat and her kittens a blanket and took them inside to keep them warm. I had five new pets!
In this story, the exposition introduces a mystery: why is the dog acting so strange? The rising action is the decision to find out. The climax occurs when I discover the kittens, and the falling action occurs when I begin taking care of them. Finally, the resolution concludes that I have found five new pets and will adopt the cat and her kittens.
Bobby was upset about his poor grades. He asked his mom for a tutor. After working with a tutor for about a month, he took a major math test. He aced the test! Thanks to hard work and studying, Bobby was becoming a star student.
In this example, the conflict is introduced in the exposition: Bobby has poor grades. The rising action is asking for a tutor and studying. During the climax, Bobby faces his problem and aces a test. The resolution is that Bobby has begun to become a great student thanks to positive decisions.
As these examples show, the resolution is often simply the ending. It is when the story closes and the reader is aware that the plot has come to its natural conclusion.
If a story ends weakly or feels as if it hasn’t ended with the last sentence and the last word, the reader is left feeling discontent, confused, or even betrayed by the writer. Although not all denouements or resolutions are happy or satisfying, they should allow the reader to feel as if the story has come to a proper conclusion. This is why the resolution is so important: a story must have a clear beginning and conflict, rising action, exciting climax, falling action, and lastly, a clear ending.
The resolution is a necessary component of plot in both poetry and prose. Below are a few examples of resolution in famous compositions.
In F. Scott Fitzgerald’s famous ending to The Great Gatsby, the narrator muses on the protagonist Gatsby and his development over the course of the story as well as larger ideas like humankind’s smallness in the face of passing time.
story, but our present story is ended.
Fyodor Dostoyevsky’s ending to Crime and Punishment is perhaps one of the most classic and straightforward examples of what a resolution should do: notify the reader that the story has ended.
In his brief poem “Those Winter Sundays,” Robert Hayden examines his father’s silent kindness to him as a child, heating the house, and concludes as an adult that he did not understand just how loving his father had been. His resolution ties together the poem as a reflection on his father’s love.
That’s all folks! Just as stories and poems have clear endings, so do TV shows, advertisements, movies, songs, and other forms of storytelling. Here are a few examples of resolution in pop culture.
The film Planet of the Apes has a very dramatic and clear resolution. Throughout the movie, astronauts have believed they have landed on a foreign planet in the future. As the ending scene reveals, though, they have truly landed on the earth of the distant future, as the Statue of Liberty has been destroyed and is one of the few vestiges of the past. This is an example of a surprise ending.
This short film has a more typical happy ending or resolution: the brother apologizes for his bad behavior and the sister appears to accept it. The story ends beautifully, cleanly, and happily.
Two football teams, Bearden and Farragut, are known to be great rivals. After training all season long, they finally face off in an intense game. The game goes into double overtime when, at last, Farragut wins with a nearly miraculous touchdown. Happy to have won, Farragut marches off the field in a school-wide celebration.
In this story, the climax and resolution are two distinct occurrences, though the resolution occurs immediately after the climax.
At last, Farragut wins with a nearly miraculous touchdown.
The entire story has been leading to the climax: either Farragut or Bearden wins the game. Here, Farragut succeeds, ending the story’s conflict.
Happy to have won, Farragut marches off the field in a school-wide celebration.
In this example, the resolution is simply the happy team celebrating its glorious victory.
The team happily celebrated their victory after a challenging face-off with their rival.
Here, the resolution marks the end of a story.
In conclusion, football is a sport which encourages the development of both teamwork and school spirit.
This formal conclusion is an example of the ending for a paper written about how football allows schools to develop unifying traits like teamwork and school spirit.
The resolution, or denouement, is a necessary component of any good story, from songs to poems to prose to movies. Just as stories need interesting beginnings and exciting events throughout, they need strong endings which tie together the plot and leave the reader feeling finished. | https://literaryterms.net/resolution/ |
In order to engage the reader in the specifics and sequencing of a story, narrative essays are written from a certain point of view, frequently the author’s.
The verb tenses are clear and lively. A narrative’s personal, experiential, and often anecdotal nature gives students the freedom to express themselves in original and, frequently, moving ways.
Definition: Narrative essay
A narrative essay is a kind of academic writing that examines an intriguing subject using the first-person experiences and observations of one or more people. It may be applied to create a narrative about a person’s life or describe a specific historical event or period.
To craft a captivating story that informs readers about the topic, the author employs both their own words and quotations from additional sources.1
A narrative essay is a writing in which the author tells a story depending on what is best suited. The narrative form can be either spoken or written, fiction or nonfiction. Unlike other essay formats, these papers permit the use of the first person.
What is a narrative essay for?
Telling a tale is the primary goal of a narrative essay. It may be something straightforward, like a tale of your summer adventures, or something intricate, like the story of your life. As a result, the narrative serves two purposes:
- Entertaining the audience
- Highlighting the significance of the experience.
Elements of a narrative essay
Like any other essay, the skeleton of a narrative must consist of:
- A sensible title
- An introduction
- Body paragraphs
- A conclusion.
The narrative length is as long as the narrator or writer wishes.
However, this essay has other sub-elements that make it remarkable and enchanting to the audience. It includes the:
- Exposition (setting and character introduction)
- Rising action (events that develop conflict for the protagonist)
- Climax (the point at which the tension of the conflict reaches its peak intensity)
- Falling action (the events that occur after the climax)
- Denouement (the resolution of conflict)2
Finding a topic for a narrative essay
To keep readers reading and interested when writing a narrative essay, your topic needs to be something you can write about engagingly. It is also crucial that the subject is one that can be thoroughly investigated and has great detail. You will have more facts to write about in your essay as you do more studying on the topic.
Finding a subject you are passionate about is essential while writing a narrative essay.3 This subject can cover everything from what you are doing right now to what you have done in the past. The easiest method to accomplish this is to conduct a study and discover what other people have done in similar situations.
Additionally, you ought to search online or in printed books for illustrations of other narratives dealing with the identical subject. When it comes time to put your narrative in writing, the more knowledge you have about your topic, the better.
Narrative essay vs. Short story
|Narrative Essay||Short Story|
|• Sequentially recounts an event
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• Any topic can be the subject, but they all generally have the same structure: Introduction (which might include background information or characters), body paragraphs that describe the story and its plot, and a summary of the story's events.
|• Employs a format that uses fewer parts and does not contain a concluding section.
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• They are more condensed than narratives
• Short tales will summarize their entire plot in a single paragraph or sentence as opposed to narratives, which include character and plot development elements throughout several paragraphs or pages.
Example of a narrative essay
Below is the beginning section of a narrative essay about the first time I saw a picture of myself.
FAQs
A narrative emphasizes the significance of your personal experience and conveys a core topic or a key lesson in addition to narrating a story, while an essay is a researched write-up about a subject.
More often than not, essays explore remote subjects, compared to narratives that are given by someone who was present as the events unfolded.
The storyline is the most crucial component of every play, novel, short story, or genre of literature.
The story’s action, or plot, determines how the work is structured. The story’s development, progression, and progression over time are all part of the plot.
Events like relocating, graduating, traveling, and weddings are suitable topics for personal narrative essays. So long as you have a memorable story you want to narrate, you can write this type of essay.
Sources
1 Genette, Gérard. Narrative discourse: An essay in method. Translated by Jane E. Lewin. Ithace, New York: Cornell University Press, 1983.
2 An, Pham Thi Hong. “Teaching the Narrative Essay: Embedding the Elements of Fiction.” In 18th International Conference of the Asia Association of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (AsiaCALL–2-2021), 27-39. Atlantis Press, 2021.
3 O’Sullivan, Sean. “Six elements of serial narrative.” Narrative 27, no. 1 (2019): 49-64. https://doi.org/10.1353/nar.2019.0003. | https://www.bachelorprint.eu/academic-essay/narrative-essay/ |
5 Elements Of A Short Story
Every paragraph every sentence every word should take the reader closer to the climax.
5 elements of a short story. Although a short story has much in common with a novel it is written with much greater precision. The ellsa web site uses one of these five key elements as the focus of each of the five on line lessons in the classics of american literature section. The five elements of a short story are character plot setting conflict and theme. Have a clear conclusion.
Any time you are asked to write an essay that is based on a piece of fiction. The action of every story can be mapped out using a plot diagram. For some reason a lot of writers seem to have a. Elements of a story examples.
If a piece doesn t serve this purpose cut it. A short story is a work of short narrative prose that is usually centered around one single event. Every story or narrative has five essential elements. In short stories emphasis on short your plot needs to build efficiently.
Short stories are works of fiction that are shorter than novels. Plot plot is what happens in the story. Examples of elements of a story. In each lesson you will explore a single american short story from the usia ladder series and discover how the author uses a certain element.
The first element of a short story is the character. Elements of a story. Photo taken from amazon in either to present a lesson to convey a message or to set a certain mood for the readers short stories can have serve its functions well despite its text length. It is limited in scope and has an introduction body and conclusion.
The second element is plot. Five basic short stories have at least five basic elements that comprise the entirety of its contents from the dialogues to the story line itself. The character is a person or animal that performs the actions of the story s plot. | https://best-free-images.cuencahoy.info/5-elements-of-a-short-story.html |
Writing a novel requires you to dig deep into your story, dig deep into the plot, and dig deep into the characters you have created. The short story is a different beast altogether. Short stories require you to stick to the fundamental basics of storytelling, freeing you of extensive plot and character development, while allowing you to experiment with your narrative and get away with it.
The Short Story
A short story is, as the name suggests, a short narrative direct in its approach and brief in its plot outline. Two or a maximum of three characters inhabit its universe driving the plot forward. Think of it as a singular image of a particular moment, like a photograph. Ideally, the plot needs to be simple enough to be grasped within the first few minutes of reading it; and characters need to track a simple, straightforward trajectory. Conflict is the final aspect of the short story; best placed at the beginning of the narrative.
In one line, a short story is about one decisive moment affecting characters.
The Key Steps in Short Story Writing
Some writers feel more at home with the short story than with the novel. The adrenaline rush of a direct plot and character plot suit them more than the slow release of multiple plot points and characters. Why is it that this genre comes naturally to a few of us while rest struggle at it?
We have compiled a list of steps that should serve as a handy guide with your short story writing:
1. From Conflict Develop Your Character
For this particular genre, it works better if you can develop you character/s from the conflict present in the story. This will help you to be brief with the character and not overdo their role in the story. This step also helps the writer set up his character in the quickest time possible without wasting valuable words or story space.
2. Keep It Short And Sweet
Simply put, cut the crowd out: Be it the number of characters, descriptive passages, or a convoluted storyline. Be as direct in your approach as you possibly can and leave the frills out of the story. This is simply not the format for it.
3. Push Characters To The Edge
This format grants you the right to push your characters to the very edge and do it in double quick time. Setting, explanation, and, at times, even logic is exempt. When you push and push your characters, it reveals their personality and psychology to the reader instantly.
4. Everything Hangs On The Start
Get the start of your short narrative right and you have the reader hooked onto the rest of the story. The format can be merciless on stories that start slow. Build up works fine in a novel; short stories need explosive starts much like a T20 cricket match.
Keep It Singular
One key tip we would like to leave our readers with is the effectiveness of singularity in short stories: One character, one conflict, one twist, one plot.
All the best with your short story writing! | https://writingtipsoasis.com/master-short-story-writing/ |
Poetry. Writerly Advice. Memoir. Literary Analysis. Book Reviews. Serious Journalism.
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Lyrical Story
A lyrical short story revolves around a recurring image or symbol with minimal focus on the plot. The image recurs in order to give readers an understanding of the plot; the image itself is usually static throughout the story. A plot line does exist, but in conjunction with the development of the symbol throughout the narrative, and it is not the central focus of the story.
Lyrical short stories are open-ended with no definite resolution. The loose ending allows for malleable readings of the central image. Reader can reinterpret the image's meaning during and beyond the reading of the story.
An example of a lyrical short story is Katherine Mansfield’s ‘‘The Fly,’’ a story about a man who tortures a fly after being reminded of his dead son. The fly is the central image of the story and the development of the narrative revolves around it. The torturing of the fly and the man’s feelings after he throws it away have multiple, open-ended readings. The image could symbolize the man’s inability to accept death, his previous relationship with his son, or his repression of grief. No one reading is correct and many interpretations lend to the complexity of the lyrical short story.
Flash Fiction
Flash fiction is a short story that has less than 2,000 words (and sometimes less according to certain editors). Flash fiction is a radical distillation of plot, character, setting, and exposition. Brevity requires writers to attend to every word.
Flash fiction starts in the middle of the conflict, as there is no time to set up action. During the story, a focus on one or two main images, such as a deserted building, a broken watch functions synergistically with the plot. As fast as the story begins, flash fiction stories end with a bang. Many flash fiction stories leave the reader at an emotional pivot or an open-ended resolution.
Examples of flash fiction can be read in Robert Olen Butler’s collection ‘‘Severance,’’ a collection of 62 flash fiction pieces. Each piece spans the 90 seconds after a person has been decapitated. The stories come from the perspectives of famous people such as Yukio Mishima, John the Baptist, and Jayne Mansfield. The stories are an effort to examine historical and cultural atmospheres through the imagined subjectivity of each character during his or her time.
Another well-known flash fiction writer is Lydia Davis. Her short story ‘‘The Mice’’ comes in around 275 words and contains all of the elements of short story. The story begins with ‘Mice live in our walls but do not trouble our kitchen’ and focuses on the image of a messy kitchen and mice that do not eat in it.
Vignette
Unlike a flash fiction that has plot, character, setting, conflict, and some form of resolution, a vignette is an illustration detailing a specific moment or the mood surrounding a character, object, setting, or idea. A vignette does not have a full plot, nor does it develop a complete narrative. It may be part of a series of vignettes or stand on its own.
Ernest Hemingway’s ‘‘In Our Time’’ is an example of a vignette. The vignette describes the character Maera, a bullfighter who dies after a bullfight. The vignette relies on rich sensory imagery and motion to convey the mood surrounding the death of the character.
Leave a Reply. | https://www.ifyougiveagirlabook.org/home/my-favorite-types-of-short-stories |
Writing brief stories might be enjoyable and really fulfilling for any author, and are often a welcomed break from writing longer fiction. However, there are nonetheless elements that should be fulfilled.
An important side of any work of fiction is that of character. Establishing likable, believable major and minor characters should not be missed because you are writing a brief story.
You must commit a number of time on your protagonist as they will need to hold the interest of your readers right until the end. You will want to develop and set up their personality including any physical attributes which you may refer to from time to time. This is because the more your readers find out about your important character then the more they’ll care about what happens to them. Your minor characters also have to be compelling as they are there to move the story along and train the reader something about the primary character.
After getting established your characters, one other essential factor of a short story is the plot. It is essential that you just give your important character an obstacle or battle, something that she or he wants to beat in order to achieve what they want. It is throughout the course of the story that we see how your predominant character accomplishes this.
In a brief story the plot is often a single objective or consequence that your protagonist wants to resolve. This may be an emotional hurdle/internal battle similar to getting over the dying of a loved one. Or the impediment can be more practical such a narrative about moving house or passing your driving test.
A very good plot needs to be intriguing, and believable and should not disappoint your reader at the finish by being too predictable or unrealistic. Because of the limited word depend of a typical quick story compared to a novel, your writing must be concise but lively and entertaining. Clearly, the longer the brief story, then the more you may develop the story and build in strategies resembling cliff-hangers.
Another component of the quick story is setting or location. To ensure that your story to be more credible you will need to place your story in a real or fictitious metropolis or country. You need your reader to be able to imagine where the events of your story are going down, thus deepening the authenticity of your storytelling. | https://volcanohealth.org/tag/mystery/ |
Short Story - A short work of fiction, usually under 20,000 words. It is traditionally based on a single plot, event, character, or set of characters, and typically leads quickly to a climax and resolution.
Short-short Story - A very brief story, usually 1,500 words or less. Most short-shorts are based entirely on a simple plot and end in a surprise, irony, or joke.
Vignette - A brief piece of fiction that vividly depicts or describes a person, place, or event. Vignettes need not (and typically do not) have a climax or much plot. Also called slice of life.
Prose Poem - A very brief piece of fiction, usually under 500 words, that emphasizes imagery, rhythm, and other elements of poetry.
Anti-Story - A Work of fiction that takes the form of an essay or other non-fiction work. Examples: Jorge Luis Borge's "Funes, The Memorious" and Woody Allen's "The Irish Genius."
Novelette - Not a literary form at all, but simply a designation used by some magazines for short stories longer than 7,500 or 10,000 words.
What type of fiction do you prefer reading and/or writing? | https://www.virginiamartinauthor.net/2015/07/8-types-of-fiction.html |
I started writing short stories most seriously within the past year. It was, what I like to refer to, as an interesting feat. It felt odd at first to think of an entire plot within a confined number of pages that did not progress too far into a novella. On average, my short stories range between eight to twelve pages. This is just how the words and pages have always seemed to fall.
The first two short stories followed the young adult conventions and style, just like the novels I write. These resembled realistic fiction with a small touch of magical realism. Later, I purposely shifted my style to expand my range and stretch beyond my writerly comfort zone. I wrote three short stories that were suspenseful. However, they were not suspenseful in a horror, thriller type of way. Rather they featured a layer of something a bit strange and mysterious. Darker tones and moods seemed to weave through the scenes, something I never pursued within my literature before.
You can read these three new suspenseful short stories on my blog this summer, once all edits and revisions have been made and my confidence within each story becomes too high to ignore. Expect a June, July, and August date for each.
Within the past year, I have recognized my improvements within writing short stories, as well as the areas in which I am continuing to refine and work on. Having a list of tips to reference is perfect for improving yourself as a short story outliner and writer. Here is a list of short story writing tips I believe in, remind myself, and think that you will find helpful as well.
It’s All In The Timing
Writing a short story will take time, effort, and dedication from the draft to the final version. Composing a short story will not always be something you can write quickly and swiftly, typing all the scenes within a single sit-down session. Unless, however, the concept of a short story that you have been rustling with in your mind already knows its purpose and placement. In this scenario, it could be possible that a single session may earn you a draft.
However, multiple writing sessions are likely to be necessary in order to work out the kinks, close the plot holes, develop the characters well, add in the right doses of suspense, or whatever it may be. The biggest tip to take away here, is to remove the timeline-like way of thinking when it comes to how fast you should write a smaller tale.
And like any other piece of writing, your short story can always be put away and returned to if a break away from the plot feels necessary.
Just The Important Parts
In a full-length novel there is a lot of space to inject extra components of description for the sake of enhancing, even when it isn’t necessarily needed, but is rather just enjoyable and appealing. In contrast, a short story has less space to inject these types of language. While it isn’t totally unwanted, we must keep in mind that as a writer, we have more constraints to work with. Simply, there is less times to grab the reader and take them where we want them to go.
Be concise and precise within your writing when composing a short story. Be able to establish what is important to the greater good of the story, while being able to acknowledge the extra parts. Be okay with removing unnecessary and unpurposeful parts. Keep track of the edits and deletions and if you’re having trouble parting, try to use them in another story that may complement them better.
Experiment With Time
At moments, a short story can seem too contained and too controlling, potentially limiting our voice and hindering the words. However, shortened stories can elevate certain qualities of the plot. One example of this is the concept of time.
In novels, the plot takes place over the course of a year or more. We see an extended period of time being played with. However, a short story primarily focuses on a month or a few months, possible even just weeks. Use this shortened time period to your advantage. Consider how you could manipulate the span of a few hours into something dimensional. Or possibly even just five minutes.
Make The Characters Come Alive
In my most recent short story, I wrote with a more suspenseful tone. After writing the draft, checking for spelling and grammar errors, I handed it off to two people to read and offer feedback. Luckily, the comments were helpful and opened my eyes to new horizons of where the story could go.
In relation to this particular tip, however, one of the pieces of advice I received was to make the main character feel more dimensional. It was mentioned that my readers did not feel totally invested in her and at times, it seemed as if she was behaving in ways that didn’t align with how she was perceived at the beginning of the text.
So, I began to reconsider and reframe the protagonist.
In response, I have this tip to offer for myself and for other beginner short story writers: A shortened piece of text should not diminish the opportunity for readers to get to know the characters, understand them, relate to them, feel as if they are actual individuals who exist and thrive in the real world. Make your short story character’s dimensional, even if the readers will spend less time with them.
Without characters, there’s no story.
Know Your Sources Of Inspiration
When it comes to poetry, I know the topic I want to write about and the feelings I want to provoke, as well as the tone I want to write in. The title, sometimes, can come first even before the content. There is something about the order in which I write poetry that differs from the norm. However, one thing that remains constant is my ability to use poetry as a way to inspire short story plots.
Your own writing can be some of the best sources of inspiration. And my connection between poetry and short stories can prove just that. Before I detail further about this connection, know this: always be open to anything and everything inspiring you. You will never know when a short story idea will strike or rather a poetry or novel idea. From that poem or novel, a segment can be taken, abstracted, and placed into another literary form.
In one instance, this past summer I edited and revised a poem that was originally posted for National Poetry Writing Month, NaPoWriMo. The poem was inspired by the conversations people have beneath the stars while around a campfire. I switched the perspective and gave the stars of the night sky a voice as they talked amongst themselves as they stared down at humans. Since the stars often become a topic of conversation between s’more munching, I thought this was a unique and descriptive poem opportunity.
So, I wrote it.
Later, that same poem inspired my short story, The Night The Constellations Extinguished, which I posted to my blog. Feel free to read it! | https://writingcolorfully.blog/2020/03/03/5-tips-for-writing-short-stories/ |
What is weighty fiction? I would argue that it is, almost unto itself, the definition for stories that matter. It’s the opposite of fluffy fiction (which isn’t to say there’s anything wrong with fluff–we all enjoy a fair share of that as well).
Most authors want to write something that matters. Even if we’re never going to win the Pulitzer or be canonized alongside Dickens and Dostoevsky, we still want to know the stories we’re spinning are more than just stories. We want them to touch people’s lives, make them think, make them question, make them believe. The chief ingredient in any story with that capability is always going to be truth in the form of verisimilitude and a strong thematic premise.
But there’s more.
You can create a story seeping with truth and framed upon an excellent premise, and yet it can still fail to be weighty. When a thematically rich story comes up short in the “weight” department, it just has a feel of… flabbiness. Is feels as if it failed to take full advantage of its potential. But feelings–however important in a writer–are ultimately a little difficult to quantify. So let us examine the subject logically in order to identify the five most important factors in creating weight and substance in stories that matter.
Factor #1 for Stories That Matter: Subtext
This is the biggie. No subtext = no depth = no weight.
I talked recently about how I realized that the magic ingredient in every single one of my favorite stories was subtext–the sense of the “untold” in a story–the sense that there is more beneath the surface. But beyond just that sense, the story also needs to offer solid hints, solid questions that can guide readers to using their own imaginations to fill in some of those blanks. In short, you have to create depth–and then take advantage of it.
The Right Way to Create Subtext
Ridley Scott’s Gladiator does a marvelous job of this. The weight of the backstory is evident from the very beginning, thanks to the skillful and telling interactions between characters who have known each other all their lives. We sense immediately the baggage present in Maximus’s relationships with Marcus Aurelius, Lucilla, and Commodus–as well as amongst the emperor and his children. That subtext is then paid off throughout the story with just enough deft revelations to explain away our most salient questions without condescending to explain everything to us.
The Wrong Way to Create Subtext
By contrast, Kevin Reynolds’s Tristan & Isolde is a story that brims with the potential for subtext in the characters’ relationships and motivations. Tristan’s Ghost (being saved by Lord Marke, who loses his hand in the process and then adopts Tristan) offers potential, but his true feelings about this incident are never satisfactorily developed. As a result, the conflict at the center of the story–between his love for Isolde and his loyalty to Marke–end up lacking both depth and weight.
Factor #2 for Stories That Matter: Passage of Time
Not that you can’t tell a powerful story in a very short amount of time, but as a general rule, the more time in which you have to develop the plot, the more significant the character development will seem. Although it’s possible for people to be transformed quickly, most evolutions are the process of much time, if only because we need more than one catalyst to prompt the change. Consider how much more weight you gain from sticking a character in prison for a year versus imprisoning him for only a week or two.
The Right Way to Utilize Passage of Time
Gladiator covers a significant amount of time as Maximus journeys from war in Germania to his devastated home in Spain to slavery in Zuccabar to the gladiatorial games in Rome. The passage of time is handled artfully so that it never slows the story’s pacing, but it creates the understanding within us that the character’s sufferings are not the fleeting pains of a moment. Thanks to that alone, what he undergoes seems much more important.
The Wrong Way to Utilize Passage of Time
Aside from the ten or so years that pass between the prologue and the main story, the passage of time in Tristan & Isolde is never made clear. Tristan’s wound seems to heal overnight. The journey from Cornwall to Ireland and back again is performed in a twinkling many times, and we’re never given any kind of idea how much time passes after Isolde arrives in England. As a result, the story feels rushed, and the characters’ reactions never gain the weight they might otherwise have done.
Factor #3 for Stories That Matter: Multiple Settings
Again: it’s totally possible to tell a powerful and meaningful story that remains primarily in just one setting (John Sturges’s Great Escape and Yimou Zhang’s Flowers of War are two of my favorite examples). But you can often create a more impressive sense of depth and importance by making sure your plot will affect your characters in more than just one place.
The Right Way to Use Multiple Settings
In self-respecting epic fashion, Gladiator manages to traverse almost the entirety of the Roman Empire. Doing so allows us to gain a sense of the world in which Maximus lives, the imperial power he faces, and the scope of the population that will be affected by his actions. It also works hand in hand with the passage of time to evoke the sense that the character has journeyed far, seen much, and endured many things in his pursuit of his goal. Most importantly, the extensive use of settings in this story is never extraneous. The settings are never present simply for the sake of creating epic scope; they always serve the plot in a sensible and necessary way.
The Wrong Way to Use Multiple Settings
Tristan & Isolde showcases two countries: England and Ireland. But both countries are reduced to two seemingly tiny settings. The lords from all over England frequently gather in Cornwall as if the country were small enough to make their journeys insignificant. The uniting of England is a major theme, but the size of that problem is reduced significantly in our minds simply because we never get a sense of a country rather than a handful of small neighboring villages.
Factor #4 for Stories That Matter: Subplots
Big stories are just that: big. As such, they’re about more than just one thing. The character’s primary conflict will be supported and contrasted by other concerns–just as our own major problems in real life usually spawn smaller problems. When we reduce a story to a single issue, we eliminate its context–and therefore its subtext. Subplots allow us to explore multiple facets of our characters’ lives and struggles. Every subplot needs to be pertinent to the main plot, but don’t feel that a small amount of divergence, for the sake of thematic exploration, is something to be avoided.
The Right Way to Include Subplots
Gladiator is an extremely focused story. But it is still able to offer many layers. The primary conflict is ultimately that of saving Rome. But Maximus’s personal journey to vengeance fuels most of the plot. The relationships between Maximus and Lucilla, Maximus and Proximo, Maximus and the other gladiators, Lucilla and Commodus, even Commodus and his nephew Lucius—all work together to weave a tapestry of rich contrast and color that would otherwise have been lost if the story had been reduced to nothing more than a quest for revenge.
The Wrong Way to Include Subplots
Tristan & Isolde offers the opportunity for exceedingly juicy subplots via the relationships of Tristan with pretty much every character in the story. But none are taken advantage of. All the focus is on his relationship with Isolde. Even his crucial relationship with Lord Marke is sadly undeveloped. In crafting your subplots, remember that even just a single small conversation between characters, exploring their motivations in relation to one another, can transform your story.
Factor #5 for Stories That Matter: Emotional and Intellectual Sequel Scenes
Every scene in your story is made of two halves: scene (action) and sequel (reaction). The action in the scene is what moves the plot. But the reaction in the sequel is where the character development and the thematic depth will almost always be found. Never neglect your sequels. For every important event in your story, you must take the time to demonstrate your character’s reactions–both intellectually and emotionally. If readers don’t know how your characters feel about events, they won’t be able to properly draw their own conclusions about what to think.
The Right Way to Create Sequels
Gladiator didn’t win awards because it was an action story. It won critical acclaim because it perfectly balanced its action with strong sequel scenes showing the characters’ reactions and emotional processes. When Maximus reacts to his identity being revealed at the Midpoint (in the scene in which Lucilla visits his cell), he shows his anger, his frustration, his determination, and his sense of betrayal even in regard to her. Without this scene and others like it, his emotional process could only be guessed at.
The Wrong Way to Create Sequels
On a technical level, Tristan & Isolde structures its scenes and sequels properly. But the sequels are almost uniformly disappointing. With few exceptions, the characters–and especially Tristan–never really discuss the intricacies and complexities of their reactions. This is a story that centers around Tristan’s conflicted loyalty to a man to whom he owes everything. But that is never touched upon in a satisfactorily direct way. Excellent subtext can only exist when the text itself offers enough meat for readers to chew on.
If you can implement just these five factors in your story–whatever your theme or subject–you’ll be able to bring instant weight to your plot. The result will be a story that is much more likely to matter to your readers than the vast majority of what they read.
Tell me your opinion: What do you think is the most important factor in writing stories that matter?
Click the “Play” button to Listen to Audio Version (or subscribe to the Helping Writers Become Authors podcast in iTunes). | https://www.helpingwritersbecomeauthors.com/stories-that-matter/ |
A short story is a piece of prose fiction that typically can be read in one sitting and focuses on a self-contained incident or series of linked incidents, with the intent of evoking a "single effect" or mood.
A dictionary definition is "an invented prose narrative shorter than a novel usually dealing with a few characters and aiming at unity of effect and often concentrating on the creation of mood rather than plot."
The short story is a crafted form in its own right. Short stories make use of plot, resonance, and other dynamic components as in a novel, but typically to a lesser degree. While the short story is largely distinct from the novel or novella (a shorter novel), authors generally draw from a common pool of literary techniques.
The Quiet American
I have asked permission to dedicate this book to you not only in memory of the happy
evenings I have spent with you in Saigon* over the last five years, but also because I
have quite shamelessly borrowed the location of your flat to house one of my characters,
and your name, Phuong, for the convenience of readers because it is simple, beautiful and
easy to pronounce, which is not true of all your country-women's names. You will both
realise I have borrowed little else, certainly not the characters of anyone in Viet Nam.
Pyle, Granger, Fowler, Vigot, Joe-these have had no originals in the life of Saigon or
Hanoi,* and General The is dead: shot in the back,* so they say. Even the historical
events have been rearranged. For example, the big bomb near the Continental* preceded
and did not follow the bicycle bombs. I have no scruples about such small changes. This
is a story and not a piece of history, and I hope that as a story about a few imaginary
characters it will pass for both of you one hot Saigon evening
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سنة النشر : 1956م / 1375هـ .
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Novel, highly constrained, 6,5-bicyclic dipeptides (1-aza-5-oxa-2-oxobicyclo[4.3.0]nonane ring skeletons, 2) have been synthesized by a one-step electrochemical cyclization from the dipeptides Boc-(S)-serine-(S)-proline-OMe (Boc-(S)-Ser-(S)-Pro-OMe, 3) and Boc-(R,S)-α-methylserine-(S)proline-OMe (Boc-(R,S)-α-MeS-(S)-Pro-OMe, 12) in yields of 10-25% and 41%, respectively. The one-pot reaction uses selective anodic amide oxidation to generate an N-acyliminium cation which is trapped by an intramolecular hydroxyl group. The cyclization of Boc-(S)-Ser-(S)-Pro-OMe (3) to the 6,5-bicyclic skeleton 4 was highly diastereoselective, generating a new chiral center with an S configuration. This bicyclic compound was sufficiently stable to trifluoroacetic acid and anhydrous hydrofluoric acid for use in standard solid phase peptide synthesis methodologies. Oxidation of Boc-(R,S)-MeS-(S)-Pro-OMe (12) gave different results for each diastereoisomer. Cyclization only occurred for the S,S-diastereoisomer with very low stereoselectivity (6:4 ratio of diastereomers) at the newly-formed ring fusion. In terms of conformation, the 6,5-bicyclic system restricts two (ψ2 and ∅3) of the four torsion angles that characterize a reverse turn. Conformational analyses of tetrapeptides containing the 6,5-bicyclic system were performed using Monte Carlo conformational searches and molecular dynamics simulations. All of the eight possible diastereomers arising from the three stereogenic centers (Ser Cα, Pro Cα, and newly formed bridgehead) were considered. These studies revealed that the 3S,7S,10S and 3R,7R,10R configurations are effective turn inducers although the torsion angles of the backbone do not exactly mimic those of classical β-turns. Other diastereomers were found to stabilize the peptide backbone in an extended conformation. | https://profiles.wustl.edu/en/publications/electrochemical-cyclization-of-dipeptides-to-form-novel-bicyclic- |
The $250 million mission began when the Ariane 42L rocket's engines roared to life at 0104 GMT (8:04 p.m. EST). Moments later, the Ariane departed its South American launch pad for the 21-minute journey to space.
The Ariane's third stage released Galaxy 10R as it flew high above the Atlantic Ocean, just west of Africa.
See our Mission Status Center for a chronicle of the launch.
Ground controllers picked up the first signals from Galaxy 10R about 42 minutes after liftoff, confirming the craft's health.
Over the next two weeks, controllers will guide the Hughes Space and Communications-built satellite through firings of its liquid-propellant apogee motor to raise and circularize the orbital altitude.
The Ariane 4 rocket dropped off the satellite into an elliptical orbit with a high point of 20,789 statute miles and low point of 124 statute miles. The upcoming engine firings will circularize the orbit to geostationary altitude about 22,300 miles above the Equator.
On February 3, the satellite's twin solar arrays will be deployed to generate power. Testing of onboard systems will follow.
Operator PanAmSat plans to park Galaxy 10R at 123 degrees West longitude to cover most of North America. Service should begin around February 28, relaying cable television, Internet and other telecommunications services to the United States other parts of the continent.
Galaxy 10R also will be used to replace the Ku-band service provided by the aging SBS-5 satellite, which ran out of fuel about a week ago.
"The successful deployment of Galaxy 10R adds much needed capacity to our domestic U.S. fleet," said R. Douglas Kahn, PanAmSat's president and chief executive officer.
Monday's launch would not have been occurred if the Galaxy 10 wasn't lost in August 1998. Galaxy 10 rests in pieces at the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean a few miles east of Cape Canaveral, destroyed in the failed maiden flight of Boeing's Delta 3 rocket.
Galaxy 10R joins PanAmSat's 20 other satellites in space, and is the second Galaxy bird launched in less than five weeks.
PanAmSat plans to deploy five more satellites by mid-2001. Next up will be Galaxy 4R in April aboard another Ariane 4 rocket, replacing Galaxy 4 that failed in space in 1998, followed by PAS-1R, PAS-9 and PAS-10 later this year and Galaxy 3C next spring.
Arianespace Flight 126 is the first of what could be a banner year for the European launch services provider. The company says it could conduct as many as 15 launches in 2000, including five flights of its new Ariane 5 rocket.
"In parallel to the ramp-up of Ariane 5, Arianespace is also planning eight to nine Ariane 4 flights this year. In the meantime, we will pursue our efforts to develop new, more powerful versions of Ariane 5 and beef up our production facilities to launch eight Ariane 5s per year from 2002," said Jean-Marie Luton, Arianespace's chairman and CEO.
The next Arianespace launch is targeted for February 16 when an Ariane 44LP will place the Japanese Superbird 4 communications satellite into space.
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Flight data file
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Vehicle: Ariane 42L
Payload: Galaxy 10R
Launch date: Jan. 25, 2000
Launch window: 0104-0139 (8:04-8:39 p.m. EST on 24th)
Launch site: ELA-2, Kourou, French Guina
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Launch - Images from the countdown and nighttime liftoff of the Ariane 4.
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The Ariane 42L rocket launches with PanAmSat's Galaxy 10R satellite from Kourou, French Guiana in South America.
PLAY (1.1MB QuickTime file; courtesy Arianespace)
Pre-launch Briefing
Ariane 42L - Overview of the rocket to launch Galaxy 10R.
Launch timeline - Chart with times and descriptions of the events to occur during launch.
Purpose of Galaxy 10R - PanAmSat to enhance cable TV programming to North America with new craft.
The Galaxy 10R satellite - Overview of the Hughes-built HS601 HP model spacecraft.
Ariane index - Listing of our previous Ariane coverage.
Explore the Net
Arianespace - European launch services provider that uses Ariane 4 and 5 rockets to carry satellites into space.
PanAmSat - Leading satellite communications provider and operator of Galaxy 10R once in space.
Hughes Space and Communications - U.S. manufacturer of Galaxy 10R satellite.
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Recent work suggests that the 9-repeat (9R) allele located in the 3′UTR VNTR of the SLC6A3 gene increases risk of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, no study reporting this association to date has been based on population-based samples. Furthermore, no study of which we are aware has assessed the joint action of genetic and DNA methylation variation at SLC6A3 on risk of PTSD. In this study, we assessed whether molecular variation at SLC6A3 locus influences risk of PTSD. Participants (n = 320; 62 cases/258 controls) were drawn from an urban, community-based sample of predominantly African American Detroit adult residents, and included those who had completed a baseline telephone survey, had provided blood specimens, and had a homozygous genotype for either the 9R or 10R allele or a heterozygous 9R/10R genotype. The influence of DNA methylation variation in the SLC6A3 promoter locus was also assessed in a subset of participants with available methylation data (n = 83; 16 cases/67 controls). In the full analytic sample, 9R allele carriers had almost double the risk of lifetime PTSD compared to 10R/10R genotype carriers (OR = 1.98, 95% CI = 1.02–3.86), controlling for age, sex, race, socioeconomic status, number of traumas, smoking, and lifetime depression. In the subsample of participants with available methylation data, a significant (p = 0.008) interaction was observed whereby 9R allele carriers showed an increased risk of lifetime PTSD only in conjunction with high methylation in the SLC6A3 promoter locus, controlling for the same covariates. Our results confirm previous reports supporting a role for the 9R allele in increasing susceptibility to PTSD. They further extend these findings by providing preliminary evidence that a “double hit” model, including both a putatively reduced-function allele and high methylation in the promoter region, may more accurately capture molecular risk of PTSD at the SLC6A3 locus.
Citation: Chang S-C, Koenen KC, Galea S, Aiello AE, Soliven R, Wildman DE, et al. (2012) Molecular Variation at the SLC6A3 Locus Predicts Lifetime Risk of PTSD in the Detroit Neighborhood Health Study. PLoS ONE 7(6): e39184. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0039184
Editor: Olga Y. Gorlova, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, United States of America
Received: December 9, 2011; Accepted: May 21, 2012; Published: June 26, 2012
Copyright: © 2012 Chang et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Funding: This study was supported by National Institutes of Health Grants DA022720, DA022720-S1, and MH088283. Additional support was provided by the Robert Wood Johnson Health and Society Scholars Small Grant Program and the University of Michigan Office of the Vice President for Research Faculty Grants and Awards Program; and by the Wayne State University Research Excellence Fund. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Competing interests: Monica Uddin (the corresponding author) is currently an Academic Editor at PLoS ONE. This is the only potential COI among the submitting authors. This does not alter the authors’ adherence to all the PLoS ONE policies on sharing data and materials.
Introduction
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a complex disorder characterized by three symptom clusters including re-experiencing, avoidance, and hyperarousal . Twin studies have shown that genetic influences account for a substantial proportion (35–70%) of variance in PTSD risk –. However, the molecular and genetic basis of this inherited liability is still largely unknown.
The SLC6A3 (solute carrier family 6 (neurotransmitter transporter, dopamine), member 3; also known as DAT1 or DAT) locus is a biologically plausible candidate gene for PTSD. SLC6A3 encodes a dopamine transporter, a member of the sodium- and chloride-dependent neurotransmitter transporter family, which plays a key role in the regulation of dopaminergic neurotransmission by removing dopamine from the synaptic cleft via reuptake through the transporter . The role of dopamine in the etiology of PTSD is supported by findings of elevated urinary and plasma levels of dopamine among those affected by the disorder, and by reports of a significant correlation between dopamine concentration and severity of PTSD symptoms in affected individuals . Nevertheless, studies investigating the association between genetic variation at the SLC6A3 locus and PTSD have produced conflicting results.
The SLC6A3 locus is characterized by a 40-base-pair variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) polymorphism in its 3′-untranslated region (UTR) which can be present in 3 to 11 copies . Across most populations , including African-americans, , the 10-repeat (10R) allele is the most frequent followed by the 9-repeat (9R) allele. The VNTR polymorphism has been shown to have a functional effect on SLC6A3 gene expression; however, some studies indicate that 10R alleles enhance the SLC6A3 gene expression compared to 9R alleles whereas others indicate the opposite –. Similarly, results investigating the influence of the SLC6A3 VNTR polymorphism on PTSD risk have been equivocal, with, for example, the 9R allele related to an increased risk of PTSD and/or hypervigilance symptoms in three studies –, but not in an additional, recent multigenerational study of families exposed to a natural disaster .
The complexity of the association between SLC6A3 and PTSD may be related, in part, to emerging evidence that not only genetic, but also epigenetic factors shape risk of mental illness. Epigenetic dysregulation has been implicated in pathogenesis of several psychiatric disorders such as depression , schizophrenia , eating disorders , and PTSD , . However, little is known about the epigenetic processes regulating SLC6A3, and the role of SLC6A3 methylation in PTSD has, to our knowledge, not yet been reported. To better elucidate the molecular basis shaping risk of PTSD at the SLC6A3 locus, here we investigate whether the 9R or 10R allele is associated with lifetime PTSD. Using specimens drawn from a population-based cohort, the Detroit Neighborhood Health Study, we assess this putative PTSD-associated genetic variation in one of the largest datasets reported to date. We further conduct an exploratory, pilot investigation of interacting genetic and epigenetic SLC6A3 variation shaping risk of PTSD using a subset of individuals from our larger genetic dataset.
Materials and Methods
Subjects and Ethics Statement
The Detroit Neighborhood Health Study (DNHS) recruited 1,547 adults aged 18 years or older at baseline from the city of Detroit. Data for this study were obtained from consenting participants during this baseline survey year. At wave 1 (baseline), lifetime trauma exposure and PTSD were assessed using structured telephone interviews, and each participant received $25 for their participation in the survey. All survey participants were offered the opportunity to provide venipuncture (VP) blood specimens for the biospecimen component of the study (which included testing of immune and inflammatory markers from serum as well as genetic testing of DNA) and received an additional $25 if they elected to do so. VP specimens were obtained via written, informed consent from a subsample of eligible participants during wave 1 (n = 501). The DNHS was approved by the Institutional Review Board at the University of Michigan (HUM00014138; FWA00004969; OHRP IRB IRB00000245). More details regarding the DNHS can be found in .
The original sample for this study consisted of 394 individuals, who were randomly selected from the consenting participants of the blood draw, blinded to their PTSD status. Because the diagnosis of PTSD requires a triggering trauma in order to be expressed, we further restricted our analysis to 362 people who had experienced one or more traumatic events. The high prevalence of lifetime trauma exposure in this genotyped sample (91.9%) is consistent with the prevalence of the full DNHS survey sample and with earlier work focused on adults in the Metro Detroit area . Due to the low frequency of 3′UTR VNTR polymorphism of SLC6A3 other than 9R and 10R, only the individuals carrying 9R/9R, 9R/10R, or 10R/10R genotypes (n = 320; 62 PTSD cases and 258 non-PTSD controls) were included in the final analysis. The SLC6A3 gene-methylation interaction was tested in a pilot sample of 83 individuals (16 cases/67 controls) who also had DNA methylation data.
Assessment of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and Other Survey-based Variables
Lifetime PTSD was assessed via telephone interview using a modified version of the PTSD Checklist (PCL-C) , with additional questions about duration, timing, and impairment or disability due to the symptoms in order to identify PTSD cases that were compatible with DSM-IV criteria. Participants were asked to identify traumatic events they had experienced in the past from a list of 19 specific events , and one additional question that allowed participants to briefly describe any other stressful event. Participants who reported experiencing more than one traumatic event were asked to select one event they considered to be the worst and report the posttraumatic symptoms due to that specific event. If participants had experienced more than one trauma, they were also asked symptoms based on a randomly chosen traumatic event from the remaining traumatic events. Respondents were considered affected by lifetime PTSD, if all six DSM-IV criteria were met in reference to either the worst or the random event. The identification of PTSD obtained from the telephone interview responses has been validated in a random subsample of 51 participants via in-person clinical interview, which has been described previously , . The comparison showed high internal consistency and concordance.
Additional survey-based variables included in this study were: demographic variables including race, sex, and age; number of traumatic events, known to be strongly associated with PTSD –, which was assessed as a count of the different types of traumatic events and ranged from 0–19 for each person; whether a participant had ever smoked, due to the known influence of smoking on DNA methylation levels ; socioeconomic position (SEP); and lifetime depression, a mental illness frequently comorbid with PTSD . Consistent with the evidence that attainment of more than a high school education is associated with improved health , analyses were performed with SEP dichotomized according to more than high school (high SEP) or high school or less (low SEP). Assessment of the presence/absence of lifetime depression in the DNHS has been previously reported in detail, and has been validated via clinical in-person interviews .
Genotyping
Samples were genotyped for the SLC6A3 3′UTR VNTR using the primer sets described in Drury et al . Genotyping was performed on the Mastercycler Pro S thermocycler (Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany), using Qiagen©’s Taq PCR Core Kit and associated protocols. Thermocycling conditions included a 94°C initial at 2 minutes followed by, 35 cycles of: 94°C denature for 15 seconds, 64°C annealing temperature for 15 seconds and a 72°C extension for 30 seconds; and a final temperature of 72°C for 5 minutes. PCR products were then size fractionated on a 2% agarose gel stained with ethidium bromide. Allele identification was based on fragments ranging from 3 repeats to 11 repeats, from known genotypes and sizes standards described in Michelhaugh et al . Amplification and analysis was performed at least twice for each individual.
DNA Methylation Microarray Data
Methylation microarray data analysed in this study were obtained from the HumanMethylation27 (HM27) DNA BeadChip (Illumina) as previously described . Bisulfite-converted DNA samples were subjected to methylation profiling via the HumanMethylation27 (HM27) DNA BeadChip (Illumina) following the manufacturer’s instructions. Methylation levels were determined for 27,578 CpG dinucleotides spanning 14,495 genes. The resulting data were background normalized using Bead Studio. The validation of the methylation microarray data via pyrosequencing and DNA sequencing of a subset of individuals tested on the original microarray were conducted and has been reported in detail elsewhere . For the purpose of this study, methylation of SLC6A3 was assessed at two CpG sites represented on the HM27 BeadChip. The first CpG site (cg13202751) occurs approximately 900bp upstream of the SLC6A3 gene within its putative promoter region. The second CpG site (cg26205131) is located in the first intron of the SLC6A3 gene, between the upstream 5′-UTR and the downstream start codon (∼1.5 kb).
Pyrosequencing Validation
Locus-specific pyrosequencing was conducted to validate the methylation data at cg13202751. Pyrosequencing assays were designed and implemented by EpigenDx (Worcester, MA) following the manufacturer’s recommended protocol. Since the microarray and the pyrosequencing methylation data were not normally distributed in our sample, we evaluated the correlation between the two using the Spearman’s rank order correlation test. We observed a moderate but significant correlation between the two variables based on available DNA samples from 69 of the original 83 individuals tested in the microarray analysis (Spearman’s ρ = 0.31, p = 0.009).
Statistical Analysis
Chi-square tests were performed to verify Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. We calculated means with standard deviations for continuous covariates. For categorical covariates, frequencies and percents were calculated. Bivariate associations were assessed for each of the variables of interest and covariates with respect to lifetime PTSD status. The chi-square test was performed for categorical variable comparisons; for continuous variable comparison, two-sample t-tests were used. SLC6A3 3′UTR VNTR genotypes of 9R/9R and 9R/10R were combined into the ‘9R carrier’ category due to a small number of individuals with 9R/9R genotype (n = 15). Logistic regression analysis, adjusting for potential confounders and known predictors of PTSD, including age, sex, socio-economic position, race, smoking, number of traumatic events, and lifetime depression, was used to assess the main effect of SLC6A3 VNTR polymorphism on the risk of lifetime PTSD, which was coded as a dichotomous variable. Continuous variables including age and number of traumatic events were centered to the mean.
Because the odds ratio estimation in logistic regression could be unreliable (i.e. overestimated) when sample size is not large, the exact logistic test was used when analyzing the pilot sample consisting of those who also had SLC6A3 microarray methylation data (n = 83) to ensure a valid inference in such situation. The same covariates as in the genotype analysis plus peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) counts (collected as previously described in ), were adjusted for to assess the main and interacting effects of SLC6A3 genetic and epigenetic variation on lifetime risk of PTSD. In the exact logistic test, all continuous variables were dichotomized by the median value except the total number of PTEs to make the exact test computationally feasible. Due to the limited variation in the methylation beta-values at cg26205131 (Figure S1), our statistical analysis focused on cg13202751. Methylation beta-values at cg13202751were dichotomized based on the median value (median-split; 0.19) to improve the estimation stability of the logistic regression models. In all analyses, p-values of less than 0.05 (two-tailed) were considered as evidence of statistical significance. The analyses were conducted with SAS version 9.2 (SAS Institute, Cary, NC).
Results
Full Analytic Sample
In Table 1, we present the frequencies of all SLC6A3 3′-UTR alleles for all 362 trauma exposed participants. The descriptive statistics and bivariate results based on the 320 trauma exposed study participants with either 9R/9R, 9R/10R, or 10R/10R genotypes are shown in Table 2. The majority of participants (79.3%) were of African American descent. The lifetime prevalence of PTSD in this sample was 19.4%. Compared to individuals without PTSD, PTSD cases reported significantly greater number of traumatic events (p < 0.001), were more likely to have ever smoked (p = 0.02), and were more likely to have met lifetime criteria of depression (p < 0.001). The SLC6A3 genotype distribution for participants carrying a 9R or 10R allele did not depart from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (p = 0.15). After adjusting for age, sex, socio-economic status, race, smoking, number of traumatic events and lifetime depression, 9R allele carriers showed almost twice the risk of PTSD compared to 10R/10R carriers (OR = 1.98, 95% CI = 1.02–3.86) (Table 2).
DNA Methylation Subsample
The lifetime prevalence of PTSD in the DNA methylation subsample was 19.2%. Similar to the full analytic sample, participants with PTSD in the methylation subsample reported a significantly greater number of traumatic events (p = 0.001), were more likely to have ever smoked (p = 0.01), and were marginally more likely to have met lifetime criteria of depression (p = 0.06) compared to non-PTSD affected participants. Mean DNA methylation beta-values at cg13202751 did not differ significantly by PTSD status (p = 0.56).
In main effect analyses (Table 3), there was no significant evidence of association between high methylation level at SLC6A3 CpG site cg13202751 and lifetime PTSD after adjusting for age, sex, socio-economic position, race, smoking, number of traumatic events, PBMC counts, and lifetime depression (p = 0.39). However, results from the exact logistic regression test for lifetime risk of PTSD indicated a significant SLC6A3 genotype × methylation interaction (p = 0.008). Specifically, 9R allele carriers showed an increased risk of lifetime PTSD only in conjunction with high methylation at cg13202751 located within the SLC6A3 promoter locus.
Discussion
In this work, we have explored how genetic and epigenetic molecular variation at the SLC6A3 locus shapes risk of PTSD. Our findings confirm previous work indicating that 9R allele carriers of the SLC6A3 3′UTR VNTR polymorphism show significantly increased risk of lifetime PTSD compared to 10R/10R genotype carriers –. In addition, we provide preliminary, new evidence that interacting genetic and epigenetic variation at the SLC6A3 locus shapes risk of PTSD, with participants who carried 9R alleles and possessing high DNA methylation at cg13202751 showing significantly increased risk of the disorder. Although these preliminary findings await confirmation, we suggest that an integrated model that simultaneously investigates the interaction between genetic polymorphisms and epigenetic alterations, as conducted here, may contribute to a more comprehensive picture of the complex molecular etiology shaping risk of PTSD.
Our findings have several implications. First, our results provide indirect support that may help to resolve whether the 9R or 10R SLC6A3 allele is associated with higher transcription levels , , . Given the association between elevated dopamine levels and posttraumatic symptoms, discussed in the introduction, our own observation of a significantly increased risk of PTSD in 9R allele carriers suggests that the 9R allele may result in decreased SLC6A3 transcription, although this cannot be determined with certainty without further functional studies. Second, our results highlight the importance of considering how molecular variation, at multiple levels, can shape risk of complex illnesses like PTSD. Although the relationship between DNA methylation and gene expression is complex, increased promoter-region DNA methylation is typically thought to correlate with decreased gene transcription . Our results identified a significant genotype x methylation interaction, whereby individuals who have the “double hit” risk factors of both a putatively reduced-function 9R allele and high promoter region SLC6A3 methylation exhibited significantly elevated risk of PTSD. We speculate that these individuals are likely to have elevated dopamine levels in the synaptic cleft that may, in turn, contribute to increased risk of PTSD, but future work in other independent samples is warranted to confirm this initial finding.
The study has several strengths. First, compared to prior studies, this study had a relatively large total sample size. Second, it is the first study that assessed the effect of the SLC6A3 3′ UTR VNTR variant on the risk of PTSD in a population-based sample, which reduces potential biases of non-compatibility between cases and controls compared to clinic-based samples or volunteers. Third, no prior studies, to our knowledge, have considered the role of DNA methylation when assessing the involvement of SLC6A3 in PTSD; similarly, none have considered the joint action of SLC6A3 genetic and DNA methylation variation on risk of PTSD. This study thus broadens existing knowledge by identifying the ways in which both forms of SLC6A3 molecular variation shape the risk of PTSD.
Limitations of our study include a relatively small sample size with which to test DNA methylation effects on risk of PTSD; we also note that our results were not corrected for multiple testing in the methylation subsample analyses. In addition, because there are few participants with 3′UTR VNTR homozygous 9R genotypes, we were unable to specifically investigate the effects between homozygous and heterozygous 9R carriers on the risk of PTSD. Furthermore, we were unable to directly assess the relation between 9R vs. 10R alleles on SLC6A3 gene expression levels as the samples tested in this work were not collected in a manner that preserved RNA. Finally, due to the cross-sectional analysis of blood specimens and questionnaire data, the temporal relationship between SLC6A3 methylation differences and PTSD onset remain unclear. Ongoing work using samples from this same longitudinal cohort should help to shed light on this issue.
Despite these limitations, results of this study support an important role for the dopamine transporter in PTSD. Our findings are in accordance with studies favoring the 9R allele of the SLC6A3 3′UTR VNTR polymorphism as a risk allele for PTSD compared to the homozygous 10R genotype. In addition, to the best of our knowledge, we report the first, albeit preliminary, simultaneous investigation of SLC6A3 genetic and epigenetic variation on the lifetime risk of PTSD. Individuals had the highest risk of PTSD when they both carried a 9R allele at the 3′UTR VNTR and had showed hypermethylation at a CpG site located in the SLC6A3, offering a potential molecular mark of increased risk for PTSD. Future studies conducted on other, independent cohorts should help to confirm the generalizability of our findings.
Supporting Information
Figure S1.
DNA methylation beta-value distributions of SLC6A3 at the two CpG sites (cg13202751 and cg26205131) represented on the HM27 beadchip.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0039184.s001
(TIFF)
Acknowledgments
We thank Rebecca M. Coulborn for overseeing DNHS specimen collection, Janie Slayden for coordinating the overall DNHS project, and Amy Weckle for handling the DNHS specimen processing and laboratory technical assistance; and the many Detroit residents who chose to participate in the DNHS.
Author Contributions
Conceived and designed the experiments: MU KK SC. Performed the experiments: SC RS. Analyzed the data: SC. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: DW SG AA. Wrote the paper: SC MU KK SG.
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Ultraviolet irradiation of (4R,5S,7S,8R,9S,10R,11R)-7,8,9-triacetyloxy-1-oxolongipin-2-ene (2) afforded the vulgarone A 7 and the pingilonene 8 derivatives as the major products, which were formed by a [1,3]-shift, together with the minor secondary photoproducts 9 and 10. The phototransformation mechanism is discussed in terms of individual ultraviolet irradiation of 7 and 8 in combination with the monitoring reaction progress of 2 by 1H NMR measurements. The stereostructures of the new carbocyclic skeleta were geometry optimized using density functional calculations.
Mechanisticstudies of the photochemicalrearrangement of 1-oxolongipin-2-ene derivatives
First Total Synthesis of ()-Flustraminol B
Regioselective Synthesis of 3-Indolyl(alkoxy)acetates
Quirogane, Prenopsane, and Patzcuarane Skeletons Obtained by Photochemically Induced Molecular Rearr...
Absolute configuration determination of 2-(2-oxo-3-indolyl)acetamide derivatives
Synthesis of Indolylindolines Mediated by tert-BuNH2
DFT and NMR parameterized conformation of valeranone
Conformationalstudies of N-carbomethoxy-2-alkoxyindolenines by dynamicNMR, crystallography, and mole... | https://www.uaeh.edu.mx/investigacion/productos/3282/ |
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