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of the World:
2000
Edited by Clive Wilkinson
Dedication
This book is dedicated to the many people who are collectively working to conserve the vast heritage
of coral reef ecosystems throughout the world – we thank them for their efforts. It is also dedicated to
the partners of the International Coral Reef Initiative and to agencies of the Government of the United
States operating through the US Coral Reef Task Force. Of particular mention is the support to the
GCRMN from the US Department of State and the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration.
This report has been produced for the sole use of the party who requested it. The application or use
of this report and of any data or information (including results of experiments, conclusions, and
recommendations) contained within it shall be at the sole risk and responsibility of that party. AIMS
does not provide any warranty or assurance as to the accuracy or suitability of the whole or any part of
the report, for any particular purpose or application. Subject only to any contrary non-excludable
statutory obligations neither AIMS nor its personnel will be responsible to the party requesting the
report, or any other person claiming through that party, for any consequences of its use or application
(whether in whole or part).
Cover images courtesy of Sandy Tudhope and Lida Pet-Soede.
© Australian Institute of Marine Science, 2000
Cape Ferguson, Queensland, and Dampier, Western Australia
Postal addresses:
PMB No 3 PO Box 264
Townsville MC QLD 4810 Dampier WA 6713
Australia
Australia
Telephone: (07) 4753 4444 (08) 9183 1122
Facsimile: (07) 4772 5852 (08) 9183 1085
World Wide Web: www.aims.gov.au
National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication data:
Status of coral reefs of the world: 2000.
ISBN 0 642 32209 0.
1. Coral reefs and islands. I. Wilkinson, Clive R.
II. Australian Institute of Marine Science.
578.7789
ii
FOREWORD
Over the past few years, I have become increasingly concerned about the continued
degradation of coral reefs, some of the most valuable and spectacular places on earth.
Coral reefs are important to us in so many ways. They provide food and livelihoods for
millions of people; they help protect coastal communities from tropical storms; and they
support rich communities of marine life that rival even rainforests in their biological
diversity. These ‘rainforests of the sea’ have already begun to provide new medicines and
other compounds to combat diseases and solve other human needs. And we’ve just
begun to explore the rich life of our coral reefs.
Today, millions of people visit coral reef ecosystems every year to experience the beauty
and bounty of healthy coral reefs. In the United States alone, coral reefs support millions of
jobs and billions of dollars from tourism related activities. These are just a few of the
reasons why coral reefs are so valuable, and why it is so important for us to protect the
world’s vulnerable coral reefs.
In 1997 and 1998, coral reefs began bleaching and dying across huge regions of the world
in association with changes in ocean and climate conditions. In many areas, coral reef
ecosystems were devastated, along with the human communities that depended on them.
The impacts were on a global scale never before recorded. Scientists now believe that
coral reefs may be the first natural ecosystem to clearly show the potential impacts of
global climate change.
The struggle to conserve the coral reefs is now at a critical stage. While changes in climate
conditions may continue to impact coral reefs for some time, coral reefs are losing an even
greater battle with water and air pollution, sediment runoff caused by deforestation and
coastal development, and over-exploitation, including the insidious practices of dynamite
and cyanide fishing. In many areas, the living coral reefs may soon be gone. If coral reefs
are lost, many coastal populations will lose their primary source of food, jobs, cultural
heritage and long-term prosperity.
To conserve these natural treasures, we must reduce human impacts on coral reefs by
immediately controlling pollution, reducing over-fishing and increasing protection and
sustainable use of our valuable coral reef resources. By working together – from local
communities to regions and internationally – I believe we can, and must, reverse the tide of
destruction and conserve the world’s precious coral reefs.
iii
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
This report is a tremendous example of what partnerships can do to protect and sustain
coral reefs worldwide. This historic document brings together scientific information from
around the world to provide the most comprehensive status report to date on the health of
the world’s coral reefs. The report is made possible by the efforts of nations, communities
and individuals from all over the world to monitor the health of coral reef ecosystems.
Without these monitoring programs, this report would not be possible, and we would be
severely limited in our ability to address the coral reef crisis. And these efforts are just the
beginning. We need more monitoring, research, management and education to adequately
track, and improve, the health of coral reefs around the world.
This report documents the continuing and disturbing decline in the health of the coral reefs
worldwide, which was initially expounded in the first report from the Global Coral Reef
Monitoring Network in 1998. Unfortunately, the report provides powerful new evidence that
coral reefs continue to be destroyed and degraded in many areas, threatening the very
existence of these valuable resources. Now the question is: what are we willing to do about it?
I am very pleased that the United States has been able to join with so many international
partners in efforts to protect coral reef ecosystems. I sincerely commend the International
Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI), the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN), the sponsors
of this report, and all those who have supported efforts to monitor, manage and conserve
the world’s reefs.
The children of tomorrow have the right to experience the beauty and wonder of coral reef
ecosystems. I call on all of us – nations, societies and individuals – to act now to reduce the
threats to these remarkable ecosystems. We must ensure that this report marks the beginning
of a powerful new age of coral reef protection, not the sad ending to their very existence.
Al Gore
Vice President
United States of America
iv
CONTENTS
COUNTRIES, STATES AND TERRITORIES
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
INTRODUCTION 1
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 7
Clive Wilkinson
1. THE 1997-98 MASS CORAL BLEACHING AND MORTALITY EVENT:
2 YEARS ON
Clive Wilkinson 21
2. REGIONAL STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE RED SEA AND THE
GULF OF ADEN
Nicolas Pilcher and Abdullah Alsuhaibany 35
3. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE ARABIAN/PERSIAN GULF
AND ARABIAN SEA REGION (MIDDLE EAST)
Nicolas J. Pilcher, Simon Wilson, Shaker H. Alhazeem
and Mohammad Reza Shokri 55
4. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN EAST AFRICA: KENYA, MOZAMBIQUE,
SOUTH AFRICA AND TANZANIA
David Obura, Mohammed Suleiman, Helena Motta, and
Michael Schleyer 65
5. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF THE SOUTHERN INDIAN OCEAN:
THE INDIAN OCEAN COMMISSION NODE FOR COMOROS,
MADAGASCAR, MAURITIUS, REUNION AND SEYCHELLES
Lionel Bigot, Loic Charpy, Jean Maharavo, Fouad Abdou
Rabi, Naidoo Ppaupiah, Riaz Aumeeruddy, Christian
Viledieu and Anne Lieutaud 77
6. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN SOUTH ASIA: BANGLADESH, INDIA,
MALDIVES AND SRI LANKA
Arjan Rajasuriya, Hussein Zahir, E.V. Muley, B.R. Subramanian,
K. Venkataraman, M.V.M. Wafar, S.M. Munjurul, Hannan Khan
and Emma Whittingham 95
7. SOUTHEAST ASIAN REEFS - STATUS UPDATE: CAMBODIA, INDONESIA,
MALAYSIA, PHILIPPINES, SINGAPORE, THAILAND AND VIETNAM
Loke Ming Chou 117
8. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF EAST AND NORTH ASIA: CHINA,
JAPAN AND TAIWAN
Shuichi Fujiwara, Takuro Shibuno, K. Mito, Tatsuo Nakai,
Yasunori Sasaki, Dai Chang-feng and Chen Gang 131
9. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF AUSTRALASIA: AUSTRALIA AND PAPUA
NEW GUINEA
Thomas Maniwavie, Hugh Sweatman, Paul Marshall,
Phil Munday and Vagi Rei 141
VII
xi
v
10. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE SOUTHWEST PACIFIC: FIJI,
NAURU, NEW CALEDONIA, SAMOA, SOLOMON ISLANDS,
TUVALU AND VANUATU
Robin South and Posa Skelton 159
11. STATUS OF SOUTHEAST AND CENTRAL PACIFIC CORAL REEFS IN
‘POLYNESIA MANA NODE’: COOK ISLANDS, FRENCH POLYNESIA,
KIRIBATI, NIUE, TOKELAU, TONGA, WALLIS AND FUTUNA
Bernard Salvat 181
12. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF AMERICAN SAMOA AND MICRONESIA:
US-AFFILIATED AND FREELY ASSOCIATED ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC
C.E. Birkeland, P. Craig, G. Davis, A. Edward, Y. Golbuu,
J. Higgins, J. Gutierrez, N. Idechong, J. Maragos, K. Miller,
G. Paulay, R. Richmond, A. Tafileichig and D. Turgeon 199
13. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE HAWAIIAN ARCHIPELAGO
David Gulko, James Maragos, Alan Friedlander,
Cynthia Hunter and Russell Brainard 219
14. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE US CARIBBEAN AND GULF
OF MEXICO: FLORIDA, TEXAS, PUERTO RICO, US VIRGIN ISLANDS AND
NAVASSA
Billy Causey, Joanne Delaney, Ernesto Diaz, Dick Dodge, Jorge
R. Garcia, Jamie Higgins, Walter Jaap, Cruz A. Matos,
George P. Schmahl, Caroline Rogers, Margaret W. Miller and
Donna D. Turgeon 239
15. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE NORTHERN CARIBBEAN AND
WESTERN ATLANTIC
Jeremy Woodley, Pedro Alcolado, Timothy Austin, John Barnes,
Rodolfo Claro-Madruga, Gina Ebanks-Petrie, Reynaldo Estrada,
Francisco Geraldes, Anne Glasspool, Floyd Homer, Brian Luckhurst,
Eleanor Phillips, David Shim, Robbie Smith, Kathleen Sullivan Sealey,
Mónica Vega, Jack Ward and Jean Wiener. 261
16. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF NORTHERN CENTRAL AMERICA: MEXICO, BELIZE,
GUATERMALA, HONDURAS, NICARAGUA AND EL SALVADOR
Philip Kramer, Patricia Richards Kramer, Ernesto Arias-Gonzalez
and Melanie McField 287
17. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE EASTERN CARIBBEAN: THE OECS, TRINIDAD
AND TOBAGO, BARBADOS, THE NETHERLANDS ANTILLES AND THE FRENCH
CARIBBEAN
Allan H. Smith, Mark Archibald, Trish Bailey, Claude Bouchon,
Angelique Brathwaite, Ruleta Comacho, Sarah George,
Harold Guiste, Mark Hastings, Philmore James,
Cheryl Jeffrey-Appleton, Kalli De Meyer, Andre Miller,
Leonard Nurse, Clive Petrovic and Paul Phillip. 315
18. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN SOUTHERN TROPICAL AMERICA: BRAZIL,
COLOMBIA, COSTA RICA, PANAMA AND VENEZUELA
Jaime Garzón-Ferreira, Jorge Cortés, Aldo Croquer,
Héctor Guzmán, Zelinda Leao and
Alberto Rodríguez-Ramírez. 331
19. SPONSORING ORGANISATIONS, CORAL REEF PROGRAMMES AND MONITORING
NETWORKS 349
SUGGESTED READING 359
LIST OF ACRONYMS 363
vi
COUNTRIES, STATES AND TERRITORIES
American Samoa Chapter 12 199
Anguila Chapter 17 315
Antigua and Barbuda Chapter 17 315
Australia Chapter 9 141
Bahamas Chapter 15 261
Bahrain Chapter 3 55
Bangladesh Chapter 6 95
Barbados Chapter 17 315
Belize Chapter 16 287
Bermuda Chapter 15 261
Bonaire Chapter 17 315
Brazil Chapter 18 331
British Virgin Islands Chapter 17 315
Cambodia Chapter 7 117
Cayman Islands Chapter 15 261
Chagos Chapter 6 95
China Chapter 8 131
Colombia Chapter 18 331
Comores Chapter 5 77
Cook Islands Chapter 11 181
Costa Rica Chapter 18 331
Cuba Chapter 15 261
Curaçao Chapter 17 315
Djibouti Chapter 2 35
Dominica Chapter 17 315
Dominican Republic Chapter 15 261
Egypt Chapter 2 35
El Salvador Chapter 16 287
Eritrea Chapter 2 35
Federated States of Micronesia Chapter 2 35
Fiji Chapter 10 159
French Polynesia Chapter 11 181
Grenada Chapter 17 315
Guadeloupe Chapter 17 315
Guam Chapter 12 199
Guatemala Chapter 16 287
vii
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
Haiti Chapter 15 261
Hawaii Chapter 13 219
Honduras Chapter 16 287
Iran Chapter 3 55
India Chapter 6 95
Indonesia Chapter 7 117
Israel Chapter 2 35
Jamaica Chapter 15 261
Japan Chapter 8 131
Jordan Chapter 2 35
Kenya Chapter 5 77
Kiribati Chapter 11 181
Kuwait Chapter 3 55
Madagascar Chapter 5 77
Maldives Chapter 6 95
Malaysia Chapter 7 117
Martinique Chapter 17 315
Mauritius Chapter 5 77
Mexico Chapter 16 287
Montserrat Chapter 17 315
Mozambique Chapter 4 65
Nauru Chapter 10 159
New Caledonia Chapter 10 159
Nicaragua Chapter 16 287
Niue Chapter 11 181
Northern Marianas Chapter 12 199
Oman Chapter 3 55
Pakistan Chapter 6 95
Palau Chapter 12 199
Panama Chapter 18 331
Papua New Guinea Chapter 9 141
Philippines Chapter 7 117
Puerto Rico Chapter 14 239
Qatar Chapter 3 55
Reunion Chapter 5 77
Samoa Chapter 10 159
Saudi Arabia Chap 2 & 3 35, 55
Seychelles Chapter 5 77
Singapore Chapter 7 117
Solomon Islands Chapter 10 159
Somalia Chapter 2 35
South Africa Chapter 4 65
Sri Lanka Chapter 6 95
St. Kitts and Nevis Chapter 17 315
St. Lucia Chapter 17 315
St. Vincents and Grenadines Chapter 17 315
Sudan Chapter 2 35
viii
Countries, States and Territories
Taiwan Chapter 8 131
Tanzania Chapter 4 65
Thailand Chapter 7 117
Trinidad and Tobago Chapter 17 315
Tokelau Chapter 11 181
Tonga Chapter 11 181
Turks and Caicos Chapter 15 261
Tuvalu Chapter 10 159
United Arab Emirates Chapter 3 55
USA (Florida, Gulf of Mexico) Chapter 14 239
US Virgin Islands Chapter 14 239
Vanuatu Chapter 10 159
Venezuela Chapter 18 331
Vietnam Chapter 7 117
Wallis and Futuna Chapter 11 181
Yemen Chapter 2 35
ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This book results from the hard work of many people monitoring coral reefs, assembling
data, writing reports, and running projects. The process started with requests in 1999 to
produce National status of coral reefs and monitoring reports – about 75 reports were
produced which form the basis for the regional summaries in this global report. The
national and regional authors are specifically thanked (their names are given in the chapters
to which they contributed). Many of these authors are also acknowledged as national or
regional coordinators of GCRMN Nodes throughout the world. I also wish to thank
Meriwether Wilson for her careful editorial contributions in the final phases of preparing this
global report.
The concept for and driving force behind the GCRMN comes through the International Coral
Reef Initiative (ICRI) and its members who have provided considerable moral and financial
support. Special thanks go to those running the ICRI Secretariat from France: Bernard Salvat,
Francis Staub and Genevieve Verbrugge.
The GCRMN is now a flourishing network of regional nodes and regional partnerships
involving several hundred people, some working under other banners, such as Reef Check,
CORDIO and partners like ReefBase, WCMC, Reefs @ Risk, CARICOMP and AGRRA. A special
thanks goes to Gregor Hodgson and his Reef Check volunteers for providing considerable
data for this report and stimulating the global network to spread its coverage to remote
parts of the world.
The Co-sponsors of the GCRMN have provided substantial assistance, advice and support.
The Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO, the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP), IUCN the World Conservation Union, the World Bank, AIMS
and ICLARM come together on an opportunistic basis or provide advice electronically as
the GCRMN Management Group, and all of this is coordinated through Ned Cyr (and
previously George Grice) of IOC-UNESCO and I owe them special thanks.
The GCRM primarily operates though an evolving web and partnerships of Regional Nodes.
The Department for International Development (DFID) of the UK Government, especially
John Tarbit and Chris Price, have actively supported the South Asia Node and assisted with
contacts in the Caribbean. The Swedish International Development Agency has provided
considerable support to the Eastern African Node and to the CORDIO programme, with
Olof Linden and Petra Lundgren as the key links. Other financial support and advice has
come from the World Bank, directed through Marea Hatziolos and Andy Hooten, and the
xi
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
Global Environment Facility. The Government of France is thanked for assisting with Nodes
in the Pacific and Indian Oceans and for global advice. Additional support has come from
the David and Lucile Packard Foundation, and the United Nations Foundation.
Existing regional programmes throughout the world have provided essential support to
help catalyse the ‘Node’ process and ensure linkages across other relevant national and
regional programmes. The GCRMN is grateful for the considerable support from the
regional offices of the UNEP network and similar agencies coordinated via Agneta Nilsson;
specifically the Caribbean Environment Programme of UNEP in Jamaica, the South Pacific
Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) in Samoa, the East Asian Seas Regional
Coordinating Unit of UNEP in Thailand, South Asian Cooperative Environment Programme
(SACEP) in Sri Lanka, the Indian Ocean Commission in Mauritius, and PERSGA, the
Programme for the Environment in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden in Saudi Arabia. UNEP is
now catalysing several Nodes in the Caribbean with financial and technical assistance.
In addition to political and institutional support noted above, there are many sponsors
throughout the world providing direct financial support for the GCRMN and Reef Check
networks. A special mention is for the support from the Government of the USA, without
which there would be no global coordination and no global status report in 1998 or 2000. I
give special thanks to the US Department of State (through Jamie Reaser, Peter Thomas and
Brooks Yeager), and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (via Arthur
Paterson and Charles Ehler) which have been the major supporters of the GCRMN and
assisted funding central coordination, in association with the Australian Institute of Marine
Science. These US agencies are partners in the US Coral Reef Task Force, which is continuing
the lead role of the USA in actions across many fields to conserve coral reefs.
About 30 leading scientists and resource managers assist voluntarily as members of the
GCRMN Scientific and Technical Advisory Committee, and it is Edgardo Gomez who
coordinates their input into the network. Special thanks are due to them and to Ed for his
valuable advice and support.
The GCRMN benefits greatly by being associated with the Australian Institute of Marine
Science and the staff provide a wide range of day to day assistance from funds
management, computer support, and library services, in addition to assistance with
ongoing advice on coral reef science, monitoring and database management. I owe all
staff at AIMS special thanks. Finally this book was prepared under an extremely tight
schedule and would not been realised with the always professional and friendly Science
Communication team at AIMS, Steve Clarke, Wendy Ellery and Liz Tynan – thanks team.
Funds to print this book have come from the Government of the USA (Department of State
and NOAA), SIDA of Sweden, the World Bank, the Great Barrier Reef Research Foundation
and ICLARM (The World Fish Center).
xii
INTRODUCTION
We are pleased to support the Second Edition of the Status of Coral Reefs of the World,
particularly as the target audiences are decision makers, major donors and national and
international agencies who are requested to take urgent action to conserve these valuable
resources. It is also targeted at the informed public, who continually put pressure on
decision makers to act and devote resources for reef conservation and management. The
report was written to provide an overview, without the use of scientific jargon, of the status
of coral reefs and causes of reef decline, with recommendations for action by national
authorities. The chapters are expanded executive summaries of the National and Regional
reports that form the feedstock for this report. We refer the reader to these sources listed
after each chapter for the data that support the statements made in this summary report.
This second edition of the Status of Coral Reefs of the World is a major expansion and
improvement on the first edition written in 1998. The improvements reflect encouraging
development and maturation of the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) with
National Status of Coral Reef Reports submitted by 97 authors from 86 countries or states.
Many of these reports constitute baseline information for large areas of the world’s coral
reefs, and are often the first summaries written by countries on the status of their reefs.
When this process is repeated in 2002, these countries will be asked to look at the 2000
report and assess the progress of efforts to manage reef resources. Similar success was
evident when many Pacific countries presented their first Status of Reefs Reports at the
International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) regional Pacific meeting in Noumea in May, 2000.
The 1998 report was released at the ICRI International Tropical Marine Ecosystems
Management Symposium (ITMEMS) in Townsville in November, 1998. Material for that
report arose out of papers presented at the 8 th International Coral Reef Symposium in
Panama City in June 1996 when leading coral reef scientists and managers were invited to
present summaries at a reef status symposium organised by Clive Wilkinson and Bernard
Salvat. Those summaries were updated for the GCRMN status report of 1998, which was the
first review of the status of coral reefs status the ground breaking 3 volume series edited by
Susan Wells for UNEP and the IUCN in 1988 (references at the back).
An examination of the 1998 and this report shows that the regions and groupings of
countries have changed, which reflects the development of Nodes of the GCRMN. These
Nodes are groupings of countries around the world which cooperate to monitor their reefs,
usually with the assistance of one country with the capacity to assist in training, monitoring
and data analysis. The first Node, formed in South Asia for India, Maldives and Sri Lanka, has
1
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
been functioning since 1997 under financial assistance from DFID UK. Another Node was
formed in the Indian Ocean for the island states of Comoros, Madagascar, Mauritius,
Reunion and Seychelles through the Indian Ocean Commission, with initial support from the
European Union and recently from the Global Environment Facility. The countries of Eastern
Africa are supported under the CORDIO programme (COral Reef Degredation in Indian
Ocean) including Kenya, Mozambique, South Africa, Tanzania and eventually Somalia with
financial and logistical assistance coming from Sweden (SIDA) and the World Bank.
Five Countries of southeast Asia have all requested to remain as independent country
nodes (Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand), whereas mechanisms are
being sought to provide assistance for Burma/Myanmar, Cambodia and Vietnam as a Node.
The Government of Japan has formed a Node for East Asian countries to assist China, Korea
and Taiwan from the International Coral Reef Research and Monitoring Center at Ishigaki
Island, southern Japan.
Nodes in the Pacific are consolidating. The IOI Pacific Islands Node assists Nauru, New
Caledonia, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tuvalu and Vanuatu from the University of the South
Pacific in Fiji with support from the International Ocean Institute. The Polynesia Mana Node
includes the Cook Islands, Kiribati, Niue, Tokelau, Tonga, and Wallis and Futuna with
coordination provided by the University of Perpignan marine station on French Polynesia
and financial support from France. The Micronesian countries (Federated States of
Micronesia, Guam, Marshall Islands, Northern Marianas and Palau) under the MAREPAC
consortium is functioning out of the Palau International Coral Reef Center. The Hawaiian
Islands and other US territories in the Pacific are members of the US Coral Reef Task Force
and are coordinated out of Hololulu.
Nodes in the Arabian Region remain to be resolved, but they were the topic of a meeting in
Saudi Arabia in February, 2000. There are two coordinating bodies – PERSGA (Programme for
the Environment in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden) and ROPME (Regional Organisation for the
Protection of the Marine Environment) which may take eventual responsibility for coordination.
The US Coral Reef Task Force is coordinating and financing US interests in the Caribbean
(Florida and other southern states, Puerto Rico, and US Virgin Islands). The World Bank
coordinates the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef Project, which is effectively the GCRMN Node
for Belize, Guatemala, Honduras and Mexico for reefs on the Caribbean side. The
Government of Colombia is assisting in the formation of a Node for Brazil, Costa Rica,
Panama and Venezuela with Ecuador likely to join in the future. UNEP in the Caribbean has
provided start up assistance. Many of the remaining countries and states are being assisted
through centres of the CARICOMP network, including their database node in Jamaica at the
University of the West Indies. DFID UK is assisting in coordination of many of the small
islands states, likewise France is assisting with her territories as is the Netherlands.
Better understanding of the oceans and their resources to facilitate improved ocean
management and sustainable development will not be possible without the establishment
of routine ocean observing systems. This is the premise behind the Global Ocean
Observing System which is co-sponsored by IOC (Intergovernmental Oceanographic
Commission), WMO (World Meteorological Organisation) UNEP (United Nations
2
Introduction
Environment Programme) and IUCN (The World Conservation Union), with assistance of
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation). The GCRMN is a critical component of this
system as monitoring of coral reefs is particularly important because of the apparent links
between global climate change and coral bleaching illustrated in this report. Coral reefs
may yet prove to be the first major marine ecosystem to show significant impacts from
global climate change.
A major focus of UNEP is to provide accurate and accessible information on the state of our
environment for informed decision-making, adaptive management action and policysetting.
The partnerships and active networks, collaborating through the Regional Seas
Programme of UNEP, are working with the GCRMN to promote and coordinate monitoring
of coral reefs throughout the tropics. Assessments of social, cultural and economic values
of reefs serve to highlight the close relationship between reefs and coastal communities.
UNEP is a co-sponsor of the GCRMN, and a member of ICRI since it was launched in 1994.
UNEP is a partner in the International Coral Reef Action Network (ICRAN), an operational unit
under the ICRI umbrella, with the goal of catalysing concerted action for protection of coral
reef resources.
Monitoring by non-governmental organisations is a major component of the GCRMN, both
using advanced methods, or the more basic ones of Reef Check. IUCN interacts with 900
members in nearly 140 countries and some of these are active in coral reef monitoring and
conservation. These linkages are provided to the GCRMN to broaden its influence and
encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve the integrity and diversity
of coral reefs. Another critical process is addressing the links between coral reef status and
global climate change via interactions with the Convention on Biological Diversity, the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. IUCN helps provide these links
by being an active member of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) and a co-sponsor
of the GCRMN.
Healthy coral reefs are critical to the livelihoods and cultures of millions of people in
tropical coastal environments, as well as forming part of the crucial life support system of
the biosphere. A major theme of the World Bank is alleviating poverty, therefore it is
essential to understand the fundamental nature of factors that determine the productivity,
diversity, and resilience of coral reefs. Monitoring and assessment are keys to such
understanding. Therefore the World Bank is partnering with the GCRMN in four of the five
coral reef regions of the world to promote monitoring and information for decision making
as part of its expanding program of national and regional initiatives to improve the
management of coral reefs. The contribution of the GCRMN via this latest edition of the
Status of Coral Reefs will be a vital handbook for managers and serve as an important
benchmark for our efforts to reverse degradation of coral reefs and measure progress
toward their conservation around the world. The GCRMN also makes a significant
contribution by bringing people and organisations at all levels into the process.
Unfortunately, many coral reefs are overfished and so damaged that they no longer provide
sufficient income and food for people in developing countries. ICLARM is examining how
marine protected areas can serve as fisheries reserves, and how to restore or increase
productivity. The potential methods include restocking wild populations, developing
3
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
sustainable low impact aquaculture of valuable species low on the food chain, and training
in coastal management. ICLARM places great importance on regular monitoring and the
dissemination of status reports, and has developed ReefBase as a repository for data and
information on coral reefs as a key link for the GCRMN. ICLARM relies on information
generated by the GCRMN to identify reefs that are not yielding potential harvests, and the
causes for declines. ICLARM will continue to work with the partners in expanding global
monitoring and making the data accessible through ReefBase.
Environmental monitoring is fundamental to informed management and policy making, and
it also functions to raise public consciousness on conservation. The research priorities at
the Australian Institute of Marine Science recognise the importance of monitoring the status
of reefs in Australia and the region for two decades, and significant monitoring
programmes on the Great Barrier Reef and on Western Australian reefs are maintained. Also
considerable scientific effort has gone into developing and formalising monitoring
techniques, with the Survey Manual for Tropical Marine Resources (English et al. 1997 in
suggested reading) as a major product that the GCRMN has adopted as a recommended
set of methods. Many coral reefs of the world are under greater pressures than those in
Australia, and the GCRMN enhances the value of AIMS efforts by putting this monitoring in a
global context and broadening the application methods to reefs worldwide.
Since the last report, the GCRMN and Reef Check have formed a strong strategic
partnership, with the GCRMN focussing on implementing monitoring in nations and states,
whereas Reef Check assists communities and volunteers establish monitoring projects. This
is facilitated because similar methods are used and the protocols recommend that training
start with Reef Check methods and then progress to more detailed GCRMN methods.
This report demonstrates that there has been progress in implementing global monitoring
networks and providing sound information on the status of reefs of the world. But a close
examination will show that there are large regions of the world where the baseline data are
insufficient to determine the status of many coral reefs. This was particularly evident after
1997-98 when it was not possible to determine the impacts of a major bleaching event
because of a lack of such baseline data. Monitoring now has a new role. In places where
the reefs were laid bare and lost much of the previous coral cover, there is a need to first
assess what are the probable losses of coral cover, and then determine the amount and
extent of any recovery, either through the settlement of new corals or regrowth of the few
survivors. A lack of recovery will indicate to reef managers that factors preventing recovery
must be removed, or rehabilitation must be considered.
Coral reef monitoring should never exist on its own – ‘monitoring for monitoring sake’. It
should always be a component of coral reef management, providing the data to determine
suitable areas for protection and then assist management by assessing effectiveness of
management decisions. This will enable resource managers to continually adjust regulations to
ensure maximum sustainability without excessive interference in the lives of local communities.
Therefore, there is a need to enhance this network in those areas where monitoring is
progressing, and introduce monitoring into areas without effective coverage. Moreover, it is
essential that the process of monitoring be made sustainable with adequate financial and
4
Introduction
personnel resources. The monitoring programmes should soon become routine tasks for
governments and communities to assess their coral reefs as part of wider state of the
environment monitoring. This will require continued coordination, which must come from
the regions to be fully effective and sustainable.
Patricio Bernal
Executive Secretary, Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission
Klaus Töpfer
United Nations Under-Secretary General and Executive Director,
United Nations Environment Programme
John Waugh
Marine Programme Coordinator, IUCN – The World Conservation Union
Robert Watson
Chief Scientist, The World Bank
John Bell
Acting Director, Australian Institute of Marine Science
Meryl Williams,
Director General, ICLARM – The World Fish Center
5
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
CLIVE WILKINSON
THE CHANGING AGENDA
A major conclusion in the ‘Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 1998’ report was of two
simultaneous, but contradictory, global phenomena occurring on coral reefs: there is an
increasing rate of degradation of many coral reefs due to direct human activities; while
there is greatly enhanced awareness by people everywhere about the problems facing
reefs and actions are being catalysed to conserve them.
The paradox continues and coral reefs continue to deteriorate in all areas where human
activities are concentrated, notably along the coast of eastern Africa, all of continental
South Asia, throughout Southeast and East Asia and across the wider Caribbean region. In
addition to the human activities and associated reef degradation observed over the past
four decades, an increase in sea surface temperatures associated with the major El Niño–La
Niña change in climate in 1997-98 resulted in extensive coral bleaching and mortality over
large parts of the Indian Ocean and Southeast and East Asia. On some reefs, there were
mortality levels greater than 90% leaving these reefs almost bare of corals and with early
indications of major shifts in the population structures of these reefs. The critical feature of
the 1998 bleaching events was that areas were struck indiscriminately, irrespective of the
status of reef health; impacts were equally severe on pristine, remote reefs as on reefs
already under major human stresses. It was also very disappointing for those people
managing reefs from human impacts to observe their reefs die from stress factors outside
their control. We are being forced to recognise that human reliance on burning fossil fuels
and clearing rainforests is leading to changes in global climate, and that events like the
extensive coral mortality in 1998 may occur more frequently and devastatingly in the future;
and not just to coral reefs.
It is pertinent to revisit the report of the UNEP-IOC-ASPEI-IUCN Global Task Team on the
Implications of Global Climate Change on Coral Reefs compiled by Clive Wilkinson and Bob
Buddemeier from the deliberations of a 15 person team of experts in 1994. The report
concluded that the major problems for coral reefs were direct anthropogenic stresses of
nutrient pollution, excessive sediments and over-exploitation acting at many local sites near
concentrations of people, and that global climate change was not yet an issue. To quote
“Our major finding is that human pressures pose a far greater immediate threat to coral reefs
than climate change, which may only threaten reefs in the distant future”; and “Climate
change by itself is unlikely to eliminate coral reefs …”. Yet within 4 years of that report, both
authors have become convinced that evidence points to global climate change posing an
7
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
equal or even greater threat to coral reefs than direct anthropogenic impacts. Coral
bleaching and mortality due to elevated sea surface temperatures is one of several major
climate-related threats to coral reefs. Possibly the most alarming is evidence that increasing
concentrations of CO2 in seawater will reduce the rate of coral calcification, thus slowing
growth and increasing their fragility and capacity to build reefs. A major concern is that the
location and timing of the next bleaching event is unpredictable, and climate induced
bleaching can devastate pristine coral reefs as well as reefs which are effectively managed.
Thus, the agenda for coral reef conservation changed radically after the 1997-98 coral
mortality events. Until then, the major action to conserve coral reefs was to reduce direct
human impacts of land-based pollution and sediment releases, and over-exploitation, by
establishing Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). Now the fight has shifted to two fronts: the
need to increase management to abate direct anthropogenic impacts at all scales; and
action to study the impacts of global climate change on coral reefs and reduce global
emissions of greenhouse gases.
CORAL BLEACHING AND MORTALITY IN 1997-98
There is both encouraging and dismal news in the following summary reports on the coral
bleaching event of 1997-98 (and early 2000). The mortality after the bleaching was varied in
scope and scale with large parts of the Indian Ocean, Southeast Asia and the far western
Pacific being the most dramatically affected. In the wider Caribbean and parts of the Great
Barrier Reef, mortality was minimal even after extensive bleaching, as many severely
bleached reefs recovered almost fully. Over vast areas of the Pacific, there was no
bleaching (summarised in Chapter 1).
There are now encouraging reports of new recruitment on coral reefs in Eastern Africa, the
Seychelles, the Maldives and Palau indicating that sufficient parent corals survived to
provide some larvae, if not for the 1999 season, then for the 2000 spawning season.
However the down side is that many of the major reef building corals, such as Acropora
and Pocillopora are either recruiting in very low numbers or not at all. This will mean that
many of the affected reefs will be dominated by slow growing massive species that provide
poor habitat for fishes and are less attractive for diving tourists. Many reefs that were
dominated by large table and branching corals, now have a smaller, low profile corals.
It may be several years before we can state that the reefs will recover, or whether there will
be local losses of species, including the extinction of rare endemic species. Reef recovery is
dependent on few or no repeats of the extreme event of 1997-98, at least not within the
next 20 to 50 years which will be the time required for many of the reefs to recover to
structures resembling those before the bleaching. Recovery, in many cases, will also depend
on the reduction of human pressures through the application of sound management.
8
Executive Summary
CORAL BLEACHING IN 2000 - EARLY REPORTS
A worrying sign that severe bleaching may become more regular was seen in parts of the
southwest Pacific between February and April 2000. Satellite images from the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration of USA showed a developing ‘HotSpot’ of
increased seawater temperatures in the region in February and soon after severe bleaching
often involving around 80% of the corals was seen in Fiji, and the Solomon Islands.
Fortunately the ‘HotSpot’ dissipated rapidly and many corals appear to have recovered,
although there were losses of up to 90% of corals in parts of Fiji. These affected areas are
being followed by GCRMN and Reef Check teams. Coral bleaching has also been reported
from some locations in the Western Atlantic.
CORAL REEF DISEASES IN THE TROPICAL AMERICAS
In the last 20 years, 2 of the 3 major reef building corals in the Caribbean have succumbed
to white-band disease, and are now scarce. An important algal grazing sea-urchin also
suffered mass mortality, facilitating the overgrowth of reefs by macroalgae. Now, other
diseases are appearing and massive corals are declining. We know very little about these
apparently natural factors, but the worrying concept is that the increased frequency may be
linked to anthropogenic disturbance.
GLOBAL PROGRESS TOWARDS CONSERVING CORAL REEFS
There has been a major expansion in international efforts to monitor, research, manage and
conserve coral reefs during the last few years. The International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI),
formed in 1994, has continued to expand with the major operational unit, the Global Coral
Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) also growing. Many coral reef nations participated in two
ICRI global meetings (1995 and ITMEMS 1998) to review ICRI implementation. They determined
a set of priority steps for coral reef conservation: the Renewed Call to Action, addressed to the
world’s governments, following the 1995 Call to Action and Framework for Action
(www.environnement.gouv.fr/icri). During the last 2 years, the Secretariat of ICRI has operated
through the environment department of the Government of France and next year, coordination
of ICRI will pass to the Philippines in partnership with Sweden. Two new ICRI operational units
are been formed. The International Coral Reef Information Network (ICRIN) was established in
1999 to raise awareness about coral reefs, particularly targeting senior decision-makers.
Another network being formed is the International Coral Reef Action Network (ICRAN) which
has initial funding from the UN Foundation to establish demonstration sites around the world to
showcase successful MPA conservation projects and serve as major training facilities.
President Bill Clinton introduced Executive Order 13089 in June 1998 urging all arms of the
Government of the USA to do their utmost to map, document, research and conserve the
coral reefs under US. jurisdiction as well as assist other international agencies, including ICRI
and the GCRMN. This Order established the US Coral Reef Task Force (USCRTF) which is
comprised of many government agencies committed to carrying out this order with
increased budgetary allocations. This has resulted in a massive increase in US sponsored
coral reef action, including assistance to the GCRMN.
9
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
The Governments of the UK, through the Department for International Development (DFID),
and Sweden, through the Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA) have made
major contributions to reef conservation. DFID continues to support monitoring and
conservation activities in South Asia and Sweden, in conjunction with the World Bank, formed
CORDIO (COral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean) as a direct response to the massive
bleaching in 1998, and it operates to assess the damage and seek corrective measures for all
countries of the Indian Ocean. The World Bank also supports coral reef projects around the
world worth many millions of dollars. The Global Environment Facility has provided funds for
the Indian Ocean Commission to facilitate monitoring in the southern Indian Ocean over the
next 3 years. France is supporting activities in both the Pacific and Indian Oceans.
The volunteer network of reef monitors, Reef Check, continues to expand and has assessed
reefs in 40 countries during 1999. The AGRRA network, operating out of the University of
Miami has undertaken large scale assessment of coral reefs in the Caribbean, and
CARICOMP continues to assess reefs and other coastal systems there and maintains a
database in Jamaica. The global database, ReefBase within ICLARM continues to assemble
data on coral reefs and assist the Reefs at Risk project of the World Resources Institute and
the World Conservation Monitoring Network in the production of regional assessments of
the risks facing coral reefs and an atlas of reefs and resources around the world. The
DIVERSITAS program of UNESCO will have a focus project in 2001, the International
Biodiversity Observation Year, on assessing the impacts of the 1998 bleaching event to
assess the probability of recovery of reef biodiversity.
This is the second global report of the GCRMN. The process for writing this report varies
from the last, in that it is primarily derived from national status reports written by
governments and nationals from 86 countries. The majority of these countries are now
constituted into GCRMN Nodes (regional groupings of countries forming networks for
monitoring, usually with a country with more capacity acting as the coordinator). These
Nodes and other regional groupings combined these national reports into a series of
regional reports that form the chapters that follow. The original national and regional reports
contain the data and other information that form the basis for this report.
STATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF THE WORLD
Arabian Region
Nearshore reefs in the Arabian/Persian Gulf were virtually obliterated by severe coral
bleaching in 1996 and again in 1998, so that most do not have any living corals. These reefs
had survived many years of development of the petroleum industry, yet were virtually
obliterated by a climate induced impact. Offshore reefs were less affected and still have
some healthy corals. Major coral bleaching is now occurring in the Northern Gulf in
September 2000. Red Sea reefs remain predominantly healthy with few localised
anthropogenic stresses although there was some bleaching damage during 1998 to the
reefs in the southern sector. Monitoring and management capacity is low, but is improving
with plans established for regional monitoring and management networks. Coordinated
action is particularly urgent as this region is developing rapidly through growth in tourism
and shipping, especially associated with the petroleum industry. Most countries lack the
capacity or legal structures to manage these developments.
10
Executive Summary
South Asia
Most reefs in this region were severely affected and some were almost totally devastated
during the extreme climate events of 1998. Reefs on the Maldives, Sri Lanka and parts of
western India lost much of their coral cover, whereas those on some parts of the east coast
of Sri Lanka and most of the Andaman Islands were not seriously affected. These losses
have added to major anthropogenic damage to reefs off the mainland of India and Sri
Lanka, particularly from coral mining, over-fishing and pollution. These pressures will
continue as populations grow. There is an active regional network to assess coral reef health
and socioeconomic aspects of coral reef use, which is raising awareness about the need to
establish more protected areas.
Eastern Africa
All reefs in this region are close to the large continental land mass of Africa, and therefore
experience all the impacts from land: significant levels of sediment runoff; nutrient
pollution; and definite over-exploitation of reef resources from growing populations.
Developing national programmes to assess and manage coral reefs for both sustainable
fishing by local communities and the rapidly expanding tourism industry were given a
major sense of urgency in 1998. There was massive coral bleaching and mortality associated
with the El Niño climate switch with some large areas losing up to 80% of their live corals
(especially parts of Kenya and Tanzania). There is now new coral recruitment, which is an
encouraging sign for recovery, although it is probable that the reefs will have a different
composition in the immediate term. A call has been made for improved regional
cooperation to build national capacity and to manage transboundary problems.
Southern Indian Ocean
The reefs of the northern part of the region suffered severe damage during 1998 as a result
of the El Niño bleaching, with losses of 80 to 90% of the corals in parts of the Comoros and
Seychelles. Reefs around the southern islands were only slightly affected, but the reefs of
Madagascar continue to be under very high human pressures. Prior to the recent formation
of regional monitoring, there was little capacity and limited baseline data. Now there are 44
permanent monitoring sites in these states, however the capacity for the management of
coral reefs remains well behind many other parts of the world. A substantial Node of the
GCRMN was formed with European funding, and has received substantial support from the
Global Environment Facility to expand in the future.
Southeast Asia
This region has both the largest area of coral reefs in the world with the highest biodiversity,
while the reefs are probably under the greatest threats from anthropogenic activities.
Simultaneously there is rapidly expanding capacity to monitor, research and manage the
coral reef resources, which must accelerate as both populations and the economies
expand and put greater demand on reef resources. The extensive network of reef
monitoring is documenting an inexorable decline in the status of the coral reefs, some of
which were also damaged by the 1998 bleaching event (but not as severely as those in the
Indian Ocean). The area is still the centre of the reef live fish trade, worth over US$1billion
per year, with virtually all reefs being hit by roving cyanide and blast fishers. Comanagement
with local communities is emerging as the best method to implement
sustainable management of these high diversity resources.
11
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
East Asia
The reefs of southern Japan and Taiwan were severely affected by coral bleaching and
mortality during the second half of 1998, coincident with the La Niña climate switch.
Bleaching ended when the first typhoon of the season came in late September. There are
many reports of coral losses of 30-60%, with some losses as high as 80-90%. Some
localised extinctions of prominent corals have been reported. China has established one
MPA in Hainan and has commenced coral reef monitoring. The Japanese government has
established an international coral reef centre on Ishigaki Island (the southern islands of Okinawa)
to facilitate coral reef conservation in the region and assist the GCRMN with monitoring.
Australia and Papua New Guinea
Australian reefs continue to be the best managed in the world with the lowest levels of
anthropogenic impacts of any continental reefs. In general, they are in good to excellent
condition, however there are problems on the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) with sediment and
nutrient runoff from the lands, particularly from over-grazed range lands after long dry
spells, and increasing professional and recreational fishing. Coral bleaching was intense, but
only on inshore reefs and the bulk of the GBR was not affected, although crown-of-thorns
starfish are attacking the offshore reefs in 2000. Management of the GBR is also assisted by
the largest capacity of any region for coral reef research, monitoring, teaching and
management, which flows onto strong public awareness and acceptance of and demand
for effective reef conservation. Similar levels of research, monitoring and conservation
initiatives are being implemented for reefs off Western Australia. During 1998 there were
markedly different affects of the coral bleaching; Scott Reef way offshore was nearly
devastated, whereas the nearby Ashmore reef escaped damage (See Chapter 1). Similarly
most of the reefs of PNG are generally in very good condition, except for localised areas of
damage from excessive logging and increasing levels of exploitation on nearshore reefs.
These reefs have very high biodiversity and a wide range of structures, however, there is
virtually no management capacity or commitment for management in government, and only
weak capacity to assess and monitor these resources.
Micronesia
There is now greater coordination amongst Micronesian countries with the formation of a
consortium of major coral reef institutes and agencies, and strong recognition from the
United States Government. This is resulting in enhanced monitoring and marine resource
management training in these countries. The reefs are predominantly in good to excellent
condition, although there is damage resulting from development activities on the high
islands and over-fishing around centres of population. Some MPAs are protecting fish
populations, but there are insufficient on the islands and poor enforcement of existing
reserves. Most of the region escaped damage from the 1997-98 bleaching event, however,
there were unprecedented losses of corals around Palau. Reports coming through in mid-
2000 are of some recovery and encouraging levels of new coral recruitment. Tourism is the
major reef activity on the Northern Marianas, Guam and Palau, and is developing in the
Federated States of Micronesia.
Southwest Pacific
While this region escaped major bleaching during 1997-98, it was damaged by relatively
severe coral bleaching between February and April 2000 with extensive mortality in some
12
Executive Summary
parts of Fiji and the Solomon Islands. Human impacts on these reefs are steadily increasing
but still concentrated at a few sites per country, mainly around the capital cities and in
lagoons. However, most reefs are still healthy with few real problems, except for some
over-fishing for subsistence and small-scale commercial activities. Most reefs are protected
by the influence of the Pacific Ocean, which both dilutes nutrient and toxic pollution and
removes sediments. Recent political instability in the Solomon Islands and Fiji, has delayed
conservation efforts for coral reefs e.g. the special marine science unit of the University of
the South Pacific, and the ICLARM aquaculture centre have moved off the Solomon Islands
awaiting developments. An active coral reef monitoring network is being established at the
University of the South Pacific in Suva and in smaller campuses in other countries, but most
nations lack the capacity to implement long-term monitoring. Most nations have not
declared key areas as marine protected areas, and have little capacity for integrated coral
reef management.
Southeast Pacific
This region also escaped major climate related coral bleaching in 1997-98 and 2000, such
that most of the reefs remain healthy with few anthropogenic threats. Similar to other areas
in the Pacific, most human impacts are concentrated around the major centres of
population and within enclosed lagoons. Considerable shoreline modification on these
islands has resulted in damage to the nearshore reefs, but the outer reefs facing the ocean
show no real impacts. Fishing pressures are increasing, threatening some coral reefs, and
there are increasing conflicts between fishers and tourist operators. Integrated management
planning is needed to improve the design, location and management of tourist resorts and
to manage the rapid growth of the black pearl culture in some lagoons of the Cook Islands
and French Polynesia. While there has been active coral reef monitoring in French Polynesia,
such efforts are only beginning in the other countries. The whole region will benefit from a
programme of training and monitoring at the marine station on Moorea with assistance from France.
Northeast (American) Pacific
This region contains the bulk of coral reefs under US control with 2 distinct regions: the
main islands of Hawaii; and scattered islands and atolls throughout the Pacific. Strong
population and economic growth in the Hawaiian islands is resulting in considerable local
damage to reefs around the major centres and tourist operations, whereas all reefs are
subjected to high and increasing fishing pressures from both indigenous and tourist fishers.
Collecting for the aquarium trade has cause major depletion of stocks of high value species.
There are currently active measures to monitor the reefs throughout the main islands, and
plans are being developed for considerably improved management of coral reef resources,
however, local development pressures will make it difficult to achieve a target of 20% of
areas under protection. In contrast, the scattered islands are under minimal anthropogenic
pressures and none experienced climate related bleaching in 1998. The prognosis for these
reefs into the immediate future is good, and it would be considerably enhanced by a
greater awareness of sustainable management by policy makers.
The American Caribbean
The increase in activity catalysed by the formation of the US Coral Reef Task Force means
that awareness has been raised in the islands of Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands to
overcome serious problems of over-fishing and damage to coastal nursery areas of
13
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
mangrove forests and seagrass beds. Similarly, there is a greater urgency to conserve reefs
off the mainland of the USA, with an ambitious target of having 20% of these reef resources
managed as no-take reserves within the next few decades. The major threats to reefs off
Florida are pollution from massive agriculture in Florida and the growing populations of
people wanting to enjoy coral reefs, and over-fishing of key target species. There is now a
concerted programme to improve research and management on these reefs and all others
under US jurisdiction.
Northern Caribbean and Western Atlantic
There is similar reef deterioration in all countries, with over-fishing and direct pollution
being the most critical problem for reefs that are close to land (Jamaica, Haiti and the
Dominican Republic). Whereas, exploitation is much less over the broad shelves and fish
stocks are in better shape (Cuba, Bahamas, Turks and Caicos Islands). Finally, tourists on
Bermuda and Cayman Islands are demanding healthy fish populations, which is resulting in
reduced fishing pressures. Coral cover on most of the islands has dropped because whiteband
disease killed off the large stands of Acropora spp., and reefs close to land still show
low cover e.g. coral cover in northern Jamaica dropped from 52% in the 70s to 3% in the
early 90s, but is gradually recovering (currently 10-15% now). Bleaching in 1998 was severe
in places, but there was little or no mortality. Much of the tourism development based on
the coral reefs is poorly planned and results in sediment run-off and nutrient pollution,
thereby damaging the reefs. While there is increasing awareness of the need for
conservation and the establishment of Marine Protected Areas, there is little capacity or
planning for management or enforcement of conservation laws.
Central America
Many of the reefs in this region escaped the damage that was occurring in the rest of the
Caribbean until there was mass coral bleaching and mortality in 1995 and 1998, and
extensive damage from the intense Hurricane Mitch, also in 1998. These events impacted
heavily on reefs from the Mexican Yucatan to Nicaragua, causing losses in coral cover of 15-
20% across the region with some losses as high as 75% in parts of Belize. Throughout large
parts of the region there are intense fishing pressures (Honduras and Nicaragua, and
Veracruz and Campeche in Mexico), and major damage to reefs from sediment runoff
because of poor land-use and as a result of Hurricane Mitch. Capacity to monitor and
manage coral reefs varies enormously in the region, from advanced to virtually non-existent.
Now, countries of the region are cooperating to conserve and manage their reefs, and
resolve cross-boundary problems. This has a real sense of urgency following recent
damage to the reefs.
The Eastern Antilles
Many of these islands scattered over the eastern Caribbean face similar problems of overexploitation,
sedimentation and nutrient pollution damage to their narrow fringes of coral
reefs. They also suffer from having limited capacity to conserve and manage the reef
resources in the face of rising populations. Capacity is variable; some countries are well
advanced in implementing community-based, or tourism-funded, management and
monitoring, whereas others lag well behind. A common problem is a lack of trained staff to
monitor reefs, hence the introduction of basic methods like Reef Check have helped
expand the GCRMN network throughout the islands. This network is now assisting with reef
14
Executive Summary
management and monitoring via coordination from St. Lucia and assistance from the
regional office of UNEP. Coral cover on some islands has dropped recently due to the
passage of Hurricanes and coral bleaching e.g. on St. Lucia, cover declined from 50% to
25% at 3m depth and from 35% to 17% at 10m.
South America
Reefs in this region were seriously degraded throughout the 1980s and early 1990s due to a
range of natural and anthropogenic stresses. Throughout this time the major natural stress
has been repeated coral bleaching episodes with cumulative mortalities, however, there
were only minor impacts during the 1997-98 bleaching event on both Pacific and
Caribbean reefs. The major anthropogenic stresses are from increased sediment and
nutrient pollution on the nearshore reefs because of deforestation, poor agricultural
practices and diversion of rivers. Offshore reefs are being increasingly over-exploited for
fisheries, coral rock and sand, resulting in distinct declines of coral cover and fish
populations. There is strong capacity and apparent willingness to monitor reefs in the
region, with the exception of Brazil, which is yet to establish a national monitoring
programme. The countries are now cooperating within a regional node of the GCRMN to
introduce monitoring in some countries and enhance it in others. As noted in other
regions, obtaining funding for monitoring at both national and regional levels is a major
challenge (especially in Columbia).
REEFS AS MODELS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION
Where do we go from here? Coral reefs should be regarded as ideal models for the
management and conservation of marine ecosystems, and possibly other ecosystems. Many
coral reefs are degrading from stresses that can be managed, moreover reefs are often
discrete entities with water barriers between them, and the land or other major
ecosystems. In addition, many reefs are sufficiently remote from land to receive only
marginal impacts from land based pollution and exploitation. Therefore many of those
reefs that are being degraded by human activities would befit from to holistic and
integrated approaches to ecosystem management and conservation.
There is almost no other ecosystem that has the ‘charismatic appeal’ of coral reefs and they
are clearly high on the public agenda for systems for conservation. It is difficult to pass a
week without seeing a television documentary or an educational film on coral reefs.
Importantly, there are no large economic or political concerns directly lobbying against
coral reef conservation. In contrast, the massive tourism and transport industries are strongly
in favour of coral reef conservation, because reef-based tourism is the fastest growing
sector of the ecotourism and activity holiday market. Reef fisheries are generally subsistence
or small scale commercial operations, except for cyanide fishing for the live fish trade
which is conservatively estimated to be worth US$1 billion per year through Hong Kong.
Major operators in the aquarium trade are actively working to make this ‘fishing’ industry
sustainable, supported by most hobbyists who prefer ‘green labelled’ products.
Reefs are also strategically important. There are more than 20 countries in the United Nations
with few natural resources other than coral reefs; and another 70 countries or states have
substantial areas of ecologically and economically important coral reefs. These states exert
15
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
considerable influence within the UN and also have guardianship over vast expanses of the
oceans as Exclusive Economic Zones. Coral reefs are becoming major discussion topics in
international forums such as the Conventions on Sustainable Development and Biological
Diversity, as well as the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation.
Thus there are powerful, positive indications that we should be able to succeed in
conserving large areas of coral reefs and their contained heritage of biodiversity. Such
success would provide models for the conservation of other ecosystems, for if we cannot
succeed in conserving coral reefs, what other ecosystems will we be able to conserve?
CALLS FOR ASSISTANCE
Similar calls for assistance and recommendations for action came from many countries and
regions. The specific recommendations are listed at the end of each chapter, but following
is a summary of the major requests:
Monitoring efforts should be expanded in scope and scale, as there are many countries
without the capacity in trained staff, logistics, and ongoing funding to monitor reefs. There
are no data in this report for large areas of the world, some of which were severely
damaged during the 1998 bleaching event. Therefore, there is a need for operational
support to train staff in assessing reefs underwater, and archiving and analysing the data
using databases. Moreover, there is a need to ensure that these people have guaranteed
employment and are able to interact with colleagues in neighbouring countries; the GCRMN
seeks to provide this coordination facility.
Monitoring of coral reefs should be conducted as a multi-scaled and multi-level process,
with all scales and levels being equally important. Communities and volunteers are
requested to monitor their ‘home’ reefs at a basic level to enhance involvement and
ownership; governments require reef monitoring as a contribution to ‘state of the
environment’ reporting and to provide information for management of these critical
resources; and scientific monitoring is required as quality control for other monitoring and
to answer specific management and research questions (e.g. oceanographic and terrestrial
influences on coral reefs; synergistic coupling of anthropogenic and climate change
impacts). Thus, greater cooperation and coordination is required among groups working on
coral reefs to ensure that data and information are delivered in a timely manner to the world.
There is a need for greater involvement of communities in both monitoring and local
management of coral reefs. Involvement in community based monitoring is a powerful tool
for raising awareness both within the community and with decision makers; such
involvement should lead to successful co-management of resources e.g. recently in Samoa.
Although small marine protected areas are often successful, there is a need to link them into
networks to avoid the scene of devastation around a few oases of success. Alternatively,
MPAs could be made larger to incorporate a multitude of uses and communities, with zoning
ranging from fishing and tourism development, to total protection of fish stocks (the target
suggested is 20% of the area as ‘no take reserves’). MPAs at this scale can address catchment
areas and trans-boundary coastal and marine influences, and accommodate industrial and
16
Executive Summary
tourism development along with traditional uses through different ‘tenure’ and zoning
measures. Either way, there is a strong need for coordination and cooperation between
operational and funding agencies to expand the area of reefs under protective management.
Coral reefs are generally sustainable, self-repairing systems that recover when conditions are
suitable and there is an adequate supply of larvae. However, there may be instances when
rehabilitation is warranted. Consideration should be given to applying practical and lowcost
rehabilitation methods where recovery is not proceeding normally, but such methods
must be effective at the scale of the damage, and not local ‘band-aid’ gimmicks.
The traditional rights and management practices, where they are still practised or remain in
the memory, need to be recognised and incorporated into the codified laws of states and
regions. This would be assisted by scientific validation and re-drafting of state laws to
include co-management provisions over coastal and marine areas. Currently many valuable
traditional practices for conservation of coral reef resources are being eroded under the
combined force of codified state and international law. For example in Samoa, traditional
rights and customs have been written into the fisheries regulations providing village
communities, through their chiefs, the right to manage their coral reef resources and apply
punishment to offenders who violate village areas and their proclaimed MPAs.
There is an ongoing need for the provision of legal advice and assistance as part of
developing economic policy to ensure a balance between conservation and development.
Many laws in most countries were developed during colonial times and focussed on
sectoral rather than integrated management, and the short term rather than the long-term
e.g. optimising harvests of fishery and forestry resources. Calls have been made to assist in
redrafting national and state statutes to remove considerable multi-sectoral overlaps in
jurisdiction over coastal resources and ensure sustainable use of these resources, including
establishment, control and enforcement of MPAs.
There was strong general concern that global climate change had the potential to destroy
the coral reefs of many countries of the world, which are making minuscule contributions to
the emissions of greenhouse gases. All countries requested assistance in assessing the
potential future impacts of GCC on their coral reefs as well as energy alternative
programmes. Many made pleas to the larger developed countries to curb their emissions,
so that their coral reefs and often the countries will survive into the future.
FUTURE PREDICTIONS FOR CORAL REEFS
Predictions were made in 1992 that in 10 to 20 years, another 30% of the world’s coral
reefs could be added to the 10% that were effectively destroyed, if urgent management
action was not implemented. While these figures appeared alarmist, recent events show
that they may be conservative. In the early 1990s, there was little organised monitoring to
observe reef decline and to determine the causal relationships. Estimates suggesting that
30% of the world’s reefs were not under anthropogenic stress were an underestimate, as
large areas of deeper coral reefs have been identified that were not visible in satellite
images of the Indian, and Pacific Oceans and South China Sea. Those dire predictions
appeared extreme until the 1998 mass bleaching event struck; an event not anticipated in
17
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
1992. Many remote pristine reefs were devastated from shallow waters down to depths
exceeding 30 metres. Hopefully these reefs are not destroyed and will recover if severe
bleaching events do not become regular occurrences.
The authors of the regional reports were asked to examine those 1992 estimates. The table
below presents a grim picture in the Wider Indian Ocean, in Southeast and East Asia and
the Caribbean/Atlantic regions. However, vast expanses of reefs in the Pacific and off the
coast of Australia are in reasonably good health with a positive prognosis for the future;
unless global climate change events re-occur like those in 1998 (and in 2000 near Fiji and
the Solomon Islands). The bleaching was caused by the combination of extremely calm
conditions during the 1997-98 El Niño-La Niña events, coupled with steadily rising baseline
of sea surface temperatures in the tropics (increasingly attributed to greenhouse warming).
These two factors drove temperatures in parts of the tropics to higher values than have
been recorded in the last 150 years.
Year of Prediction Reef % Reef % Reef % at More reef %
destroyed destroyed critical stage, threatened,
pre 1998 in 1998 loss 2-10yr loss 10-30 yr
1992 - Guam 10 - 30 30
1998 - Reefs@Risk - - 27* 31*
2000 0
Arabian Region 2 33 6 6
Wider Indian Ocean 13 46 12 11
Australia, PNG 1 3 3 6
South & East Asia 16 18 24 30
Wider Pacific Ocean 4 5 9 14
Caribbean Atlantic 21 1 11 22
Status 2000 Global 11 16 14 18
*The R@R process determined these numbers by statistically assessing predicted threats to existing
reefs, and did not include coral bleaching as a threat.
This is a compilation of current losses and predictions for the regions as mean values, after weighting
for reef areas detailed in the Reefs at Risk report of 1998. The losses in 1998 should be regarded as
temporary, as many of these reefs should recover, provided that major bleaching stresses are not
repeated frequently. The 2-10 and 10-20 year periods for the predictions are to complement the 1992
predictions that reefs classed as either critical or threatened would be irreparably degraded unless the
stresses are removed and relatively large areas are set aside as MPAs.
These grim estimates for large areas of the world indicate that efforts to conserve coral reefs
should to be increased, most probably through the establishment of a network of Marine
Protected Areas covering many coral reefs with full community and government comanagement
involvement. Conservation efforts in small areas are being undermined by
damaging activities in adjacent un-managed oceanic or terrestrial areas. The major human
threats to coral reefs can be managed by providing alternative livelihoods and education to
people on the adjacent land. Unless these threats are managed and mitigated, reefs will
continue to degrade with the inexorable increase in human populations and pressures. If
predicted rates of greenhouse gas emissions continue and these are confirmed as the
trigger for global warming, shifts in global climate like the El Niño-La Niña phenomenon of
1997-98 will recur with increased severity and frequency. Coral reefs which are recovering,
will be set back by recurring bouts of coral bleaching and mortality. An additional climate
18
Executive Summary
problem is looming as corals will probably grow more slowly with more fragile skeletons
due to increases in CO 2 concentrations in sea water.
Physiological restrictions will prevent corals escaping global warming by retreating into
deeper water or occupying higher latitudes when tropical waters become too warm. The
time required for recovery from the recent extreme mortality event to form reefs with similar
levels of high coral diversity will be long because few adult colonies remain to provide
larvae for new settlement. Poor management of human activities on reefs will slow this
recovery. Over-fished reefs are frequently overgrown with large fleshy algae that prevent
coral recruitment. Moreover, the recovered reefs will have different coral community
structures, dominated initially by slow growing massive corals. Repeat bleaching events
within the next 20 to 50 years will reverse any such recovery.
Already the world has lost 11% of coral reefs and a further 16% are not fully functional.
Most of these should recover, except possibly for those in already stressed areas. Coral
reefs will not become extinct in the immediate future, but there are likely to be major
changes in the composition of coral communities and reductions in harvestable products.
Corals have survived for millions of years of major climate change events, meteor strikes and
changes in solar activity and somehow recovered. However, the time frames for those
recoveries were long; often many thousands of years and well outside short-term human
interests. Reefs will probably recover somewhat from the current bouts of anthropogenic
and climate change degradation, but it is likely that worse is yet to come and we will
probably experience significant reductions in the cover and health of coral reefs, and major
losses in biodiversity. It is therefore imperative that globally coordinated actions are
implemented soon to manage and conserve these ecosystems of global heritage value for
present and future generations, and for peoples and cultures whose livelihoods depend on
reef resources.
19
1. THE 1997-98 MASS CORAL BLEACHING AND
MORTALITY EVENT: 2 YEARS ON
CLIVE WILKINSON
Many coral reef scientists and resource managers were considerably shocked and
depressed during 1998 when there was massive coral bleaching and mortality of corals
over large reef areas in many parts of the world. This caused a major paradigm shift in
concepts about the degradation of coral reefs and mechanisms for management. Previously
it was accepted that direct anthropogenic impacts of nutrient and sediment pollution,
over-exploitation (especially with damaging methods) and destruction of reefs during
development should be ameliorated for successful conservation of reef resources.
Suddenly, a new and comparable threat to coral reefs was posed by Global Climate
Change related to indirect effects of increasing levels of greenhouse gases causing major
switches in climate and warming surface waters, and the direct chemical imbalances in the
seawater caused by increases in CO 2 concentrations. There are no easy management
approaches to these threats, other than seeking global reductions in the emissions of
greenhouse gases.
GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE AND CORAL REEF DAMAGE – PROBABLE LINKS
The world experienced the most dramatic changes in climate on record when a major El Niño
event started in early 1997 (lasting for 12 months), and was followed by a rapid switch to a La Niña
in mid 1998 (lasting for 11 months). It was only in mid-2000 that the La Niña diminished to
‘normal’ weather patterns.
There was major coral bleaching and mortality on many reefs around the world during these
major switches in climate. This was the most severe bleaching ever witnessed and
suddenly alerted the world to the potential impacts of Global Climate Change (GCC) on
coral reefs. At the Convention on Sustainable Development meeting in Montreal, February
2000, a resolution was passed asserting that the damage to reefs across the world in 1998
was directly associated with global climate change. This resolution was argued by the
Seychelles, Jamaica, Dominican Republic, Antigua and Barbuda, and Cuba; whose reefs
suffered from coral bleaching.
When the first Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 1998 was written, the initial impression
was of major catastrophes in many parts of the world, particularly to Indian Ocean reefs,
those of Southeast and East Asia, Palau and large parts of the Caribbean. The anecdotal
impressions were that we had witnessed the localised extinction of many reefs with largescale
losses of species and major economic crises for the people dependent on those
21
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
reefs. Now, 2 years later, a re-examination of the evidence shows that there are both causes
for pessimism and many reasons for optimism.
First, the good news. Many reefs that experienced major coral mortality are now showing
encouraging signs of recovery following the recruitment of new corals, the survival of many
juvenile corals during 1998, and the recovery of seemingly dead corals from tissue buried
deep inside the skeletons. For example, there has been encouraging new recruitment in the
Maldives, Kenya, Seychelles, southern Japan and Palau originating from a few surviving adult
colonies in deep passes to the outside cooler waters. While large areas of reefs in
Southeast Asia, the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) and the Caribbean suffered extensive bleaching,
there was little resultant mortality, even though some corals remained bleached for up to 10
months (Case Studies 6 and 7).
But there is also bad news. In late 1998, there were either no reports or incorrect ones
about many reefs which were subsequently shown to have had major levels of coral
mortality and low rates of new recruitment. The reefs of the Chagos plateau in the Indian
Ocean were reported as healthy in 1998, but Case Study 1 shows a different story. The
reefs of southern Japan have apparently lost their major reef building corals (Case Study 4).
Large areas of Kenya, the Seychelles, and southern Japan have not recovered and large
corals, many hundreds of years old, have not recovered (e.g. Vietnam, Western Australia, GBR).
The 1998 report was a compilation of anecdotal and early reports obtained immediately
after (and in some cases, during) the 1998 major bleaching event, but few of these had
substantiating data. This report focuses on a few key case studies, with data on the status of
the reefs, and comparisons with the reef status prior to 1998.
Arabian Region
Bleaching coincided with the massive La Niña (1998) that was also causing bleaching in
Southeast and East Asia and the Caribbean. The duration of bleaching was short, but many
corals that had survived previous bleaching in 1996 in the Arabian/Persian Gulf were killed.
Most shallow water reefs on the southwestern side of the Gulf were almost completely
destroyed with 80 to 100% of corals killed in August and September, 1998. Most corals
that had survived a similar massive bleaching in 1996, were killed during 1998, and coral
cover is almost universally less than 10%, and as little as 1% on many reefs. An example of
the mortality was the destruction of coral reefs near the oil installations of the United Arab
Emirates. These had been monitored for 2 decades during major developments on land
and had survived. Reefs to the east on the coast of Iran suffered only minor impacts.
Most of the Red Sea was not affected in 1998, with very few reports of bleaching in Egypt, Israel,
Jordan, and Sudan. There was some bleaching in Eritrea around Massawa and Green Island but
most corals recovered after the temperatures dropped. No bleaching was seen on the Assab
Islands. There was wide-scale coral mortality on the fringing reefs and banks off Rabigh (22°33’ N
to 22°58’ N), Saudi Arabia, with almost all hard (including Millepora) and soft corals killed (more
than 95%) from the reef-flat to 15m depth on the reef slope. Millepora species had dominated
extensive lengths of the reef crest in 1997 but suffered mortality approaching 100%. Mortality
was about 70% on the Rabigh reef banks 25km offshore with some corals still bleached 3 months
after the onset. (Yusef Fadlallah, e-mail: [email protected]).
22
The 1997-98 Mass Coral Bleaching and Mortality Event
Arabian Sea
There was major bleaching around Mirbat, southern Oman, in May 1998 with 75 to 95% of
abundant Stylophora bleached, and 50% of large Porites colonies were partially bleached.
No bleaching was observed at Sudh, 40km east of Mirbat, nor in the Muscat Area, Gulf of
Oman at temperatures around 30.5°C. Upwelling during the southeast monsoon normally
drops temperatures to 19ºC. No recovery of bleached colonies was seen in mid-October
when temperatures increased to 25°C after the summer upwelling. There was also extensive
coral bleaching on the Socotra Archipelago (see chapter 2).
Indian Ocean
Probably the most extensive coral bleaching ever witnessed occurred in the central to
northern Indian Ocean during the first 6 months of 1998, with devastation of coral reefs
along Eastern Africa, in the Seychelles, Chagos Archipelago, the Maldives, Sri Lanka and
India and on reefs off Western Australia. The normal monsoon and trade winds stopped
and surface waters warmed during this severe El Niño, and the warm water ‘followed’ the
sun from south to north between January and June. When the El Niño switched to an equally
strong La Niña in June 1998, winds and currents started again and bleaching stopped.
Eastern Africa
Coral bleaching and mortality were severe on the coasts of Kenya and Tanzania from March
to May, 1998. In Kenya, bleaching varied from 50% to 90% on most reefs, but less on reefs
below 10 m depth (about 50%). Coral cover in many sites has dropped from a mean of
30% to 5–11%, irrespective of whether or not the reefs were protected in a protected area.
New coral recruitment is very low, so recovery will be prolonged. Bleaching was similar or
worse in Tanzania, particularly in the northern half with 60-90% losses of corals at Tutia
(Mafia Island Marine Park) and Misali (west coast of Pemba). There was less bleaching on
some reefs e.g. 10% or less on Unguja Island, Zanzibar. Reefs in the northern part of
Mozambique with up to 99% mortality e.g. on some patch reefs at Inhaca Island. Inshore
areas, which experience greater variations in temperatures experienced less bleaching.
Only a few corals in South Africa were affected, probably because most coral growth is
deeper than 10 m.
Southern Indian Ocean
Bleaching impacts were far more severe in the north (Comoros and Seychelles) than in the
south (Madagascar, Mauritius and Reunion) where it was minimal. Mortality on the Comoros
reef flats and slopes was approximately 40% to 50%. Most reefs of the inner Seychelles
have less than 10% coral cover and on some it is as below 1%. On Madagascar, there was
30% bleaching of corals at Belo sur Mer (mid-west coast) and similar bleaching at
Antananbe, Toliara, Nosy Bé, and Mitsio archipelago. At Mananara-Nord (northeast coast,
15 o S), 40-80% of corals bleached with high mortality, and 10-40% of mixed species corals
bleached in deeper water. A similar pattern was reported on Mayotte, except on the
exposed southern end and the lagoon, which receives cooler water from the north.
South Asia
The most severely impacted reefs in the world during the 1998 bleaching event were
probably those of Chagos, Sri Lanka, India and the Maldives. In this region, and on nearby
reefs off the Seychelles and Western Australia (Case Study 3), there were losses of 80% of
23
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
CASE STUDY 1: CHAGOS ARCHIPELAGO, CENTRAL INDIAN OCEAN
An error was made in the 1998 report with no bleaching reported on Chagos. In fact
these remote reefs were severely damaged like others in the Indian Ocean. The 1998 El
Niño resulted in a major losses in coral cover and abundance across the Archipelago.
The El Niño came at the end of a chain of events that had caused hard coral cover to
decline from 50-75% (plus 10-20% soft coral) to only 12% live cover over the last
20 years. These are very remote reefs with high biodiversity (220 and 770 fish
species) which experience virtually no human impacts. The 1998 ‘Hotspot’ sat over
Chagos for 2 months, so that in early 1999 seaward reefs of the 6 Chagos atolls had
40% cover of recently dead coral and 40% bare rock. The 50% of corals lost in the
lagoon has turned into loose rubble. It is probable that earlier El Niño events (1982-
83 and 1987-88) resulted in conversion of much live coral to rock and rubble, but the
1998 event caused a major sudden loss of corals. Meteorological records show a 1-2 o C
rise in mean air temperature, lower annual atmospheric pressure, reduced cloud cover,
and more variable winds during the last 25 years; strong evidence for global climate change.
In the 1970s, seaward and lagoonal reefs had high coral cover and diversity, with many
large table Acropora spp. in 5–15m depth, and A. palifera in the turbulent shallows. By
February 1999, most of these corals and soft corals were dead with only a few large
Porites heads having more living than dead tissue. There were also losses of calcareous
red algae, Millepora, and blue Heliopora corals from shallow areas. Soft corals were
almost totally eliminated from seaward slopes after 1998, resulting in large areas of
bare substrate. There was much lower coral mortality on lagoon reefs, probably
because these experience large normal fluctuations in temperature and the corals
presumably have adapted to higher temperatures. The massive Porites in lagoons
survived better than those on ocean facing reefs.
The effects on Chagos have been catastrophic, particularly for the dominant genus
Acropora. In early 1999, it was possible to snorkel for 15 minutes in areas of northwestern
Salomon and western Blenheim and not see any live coral amongst the stillstanding
coral skeletons. Whereas before then, there was 50-75% cover. There were
only occasional sites with more than 10% of colonies were alive, with Porites lutea and
other similar large massive Porites species being the best survivors (average cover of
8% on all reefs). The immediate consequences will be a reduction in reef growth to at
least 20m depth, and delayed recovery of corals and the coral community. Erosion of
the coral skeletons will produce unstable rubble and sand, which will prevent the
settling of new larvae from the few living parent colonies. The scale of the losses,
including coral colonies that were 200-300 years old, indicates that partial recovery
will take several decades at least, and may be a few hundred years before a similar
community of corals is re-established. (Charles R.C. Sheppard, 1999. Coral decline
and weather patterns over 20 years in the Chagos Archipelago, Central Indian Ocean.
Ambio, 28, 472-478, E-mail: [email protected].)
24
The 1997-98 Mass Coral Bleaching and Mortality Event
the living corals or more. These now appear as virtually barren reefs with just a few percent
of coral cover. The critical problem for these reefs is that there are few remaining adult
colonies to provide coral larvae, thus it is probable that many reefs will have lower coral
diversity for the next 20 to 40 years. Bleaching throughout the Maldives was extreme, with
many reefs now having less than 5% live coral cover. There are, however, encouraging signs
of recovery with many small corals surviving after the bleaching and many new recruits
appearing. The ‘new’ reefs, however, will have a very different appearance with dominance
by slow growing massive corals, instead of branching and plate Acropora.
Southeast and East Asia
Bleaching was variable across the region, with most countries reporting severe bleaching,
but generally low levels of coral mortality. The exceptions were parts of Vietnam and the
northern Philippines where up to 80% corals bleached, and mortality was high. Singapore
reported the first major bleaching in the island’s history.
The large La Niña event that started in June 1998 occurred during the northern summer and
resulted in serious bleaching in the region, particularly in Taiwan and Japan. This area is
frequently impacted by typhoons travelling to the northwest, which mix the waters and
maintain them below 30 o C, but the summer of ’98 was particularly calm with the first
typhoon being delayed until September. By then there had been massive damage to the
coral reefs. Bleaching was variable with less than 20% in the north around Kyushu and
Shikoku, 30–40% on the eastern Hachijo Islands (maximum of 80 – 90% in places), and
CASE STUDY 2: BLEACHING OF REEFS IN THE LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS, INDIA
First reports from the Lakshadweep Islands off the west coast of India were of
catastrophic bleaching, but follow-up surveys in mid-2000 showed that bleaching
mortality was very variable between reefs, but more uniform within a reef. After the
1998 El Niño bleaching, live coral cover on Kadmat Island was 2.4% and 6.7% on
Agatti, whereas on Kavaratti there was 14.3% cover. Turf and coralline algae growing on
dead coral were the dominant cover at all sites, and there was clear evidence at Agatti
and Kadmat that the dead Acropora skeletons were breaking down. An encouraging sign
was that there were many small coral colonies (
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
CASE STUDY 3: BLEACHING AND RECOVERY OF WESTERN AUSTRALIAN
CORAL REEFS POST 1998
A complex pattern of bleaching and mortality occurred on remote and nearshore coral
reefs off the coast of Western Australia during the first half of 1998. These reefs
receive very minor land runoff and minimal anthropogenic damage, but the patterns
were very different on adjacent reefs:
• Ashmore Reef (S 12 o 16’ E 123 o 00’) only minor bleaching seen in the lagoon
of these atoll-like reefs.
• Seringapatam Reef (S 13 o 39’ E 122 o 02’); extensive bleaching with
reductions in hard coral cover from 45% to 5%, and soft coral cover from
10% to 2% on the outer slopes. There was almost 100% mortality of mostly
Acropora corals in the relatively shallow lagoon, small patch reefs have
suffered 90 to 100% mortality and a very old single colony of Pavona
minuta over 100 m diameter and 6m high was almost entirely killed with
0.5m2 still alive. Many species have become locally extinct.
• Scott Reef (S 14 o 11’ E 121 o 48’; 50 x 35km) was the most seriously
bleached of these isolated reefs, with extensive coral mortality at all depths
in April 1998. There was almost 100% mortality of large Acropora beds with
no survivors on most lagoon patch reefs. Corals on the reef crests were
devastated, with few survivors. Data along 9m depth transects showed all
animals with symbiotic algae were wholly or partially bleached, with variable
recovery. The majority of branching Acropora were 80 to 100% killed, and
100% of Millepora were dead at all sites except one. Porites cover was
reduced by 50%, with many colonies having only small patches of live tissue
a year later. The once common Pocilloporids and Acropora bruggemanni are
either extremely rare or locally extinct. Soft corals suffered at all sites with
between 50% and 80% of soft corals dying, depending on the site. Even at
30m depth, 80% of the corals were bleached. The coral community has
changed dramatically. Recruitment studies between 1995 and 1999 reveal
that recruitment in 1998 and 1999 was less than 1% of the pre-1998 levels.
• Rowley Shoals (including Mermaid, Clerke and Imperiuse Reefs Reef between
(S 17 o 04’ and 17 o 33’; E 114 o 38’ and 119 o 23’) showed only minor
bleaching in 1998, with a few Pocilloporids and branching Porites cyclindrica
bleached. Mortality was minor with no changes in coral cover since the first
surveys in 1994.
• Dampier Archipelago (S 20 o 38’ E 116 o 39’) showed severe bleaching in
March-April, 1998 on the fringing reefs of the inner islands, but the impacts
were patchy. Most hard corals were partially bleached, while soft corals,
anemones and zoanthids also suffered varying degrees of bleaching.
Recovery was highly variable, with most Pocilloporids and Fungids dying,
while many massive corals (Turbinia, Mussids, Pectinids) recovered. Bleaching
on the outer island areas was almost non-existent.
26
The 1997-98 Mass Coral Bleaching and Mortality Event
• Onslow - Mangrove Islands (S 21 o 27’ E 115 o 22’) also showed extensive
bleaching of 80% of corals on the inshore reefs in late March 1998, whereas
there was little bleaching in the outer areas.
• Ningaloo (S 22 o 13’ E 113 o 49’) showed no measurable impact of bleaching
on this 220km long fringing reef, but there were some anecdotal reports of
minor bleaching in some areas from February to April 1998.
• Abrolhos Islands (S 28 o 41’ E 113 o 50’) much further South showed no coral
bleaching in 1998.
Reports from Luke Smith [email protected] and Andrew Halford
[email protected], Australian Institute of Marine Science, Western Australia.
40–60% on islands west of Kyushu. There was extensive bleaching (30-40%) around
Penghu Islands Taiwan in June, and similar impacts (>80%) around Posunotao, southeast
Taiwan in August with water temperatures as high as 32 o C at 25m depth.
Australia and Great Barrier Reef
There was some bleaching along the Australian Great Barrier Reef (GBR) in early 1998 with
extensive coral bleaching and mortality on some inshore reefs, while bleaching was
relatively minor on middle- and outer-shelf reefs. Aerial surveys of 654 reefs between
March and April showed that 87% of inshore reefs (25% of reef with severe bleaching,
>60%; 30% high, 30–60% bleached; 12% mild, 10–30% bleached) had some bleaching,
compared to 28% of offshore reefs (no severe bleaching; only 5% more than 30%
bleached corals). Impacts were patchy: on Orpheus Island (an inshore reef of the Central
GBR), 84-87% of corals bleached, but 5 weeks later, mortality was 2.5-17%; 10km away on
Pandora there was almost 100% coral mortality, including some large Porites colonies that
were centuries old. Soft corals which often dominate inner-shelf reefs were extensively
bleached, with almost 100% mortality in some areas, whereas in other areas there was
major recovery.
Southwest and Southeast Pacific Ocean
No bleaching associated with the El Niño-La Niña climate shift was reported in the
southwest of the region, although there were reports of bleaching on shallow reef flats
around Samoa associated with extreme low tides. In most places water temperatures were
cooler than normal. There was some bleaching in early 1998 in French Polynesia e.g. 20%
coral cover was reduced to 12% on Takapoto; there were reports of mortality from other
islands e.g. Rangiroa and Manihi; and minimal bleaching on Moorea, Bora Bora and Tikehau.
There was, however, severe bleaching between February and April, 2000 on Fiji and the
Solomon Islands (Chapter 10).
Northwest Pacific Ocean
The islands of Palau have never experienced coral bleaching like the events of September
1998, with an estimated one third of all corals affected. The major effects were on outer
ocean facing slopes where 90-99% of Acropora species were destroyed, whereas the
27
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
CASE STUDY 4: BLEACHING ON THE REEFS OF SOUTHERN JAPAN
There was unprecedented mass coral mortality in Okinawa, Japan, with the local
extinction of at least 4 coral species and a loss of hard and soft coral cover from 70%
to 10%. A strong La Niña coincided with mid summer, no typhoons and low cloud cover
and this raised water temperatures around Okinawa to 2.8 o C above the 10 year
average. Bleaching started in mid-July and ended with the first typhoon of the season
in September. Locals reported seeing nothing like this during the 35 years of coral reef
research, and elderly Okinawans said they “have never seen such beautiful white corals”.
Coral cover virtually did not change between 1995 and 1997 at Sesoko Island
(26 o 38’N, 127 o 52’E), but after the bleaching, mean coral cover decreased by 73%,
the number of species decreased by 61% and number of colonies per m 2 dropped to
less than half. Furthermore the living cover of soft corals decreased by 99%. Branching
Acropora species which were once the most prolific corals on Okinawan reefs, were
most severely affected; 3 species of branching corals species (Seriatopora hystrix, S.
caliendrum, Stylophora pistillata and Pocillopora damicornis) and the branched fire
coral Millepora intricata are now locally extinct and no new recruits were found around
Okinawa in 1999. Curiously, many juvenile Acropora colonies (< 5cm in diameter)
survived on the reef flats, where they are likely to be killed when exposed to air and high
irradiance during midday low tides. Bleaching also affected other common corals, whereas
many of the less common species survived and are now the most abundant e.g. massive
and encrusting colonies of Porites, Goniastrea, Leptastrea, Platygyra, Favia and Favites.
The chances for recovery of the missing species depends on coral populations on distant
offshore reefs (15-30km from Okinawa) which may provide larvae for re-settlement,
provided currents are favourable.
Report from Yossi Loya Department of Zoology, Tel-Aviv University, Israel 69978, e-mail:
[email protected]
impacts were often minor on inshore areas which experience natural variations in
temperature and water clarity. On the northern Ngeruangel atolls, bleaching deaths varied
between 10% and 70% at all depths, with a mean of 53.4% of corals at 3–5m, 68.9% at
10–12m, and 70% at 30m (Peleliu, the Blue Corner, the Big Drop-off, Iwayama Bay - Rock
Islands). Severe bleaching occurred in Arakabasan and Cemetary island. The major damage
was to corals in oceanic waters, with much less bleaching and mortality in shallow areas
and close to the more turbid and stressed habitats near the shore. The least effect was to
corals around the sewage outfall near Koror (John Bruno, e-mail: [email protected]).
All adult jellyfish in the famous marine lake (Ongeim’l Tketau) were killed, but live polyps
were found in 1999.
About 20% of corals, including a wide variety of hard and soft coral species, bleached to
20m depth on the north of Yap, Federated States of Micronesia in September 1998,.
Other parts of Micronesia reported only minor bleaching.
28
The 1997-98 Mass Coral Bleaching and Mortality Event
Northeast Pacific Ocean
No bleaching was reported in 1997-98, and water temperatures were often colder than usual.
Pacific Coast of the Americas
When the pool of warm water associated with the El Niño banked up on the Pacific coast
of central America, bleaching soon followed in Colombia, Mexico and Panama between
May and September 1997. However, the bleaching was usually partial and only occasional
complete bleaching on some corals. The resultant mortality was usually less than 5% or not
detectable. This episode of bleaching was very minor compared to the disastrous events of
1982-83 when there was 50-100% coral mortality on most reefs, which have yet to recover
from those losses. When this pool of warm water expanded to reach the Galapagos Islands
in mid-December 1997 there was some bleaching of the coral communities that had
recovered after the major bleaching of 1982-83. Bleaching continued affecting most corals
by March 1998.
CASE STUDY 5: GBR BLEACHING UPDATE - SEPTEMBER 2000
Around 28% of offshore reefs, which make up the bulk of GBR reefs, were bleached in
early 1998, but the majority showed full recovery by the end of 1998. The inshore
reefs bleached more extensively (87% of the reefs with some bleaching), with 55%
showing high to extreme bleaching and recovery was patchy. Reefs in the Keppel Island
group (inshore southern GBR) recovered well, while reefs on the Palm Island group
(inshore central GBR) suffered high mortality. Overall, hard coral cover at Orpheus and
Pelorus Islands (northern Palm group) declined from an average of 13.1% to 5% at 4
sites, while soft coral cover declined only marginally from 18.4 to 16%. The biggest
impact was on two hard coral families: the Acroporidae, which suffered a 91% relative
decline and the Milleporidae, which suffered >99.99% decline. Attempts to find living
colonies of Millepora tenella (a previously dominant species), failed to find any living
colonies around Orpheus Island, however, there was an anecdotal report of a single
small colony in deep water. Two years after the bleaching, recovery of Acropora species
is slow in the Palm Islands. At Northeast Reef on Orpheus Island, staghorn coral
patches (A. nobilis), which were initially thought dead, are showing signs of recovery
with many new branches (10-15cm) growing out of the dead skeleton. These are not
new recruits, and they presumably derive from residual live tissue within the skeleton or
underneath the colony. Other staghorn species (A. formosa and A. grandis) do not
show this recovery pattern. Plating Acropora species (particularly A. hyacinthus and A.
cytherea) suffered near total mortality and have not recovered, and recruitement of all
Acropora species is very low. Thick tissued and massive coral species (poritids, favids,
mussids, fungiids) generally recovered well, and pocilloporid recovery is intermediate
and patchy.
From: Ray Berkelmans, Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville
([email protected])
29
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
CASE STUDY 6: 1998 CORAL BLEACHING IN THE MESOAMERICAN BARRIER REEF
SYSTEM (MBRS)
This region experienced fewer large-scale bleaching events compared to other areas in
the Western Atlantic until recently. While coral bleaching was reported for much of the
Caribbean during 1983 and 1987, the first well-documented mass bleaching event in
Belize occurred in 1995 where 52% of coral colonies bleached, although only 10% had
partial mortality with a loss of 10-13% of coral cover. The 1995 bleaching also
affected Cayos Cochinos, Honduras, where 73% of scleractinian corals and 92% of
hydrocorals bleached and slightly higher mortality was reported. A less severe bleaching
event was reported in 1997, with little reported damage. However, during 1998, high
sea-surface temperatures first appeared in the region during August and intensified
during September. Reports soon followed of intense bleaching (more than 50% of
colonies) in the Yucatan in August-September, and then in Belize (September) and
Honduras (September-October). The first coral mortality was seen in the Yucatan in
early October, particularly on Agaricia tenuifolia colonies, where large scale mortality of
A. tenuifolia and Millepora spp. was seen in the central and southern Belize barrier reef.
Water temperatures decreased with the passage of Hurricane Mitch in late October,
and some branching corals started to recover, although massive corals remained
bleached into 1999. Extensive surveys showed that the 1998 bleaching event was
more severe than that in 1995. Shallow reef corals either died immediately or
recovered more rapidly compared to deeper depths, where recovery from bleaching was
slow, and significant remnant bleaching was observed up to 10 months later. Specific
findings from this study showed:
• An average coral mortality of 18% on shallow reefs and 14% on fore reefs
across the region;
• Up to 75% recent coral mortality occurred on localised patch and barrier
reefs in southern Belize;
• The highest mortality was on A. tenuifolia (>35%), M. complanata (28%),
and Montastraea annularis complex (25-50%)
• There was high recent mortality and disease on Montastraea annularis in the
region;
• There were low to moderate levels of bleaching mortality in Acropora
palmata;
• Remnant bleaching was still evident on fore reefs 10 months later (up to
44% of corals bleached); and
• A high incidence of coral disease afterwards on Belize shallow reefs (black
band) and Honduras and Belize fore reefs (white plague).
Caribbean and Atlantic Ocean
Bleaching in the Caribbean did not follow a clear pattern and varied across the region. Even
in areas where bleaching was severe, mortality was generally low, except when Hurricane
30
The 1997-98 Mass Coral Bleaching and Mortality Event
Mitch hit some areas. Most of the bleaching was associated with the La Niña event of the
latter half of 1998. This contrasts with the Pacific coasts which were bleached in late 1997
associated with El Niño conditions. For example, early reports in Belize and Puerto Rico
were of massive bleaching, but mortality was eventually low in most places (Case Studies 6
and 7).
In August 1998, more than 60% of all head corals to a depth of 15m bleached around
Walker’s Cay, New Providence Island, Little Inagua, Sweetings Cay, Chubb Cay, Little San
Salvador, San Salvador and Egg Is, Bahamas and up to 80% between 15-20m depth.
Samana Cay was less effected with Montastrea cavernosa not bleached, and Acropora
palmata bleached on only the upper sides. A large area of the Carribee bank, Barbados
apparently bleached in September 1998, whereas on Bermuda bleaching started in August
1998 and continued into October, when surface temperatures rose to 30 o C. There was 2-
3% bleaching of the 25% coral cover at 8m on rim reefs, 5-10% bleaching of the 40% coral
cover at 15m on offshore terrace reefs, and 10-15% of the 15-20% lagoon coral cover.
Mortality was low, perhaps 1-2% of affected colonies.
There was mass bleaching on reefs off Bahia State (12 o S; 38 o W) Brazil in April 1998, with
60% of Mussismilia hispida (endemic coral), 80% of Agaricia agaricites, and 79% of
Siderastrea stellata (endemic) bleached. Similar bleaching was reported on the Abrolhos
Reefs (18 o S; 40 o W). By October 1998, all colonies have recovered.
CONCLUSIONS
The bleaching in 1997-98 was the most intense on record with damage recorded in all
oceans. The major causal factor was increased seawater temperatures during the extreme El
Niño and La Niña events. Bleaching predominantly occurred on southern reefs when the El
Niño event coincided with the summer, whereas severe bleaching occurred in the northern
hemisphere when the strong La Niña coincided with summer.
Coral bleaching started with the build up of El Niño associated warm waters in the far
eastern Pacific between May and December 1997 when the Southern Oscillation Index
(SOI) averaged around minus 16, in: Colombia starting May; Mexico from July-September;
Panama in September; and the Galapagos Islands in December. Most of this bleaching was
relatively mild, with little resulting mortality.
The most severe impacts occurred in the southern Indian Ocean between March and June,
1998 and during the El Niño when the SOI averaged below minus 23 for 4 months: in Kenya
and Tanzania in March–May; Maldives and Sri Lanka in April to May; Western Australian reefs
from April to June; India from May to June; Oman and Socotra, Yemen in May.
There was also some bleaching in Southeast Asia, Australia and the southern Atlantic Ocean
between January and May, 1998, in: Indonesia from January to April; Cambodia, Thailand
and East Malaysia during April–May; Eastern Australia and the Great Barrier Reef in January
and February, 1998; and the Southern Atlantic Ocean off Brazil in April, 1998. These events
were of modest severity, with some incidences of high mortality.
31
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
CASE STUDY 7: CORAL BLEACHING AND RECOVERY IN PUERTO RICO
Wide-spread and intense bleaching events usually result in mass coral mortalities.
During the 1998-99 La Niña bleaching event, many reefs in the Caribbean were
affected by wide-spread and intense bleaching, however, there were generally low levels
of mortality, especially in Puerto Rico. Here, 386 colonies of 18 reef-building, hard
coral species were tagged in August of 1998, when they started to bleach, on an
offshore bank reef, an inshore patch reef, and a fringing reef off the southwest coast of
Puerto Rico. These colonies were monitored for 7 months in 1998-99 and 5 months in
1999-2000. Many colonies were 100% bleached for more than 150 days before
recovering completely; only 3 small colonies died (0.8%), 14 suffered partial tissue
mortality (3.6%), 357 recovered by February 1999 (92.4%), and 12 remained pale
until March, 1999 (3.1%). Fifty nine tagged colonies (15%) bleached again in the
second week in September, 1999 at slightly lower water temperatures than 1998, but
bleaching was less intense and all recovered after 5 months. This illustrates that
bleached corals need to be observed for recovery before they are declared as dead.
Recovery after 5-7 months of bleaching is possible, but it will usually depend on
whether other stress factors intervene, or on the severity of the original temperature
stress. Many Caribbean reefs experienced similar situations in the big bleaching events
of 1997-98, and the event of 99, and recovered (with the exception of some reefs in
Belize), whereas reefs in the Indian Ocean were devastated. Recent observations and
surveys of the area indicate no wide-spread bleaching, and no tagged colonies had
bleached by September, 2000. There are a few colonies show some slight paling over
small areas.
Ernesto Weil. Department of Marine Sciences, University of Puerto Rico, Lajas PR
00667, e-mail: [email protected].
The El Niño dissipated rapidly in May 1998 and between June 1998 and April 1999 there
was a major La Niña event with a SOI of about plus 12 or higher for these 10 months. From
June to September 1998, this coincided with the northern summer with bleaching reported
in South East and East Asia from July to October 1998, in: Singapore, Sumatra, Indonesia
and Vietnam in July in July; Philippines from July to September; and Japan and Taiwan from
July to September.
Simultaneously, there was bleaching in the Arabian/Persian Gulf and Red Sea from August to
October 1998, in: Bahrain, Qatar and UAE in August–September; and Eritrea and Saudi
Arabia (Red Sea) in August–September.
There was also bleaching throughout the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean from August to
October 1998, in: Florida from July to September; Bahamas, Bonaire, Bermuda in August –
September; Barbados, BVI, Caymans, Colombia, Honduras, Jamaica and Mexico in
September. However, most of this bleaching resulted in minimal coral mortality.
32
The 1997-98 Mass Coral Bleaching and Mortality Event
Bleaching then followed the path of the solar zenith in the far West Pacific from September
to November 1998, in: the Federated States of Micronesia in September; and Palau in
September to November when there was unprecedented coral mortality.
A consistent feature of the weather during all these bleaching events was the coincidence
of a major shift of the SOI away from zero, which apparently induced particularly calm
weather. For example, in the Indian Ocean, the monsoon winds stopped almost
completely, resulting in doldrum-calm conditions and weak currents. Under these
conditions sea surface waters warmed above the temperature tolerance limits for corals
and other symbiotic animals, without mixing with cooler oceanic and deeper waters. Warm
waters often extended down as far as 30m or more. Coral bleaching consistently started
about 4 to 6 weeks after the passage of the solar zenith.
A critical question remains; was the 1997-98 event a one-in-a-thousand year event killing off
large old corals, or will bleaching events like 1997-98 become more frequent and severe in
the future? Coral bleaching and mortality levels were closely associated with the El Niño
and La Niña switches in climate that started in 1997 and ended in early 1999, with large
deviations in the SOI. Many scientists now predict that major climate change events will
become more frequent and severe, resulting in greater bleaching. It is apparent that when a
strong La Niña (positive SOI) coincides with the northern summer, bleaching will follow;
likewise the major trigger for bleaching in the southern hemisphere is when a strong El Niño
(negative SOI) occurs in summer. Reefs closer to the equator will probably experience
bleaching under either El Niño or La Niña conditions.
Thus, these predicted scenarios mean that coral reefs will change in structure over the next
few decades with a major reduction in the branching and plate forming species that are the
fastest growers and major contributors to coral reef accretion. In their place, reefs will have
a lower profile of slow growing, massive species, with lower coral cover and lower
diversity in the medium term. This will probably reduce the capacity of reefs to act as
breakwaters for fragile shorelines and provide sand and rock as building materials on low
islands. Fish populations will probably drop as there will be reduced structural complexity
to shelter juveniles and the many small species, but changes will be gradual. The impacts
on tourism are harder to predict. Coral reef tourism, one of the fastest growing sectors of
the market, and growth will continue via the many tourists visiting coral reef destinations for
the first time. The only adverse affects may be felt with those few tourists who revisit coral
reefs for diving, and become disillusioned with large areas of dead corals. However, these
tourists will probably seek new experiences and go to the many areas that will escape
damage in the immediate future. Surveys of many tourists indicate that many are unaware
that the corals are dead, as they focus on fish and above water activities in the tourist resorts.
33
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
ISRAEL CORAL REEFS OF THE GULF OF AQABA (EILAT)
Israel has approximately 12km of coastline in the northern Gulf of Aqaba, between
Jordan and Egypt, with one Marine Protected Area (155ha), and one Costal Protected
Area (16ha). The reserves are governed by the regulations that concern all nature
reserves in Israel. These are among the most northerly coral reefs in the world, which
grow on a narrow shelf before it drops to 400-700m. Hard coral diversity is relatively
high with over 100 species, as well as about 350 species of reef fishes; there is a high
proportion of endemic species. Anthropogenic stresses from intensive tourism activity
and poor water quality from sewage discharges, mariculture effluents, flood waters,
ballast and bilge water from various boat activities, and discharges of fuel, oil,
detergents, phosphates, pesticides, anti-fouling compounds are damaging the reefs. In
addition there has been extensive sand nourishment of beaches, and solid waste
disposal at sea and along the shore. Hard coral mortality during 1999 was 7-28%. In
the ‘Japanese Gardens’, which has a few divers, live coral cover has dropped from 70%
in 1996 to 30%. Coral recruitment has been declining steadily by 53-96% since
1997. The release of planulae from one of the reef building coral, Stylophora pistillata,
dropped steeply between 1975 and 2000. The highest rates of coral mortality and
low recruitment have occurred in sites which have none, or little recreational activities.
Bacterial diseases of fishes are on the increase, in parallel with increases of disease in
the mariculture farms. During the last two years deep water (below 500m) nutrient
concentrations have almost doubled, probably due to discharges from the mariculture
industry that is located at the tip of the Gulf. During winter and spring, nutrient-rich
deep water rises cause seasonal blooms of algae, which can smother corals and block
light penetration. About 20% of shallow water corals died during a severe upwelling in
1992. These coral reefs are among the most heavily used in the world by recreational
divers, with more than 200,000 dives per year, with most dives on the fringing reefs in
the Coral Beach Nature Reserve. During 1996, the damage to corals was measured at a
rate of 66% at sites with high diving pressure compared to 8% at low impact sites. In
the year 2000, these levels have dropped following diver education programmes, but
at 23% to 4%, they are still high by world standards. From: David Zakai, Israel Nature
& National Parks Protection Authority Eilat, Israel ([email protected])
34
2. REGIONAL STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE RED
SEA AND THE GULF OF ADEN
NICOLAS PILCHER AND ABDULLAH ALSUHAIBANY
ABSTRACT
The coral reefs in Djibouti, Eritrea, Egypt, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, and Yemen
are generally in good and often pristine condition. Reefs in this region are primarily fringing
reefs along the mainland and island coastlines, along with barrier reefs, pinnacles and atolls
which receive only minor land influences. Many reefs have 30% to 50% live coral cover at
most locations. Coral bleaching caused extensive die-off in the Gulf region and the southern
Red Sea in 1998, and on the Sudanese coasts a red algal film was present over most shallow
reefs. Diversity of corals and other reef fauna is among the highest in the Indian Ocean region.
Major threats to coral reefs include: land-filling and dredging for coastal expansion;
destructive fishing methods; damage by the recreational diving industry; shipping and
maritime activities; sewage and other pollution; lack of public awareness; and insufficient
implementation of legal instruments on reef conservation. A number of international, regional,
bilateral and multilateral agreements and other legal instruments have been adopted by the
countries in this region, and each possesses a relatively complete set of national Laws and
Regulations. However, the implementation of these remains generally poor and in some cases
there is no implementation and enforcement whatsoever. For coral reef conservation to
improve and be effective, there is a need for increased public awareness, increased
enforcement and implementation of national and international legal instruments, and the
implementation of coastal management plans that integrate coastal development, and control
industrial effluents, tourism, for the maintenance of environmental quality of marine habitats.
INTRODUCTION
This report summarises the status of coral reefs in the countries bordering the Red Sea and
the Gulf of Aden. Most of the countries along the Red Sea (Djibouti, Egypt, Jordan, Saudi
Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Yemen) coordinate conservation and management of coral reefs in
this region through the Regional Organisation for the Conservation of the Environment of the
Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA). In the Arabian/Persian Gulf region coral reef
conservation is coordinated by the Regional Organisation for the Protection of the Marine
Environment (ROPME). The two institutions cooperate closely under a Memorandum of
Understanding. This report summarises information from publications and reports provided
by people from these countries and the key agencies operating in the region (some are
listed at the end of this chapter). PERSGA is currently developing a Regional Action Plan for
the conservation of reef resources through as part of its Strategic Action Plan. It is envisaged
that the implementation of the Regional Action Plan will address current threats and assist
35
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
the RSGA countries in developing Marine Protected Areas. Eritrea operates independently
of PERSGA, not being a member of the Arab League.
The Red Sea and Gulf of Aden contain complex and unique tropical marine ecosystems,
especially coral reefs, with high biological diversity and many endemic species. The reefs
are surrounded by some of the driest parts of the world, such that continental influences
are limited, but these narrow waters are also major shipping lanes to the Suez Canal and
major petroleum industry activities. While large parts of the region are still in a pristine state,
environmental threats, notably from habitat destruction, over-exploitation and pollution, are
increasing rapidly, requiring immediate action to protect the coastal and marine
environment. Humans have used these reef resources in this region for thousands of years,
although most inhabitants are not ‘sea peoples’. The coral reefs of the region contain more
than 250 species of hard (scleractinian) corals, being the highest diversity in any part of the
Indian Ocean. The stable warm waters and lack of major fresh water runoff provide ideal
conditions for coral reef formation along the coasts.
The Gulf of Aden is influenced by the seasonal upwellings of cool, nutrient rich waters from
the Indian Ocean, limiting coral reef development and promoting planktonic and large
algae. Despite this, there are diverse and complex reefs and non-reef assemblages in the
Gulf of Aden. Some of the sandy beaches are major nesting sites for sea turtles, and the
Socotra archipelago is being considered as World Biosphere Reserve site. The Red Sea is an
isolated reservoir of marine biodiversity of global importance. A wide range of ecosystems
have developed with high biodiversity and endemism, particularly for reef fishes and other
organisms. There is an almost continuous band of coral reef along the northern Red Sea and
Gulf of Aqaba, which physically protects the shoreline. Coral reefs in the shallow Gulf of
Suez are less well developed as this area is usually quite turbid and has extremes of
temperature and salinity. Further south, the shelf becomes much broader and shallower and
the fringing reefs gradually disappear, to be replaced with shallow, muddy shorelines. But
many coral reefs grow on offshore pinnacles and around islands off the coast.
Although most reefs in the region are still pristine in most areas, threats are increasing
rapidly and the reefs are being damaged by coastal development and other human
activities. Major threats include: landfilling and dredging for coastal expansion; destructive
fishing methods; damage by scuba divers, shipping and maritime activities, sewage and
other pollution discharges; lack of public awareness; and insufficient implementation of the
laws for reef conservation.
GEOGRAPHICAL REEF COVERAGE AND EXTENT
Reefs in the Red Sea are particularly well developed, with predominantly fringing reefs in
the north and platform, pinnacle and atoll reefs offshore in the south, with sandy lagoon
type environments towards the shore. The coast of Gulf of Aden supports only patchy reef
distribution, but the Socotra archipelago is fringed by extensive reefs.
Djibouti
The coastline is fringed by extensive coral reefs in places; the north coast is generally
shallow and sandy, with a few coral outcrops, but the Sawabi archipelago has fringing
36
Regional Status of Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden
coral reefs. The southern coast is shallow with poorly developed reefs, affected by the
cold water upwelling from the Indian Ocean. The Gulf of Tadjoura contains low diversity
coral reefs, and the Mousha and Maskali islands at the mouth of the Gulf are surrounded by
extensive coral reefs.
Egypt
Fringing reefs have formed on the Red Sea coast, as well as along the Gulfs of Suez and
Aqaba, and there are also several submerged reefs and fringing reefs surrounding 35 small
islands. In the northern Gulf of Suez, there are mainly small, shallow patch reefs, whereas on
the western side of Gulf, the reefs are more developed, forming a fringing reef from 50km
south of Suez to Ain-Sukhna. The most extensive reefs are around the Sinai peninsula at Ras
Mohammed in the southern Gulf of Suez, and surrounding the Ashrafi islands near the
western shores of the Gulf. In the Gulf of Aqaba, there are narrow fringing reefs along the
steep cliffs of both shores. In the Red Sea, almost continuous fringing reefs extend from
Gubal in the north to Halaib, on the border with Sudan.
37
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
ERITREA
The newly declared country of Eritrea is a neighbour of Sudan and Djibouti on the eastern
Red Sea, and has a coastline of 1,200km, with 59% of national area as a coastal plain.
There are over 350 islands, including approximately 210 islands in the Dahlak
Archipelago, which sits on a relict Pleistocene platform. There are poorly developed
fringing reefs along 18% of the Red Sea coast (continental coast), but the reefs on the
islands are a globally significant reservoir of marine biodiversity and relatively pristine
reefs, especially the Dahlak Archipelago which was identified as a potential marine
protected area in 1968. Coastal resources are largely untapped and the population
density along the coast and on islands is low. The climate is conducive for reef growth:
generally warm waters, with low rainfall. The extensive corals, seagrass and mangroves
include over 250 species of reef fish, as well as large populations of turtles and dugongs.
Corals around Massawa are patchy and separated by sand, or along fringing reefs in about
6m depth. There over 17 genera of hard corals, with a mean live coral cover from 16% to
37%, and dead coral from 16-29%. But these are up to 30% lower than records from
1996 which indicates a rapid decline. Sponges increased between both studies,
suggesting that they were overgrowing dead coral areas. Bleaching in 1997 was lower
than 1%, and there are few crown-of-thorns starfish. The most common genera were
Porites, Montipora, Stylophora and Platygyra. No complete fish lists are available, but the
aquarium trade exports at least 75 species.
The Ministry of Fisheries (MOF) is responsible for managing fisheries, and coral reef
research and monitoring, and the National Environmental Management Plan and a
Framework Marine Conservation Strategy is guiding activities. Current conservation efforts
include the Coastal Marine and Island Biodiversity Project, a 5 year (1999-2004) GEFfunded
programme, executed through the MOF to ensure the conservation and
sustainable use of the globally important biodiversity of Eritrea’s coastal, marine and island
ecosystems, while permitting sustainable use by Eritrean people. Many coral reefs were
relatively pristine away from human or economic impacts, but they are increasingly
threatened by rapid, and largely uncontrolled, development of fisheries, tourism and oil
exploration activities. There is an urgent need to document the resources and this is a
function of the CMIBP, along with implementing management of a diversity of marine and
coastal habitats, and providing training at government and community levels.
There are no declared MPAs in Eritrea, but 4 areas were proposed during GEF project
preparation, including large parts of the Dahlak Islands, Dur Gaam and Dur Gella Islands
near Massawa, the Fatuma island group near Aseb and the Museri island group offshore
from Massawa. Biodiversity is being assessed through the GEF project to support
proposals for protection, especially in the Dahlak archipelago.
Since 1990, the coastal population has increased slightly and the fisheries sector is also
developing, most fishing is non-destructive and commercial trawlers operate in deeper
waters away from reefs. The fisheries are predominantly artisanal targeting finfish,
gastropods, sea cucumbers and pearl oysters. Threats to Eritrean reefs include coastal
38
Regional Status of Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden
development, including land reclamation, primarily at Massawa which is reducing the
capacity of the reefs to provide coastal erosion. In addition, there are potential threats
from curio collecting, discharges from the oil terminal; sewage and solid waste disposal,
cooling effluents from desalination and power plants, and sedimentation of cement
dust. Recreational tourism is largely undeveloped and coral mining in uncommon. Coral
collecting is prohibited, but shell and ornamental fish collection are commercial
operations, with more than 100,000 fish exported between 1995 and 1997. Shipping
is increasing in Massawa up to 440 per year in 1996. Despite these threats, the
general status of Eritrean coral is good, and bleaching during the summers of 1997 to
1999, caused the some loss of foliaceous and branching Montipora corals in shallow
areas (1m or less), but massive Porites and Platygyra were less affected. These reefs
contain among the most resistant corals in the region, evidenced by rapid recovery
from the bleaching. From: Meriwether Wilson ([email protected])
Jordan
The short coastline (27km) has fringing reefs along 50% the coast, with high coral diversity
and associated fauna.
Saudi Arabia: Coral reefs fringe the entire Red Sea coastline and offshore islands, with
several distinct areas of similar habitats and species composition: the Gulf of Aqaba in the
north; the northern-central section from south of the Gulf of Aqaba to Jeddah; and the
central-southern region from Jeddah to the Yemen border, including the Farasan Bank and
Islands. The northern-central area has an almost continuous coral reef tract with many reef
types: mainland and island fringing reefs; various forms of patch reef; coral pinnacles; and
ribbon barrier reefs. Reefs fringe the mainland and often into the entrances and sides of
sharms (lagoon-like inlets). Circular to elongate patch reefs are common in offshore waters
less than 50m depth. Pinnacles (individual corals and coral ‘bommies’ surrounded by sand)
occur in shallow waters (less than 10m), particularly in the Al-Wajh Bank and Tiran areas.
Barrier reefs composed of platform and ‘ribbon’ reef structures occur further offshore on
the ‘continental’ edge, where depths drop from 50m to more than 200m. The centralsouthern
area is unique in having atoll-like or ‘tower’ reefs along the shelf edge and the
outer Farasan Bank. Further south, the reefs are less well developed along the mainland
coast because of high levels of fine sediments, however, complex reef structures
developed further offshore on the Farasan Bank and islands.
Somalia
The coastline is divided into north and south sectors, separated by the Horn of Africa.
There are flourishing coral reefs along the Gulf of Aden coastline near Raas Khansir, Raas
Cuuda Siyara, and off El Girdi and west of Berbera.
Sudan
There are three coral habitat groups on the coast: barrier reefs; fringing reefs; and Sanganeb,
an oceanic atoll towards the Egyptian border. Most of the coast is bordered by fringing
reefs 1-3km wide which are separated by deep channels from a barrier reef 1-14km
offshore, which then drops steeply to several hundred metres. The Sanganeb atoll is a
39
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
unique reef structure rising abruptly from 800m depth to form an atoll that has been
recognised as a regionally important conservation area such that it was proposed to
UNESCO for World Heritage Status in the 1980s, but there has been no follow-up.
Yemen
Most of the coral reefs occur along the Red Sea coast and the Socotra archipelago, with some
sites in the Gulf of Aden. Corals grow on the Red Sea coast as both coral reefs and coral
communities on a variety of substrates. Coral reefs in the northern Gulf of Aden are limited by
intense cold seasonal upwelling. Extensive coral reefs surround the Socotra archipelago.
STATUS OF CORAL REEF BENTHOS
There were many surveys and studies on coral reef communities between 1997 and 2000 in
this region, including some that updated information collected previously, to allow
comparisons over time at key locations. In some countries, these involved rapid
assessments of coral reef habitats, with the most common methods being: belt transects for
fish census, line intercept transects for substrate cover and composition, and timed swims
for assessment of general reef condition and major disturbances. In Saudi Arabia and
Yemen, satellite imagery was used to document the extent of reef habitats. Wide
differences in the number of hard coral species were reported for the different countries,
generally reflecting variance in the intensity and method of examination, rather than real
differences. For example, the largest number of coral species have been reported in Saudi
Arabia, where there has been a major effort to assess Red Sea reefs.
Coral cover on Red Sea reefs is generally high, in particular along the fringing reefs and
offshore islands and barrier reefs. In the Gulf of Aden coral growth is limited by the
seasonal upwelling of colder water, and reefs are patchily distributed, while reefs
surrounding Socotra have an unusually high cover. Most areas of the Gulf of Aden and
Socotra do not have true growing reefs, but some sites have live coral cover of over 50%,
with very large colonies growing on rocky bases. Around Socotra, hard coral cover ranged
from 1% to 75%, and there were some large patches (e.g. 1,000m 2 ) with about 100%
cover. Overall, living hard coral cover averaged 20%, with highest cover (35%) on the
Brothers (Samha, Darsa and including Sabunyah) Rocks, and on the north coasts (25%) as
compared to 5% the south coasts. The following provides a synopsis of coral cover and
health for each country based on recent surveys. (Results related to fish communities and
links with respective fisheries are reviewed subsequently).
Djibouti
Two brief, but extensive, reef assessments were conducted in 1998, followed by a more
comprehensive survey in 1999. These provided the first detailed information on the coral
reefs, showing that there were 167 coral species dominated by Acropora hemprichi,
Echinophora fruticulosa and Porites nodifera. Only 10% of the species were found at all
sites, 40% were observed at several sites, and approximately 50% were found at only a
few sites. Acropora spp. suffered high mortality in Khor Ambado and off Maskali.
Percentage cover ranged from 5% (off the main tourism beach on Maskali) to 90% (at
Hamra Island, Sept Freres), where the dominant Acropora formed coral gardens. However,
the diversity was highest at Arta Plage, then Grande Isl. (in Sept Freres), and then Trois
40
Regional Status of Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden
Plages (Gulf of Tadjourah). At 26 sites coral cover was greater than 50%, and during swims
along the reef edge, the percentage of living coral ranged from 5-70%, and exceeded 20%
in all but 3 places.
Egypt
The reefs in southern Egypt are more diverse than those in the north, with nearly double the
number of coral species. The distribution and development of reef-building corals is
restricted in the Gulf of Suez by several factors, including temperature, sediment load,
salinity and light penetration. During 1997 to 1999 three different, but coordinated,
projects conducted surveys from approximately 130 reef sites between 1997 and 1999
from Hurghada to Shakateen (and more detailed studies to assess diving impacts at 11 sites
near Hurghada). These have been summarised by respectively in reports by the: Egyptian
Red Sea Coastal and Marine Resources Management Project; the Ecological Sustainable
Tourism Project and the Coral Reef Biodiversity Project. Rapid Environmental Asssessments
(REAs) have been made at 48 frequently visited dive sites as part of the Environmentally
Sustainable Tourism Project. Collectively the results from the above surveys indicate there
was 55% coral cover in non-sheltered areas, and 85% in sheltered areas. Live coral cover
generally ranged from 11 to 35% on the reef flats, with the highest cover on reef walls (12-85%)
and reef slopes (5-62%). Live coral cover was highly variable along the coast, with the
highest being on reef walls and the leading edges of the reefs. A decline of 20-30% in coral
cover has been recorded at most sites, and this corresponds with increases in the cover of
recently dead coral, and crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) outbreaks.
Jordan
Current research is focused on coral communities near the fertiliser industries but extends
along the entire coastline to monitor biological and physical characteristics including
currents, temperature, and nutrient levels. The Gulf of Aqaba is among the most diverse
high latitude reefs in the world, with 158 species in 51 genera. The more tolerant and
opportunistic Stylophora pistillata now dominates and replaces other corals, modifying the
structure of the reefs. Recent surveys at 15 sites indicated the reefs were in good condition
with over 90% hard coral cover, although it is unknown what proportion of this was alive.
Saudi Arabia
Coral reef habitats were assessed between 1997 and 1999 in the central-northern Red
Sea, from to Haql in the Gulf of Aqaba, to Jeddah to produce detailed inventories for
corals, fish, other benthos, algae, seagrasses, marine mammals, turtles, coastal vegetation
and birds. These were combined with socioeconomic assessments of human use and
detailed aerial photos and satellite image mapping to define key reef areas for
conservation within MPAs. In the Farasan Islands Marine Protected Area (FIMPA), live
coral, dead coral, and the coral predators (crown-of-thorns starfish and Drupella snails)
were assessed in 1999. At least 260 species of hard corals have been identified from Red
Sea waters, including 26 species not previously described and about 50 species as new
records for the Red Sea. The predominant families were Acroporidae, Faviidae and
Poritidae. Reefs also contained a diverse mix of soft corals, hydrozoan fire corals,
gorgonians, corallimorphs and zoanthids. Hard coral species diversity ranged from 20-100
at different sites in the central to northern Red Sea, with a high degree of homogeneity in
each coral community. Reefs with moderate to high species diversity and abundance
41
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
were widely distributed, and these reefs will serve as good sources of larvae for
damaged areas.
Living cover of reef-building corals ranged from 10% to 75%, while soft corals were up to
50% cover. Some reefs had more than 20% dead coral cover following coral bleaching or
COTS predation. The highest cover of living corals occurred on reefs with relatively high
wave energy and very clear water e.g. on the shallow reef slopes of exposed fringing,
patch and barrier reefs. Most deeper reef slopes (below 10m), reefs in low wave energy
environments and reefs in dirty water had lower living coral cover than shallow, more
exposed parts, but there were some exceptions.
Somalia
Rapid assessment surveys in 1997 and 1999 on the north coast provided the majority of the
current knowledge on the coral reefs, but detailed surveys are needed for the southern
coast. At least 74 hard coral species, 11 soft coral species (Alcyonacean), and 2 fire coral
species were found in 1999. Other more sparse reef organisms observed included lobsters
(Panulirus versicolor), two species of anemones, giant clams (Tridacna spp.) along with
sponges, ascidians, holothurians, echinoids, crinoids, molluscs and zoanthids. Living coral
cover varied between 0-60%. The average coral cover on reefs affected by bleaching and
COTS outbreaks was 2-5%. On unaffected reefs, which occur as a narrow fringing band on
the outer perimeter of the reefs, coral cover ranged from 60-80%.
Sudan
Sudanese waters contain among the highest diversity of fishes and corals in the Red Sea,
with reports of more than 200 species of scleractinian corals. Reef Check surveys in 1999 at
Abu Hanish Jetty, Bashear Port and Arous to determine coral cover and assess reef health,
built upon more detailed surveys in 1997 using 10m quadrat analysis and 20-minute timed
swims of the coastal area from Port Sudan to Suakin. Over 80% of the coastal fringing reefs
had high cover of thin turf algae (averaging 28.8%), with live coral cover ranging from 5 to
60%. Recently dead coral above 1% was noted at only 5 sites. Live hard coral cover at Abu
Hashish Jetty ranged from 24% at 10m depth to 50% at 5m, while dead coral ranged from
2.5% at 10m depth to 0% at 5m. At Bashaer Oil Exporting Port, there was 38% live coral
and 21% dead coral. Dead corals covered 51% of the substrate at Arous and no bleaching
was observed below 4m. There were bleached corals on top of the fringing reef at 2m,
with 14% cover of bleached corals.
Yemen
Survey methods have included satellite imagery (Socotra), rapid ecological and impact
assessments (Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Socotra), and more detailed biodiversity studies
(Red Sea and Socotra) to start long-term monitoring programmes in the Red Sea and
Socotra archipelago. Several major projects have assessed the living marine resources on
much of the Yemen coastline, as well as the Gulf of Aden and Red Sea by the Arabian Seas
Expedition. These show 176 species of stony corals, with the number at sites from 1 to 76.
Almost 50% of the Red Sea sites had more than 40 species and 12% of the sites had over
50 species (similar to the central and northern Red Sea). At least 19 new distribution
records for the southern Red Sea were identified, and more corals await identification.
Diversity is lower along the Gulf of Aden coast area of Yemen, which may have about 100
42
Regional Status of Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden
MONITORING CORALS IN SOCOTRA (YEMEN)
The islands of Socotra are a little known part of the coral reef world in the Arabian Sea,
north west Indian Ocean. Long renowned for their terrestrial biodiversity, the islands
also support highly diverse coral and fish communities with unique biogeographic
affinities to Arabia, east Africa, the Red Sea and greater Indo-Pacific. To assess present
status and future trends in these communities, a long-term monitoring program was
established in 11 monitoring sites scattered around the island group, as part of a GEF-
UNDP Biodiversity Project and under the auspices of the Yemen Environment
Protection Council. The GCRMN methods were modified for these sites which have
little true reef development, and transects were set at just one depth range (3 – 5m or
8 – 11m), and aligned parallel to each other about 15m apart. Some sites were
composed of large mono-specific stands of coral; others by more diverse communities
of more than 50 hard coral species; and others were dominated by macro-algae with
sparse corals. Coral cover ranged from less than 10% in algal areas exposed to seasonal
cool upwelling to greater than 50% in the rich coral patches of the more-sheltered
north coasts. These corals were affected by the 1998 global bleaching event, like other
reef areas of the Indian Ocean. Several sites experienced major coral mortality, with loss
of over half of total coral cover (approx. 25% decline in total area) and shifts in
community structure, whereas others remained in a near-pristine state. Between 1999
and 2000, changes in these communities included coral death following flood run-off
during intense rains of December 1999, and clear coral recruitment at sites badly
impacted by bleaching in 1998. The coral recruits are growing rapidly, suggesting that
here also some small juvenile corals survived the bleaching. At present, reef fishes are
both diverse and abundant, with broad size distributions. Indeed, the waters above
some of the small coral patches teem with fish – an impressive, but not high biomass.
The reef fish are now being actively targeted by local fishermen, as national and
international demand increases. The islands are also becoming an international tourism
destination, with expanding infrastructure and development proceeding apace; and the
recent Government proclamation of the Socotra Conservation and Development
Zoning Plan, incorporating large multiple-use marine and terrestrial protected areas, is
very timely. The islands should prove important as monitoring sites, being located in a
key location for assessing effects of climate change and other impacts. The work to
date has been undertaken by a joint international (Senckenberg Museum) and Yemen
team. With completion of the GEF-UNDP Project, there is an urgent need for continued
financial support for monitoring, management and protection of the area, if these
communities are not to go the way of other unique marine ecosystems now being
rapidly depleted. From: Lyndon DeVantier, Catherine Cheung, Malek AbdalAziz, Fuad
Naseeb, Uwe Zajonz and Michael Apel
43
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
coral species. There are about 240 hard coral species on the Socotra archipelago, making it
one of the richest sites in the western Indian Ocean. The high diversity occurs because
there is a mix of coral fauna from different part of Indian Ocean and Red Sea.
Cover of stony corals , dead corals, soft corals and algae is highly variable at sites in the Red Sea,
Gulf of Aden and Socotra archipelago. In the northern Yemen Red Sea, there has been extensive
coral mortality in the past 10 years with major reductions in living coral cover. Reefs of the
southern Yemen Red Sea, and fringing offshore islands, were less disturbed, and had higher
living coral cover. Semi-protected island reefs in the northern Yemen Red Sea had low average
live coral cover (17%), high average dead coral cover (34%) and high macroalgae cover (20%).
The northern and central coast and nearshore islands had very low live coral cover (3%), with
very high recently dead coral (averaging 34%) and macroalgae cover (34%). Clear water reefs
facing the open sea had the highest live coral cover (29%) and lowest dead coral cover (14%)
in the Yemen Red Sea, along with the highest coral species diversity (46) and the largest coral
colonies. Deep water pinnacles and submerged patch reefs once high coral cover (52%), but
now there are similar levels of live (24%) and dead coral (28%). Exposed reefs with algal crests
and mono-specific corals often had dead coral (branching and table Acropora colonies plus
dead massive corals). Previously these had very high coral cover (averaging over 50%), but now
it was mostly dead standing coral (44%). Southern fringing reefs also have more dead corals
(23%) than live corals (15%), with cover of macroalgae (14%).
STATUS OF REEF COMMUNITIES AND FISHERIES
The surveys of 1997 - 2000 on coral reef communities also collected information on fish
communities and biodiversity, through rapid habitat assessments, timed swims and belt
transects. The following summarises artisanal and commercial fisheries for each country.
Djibouti
Fishes are relatively well distributed and are generally not over-exploited e.g. sharks were sighted
at 4 places. Angelfish were observed in all surveys, with counts from 6 to 31, and frequently with
10 or more angelfish. Total butterflyfish counts ranged from 8 to 110, with Gonochaetodon
larvatus the most abundant. Grouper abundance ranged from 0 to 56, and often with 20 or more.
The most frequently observed species was Cephalopholis hemistiktos. Commercial fisheries are
limited in Djibouti; however, subsistence fishing is important, with about 90 artisanal fishing boats
(mostly small, 6-8m open boats with outboard engines and crews of 3 for day trips). There are 15
larger boats (10-14m with 5 man crews that can go out for 4 days). Thus it is mostly small scale,
subsistence fishing with hook and line, and there are no fish processing plants. About 75% of the
catch is landed at Boulaos between May, and September, with other landings at Escale,
Tadjourah and Obock. Catches are composed of grouper (23%), Spanish mackerel (14%), red
snappers (13%), antak (12%), blackspot snapper (10%), bonito (5%) and jacks (4%). Fisheries
production increased from 200 metric tonnes in 1980 to 400mt in 1984 and 700mt in 1988.
Production decreased dramatically between 1991 to 1994, due to political unrest.
Egypt
Fish surveys noted 261 species in 89 genera in the Egyptian Red Sea, with more on the
southern reefs than those further north. Exposed reefs generally had more species than
sheltered reefs, probably due to fewer divers and fishermen in these areas. Pomacentridae
44
Regional Status of Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden
(damselfishes) were the most abundant family (16-26 species across all sites), followed by
20 species of Labridae (wrasses). The most common damselfish was Chromis dimidiata,
and the most common wrasse was Labricus quadrilineatus. Parrotfishes were least
abundant with only 9 species; Hipposcarus harid and Scarus ferrugineus were the most
common. Red Sea fisheries contribute approximately 11-14% of the total annual Egyptian
fish production, with 44% of this from coral reefs. Large fishing boats generally fish in
southern Red Sea waters, but land most of their catch in Suez. Fisheries are regulated by the
General Authority for Fish Resources Development of the Ministry of Agriculture, which aims
to increase fish catches to 70,000mt by 2017, but there is currently no active management
of the Egyptian Red Sea fisheries. Over 7% of the national workforce are involved in
fisheries, with 78% of marine fish landings occurring through Suez. There are 27 commercial
reef fish species, but 5 constitute over 48% of the 22,000mt annual. The balance is made
up of crustaceans, offshore pelagic fishes and demersal fishes (in equal proportions). Fish
catches increased in 1993, and then decreased steadily.
Jordan
There are no recent data on reef fish biodiversity. Commercial and artisanal fishing is based
in Aqaba with about 85 fishermen and 40 boats. Total catch in 1995 was 15mt, down from
103mt in 1993 and the maximum of 194mt in 1966. There are no cold storage facilities and
catches are sold on landing.
Saudi Arabia
There are no recent data on coral reef fish fauna for the Red Sea, and past records vary
greatly from 776 species in 1971, to 1,000 species in 1984, to 508 species in 1987, and 325
species in 1988. The differences reflect what definition of ‘reef fish’ was used. The fishery in
Saudi Arabia was almost exclusively artisanal from small boats and larger Sambouks until
1981. Coral reef fisheries occur along the Red Sea, with most fishing boats in the south,
many of which are prawn trawlers and pelagic fishing boats. Fishery statistics do not
distinguish specific reef fisheries, or between Red Sea and Gulf fisheries. Reliable long-term
catch and effort data are required to implement specific management for reef fish.
Somalia
Reef fish are diverse and abundant, with the presence of large schools as well as large
fishes, which all indicate low exploitation. The reef fish community differed considerably
from the eastern Arabian Peninsula to the north eastern Africa to the south, and the Red Sea
to the west, particularly for the families Chaetodontidae, Acanthuridae and Balistidae.
Fishing is limited and almost entirely artisanal, with scattered landing sites (Caluula, Xabo,
Qandala, Laas Qoray, Berbera, Lughaye, and Saylac). These fisheries are essential for the
livelihood of much of the coastal population. Somali fishermen target demersal stocks and
some reef fish using basic fishing gear. Lobster are taken on nearshore reefs in the south
east, and most commercial operations are through illegal foreign vessels (mainly from
Yemen), that provide no statistics. The small northern Somali fishing industry is located at
Berbera, Siyara and Karin using gill nets and hook and line methods from small canoes.
Turtles are harvested opportunistically, both by harpooning at sea and capturing nesting
turtles. There are permanent gill nets around the coral reefs at Siyara to catch sharks for the
sharkfin export. The potential yield of small pelagic fish has been estimated at 70,000 to
100,000mt for the entire Somali coast.
45
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
Sudan
Based on surveys in Sudan, fish communities were healthy and abundant, with the prized
humphead wrasse (Cheilinius undulatus) found in 3 of 25 sites. Butterflyfish and angelfish
were observed at most sites and at least 15 sites had more than 10 angelfish. Triggerfish,
which are often targets for fishermen, were only recorded at 7sites (maximum of 2 per site)
and groupers were seen regularly, with 13 sites having more than 20 fish. Similarly,
snappers, surgeonfish, including the endemic Acanthurus sohal and Ctenochaetus striatus,
were abundant at most sites, and sharks were seen at 3 sites. Fisheries are minor in the
national economy, but important for subsistence fishers. Neither commercial nor artisanal
landings approach the estimated maximum sustainable yields, but there are no prospects
for increasing the fishery because of insufficient refrigeration and transport. About 65
species are exploited, mostly fish, but also sharks, rays, prawns, lobsters, crabs, molluscs
and sea cucumbers. There is also a trochus (Trochus dentatus) fishery. Over 80% of fish are
caught with hook and line from an estimated 400 small fishing boats and about 300 slightly
larger boats (9-10m with 4-5 crew). The Fisheries Administration of Sudan suggests that the
maximum sustainable artisanal yield is around 10,000mt, with present annual production of
1,200mt. Peak landings occurred in 1984 and have gradually decreased by 30% since then. All
the shallow water areas (mersas) along the Sudanese coast are potential spawning grounds.
Yemen
There are few published studies on fishes of the Gulf of Aden and the Arabian Sea coasts
of Yemen, but they indicate that fish diversity is exceptionally high for the Arabian region. A
preliminary study on Socotra in 1996 recorded 215 species of shore fish, 7 being first
records for Arabian seas. Studies in the northern Gulf of Aden in 1998 showed 267 species,
with 8 new records for Arabia. Fishing is a traditional profession along the entire coastline
and on the islands, and annual catches vary between 90,000 and 95,000mt and more than
90% of the total fish catch is artisanal. Most landings come from trawling in the Red Sea and
the pelagic fishery in the Gulf of Aden. Reef fisheries are undeveloped and predominantly
subsistence in the Red Sea (from Midi, Khoba, Hodaida and Khaukha, and Mokha) and
around Socotra. There are only minor reef fisheries in the Gulf of Aden. Large pelagic fish
are caught including tuna, Spanish mackerel, sharks, jacks and marlins, but there has been
gradual decline in pelagic catches since a peak in 1989, and bottom fish stocks have been
declining sharply since 1987. Sharks are also fished, using trolling and surface longlining,
with annual catches around 7,000mt. There is an artisanal fishery for lobsters (Panulirus spp.)
in Hadhramut and Mahra and around Socotra. Reef fishing occurs along the entire coastline
of Socotra, but there is only one processing plant for commercial catches, in Hadibo. Catch
statistics are generally unreliable because sales are local for small size fish that are not
weighed. There are also no accurate figures on the fishing effort.
THREATS TO CORAL REEF BIODIVERSITY
The level of anthropogenic threats to coral reefs throughout the region are much lower than
other areas of the world. Most threats are shared by all countries due to the semi-enclosed
nature of seas in this region, but are often more applicable or important to one country.
Many are potential threats rather than existing ones e.g. coastal development in Somalia is
virtually at a standstill, compared to Saudi Arabia, but with political stability, growth of coastal
settlement will increase and result in sediment runoff, sewage pollution, and land-filling.
46
Regional Status of Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden
Habitat Destruction
Extensive coastal development, including dredging and filling, is destroying large tracts of
coral reefs in Saudi Arabia (particularly around major urban centers along the Red Sea and
in the Gulf), Egypt (around the Sinai and Hurghada), and parts of the Yemen coastline. Reef
destruction also occurs in Egypt, Sudan and Djibouti through ship groundings, and from
anchor and flipper damage by recreational divers. Urban, industrial and port development
causes damage, because there is inadequate environmental planning, and few or no
environmental assessments. Sedimentation invariably results from poor construction,
dredging and land reclamation. There is a lack of management awareness, and enforcement of
regulations, which often results in physical damage to coral reefs through ignorance or neglect.
Industrial Activities
Chronic industrial pollution has reduced water quality in Egypt, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, and
major port areas in Sudan. This includes the discharge of untreated oily wastes from
refineries in Egypt, Saudi Arabia and Sudan, and sewage and phosphate ore washing are
principal caused of nutrient enrichment along the Egyptian and Jordanian coastlines. Rarely
is sewage treated in the region, and most is discharged into the intertidal zones.
Considerable solid wastes such as plastics and metal drums are dumped into the sea from
urban areas and passing ships, particularly near the Suez Canal and passing trough the
Straits of Bab al Mandab and major ports (Aden, Port Sudan, Suakin, Jeddah, Hurghada,
Suez). Other major sources of pollution in Sudan are from a power station in inner Port
Sudan harbour and carbon residues from a tyre manufacturer.
Oil and other Hydrocarbons
Threats comes from both exploration and transport; millions of tonnes of oil pass through
the region. There have been more than 20 oil spills along the Egyptian Red Sea since 1982,
which have smothered and poisoned corals and other organisms. Likewise many oil spills
have affected the Saudi Arabian Gulf coast, and lesser portions of the Yemeni and
Sudanese coasts. There is regular oil leakage from terminals and tankers in Port Sudan
harbour and elsewhere, and also from ballast and bilge water discharges. Seismic blasts
during oil exploration also threatens coral reefs. Virtually no ports have waste reception
facilities and the problem will continue because of a lack of enforcement of existing
regulations. There is inadequate control and monitoring of procedures, equipment and
personnel and training, and the potential is always there for catastrophic oil spills, but there
are no mechanisms to contain and clean such spills.
Maritime Transport
Major shipping routes run close to coral reefs, e.g. about 16,000 ships pass through the
Strait of Bab al-Mandab each year, and 25,000 to 30,000 ships transit the Red Sea annually.
Apart from ship-related pollution (e.g. discharges of garbage and oily wastes; bunkering
activities), these ships often hit reefs and the reefs are regarded as navigation hazards,
particularly near the ports of Djibouti, Jeddah, Port Sudan and Suakin, where ships pass
through narrow, unmarked channels among large reef complexes. Sewage and discharges
of solid waste pose additional threats. There are poor navigational control systems, and a
lack of suitable moorings throughout the region.
47
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
Fisheries
Shark resources are depleting rapidly with rapid declines in shark-fin catches by local
fishermen and foreign poaching vessels, particularly Yemen, Somalia, Djibouti and Sudan.
Many fishermen operate without licences, catching shark by hook and line and nets, and
damaging coral reefs. Large amounts of by-catch, including turtles, dolphins and finfish are
killed. There is a lack of surveillance and enforcement of existing regulations, such as the
unregulated use of spearguns in MPAs. Over-fishing of reef species is evident in Djibouti
and parts of Yemen, with the removal of predators (snappers, triggerfish and pufferfish),
possibly catalysing the crown-of-thorns starfish outbreaks that are causing major damage in
Egypt and Yemen.
Destructive Fisheries
Unsustainable fishing practices include spearfishing, the use of fine mesh nets, and some
dynamite (blast) fishing along the Egyptian coastline and other areas, but in general the
incidence is much less than in Asia.
Recreational Scuba Diving
Some damage occurs around major tourist dive sites as anchor, trampling and flipper
damage to fragile corals, particularly around the major tourist sites in Egypt at Ras
Mohammed and Hurghada, in Sudan at Sanganeb and at Sept Freres and Moucha and
Maskalia in Djibouti, where thousands of tourist divers visit each year. Large amounts of
corals, molluscs and fish are collected for the curio and aquarium trades in Egypt, and was
widespread in Saudi Arabia in the 70s and 80s, although this is somewhat curtailed today.
Sewage Pollution
Most sewage in the region is discharged untreated or partially treated, often directly onto
coral reefs off major towns in Saudi Arabia (e.g. Jeddah, Jizan and Al-Wedj), Yemen,
Sudan (Port Sudan and Suakin), and Djibouti. There virtually no sewage treatment plants in
the region, existing plants lack regular maintenance, and coastal habitats are damaged
because there are inadequate pollution control regulations, monitoring and enforcement.
Algal booms have been reported on the coral of Sudan as a result of sewage discharges.
Natural Predators
There have been recent major outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci)
and sea urchins (Diadema sp.) in most countries. Gastropod snails (Coralliphyllia sp. and
Drupella) actively feed on Porites and branching Acropora at sites in Yemen, Saudi Arabia
(southern Red Sea) and Jordan with partial mortality in coral colonies ranging from 10% to
70%. The large outbreak of A. planci (10,000 individuals) occurred around Gordon reef,
near Tiran island, Egypt in 1998, and large numbers were also found at Khor Ambado in
Djibouti. Recent extensive coral mortality on offshore Red Sea reefs in Yemen, resembled
crown-of-thorns starfish damage. The urchins Echinometra and Diadema spp. occur in
moderate to high abundance (>10m 2 ) at some sites, and are major contributors to bioerosion
along with grazing parrotfishes (Scaridae) and boring sponges. Bio-erosion was
particularly noticeable in Yemen after the 1998 bleaching event.
48
Regional Status of Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden
Coral Bleaching
There was extensive recent coral mortality on many reefs, including those in the
Arabian/Persian Gulf, the northern nearshore area of the Red Sea, in the southern Red Sea,
the Socotra archipelago and north east Gulf of Aden. A number of Red Sea sites with
healthy coral cover in the 1980s, experienced near total mortality. Bleaching around the
Socotra islands and NE Gulf of Aden was patchy in 1998. At the worst affected sites in Yemen
and Saudi Arabia, most species were injured and about half of the live coral cover was killed.
In Djibouti over 30% of coral was killed, while no bleaching was reported in Jordan.
Coral Disease
These are apparently becoming more prevalent in the Red Sea, and include black-band
and white-band disease, which may result from cumulative anthropogenic stresses such as
high nutrient and sediment loads.
Desalination
There is extensive use of desalinated water to meet demands of the population and
industry. There are at least 18 desalination plants along Saudi Arabian Red Sea coast which
discharge warm brine and maintenance chemicals (chlorine and anti-scalants) directly near
coral reefs. In Yemen, power stations at Mokha, Ras Katheeb and Hiswa (Aden) discharge
saline high-temperature water which results in localised coral bleaching and mortality.
Floods
These are rare in this low rainfall region, however occasional heavy rainfall in Egypt, Yemen
and northern Saudi Arabia, results in wadis delivering increased sediment loads and fresh
water, mostly impacting reefs that fringe the mainland coasts.
MARINE PROTECTED AREAS (MPAS) AND LEVELS OF MANAGEMENT
Tourism has been the catalyst for the development and implementation of Marine Protected
Areas (MPAs) in the region, with most of these in the northern Red Sea (e.g. Ras
Mohammed and Hurghada areas) and Djibouti to the south. Recent awareness of the
ecological importance of several sub-regions has resulted in areas being protected based
on environmental qualities (such as Sanganeb atoll in Sudan, the Socotra archipelago in
Yemen and the Jubail Wildlife Sanctuary in Saudi Arabia). The following provides a brief
overview of MPAs in the region (additional details can be found in the 1998 Strategic
Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden).
Djibouti
Two MPAs have been established for more than 10 years, and 2 more are proposed for
protected status, including Sept Frêres which is of regional importance.
Egypt
Ther are 4 MPAs that include coral reefs, and another two without reefs. Most of these are
around the Sinai Peninsula at Ras Mohammed to support recreational scuba diving, but
considerable anchor and flipper damage is evident. All of the offshore islands and
mangroves are also legally protected but need better enforcement. Another 7 MPA areas of
49
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
various scales have been proposed or suggested to the Government for protection though
various projects e.g. GEF, USAID, etc.
Jordan
There are no existing MPAs, and the Aqaba Coral Reef Protected Area is the only area
proposed for protected. This encompasses only 5% of the coastline.
Saudi Arabia
There is an extensive network of terrestrial protected areas, but the development and
implementation of MPAs is less advanced. Many areas have been proposed and suggested,
dating back to the mid- and late 1980s, but progress is slow. The Farasan islands in the far
south were protected in 1996, and the Jubail Wildlife Sanctuary was developed shortly
after the Gulf war, however, no other recent MPAs have been established. This is expected
to change with the resurgence of PERSGA and its Strategic Action Plan, with up to 32
protected areas being proposed for the Red Sea alone.
Somalia
Three areas have been proposed for protection along the Gulf of Aden coast, however,
only the Aibat, Saad ad-Din and Saba Wanak areas contain significant coral growth.
Sudan
The only MPA is the Sanganeb Marine National Park, established in 1990. This 12km 2 atoll
has highly diverse and complex coral reefs, but management is limited. Damage from
recreation, such as anchor damage from tourist boats, and shipping is considered low.
Yemen
There is one protected area and 6 proposed MPAs, however the process to establish these
is relatively new and will only proceed with funding and technical input from IUCN, the
Global Environment Facility and PERSGA.
50
Regional Status of Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden
GOVERNMENT LEGISLATION, STRATEGIES AND POLICY ON REEF CONSERVATION
International Agreements: Not all States are Signatories to all the following Agreements,
Protocols or Declarations, but these are the primary international agreements in force in the
region, with the most pertinent for coral reef conservation and management marked with an *:
• The Protocol for Regional Cooperation for Combating Pollution by Oil and other
Harmful Substances in Cases of Emergency (1982);
• The Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil (MARPOL)*;
• The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora (CITES)*;
• The African Agreement for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
(Algiers 1988);
• The Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of
Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes within Africa
(1993);
• The Protocol Concerning Regional Cooperation in Combating Pollution by Oil and
other Harmful Substances in Cases of Emergency (1984)*;
• The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1985);
• The Convention of the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping Wastes and
other Matter (London Convention) and its four annexes*;
• The Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and the Gulf of
Aden Environment (Jeddah Convention)*;
• The Convention for the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine
and Coastal Environment of the Eastern African Region (1988)*;
• The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals
(1986);
• The Protocol Concerning Co-operation in Combating Marine Pollution in Cases of
Emergency in the Eastern African Region (1988);
• The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)*.
Regional Agreements
One was signed by Yemen, Djibouti and Somalia to establish a sub-regional centre to
combat oil pollution in the Gulf of Aden. Oil spill response facilities are stored at Djibouti.
Yemen and Djibouti are currently negotiating a bilateral agreement regarding the use of this
equipment. In 1986, Djibouti, and Somalia signed a bilateral fishing agreement.
National Legislation and Compliance
A number of Presidential decrees, Public Laws, Acts, Ordinances, Strategies and
Regulations have been formulated and implemented for coral reef conservation, however,
these are too numerous to list and there is considerable overlap in efforts to deal with oil
and other forms of pollution, coastal development and tourism, including land-filling and
dredging, sewage disposal and coral mining, through which coral reefs receive direct and
indirect protection. More detailed listings of these instruments are provided in the
complete country reports.
51
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
RECOMMENDATIONS TO IMPROVE CONSERVATION OF CORAL REEF RESOURCES
Summary of targeted national recommendations:
• Djibouti specifically needs improved legislation and enforcement, and a research
and monitoring programme that supports coastal area management plans.
• Egypt needs to implement an integrated coastal area management plan and a
review and upgrade of existing regulations to protect coral reefs that are coming
under strong development pressures.
• In Jordan, pollution is limited and localised, and the main threats are oil spills
and discharges, industrial discharges, municipal and ship-based sewage and
solid waste, and the tourism sector.
• In Saudi Arabia, there is a need to establish MPAs and curb harmful development in
urban areas. Threats originate primarily through residential and industrial
development and maritime transport, including oil spills, landfilling, pollutant
discharges, and effluents from desalination activities. The issues that remain
unresolved or poorly addressed include enforcement of existing emission
standards, industrial development, and integration of the public and private sectors.
• Improved conservation of coral reefs in Somalia will rely on increases in funding
and personnel. Conservation is currently given a lower priority than the rebuilding
of the nation and the eradication of poverty.
• Sudan has a weak legal framework for reef conservation and the absence of
surveillance is resulting in damage to many reef areas.
• Yemen needs to develop a network of protected areas to conserve reef
resources, as coastal development, the petroleum industry and maritime
shipping pose significant risks in the form of untreated sewage, land filling, and
hydrocarbon pollution.
Overview of recommendations applicable to all countries:
• Improvement of navigation conditions and waste handling facilities and
navigation systems, including markers and updated charts are needed. The
predominant threats to reefs in the region are from shipping, pollution from the
petrochemical industries, industrial development, and coastal development that
degrades of marine habitats through dredging and landfilling, and sewage
discharge. There is a need for a more thorough network of navigation markers
and a long-term maintenance programme for these. In addition, there is a need
to establish sewage, sludge and oily waste holding and treatment facilities at the
major regional ports (Suez, Port Sudan, Suakin, Djibouti, Aden, Jeddah, Jordan).
• There is a need to develop and implement coastal management programmes in
each country, including the establishment of a system of marine protected areas.
These are both needed in tandem to maximise ecologic and economic
development and conservation goals. Underpinning legislation that curbs these
environmentally degrading activities is also needed. Management plans should
address landfilling, dredging and sedimentation in particular, listing sound
environmental practices to control these activities.
52
Regional Status of Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden
• Better research facilities and improved capacity of local people in research and
monitoring techniques are required, including reef assessment and monitoring of
pollution sources and the development of databases and report writing
capacity. These should include the translation of relevant training manuals into
Arabic, and the development of field guides and other materials in various
languages for the tourism sector. It should also address training of the tourism
and public sectors to assist in data collection (such as through Reef Check).
• The development and establishment of monitoring network with a GCRMN Node
would allow an upward flow of information to assist global efforts for reef
conservation. The Node would channel information for each country to a
regional level, which would make information more accessible at the global
level.
• Finally, there is a need for more detailed reef studies in all countries except Saudi
Arabia and Yemen, that go beyond rapid assessments. These studies should also
address the status of coral reef fauna, and include a temporal scale to provide
continued feedback on reef health. Coral reef management and monitoring
should become a priority issue for environmental conservation at government
levels but also at other levels through comprehensive public awareness
programmes.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND SUPPORTING DOCUMENTS
This report was compiled from country reports prepared under the auspices of the
Regional Organisation for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of
Aden (PERSGA). The regional report authors include: Nicolas Pilcher is based at the Institute
of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Malaysia
, and Abdullah Alsuhaibany works with PERSGA in Jeddah
Saudi Arabia .
Each of the collaborators on each of those reports and all of the researchers who
contributed to them are gratefully thanked. We would also like to thank Prof. Abdulaziz
Abuzinada and Dr. Hany Tatwany at the National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and
Development for giving access to material presented at the Regional Workshop on the
Extent of Bleaching in the Arabian Region, held in February 2000. Finally we thank Fareed
Krupp for critical reading of the manuscript. All assistance is gratefully acknowledged.
DeVantier, L. & N.J. Pilcher, 2000. Status of coral reefs in Saudi Arabia - 2000. PERSGA
Technical Series Report, Jeddah. 45 pp.
Pilcher, N.J. & M. Abou Zaid, 2000. Status of coral reefs in Egypt - 2000. PERSGA Technical
Series Report, Jeddah. 17 pp.
Pilcher, N.J. & S. Al-Moghrabi, 2000. Status of coral reefs in Jordan - 2000. PERSGA
Technical Series Report, Jeddah. 13 pp.
Pilcher, N.J. & A. Alsuhaibany, 2000. Status of coral reefs in the PERSGA region - 2000.
Technical Series Report. PERSGA, Jeddah. In Prep.
53
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
Pilcher, N.J. & L. DeVantier, 2000. Status of coral reefs in Yemen - 2000. PERSGA Technical
Series Report, Jeddah. 47 pp.
Pilcher, N.J. & N. Djama, 2000. Status of coral reefs in Djibouti - 2000. PERSGA Technical
Series Report, Jeddah. 29 pp.
Pilcher, N.J. & F. Krupp, 2000. Status of coral reefs in Somalia - 2000. PERSGA Technical
Series Report, Jeddah. 21 pp.
Pilcher, N.J. & D. Nasr, 2000. Status of coral reefs in Sudan - 2000. PERSGA Technical Series
Report, Jeddah. 28 pp.
World Bank, 1998. Strategic Action Programme for the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. The
World bank, Washington, DC: 89 pp.
54
3. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE ARABIAN/PERSIAN
GULF AND ARABIAN SEA REGION (MIDDLE EAST)
NICOLAS J. PILCHER, SIMON WILSON, SHAKER H. ALHAZEEM AND
MOHAMMAD REZA SHOKRI
ABSTRACT
This report summarises the status of coral reefs in Bahrain, Iran, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar,
Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates, in which coral reef conservation is
coordinated by the Regional Organisation for the Protection of the Marine Environment
(ROPME). There are no reports of coral reefs of Iraq. Information was gathered from
publications and reports provided by people from these countries and the key agencies
operating in the region (some are listed at the end). In the north Arabian/Persian Gulf there
are fringing hard corals along the Iranian side of the Gulf and around the most of the islands,
from Saudi Arabia across to Iran. Most of the south is characterised by limestone or
sandstone, which prevent significant reef accretion. Seawater temperatures and salinity
show some of the widest fluctuations recorded anywhere in the world, and corals have
adapted to survive in these especially harsh conditions. In the Arabian Sea, coral growth is
limited to the southern shorelines, and corals grow beneath a thick algal canopy. There are
areas in southern Oman where large corals exist, but these are not true coral reefs. Reefs
also occur at Ras Madrakah, at Barr Al Hickman and in the shelter of Masirah Island, and
around Ras al Hadd and the Daymaniyat islands.
The region contains complex and unique coral reefs with relatively low biological diversity,
but with many endemic species. Large parts of the region are in a pristine state, but there
are increasing environmental threats from habitat destruction, over-exploitation and
pollution. Coral diversity is lower than in the Indian Ocean, but fish diversity is relatively
high. Coral reefs are generally limited to a few areas due to extreme environmental
conditions. Coral cover is generally low, with evidence of recent, widespread, coral
mortality, as coral communities grow at the limits of tolerance to salinity, temperature, and
sediment load. There were two major coral bleaching events, one in the summer of 1996
and another more severe case in the summer of 1998, which led to near-complete mortality
of the reefs in Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, and UAE. An average of around 50% mortality
was experienced in Kuwait and Iran, and lower mortality was recorded in Oman. The major
anthropogenic threats are land-filling and dredging of the reefs for coastal development,
anchor damage from boats, discharges from industrial and desalination facilities, and solid
waste disposal.
Throughout the region, there is a need to reduce boat anchor damage though the use of
permanent mooring buoys. Dredging and land-filling need be curtailed and properly
managed, and the risks of ship-based pollution should be countered through the provision
55
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
of waste disposal facilities at major ports, monitoring on the high seas for pollution
discharges, and through coordinated efforts to improve shipping navigation aids. Solid
waste cleanup projects need to be organised to remove accumulated debris from the
reefs, and public education campaigns would help increase understanding of the
importance of coral reefs and their sensitivity to damage and pollution. There is also a need
to develop and expand local capacity for monitoring and research on coral reefs, in
connection with the designation of Marine Protected Areas as part of broader multisectoral
integrated management plans. The major organisation assisting countries with coral
reef conservation is the Regional Organisation for the Protection of the Marine Environment
(ROPME), which refers to this region as the ‘inner ROPME Sea Area’, shortened to RSA.
INTRODUCTION
The Arabian/Persian Gulf (the Gulf) and Sea contain complex and unique tropical marine
ecosystems, especially coral reefs, with relatively low biological diversity and many
endemic species. The reefs are surrounded by some of the driest coastlines in the world,
such that continental influences are limited. In addition these waters are also major
shipping lanes due to petroleum industries, with a high-risk bottleneck at the narrow straits
of Hormuz. While large parts of the region are still in a pristine state, environmental threats
(notably from habitat destruction, over-exploitation and pollution) are increasing rapidly,
requiring immediate action to protect the region’s coastal and marine environment.
The Arabian Sea is subject to seasonal cold water upwellings due to the Indian Ocean
monsoon system, which creates large temperature differences between seasons. This is
reflected in the nature and distribution of coral communities. The Gulf is a semi-enclosed
shallow continental sea measuring 1000km in length and varying in width from a
maximum of 340 to 60km (at the Straits of Hormuz). These narrow straits restrict water
exchange with the Arabian Sea, which means the waters become highly saline because
of high evaporation and low inputs of fresh water. The Gulf is also subject to wide
climatic fluctuations, with water temperatures ranging from 10 to 40 o C and salinity from
28-60ppt. The coupling of seawater temperatures and salinity show some of the widest
fluctuations recorded anywhere in the world, which would kill most reef-building corals
elsewhere. Thus, corals growing in the Gulf have become adapted to survive the
especially harsh conditions. This was thought to be the norm with temperature extremes
until the major bleaching events in 1996 and 1998, which virtually obliterated all inshore
reefs and badly depleted many of those offshore. The overall reef biodiversity of reefs in
the Gulf is relatively impoverished compared to the Indian Ocean, with the exception of
fish species. Further north there are fringing hard corals along the Iranian side of the Gulf
and around the most of the islands, from Saudi Arabia across to Iran. The average depth
is about 35m and maximum is 100m. The southern Gulf is characterised by shallow pre-
Cretaceous limestone, sandstone or ‘fasht’ which is frequently insufficient to result in
significant reef accretion.
56
Status of Coral Reefs in the Arabian/Persian Gulf
GEOGRAPHICAL REEF COVERAGE AND EXTENT
Bahrain
Coral reefs in Bahrain are limited to a few areas. These include: Fasht Al Adhom, north
Jabari, west Fasht Al Dibal, Khwar Fasht, Fasht Al Jarim, Samahij, and Abul Thama. Coral
colonies are present in other areas such as Hayr Shutaya, but these are isolated colonies,
not coral reefs.
Iran
The best-developed reefs on the Iranian coasts are found around Khark and Kharku islands
in the far north and the southern islands from Lavan to Hormuz islands. Fringing reefs are the
predominant reef structure on the Iranian coasts.
Kuwait
Coral reefs are largely restricted to the southern area and include a range of offshore
platform and smaller patch reefs, and nearshore patch and fringing reef assemblages along
the southern coastline. All are in shallow water (
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
STATUS OF CORAL REEFS
Bahrain
The main coral reefs are limited to a few areas in extreme environmental conditions. Coral
cover is generally low, with evidence of recent, widespread coral mortality. These coral
communities are at the very limits of tolerance to salinity, temperature, and sediment load,
but there are 28 species of coral in Bahrain. The reefs recently experienced two major coral
bleaching events: summer of 1996; and more severely in the summer of 1998. These events
resulted in the complete mortality of corals on Fasht Al Adhom, west Fasht Al Dibal, Khwar
Fasht, north Jabari, Samahij, and Fasht Al Jarim. The only live coral reef surviving in Bahrain is
on Abul Thama, a small raised area surrounded by 50m deep water about 72km north of
the main island. In addition to coral bleaching in 1996, a large fish kill was reported in Ras
Hayan lagoon.
Sea surface temperatures of 38 o C were recorded in 1998 on Hayr Shutaya, about 30km
north of Bahrain, and coral bleaching followed with morality between 85-90% of Fasht Al
Ahdom, Jabari, Samahij, and Fasht Al Dibal. In 1996, corals were 100% bleached at Fasht Al
Adhom, and 40% bleached (with 40% dead coral cover) at Jabari. At west Fasht Al Dibal
there was 80% bleaching, and at Abul Thama corals were 33% bleached, with 33% dead
coral cover. About 95% of the corals were dead on the Half Tanker wreck on Fasht Al
Adhom by late-1996. On Abul Thama the hard corals on the seamount (which comes to
8m of the surface) were in better condition, because they are surrounded by 50m deep
water. The cover of hard coral has remained relatively stable (25–35%), with a greater
diversity of key invertebrate and fish species than Fasht Al Adhom.
The major direct anthropogenic factors impacting on corals in Bahrain are commercial trawl
fishing, dredging and land reclamation, with little consideration given to maintaining the
environment. Prior to 1998, there were about 300 artisanal shrimp trawlers and 6 larger fish
trawlers, which often poached in shallow waters around the coral reefs. The reappearance
of small soft corals and crinoids on Bahrain reefs is linked to the 1998 closure of the
industrial fishery. There are major industrial plants for electricity generation, water
desalination, oil refinery, aluminium refining, and for petrochemicals that discharge heated
seawater, which increases temperatures during the summer months. Land reclamation on
the northern and eastern coasts have increased the area by 11km 2 in less than 10 years,
often covering valuable coastal resources, but not yet directly impacting coral reefs.
However, there are proposals to reclaim part of major coral reef areas at Fasht Al Adhom.
There are government regulations concerning land reclamation, but there is little
enforcement and compliance with these regulations, and many projects are completed
without government approval. Dredging is used to maintain navigation channels and collect
sand for reclamation and construction. About 10 suction dredgers routinely operate in
Bahrain waters, including specialised cutter and suction dredgers. During dredging
operations, large amounts of silt flow directly onto corals from Muharraq dredging area,
with about 182,000m 2 reef area lost between 1985 and 1992.
There was no regular monitoring of coral reefs in Bahrain until 1993, when a volunteer diving
program started with assistance from the Department of Fisheries. These surveys show an
almost total loss of live hard corals on Fasht Al Ahdom, with coral cover declining from 30-
58
Status of Coral Reefs in the Arabian/Persian Gulf
40% to 0% between 1997 and 1999. In 1999, divers saw small coral colonies (1-3cm
diameter), but these were too few to be detected by Reef Check surveys. Key fish species
were also scarce at 4-8m deep Fasht Al Adhom sites.
Iran
There are fringing hard corals along some parts of the coast and around most of the islands.
Very little information is available on their status, with the most recent information from Kish
Island, 18km from the most southern point of the mainland in the Gulf (26 o 30 ’ N; 53 o 54E’).
Here there are sandy flats and mixed communities of live and dead corals, with the best
live coral on north and northeastern margins. In shallower depths (8m) there is higher
biodiversity of reef fishes, invertebrates and hard corals, compared to the deeper reef
slope (13m). There was considerable destruction of branching corals during a storm in
1996, anchor damage is higher in deeper water (13m), and many corals in shallower waters
are damaged by uncontrolled recreational activities.
There are at least 35 coral species around Hormuz Island, with branching Acropora
dominating around islands in the Gulf, as well as some soft coral (Sarcophyton) and crownof-thorns
starfish (COTs) in the northern part of the Gulf (Tunb-e-Kuchak Island). At Kish
Island, 19 coral species have been identified with Acroporidae, Favidae and Poritidae most
frequently and Agariciidae and Dendrophyllidae are quite rare. Surveys showed that the
upper slope at 8m depth had the best hard coral growth, with 22% cover, 21% dead
cover coral, 44% sand and 13% for other invertebrates. Dead coral cover was 28% in
deeper water, and 48% in shallow water. Reef Check surveys showed the highest diversity
of fish in shallow water.
Coral bleaching was observed in mid-summer (July-August) of 1996 around Kish, Faroor
and Hindurabi islands, mostly in massive (Favia sp.) and sub massive corals (Porites sp.),
with about 15% of all hard coral colonies showing some evidence of bleaching. Local
divers reported the recovery of these reefs in the following summer (1997). Storms,
bleaching and extreme environmental conditions (especially large variations in temperature
during midsummer) are the major natural factors threatening the coral reefs at Kish island.
Anthropogenic impacts come from coastal construction as this has been declared the main
Iranian ‘free zone’. The ranking of impacts on reef corals around the Kish Islands are: overexploitation
of living resources; poor land use practices; pollution from land-based
activities; extreme environmental conditions; pollution from maritime transport; tourism
activities; tropical storms; coral bleaching; and destructive exploitation of living resources.
Kuwait
Corals in Kuwait are in the northern Gulf, hence the extreme northern limit of distribution.
Coral patches occur from Kuwait City south to the border with Saudi Arabia. There are also
a few coral-fringed islands, and some patch reefs on sea mounts (all south of the major oil
terminal at Mina Al-Ahmadi). Maximum depth averages 15m, with greatest coral diversity
above 10m. Coral diversity is limited on offshore reefs at Mudayrah by offshore currents and
rough seas and the reefs are surrounded by 30m depth. Qaro in the south has the most
diverse reefs, dominated by Acropora and Porites, with above 80% live cover at many
sites. There is an extensive reef surrounding Um Al-Maradem enclosing a lagoon about
400m offshore. Nearshore reefs such as Qit’at uraifjan are limited by high sediment loads,
59
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
although they survived the Gulf War oil spill and are dominated by massive Porites,
Montipora and Platygyra.
At least 35 coral species are found on Kuwaiti reefs along with conspicuous sea urchins
(Echinometra mathaei and Diadema setosum), which occur in dense populations (20-80 per
m 2 ) on many reefs. There are 124 fish species with the damselfish the most abundant, and
hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) and green turtles (Chelonia mydas) nest on the coral cays.
Threats to coral reefs include damage from fishing and anchors, flipper damage from
divers, over-fishing, lost fishing gear, solid waste disposal, and the extreme environmental
conditions. Most of the reefs are close to the shore and are major tourist and fishing areas.
Anchors have destroyed large tracts of the reefs at all sites, and over-fishing has reduced
populations of large predators, such that few fish greater than 20cm are seen. Oil pollution,
however, has not caused massive mortalities to reefs, even though most were in the path of
the massive oil spill during the Gulf War.
Oman
Seawater temperature is the major factor controlling the distribution of coral reefs in the
northern Arabian Sea and Gulf of Oman. There are major temperature differences between
the Gulf of Oman and the northern Arabian Sea during the summer southwest monsoon
season, which show up in the nature and distribution of coral communities in Oman. Wind
is the other factor influencing upwellings, which result in temperatures changing by as
much as 8ºC in 2 hours down to 10m depth. Such upwellings in the northern Arabian Sea
result in seawater temperatures being around 19 o C throughout summer.
There were 2 significant bleaching events during the past 10 years: in the summer of 1990 in
the Gulf of Oman, seawater temperatures reached 39 o C for several days; in May 1998 at
Dhofhar, temperatures reached 30 o C. Solar radiation during the monsoon (June-September
1998) was 170-180% higher than average because of low cloud density and thinner fog
normally associated with the upwelling (all suggest a weak upwelling during that monsoon
season). Between 75% and 95% of Stylophora colonies bleached and 50% of large Porites
colonies were partially bleached in water less than 5m on the Marbat peninsula, Arabian
Sea in May 1998. Other genera were also affected. Mortality was estimated to be around
5%, and temperatures were 29.5 and 31.5 o C, but 50km to the east no bleaching was
observed at temperatures between 25 and 25.5 o C. No bleaching was observed or
reported in the Muscat Area in the Gulf of Oman (23 o 37N; 58 o 35E; temperatures to 30.5 o C).
Bleaching in Dhofar occurred in May immediately before the summer monsoon upwelling.
After the upwelling in September 1999, only dead corals covered in algae were observed
indicating almost 100% mortality from bleaching in very shallow (2-3m) waters. Corals in
deeper water appeared unaffected with low levels of mortality. On the southwest tip of
Masirah Island and southeast corner of the reef complex around Barr Al Hickman there was
little or no mortality during 1998. No bleaching was seen in Hallaniyat Islands from
February-April 1998 and corals around the islands of Al Hallaniyah, A’Sawda, and Al
Qibliah were healthy in January 2000, with high coral cover and very large (5m diameter)
tables of Acropora clathrata and Porites colonies greater than 4m in diameter.
60
Status of Coral Reefs in the Arabian/Persian Gulf
Although seawater temperatures were raised (30-32 o C) from mid-April until December
1998 in the Gulf of Oman, there was no bleaching (and no change in mid 2000 at the
Daymaniyat Islands). However, low-density infestations of crown-of-thorns starfish were
observed, causing significant damage in limited areas (100m x 50m) of the reef. Live coral
cover at 53 sites around the Musandam peninsula was 10-20% at half of the sites, and 50-
90% at over 25% of the sites. White band disease was seen in some Acropora and
Platygyra at 5 sites, mostly in sheltered areas with high seawater temperatures.
Qatar
Fringing reefs occur along the north and east coasts, with a generally high coral cover but
low species diversity (
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
United Arab Emirates
Coastal waters support extensive areas of mostly mono-specific stands of coral, due to the
extreme environmental conditions in the southwestern Gulf. Up to18 species of hard coral
have been found on healthy coral reefs near Dalma Island off western Abu Dhabi. Here, the
subtidal rocky outcrops and platforms were mainly covered with a veneer of corals in 1996,
with large areas at depths of 1-4m covered by Acropora with an understorey of Porites,
Platygyra and Favia spp. Greater depths were often dominated by large Porites colonies
and an understorey of Acropora. Porites-dominated reefs were particularly well-developed
on offshore reefs (such as Bu Tini shoals), where Acropora only survived in pockets
protected by the Porites bommies.
There was extensive mortality of Acropora in Abu Dhabi during autumn 1996 and over the
same period in 1998. There was more than 98% mortality of Acropora between August and
September 1996 with seawater temperatures of 34°C or above for 10 weeks. During the
summer of 1998 seawater temperatures remained at 34ºC or above for 14 weeks, and most
of the remaining Acropora colonies bleached and died. West of Abu Dhabi city, 60-80% of
the other corals (Porites, Platygyra and Favia) were also bleached. An estimated 40-60% of
the non-branching corals were bleached in 1998.
There were 77 fish species recorded in the Dubai area, and 29 species of corals, and now
the Dubai Urban Area is protected following local order No. 2 of 1998. The genus
Acropora suffered almost total mortality, where once it covered 51% of the coral substrate.
Now the genera Porites, Platygyra and Cyphastrea have replaced Acropora as the dominant
corals. The Jebel Ali reefs, which were previously one of the Gulf’s richest ecosystems, lost
most of the corals and other organisms in the summer of 1996. Acropora were the
dominant coverage, and the coral cover was reduced by an average of 60% (ranging from
15-85%).
Dredging of Jebel Ali port and the hotel marina have affected offshore reefs through
excessive sedimentation. Another threat to reefs is the change in coastal hydrodynamics
due to the interference of the Jebel Ali port breakwater with inshore currents. Recreational
use of the area is primarily by clients of the Jebel Ali Hotel and campers. Main activities are
shore based: swimming, jet skiing, wind-surfing and surf fishing. A small-scale commercial
fishery used to exist in the area, using mainly Ghargours (fish traps) placed in the coral area
and targeting reef fish. This has practically ceased since the declaration of protected area
status. A shore-based beach seine netting fishery still exists, but at low levels. There are also
possible impacts on corals by dredging and infilling activities in certain parts of Abu Dhabi.
62
Status of Coral Reefs in the Arabian/Persian Gulf
RECOMMENDATIONS TO IMPROVE CONSERVATION OF CORAL REEF RESOURCES
• There is a need to reduce diver and boat anchor damage. In all countries,
mooring buoys should be installed at the major reef sites to prevent further
anchor damage to corals. Additionally, spearfishing should be banned (and the
ban enforced) to allow reef fish populations to recover.
• Solid waste cleanup projects need to be organised in each country to remove
accumulated debris from the reefs, including plastics, metals, glass, and
discarded fishing equipment.
• Public education campaigns are needed to increase understanding of the
importance of coral reefs and their sensitivity to damage and pollution. These
should highlight the use of moorings to prevent damage to corals, the need for
restrictions on fishing on these reefs, the problems caused by littering and refuse,
and the need for public and private participation in the management of coral
reefs.
• There is a need to develop and expand local capacity to monitor and carry out
research on coral reefs. This must also include the designation, where
applicable, of competent authorities to manage and conserve coral reefs, and
preparation of detailed management plans to promote the sustainable and wise
use of reef resources.
• There is a need to designate additional Marine National Parks and Marine
Protected Areas in the context of integrated management plans. Only within
these protected areas will the countries be able to fully protect coral reefs.
• Coastal development, and in particular dredging and landfilling, should be
curtailed and properly managed. The use of silt curtains should be mandatory in
landfill operations, and only after stringent Environmental Impact Analyses. Given
the limited extent of coral reefs, coral reef areas should never be approved for
landfilling.
• Finally, there is a need to reduce further the risks of ship-based pollution through
the provision of waste disposal facilities at major ports, monitoring on the high
seas for pollution discharges, and through coordinated efforts to improve
shipping navigation aids.
63
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND SUPPORTING DOCUMENTATION
Nicolas Pilcher is based at the Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation,
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Malaysia . Simon Wilson is based in
Oman , Shaker H. Alhazeem is at the Mariculture and
Fisheries Department in Kuwait , and Mohammad Reza Shokri is
based at the Iranian National Center for Oceanography . The
authors wish to thank the Regional Organisation for the Protection of the Marine Environment
(ROPME) for assistance with writing this report.
REFERENCES
Carpenter, K.E., P.L. Harrison, G. Hodgson, A.H. Alsaffar & S.H. Alhazeem, 1997. The corals
and coral reef fishes of Kuwait. Kuwait institute of Scientific Research, Kuwait City.
166 pp.
IEC 1998. Study of Protected Areas for Nature Conservation in the Emirate of Dubai.
Unpublished Report to Dubai Municipality. IX + 234 pp. International Environmental
Consultants (IEC), Riyadh.
Pilcher, N.J., 2000. The status of coral reefs in the Arabian gulf and Arabian Sea region.
Report to ROPME, Kuwait City.
Sheppard, C., A. Price, A. & C. Roberts, 1994. Marine ecology of the Arabian region.
Academic Press, London. 359 pp.
64
4. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN EAST AFRICA:
KENYA, MOZAMBIQUE, SOUTH AFRICA
AND TANZANIA
DAVID OBURA, MOHAMMED SULEIMAN,
HELENA MOTTA AND MICHAEL SCHLEYER
ABSTRACT
The single largest threat to coral reefs ever documented in East Africa was the high
temperature-related coral bleaching event caused by the El Niño Southern Oscillation of
1997-98. The degree of bleaching and mortality increased local water temperatures and
reached northwards from South Africa (
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
GEOGRAPHY, ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION
Because of the north-south orientation of East
Africa, there is a strong temperature gradient in
the coastal waters of this region with a peak in
the mid-latitudes of approximately 4-15 o S
(southern Kenya to northern Mozambique), and
lower temperatures to the south and north. This
geographic variation had a particularly strong
influence on the health and status of reefs
during 1998 when the region experienced the
major El Niño climate event.
The East African coast is strongly influenced by
river discharges and high nutrient levels, which
affects coral reef distribution at both regional
and local scales. Large expanses of the central
Mozambique coast (800km) are devoid of reefs
due to discharges from the large Limpopo and
Zambezi rivers. Many fringing reefs have breaks
opposite short coastal rivers that empty through
deep mangrove creeks. The few measures of
nutrient concentrations show high levels
compared to other reefs systems, which are
consistent with low levels of water clarity due
to increased plankton and sediment loads.
Information on coral reef status along the Indian
Ocean coast of Somalia is poor, though patch
reefs are known to extend to Mogadishu. It is
likely that reefs do extend as far as the Horn of
Africa, with expansion of many reef organisms
onto the Socotra Archipelago (see Chapter 3).
South Africa
The coral reefs and coral communities of South
Africa lie between 26-27 o S. These are the most
southerly reefs in the western Indian Ocean.
They are generally deep (below 8m), offshore,
have high energy banks, and normal
temperatures ranging from 22-26 o C to 29.5 o C. The reefs grow on a narrow continental shelf
only 2-7km wide, which is remote from major human populations. The principal use of the
reefs has been for game fishing and diving.
Mozambique
The 2,700km coastline extends from 26 o S to 12 o S, encompassing a full spectrum of reef
types from the high latitude reefs of South Africa to the fringing and island reef complexes
along the Mozambique-Tanzanian border where the South Equatorial Current meets the
66
Status of Coral Reefs in East Africa
African coastline and splits north and south. The main reef system stretches for 770km from
the Rovuma River in the north, to Pebane in the south (17 o 20’S). Smaller isolated reefs are
dispersed along the 850km southern coast from Bazaruto Island to Ponta do Ouro
(26 o 50’S). Mozambique’s coastal population was estimated at just over 6.66 million people
(42% of the total) in 1997. Artisanal and commercial fishing, and tourism are the dominant
uses of coral reefs in Mozambique.
Tanzania
Two thirds of the 1000km coastline supports fringing and patch reefs on a narrow
continental shelf. The main areas of reef growth are along the islands of Unguja (Zanzibar),
Pemba and Mafia, and the mainland coast at Tanga, Pangani, Dar-es-Salaam Mkuranga, Lindi
and Mtwara. Tanzania’s coastal population was estimated at 8 million people in 2000, and
is concentrated in the districts around the capital Dar es Salaam. Coral reef use is varied,
with fishing and tourism supporting local and national economies.
Kenya
A continuous fringing reef dominates the southern 200km of Kenya’s coast. The fringing
reefs in the north are more patchy with influences from river discharges and influenced by
colder water from seasonal upwelling of the Somali current system. Kenya’s coastal
population in 2000 has been estimated to reach 2 million people, concentrated around the
main port of Mombasa. As with Tanzania, reef-based fishing and tourism are important
components of the coastal economy.
PRINCIPAL THREATS AFFECTING CORAL REEFS: 1998-2000
El Niño
There was a strong south-north gradient in the extent and impacts of the El Niño bleaching
event of 1998, which elevated normally warm local temperatures. Coral bleaching and
mortality started in the south in late February to early March 1998, and finished in May in the
north, directly corresponding to the ‘movement’ of the sun as it passed through the Inter-
Tropical Convergence Zone. There were dramatic losses of coral cover (summarised below).
After 1998, there were significant increases in fleshy, turf, calcareous and coralline algae
growing on the newly dead coral surfaces on all reefs, which in turn was influenced by an
abundance of herbivorous fish populations. The algae grew larger and more rapidly in areas
where there were large reductions in herbivore fishes due to over-fishing. These coral to algal
community shifts happened less in protected fish reserves. Non-reef building coelenterates
(cnidarians), including anemones, corallimorphs and soft corals were also heavily damaged
by bleaching and mortality on many reefs through East Africa. Changes in coral eating animals
were minor, but there were some increases in herbivore populations, such as on Mafia Island.
• South Africa: The bleaching threshold for corals was exceeded for both hard
and soft corals, but it was not excessive. Most corals on the reefs grow at 12m
or deeper, which may have protected them from warmer temperatures in surface
waters. Soft corals are more prevalent on shallow reef tops, with more
conspicuous bleaching.
67
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
1997/98 1999
KENYA
Northern Kenya (>10m) 5.7+/-3.8 (3)
(< 3m) 13.2+/-2.2 (29) 5.1+/-1.9 (10)
Southern Kenya (> 10 m) 32.0+/-4.6 (6) 6.7+/-2.1 (1)
(< 3m) 30.1+/-3.0 11.4+/-2.6
Protected 39.6+/-2.9 11.4+/-1.4
Unprotected 20.6+/-0.7 11.4+/-2.2
OVERALL 26.3 8.1
TANZANIA
Tanga 53.0+/-4.8 (4) 33.3+/-6.6 (4)
Pemba 53.7+/-12.8 (3) 12.3+/-3.7 (4)
Unguja 45.8+/-4.2 (5) 32.0+/-5.5 (5)
Kunduchi 43.0+/-6.0 (2) 35.0+/-0.0 (2)
Mafia 73.3+/-3.3 (3) 19.4+/-4.5 (5)
Songosongo 35.0+/-3.5 (4) 37.5+/-4.6 (4)
Mnazi Bay 60.0+/-0.0 (2) 20.0+/-0.0 (2)
OVERALL 52.0 27.1
MOZAMBIQUE
Quirimbas 48.4+/-21.3 (2)
Mozambique I. 32.5+/-4.7 (2)
Bazaruto 69.5 (1)
Inhambane 13.8+/-1.9 (2)
Inhaca 50.0+/-10.5 (2)
OVERALL 42.8
These coral cover measures for East Africa taken before and after the 1998 El Niño bleaching and
mortality event, clearly show the impact on the corals with high levels of mortality. Coral cover is in
percent of the bottom (with the standard error and number of survey sites).
• Mozambique: There were low El Niño bleaching impacts in the south, although
bleaching was seen at Iñhaca Island in early 1999. The most extensive impacts were
on exposed reefs in the north, with up to 99% mortality on some patch reefs. Reefs
in sheltered bays, which experience higher levels of nutrients and turbidity from
land runoff, as well as variance in surface water temperatures were least affected.
• Tanzania: Bleaching and mortality levels were generally high but variable from
Mozambique to the Kenyan border, with high bleaching (60-90%) at Tutia reef in
Mafia Island Marine Park and Misali reef on the west coast of Pemba. There were some
reefs Unguja Island, Zanzibar with low extent and impact of bleaching (10% or less).
• Kenya: These reefs were amongst the most severely damaged in the region, with
levels of coral mortality between 50%-90%. Lagoon patch reefs and fore-reef
slopes along the southern Kenya coast showed losses in coral cover of preimpact
levels of 30% going down to 5-11% for both protected and unprotected
reefs. In northern Kenya, coral bleaching and mortality in shallow waters was as
dramatic as in the southern reefs, however corals on reefs below 10 m depth
suffered less mortality, although bleaching was often more than 50%.
68
Status of Coral Reefs in East Africa
El Niño Effects on Coral Diversity and Distributions
Stress from the El Niño event was large scale and intense, resulting in species-specific
patterns of bleaching and mortality across the region. The fast growing genera Acropora,
Pocillopora, Stylophora and Seriatopora showed up to 100% bleaching. Over 50% of
species in these genera are still absent from many reefs 2 years after the event. High rates of
bleaching and mortality also occurred in other genera such as Galaxea, Echinopora, and
other minor acroporids. Low rates of mortality were observed in some corals even though
they exhibited high levels of bleaching (e.g. Fungia, Coscinaraea, anemones). The majority
of other coral species exhibited variable, and moderate to low bleaching and mortality
levels, but because of their low abundance this did not contribute greatly to post-mortality
abundance estimates, e.g. the faviids, acroporids in the genera Montipora and Astreopora,
agariciids, poritids, siderastreids and most of the octocorals and zoanthids. In some
adjacent colonies of the same species showed different levels of bleaching and mortality.
This 1998 bleaching event will have profound impacts on the structure and growth rates of
these coral reefs for many years. The coral species that suffered the highest bleaching and
mortality were typically fast growing, branching species, with high rates of reproduction
(sexual or asexual) and competitive overgrowth. Many of the surviving species are slower
growing massive, sub-massive and encrusting forms, which rarely dominate reef
communities. Therefore any future El Niño events may have very different impacts on
evolving reef community structure due to overall species changes in these coral
communities. The El Niño event may be ‘selecting’ specific gene pools that are more
resistant to temperature impacts.
Recovery Following El Niño
As noted above, there has been variable recovery of coral reefs that suffered high mortality.
Coral recovery by regrowth of surviving colonies has been significant on some shallow
lagoon reefs in Kenya (where coral cover has returned to the 1997 levels of approximately
15-20%). However, recruitment of larvae to all reef zones to replenish lost corals was low
throughout 1999 according to sites surveyed. The first strong signs of major coral
recruitment were first observed in November 1999, with increasing new coral numbers in
Country Reef location Populations of COTS Impact of COTS on reefs
South Africa Two Mile Reef, Spot outbreak of COTS Coral cover under long term
Maputaland to approx. 0.62m-2 decline where affected by COTS
Mozambique Anchor Bay, 3 year infestation to 1999, Coral cover reduced to 2-5%,
Inhambane with recent feeding main survivors Pocillopora,
scars in 1999
Acropora
Inner Two-Mile Reef, Outbreak in 1995 80% mortality, with
Bazaruto
ongoing degradation
Coral Garden, Bazaruto COTS present in 1999 20% mortality, but of mixed causes
Tanzania Changuu, Zanzibar COTS at 0.8-1m-2 Coral cover reduced
from 58% in 1996 to 25% in 1997
Bawe, Zanzibar New COTS aggregations in 1999 Mainly in Acropora thickets
Kenya Shimoni COTS reports from 70s, No recent impacts
no new reports
A summary of crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) outbreaks in East Africa in the 1990s showing that,
while these are a persistent problem, the threat is increased on reefs where coral cover has decreased
meaning that recovery could be delayed.
69
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
2000. Some reefs that are showing significant recovery were already severely impacted by
fishing and collecting, and occur in relatively marginal reef flat environments. This suggests
that pre-exposure to temperature and other stresses may be a positive adaptation and
result in faster recovery in some areas. However in others, damage to the reefs from overfishing
and overgrowth by fleshy algae may have been delaying coral and reef recovery.
Since these observations are based on reefs in early stages of succession no definitive
conclusions can be made.
Crown-of-thorns Starfish (COTS)
These starfish (Acanthaster planci) have been a major threat to the reefs throughout
Tanzania, Mozambique and South Africa during the past decade. Damage to deeper reefs
in South Africa from COTS since 1990 appears to be shifting the balance towards soft
corals, because the starfish target the hard corals.
Fishing
Excessive and destructive fishing in East Africa was the major anthropogenic problem for
the reefs throughout the 1990s; only surpassed in impact by the El Niño bleaching event
took which took over as the major threat in this region. Damaging fishing practices include:
dynamite; pull-seine nets; poisons; over-exploitation of juveniles and small fish (direct
targets and by-catch); and local intensive harvesting of specific resources (octopus,
shellfish, and lobster). Sea cucumber populations have crashed following the introduction
of export fisheries. Since the last status report of 1998, fishing pressures have not
decreased in any country, yet there have been some specific improvements, notably:
• In Tanzania, increased public pressure by communities and NGOs has led to: a)
effective reduction of dynamite fishing in key areas (Tanga, Mafia, Songosongo),
and b) delayed implementation of a controversial aquaculture development
project in the Rufiji Delta with its ultimate collapse in 2000;
• In Mozambique, there has been a ministerial ban on aquarium fish collection pending
a study on the potential impacts and sustainable management of the trade; and
• There has been increasing efforts in all countries to involve and empower local
users in monitoring and management e.g. in Tanga and Misali (Tanzania), Kiunga
and Diani (Kenya), and Angoche (Mozambique).
Tourism
Coastal tourism in all the East African countries depends on healthy coral reefs as the
primary attraction, however, increasing development of tourist facilities is also threatening
the reefs. All countries are starting to promote ‘ecologically friendly’ and sustainable
tourism developments, which include smaller, more exclusive hotels and resorts, diving
and wilderness-oriented activities, as well as co-management of the reef resources
between communities, developers and government. Some studies on tourism impacts on
the physical, biological and socioeconomic status of coral reef areas have been
conducted, however there are large gaps in the coverage of studies and in implementation
of recommended actions.
70
Status of Coral Reefs in East Africa
Population, Pollution, Mining
Rising population and settlement issues throughout East Africa are the root causes behind all
other anthropogenic threats to coral reefs. Related issues include: increasing sedimentation
from rivers, coastal development and construction, shipping and harbour development,
mining in the sea and shoreline, pollution and rubbish disposal, etc. There are major
concerns about mining developments in the coastal areas and respective threats to coral
reefs, particularly in Mozambique and Kenya. Both countries have been found rich deposits
of titanium-containing sands in beach and inshore dunes. Mining of these sands pose
potential risks to coral reefs and other marine habitats, including surface mining of the sands
and associated oil spills during shipping and transport. Legally-required EIAs have been
conducted and approval for mining is now dependent on these EIAs and feasibility studies.
MARINE PROTECTED AREAS
All countries in East Africa now have effective Marine Protected Areas, including new initiatives to
establish more sites and improve existing networks of sites. National strategies and
implementation methods vary among countries, ranging from a centrally-planned model in Kenya
to the more diverse matrix of national and locally-implemented co-management models in
Tanzania. There are now increasing efforts to coordinate MPA strategies between adjacent sites
and across national boundaries, in light of shared MPA goals and oceanographic connections
from the East Africa Coastal Current. The dominant MPA management issues in Kenya and
Tanzania relate to control and access to resources by the local subsistence users. Historically, it
has been hard to demonstrate to local users that a MPA management action which restricts fishing
in some sites will be beneficial, or have ‘spill over’ to a larger scale or in the future because of the
typically 3-5 year time horizon such refugia require. Poor participation and empowerment of user
communities is the key limiting step in many existing protected areas in East Africa.
The widespread loss of reefs during the 1998 El Niño has established a sense of urgency to
both increase the number of MPAs and improve respective management of old and new
areas across East Africa. This urgency is now evident as more co-management initiatives
between government, communities and NGOs.
Kenya
The MPA system is centrally managed by an independent parastatal, the Kenya Wildlife
Service (KWS), as either parks (full protection) or reserves (traditional extraction allowed),
and covers over 5% of the coastline. The well-established marine parks and reserves in
Malindi/Watamu (park and reserve, established 1968), Mombasa (park and reserve,
established 1989) and Kisite/Mpunguti (park and reserve, established 1978) are primarily
oriented at conservation and tourism use, with significant monitoring and research in the
last 15 years. In the Kiunga Marine Reserve, active management only started in the early 90s,
and involves WWF as a primary partner in community participation and empowerment in
the reserve. The Diani Marine Reserve was gazetted in parliament in 1995, but
implementation was halted by local antagonism, predominantly from fishermen. This is
now the focus of an Integrated Coastal Area Management project involving IUCN and the
Coast Development Authority. IUCN is assisting KWS to develop models for stakeholder
participation in the management of the Kisite-Mpunguti MPA.
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
Tanzania
There is only one national MPA, Mafia Island Marine Park, which is managed through the
Tanzania Marine Parks and Reserves Board of Trustees, and has technical assistance from
WWF. There are a number of local government/community-based MPA cooperatives at
Tanga, Misali Island (Pemba), Maziwi Island and Menai Bay (Zanzibar). A new national MPA
is under development at Mnazi Bay with assistance from Frontier-Tanzania. One private
MPA exists, the Chumbe Island Coral Reef Park (Zanzibar), which is run by a local tourist
operation. The total coastline length under protection has not been estimated, but is
thought to be relatively low.
Mozambique
There are two MPAs: the Bazaruto National Park, under the Direcçao Nacional de Florestas e
Fauna Bravia (DNFFB) with assistance from WWF, and the Iñhaca and Portuguese Islands
Biological Reserve (Maputo), under the University of Edouardo Mondlane. The proportion
of coastline covered is under 1%, although proposals for a number of new conservation
areas exist, for example the Quirimbas Archipelago, Mozambique Island, Primeiros and
Segundas Islands, and Ponto de Ouro.
South Africa
South Africa has one centrally managed MPA, the St. Lucia and Maputaland Marine
Reserves, under the KwaZulu-Natal Conservation Service, and one user-management area,
Aliwal Shoal in which managed zones cover all of the coral reef area.
GOVERNMENT LAWS AND POLICIES FOR CORAL REEFS
East African countries have a history of sectoral policies and legislation that relates to
different ministries and government bodies (such as water resources, land, shipping,
fisheries, forestry, etc.), which collectively have direct and indirect impacts on coral reefs,
e.g. imprecise information and poor enforcement has generally resulted in reef degradation
from human activities. Recently, policy and legislation fostering environmental impact
assessments and integrated coastal zone management have attempted to bridge the gaps
among the sectoral groups with varying degrees of success. Highlights include the
establishment of the Ministry for the Coordination of Environmental Affairs (MICOA) in
Mozambique and the revamping of the National Environment Management Council (NEMC)
in Tanzania. Kenya passed an Environment Bill through Parliament in 2000 that should lead
to similar multi-sectoral approaches to coastal environment issues. MICOA has drafted a
National Coral Reef Management Plan for Mozambique.
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Status of Coral Reefs in East Africa
REGIONAL CORAL REEF PROGRAMMES IN EAST AFRICA
During the past 2-3 years, regional cooperation is being increasingly supported at the
strategic planning and institutional levels, especially with regard to areas of research,
management, training, planning and policy. Coral reef management has been at the
forefront of this trend and catalysed debates on marine and coastal issues, due to their
recognised socioeconomic and biological importance. Leading global institutions active in
the East Africa region are: UNEP-RCU, IOC/UNESCO, WWF, IUCN, with regional support from
Sweden, the USA and the World Bank. Regional institutions and projects that are new or
expanding significantly in the period 1998 to 2000 include:
• Western Indian Ocean Marine Science Association (WIOMSA): established in the last
decade through a series of regional conventions led by the Arusha Conference in
1993, and supported by the SIDA East Africa Regional Marine Programme of Sweden.
WIOMSA provides research grants for scientists in the region, supports scientific travel,
training, and coordinates conferences and workshops;
• Secretariat for East Africa Coastal Area Management (SEACAM): established
following a Ministerial Conference in the Seychelles in 1996 under the ‘Arusha
process’. SEACAM’s mandate is to support coastal management in eastern
Africa, through capacity building, coordinating seminars and workshops, training,
publication and policy advice;
• Coral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean (CORDIO): established in 1999
following the regional reef devastation caused by the 1998 El Niño, and is
involved with GCRMN in implementation of the East Africa node. CORDIO
supports national coral reef monitoring teams, primary research on biological
and socioeconomic aspects of reef impacts, reef rehabilitation trials, and
investigation of alternative livelihood options for resource users affected by reef
degradation; and
• WWF East African Marine Ecoregion: established in 1999 with reconnaissance
surveys of biological, socioeconomic and institutional status of marine ecosystems
in East Africa. The programme targets ecosystem and regional-level conservation
planning and implementation, involving WWF protected area projects, partner
organisations and policy-level interventions relevant to the regional scale.
• Coral Reef Conservation Project: established in 1987 conducts scientific studies
on: human impacts on coral reefs: reef restoration; long-term monitoring of
Kenyan reefs. It coordinates scientific studies on reefs, and trains of scientists in
coral reef techniques.
GAPS IN MONITORING AND MANAGEMENT CAPACITY
While management results and actions for coral reefs and resources in East Africa varies
greatly across countries in the region, there is however a vibrant and varied network of
institutions and groups active in both coral reef management and research. A principal gap
in reef health monitoring and management capacity, is the need for more effective
communication and cooperation among the various groups with regard to sharing and
collating information and experience. This is partially due to the small number of people
73
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
with adequate training in this complex area of coral reef and coastal management and
conservation. This capacity gap has been mentioned in all priority-setting workshops with
donors and implementing agencies. The quality of coral reef monitoring methods is
improving in all countries with increasing technical capability of staff, yet some monitoring
programmes continue using outdated methods that are derived more by institutional
history than data quality. Another recurring theme is the lack of connection between
science and management, both from the outputs offered by scientists, and the use of
scientific findings by managers. Greater involvement by managers and scientists together in
the formulation and reporting of research and monitoring programmes is necessary.
Another gap is in the integration of users and their knowledge base in management,
particularly where there is a lack of information and expertise within the management team.
Trans-boundary and cross-border issues in management of coral reefs are increasingly
becoming apparent though there is currently little integration across national borders. Many
of the threats are common to most countries, such as natural threats (El Niño) and artisanal
fishing, or there is a spill-over of threats from one country to the next e.g. destructive fishing
practises across the Tanzania-Kenya border and scuba diving tourism in South Africa
moving into southern Mozambique. The most significant cross-border differences are in
political and administrative areas, where technical resources, protected area and coastal
management policy and practice may be completely different or even at odds.
Improvements in these areas will require increased professionalism and commitment to
objectives within East African institutions, as well as more rationalised donor and outsideagency
support to coral reef and MPA initiatives in the region.
CORE CONCLUSIONS
• East African coral reefs have faced increasing threats throughout the last decades
of the 20 th century, culminating in the widespread devastation of approximately
30-50% of reefs during the 1998 El Niño.
• A large capacity of human resources and knowledge in research and
management exists in East Africa to study the effects of this devastation on reefs
and human populations dependent on them, and to formulate management
plans to deal with degradation issues.
• All East African countries are improving legislative frameworks for implementing
action. Nevertheless, more coordinated action is needed to better address the
increasing likelihood of future threats on the scale of the recent El Niño.
RECOMMENDATIONS TO IMPROVE CORAL REEF CONSERVATION
Three primary recommendations are highlighted in this review, arising primarily from the
massive impacts of the El Niño coral bleaching, and the regional scale of coral reef losses:
• National Monitoring Programmes: while there is improved capacity and rigour in
coral reef and resource monitoring, more rational management planning remains a
critical need. Increased standardisation of methods, data processing and archiving
are all needed across research groups and countries. Longer term commitment of
support, from local institutions to international donors, is needed to give the
74
Status of Coral Reefs in East Africa
necessary longevity to monitoring at national and regional levels. None of the
countries have a functioning centralised database of coral reef monitoring data,
though these nominally exist in some cases. Greater openness and collaboration
among relevant institutions within countries (local, national and international), and
financial support for appropriate staff to manage a national database are needed.
• Management Issues: An increased use of scientific information and monitoring
resulting in management decision making is necessary to respond to dramatic
changes in reef status in a timely manner. The establishment and support of forums
to coordinate science-management integration at the scale of relevant issues
would help break down these barriers. Co-management and empowerment of
users and local populations is critical in instances where subsistence economies
are reliant on reef resources, and where there is insufficient ‘modern’ information
from science and management on critical issues.
• An improved framework for support of coral reef conservation is needed at
national and regional levels, requiring rationalisation among sectoral interests
within countries, political support and cooperation at the regional level, and
donor commitment for regionally coordinated efforts. Support for region-wide
initiatives, as well as localised cross-border issues, is needed.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND SUPPORTING DOCUMENTATION
David Obura ([email protected]) is the coordinator for CORDIO for Eastern Africa
and works out of Mombasa, Kenya. Mohammed Suleiman ([email protected])
works for the Institute of Marine Science (IMS) in Zanziba. Helena Motta
([email protected]) works for the Ministry for the Coordination of Environmental
Affairs (MICOA) in Mozambique. Michael Schleyer ([email protected]) works at the
Oceanographic Research Institute in South Africa.
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
NATIONAL AND OTHER REGIONAL REPORTS
Kemp, J. Hatton, J.C. and Sosovele, H. 2000. East African Marine Ecoregion Reconnaissance
Reports, Vols 1-4. World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
Motta, H., Rodrigues, M-J. and Schleyer, M. 2000. Coral Reef Monitoring and Management In
Mozambique. Ministry for the Co-ordination of Environmental Affairs (MICOA),
Maputo, Mozambique.
Muhando, C.A. and Mohammed, M.S. 2000. Status Of Coral Reefs Of Tanzania. Institute of
Marine Sciences, P.O. Box 668 Zanzibar, Tanzania.
Obura, D., Uku, J.N., Wawiya, O.P., Mwachireya, S., Mdodo, R. 2000. Kenya, reef status and
ecology. CORDIO-East Africa, P.O.BOX 10135, Mombasa, Kenya.
Schleyer, M.H. and Celliers, L. 2000. Status Report On South African Coral Reefs.
Oceanographic Research Institute, P.O. Box 10712, Marine Parade 4056, Durban.
McClanahan, T. R., Sheppard, C.R., Obura, D.O. (eds) 2000. Coral reefs of the Indian Ocean:
Their ecology and conservation. Oxford University Press, N.Y.
McClanahan, T. R., Muthiga, N.A., Mangi, S. 1999. The status of the coral reefs of Kenya's
MPAs: 1987 to 1999. Coral Reef Conservation Project and Kenya Wildlife Service. P.
O. Box 82144 Kenya.
ADDITIONAL NATIONAL INSTITUTIONS NOT MENTIONED IN THE TEXT FROM WHICH
FURTHER SOURCE MATERIAL CAN BE OBTAINED
• Coast Environment Research Station (Moi University, Kenya)
• Coral Reef Conservation Project (Kenya)
• University of Edouardo Mondlane (Mozambique), Fisheries Research Institute
(Mozambique),
• Frontier-Tanzania (Tanzania)
76
5. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF THE SOUTHERN
INDIAN OCEAN: THE INDIAN OCEAN COMMISSION
NODE FOR COMOROS, MADAGASCAR, MAURITIUS,
REUNION AND SEYCHELLES
Lionel Bigot, Loic Charpy, Jean Maharavo, Fouad Abdou Rabi,
Naidoo Paupiah, Riaz Aumeeruddy, Christian Villedieu and
Anne Lieutaud
ABSTRACT
There were few baseline data on coral reef status across the 5 Indian Island nations of
Comoros, Madagascar, Mauritius, Seychelles and France/La Reunion when the catastrophic
1998 El Niño associated coral bleaching and mortality hit. Just as the bleaching impacts
were varied across this region, so are the condition of the reefs and how they are impacted
by human activities. Reefs off the large island of Madagascar show distinct signs of human
damage, with few reefs in good condition and even fewer protected. Likewise there is
evidence of damage from the land to reefs on Mauritius and Reunion, but there are more
efforts to conserve the reefs in protected areas; bleaching on these three countries was
relatively minor. Prior to the 1998 bleaching, the reefs of Comoros and the Seychelles were
in good to excellent condition except for some damage near centres of population and
some over-fishing. But bleaching devastated these reefs with large scale mortalities leaving
many reefs with less than 5% coral cover (down from levels over 50%). The 1998
bleaching event occurred just when the Regional Environmental Programme of the Indian
Ocean Commission (REP-IOC) was establishing a coral reef monitoring programme in the
Comoros, Madagascar, Mauritius, La Reunion and Seychelles, building on mandates already
established by the IOC since its inception in 1982 for regional cooperation in economic,
social and cultural fields. The REP-IOC programme aims to support national policies on
Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) for long-term sustainable development of the
region’s coral reefs for future generations, including the establishment of permanent
monitoring stations (of which there are now 44) in the 5 countries.
INTRODUCTION
The 5 IOC member states have large areas of coral reefs, therefore a unifying theme was the
need to develop ‘reef status monitoring’ within a regional network. All countries are
experiencing extremely strong human growth pressures that are resulting in reef
deterioration and losses in reef resources that will have severe economic losses in fisheries,
tourism, and shoreline protection, as well as losses in biodiversity heritage. Through REP-
IOC, a regional reef network was fully endorsed by April 1998 to assist local, national or
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
regional level decision-makers. This regional monitoring programme is now able to alert reef
managers in the event of problems, and is an integral tool for integrated coastal planning.
Since then national networks have evolved, each with a National Focal Point, a National
Committee and a Supervisory Body, all coordinated by a Regional Organizer. This network
constitutes the regional Node for the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) for
the ‘South-west Indian Ocean Island States’. There are plans to establish more monitoring
stations to increase the relevance of the results both in the region and within the
international networks e.g. GCRMN, ICRI, GOOS etc.
STATUS OF CORAL REEFS
The following is a synopsis of the monitoring sites established, surveys conducted and
findings for each country through the REP-IOC Programme:
Comoros
Two sectors in Grand Comore were monitored in 1998 and 1999: Mitsamiouli and Moroni
(Comotel). After the installation of the ‘Parc Marin de Moheli’, a comprehensive assessment
of reef status was required and 2 study sectors were selected: Itsamias in the Marine Park,
which is a major marine turtle (Chelonia mydas and Eretmochelys imbricata) nesting site;
and the small islands of Nioumachouoi with one transect site on the small island of
Ouenefou, and another on Candzoni island, with reef flat and outer slope transects.
Mitsamiouli Site: This is on the north-west of Grande Comores, 42km from Moroni on 4km of
coastline with rocky cliffs interspersed with white sand beaches where the major tourist
sites are located (11 o 25’ S; 43 o 18’ E). The Mitsamiouli population of 4,500 has 3 extremely
active associations for environmental protection, which have prohibited sand and coral
mining, and fishing is a key economic activity. Permanent transects on the reef flat (8m
depth) showed 46.9% live coral cover in 1998, and 44.0% in 1999, however, there was
approximately 15% bleached and dead coral cover in 1999 that were covered with algae.
Transects on the outer slope (19m depth) showed strongly degraded corals with cover of
only 25% in 1999, whereas it had been 54% in 1998. This area was probably impacted by
the EAL airline crash, leading to much coral death.
Itsamia Site: Here there are 376 people in over 80 families, including 39 fishing families, with
agriculture as the main economic activity, and fishing is not well developed, although many
people fish and glean reefs at low tides. There is an ecotourism resort as part of the Moheli Marine
Park, with nesting turtles and seabirds, and an excellent coral reef (12 o 21’S; 43 o 52’E). The
discontinuous reef at Itsamia has suffered huge anthropogenic damage, with the dominant
branching and tabulate Acropora corals either broken or bleached, however, other hard corals
(Platygyra, Diploria, Favia and Porites) are abundant. Estimated living coral cover is 40%, with 45%
dead coral, and 10% algae. Most of the dead corals had been bleached and were covered with
algae. Among the living corals, there was 50% Porites, 20% Diploria; 5% Pavona, 2% Favites and
19% of 4 Acropora species. At 10m depth below most human impacts, there was about 70%
live coral cover mainly Porites (32.6%) and Favites (16.5%); dead coral covered 15%, algae 18.4%
and rock 13%. Fish populations were fairly good, including parrotfish, grouper, butterflyfish,
angelfish and damselfish, but most fish were small, indicating intensive fishing pressure.
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Status of Coral Reefs of the Southern Indian Ocean
Nioumachouoi Site: The 5 small islands (Mea, Ouenefou, M’bouzi, Chandzi and Canzoni)
and 3 large rocks (M’foro, M’bougo and Magnougni) were examined during exploratory
snorkelling. Canzoni is remote and has been severely damaged by blast fishing and
trampling by fishermen over the reef flat, and turtles have been poached. The outer slope
of Candzoni is more protected, but there are still signs of dynamite use. Coral diversity is
high with abundant Acropora and Porites, plus Favites and Favia. Living coral cover
averaged 50% over large areas, with many giant clams (Tridacna) and other molluscs, and
diverse fish populations. The reef flat transect at 5m depth over a well-preserved site had
55% live coral cover, mainly Porites, Montipora and Pocillopora, and 39% dead coral cover
which was mostly acroporids that had died during the 1998 bleaching. The outer slope
had 67% dead coral cover, mostly Acroporidae, which had been bleached. Live coral
cover was no more than 10%, mainly Porites, Fungia and Pocilopora, and 11% algal cover.
Evidence of high anthropogenic pressure was clear on this site (blast fishing, boat
anchoring), explaining its poor condition.
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
The coral reef of Ouenefou is highly degraded and coral communities on the northern
slope once started near the beaches and descended gently to the outer slope. Acropora
corals have been completely destroyed and loose rubble covers the whole surface.
Exploratory dives showed 25% living coral cover of Favia, Favites, plus Pocillopora and
Seriatopora, with approximately 70% dead coral. The destruction was extensive and
caused by dynamite smashing of the branching corals, but leaving some large soft corals,
Fungia corals and giant clams. At another site on the outer slope, living coral cover was
around 30%, with 25% algae and 60% dead coral. Fish diversity was low and all were very
small, although there were many butterflyfishes. A permanent transect was established at
12m depth where there was 80% dead coral and rubble, with a few living Porites,
Pocillopora and Fungia.
Madagascar
Reefs stretch over more than 1000km of the west coast from Toliara (Tulear) in the South to
Antsiranana in the North with some breaks near Mahajanga. Reefs are only present between
Antalaha and Toamasina on the east coast. Ten stations in 5 sites were established in the
north: Tanikely and Dzamandjar in the northwest (Nosy-Be region); and Fouplointe, Nosy-
Antafana and Antanambe on the east coast. Coral cover on the outer slopes was high:
50.9% at Dzamandjar; 68.3% at Tanikely; 85.7% at Nosy-Antafana; 83% at Antanambe; and
lower at Foulpointe, 35%. There was evidence of deterioration on the reef flats with lower
coral cover: 27% at Nosy-Antafana; 28.7% at Antanambe; 47% at Foulpointe; but higher on
Nosy-Tanikely with 65.7%. The reef at Dzamandjar experiences higher anthropogenic
pressures from industrial pollution (sugar refinery), intensive coral mining, domestic
pollution from many hotels, no sewage treatment for the town of Dzamandjar, and overfishing.
There was, however, relatively high coral cover of 42% in 1998 with many soft
corals. Foulpointe reef is highly degraded, with large-scale collection of corals for sale to
tourists and as building material. The reef flat is heavily sedimented with the remaining
corals buried in sand, because the southern pass has been blocked and sediment build up
has reduced the depth of the lagoon to 2m. Nosy-Antafana is in the Mananara-North
Biosphere Reserve with water sports (spearfishing, diving, etc.) banned on the outer slope.
Fishing for invertebrates, net and hook and line fishing appear to have few impacts on the
outer slope with high coral cover. In 1998, cover was 46% on the reef flat, but it was lower
(27%) in 1999, with coral regeneration evident around many dead coral colonies which had
mostly died and were covered with algae lawns, although they remained fixed in place.
On the reef flat of Ifaty (South Toliara) in 1999, there was 25.3% coral cover (13.5%
Acropora and 11.8% non-Acropora), and high cover of abiotic (sand, mud, rock) forms,
(69.6%) mainly dead corals and rubble, and 4.7% algae. Monitoring in February 2000
showed an increase in algae cover (26.6%) due to the proliferation of macro-algae (14.8%),
mainly standing algae such as Turbinaria, Sargassum and Halimeda. Also there was a small
increase in live coral cover (28.8%). On the Ifaty outer slope, there were almost equal
amounts of Acropora (20.1%) and non-Acropora (20.6%) in the 40.7% cover, and nonliving
cover of 52.5% in 1999. In 2000, there was a small increase in live coral (41.9%) with
the appearance of many scattered juvenile colonies.
On the Great Barrier Reef of Toliara, exploratory snorkelling showed a relatively high living
coral to dead coral ratio, and often 10% soft coral cover. Transect data showed the
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Status of Coral Reefs of the Southern Indian Ocean
importance of abiotic forms (57.4%) compared with living corals (28.5%), which were
mostly branching and digitate Acropora (22.3%).
Comparison of 1998 and 1999 monitoring data:
• Nosy Tanikely - coral cover increased on the reef flat from 46.9% in 1998 to
65.8% in 1999; and 56% to 68% on the outer slope. The increase is attributed to
the increased level of protection initiated by tourist organisations;
• Dzamandjar - there was an increase of 5% in coral cover on the outer slope in 1999;
• Foulpointe - similar coral cover between the two years - 33.3% in 1998 and
35.0% in 1999, but an increase in rock and sand from 43.3% in 1998 to 54.3%, in
1999, reflects the increased sedimentation;
• Ifaty – on the reef flat, coral cover was 29% in 1998 and 25.3% in 1999, and rock
and sand covered 63% against 69.6%. The reduction in cover reflects the
continuing deterioration of the reef.
Mauritius
Two permanent monitoring sites were established in 1998: Trou Aux Biches (sheltered
coast) near the major tourism developments and including a public beach; and Bambous
Virieux (exposed coast). The reef flat at Trou Aux Biches is partially degraded by
recreational activities, with coral cover at 2m depth being predominantly branching
Acropora, showed little variation (45% in 1998, 41% in February 1999, 45% in July 1999).
Algal coverage decreased to 10% and 5%, and dead coral cover rose from 15% to 29%.
Fish populations were diverse with 6 major families. On the outer slope at 7-9m depth,
coral cover (Porites dominating) was unchanged at 43% and 42% in February and July 1999
respectively, however, algal cover decreased considerably from 17% to 8% in February
1999, but increased to 10% in July 1999, which are seasonal changes.
The lagoon at Bambous Virieux is 5km wide, with an average depth of 2-3m. There is coral
and sand mining and it is adjacent to an estuary draining a major agricultural area. Coral
cover, predominantly Pavona and Porites, on the reef flat decreased from 56% in 1998 to
54% in March, 1999, and further to 30% in August 1999. Algae cover went from 32% in
1998 to 30% in March 1999, and 56% in August 1999, while dead coral increased from
15% to 29%. The second reef flat site also showed coral cover variations from 54% in 1998
to 48% in March 1999 and to 55% in August 1999, but algal cover showed a consistent
decrease; 24% in 1998, to 17% in March 1999 and 11% in August 1999.
Comparison of 1998 and 1999 monitoring data:
• Trou aux Biches – there was no significant change in living coral cover between
1998 and 1999, however, algal cover was significantly reduced;
• Bambous Virieux - coral cover between July 1998 and July 1999 remained the
same. However, a reduction was observed in March 1999. Algal cover rose in
summer, but dropped back to the 1998 level in winter, indicating seasonal
variations and the impacts of agricultural waste discharges.
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
La Reunion Island
Two different locations were chosen, each with 2 monitoring sites: St Gilles - La Saline with
Toboggan, a healthy site, and Planch’Alizes, a disturbed site; and St Leu – Varangue a
reference site, and Corne Nord, near the canal exit. Toboggan has thriving coral
communities with healthy levels of new coral recruitment and a low level of disturbance.
The outer reef-flat is characterised by alternating spurs and grooves towards the seaward
edge. The reef-flat had living coral cover of 31% in 1998, including 22% branching
(Acropora formosa) and digitate (A. humilis) and 9% other coral forms (foliose, encrusting).
Algae cover (8%) was mainly turf algae in damselfish territories (Stegastes nigricans), and
abiotic cover was 62%, mostly fine and coarse sediments. This apparently low level of
living coral is normal for internal reef flats with many broad channels draining the reef flats.
Live coral cover dropped to 22% in 1999, including 20% A. formosa and A. humilis and
2% other foliose and encrusting corals. Algae cover increased from 8% to 11% and abiotic
cover was unchanged on 65%. The drop in coral cover in 1999 was attributed to extreme
low tides that killed the tops of many colonies, which were then invaded by turf algae.
On the outer slope of Toboggan, living coral cover was 57% in 1998, including 26% digitate
(Acropora humilis, A. digitifera) and submassive (A. danae, A. robusta) and 32% other coral
forms, in particular encrusting corals. Algal coverage was 35%, including 31% calcareous algae,
which are typical of wave impacted sites. The area had high coral species diversity like other
turbulent outer slopes. In 1999, living coral cover was 38%, including 23% digitate and
submassive Acropora and 15% other coral forms. Algae cover was 51%, including 39%
calcareous algae. The drop from 57% to 38% was due to coral bleaching, particularly of
Pocillopora, which started in April 98, but was much less than in other Indian Ocean countries.
The Planch’Alizes site is affected markedly by anthropogenic disturbances (coastal waste
discharges, physical destruction, nutrient rich underground water discharges). Coral cover
on the reef flat in 1998 was 18%, including 17% massive, submassive and foliose colonies.
Algal cover was high (37%), mainly turf algae, soft macroalgae and calcareous algae on
dead coral. Abiotic cover of 41% was mostly coarse sediment. Coral cover rose to 48% in
1999, nearly all massive, submassive and foliose forms. Algae coverage dropped to just
13% and abiotic cover was 32% of the total. The major changes are both seasonal and due
to better protection because the area is now clearly marked. The outer slope at 12–13m depth
amongst distinct spur and groove formations had living coral cover around 50%, with 20%
algal cover in 1991, and in 1998, coral cover was 38%, including 24% digitate and submassive
Acropora, 13% others, mainly encrusting forms, 7% soft corals, and 37% algae. In 1999, living
coral cover was 42%, including 27% digitate and submassive Acropora and 15% other coral
forms, in particular encrusting forms. Algae coverage was 39%, including 23% soft macroalgae
and 16% calcareous algae. The variation between the 2 years reflects minor variations in
communities and variations from sampling; the reef showed no real changes over this time.
The Varangue reference site is in the middle of St Leu Ville reef and has been a scientific
study area for several years. Live coral cover on the reef flat was 51%, including 44%
Acropora and 7.4% other foliose, massive and submassive corals in 1999. Algal cover was
18% mostly turf algae, and 31% abiotic cover. This relatively high cover indicates that this
flat is free of excessive sediments and is well irrigated. On the outer slope, living coral
cover was fairly high (53%) and included 23% Acropora and 30% other coral forms (mostly
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Status of Coral Reefs of the Southern Indian Ocean
massive). The 35% algal coverage was mainly calcareous algae, indicating high construction
capacity, and abiotic cover was very low (8%). This is a relatively healthy area with high
cover of accreting corals and algae (88% accreting cover).
The Corne Nord site is an unusual zone on St Leu Ville reef as it is immediately adjacent to a
reef pass, where much lagoon water drains out. The outer slope station has thriving corals,
and is relatively remote from coastal disturbances. The reef flat site is close to the coast
with dispersed coral patches, mostly Porites. Living coral cover in 1999 was 58%, including
54% Acropora and 4% other foliose and encrusting corals, 18% algae, 18% coverage of
abiotic components, mostly coarse sediments. This area has the highest coral cover of all La
Reunion reef flat sites. The outer slope had even higher coral cover (63%), with 54%
Acropora. Both the reef flat and the outer slope have exceptionally diverse coral structures
with abundant branching and massive Acropora communities. Algal cover was moderate
(18%), and there was a low percentage of dead algal-covered corals (3.6%) which were a
result of the quite minor 1998 coral bleaching.
Fish abundance on the reef flats was higher at Toboggan (246 fish 100m -2 ), then La Varangue
(189 fish 100m -2 ), Planch’Alizes (117 fish 100m -2 ), finally Corne Nord Horn section of St-Leu reef
(71 fish 100m -2 - due to intensive fishing). A large proportion of these were omnivores
(maximum 52% at Corne Nord and minimum of 31% at Planch’ Alizes), then next were
herbivores (max. 22.5% at Planch’ Alizes; min. 17% at La Varangue, with the exception of the
Toboggan reef flat where just 4% of herbivores were observed), then benthic invertebrate
grazers (max. 7% at Planch’ Alizes; min. 3% at La Varangue). A key difference was in the
population of planktivores, which were very abundant in Toboggan (46%) and absent at La
Corne Nord, and between 18.5% and 23.5% at La Varangue and Planch’ Alizes. A characteristic
feature is the very low densities of top predators, which usually indicates line and spearfishing.
Relatively high densities of fish occur on the outer slopes of Corne Nord-St-Leu (189 fish
100m -2 ), and Planch’ Alizes- La Saline (144 fish 100m -2 ). Lower abundances were observed
at Trois-Chameaux-St-Gilles and in particular at La Varangue (51 fish 100m -2 ). Again,
omnivores were prominent (between 12 and 22%), likewise the herbivores (between 12 and
22%) at Toboggan, Planch’ Alizes‚ and La Varangue. At these 3 stations, planktivores varied
from 30.5% (La Varangue) to 54% (Planch’ Alizes). There was a high proportion of herbivores
(59%) at the Corne Nord - St-Leu site near the pass. This indicates an imbalance in the fish
populations because of the high concentration of spearfishers. Diurnal and nocturnal
carnivores were relatively high (from 20% at La Varangue to 31.5% at Trois-Chameaux).
Seychelles
Three permanent monitoring sites were established: Trig Point in the Ste Anne Marine Park,
East coast of Mah; Ternay Bay, West coast of Mahe, also in the marine park; and the
Silhouette granite island 20 nautical miles north-west of Mahe. Trig Point is subjected to
high sedimentation from the capital Victoria and nearby catchment areas. Furthermore, the
area was dredged to build embankments on East Mahe between 1985 and 1992, but
monitoring data are not available.
Ternay Bay is a more protected bay in the marine park, with reduced human impacts. Reef
flat cover in 1999 was mainly abiotic forms e.g. dead coral, with no living coral on the
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
transect. Turf algae (2.8%) were the only living material. This shallow zone (1m low tide)
was severely impacted during the 1998 El Niño with around 95% coral mortality. In 2000,
some living corals appeared (0.9%), along with zoanthids (Palythoa - 10%) and algae
(12.3% - calcareous and macroalgae -Turbinaria). There were no new Acropora recruits,
but the calcareous algae will constitute a good substrate for new coral settlement. On the
outer slope, there was a low cover of living corals (2.1%), mostly massive forms and some
soft corals. All the branching Acropora disappeared during the 1998 bleaching event.
Some coral recovery was observed in 2000 with 0.5% branching Acropora, and a definite
increase, although not quantified, of non-Acropora forms, mostly massive and soft corals.
Algae were just 6.2% of cover, mostly calcareous algae (2.3%) and a few Turbinaria sp.
The Silhouette site was added in 2000. The reef flat is heavily impacted by the south-east
monsoons and has always had low coral cover. The site at 2m depth has no Acropora, a 9%
cover of non-Acropora (encrusting and massive corals), and some soft zoanthids (Palythoa).
Most of the cover (over 50%) was dead coral rubble and sand. The outer slope (5-6m
depth) had alive and dead massive corals (>15%) scattered over a sandy zone, with
submassive corals (>15%), some encrusting corals, and 0.7% branching, very young
Acropora which showed signs of fish grazing. This site appeared to escape most of the 1998
El Niño bleaching, possibly due to better water exchange with the cooler deeper waters.
COMPARISON OF 1997 – 2000 DATA
Coral cover on the Ternay Bay outer slope dropped from 54.6% in November 1997 to 3.5%
in June 1998, 2.1% in January 1999 and 5.1% in March 2000. Acropora was more affected
(29.1% in 1997, 0% in 1998 and 1999, and 0.5% in 2000) than non-Acropora massive
corals (25.5% in 1997, 3.5% in 1998, 2.1% in 1999 and 4.6% in 2000). Soft corals appear to
be fast growing, opportunistic species. As a reflection of these changes, abiotic forms
went from 37% in 1997 to 92.3% in 1998, 92.8% in 1998 and 86.8% in 2000. These losses
can be attributed to the 1998 bleaching phenomenon, as human activities are limited, and
recovery is predicted for good coral cover, provided bleaching does not happen again
within the next few years. A similar pattern was evident on the reef flat with a total loss of
coral after the 1998 bleaching event; here recovery is predicted to be very slow.
MAIN PROBLEMS AFFECTING THE COASTAL ENVIRONMENT
Comoros
These islands experience both natural and anthropogenic disturbances, with the major
impact being the global warming in 1997-98 which caused extensive coral bleaching and
mortality in large areas, particularly to species of Acropora. The majority of reefs e.g. the
small islands of Nioumachouioi, are subjected to strong swells from Monsoons and
particularly from cyclones which destruct the more fragile corals, especially acroporids.
However, this damage was always within natural recovery capacity and is now insignificant
compared with anthropogenic degradations.
Blast or dynamite fishing is one of the major damaging factors, and is currently practised in
Moheli, where the entire reef flat bordering these small islands is covered with newly-broken
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Status of Coral Reefs of the Southern Indian Ocean
coral rubble. Reef walking by fishermen at low tide causes extensive damage to reef flat corals
as they hunt for octopus and trap small fish. Intense over-fishing by over 4,500 fishermen (80%
of the total) using traditional boats to fish in nearshore waters has been a continuing but growing
problem for many years, and has caused major reef destruction. As in many countries, domestic
wastes are discharged directly into the sea and result in the massive proliferation of algae
(eutrophication) adjacent to the discharges. In addition, household refuse is dumped directly
into the sea in the Comoros. The extraction of sand from beaches for building has caused
coastal erosion and lead to imbalances in the ecosystems. Moreover, upstream deforestation
and poor agricultural practices result in soil erosion and downstream smothering of corals.
Madagascar
The extraction of coral for building is a major problem in Madagascar, for example in the
vicinity of Toliara continued, extensive removal of corals will result in large areas of the reef
be totally destroyed within 2 years. There is an urgent need for legislation to limit or
prohibit coral extraction. Although there are no data on subsistence fishing, recent studies
in Toliara (a town with 140,000 inhabitants and high unemployment) show that family
fishing from the shore, and gleaning on the reef flat is a common occupation, and
sometimes provides a full-time livelihood. This type of fishing removes an estimated at 18mt km 2 yr -1 ,
higher than for dugout fishing (12mt km 2 yr -1 ), and exceeds the regeneration capacity of the
reef. Fish and octopus are over-exploited, and this has resulted in a shift towards less
favoured species such as sea urchins. In order to reduce these fishing pressures on the reef
flat, several Fish Aggregating Devices (FADs) have been anchored out at sea to permit
catches of pelagic species. This is not an option for most areas of Madagascar, because
deep waters are very close to the coast. There is an urgent need to decrease fishing
pressures on reef resources and install more FADs for fishermen with dugouts and provide
gill nets for selected fishermen.
Madagascar continues to be a minor tourist destination in the region, despite having
exceptional potential with coral reefs and a beautiful coastline. Of the 3,040 hotel rooms
available in 1995, only one third were on the coast and Nosy-Be, with approximately 200
rooms, is Madagascar’s main coastal resort. The Government intends to make coastal
tourism a key sector in future economic activity suggesting that visitor numbers of 75,000 in
1995, could triple in the next 5 years. This is however, a long way from the ecotourism
policy encouraged by the ANGAP (National Agency for the Management of Protected
Areas) in the adjacent Parks. It is highly likely that ecotourism will be limited to the vicinity
of protected areas, while major hotel complexes built with international finance will be
built along the rest of the coast. Tourism can therefore act as a catalyst for reef protection,
as illustrated by a hotel manager near Toliara who asked local fishermen to decrease fishing
on neighbouring tourist reefs, in exchange for the purchase of most of their production.
Mauritius
A million tons of coral sand are extracted annually from the lagoon to fill the high demand
created by rapid economic growth. The value of this mining is about US$10 million and
involves employment for 1,100 people, grouped in co-operatives. Sand is extracted from
the shallows by hand and transported in dugout canoes. Mining is conducted in 4 zones:
Mahebourg, Grande Riviere Sud-Est and Roches Noires/Poudre d’Or lagoons on Mauritius;
and Rodrigues island. Although there is no legislation prohibiting the mining, the extractors
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
must form co-operatives and are limited to 10 tons per day per license. New legislation will
restrict extraction to fewer sites, with definitive cessation in 2001. About 2,700 jobs are
generated by fishing activities on Mauritius and Rodrigues for a total catch of 6,800 tons per
year. Amongst these fishermen, 786 have licenses and there are an indeterminate number of
tuna fishermen and sport fishers. The main methods used are drag nets which are
particularly destructive, but the practice has continued for over 30 years through licenses to
fishing co-operatives. Legislation now limits the number of nets, their length and size and
the Fishing Ministry has decided to ban these nets, which are not considered to be
sufficiently selective. The incentives proposed are to provide each captain with 75,000
rupees (US$3,000) and 25,000 rupees (1,000) per sailor to turn in the licence and receive
retraining, with the target of phasing out this fishing in 2007.
The use of toxic plant extracts and dynamite for fishing is prohibited and rare, and
spearguns are banned due to frequent fish trap raiding by divers. No fish species are
threatened but environmental pressures are very high due to fishing. Although there is no
legal limit to the number of fishermen, numbers have remained rather stable in the last 10
years while the total population on both islands has risen. Chemical and bacterial pollution
from industrial or domestic sources constitutes a serious public health problem and also
damages the reefs. Residential and tourist developments are concentrated but lack
adequate sewage treatment systems, therefore there is chronic water pollution around
urban and tourist areas. Only the 3 main towns are connected to sewerage systems, which
discharge into the sea near currents that carry the wastes offshore. A project at Montagne
Jacquot is building a waste treatment plant capable of complete treatment.
Sugar cane farming is the main cause of agricultural pollution with cane farms occupying
88.5% of the 80,000 hectares of cultivated land with 17 sugar mills, which either discharge
directly into the sea or into rivers. Rainwater runoff carries fertilisers, pesticides and large
amounts of sediment into the lagoon, resulting in localised eutrophication and sediment
damage to the corals. Laws from 1991 and 1993 require Environmental Impact Assessments
(EIA) prior to all coastal installations, and these are carried out by private, national or
international consultants for the Department of Marine Ecology at the Albion Fisheries
Research Centre which checks them prior to the final decisions being made by the
Department of the Environment. While EIA is effectively used as a management tool, its
efficiency in the management of coastal zone activities can still be improved.
Tourism contributes 4% of GNP being the third largest sector in the economy and providing
10% of total employment (in 1995 there were 6,000 rooms and 51,300 jobs). Tourist arrivals
increased by 31% in 2 years to 555,000 in 1997, and projected numbers are for 750,000
tourists in 2000. Most hotels are concentrated in a few areas, which results in serious
sanitation problems. The 1991 ‘Environment Protection Act’ requires all hotels over 75
rooms to be linked to sewage treatment, and be preceded by an EIA, however, many
hotels were built prior to this and now do not comply with these standards. Hotel
operators deal only with visual aspects (cleaning the adjacent beach and lagoon, and
revegetation) and leave the State to deal with wastewater treatment. This is now an urgent
issue to resolve before adverse publicity ruins tourist and public confidence in the clean
image promoted by Mauritius. Currently there is a 30% tourist return rate, which is
exceptional. Actions to improve the environmental quality of the reefs and lagoons will
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Status of Coral Reefs of the Southern Indian Ocean
only occur if tourist operators are convinced that this is in their direct interest, and they
should carefully consider tourist attitudes which are strongly towards environmental quality.
La Reunion Island
Pollution into the island lagoons is increasing in line with population growth, increased
water consumption, and the proliferation of wastewater discharges. Urban developments
on the coast, the sealing of lands for roads and other uses, and flood mitigation have lead
to an increase in water runoff. Considerable efforts have been made since 1985 to improve
urban sewage treatment, but problems still arise, including overflows from treatment works
during peak tourist periods and heavy rains. This has resulted in bacterial pollution in the
lagoons. Industrial wastes are generally discharged without treatment and are carried onto
the reefs by ambient currents. Rainwater runoff carries fertilisers, heavy metals,
hydrocarbons and sediments, particularly during cyclones, causing pollution to reef waters,
particularly during the first rains of the rainy season. Eutrophication and adverse changes to
coral communities have increased with increases in irrigation and the use of fertilisers and
pesticides. La Reunion is a recent volcanic island and the reefs grow close to the shore,
therefore, there is significant natural erosion of the land and coastline due to cyclones. This
is now exacerbated by the high rate of development. Tourism is the major industry with
over 300,000 visitors in 1995, and a target of 500,000 in the next few years, which makes La
Reunion the second tourist destination, behind Mauritius. This concentration of tourists
around limited reef resources is resulting in environmental damage, particularly through
coral trampling and recreational fishing.
Fishing on the reefs was originally practised by a few professional fishing families, but it has
increased greatly. Intensive fishing pressure on offshore stocks in the 1980s has undermined
this economic activity, which was considered marginal despite having 1,600 to 3,200
fishermen, including 800 registered boats. In order to reduce pressures on reef fish stocks,
FADs have been installed successfully and fishers encouraged to target deep sea pelagic
stocks, and seek employment with the longline fishing fleet. Parallel to this shift in
professional fishing towards pelagic stocks, there has been an increase in subsistence level
fishing associated with a 40% rate of unemployment. These fishers are targeting shore and
reef fish using low cost hook and line and net fishing. Regulations have been introduced,
but poaching is prevalent and decreases in reef fish stocks are clearly apparent.
Seychelles
Intensive exploitation of reef resources is not a major problem in the Seychelles, because of
the large areas of reef and oceanic waters for a relatively small population that favours pelagic
fish over reef species. A reduction in biodiversity in the Saint Anne Marine Park, which is only
a few kilometres off major industrial and domestic pollution sources from the capital, Victoria
indicates that coastal pollution may be damaging the reefs. These are also impacted by
increased sediment runoff from development in the adjacent catchment area. Relatively high
concentrations of tourists in the bays of the main island result in acute pollution problems
with some localised damage to nearshore reefs. Tourism, however, is the largest economic
sector in the Seychelles, with 120,700 tourists in 1995 generating 70% of the foreign revenue.
There are 4,430 rooms in 122 coastal resorts, including 19 large complexes.
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CORAL BLEACHING AND MORTALITY OF 1998
Comoros
The coral reefs experienced extremely widespread coral bleaching in 1998. Approximately
50% of the corals were bleached at Moheli, which had been renowned for its pristine
reefs. There was 40 to 50% coral bleaching at the Mitsamiouli monitoring site, with
Acropora species being the worst affected. Socioeconomic impact assessments are being
conducted under the CORDIO project, but already professional fishing has been severely
hit, with reductions in benthic fish catches. There are no reliable data on the correlation
between corals observed bleached and subsequent mortality, and many corals were
partially bleached and recovered.
Madagascar
Coral bleaching affected many coral sites in Madagascar, few data were available at the
time of this report, moreover the database software and the corresponding data were not
functional in Madagascar. However, brief reports from the 1999 monitoring surveys indicate
that the Nosy-Antafana Marine Park was affected directly, with a reduction in reef flat coral
cover and increases in the cover of algae.
BLEACHING IN THE SEYCHELLES
The shallow coral reefs of the Seychelles granite islands suffered severe damage
following the 1997/1998 mass coral bleaching event, and signs of recovery are slight.
Live coral cover was reduced to less than 10% on most reefs around the inner islands,
with high partial mortality of colonies. Dead standing coral is present on sheltered
reefs, while exposed reefs have already been reduced to rubble. Zoanthids,
anemones, and encrusting red and green calcareous algae have colonised shallow reef
slopes and lagoons, and soft corals are growing on deeper reef slopes. Branching and
tabular Acropora species and branching Pocillopora species have died on all reefs,
with the only live corals left being massive species, (Porites, Goniopora, Acanthastrea
and Diploastrea). The only areas with some coral cover either had low coral diversity or
in shallow stressed environments such as the high turbidity Beau Vallon Bay and near
the harbour on Mahe. Therefore most coral species have survived somewhere in the
islands, but diversity on an individual reef has been severely reduced down to about
10 species. Recruitment of branching Acropora and Pocillopora corals is low, with
35% of sites showing no recruitment, and elsewhere some recruits (1-10cm diameter)
were observed on limestone pavement, dead standing coral and rubble. These small
colonies will be very vulnerable to predation from fish and urchins, and abrasion from
mobile unconsolidated substrates during storms. Death and erosion of the reef edge
has exposed many lagoons and shores to wave action, and there are signs of beach
erosion on some islands such as La Digue. There is an urgent need to monitor
recruitment and to protect live coral and recovering reefs, especially in those areas
affected by activities on land, fishing and anchoring. Contributed by: John Turner,
School of Ocean Sciences, University of Wales, Bangor, UK, e-mail J.turner @
bangor.ac.uk
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Status of Coral Reefs of the Southern Indian Ocean
Mauritius
Relatively minor coral bleaching was observed in mid-February 1998 in the lagoons and on
outer slopes of Mauritius. Quantitative monitoring at 2 sites including Trou aux Biches from
March-May 1998 showed degrees of bleaching at all sites, with less than 6% of corals
totally bleached and 27% partially affected. Again Acropora species were the most
affected. No bleaching was visible after 9 months at the monitored sites, with all corals
apparently ‘recovered’ and the effects were much less than other IOC countries. Rapid
surveys at 36 sites around the main island and inner islands showed that the reefs in
Mauritius had suffered some bleaching in 1998, but most reefs were still healthy with the
main signs of damage from boat and anchor damage and cyclones. The only large areas of
dead standing coral were on the Barrier Reef off Mahebourg, and mean bleaching was less
than 10% at all sites, often seen as partial bleaching of colonies. Mauritius probably
escaped the mass bleaching event of 1998 because of cyclone Anacelle, which produced
wet and cloudy weather in February 1998.
La Reunion Island
No widespread bleaching has occurred over the past few years, and the major El Niño
event of 1998 affected less than 10% of the coral communities. Some bleaching was
observed in 2000 on the west side of La Reunion, but this appears to be related to
exposure during extreme low tides.
Seychelles
These reefs were amongst the worst affected in the Indian Ocean during the
unprecedented events of 1998. There was extensive coral bleaching and mortality starting
in February 1998 at the height of the southern summer and coinciding with the most intense
El Niño event on record. Bleaching ceased in May 1998 after seawater temperatures had
reached 34 o C. It is estimated that 40-95% of corals in the Seychelles were bleached, with
subsequent mortality of these varying from 50-95%, but the bleaching was not uniform
across the archipelago. The southern islands (Aldabra, Providence, Alphonse) had only 40-
50% bleaching, whereas it reached 95% mortality in the Ternay Bay Marine Park (Mahe).
Coral regrowth and new larval recruitment has now started and small colonies are evident in
various places, although the recruitment is still very weak reflecting the high mortality of
adult corals. The largest pool for coral larvae appears to be from deeper zones unaffected
by bleaching. If there are no further major bleaching events, these reefs should recover,
although recovery will be slow.
LEGAL INSTRUMENTS, MONITORING AND MPAS
Legal Instruments - Creation of ‘Coastal’ or ‘Reef’ Laws
There are no specific laws for reef environments in the IOC countries, although most have
legislation for coastal zones that could be applied to coral reefs. For example on La
Reunion, which is a French territory, the coastal law of 1986 recognises that ‘the coast is a
geographic entity needing a specific planning, protection and development policy’. The
decision to establish Schema d’Amenagement Regional (SAR or regional planning policy)
on La Reunion predates the coastal law, and has probably reinforced the ‘Schema de mise
en valeur de la Mer’ (SMVM or sea development policy) as the maritime arm of the SAR.
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
The national coastal law has helped consolidate the role of the ‘Conservatoire du Littoral et
des Rivages Lacustres’; a state-run administrative body dedicated to acquiring important
natural coastal areas to protect them from development projects.
The environmental charter of 1990 in Madagascar has been the catalyst for a bill on coral
and rocky reef state surveillance, which should be submitted to the Prime Minister shortly. If
passed, Madagascar will be the first IOC country to have specific laws relating to reefs.
The IOC countries all have recent legislation on impact assessments, however, there are few
examples of the laws being enforced. East African and West Indian Ocean countries have
prepared a synthesis of legislation on impact assessments, and developed a code of good
conduct for such assessments (SEACAM training seminar October 1998). Ecolabelling of
tourist developments (ISO 14001 labels, Green Globe, etc.), which monitors resort operations,
provides a powerful tool to encourage sustainable management of coastal resources, in
parallel with impact assessments, which monitor the design-stage. The benefits are continued
assessment of compliance following the pressures applied in design, however it is essential to
provide information to the operators who are often unaware of environmental problems.
Environmental Monitoring
There are two major reef monitoring programmes in the region: the IOC programme
summarised here; and the CORDIO programme. The latter (COral Reef Degradation in the
Indian Ocean) was developed to assess the impacts of the 1998 exceptional bleaching
phenomenon on the reefs and human communities of the wider Indian Ocean. Finance is
provided by the World Bank, the Swedish Development Agency (SIDA) and other national
agencies, and the WWF. CORDIO is now in its second operational phase, following the
national assessments in 1999, and it is essential to ensure that there is coordination
between the different monitoring programmes to avoid duplication and profit through
synergies. Such coordination exists already in Eastern Africa and South Asia.
Marine Protected Areas
Comoros
Two marine park projects are proposed: the Coelacanth Marine Park, for which feasibility
studies have been completed by the REP-IOC and sent to all stakeholders; and the Moheli
Marine Park, which is currently being set up by the UNEP-GEF. These marine parks aim to
preserve biodiversity, implement long-term marine resource management and develop
ecotourism. The villages of Itsamia, Hamavouna, Nkangani, Ouanani, Ziroudani,
Nioumachouoi, Ndondroni, Ouallah 2, Ouallah-Mirereni and Miringoni on Moheli island
have been declared as ‘Parc Marin de Moheli’ National Park in line with the provisions of
article 46 of the environment laws.
Madagascar
Only one marine park has been officially established, the northern Mananara Biosphere
Reserve, but several are proposed in Masoala, near Toliana and on the island of Nosy Tany
Kely, which has been considered as a marine reserve for many years but does not have
legal status. The ANGAP (National Agency for the Management of Protected Areas)
coordinates and manages marine protected areas, however, there are no exclusively marine
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Status of Coral Reefs of the Southern Indian Ocean
protected areas, and none are planned. All protected marine areas are within larger landbased
parks, with the exception of the small island of Nosy Tany Kely. A bill originally
proposed in 1997 has been passed to appoint ANGAP to manage all parks in Madagascar,
under the supervision of the Department of the Environment.
Mauritius
The Department of Marine Parks was formed in 1995, and has established 2 MPAs with the
main selection criterion being high coral diversity: Blue Bay with 320ha; and Balaclava with
482ha. A 10-year management plan was proposed and they were officially declared in
October 1997. The constraints imposed in these park are minor: angling is the only
allowable form of fishing; water-skiing and diving are authorised in limited areas only; and
reef walking is prohibited.
La Reunion
There are no official marine protected areas in La Reunion, however, the long overdue
‘Association Parc Marin’ was created in 1997, following initiatives of local institutions and
politicians. Before effective protection can be implemented, it will be necessary to create
legal mechanisms and the current Association will evolve towards a management
organisation run by an association of communes (with the probable title of Regional Natural
Reserve). A major project is in progress to classify the southern and western reef zones as
nature reserves, and status will facilitate the passing of legislation on permissible uses within
zones created to conserve the various ecosystems.
Seychelles
Protected marine areas are the responsibility of the Seychelles Marine Parks Authority (MPA),
which comes under the Environmental Division of the Department of the Environment and
Transport. There are 3 objectives for these MPAs: to inform the general public; to monitor
and the status of the reef ecosystem; and to introduce patrols and rangers to police the
marine parks. Only the parks of Sainte Anne (location of MPA headquarters), Ternay Bay, Port
Launay and Curieuse have effective management and benefit from the more or less
permanent presence of MPA rangers. The other parks are visited regularly.
CONCLUSIONS
There was a serious lack of capacity and ongoing coral reef monitoring in most of these
countries, and now the IOC regional reef network has gradually developed national
monitoring networks and is constituted as the GCRMN and the ICRI Node for the Indian
Ocean (‘West Indian Ocean Island States’). This has proceeded over 2 years, through a
series of regional workshops, forums and training sessions that allowed national delegates
to exchange their experiences and request specific assistance. A network of ‘national
technical focal points’, ‘operational units’ and ‘supervisory bodies’ has evolved with
continual redefinition of the roles and functions.
As mentioned earlier, this network established and monitored 44 reef stations in the 5
countries in 1999. The increase in stations from 23 in 1998 reveals an increasing
commitment by the IOC Member States to the recommendations in the 1998 first regional
report of the REP-IOC. GEF (Global Environmental Facility) assistance in 2000 will allow
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
existing monitoring programmes to be continued through provision of fundamental material
support to the IOC countries. A methods guide ‘Coral reef state monitoring in the southwest
Indian Ocean’ was developed from the GCRMN recommended methods and
published in 1997 and is now available in both print and CD-ROM formats in English and
French. The bleaching in 1998 caught the countries of the region off guard with only a few
monitoring projects in place. If bleaching strikes again, the countries will be prepared for
both rapid and long-term assessment of impacts and recovery.
Establishment of a regional database compatible for the countries of this region and the
broader GCRMN global network is underway, utilizing AIMS Science Reef Monitoring Data
Entry System which enables the storage and processing of monitoring data for benthic
cover, incidence of bleaching, fish counts and separation into feeding groups, and is
available in Microsoft Access 97. It is being successfully implemented in IOC countries via
specific training courses.
RECOMMENDATIONS
To improve conservation in the region, there is a requirement to:
• improve capacity in coastal management (in parallel with monitoring capacity
being developed) and ensure that countries have the funding to employ trained
people in functional roles of coral reef resource management;
• establish many more and larger Marine Protected Areas with adequate planning,
involvement of communities and effective enforcement so that these can serve
as fisheries replenishment areas;
• develop better legal instruments for coastal conservation and ensure that intersectoral
problems are minimised through the formation of high level
coordination bodies in each country; and
• provide better education to all communities and other stakeholders in the value
of coral reefs and in effective measures for their conservation.
The national monitoring network focal points have recommended the following to maintain
long-term effectiveness of the network after 2000 through the regional network:
• facilitate the urgent appointment of a regional coordinating organisation by the
IOC;
• request the regional coordinators develop an action plan, to facilitate continued
reef monitoring, operation, workshops, reports;
• implement the GEF funding plan, to ensure the long-term functioning of the reef
network and monitoring beyond 2000 and coordinate such with EU funds to
ensure cooperation with relevant IOC programmes (ecotoxicology, coastal
erosion, pollution, etc.);
• implement national 2000 monitoring programmes funded by the REP-IOC to
enable continued monitoring and set up the database for decision-makers in
coral reef management, and continue training, especially in method evaluation
and data quality control;
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Status of Coral Reefs of the Southern Indian Ocean
• transfer equipment currently available to facilitate successful operation of the
reef network and, specifically assist field teams undertake reef monitoring (data
collection and acquisition);
• establish regular regional network events to link people and institutions for
enhanced communication.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Lionel Bigot, Anne Lieutaud, Loic Charpy, Jean Maharavo, Fouad Abdou Rabi, Naidoo
Paupiah, Riaz Aumeeruddy, Christian Villedieu served as primary authors. They thank all the
other experts and network members who contributed to this document: Gilbert David,
Martine Delmas-Ferre, Pascale Chabanet, Odile Naim, Marilene Moine-Picard, Said
Ahamada, Edouard Mara and all the Albion Centre team. Contact: Lionel Bigot, ARVAM , 14
rue du Stade de l’est, 97490 Ste Clotilde, La Reunion, ([email protected])
93
6. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN SOUTH ASIA:
BANGLADESH, INDIA, MALDIVES AND SRI LANKA
ARJAN RAJASURIYA, HUSSEIN ZAHIR, E.V. MULEY, B.R. SUBRAMANIAN,
K. VENKATARAMAN, M.V.M. WAFAR, S.M. MUNJURUL HANNAN KHAN
AND EMMA WHITTINGHAM
ABSTRACT
The major coral reefs in South Asia surround the oceanic islands of Lakshadweep, Maldives,
Chagos and the high islands of Andaman and Nicobar. Other extensive reefs are in the Gulf
of Mannar region. There are also numerous fringing and patch reefs in India and Sri Lanka. In
Bangladesh, the only coral reefs are around St. Martin’s Island, and there are only scattered
reef communities in Pakistan and little available information. Recent surveys indicate that
recovery of corals bleached during high water temperatures associated with the 1998 El
Niño event is poor. Natural and human disturbances, such as the crown-of-thorns starfish,
coral mining, destructive and unmanaged resource harvesting, sedimentation and pollution
continue to cause much damage to coral reefs in South Asia and reduce their capacity to
recover from the 1998 bleaching event. Capacity for monitoring coral reefs has improved
with donor assistance, however there is limited application of monitoring data due to a lack
of management mechanisms. In the absence of proper management, the condition of
marine protected areas in South Asia has degraded. Several new protected reef areas have
recently been declared in the Maldives and another in the Andaman-Nicobar area. This
report highlights the increasing population pressures on reef resources, lack of awareness
and inadequate capacity for management. Regional and country-specific recommendations
towards improved management, conservation and sustainable use of coral reefs in South
Asia are identified.
INTRODUCTION
This status report focuses on the coral reefs of India, Maldives, and Sri Lanka, with
additional information on the small coral resources of Bangladesh and Pakistan, and a brief
status report on the vast Chagos Archipelago. The first summary report for this region was
presented at the International Coral Reef Initiative, South Asia workshop held in the
Maldives in December, 1995. This was updated at the International Tropical Marine
Ecosystems Symposium in Townsville Australia in November 1998 and published in the first
1998 Status of Coral Reefs of the World. India, Maldives and Sri Lanka together form the
‘South Asia Node’ of the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN), supported
financially by the UK Department for International Development (DFID). This regional report
addresses regional perspectives as well as summaries from country reports of India,
Maldives and Sri Lanka.
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
The largest coral reef areas in South Asia include the atolls of Lakshadweep, Maldives, and
Chagos. Corals also grow along the coast of the Indian subcontinent and around Sri Lanka,
include extensive reefs around the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal, the
Gulf of Mannar and Gulf of Kutch on the mainland of India. Reefs in this region are strongly
influenced by the southwest and northeast monsoons. There are no extensive coral reefs in
Bangladesh except for small coral patches offshore around St. Martin’s Island. In Pakistan,
there are only small isolated coral colonies in highly turbid coastal conditions.
The South Asia region is characterised by large populations of very poor coastal people
who depend on coral reef resources, particularly in India, and Sri Lanka. Coral reefs are
important economic resources for India, Maldives, and Sri Lanka, but the perceived values
varies amongst different sectors. In the Maldives, coral reefs are important primarily for
tourism, followed by fisheries, coastal protection and the aquarium trade. In India, reefs are
important mostly for fisheries and coastal protection, with strong potential for tourism
developments in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and possibly on the Lakshadweep
atolls in the future. The primary economic activity of reefs in Sri Lanka is fisheries, followed
by coastal protection, ornamental fisheries, and tourism.
The coral reefs of India and Sri Lanka are being degraded rapidly by increasing human
activities, particularly over-fishing, coral mining and the effects of sediment and nutrient
pollution. In contrast, the remote reefs of the Maldives and Lakshadweep have been
virtually unaffected. That was the case until the major climate related bleaching events
during the first half of 1998, which destroyed many of the shallow water corals in the
remote reefs of the Maldives and Chagos, as well as the Lakshadweep atoll reefs, and reefs
around Sri Lanka and in the Gulf of Mannar of India. There are also reports of bleaching
damage to coral reefs in the Gulf of Kutch and Andaman and Nicobar Islands, but these
impacts were less severe than elsewhere. The greatest impact of bleaching was in shallow
reef areas to about 10m depth. Branching and tabulate corals that dominated these reefs
were the most affected, and appear to have been almost obliterated in many areas. Since
the bleaching event, monitoring has been initiated in several reef areas to observe signs of
recovery and new recruitment, as well as gathering sound baseline data to better
understand reefs under highly stressful conditions.
The following provides an overview of each country in this node:
Bangladesh
The offshore island of St. Martin’s is the only area with corals in Bangladesh and is heavily
influenced by monsoons and frequent cyclones. There are no true coral reefs around this
island, only coral aggregations in shallow waters along with seagrass beds, soft coral
habitats and rocky habitats. There is heavy sedimentation from the combined discharge of
the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers, which contribute about 6% of the world’s
total sediment input into the oceans.
Chagos
The Chagos Archipelago is the southern most group of atolls in the Laccadive-Chagos ridge
and is located at the geographical centre of the Indian Ocean. Chagos is a British Territory and
uninhabited except for the US military base on Diego Garcia. There are 6 major atolls, many
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Status of Coral Reefs in South Asia
small islands, as well as many smaller atolls and submerged shoals. The central Great Chagos
Bank has a large submerged reef area with 8 islands. This is the largest area of undisturbed
reefs in the Indian Ocean, with probably the highest coral reef biodiversity in the region.
India
There are 4 major coral reef areas in India: Gulf of Mannar; Andaman and Nicobar Islands
(1962km coastline); Lakshadweep Islands (132km coastline); and the Gulf of Kutch
(Kachchh). There is also scattered coral growth on submerged banks along the east and
west coasts of the mainland. Coral reefs are important economically for the livelihoods and
social welfare of coastal communities providing up to 25% of the total fish catch.
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
Reefs in the Gulf of Mannar are found around a string of 21 islands, 8km off the southeast
coast of India. The 3 island groups (Mandapam, Keelakari and Tuticorin) form the ‘Pamban
to Tuticorin barrier reef’, which contains fringing, platform, patch and barrier reefs. Narrow
fringing reefs surround the islands extending 100m from the shore. Patch reefs are also
found and are typically 1-2km long, 50m wide and 2 to 9m deep. Reef flats are extensive
on all islands. The total area includes approximately 65km 2 of reef flat and 14km 2 of algal
growth. The major economic activities are fishing, coral mining for construction, harvesting
of sacred chanks (Turbinella pyrum), sea cucumber, pipefishes, sea horses and seaweeds.
Of the 530 islands in the Andaman and Nicobars, only 38 are inhabited with 279,000
people as of 1991, but this is predicted to rise to 405,000 in 2001. The largest islands of
North Andaman, Middle Andaman, Ritchie’s Archipelago, South Andaman, Little Andaman,
Baratang and Rutland Island are mountainous and forest covered, and are surrounded by
some of the richest coral reefs in India.
The Lakshadweep Islands are true atolls at the northern end of the Laccadive-Chagos
ridge, 225-450km west of the Kerala coast. There are 12 coral atolls with 36 islands and 5
submerged banks. Islands vary in size from 0.1km 2 to 4.8km 2 (total area 32km 2 ) and are
surrounded by 4,200km 2 of lagoon, raised reefs and banks. The population on the 10
inhabited islands ranges from 100 on Bitra Island to 10,000 on Kavaratti. Offshore fishing is
the most important activity, and reef fisheries are not economically important. Tourism is
slowly developing, but provides little income for the local community.
There are 42 islands with fringing reefs in the southern part of the Gulf of Kutch along with
extensive mangroves in the Indus River Delta. Corals survive through extreme environmental
conditions such as high temperature, salinity changes, high-suspended particulate loads
and extreme tides, as high as 12m.
Maldives
The Maldive archipelago is at the centre of the Laccadive-Chagos ridge, and is 864km long
(north to south), 130km wide, and has a land area of approximately 300km 2 . There are
1,190 coral islands, numerous sand cays and faroes within 23 atolls. The exclusive
economic zone is approximately 90,000km 2 . Islands of this archipelago have a maximum
elevation of about 5m and a narrow fringing reef around each island, which slopes rapidly
down to the seabed. The reefs are essential for shoreline protection. Until recently, the Maldives
depended on the offshore tuna fisheries; however, tourism is now the mainstay of its economy.
Pakistan
Coral growth is inhibited by the high level of sedimentation, turbid conditions and
limitations in the availability of suitable habitats for coral growth. The only known coral
formations occur as small isolated patches growing on hard substrates. There is an almost
total lack of published information on corals in Pakistan and no research programmes exist
to monitor the corals and associated biota.
Sri Lanka
An estimated 2% of the 1,585km coastline has fringing reefs, with larger reef areas offshore in the
Gulf of Mannar to the northwest and also along the east coast. Corals grow to varying extents on
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Status of Coral Reefs in South Asia
old limestone, sandstone and rocky reefs, with the location of reefs well known, but poorly
mapped. Reefs are important for fisheries, coastal tourism, and preventing coastal erosion.
CORAL REEF STATUS AND BIODIVERSITY
Bangladesh
Coral communities extend to about 200m offshore of St. Martin’s Island with maximum
coral cover of 7.6% and colony density of 1.3m -2 . These comprise 66 hard coral species,
the most common are Porites, Acropora, Favites, Goniopora, Cyphastrea and Goniastrea.
Acropora spp. are the target for coral harvesters, as well as Favites and Goniastrea. There are
also many soft corals, sea fans, and sea whips. Other invertebrates are only represented by
a few, with molluscs being the most abundant large invertebrates, however, these are
declining due to unregulated harvesting. Reef fish diversity is low (86 species) with
damselfish (Pomacentridae), surgeonfish (Acanthuridae) and parrotfish (Scaridae) being the
most abundant. There are also 5 species of butterflyfish (Chaetodontidae) and one
angelfish (Pomacanthus annularis). Predator species (groupers, snappers, and emperors) are
heavily fished. There are no reports of coral bleaching from St. Martin’s Island.
Chagos
These reefs have the highest species diversity of corals and molluscs in the Indian Ocean.
There are no comprehensive studies on reef fish and other invertebrates, yet reef-building
corals have been relatively well studied. The smaller islands support large colonies of sea
birds, sea turtles and many species of small cetaceans. Formal protection for the Chagos
reefs has been proposed. Corals around Chagos were seriously affected by the bleaching
event in 1998. Before this bleaching event seaward reef status included: 50%-70% live
coral cover, 10%-20% soft corals and approximately 10-20% bare substrate.
Approximately 55% of the live coral cover on the outer reefs was lost after the bleaching,
including most of the table corals. Soft corals, fire coral (Millepora sp.) and blue coral
(Heliopora caerulea) were also heavily impacted during the 1998 event, while large Porites
colonies on the outer slopes were only partially bleached, and calcareous algal ridges
around the atolls were unaffected. The corals in the reef lagoons survived better than those
on the outer reefs, potentially because they normally experience higher temperatures and
have built up tolerance to temperature increases. (see Bleaching Chapter 2).
India
In the Gulf of Mannar, approximately 3,600 species have been recorded within the three
main ecosystems (coral reefs, mangroves and sea grass beds) in the Gulf of Mannar.
Biodiversity on the reefs include 117 hard coral species, with the most common corals
being Acropora, Montipora and Porites. Other resources in the area include sacred sharks,
pearl oysters, sea turtles, dugongs and dolphins. The main seaweeds are Gracilaria,
Gelidiella, Hypnea, Sarconema, Hydrodathrus, Caulerpa, Sargassum and Turbinaria. Reef fish
diversity and abundance has not been well documented. The bleaching event in 1998
destroyed most shallow water corals in the Gulf of Mannar, with live coral cover reduced
by 60-80% and only about 25% of live corals remaining. The most affected species were
the branching Acropora spp. and Pocillopora spp. All the Montipora spp. on Pullivasal
Island (northeast Gulf of Mannar) were bleached during 1998 (although Montipora
aequituberculata escaped bleaching in southern Sri Lanka). Massive corals are now
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
Country Percentage destroyed Percentage destroyed Potential for recovery
prior to 1998 during 1998 bleaching
Bangladesh 20 – 30 None Low
Chagos 1 – 2 70 – 90 Good
India – Gulf of Mannar 25 - 45 60 – 90 Medium – Low
India – Gulf of Kutch 15 – 25 50 - 70 Medium – Low
India – Lakshadweep 5 – 10 70 – 90 Good
India – Andaman &
Nicobar Islands 2 – 5 15 – 25 Good
Maldives 2 – 5 70 – 90 Good – Medium
Sri Lanka 10 – 20 70 – 90 Medium – Low
These estimates were provided by National coral reef leaders in these regions and estimate the
amount of reefs that were irreparably damaged prior to 1998, and those that suffered losses in the
1998 bleaching event, for which there should be good chances of recovery in South Asia.
dominant in all 3 island groups, with branching corals almost completely wiped out in the
Tuticorin group, while only 1-2% survived in the other two island groups. Surveys carried
out by the Zoological Survey of India one year after the bleaching observed patchy coral
recruitment on the mainland coast.
In the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, there are 203 coral species, 120 species of algae,
70 species of sponge, 200 species of fish, 8 species of shark, and spiny lobsters on the
islands. More than 1200 fish species have been recorded around the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands, and recent random surveys have detected 571 species of reef fish.
Dugongs, dolphins and sea turtles are also known from the islands. The bleaching event had
less impact on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands as compared with other coral reef areas
in India. Reports at the time indicated that 80% of live corals were destroyed, however,
recent surveys at 5 different sites report an average of only 20% dead coral cover in shallow
areas with 56% live coral cover and 11% coral rubble.
In the Lakshadweep Islands to date, only 95 hard coral species and 603 fish species
(both reef dwelling and oceanic) have been recorded from Lakshadweep, but
comprehensive biodiversity studies are lacking. Much of the living coral cover around
Lakshadweep was destroyed in the 1998 bleaching event, with estimates ranging from 43%
to 87% loss of live coral cover. Cover declined markedly to about 10% live coral in Kadmat
Island, but there have been no apparent effects on fish populations. The status of many of
the outer coral reefs is known only as anecdotal accounts. (see Bleaching Chapter 2 ).
In the Gulf of Kutch hard coral species diversity is low with only 37 species and a total
absence of ramose growth forms. Reports of bleaching in 1998 vary considerably from
about 70% of live coral loss, to much lower impacts. This highlights the need for permanent
monitoring sites to provide adequate baseline data.
Maldives
Along with the Chagos Archipelago, the Maldives support the greatest diversity of corals
and associated reef organisms in the region, with at least 209 species of stony corals. Coral
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Status of Coral Reefs in South Asia
reefs of the Maldives were in excellent condition prior to 1998, but were degraded heavily
during the bleaching event. Surveys show that about 2% live coral remains on the reef tops
at study sites in Haa Dhaal, North and South Male, Ari, Vaavu and Addu atolls. Observations
by tourist divers and others indicate a similar status throughout the country, with
approximately 20% loss of live coral cover compared to pre-bleaching observations.
Recent surveys show that the bleaching has affected north and south Male atolls more than
other areas of the country, however, encouraging levels of recruitment have been observed
at all the sites, with many Acropora amongst the new recruits.
Pakistan
Detailed information on the biodiversity reef habitats in Pakistan is lacking, although a marine
reference collection and resource centre was set up in the University of Karachi in 1969.
Sri Lanka
The most complete biodiversity information comes from Sri Lanka, with 183 hard coral
species, 6 species of spiny lobsters, plus many other invertebrates, sea turtles and
dolphins. Dugongs occur inshore of coral reef areas along the northwest along the Gulf of
Mannar coast of Sri Lanka. The most economically important reef fish in Sri Lanka include:
groupers, snappers, emperors, barracuda, jacks, sear and leatherskins, and fusiliers. Other
reef fish important for the aquarium trade include: 35 species of butterfly fish, 6 species of
large angelfish and pygmy angelfish, plus many others. The healthiest reefs in Sri Lanka were
those remote from human settlements prior to 1998, with living coral cover estimates
ranging from more than 80% cover on coral reefs at the Bar Reef Marine Sanctuary, to more
than 50% cover at Weligama on the south coast, and about 35% in the Hikkaduwa Marine
Sanctuary in the south.
In 1998, corals in most shallow reef areas of Sri Lanka were destroyed to depths of 3-5m
including areas from the northwest around to the east coast, except near Trincomalee.
Surveys at Pigeon Island near Trincomalee showed no bleaching in 1998. Many of the
remaining shallow coral reefs lost virtually all coral cover, with the most affected species
being branching and tabulate forms of Acropora spp, Pocillopora spp., Millepora spp. and
corals in the family Faviidae. Several other species (Montipora aequituberculata, Porites rus
and Psammacora digitata) were only marginally affected with most colonies showing no
bleaching and the few affected colonies recovering within several months. Bleached corals
were recorded at 42m depth off the east coast, but almost all bleached corals below 10-
15m recovered after about 6 months. Surveys in 1999 and early 2000 showed that coral
cover at Bar Reef Marine Sanctuary was near zero in shallow reef habitats (e.g. 3m depth).
At Hikkaduwa Nature Reserve it was reduced to only 7%. At Weligama it was down to 28%
and Rumassala reef had 20% live coral cover. Below 10m depth almost all corals had
recovered completely, with no signs of bleaching. Coral species at different locations
showed variable levels of impact and recovery from the bleaching event. Bleached
Acropora formosa corals at Weligama recovered and remain healthy, whereas almost all
other branching Acropora species were destroyed. At Rumassala, Acropora formosa did
not survive, and other species such as Acropora valida, A. aculeus, Echinopora lamellosa,
Galaxea fascicularis and Montipora aequituberculata have begun to recolonise damaged
sections of the reef. Bleached soft corals (Sarcophyton spp., Sinularia spp.,
Dendronephthya spp., Lobophyton spp.) recovered quite rapidly and have begun to
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
dominate some locations, such as Weligama. At many other locations, dead shallow coral
areas have been overgrown by rapid growing algae and invertebrates (tunicates and
corallimorphs). This overgrowth will inhibit the re-establishment of living corals at these
locations. Some new coral recruits have been observed at many sites, but indications are that
reef recovery will be very slow, although many genera have been observed to have recruited
already (Acropora, Platygyra, Stylocoeniella, Alveopora, Goniopora, Pocillopora, Galaxea).
CORAL REEF FISHERIES
In general the reef fisheries of South Asia are poorly documented, with little information on
the importance of these fisheries to local communities and economies. Reef fisheries are
mostly for subsistence, therefore data are difficult to gather and do not appear in national
fisheries statistics. Furthermore, the multi-species nature of reef fisheries makes it difficult to
estimate a yield for each species and to predict sustainable levels of extraction. Similar
problems exist for the marine ornamental fisheries, which are important in the Maldives and
Sri Lanka.
Bangladesh
The main fishery in Bangladesh is offshore, with a small inshore fishery for croakers and
snappers. These are caught using bottom-weighted gill nets and hook and line. Some
snappers and medium sized groupers (approximately 40-50cm long) are caught near St.
Martins Island, indicating that a relatively healthy population remains. Other fisheries include
sea cucumber and molluscs. Unregulated harvesting of reef resources is contributing to a
decline of reef biodiversity and abundance of resources.
India
Reef fisheries in India are not reflected in national fisheries statistics, as little significance is
given to the fishery, however, they are important as a subsistence fishery for local people. The
fishery includes: snappers, groupers, emperors, breams, barracuda, jacks, sprats, herrings and
flying fish. There are also reef fisheries for sea horse, sea cucumber and sacred chanks.
In the Gulf of Mannar, specific information on reef fisheries is not available, but the annual
catch of demersal fish, which includes reef fish, is about 45,000 metric tonnes per year. In
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands fishing is mainly carried out around the Andaman
Islands, with little around the Nicobar Islands. The main species targeted include sardines,
anchovies, carangids, mackerel, mullets, perches, sharks and rays, catfish, pomfrets, silver
bellies and catfish. Estimates of the fishery resource potential are highly variable and do not
consider a maximum sustainable yield critical for proper resource management. In the
period 1996-1997, the total fish catch was estimated at 26,55mt and the overall
composition of the catch included; sardines (12-13%), perches (7-10%), carangids (6%)
and mackerel (6-7%). There is also a sea cucumber fishery for which figures are not
available. In the Lakshadweep Islands there is no organised commercial reef fishery for food
or ornamental fishes, but there is a subsistence reef fishery. The local industry targets offshore
pelagic fish, such as tuna, which require the harvesting of sprats (Spratelloides sp.) from reef
lagoons for bait. No information is available on reef related fisheries in the Gulf of Kutch.
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Status of Coral Reefs in South Asia
Maldives
The most important reef fisheries in the Maldives are for live bait for tuna fishing (including
collection of silver sprat, blue sprat, fusiliers, cardinal fish, anchovies, damselfish and
silversides) and the aquarium fishery. The aquarium fishery is relatively small, with around
100 species of reef fish collected, but the trade has expanded steadily in the last 20 years
and there is now concern about over-exploitation. A quota system for harvesting and
export is in place. A grouper fishery has also been developed in recent years exploiting
some of the 40 species of grouper in the Maldives. The fishery initially began in the central
section but has now spread to every atoll and supplies the local tourism market as well as
export for the live restaurant trade. There is a shark fishery from some islands and 9 species
of sea cucumbers are fished exclusively for export.
Pakistan
Information is not available on inshore or offshore reef fisheries in Pakistan.
Sri Lanka
There are 3 distinct components of the reef fisheries in Sri Lanka: 1) domestic trade in edible
species; 2) small scale subsistence fisheries for village level consumption; and 3) fisheries
primarily for export, such as spiny lobsters, sea cucumber, sacred chanks and ornamental fish.
Reef fish catches and the trade are not clearly identified in fisheries statistics, but are included
as ‘rockfish’ under the general heading of coastal fisheries. The National Aquatic Resources
Research and Development Agency (NARA), the research arm of the Ministry of Fisheries and
Aquatic Resources Development, monitors demersal fish catches at selected landing sites.
Landing values for rockfish declined from 10,585mt in 1994 to 9,100mt in 1997 and increased
slightly to 9,200mt in 1998. The reasons for these fluctuations are unknown, but may be
related to limited access to some areas due to the ongoing military conflict. Most of the 250
fish species and 50 species of invertebrates used in the ornamental fishery are collected on
reefs, which constituted about 40-50% of the US $6.6 million export in 1998. Other species
harvested for export include sacred chanks (Turbinella pyrum; Turbinellidae), cowries, cones,
murex and other shells. In 1998, 260,000kg of sea cucumber, 796,000kg of seashells and
sacred chanks, and 11,400kg of molluscs were exported. Statistics for the spiny lobster catch
cannot be isolated as they are now pooled with all crustaceans.
THREATS TO CORAL REEFS AND MANAGEMENT ISSUES
Bangladesh
The major threats to the coral habitats are high levels of sedimentation, cyclones, storm
surges, freshwater and agricultural runoff, pollution from human settlements and the
removal of coastal vegetation. There is also over-harvesting of corals, sea cucumbers and
molluscs by excessive numbers of subsistence fishers. The removal of Acropora and other
coral colonies for the curio trade is also a major threat to the reefs, such that Acropora are
now rare. The main destructive fishing practice is using stones to weigh down the nets,
which smash corals. There are no reports of blast fishing or the use of poisons. Large-scale
removal of coral boulders and dredging of channels has caused considerable damage to
the reefs, and a barrier wall built on the sea front has caused beach erosion. The removal of
Pandanus trees for firewood has also caused much beach and dune erosion.
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
Chagos
Although there is no significant large-scale human damage to the reefs, there is illegal
fishing around some reef areas, including the collection of sea cucumbers and shark.
Occasionally poachers have been apprehended and vessels and equipment confiscated.
India
The Gulf of Mannar is one of the most heavily stressed coral reef regions in India, with
impacts from destructive fishing, pollution and coral mining. Along the 140km coastline,
there are 47 fishing villages with a combined population of approximately 50,000. There is
severe over-exploitation of seaweeds, sacred chanks, pipefishes, sea horses and sea
cucumber, and the extensive use of bamboo fish traps has seriously depleted fish stocks.
Populations of pearl oysters, gorgonians and acorn worms (Ptychodera flauva) are also
severely depleted due to over-harvesting. Approximately 1000 turtles are harvested
annually and dugongs are also hunted. Increasing demand for grouper, snappers and
emperors will put further pressures on these populations, and blast fishing has also been
reported. Local fishermen complain that fish catches have declined both in the nearshore
and offshore coral banks and islands. Sand mining, extraction of trochus shells, damage by
crown-of-thorns starfish and sedimentation degrade corals in the area. About 250m 3 of
coral is quarried per day from the Gulf of Mannar region. The islands in Tuticorin have been
affected by industrial pollution and aquaculture. On the Keelakarai coast, sewage pollution
has resulted in the overgrowth of corals by mats of green algae. Black and white band coral
diseases have also been observed.
In the Andaman and Nicobar Islands deforestation has resulted in increased sediment
flows to the nearshore reefs, however there are no quantitative assessments of the rate of
sedimentation, nor the impacts on the reefs. Reports have indicated that corals have been
killed by large quantities of sediment laden fresh water, as well as overgrowth by fleshy
algae. Industrial pollution is also impacting the coral reefs around Port Blair. In
Lakshadweep Islands crown-of-thorns starfish were first noticed at Agatti Island in 1977
and have spread to most islands and reefs causing loss of corals. Black and white band
diseases and pink band disease have been observed in shallow coral areas, but bleaching
has been the main cause of loss in reef biodiversity. There is some coral mining, dredging
of navigational channels, unsustainable fishing practices, coastal development, and
souvenir collection. Recently, blasting of corals to create navigational channels has been
stopped, however, the construction of breakwaters on some islands is increasing coastal
erosion. No sewage or oil pollution has been reported on these reefs. People have
reported decreases in fish catches within the reef lagoons, which could be due to the loss
of live corals after the bleaching event, or to increased harvesting due to population
pressures (the population has tripled in the last 20 years). The methods used to catch live
bait for tuna fishing cause damage to the reefs and reductions in live bait stocks have
impacted on the local economy since the tuna fishery is the major industry in the islands. In
the Gulf of Kutch major impacts on the reefs are associated with industrial development,
ports and offshore moorings, pollution from large cities, and removal of mangroves. It is
estimated that human activities have reduced the coral cover by more than 50% on most
reefs here.
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Status of Coral Reefs in South Asia
Maldives
Most of the reefs here are better protected than other reefs in South Asia; mainly because
most are isolated from human activity. The main damage to reefs occurs around those islands
that are heavily populated and where there is a high level of development. Impacts on the
reefs include coral mining, pollution, dredging of channels for boats, coastal construction,
increased reef fisheries and the crown-of-thorns starfish. Coral mining has lowered the reef flat
around the capital of Male, such that concrete walls have been constructed to prevent
shoreline erosion. Construction of wharves, groynes and breakwaters have resulted in
increased erosion around some tourist resorts. However, the total reef area damaged due to
human activities is relatively small compared to the extensive reefs present in the Maldives.
Pakistan
Although there are no extensive coral formations, marine life is affected by high levels of
sedimentation, freshwater runoff, pollution from urban and industrial wastes, sewage
discharge and dredging. Collection of marine organisms as souvenirs and for use in
traditional medicines also has adverse impacts.
Sri Lanka
The major causes of reef degradation are: coral mining, sedimentation, destructive fishing
practices (such as blast fishing), the use of bottom set nets, uncontrolled resource
exploitation, including harvesting of ornamental fish and invertebrates, pollution from land
based sources, and crown-of-thorns starfish. Site specific coral reef damage is associated
with glass bottom boats, boat anchoring, destructive collecting techniques for ornamental
species, urban pollution, coastal and harbour development, and high visitor pressure
(causing damage through trampling and coral removal). Coastal erosion along the
southwest and southern coasts has increased levels of sedimentation on the reefs. Rapid
increases in the abundance of organisms such as tunicates, corallimorphs and algae
(halimeda, caulerpa and filamentous algae) has smothered shallow reefs in certain
locations, particularly following the bleaching events of 1998.
CLIMATE CHANGE AND IMPACTS
Predicted climate change impacts in South Asia include sea level rise and potential
increases in the frequency and intensity of cyclones and storms, all of which will have
adverse impacts on coastal areas. The most vulnerable areas are atolls and low-lying coastal
regions, particularly deltas with mangrove swamps, wetlands, seagrass beds and sandy
beaches that are prone to erosion, as well as highly developed coastal installations, such as
harbours and ports. Cyclones, storms and heavy rainfall already have major impacts in the
Bay of Bengal (Bangladesh and India). In other areas, coral reefs play a vital role in
protecting shorelines and if their health deteriorates further, they may cease to protect
shorelines from rising sea levels.
Seawater temperatures in the Indian Ocean have risen by 0.12 o C per decade during the last
50 years. A continued increase will have significant impacts on coral reefs, ocean
circulation, nutrients, primary production and fisheries. Increases in sea surface
temperatures, and a cessation of the trade winds associated with the 1998 El Niño
phenomena led to widespread coral bleaching and destruction of coral reefs in South Asia.
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
Only Bangladesh has information on recent sea level rise of 5.18mm per year in the Khulna
region. If the predicted rises do occur, 50-70% of the mangroves will be adversely affected
by 2050 due to inundation. In India there is a lack of awareness amongst the government
and local population of the potential impact of bleaching on the reefs and the link to
climate change. More efforts in India are needed to address climate change issues and to
improve awareness. The low lying atolls of the Maldives, Lakshadweep, Chagos and river
deltas areas (e.g. Bangladesh and Gulf of Kutch) are particularly vulnerable to sea level rise
and potential climate change impacts. Coastal inundation, saline intrusion of fresh
groundwater and coastal erosion are among the most serious impacts. The majority of all
large urban centres in Sri Lanka are coastal, occupying 24% of the total land area and
containing 32% of the population, and 67% of the industrial areas. Therefore, any sea level
rise due to climate change will adversely affect the cities and agricultural and industrial
lands due to saltwater intrusion. Currently there is significant coastal erosion along the
western and southern coast of Sri Lanka and more erosion problems may be expected in
the future.
STATUS AND GAPS OF MARINE PROTECTED AREAS (MPAS), MONITORING AND CAPACITY
Marine protected areas are not well managed across South Asia and there has been little
improvement in the past 5 years, despite the recent declaration of Rani Jansi Marine
National Park in the Andamans and 10 new protected sites in the Maldives. Moreover, these
recent inclusions are placing increasing pressures on the already weak management
systems, which lack motivation, trained personnel, equipment and funding. Implementation
and enforcement of protected area management plans and regulations is generally poor or
absent, and in some cases impossible because marine reserves typically lack physical
boundary markers e.g. Hikkaduwa Nature Reserve, Sri Lanka. More importantly there are
usually no alternative sources of income for those dependent on the resources from the
protected areas. The problems with protected area and marine resource management are
particularly serious in Sri Lanka, the Gulf of Mannar, and the Gulf of Kutch regions in India,
and Bangladesh. MPA problems are less severe in the Maldives, much of the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands, and the Lakshadweep Islands, primarily due to low population densities in
these areas.
In spite of the above MPA scenarios, capacity to monitor reefs has improved in South Asia,
particularly in India following training programmes conducted through the GCRMN South
Asia Node, and more recently by the Indian Coral Reef Monitoring Network (ICRMN).
Improvements are particularly evident as illustrated by the increasing level of information in
national status reports, and a marked increase in data during the past 3 years. However, a
capacity for reef management beyond monitoring has not improved and coral reefs
continue to degrade in the region.
Bangladesh
St. Martin’s Island has been identified for protection and management under the National
Conservation Strategy of Bangladesh, but no analysis and identification of key sites has been
carried out. There are no management plans and no trained staff to undertake conservation,
therefore destructive human activities continue to degrade the reef resources. As there are
no baseline data on St Martin’s Island, surveys and taxonomic knowledge are needed,
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Status of Coral Reefs in South Asia
particularly concerning fish and invertebrate diversity. There is no clear conservation policy
and consultations with the local community on resource management have been limited. A
review of the National Conservation Strategy showed that legal and institutional issues have
largely been ignored
Chagos
The Corbett Action Plan for Protected Areas of the Indomalayan Realm identified the
Chagos Archipelago as an area with marine conservation needs due to its extensive coral
reef and unique terrestrial habitats. However, it is not known whether Chagos has been
declared as a marine protected area.
India
There are 5 marine protected areas in India: Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve (GoMBR -
10,500km 2 ); Gulf of Kutch Marine National Park (GoKMNP - 400km 2 ); Mahatma Gandhi Marine
National Park (MGMNP) also known as the Wandoor Marine National Park in Andamans
(282km 2 ); Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve (GNBR - 885km 2 ); and Rani Jansi Marine National
Park (RJMNP) in Ritchie’s Archipelago in Andamans. A marine protected area (Perumal
Marine Park) was proposed for Lakshadweep in 1996, but there is no evidence of its
declaration. The management for these protected areas is weak, particularly those near the
subcontinent where human impacts from resource use and urban and industrial
development are high. Reefs in the Gulf of Kutch Marine Park have been neglected, with
monitoring activities limited to occasional EIA studies associated with development
activities and there are growing concerns that parts of the park may be rescinded for
industrial development. Protected areas on Andaman and Nicobar Islands and in
Lakshadweep are in better condition, but only because human impacts are less. These MPA
areas are still vulnerable to impacts from the crown-of-thorns starfish and bleaching, which
are largely beyond local management. There is a major need for training of conservation
officers to manage the protected areas and funding for infrastructure development.
In general the existing marine protected areas noted above for India are not effectively
managed and destructive activities continue. There is a need for studies on reef resource
use, particularly harvesting of reef fish and the economic links between resource exploitation
and coastal communities. Studies are also required to investigate the dynamics of the live
bait fisheries. Surveys in the Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar Islands are restricted to a
few sites that are easily accessible. Fish censuses have not been included in monitoring
programmes and a lack of trained divers and scuba gear prevents sampling in deeper areas.
No systematic monitoring or conservation strategy existed in India until recently, through
initiatives mainly associated with the establishment of a GCRMN Node. There are few
trained and skilled people for long-term monitoring, and there is little NGO involvement or
community participation in reef management. There is also a lack of awareness of the value
and importance of coral reefs among government agencies and local communities,
although some academic institutions have conducted reef research. Thus, there is still a
need for more coordinated approaches to coral reef management.
Coral Reef Monitoring Action Plans (CRMAPs) were prepared during the first phase of the
GCRMN (1997-8) and have been launched by the ICRMN for all reef areas except the Gulf of
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
Kutch. Government support has been extended to implement the CRMAPs and train people
to monitor the reefs, however, activities are still at an early stage and the capacity for
monitoring and management is still poor.
Other significant international initiatives on Indian coral reefs include: UNDP-GEF Projects on
the Gulf of Mannar and Andaman and Nicobar Islands; the Coral Reef Degradation in the
Indian Ocean project (CORDIO); an Integrated Coastal Zone Management Training Project
(ICZOMAT) funded by the UK Department for International Development (DFID); and an
India-Australia Training and Capacity Building (IATCB) programme.
Maldives
There are 25 marine protected areas in the Maldives declared under the Environment Act of
the Maldives and administered by the Ministry of Home Affairs, Housing and Environment
(MHHE). All are important dive sites for tourists. These sites are generally small, without
specific assessments of biodiversity, except for flagship species such as sharks, rays and
groupers. The main threats to these MPAs are from overfishing, anchor damage, coral
mining and diver damage. Other than sport diving, only a few activities are permitted, such
as the collection of bait for the traditional pole and line tuna fishery. However, there are no
restrictions on numbers of visitors to these sites and there is little management or
protection, mainly due to a lack of management staff. Some islands of ecological
importance as bird nesting sites are under consideration for protection. The Ministry of
Fisheries, Agriculture and Marine Resources has recently proposed two large areas for
complete protection to aid fish recruitment and stock replenishment. The Maldives Marine
Protected Area Management Project plans to set up pilot demonstration MPAs with support
from the Australian Government (AusAID). Approval has also been given for a UNDP/GEF 1
year projection preparation project for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity
associated with coral reefs in the Maldives, to be implemented through the MHHE
commencing 2000.
A major constraint in reef management in the Maldives is that monitoring information is not
being used to support decision-making. Information is not effectively archived and reports
are scattered in different government organisations. Inadequate financial and human
resources also impede effective management. Greater collaboration is required between
existing organisations and further training is required for research staff. Existing protected
areas in Maldives are not actively managed, but are more or less protected by default
because they are in tourism areas. For better conservation of marine resources, it is
necessary to examine all resource uses, including reef fisheries, and develop a national
programme for conservation.
Pakistan
There are no coral reef marine protected areas in Pakistan. The IUCN and the Pakistan
Biodiversity Action Plan have identified areas for protection, but nothing has been declared
and there is a large gap in capacity for conservation and management of marine resources, and
a major lack of awareness at government levels about potential coral reef resources. Therefore
the first need is to locate any offshore coral habitats, before considering building capacity.
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Status of Coral Reefs in South Asia
Sri Lanka
There are two marine protected areas with coral reefs in Sri Lanka: the Hikkaduwa Nature
Reserve (previously known as the Hikkaduwa Marine Sanctuary), declared in 1979; and the
Bar Reef Marine Sanctuary, declared in 1992. These exist under the Fauna and Flora
Protection Ordinance of the Department of Wild Life Conservation, which is technically
responsible for their maintenance. A management plan was developed for the Hikkaduwa
Marine Sanctuary in 1996, but has not been implemented satisfactorily. The coral reef zones
declared in 1997 in the management plan have not been maintained and all lines and
markers have been lost. Although the Department of Wild Life Conservation has an office in
the sanctuary, no attempt has been made to reinstate sanctuary boundaries and there is no
active control of damaging activities. There is also no management at the Bar Reef Marine
Sanctuary. The coral bleaching in 1998 adversely affected shallow coral habitats in both
sanctuaries and recovery is extremely slow.
There are plans to declare a Fisheries Management Area in the southeast, encompassing the
Great and Little Basses reefs, that were identified for protection due to their unexploited
reefs, unique setting and archaeological importance, including several ancient shipwrecks.
Another 23 sites have been identified for Special Area Management planning in the Revised
Coastal Zone Management Plan of 1997. The Bar Reef Marine Sanctuary and Hikkaduwa
Nature Reserve are being considered for management under an Asian Development Bank
(ADB) funded Coastal Zone Management Project.
Sri Lanka has a need for motivated manpower for conservation management as well as for
infrastructure development, which needs to be combined with political motivation and
support for resource users to find sustainable alternative employment. The sites identified
in the Coral Reef Monitoring Action Plan for regular monitoring include the important coral
reef areas in the country. The status of reef habitats at almost all of these sites is known from
recent studies and as part of the reef monitoring programme of the National Aquatic
Resources Research and Development Agency (NARA), the mandated government agency.
The threats to and condition of reefs are relatively well known, however, this information is
rarely used in management or to select suitable marine protected areas. There is little
funding for conservation management and for infrastructure development for existing
protected areas. The boundaries for existing MPAs are not marked as in the Hikkaduwa
Nature Reserve, which was studied for many years under a Special Area Management
project from 1990 to 1995 with financial and technical support from the USAID. Virtually
none of the management procedures or activities recommended in this project still exist,
there are no trained or motivated staff, the community has no commitment and the value in
training and capacity building has been lost. These situations arise because there is a lack of
political will for conservation of coastal resources; current security problems also provide a
partial explanation.
In Sri Lanka, there are few socioeconomic data for management planning, e.g. there are no
data on reef fisheries or associated economic returns. There have been some studies on the
ornamental fisheries, but other resources are generally ignored and consequently there is
poor understanding of the socioeconomic implications of not managing reef resources.
There is little enforcement of regulations and laws relating to coastal resources, such that
when blast fishermen and illegal coral miners are apprehended they are released with very
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
low fines. Coral mining still occurs on the southern and eastern coasts, although the
Department of Coast Conservation has removed the lime kilns from the coastal zone. Blast
fishing has increased within the last two years in the south-western and southern coast and
north of Trincomalee, despite the presence of security forces. A new licensing system for all
fishing activities has not been implemented and few fishermen have licenses. The newly
formed coastguard lacks boats or motivation for active surveillance and there is a shortage of
people to monitor the use of fishing gear. The potential industries that could arise from bioprospecting
reef resources have not yet been recognised nor examined by the government.
Above is a summary of MPAs, their current status and the major limitations for effective
conservation.
GOVERNMENT POLICIES, LAWS AND LEGISLATION
Bangladesh
The ‘Bangladesh Wildlife Preservation Order, 1973’ and the amended ‘Bangladesh Wildlife
Preservation Act 1974’ provide government with the power to establish national parks,
wildlife sanctuaries and game reserves. Provision for establishing marine reserves for flora
and fauna was further strengthened by the enactment of the Marine Fisheries Ordinance,
1983. The relevant government agencies and semi-government organisations that need to
coordinate this action are: Forest Department, Ministry of Environment and Forest;
Directorate of Fisheries, Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock; Ministry of Aviation and Tourism;
Department of Science and Technology, Ministry of Education; SPARRSO; Bangladesh
Wildlife Advisory Board; and Environmental Pollution Control Board (EPCB).
India
The Federal government ‘Coastal Regulation Zone Notification 1991’ regulates onshore
development activities which impact on coastal environments and strictly prohibits the
collection and trade of corals. The ‘Wildlife Protection Act 1972’ provides protection for
protected areas and some marine species. Efforts continue to bring corals under this act
and to encourage more stringent enforcement of protection measures. Coral reef
conservation is also included in the ‘Environmental Protection Act 1986’ and the ‘National
Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on Environmental Development 1992’. The
‘Action Plan of the Ministry of Environment and Forests’ gives this ministry the mandate to
conserve and manage coral reef resources and be the focal points for the Indian Coral Reef
Monitoring Network and the International Coral Reef Initiative.
Maldives
There are two main pieces of legislation directly related to coral reef management and
conservation: ‘The Fisheries Law of the Maldives 1987’ and ‘The Environmental Protection
and Preservation Act 1993’. Traditional management systems are still practiced in some
atolls and these practices have been incorporated into fisheries law. Specific regulations
associated with coral mining were introduced in 1992 and are currently under revision to
be made applicable to the whole country. Many sectors of government are involved in
managing coral reefs and reef resources, these include:
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Status of Coral Reefs in South Asia
• Marine Research Centre of the Ministry of Fisheries, Agriculture and Marine
Resources;
• The Environment Section of the Ministry of Home Affairs, Housing and
Environment;
• Ministry of Construction and Public Works;
• Maldives Water and Sanitation Authority; and
• Ministry of Tourism.
Pakistan
There is potential legislation to conserve coral reefs and marine life (Biodiversity Action Plan
1997, Environmental Protection Ordinance 1983, the Wildlife Protection Ordinance 1972
and the Pakistan Environmental Protection Act 1995), but awareness by Government is
required before these can be used.
Sri Lanka
There are many ministries and government departments that have responsibility for
managing the marine waters around Sri Lanka, and those that have responsibility for coral
reef management are:
• Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Development (responsible for the
development and management of fisheries, including licensing of fishermen,
craft and gear);
• Ministry of Forestry and Environment (responsible for conservation of terrestrial as
well as aquatic ecosystems);
• Department of Wildlife Conservation (conservation and management of terrestrial
and marine protected areas and species);
• National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency (research,
development and their coordination on all aquatic living and non- living
resources);
• Coast Conservation Department (regulating development activities within the
coastal zone and conservation and management of coastal resources.
Responsible for implementing the Coastal Zone Management Plan and EIA
process for development within the coastal zone);
• Central Environmental Authority (responsible for national environmental
standards, coordination of environmental related matters, including the EIA
process for development).
Protection for several marine organisms has been provided through the ‘Fauna and Flora
Protection Ordinance (amendment 1993)’ of the Department of Wildlife Conservation and
the ‘Fisheries Act of 1996’ of the Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Development.
New regulations were introduced in 1998 to the Fisheries Act to protect groupers from
export, and they are listed under the restricted export category. Preliminary steps have
been taken to establish a coastguard to control illegal fishing methods through the Ministry
of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Development.
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
CONCLUSIONS
• High water temperatures associated with the 1998 El Niño event caused widespread
coral bleaching in the South Asia region and destroyed many of the shallow water
corals (to 10m depth). Bleaching impacts were less severe in Gulf of Kutch and
Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Surveys and observations since the 1998 bleaching
indicate that recovery is slow, with patchy recruitment observed at many locations.
• Coral reefs continue to be degraded by human impacts associated with growing
populations and coastal development and specifically related to uncontrolled
resource exploitation, coral mining and the effects of sedimentation and
pollution. Natural impacts also play a part in coral reef degradation with reefs
threatened by crown-of-thorns starfish and impacts related to climate change,
such as coral bleaching and cyclones.
• The capacity to monitor reef resources has improved with training activities
undertaken by the GCRMN Node for India, Maldives and Sri Lanka. Advances in
biophysical monitoring are particularly apparent in India, with continued training
undertaken with support from ICRMN. However, the capacity for routine
socioeconomic monitoring of reef resources is still lacking and there is limited
application of monitoring information in management.
• Management of coral reef resources is lacking, such that coral reefs within
designated marine protected areas continue to degrade. Weak management is
linked to the absence of infrastructure or capacity for management, combined
with a lack of funds and awareness.
• Support for further training in socioeconomic monitoring and for demonstration
monitoring projects is being provided by the GCRMN Node and the CORDIO
programme. National coral reef databases are also being developed through the
GCRMN Node, to facilitate the application of socioeconomic and biophysical
data for management.
REGIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS
• Strengthen socioeconomic monitoring of reef resources to provide information
appropriate for coral reef management;
• Improve evaluation of reef fisheries and identify and develop viable alternative
livelihoods for those dependent on threatened reef resources;
• Strengthen infrastructure and capacity for resource management, primarily
targeting marine protected areas;
• Strengthen the capacity to develop and implement regulations relating to
resource extraction;
• Create mechanisms to link monitoring information to management, through
improved dialogue between government institutions and agencies;
• Undertake awareness raising activities to highlight the reef ecosystem and its
interdependence with surrounding coastal ecosystems, threats to the reef and
the options available for the future. Awareness should target all levels, including
government ministers and departments, primary resource users, and schools,
colleges and local groups; and
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Status of Coral Reefs in South Asia
• Identify sustainable long-term funding mechanisms for protected area
management and habitat conservation activities.
Bangladesh
• Develop and implement environmental, biological, socioeconomic and user
monitoring programmes;
• Develop a clear government policy statement on the future conservation,
management and protection objectives of marine resources for St. Martin’s Island,
which will also address the coordinated management of coastal lands; and
• Support the proposed management plan for St. Martin’s Island and its coral
resources with planning that involves all levels of government (i.e. an intergovernmental
approach).
India
• Strengthen the role and powers of ICRMN to act as the central coordinating body
for policy and programmes relating to coral reef resources, to provide better
integration between government departments, institutions and local groups and
to support the implementation of Management Action Plans;
• Strengthen capacity to monitor reefs and increase monitoring activities; and
• Provide training and awareness raising at all levels to better appreciate the
concepts of conservation and sustainable use of coral reef resources.
Maldives
• Provide more training opportunities in marine resource conservation,
management and assessment; and
• Enhance collaborative work between government research groups and local
community, NGOs and international organisations.
Pakistan
• Develop capacity to locate and identify possible reef areas; and
• Develop capability in taxonomy of reef organisms.
Sri Lanka
• Improve monitoring of socioeconomic aspects of resource use;
• Develop alternative employment programmes for those engaged in fisheries
activities that impact adversely on reef resources, such as the harvesting of sea
cucumbers, ornamental fish, spiny lobsters and coral mining;
• Develop a practical plan for marine resource use and also develop capacity for
resource management in the whole fishery sector;
• Carry out detailed studies to identify important reef resources such as sponges,
and other organisms with a view to developing a bio-prospecting industry,
which may have the potential to encourage improved conservation of resources
in recognition of their economic value;
• Provide assistance for managing protected areas via financial support for
protected area demarcation, patrolling capabilities and training of personnel; and
• Train the coastguard and purchase the necessary equipment for effective
enforcement of resource use laws.
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
SUPPORTING DOCUMENTATION
Muley, E.V., Subramanian, B.R., Venkataraman, K and Wafar, M.V.M. 2000. Status of coral
reefs of India. Paper presented to 9ICRS. (unpublished). EV Muley e-mail:
[email protected]
Rajasuriya, A., Maniku, M.H., Subramanian, B.R. and Rubens, J. 1999. A review of the
progress in implementation of management actions for the conservation and
sustainable development of coral reef ecosystems in South Asia. Proceedings of the
International Tropical Marine Ecosystems Symposium (ITMEMS), Townsville,
Australia, November 1998. pp. 86 - 113.
Rajasuriya, A., Karunarathna, M.M.C., Vidanage, S. and Gunarathna, A.B.A.K. 2000. Status of
coral reefs in Sri Lanka; community involvement and the use of data in management.
National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Paper presented to the 9ICRS (unpublished). A Rajasuriya e-mail: [email protected]
Zahir, H and Saleem, M. 2000. Status of coral reefs in the Maldives. Marine Research Centre,
Maldives. Paper presented to the 9ICRS. (unpublished). H Zahir e-mail:
[email protected]
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Status of Coral Reefs in South Asia
GCRMN SOUTH ASIA NODE
The South Asia node entered a second phase of activities in December 1999 following
the successful completion of Phase 1 in March 1999. Support for the node comes from
the Department for International Development (DFID) of the UK with GBP327,400 as
an accountable grant to IOC-UNESCO over the next 2.5 years. The 3 core activities are:
1. support of demonstration site socioeconomic monitoring and the
implementation of Coral Reef Monitoring Action Plans;
2. training in biophysical survey design and data analysis, and in socioeconomic
monitoring; and
3. development of national and regional coral reef databases.
Biophysical monitoring capacity was expanded and strengthened during Phase 1
through training and pilot monitoring activities. Government and other project funds
(e.g. CORDIO) now support continued biophysical monitoring, however, routine
socioeconomic monitoring has not yet been established in the region, despite being
recognised as critical for management. Socioeconomic monitoring is therefore a priority
activity of Phase 2, with specific funds for monitoring at demonstration sites, where
biophysical monitoring is also taking place. Socioeconomic monitoring will also be
supported by on-site training in all aspects of resource use assessment. The Node is
designing national coral reef databases for the GCRMN based on ReefBase and other
successful databases (e.g. COREMAP), it is anticipated that all three countries will have
functional national databases by July 2001.
Node Contacts and Representatives:
• India: the Department of Ocean Development (Dr B.R. Subramanian e-mail:
[email protected]) and the Ministry of Forests and Environment (Dr E.V.
Muley e.mail: [email protected]);
• Maldives: the Marine Research Centre of the Ministry of Fisheries, Agriculture
and Marine Resources, (Hussein Zahir e.mail: [email protected]);
• Sri Lanka: National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency
(Arjan Rajasuriya, e-mail: [email protected]) ; the Regional Coordinator is
Emma Whittingham, Address No.48 Vajira Road, Colombo 5, Sri Lanka; Tel:
+941 505 649 / 858; Fax: +941 580 202; E-Mail: [email protected]
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7. SOUTHEAST ASIAN REEFS - STATUS UPDATE:
CAMBODIA, INDONESIA, MALAYSIA, PHILIPPINES,
SINGAPORE, THAILAND AND VIETNAM
LOKE MING CHOU
ABSTRACT
Southeast Asian reefs continue to face development and exploitation pressures in spite of
greater awareness of their ecological and economic importance. Reefs that were once
considered remote have not escaped destruction from poison or blast fishing. Common
threats from human activities are spreading throughout the region and there are no apparent
signs of reversals or reductions in the trends of increasing reef degradation. Monitoring
efforts on reef health status are expanding in tandem with increasing numbers of
rehabilitation projects. Monitoring data are available for more and more reefs for which
there was little previous information, and many countries have established national reef
monitoring programmes. Reef Check surveys have increased steadily in the region.
Monitoring by volunteers indicates little difference in reef condition between reefs in
marine parks and non-protected areas. This confirms earlier observations that most marine
protected areas are not meeting management objectives. Countering the patterns of losses
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
in reef integrity, there are isolated instances of management by local communities and
coastal resorts. In addition to the impacts of human stresses, many Southeast Asian reefs
were affected by severe bleaching in 1998 with recovery ranging from marginal to almost
complete. Stronger, more effective and perhaps innovative management measures are
necessary to facilitate the survival of Southeast Asian reefs in this new millennium.
INTRODUCTION
This report updates the information presented in the first edition in 1998, and focuses on
changes since that time, which are unfortunately mostly negative. It also draws on recent
assessments made by the World Resources Institute - Reefs at Risk project and another by
UNEP on trans-boundary problems. The coral reefs of Southeast Asia are renowned for their
exceptionally high biodiversity. Although the marine environment of Southeast Asia
occupies 2.5% of the global ocean, it contains 27% of the world’s coral reefs, including
two large archipelagos which have 22% the global total; Indonesia has close to 18,000
islands, and the Philippines has over 7,000 islands. The extensive Sunda and Sahul
continental shelves offer large shallow areas that favour reef development and all major reef
formations (oceanic atolls, platform and barrier reefs) are represented, along with large
areas of shallow fringing reefs on the coasts, which receive the full impacts from human
activities from the land.
Economic growth and coastal population expansion have resulted in serious degradation
of many reefs, and the trend continues in spite of increased awareness of the value of reefs
to people. The coral reefs in the Malacca and Singapore Straits alone have a total assessed
economic value of US$563 million for their roles and values as carbon sinks, tourist
attractions, shoreline protectors, fishery resources and research potential. The problems of
reef degradation are compounded by unabated and widespread destructive fishing
practices, particularly poison and blast fishing. Unless sustainable management practices
are implemented, the high biodiversity reefs of Southeast Asia will succumb further to
economic development pressures in spite of quantified values. Various reef management
models exist throughout the region, ranging from national government initiatives to local
community involvement, and the successes of community-based management continues to
spread throughout the region. Of the growing number of nationally legislated marine parks,
less than 10% are adequately managed to meet protection objectives, and the situation
does not seem to be improving sufficiently rapidly as Reef Check global analyses indicate
little difference in the condition of reefs between protected and non-protected areas
STATUS OF CORAL REEF BENTHOS
This section highlights updates information from the previous status reports in 1998,
showing a continuation of decline in many of the reefs of the region from many similar
causes. The national reports of natural disturbances and community structure of the reefs
are available and will be published in the Proceedings of the 9 th International Coral Reef
Symposium in Bali.
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Southeast Asian Reefs – Status Update
Cambodia
The amount of information on Cambodian reefs is very limited, but recent efforts have
assembled the most comprehensive information to date. However, there is still insufficient
data on the status of coral reefs, their distribution and species composition. There are coral
communities growing on rocky bottoms along much of the 435km coastline and some of
the 52 islands, where there are often fringing reefs. Coral diversity is higher on the offshore
reefs, whereas those inshore are in poor condition with low species diversity, dominated
by massive corals.
At Koh Tang, an offshore island group in clearer water, there are 70 hard coral species
including Acropora and Montipora which are absent on the inshore reefs, which in turn are
dominated by Porities, mussids and faviids. Acropora spp. are now much less common on
Cambodian reefs. Coral cover of up to 50% was found at Koh Rong Samlem in spite of the
extensive bleaching impacts during 1998. This site also has few human impacts; therefore,
these healthy reefs are not representative of the state of most coral reefs throughout
Cambodia, which are more degraded. The reefs at Koh Tres, Poi Kompenhl and Koh Thas
had live coral cover ranging from 21% to 70%. The black spiny sea urchin, Diadema
setosum, is abundant at Koh Rong, Koh Tang and Koh Damlung.
There was bleaching in 1998 at reefs on Koh Rong Samlem, Koh Rong, Koh Tang, Koh
Damlung and Koh Thas, but studies at Koh Rong Samlem suggest that recovery was strong.
Crown-of-thorns starfish are not known on inshore reefs and their presence on the outer
reefs is limited to small numbers. An outbreak was observed in February 1998 at a site on
Koh Tong (20 adults within an area of 100m 2 ).
Indonesia
A comprehensive review of coral reef conditions in eastern and central Indonesia has just
been completed by international and local experts for the Packard Foundation. This
included considerable data from the Pusat Perelitian dan Pengembangan Oseanologi-LIPI
reef monitoring database that covers 400 stations from 48 sites, as well as information from
programme activities by local and international agencies. Indonesian reefs contain the
richest species diversity of corals (450 species) and other reef-associated groups in the
world. For example, a single reef can have more than 140 species of hard coral. About
40% of reefs reviewed are listed in the ‘poor’ category with live coral cover less than 25%,
and only 29% considered as good to excellent (live coral cover above 50%), whereas
previous reports suggest that most of Indonesian reefs were above this many years ago as
there are few destructive storms and waves impacting on these reefs. Thus, there are clear
indications of rapidly declining reef health throughout this area with the proportion of
degraded reefs increasing from 10% to 50% over the past 50 years. The reefs of eastern
Indonesia are in comparatively better condition, but are also declining quickly. There are
many instances where blast fishing has reduced coral cover by 50-80%, and the
widespread use of cyanide has resulted in large areas of dead coral. For example, reefs on
Bali that had good coral cover of 73% with colonies 17-24cm in diameter on average in
1992, now have cover of 15% or less, with colonies averaging 2-3cm. Population outbreaks of
crown-of-thorns starfish have been reported but appear scattered and not serious. The
bleaching events of 1987-88 and 1992-93 did not appear to affect Indonesian reefs on a wide
scale, however the 1998-99 bleaching event had a greater impact with many reefs affected.
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
Malaysia
There have been extensive surveys of the reefs of East Malaysia particularly in Sabah since
1996. The best reefs are the oceanic reefs at Sipadan (far east coast) and Layang Layang
(southern Spratlys). Reef condition throughout East Malaysia varies widely, with an alarming
amount of recently dead and shattered coral. Only 10% of reefs had dead coral cover of
less than 10%, while dead coral cover of 10 to 20% was found for 70% of the reefs. At
least 10% or reefs had approximately 40% dead coral cover, indicating recent losses.
Evidence of destructive fishing practices was found on all reefs, except those under strict
protection (e.g. Sipadan and Semporna Islands), and there are reports of more than 4
bomb blasts per hour in many offshore reef areas. In large areas of the Tunku Abdul Rahman
Park, live coral cover has dropped due to a combination of storms, blast fishing and
pollution from a mean of 30% in 1994, to less than 5% now. Some of the individual reef
statistics from this park are illuminating, with only one reef, Manukan, remaining stable.
Live coral cover changes 1987 1991 1994 1999
Merangis Reef 40.5 41.5 34.5 14.2
Sapi Reef 47.0 30.5 37.5 4.1
Staghorn Patch Reef 30.0 36.5 33.0 1.6
Manukan Reef 30.0 36.5 38.5 35.0
Sulug Reef - 32.5 19.0 2.9
Mamutik Reef - 18.0 19.5 12.3
Tanjong Wokong Reef - - 31.0 5.4
This summarises changes in coral cover on reefs in the Tunku Abdul Rahman Park, Sabah, Malaysia over
more than 10 years, with unfortunately a decline at most sites.
There are few reefs in Sarawak because of high levels of sediment runoff from several large
rivers. On the Talang Talang islands, there are occasional patches of coral cover of about
30%, but most do not exceed 20%. There was large scale bleaching in 1998 with close to
40% of coral colonies in shallow water (10m) and 25% in deeper water 10-20m bleached.
By late 1999, colonies either recovered or were overgrown by zoanthids or soft corals.
Bleaching in Tunku Abdul Rahman Park was up to 30-40%, but 6 months later, all colonies
had recovered except for very few that had died.
Philippines
There are over 400 hard coral (scleractinian) species known from the Philippines, of which
12 are endemic. Data from the 1990s show a decline in reef condition, with reefs in the
Visayas area most at risk. An analysis of more than 600 data sets showed that ‘excellent’
reefs (live hard and soft coral cover above 75%) has reduced from 5.3% to 4.3% since the
late 1970s. If hard corals alone are considered, only 1.9% of the reefs can be called
‘excellent’, with average hard coral cover on all reefs at 32.3%, whereas it used to be much
higher. Acropora covered 8.1% of Philippines reefs, and the decline is thought to be due
primarily to human impacts, particularly blast fishing, as well as infestations of coral eating
crown-of-thorns starfish and drupellids. The 1998 bleaching started at Batangas in June
1998 and other reefs were affected in an almost clockwise sequence around the
Philippines. Most reefs in northern Luzon, Palawan, most of the Visayas, northern and
eastern Mindanao were affected. The most severe impact occurred at Bolinao, Pangasinan
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Southeast Asian Reefs – Status Update
where 80% of the corals were bleached. Most vulnerable were Acropora and pocilloporids
and even Porites, faviids, fungiids, caryophilids and hydrocorals were seen to bleach.
Singapore
Continued monitoring in 1998 and 1999 of permanent locations at 5 reefs showed no
reversal in the declining trend of live coral cover. Most reefs have lost up to 65% of live
coral cover since 1986. The best reef at Pulau Satumu, furthest from the mainland, also
showed a reduction in live coral cover of 37% over the past 13 years. The 1998 bleaching
affected all reefs at a scale never previously experienced. About 90% of all corals bleached
of which 25% failed to recover. The prognosis for these reefs is not good, when coupled
with national strategies to expand the island into the ocean and increase shipping activities.
Thailand
A comprehensive reef survey programme, using primarily manta tows, was conducted
between 1995 and 1998 at 251 sites in the Gulf of Thailand and 169 sites in the Andaman
Sea. All sites were fringing reefs, with most less than 1km 2 , within the total reef area of
Thailand estimated at 153km 2 , distributed equally between both seas. The condition of
reefs in the Gulf of Thailand were: 16.4% excellent, 29% good, 30.8% fair, 23.8% poor. In
the Andaman Sea, 4.6% were excellent, 12% good, 33.6% fair, and 49.8% poor. Reef
condition in the Gulf of Thailand has worsened compared to the late 1980s, while that of
the Andaman Sea remained comparable or improved slightly. About 80 permanent study
sites at the Andaman Sea side of Thailand have been established during long-term
monitoring programmes, which began in 1981 by the Phuket Marine Biological Center.
The 1998 bleaching event affected reefs in the Gulf e.g. at the Sichang Islands, 40-50% of
live coral cover was affected with no sign of recovery. Few Acropora survived while Porites
and faviids were slightly affected, and there are no signs of coral recovery or coral
recruitment. The bleaching killed 60-70% of live coral at Sattahip with Acropora being most
affected. The reefs at Rayong Chantaburi were similarly affected, however, there was strong
coral recruitment at both sites. In most cases, the loss of live coral cover did not appear to
affect reef fish communities.
Vietnam
Coral reefs are the richest marine habitats in Vietnam and extend along the 3,260km coastline
and on more than 3,000 inshore and offshore islands. Reefs in the north support fewer
species and are mainly fringing reefs, whereas in the south, there are also platform reefs. Of
the 300 coral species, 277 species (72 genera) are found on reefs in the south, while reefs in
the north have 165 species in 52 genera. Surveys of 142 sites from 15 of the 28 reef areas
between 1994 and 1997 show that only 1.4% have live coral cover above 75%. ‘Poor’ reefs
with less than 25% coral cover occurred at 37.3% of the sites. Of the remaining sites, 48.6%
had coral cover between 25 and 50%, and 31% between 50 and 75%. There is a distinct
correlation between healthier reefs and remoteness from human population centres with the
best coral cover on offshore islands or remote coastal locations.
Typhoon ‘Linda’ caused extensive damage to the best protected reefs at Con Dao islands in
November 1997. Bleaching also affected the reefs of Con Dao islands, north Binh Thuan
province and Nha Trang bay during the summer of 1998. Monitoring in 1999 showed very slow
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THE SPRATLYS AND PARACEL ARCHIPELAGOS
These islands sit across major shipping lanes in the South China Sea, hence are of great
strategic importance. Ownership of them is currently disputed with Brunei, China,
Malaysia, Philippines, Taiwan and Vietnam having claims on all or part of the Spratlys;
and China, and Vietnam claiming the Paracels. These are coral reef islands that sit on
seamounts rising from oceanic depths in clear waters remote from continental
influences, except for fishers that come out using dynamite and cyanide to catch reef
fish, and the construction of military installations. The reefs are thought to be
significant as possible sources of larvae for nearby reefs and are important in
completing reef connectivity throughout the South China Sea. Proposals that they
should be declared a ‘global’ marine protected area are not supported by all of the
claimant states. Malaysia, Vietnam and the Philippines have conducted some joint
studies on some of these reefs in recent years, however, it is essential that more joint
efforts be initiated so that the full significance of these reefs can be understood.
recovery of the Con Dao reefs from the double impacts of typhoon and bleaching. The reefs at
north Binh Thuan however recovered well due to the June-September annual upwelling.
STATUS OF CORAL REEF FISHES
Southeast Asian reefs contain a rich diversity of reef fish and other reef species, including
many endemic species. The region’s reefs have also been described as an important source
of larval recruits to reefs in adjacent regions. The joint project between ASEAN and
Australia reported 787 reef fish species, including 41 species of butterflyfish at study sites
in Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. However, a recent analysis in
the Philippines revealed 915 species from 63 families, including 48 species of butterflyfish.
This clearly indicates that with more intensive studies, many more species will be found.
Indonesia has the richest reef fish diversity in the world, particularly on the eastern reefs,
e.g. 123 pomacentrid species, and 83 species of angelfishes and butterflyfishes, far
exceeding other areas of the world. The offshore reefs and less disturbed reefs have higher
species diversity and abundance, e.g. in Vietnam there is higher reef fish diversity in the
south and central regions, but offshore reefs have higher fish abundance. The reefs of the
Gulf of Tonkin have low species richness. The oceanic reefs of Sipadan and Layang Layang
(Sabah), have higher numbers of butterflyfish and groupers and other species compared to
inshore sites. In Cambodia, fish diversity is low, particularly at inshore reefs, characterised
by few fish, mainly damselfish and butterflyfish. Some reefs such as Poi Tamoung about
50m from shore with better corals support greater diversity, including angelfish, butterflyfish,
rabbitfish and parrotfish. Thus there appears to be a clear correlation between healthy
corals, larger fish diversity, abundance and lower levels of human interference at these sites.
Throughout the region, reef fish diversity and abundance are threatened by reef
degradation, destructive fishing and over-fishing. Cambodian reefs are affected by over-
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fishing of large commercial fishes and invertebrates. Only 11% of the Philippine reef sites
had high standing stocks of fish above 35mt km -2 . Species richness was poor for 35% of the
sites (27-47 species 1000m -2 ) and high for 25% of the sites (>75 species 1000m -2 ). Fish
abundance was high at 31% of the sites (>2268 indiv. 1000m -2 ) and poor at 24% of the
sites (
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
fishing has depleted stocks of large fish of commercial value (e.g. humphead wrasse,
grouper, sweetlips), sea cucumbers and giant clams. Cyanide fishing is a relatively new
threat targeting fish such as groupers and snappers for grow-out in cages at Tumnup Rolork
and Stoeng Hav, although the Fisheries Department is discouraging this practice. Coral
collecting was a large threat between 1995 and 1997 when foreign companies collected
and exported container-loads of corals, but the business has been suspended by the
Ministry of Environment and the confiscation of corals on sale in Sihanoukville has reduced
this trade. Selective coral collecting for the marine ornamental trade is regarded as a cause
for reduced Acropora abundance on many reefs.
Over-fishing and use of destructive methods (poison, blast and fine mesh nets) has resulted
in widespread destruction of reefs in Quang Ninh, Nghe An, Quang Binh, Thua Thien-Hue,
Quang nam, Da Nang, Quang Ngai and Khanh Hoa provinces, Vietnam. Cyanide fishing for
groupers for the live fish trade is widespread in the northern and central parts of Vietnam,
and even near the Con Dao National Park. Sea cucumbers are heavily exploited, and
collection of ornamental fish for the aquarium trade is a rising problem as poisons are used to
stun fish. Lobsters have declined from some reefs e.g. at Cu Lau Cham, and pearl shell
(Pinctada martensii and Lutraria philippinarium) have disappeared from many reefs in the
north. Exploitation of species listed as endangered in Vietnam’s Red Book still occurs (e.g.
four lobster species, two abalone species, the squid Loligo formosana, and three clupeid
species). Non-resident marine fishers from China and Hong Kong compete with local
fishermen in offshore waters. Marine tourism is fuelling the demand for souvenirs, including
endangered and protected species such as turtles. Acropora is becoming rare in places such as
Nha Trang, the centre of coral trade in Vietnam, and other invertebrates are also harvested as curios.
Similarly bleak pictures of over-fishing and destructive fishing apply throughout East
Malaysia, Philippines and Indonesia. Blast fishing and the use of cyanide for the live fish and
aquarium trade has destroyed many reefs in East Malaysia, often with losses of 80% of
original coral cover. There have been reports of decreased blast fishing in most parts of the
Philippines. However this practice is still common in the Palawan group of islands, Sulu
Archipelago and western Mindanao, and coral recovery from blasting in these areas
remains slow. Two other fishing practices can potentially deplete marine resources;
spearfishing using scuba or hookah, and drift net fishing. Blast fishing however is not
practiced in West Malaysia possibly due to strong enforcement, and also in Singapore due
to all reefs being close to major shipping activities.
A special problem has occurred in Indonesia since the economic downturn since the late
1990s. Many people who were employed in industries have returned to exploiting coral
reef resources as industries closed. Moreover, the collapse in local economies has meant
that population control programmes have stopped and the population of over 200 million
is likely to expand further. Also funding for government conservation measures has
decreased, with parallel increases in deforestation, including mangrove forests, such that
runoff of sediments and nutrients are impacting heavily on coastal reefs.
Other anthropogenic impacts in the region include coastal development and marine
pollution with primary sources from industry, agriculture, shrimp pond effluent,
unsustainable logging, and domestic waste; all of which increase sedimentation, nutrients
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and other pollutants in the water. Heavy sedimentation has degraded Vietnam’s reefs at Cat
Ba Islands and Ha Long Bay.
CURRENT AND POTENTIAL CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS
The 1998 bleaching of corals was widespread and on a scale and intensity not previously
encountered in the region. This has highlighted the potential for climate change to impact
on coral reefs. Slow rates of sea level rise will provide the necessary environmental
conditions for reefs to optimise structure and orientation. However, erosion factors caused
by increased rainfall may reverse this upward growth. Sea surface temperature changes will
trigger further bleaching events, which are expected to be more severe than the 1998
bleaching. The rapid recovery of reefs from the 1998 bleaching at north Binh Thuan in
Vietnam was attributed to the annual upwelling, which brought cold waters to the surface.
Reefs elsewhere in Vietnam recovered at a slower rate, implying that reefs near major
upwelling areas may suffer less from bleaching events.
The collapse of reef systems can be translated directly to loss of goods and services that
they generate. In terms of carbon sequestration alone, using the avoided future cost of
climate change of $20/tonne of carbon, the estimated carbon storage value of coral reefs is
US$240/ha/year. Thus, just the reefs of the Malacca Straits have annual values of US$237,000
for the coral reef area of 1,317.5ha on the Malaysian side, US$93,863,000 for 521,462ha of
Indonesian reefs and US$51,700 for the 287ha of Singapore reefs.
Sea-level rises will have a magnified impact in this region as 70% of the population live in
the coastal area. In December 1999 abnormally high tides and waves caused extensive
flooding and erosion of coastal areas in many parts of the region. High tides resulted in
floating fish farms being pulled from their anchoring points, coastal resorts being flooded,
rivers overflowing their banks, and disruption of basic infrastructure services throughout the
area. Submergence of coastlines considered well above high tide level resulted in excess
nutrient runoff and macroalgal blooms in some coastal lagoons in Singapore. There was
complete flooding of the Turtle Islands by up to 50cm for 5 hours resulting in significant
erosion of shoreline and loss of an inland turtle hatchery.
CURRENT MPAS AND MONITORING AND CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT CAPACITY
A variety of reef management systems exist in the region, with an increasing number of Marine
Protected Areas (MPAs) being declared throughout Southeast Asia. Unfortunately many occur
only on paper with only limited government commitments to staffing and operational
funding, thus few MPAs are effectively managed. Of the 109 MPAs established by ASEAN
countries as of 1994, 65% contained coral reef resources. Many of these MPAs were former
terrestrial reserves with jurisdiction only recently extended to include marine resources.
Vietnam has only 3 protected areas (Cat Ba, Con Dao and Halong bay) that include marine
components and reefs are not adequately represented in the country’s protected areas.
Frequently when there are management-oriented staff in MPAs, they lack adequate training
and skills and are not provided with logistic resources. In addition, many problems arise
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
due to conflicting responsibilities for management of the resources within the MPAs
because responsibilities are often based on different sectoral interests, e.g. exploitation
agencies attempt to maximise fisheries and act against environmental bodies seeking
conservation. Frequently agencies managing different aspects of the coastal area have poor
communication between them, resulting in uncoordinated efforts which undermine conservation
and protection of reef resources. Increased political commitment is necessary to address the
deficiency seen in these MPAs and respective links with broader coastal management strategies.
Community-based management systems are apparently having more widespread success
and different models have been applied to suit local situations. Successes in the
Philippines, Thailand and Indonesia show that it is effective for small areas where local
communities are directly involved in management. Community-based management
provides users with a better sense of propriety and greater motivation to manage the very
resources that they themselves are dependent on. Such communities are effective in
controlling destructive activities caused by other users as well as themselves. For larger
areas, the co-management system approach is more effective where management is shared
between government agencies, local communities and non-governmental organisations.
Many Southeast Asian countries are signatories to international conventions and agreements
to maintain natural ecosystems. Of relevance to coral reefs is the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), which has been effective in slowing the
export of live and dead corals and other reef organisms from the region. Another
international convention addressing the global loss of plant and animal species is the
Convention on Biological Diversity which the majority of the states have signed and ratified.
Informal regional agreements such as the 1989 Langkawi Declaration on the Environment,
the 1990 Baguio Resolution on Coastal Resource Management, the 1990 Kuala Lumpur
Accord on Environment and Development, and the 1994 Bangkok Resolutions on Living
Coastal Resources, all attest to increased regional awareness of the need to manage coastal
resources including coral reefs for sustainable use.
GOVERNMENT POLICIES, LAWS AND LEGISLATION
Some countries have numerous policies and laws relating directly to coral reef
conservation, while others do not. For example, in Cambodia and Singapore the only laws
pertinent to coral reefs relate to fishing and not directly to conservation. More targeted
national policies or conservation strategies for coral reefs are required to ensure that reefs
are given the deserved protection, including clear goals for the conservation and
sustainability of reef resources. Laws for many marine parks were extensions of laws
establishing terrestrial parks and did not contain relevant or applicable provisions to cover
the marine environment and respective ecological and economic management differences.
Such policies and laws for reef conservation need to be drafted within the context of
integrated coastal management to be effective and ensure that development and
conservation concerns are reconciled in the interest of sustainable development. Indonesia
did not establish a systematic coastal and marine management regime before 1999 even
though over 12 national Ministries have coastal and marine management responsibilities. To
address this need for better co-ordination and effective management, the Indonesian
government created a new Ministry of Marine Exploration and Fisheries. Regardless of
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adequate administrative and legal framework, problems will arise from lack of political will,
corruption, lack of resources, and lack of understanding of the role of coral reefs. These are issues
that are best addressed through the adoption of an integrated coastal management strategy.
GAPS IN CURRENT MONITORING AND CONSERVATION CAPACITY
Coral reef monitoring has expanded throughout the region during the 1990s with reef
surveys increasingly being used for management assessment. However, it is clear that
monitoring capacity varies widely between the countries based on those participating in an
ASEAN-Australian cooperation project (Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore,
Thailand), even though most of these countries have institutions with trained staff capable
of monitoring reefs and are jointly using accepted methodology. The use of common
survey methods permits comparisons and regional analysis of trends in reef health, and
monitoring is conducted fairly routinely. The capacity in Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia,
Myanmar and Vietnam is developing as well, albeit at different levels, e.g. some countries
require not only trained personnel, while others need equipment and facilities. For
countries with regular monitoring programmes, the sites selected are sometimes not well
distributed. In some cases there are clusters of intensively studied sites, while large areas
of reefs remain un-monitored. Thus compiling an adequate picture of reef status throughout
the region is not possible. The addition of Reef Check surveys involving volunteer divers has
supplemented national programmes.
THE ASEAN-AUSTRALIA LIVING COASTAL RESOURCES PROJECT
The effects of a collaborative project between 5 ASEAN countries (Indonesia, Malaysia,
Philippines, Singapore, Thailand) and Australia between 1984 and 1994 are still having
an influence in the region. These countries have considerable capacity to monitor coral
reefs and all continue monitoring at many of the sites that were established in 1986 or
earlier. The emphasis, under funding from Australian AusAID, was on developing capacity
to research and monitor coral reefs, mangrove forests, seagrass beds and the fisheries
over soft bottoms. A major task was to develop common methodologies and this resulted
in a manual now in global use. A common reef survey method was proposed, tested and
developed to monitor reefs over spatial and temporal scales throughout the region.
Using this Line-Intercept Technique, participating countries implemented reef monitoring
programmes and gathered information on the condition of reefs and how they changed
over time. Use of common methods facilitated comparisons across the region. While the
project enhanced reef monitoring capacity in these countries and enabled reef condition
to be quantified, the sites selected did not provide an even distribution throughout the
region. Most reef sites surveyed were within convenient reach of participating agencies,
resulting in thorough information of some reefs and none of others. English, S., Wilkinson,
C. and Baker, V. 1997, Survey Manual for Tropical Marine Resources. Australian
Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, 390 pp.
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Southeast Asian reefs continue to face increasing threats from economic and population
growth, and these pressures are overriding the increasing numbers of conservation
initiatives at national, local and community levels. The benefits and significance of reef systems
are now better known and there is greater awareness of the importance of managing and
protecting the resources; however, reef degradation continues to outpace reef protection, as
the former is driven by short-term economic development and market pressures.
Management capacity is clearly insufficient in a region heavily reliant on natural resource
exploitation and where large segments of the population derive a subsistence living from
direct exploitation of these resources. During the Asian economic crisis since1997,
economic recovery took priority and slowed down most reef management activities.
However, the Blongko Marine Sanctuary in North Sulawesi, which is fully managed by the
local community, demonstrated that effective reef resource management ensured the
continued generation of goods and services to the community and provided the locals
with adequate financial security throughout the crisis. All levels of management capacity
need strengthening, whether at community, local government or national government
levels. Management at community level can be relatively straightforward and simpler to
implement provided conflicts amongst groups or individuals do not override the larger
goals. At local government and national government levels, reef conservation should be
implemented within the context of integrated coastal management approaches. Many
large marine parks not only have problems with surveillance and enforcement
deficiencies, but also the lack of recognition of local community needs. Both integrated
coastal management and community-based management approaches can be combined to
provide greater and more effective management efficiency as they involve the local
government and local communities.
This region illustrates a wide diversity of reef management experiences. Dive resorts for
example, appear to perform a more active role in conserving the core resources, which
attract their visitors. Many ‘house reefs’ are well-protected and some resorts provide help
(e.g. fast boats and fuel) to local agencies to improve surveillance. Systematic and
innovative approaches should be considered to compile all types of reef management
models operating within the region and to analyse what works best for certain situations.
There are numerous case studies, but the lessons from failures or successes have not been
fully synthesised and applied.
A more coordinated approach to coral reef monitoring should be established and a
regional mechanism will permit more effective sharing of information at national and
regional levels. This will enable the region as a whole to adopt better strategic approaches
to protect reefs. Areas that have little or no monitoring, but are thought to have a strategic
role in larval supply routes, need to be identified and targeted for investigation. Public
education will remain an important process to reef management. It has to be promoted,
expanded and implemented with greater urgency.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND SUPPORTING DOCUMENTATION
I must record my full appreciation to all colleagues for responding to my request for
information and/or for making their national reports available. The report would not have
been possible without their full cooperation. They are: Annadel Cabanban, Ian Dutton,
Edgardo Gomez, David Hopley, Hugh Kirkman, Al Licuanan, Jeffrey Low, Vipoosit
Manthachitra, Nicolas Pilcher, Karenne Tun, Vo Si Tuan, Matt Wheeler, Clive Wilkinson.
Loke Ming Chou is a Professor of Biological Sciences in the National University of Singapore.
([email protected])
Alcala AC (2000) Blast fishing in the Philippines, with notes on two destructive fishing
activities. Workshop on the Status of Philippine Reefs, 24 Jan. 2000, Marine Science
Institute, University of the Philippines
Dahuri R, Dutton IM (2000) Integrated coastal and marine management enters a new era in
Indonesia. Integrated Coastal Zone Management 1: 11-16.
MPP-EAS (1999) Total economic valuation: Coastal and marine resources in the Straits of
Malacca. MPP-EAS Technical Report No. 24/PEMSEA Technical Report No. 2. Global
Environment Facility/United Nations Development Programme/International Maritime
Organisation Regional Programme for the Prevention and Management of Marine
Pollution in the East Asian Seas (MPP-EAS)/Partnerships in Environmental
Management for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA), Quezon City, Philippines. 52pp.
Talaue-McManus L (2000) Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis for the South China Sea.
EAS/RCU Technical Report Series No 14. UNEP Bangkok, Thailand. 106pp.
Vo ST (2000) Preliminary report on the status of coral reefs in Vietnam: 2000
([email protected])
The following reports were prepared for the Packard Foundation and copies may be
available from the authors:
Hopley, D. and Suharsono (2000). The Status of Coral Reefs of Eastern Indonesia. Pp. 114
([email protected])
Licuanan, W.Y, Gomez ED (2000) Philippine coral reefs, reef fishes, and associated fisheries:
Status and recommendations to improve their management. Pp. 44.
([email protected])
Pilcher, N, Cabanban, A. (2000) The status of coral reefs in Sabah, Labuan and Sarawak, east
Malaysia. Pp. 62 ([email protected])
129
8. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF EAST AND
NORTH ASIA: CHINA, JAPAN AND TAIWAN
SHUICHI FUJIWARA, TAKURO SHIBUNO, K. MITO, TATSUO NAKAI,
YASUNORI SASAKI, DAI CHANG-FENG AND CHEN GANG
ABSTRACT
These reefs sit at the northern edge of the Southeast Asian centre of biodiversity and as
such share many of the species and characteristics of reefs to the south. Coral bleaching
and mortality seriously damaged the reefs of southern Japan and Taiwan, and possibly of
China, from July to September, 1998, when seasonal winds and currents slowed during the
La Niña climate change. Bleaching stopped in late September when the first typhoon of the
season came. There were many reports of coral losses of 30-60% and some as high as 80-
90%, with some localised extinctions of prominent corals reported. The Japanese
government has established an international coral reef centre on Ishigaki Island (the
southern islands of Okinawa) to facilitate coral reef conservation in the region and assist the
GCRMN with monitoring. All countries have improved policies concerning coral reefs, but
more attention is needed for designating and managing MPAs and building capacity as
reefs in this region come under extreme pressures from over-fishing, as well as high levels
of sediment and nutrient pollution arising from activities on land.
INTRODUCTION
The coral reefs of Taiwan and Japan are closely linked by the northward flowing Kuroshio
current which brings warm water and coral reef larvae from reefs in the South China Sea and
the Philippines. This creates ideal connections for corals and other species to move
northward to the Japanese main islands, and the warmer conditions make these some of
the most northern coral reefs in the world. The Chinese reefs, mainly on Hainan Island are at
the northern end of the South China Sea, therefore they have links with reefs of Vietnam and
the Spratly Archipelago to the south. These reefs are also adjacent to the largest
concentration of people on earth, such that they have provided resources of food and
other materials for thousands of years. However, the pressures of these populations on the
reefs has been increasingly resulting in considerable damage to the resources, which was
exacerbated by heavy coral bleaching and mortality during the massive climate change
events of 1998.
China
The coral reefs of Hainan are on the northern margin of Indo-Pacific coral reef centres of
high biodiversity, and presumably there are also large numbers of species here, but there is
lack of taxonomic capacity to confirm this. Studies are required to assess the possible
important role that these reefs play in the global reef system. The major coral reefs areas
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
fringe the South China Sea, especially around Hainan Island, around the coasts of
Guangdong and Guangxi Autonomous Region, and also around Hong Kong. These last reefs
are the only ones for which there is significant descriptive material. China also has strong
interests in the Paracel and Spratly islands (Xisha and Nansha Islands; See Box in the SE
Asian report on Spratlys)
Japan
There are two major currents that influence coral growth on the Japanese Islands, but in
two different ways. The Kuroshio current from the south warms the waters around these
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Status of Coral Reefs of East and North Asia
high latitude islands, bringing larvae and juveniles of tropical species. The Oyashio cold
current from the north blocks the Kuroshio around the latitude of Tokyo, which corresponds
to the limits of coral growth in this region. The Kuroshio maintains warm water temperatures
above16 o C in winter around the southern half of the country, and warms the Ryukyu Islands
to a minimum of 20 o C. Corals are therefore found on the coast of Japan up to Tateyama,
near Tokyo Bay, at latitude 35 o N, even though the water temperature can drop as low as
12 o C in winter, however the maximum extent of true reef growth is around 30 o N.
There are three types of reefs in Japan: fringing; barrier; and one raised atoll (Daito Island).
There are mostly fringing reefs in the Nansei Islands area, whereas around the Ogasawara
Islands small fringing reefs predominate, called ‘apron reefs’. The total reef area in the
Nansei Islands is about 100,000ha, with 41% of these in the Yaeyama Islands, 29% around
Okinawa and nearby islands, and 19% in the Amami Islands. There are 460ha in the
Ogasawara Islands, just south of the mainland (Muko, Chichi and Haha Islands). There are
about 400 hard coral species, with the highest number at Yaeyama (Iriomote Island, Sekisei
Lagoon, and Shiraho of Ishigaki Island), and decreasing towards the north. The Yaeyama
Islands are particularly important because they have high species diversity, with many rare
or endemic species (e.g. Leptoseris amitoriensis), and serve as ‘stepping stones’ for coral
larval dispersal from the Philippines to the Ryukyu Islands, and then further north.
Taiwan
There are extensive fringing reefs and some platform reefs around the main island and some
of the smaller islands. The species diversity is relatively high, with about 300 hard coral
species, 70 soft coral and gorgonian species, and 1200 fish species. The reefs are under the
impact of typhoons and have not been invaded by the crown-of-thorns starfish.
STATUS OF CORAL REEF BENTHOS
China
Hainan Province is the main coral reef region of China, however, little is known of the recent
status of coral reefs of the province, except for Sanya in the southeast where there are most
of the fringing reefs. Surveys of the reefs inside the Ya Long Wan Marine Park show that the
corals are in a healthy condition, but outside the park they have been badly damaged by
sedimentation, dynamite and poison fishing. In all locations, most edible reef organisms
occur in very low numbers indicating serious over-fishing and harvesting. These reefs occur
within the tropical and equatorial monsoon belt, characterised by high temperatures, high
rainfall, monsoon currents and waves, distinct dry and wet seasons, and occasional tropical
cyclones. The reef corals share close similarities with the islands and coastlines of the South
China Sea, and through them to the centres of reef coral diversity to the south in the
Philippines and Indonesia.
Japan
An aerial survey by the Environment Agency of Japan (EAJ) from 1990-1992 revealed that in
approximately 34,200ha of coral communities in the Nansei Islands, there was generally low
coral cover as follows: 61.3% of communities with coral cover less than 5%; 30.6% of
communities with coral cover between 5% and 50%; 8.2% of communities with coral
cover over 50%. In the moats (shallow lagoons) of the Okinawa main islands, 90.8% of the
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coral communities had less than 5% cover. On Ishigaki Island moats (Yaeyama Islands),
coral communities had less than 5% coral cover, whereas cover was much higher in some
communities on the east and northwest side. Sekisei lagoon between Ishigaki and Iriomote
Islands, has over 13,000ha of coral communities with 9.9% having over 50% cover, mostly
in the north of the lagoon.
The reef margins in the Nansei Islands (surveyed with 1,300km of manta tows) had 52%
coral cover ranging from as low as 5%, with the margins higher percentages than the moats.
On the main island of Okinawa, 67% of the reef margins had coral cover less than 5%,
whereas in the nearby Kerama Islands, most coral communities had high coral cover. There
are many seagrass beds in the Ryukyu Islands, estimated at 6,900ha, and smaller ones
around Amami Islands (130ha). The largest area of seagrass beds was in Yaeyama Islands
(approx. 60% of the Ryukyu Islands) and on the east coast of Iriomote Island, seagrass beds
covered 1,400ha.
The most severe coral bleaching and mortality event ever observed occurred around
southern Japan during the summer of 1998, where 97 municipalities reported bleaching
from: the Ryukyu Islands to Hachijo Island south of Tokyo; to the Amami Islands; southern
Kyushu; Shikoku; and southern Honshu. No bleaching was observed in western Shikoku,
Miyake Island or Ogasawara Islands in the Kuroshio region. Reported bleaching was 40-60%
in Nansei Island; under 20%, in Koshikijima Island western Kyushu, eastern Shikoku and
Kushimoto; 30-40% on Hachijo Island (most severe was 80-90% on Hachijo Island).
Mortality was 70-90% on south Yoron Island and 30-60 % on north Yoron Island. Surveys
before and after the bleaching in the Sekisei Lagoon, showed that 40% of Acropora died
after bleaching and 8% of all coral cover was lost. In Ishigaki Island, coral cover showed a 62%
decrease after bleaching, with the most damaged corals being Acropora. Whereas mortality in
Heliopora coerulea, Porites cylindrica and branching Montipora was not significant.
Taiwan
Due to coastal development and pollution, there has been substantial degradation to some
reefs during the past 10 years, with living coral cover being reduced from approximately
50% to 30% and some species of reef fishes, gastropods, and crustaceans becoming
locally extinct. Destructive fishing practices (especially dynamite), sedimentation from
construction and dredging, coral collection, sewage pollution, aquarium fish collecting,
and unregulated tourist activities have caused this damage.
Reefs in the Penghu Islands (west of Taiwan on the Tropic of Cancer) have been extensively
damaged by dynamite fishing, trawling, and sedimentation. The Lutao and Lanyu reefs
(southeast of Taiwan) are being damaged by destructive fishing practices and intensive
tourist activities. Reef fish populations are very low because of aquarium fish collecting and
spearfishing. In 1998, extensive coral bleaching occurred on the reefs in southern Taiwan,
Penghu Islands, Lutao, and Lanyu, with approximately 30% to 50% of coral colonies
bleached. Surveys in 1999 and 2000 revealed that about 20% of coral colonies had died
during this bleaching event.
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Status of Coral Reefs of East and North Asia
STATUS OF CORAL REEF FISHES AND FISHERIES
The effects of the severe coral bleaching of 1998 on the fish community at Urasoko Bay and
Ishigaki Island (Ryukyus Islands) differed between the two habitats. On the outer reef, most
of the Acropora spp. corals had died by late September 1998 and were coated with
filamentous algae by late October 1998. There were fewer coral-polyp feeders
(butterflyfish etc.) but more herbivores, particularly two acanthurids (Ctenochaetus striatus,
Acanthurus nigrofuscus). The numbers of individual fish per transect increased, but the
species diversity decreased after the coral bleaching. In the moat where the bottom is
mostly covered by coral rubble and sand with several large Porites microatolls, there was
little effect of coral bleaching, and surgeonfish populations did not change, but the number
of individuals and species per transect, and species diversity increased after the bleaching.
Although fisheries statistics are collected in all prefectures of Japan, only Okinawa
Prefecture has fisheries statistics for coral reef fishes. The total catch of coral reef fishes in
1993 was 6,066mt, whereas in 1998 it dropped 21% to 4,792mt, with the catch by family:
895mt Lethrinidae (including coastal Lutjanidae); 807mt Scaridae; 50mt Caesionidae; 412mt
Serranidae; 308mt Carangidae; and 271mt Siganidae. The catch of Carangidae has
decreased considerably between 1993 and 1998, whereas the Scaridae catch was stable.
Fishing effort appears to be decreasing, for example: the record of only 328 gillnet fishers in
1998 is a drop of 12% in the past 5 years. The 177 longline fishers has decreased by 24%,
however with hook and line fishers, there was a 7% increase to 1,168 between these years.
ANTHROPOGENIC THREATS TO CORAL REEF BIODIVERSITY
Sedimentation from Land Development
The most critical environmental issue in the Ryukyu Islands is terrestrial runoff of red clay
soils, which is affecting the coral reefs of Amami-Oshima Id, Tokuno-Shima Island, and
Okinoerabu Island in Kagoshima Prefecture and Okinawa Island, Miyako Islands, Ishigaki
Island and others in Okinawa Prefecture. The sediment arises from poor land development
and use of farmlands, road building and forestry. Activities within US military sites are also a
factor. On Ogasawara Islands, run-off has been caused by the wild goats stripping
vegetation. Attempts have been made to resolve these problems, and the Okinawa
Prefecture established the ‘Red-Silt and Other Soil Particles Outflow Prevention Ordinance’
for large developments; however, runoff still continues from smaller constructing sites and
others completed before the Ordinance.
Construction of an airport adjacent to the Shiraho coral reef of Ishigaki Island will probably
release large amounts of sediment and damage the reef that attracts to tourists to the island.
Workshops on watershed and environment management have been held in northern
Okinawa and Ishigaki with the support of administrators, farmers, fishermen, and the public
in order to reduce red clay pollution. Suggestions to solve the problem include: reducing
the modification of rivers; preventing developments from altering natural groundwater
flows; and controlling domestic drainage and wastes. Similar reports are of damage to
coral reefs around Hainan Island.
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
Development of Coastal Areas Near Coral Reefs
Construction of the airport on Ishigaki had raised public awareness about the need for coral
reef conservation and the impacts of development. However, large-scale land reclamation
has been performed on the coral reefs near Naha airport (Okinawa) and port and harbour
development throughout the islands with considerable damage to coral reefs. Ironically
land reclamation is planned on coral reefs to attract more tourists e.g. on Yoron Island
(Kagoshima prefecture) in the 1990s. A particular centre of interest is construction of a
military airport by the US Marine Corps on Henoko, Okinawa, near an area inhabited by
endangered dugongs.
Over-use of Coral Reefs
There are over 4 million tourists to the Ryukyu Islands every year and the marine leisure
industry is a major component of the local economy. However, insufficient rules and
management do not ensure that coral reefs conservation is sustained, even though it is
essential to the survival of the industry. Tourists on Miyako and Ishigaki Islands continue to
trample over live corals on the reef flat and there is no education or regulation to prevent
this damage. The increasing use of jet skies and underwater walking with helmets is creating
new threats. Scuba diving is particularly popular and high concentrations of divers at key
sites result in considerable damage to the corals. Diving instructors are aware of the
problems and educating tourism-oriented divers about the importance of coral reef
conservation. For example, diving locations are rotated to prevent overuse of some diving
spots. Nevertheless, there remains further need for regulation of leisure activities in the
Ryukyu Islands, and increased coordination between the tourism and fishery stakeholders.
Some cooperation in Yomitan-Son (Okinawa) and other areas has started between leisure
service providers and fishers to increase local tourism while preserving the reefs.
Collection of living resources such as reef fish, shells, octopus, cuttlefish, crabs and algae is
important as livelihoods for people from the Ryukyu Islands; yet, these resources have
decreased in quantity and quality through over-fishing and environmental degradation. The
Okinawa Prefecture Government operates some fishery projects for sustainable fishery such
as release of juveniles, establishing artificial reefs and fisheries management. These stories
are also applicable for China and Taiwan.
Conservation Efforts
Although various measures have been introduced to conserve the coral reefs, these are
insufficient, especially the lack of coordinated conservation of adjacent land and the sea
areas. Laws and plans for land use stipulate that the reefs be conserved, but these are only
general recommendations. Similarly, conservation of the natural environment is virtually
ignored outside of the protected areas, and development always has priority over
conservation. To improve conservation of coral reefs, it is essential to introduce the concept
of sustainable use of nature, and apply more regulations and zoning of the land. This will
require better environmental education for the whole community, especially local residents.
The Ryukyu Islands are densely populated and reefs are heavily exploited, however, there
were once traditional rules about sustainable use of the resources. These rules should be reintroduced
into the culture in order to conserve the coral reefs of the Ryukyu Islands.
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Status of Coral Reefs of East and North Asia
CURRENT AND POTENTIAL CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS
The Japan Marine Science and Technology Center (JAMSTEC) carried out extensive surveys
of the 1998 bleaching in Akajima Island and the main island of Okinawa, and also collected
meteorological and oceanographic data which were closely correlated with the bleaching.
A simulation model was developed to estimate how variations in meteorological and
oceanographic conditions affect the recovery rate of bleached coral reefs. Remote sensing
from aircraft was also used to assess the impact of the 1998 bleaching, after attempts using
satellite images were ineffective. The meteorological parameters of air temperature, cloud
cover, solar irradiation, wind, rainfall, water temperatures, Kuroshio current strength, salinity,
tidal level etc. were measured seeking correlations with the bleaching data. The analysis
showed that variations in water temperatures in the Equatorial areas were reflected in
Okinawa some months later and large areas with high surface water temperature (29 o C or
higher) occurred in the summer season of 1998. The conclusion was that global
oceanographic variations were the driving forces of the bleaching of coral reefs, but there
was no clear link that meteorological conditions could initiate the bleaching, and further
studies were recommended. The other conclusion was that recovery rates will be different
among species, and strongly dependent on water temperatures and turbidity.
MAPS, MONITORING AND MANAGEMENT CAPACITY
China
Research and monitoring capacity is generally low and coral reefs have had little previous
prominence in policy making. In late 2000, the first Reef Check-GCRMN training will be held
in Hainan, supported by UNEP. Participants from three coastal provinces with coral reefs:
Hainan, Guangdong and Guangxi Autonomous Region, will work on training materials
translated into Chinese by the Chinese State Oceanic Administration. Earlier in 2000, Reef
Check in Hong Kong assembled 16 teams including government, academia, and the private
sector to survey reefs throughout Hong Kong; probably the most concentrated volunteer
monitoring programme in the world.
Japan
The establishment of Natural Parks under the Natural Parks Law is an effective means for
environmental conservation in Japan. There are 6 Natural Parks with coral reefs in the
Amami, Ryukyu and Ogasawara Islands, with a land area of 45,854ha, approximately 11% of
total area of the coral reef islands. There are also 23 Marine Park Zones in National and
Quasi-National Parks in these coral reef islands (total areas 1,615ha). The total area of these
Marine Park Zones is approximately 1.7% of the coral reef area of Japan.
• Ogasawara National Park, managed by the Environment Agency of Japan (EAJ).
There are 7 Marine Park Zones in Chichi and Haha Islands with open ocean
characteristics of high transparency, high species richness of fishes and abundant
Tridacna maxima (giant clams). These reefs are small and appear to grow slowly,
with some interesting limestone structures.
• Iriomote National Park, managed by EAJ, including 3 Marine Park Zones in Sekisei
Lagoon, and 1 in the moat around a coral reef island. The moat area has widely
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
distributed thickets of branching Acropora, whereas the other Marine Park Zones
are dominated by table Acropora. The Marine Parks Center of Japan has a coral
reef research station on one of the islands.
• Amami Islands Quasi-national Park, managed by the Kagoshima Prefectural
Government. This park has 9 Marine Park Zones, including 5 on Amami-Oshima
Island, 1 on Tokunoshima Island and 3 on Yoron Island. Each is located in the
moat or channel. Yoron Island has a wide moat with much branching Acropora.
Some ancient raised reefs are also present.
• Okinawa Coast Quasi-national Park, managed by the Okinawa Prefectural
Government. There are 3 Marine Park Zones: 1 on the main island of Okinawa with
a wide moat and an underwater observatory; and 2 on the Kerama Islands, where
the reef flats are poorly developed. However, the reef margins are covered with
table Acropora and have high coral cover, making their undersea scenery excellent.
• Marine Special Zone in Sakiyamawan Nature Conservation Area, by the EAJ;
Marine Special Zone (Nature Conservation Areas under the Nature Conservation
Law) on Sakiyama Inlet. This is a coral reef on the western coast of Iriomote
Island and is 128 hectares of coral reef without any land. It includes a large
colony of Galaxea fascicularis and seagrass beds, mainly Enhalus acoroides.
• International Coral Reef Research and Monitoring Center, constructed and
managed by the Okinawa Regional Office for EAJ Japan established for coral
reef monitoring for South East Asia at the ICRI regional meeting in 1997 at
Okinawa. In 2000, the Environment Agency opened the International Coral Reef
Research and Monitoring Center at Ishigaki Island, to coordinate research for
better coral reef conservation.
The Environment Agency of Japan established the International Coral Reef Research and
Monitoring Center as an East Asian Seas node for the GCRMN at Ishigaki Island, Okinawa in
May 2000. The Center started monitoring coral reefs in the area, developed a database on
coral reef information; and formed a community framework for conservation. Some
monitoring of coral communities around Japan has been carried out by the Environment
Agency as the National Survey on the Natural Environment since 1978 with data collected
on distribution, area, dominant genera and including growth forms.
There are problems with the protected areas with coral reefs, particularly as the total
protected area is 1943.5ha in 24 units. This is a small area for conservation compared to the
total area of Japan and the amount should be re-examined to assess the appropriateness of
existing areas and seek the designation of more areas. The most important issue to resolve
in the near future is to minimise disturbance to reefs from land based activities, especially
sediment and pollution runoff, and over-fishing.
Taiwan
Encouragingly, the Taiwanese Government and scientists are promoting conservation and
sustainable use of the coral reefs by establishing marine protected areas (MPAs). Currently,
a proposal for implementation of MPAs is under discussion within government.
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Status of Coral Reefs of East and North Asia
GOVERNMENT POLICIES, LAWS AND LEGISLATION
The Hainan marine authorities of China strictly enforced the law against collection of corals
for conversion to lime in 1999, and all lime kilns (more than 90) were shut down and
destroyed. Current protection and conservation activities for the coral reefs in Hainan
Province are proving to be satisfactory, with some reversals of previous years of
degradation and neglect.
Environmental administration of Japan is outlined in the Basic Environment Plan of 1994,
with 4 goals:
• ‘sustainable cycles of materials arising from human and natural activities’;
• ‘harmonious coexistence between people and nature’;
• ‘participation of all stakeholders in sharing benefits and undertaking
conservation’; and
• ‘international activities’.
Harmonious coexistence is invoked for conservation of coastal wildlife such as coral reefs
through the direct action of declaring Marine Parks and Reserves. Improved education and
interpretation of nature will be achieved with improved participation of people.
Furthermore, Japan seeks to assist and cooperate in environmental governance in the Asia
and Pacific areas for the global environment and participate in international activities.
The National Strategy on Biological Diversity in 1995 derived from the Convention on
Biological Diversity with distinct policies on conservation of biodiversity and sustainable use
of natural resources. The following regulations pertain for coral reef conservation in Japan:
• Natural Parks Law (designation and management of Marine Park Zones in Natural Parks);
• Nature Conservation Law (designation and management of Nature Conservation
Areas and Wilderness Areas);
• Fisheries Resources Protection Law (protection of fishery resources and
designation and management of fishery protected areas);
• Red-Silt and Other Soil Particles Outflow Prevention Ordinance (prevention of
runoff of soil in Okinawa prefecture).
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Many coral communities in the Ryukyu Islands were degraded by outbreaks of the crownof-thorns
starfish in 1970s and terrestrial run-off after that outbreak. Coral communities,
particularly in moats, have declined due to the increased sedimentation that accumulates
readily because of closed topography. To prevent further damage to the reefs from land,
integrated coastal management should be launched as soon as possible to improve
performance in management, understanding and community participation. A coordination
mechanism involving all stakeholders concerned with coral reefs should be formed with a
priority action to develop active conservation measures and programmes. The International
Coral Reef Research and Monitoring Center is expected to play a role as a base for such
activities as well as promoting monitoring of the reefs.
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
Monitoring capacity and the implementation of regular monitoring programmes on coral
reefs of the region are well below that for other regions of the world, therefore urgent
attention should be given to improving capacity through training in appropriate monitoring
and management techniques. Effective conservation of coral reef resources will eventually
rely on enhanced commitment amongst all levels of government and with the participation
of local stakeholders. Education and involvement are low in the region and should be
enhanced. Regulations for the use and conservation of coral reef resources are also inadequate
and enforcement is generally poor of existing laws; these are areas for urgent attention.
AUTHORS AND CONTACTS
Shuichi Fujiwara is from the Marine Parks Center of Japan; Takuro Shibuno and K. Mito are at
the Ishigaki Tropical Station, Seikai National Fisheries Research Institute; Tatsuo Nakai is from
the Nature Conservation Society of Japan, Yasunori Sasaki is at the Japan Marine Science
and Technology Center and Dai Chang-feng is from the Institute of Oceanography, National
Taiwan University, and Chen Gang is at the Hainan Marine and Fishery Department
([email protected]). For further information contact: Shuichi Fujiwara or Tadashi
Kimura e-mail: [email protected]
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9. STATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF AUSTRALASIA:
AUSTRALIA AND PAPUA NEW GUINEA
THOMAS MANIWAVIE, HUGH SWEATMAN, PAUL MARSHALL,
PHIL MUNDAY AND VAGI REI
ABSTRACT
Australia’s coral reefs are well described and monitored, and are generally in good
condition. These reefs have exceptionally high biodiversity, favoured by the massive size
and diversity of habitats. This biodiversity is, in general, well studied. They are well
protected from the relatively low level of human pressures resulting from a small population
that is not dependent on reefs for subsistence. An extensive system of marine protected
areas is being implemented, the best known of these is the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park
(which is also a World Heritage Area). This is the largest marine protected area in the world
and serves as a model for the establishment of many other similar multi-user areas. The
monitoring programmes on the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) are also probably the largest and
most extensive in the world and are used as models for other projects. These are amongst
the best studied coral reefs in the world with very high capacity in all areas of coral reef
science, management and education. Large numbers of crown-of-thorns starfish have
damaged some regions of the GBR in the past, although recovery is good in most areas. A
damaging outbreak is again threatening. Coral bleaching seriously affected a small part of
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
the inner GBR in 1998 with relatively low levels of mortality generally confined to shallower
areas (
Status of Coral Reefs of Australasia
continuation of the GBR, whereas the reefs to the north and around the islands have strong
affinities with reefs of the Solomon Islands to the east and Indonesia to the west. Coral reefs
are an integral part of the subsistence economy in most coastal regions where people rely on
them for coastal protection, food, medicines and cultural properties. They are also essential
for export fisheries and a growing tourism industry. The national economy is poorly developed
although the islands are rich in resources and foreign aid plays a major role in this economy.
This paper builds on the previous GCRMN publication in 1998 and new material is based
on reports on the status of the GBR by the Australian Institute of Marine Science, which
coordinates probably the largest coral reef monitoring programme in the world on the GBR
and Western Australia (Box P. 155), and the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority
(GBRMPA – Box P. 153). The PNG component builds on the 2000 report on the status of
coral reefs in Papua New Guinea prepared by the GCRMN for the Packard Foundation.
STATUS OF CORALS, OTHER BENTHOS AND FISHES
PNG
Recent surveys and anecdotal accounts indicate that most reefs in PNG are in very good
condition. Reefs surveyed recently had relatively high coral cover and little evidence of
damage from human activity. Over 40% coral cover is common, but this varies with
location, reef type, depth and other variables. It also appears that total cover of algae
above 20% is not uncommon on apparently healthy reefs in PNG. Subsistence and artisinal
fishing is the predominant human activity on PNG reefs. In general, reef fish harvests are
thought to be below sustainable levels, however, there is evidence of over-fishing around
Port Moresby and other large coastal centres. There is also good evidence of substantial
overfishing of invertebrates such as sea cucumbers, trochus, green snail and clams in many
locations. The pressures on reef resources in PNG will almost certainly increase as the
population continues to grow, especially in large coastal towns.
Australia
While there is considerable information on the status of Australian reefs, there are still gaps
for some significant parts. Much of the Great Barrier Reef has been studied extensively and
the area is the subject of several monitoring programmes, the largest by the Australian
Institute of Marine Science (AIMS). Reef organisms are monitored at Ningaloo, Scott Reef
and Rowley Shoals in the West and in the Solitary and Lord Howe islands in the southeast,
however, the far northern reefs of the GBR, most of northern Australia and the coastline of
northern Western Australia are little known.
The status of the GBR is summarised using the four sections in the original declaration of the
GBR Marine Park in 1975. Each section contains hundreds of coral reefs, so comments on
reef condition are based on observations of a small proportion of the reefs. Reefs outside
the GBR Marine Park in the East and the reefs of Western Australia are then discussed. There
are also large areas of sparse coral communities, but with low coral cover in northern
Australia around Darwin. A major protected area is the Cobourg Peninsula Marine Park and
Sanctuary, managed by the Northern Territory Parks and Wildlife Commission.
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
EASTERN AUSTRALIA
GBR Far Northern Section
These reefs are fairly remote, so there is relatively little regular monitoring; 9 reefs were
surveyed by manta tow in 1999. They had average reef-wide coral cover of about 26%
(range 12 - 40%) which is slightly higher than the long term average for the GBR. Crown-ofthorns
starfish (COTS) were present at very low densities on most reefs.
GBR Cairns Section
This section includes some of the most accessible reefs on the GBR. Much of the adjacent
hinterland receives high rainfall, causing reefs closer to shore to be regularly subjected to
low salinities, high sedimentation and potentially, enriched nutrient levels. In 1999, 49 reefs
were surveyed by manta tow and had mean reef-wide hard coral cover of 21% (range 3-
40%); a low value caused by extensive COTS outbreaks on mid-shelf reefs. Coral bleaching
affected inner-shelf reefs in this section in 1998, which caused some mortality. Video
surveys of sites on the northeast sides of 19 reefs showed a similar picture, with outer shelf
reefs in the north of the Section having some of the highest coral cover on the GBR (53-
61%).
GBR Central Section
This section also includes the accessible reefs for tourists and fishers in the Whitsunday
Islands. Manta tows of 33 reefs found reef-wide coral cover to be 23% (range 3-51%).
This is because inshore reefs in the north of the section suffered some mortality from the
bleaching in 1998. Intensive surveys of NE facing sites on 18 reefs estimated hard coral
cover at 32%. Outbreaks of COTS are occurring in the North of the Section. This pattern of
outbreaks appearing first in the north of the Cairns Section, followed by a wave of
outbreaks moving south was observed in the 1980s. It is presumably driven by southerly
drift of larvae with the East Australian Current.
GBR Mackay-Capricorn Section
This most southerly section of the GBR contains some remote reefs in the Pompey Group
and the Swain Reefs as well as the Capricorn-Bunkers which are some of the best-known
because of research stations on Heron and One Tree Islands. There was high average coral
cover on all parts of 12 reefs of 33% (range 16-49%), with consistently high reef-wide coral
cover on outer-shelf reefs in the Pompey Group and the Capricorn-Bunkers (above 36%).
Intensive surveys of NE facing sites on 11 reefs reflect this, with mean hard coral cover
estimated at 41%. There are chronic outbreaks of COTS on some Swain reefs, which do
not follow the episodic pattern of outbreaks in northern sections.
Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs
These are large atolls about 120km north of Lord Howe Island and well south of the GBR.
Surveys in the 1980s and 1990s showed there was more diversity and more tropical
species than on Lord Howe. Crown-of-thorns starfish did some damage throughout the
1980s, but the full impacts are not known. Human impacts are negligible, but storms can
cause substantial changes.
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Status of Coral Reefs of Australasia
INTERPRETATION OF VALUES FOR CORAL COVER
This report refers frequently to percent coral cover. The average reef-wide cover of
hard coral on GBR reefs was estimated at 23% in 2000, with values ranging from 3-
51%. More precise estimates from underwater video records on a range of NE facing
slopes show relatively higher cover of hard coral with a mean value of 28% and range of
4-68%. These relatively low values reflect fairly frequent disturbances such as cyclones
and crown-of-thorns starfish outbreaks during the last few decades. Much of the
change in coral cover on the GBR is due to growth and destruction of table Acropora
spp. (e.g. A. cytherea and A. hyacinthus). These table corals live in areas of high water
movement and grow rapidly to cover a large area, but they become increasingly
susceptible to storm damage as they grow. On reefs close to the equator, where
cyclones are rare, such corals cover much of the reef and average values for coral cover
will be higher (up to 80% or more in places). Thus different disturbance regimes will
lead to different norms for the extent of coral cover. Therefore, it is essential to know
the environmental regime of an area to interpret coral cover. An estimate of 30% on
the GBR is often an indication that the reefs are in excellent health as storms and COTS
tend to keep coral populations down. Whereas in other areas, cover of 30% would be
viewed with alarm, as reefs in parts of the Red Sea, the Maldives, Indonesia, and parts of
the Caribbean often have levels way over 70%, due to a lack of tropical storms or they
are in protected waterways like the Red Sea.
Lord Howe Island
This high volcanic island (14.6km 2 ) is 603km off the east coast of Australia and one of the
most southern coral fringing reefs in the world (31 o 40’S). The reefs have low species
diversity, but good coral cover on the rocky slopes in passes and lagoons. The island and
surrounding seas were declared a World Heritage Area in 1982, a Marine Park was declared
in June 2000, and a reef-monitoring program is being implemented. Two previous surveys
found significant differences in the composition of coral species between 1978 and 1993,
suggesting some turnover of rare species. There was an increase in crown-of-thorns starfish
numbers in the early 1990s and some coral bleaching in the late 1990s, but impacts have
been minimal and the condition of the reefs is good. Fish, plants and invertebrates have a
mix of tropical and temperate species and a number of endemic species. There is a
management plan to protect the World Heritage values while allowing recreational fishing,
and fishing to supply locals and tourists.
There is coral growth on rocky reefs south of the GBR in southern Queensland: the Gneering
Shoals (26 o S), Flinders Reefs (27 o S) and northern New South Wales (28 o S 30’S) on rocky
reefs with populations of corals up to 50% coral cover.
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
WESTERN AUSTRALIA
Ashmore Reef, Scott Reef and Rowley Shoals
These isolated oceanic and shelf-edge reefs are far from any mainland influence, being
scattered between 12 o S and 18 o S along a line 400km from the northwest Australian coast.
Ashmore Reef (12 o S) is closer to Indonesia than Australia and is regularly fished by
Indonesians under a joint agreement. Scott Reef (14 o S) is visited less frequently by
Indonesians, and is a prospective site for extraction of liquid natural gas. The three reefs of
the Rowley Shoals (17 o S) are protected as State and Commonwealth marine parks. Trochus,
trepang (sea cucumbers), shark and other fish are harvested, but the effects on the reefs are
unknown. All reefs have hard pavements of coralline algae and low and stunted corals in
exposed high wave-energy areas, and high coral cover and a large variety of growth forms
in sheltered habitats. The NorthWest Shelf and coastline endures many large cyclones. Coral
communities at all reefs were in good condition through most of the 1990s. In 1995, parts
of the Rowley Shoals suffered significant cyclone damage. Scott Reef and the Rowley
Shoals have been monitored by AIMS since 1995. Average cover on reef slope sites
before the cyclone was 47%. In sites at Imperieuse Reef cover of branching Acropora spp.
dropped from 50% to less than 1% after the storm. Then in 1998, Scott Reef was bathed in
warm water for several weeks, resulting in extensive bleaching and subsequent coral
mortality at monitoring sites at 9m. Extensive bleaching was observed to depths of more
than 30m. Average coral cover in exposed sites prior to the bleaching was 54%, but after
there was less than 10% cover of live coral. Recent surveys of the extensive lagoon floor
showed that large areas of live coral survived at 25-60m (see Case study ).
Cocos-Keeling Islands
These are atolls south of Sumatra at about 12 o S. The human population is very low (600-700
people) with low impacts on the reefs, except for some over-harvesting of some molluscs
(Lambis lambis). The Cocos-Keeling Islands are an Australian protected area: To quote from
the Integrated Marine Monitoring Plan: “The waters surrounding Cocos are the responsibility
of the Federal Government. ...The Federal National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1975
was applied to Cocos in 1992 to provide for the protection of all wildlife (both terrestrial
and marine). This legislation is unique in automatically protecting all species unless
specifically unprotected by Ministerial Declaration.” “Commercial fishing is of such a small
scale (and low economic value), that the Australian Fisheries Management Authority
(AFMA) is also unrepresented on the Islands. An AFMA officer visits once a year, and Parks
Australia staff conduct any surveys and monitoring on their behalf.” Thus these reefs are in
virtually pristine condition, but there were reports of two large-scale coral die-offs in the
past, followed by significant recovery of the corals.
The Dampier Archipelago and Monte Bello Islands
These reefs and islands (21 o S) are on inner-shelf and middle-shelf parts of the continental
shelf, respectively. There is high diversity and abundance of corals and fish, and despite
increasing pearl oyster farming, petroleum exploitation, shipping, fishing and tourism
activity, there is no evidence of significant human damage to the reefs. The Monte Bellos
were used for British Nuclear tests from 1952-1956. A program of assessments of marine
resources of each of these areas is in progress.
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Status of Coral Reefs of Australasia
Ningaloo Reef
The Ningaloo Marine Park extends from 22 o S, southwards for about 230km as a long fringing
reef, separated from the shore by a sandy lagoon up to 3km wide. Land impacts are
minimal as the adjacent land is arid. Coral and fish communities are diverse and abundant
and fishing is only permitted in some parts of the Marine Park. The reef front receives the full
force of swells from the Indian Ocean so corals tend to be compact, although cover may
reach 40%. Coral cover behind the reef crest and in channels varies from 5-40% with an
increase in coral cover to the south. Outbreaks of a coral-eating snail (Drupella) killed much
of the coral in some areas in the 1970s and 1990s, and other areas have been damaged by
low oxygen conditions when coral spawn decomposes. Now, new corals are recruiting
and restoration of coral cover is progressing, but many areas are still dominated by dead
coral and rubble. A broad-scale monitoring program has recently been established.
Abrolhos Islands
The islands and reefs are the southern limit (28 o S) of reef development in Western Australia.
These reefs have extensive areas of both kelp and corals, and support an important and
well-managed rock lobster industry. The use of lobster traps is banned in areas with fragile
corals, and there is no indication of any detrimental effects on the coral and fish
communities. These reefs are in good to excellent condition and plans have been prepared
for declaring the area as a marine protected area.
BIODIVERSITY
PNG
The reefs are part of the Western Pacific region of maximum marine biodiversity, where
there is exceptional biodiversity on the coral reefs. Rapid ecological assessments of the
coral reefs recently in Kimbe Bay, West New Britain Province; Lak Region, New Ireland
Province; and Milne Bay, Mile Bay Province confirm this high biodiversity. Checklists for
specific taxa have also been prepared for several other locations, including Bootless Bay on
the south coast and Madang and Kamiali on the north coast. The diversity of reef fishes and
corals at these locations ranks among the highest in the world. Furthermore, the number of
species recorded on single dives is often among the highest recorded during such surveys
anywhere in the Pacific. There is a low rate of endemism among fish, and probably other
marine organisms. Milne Bay province has the majority of endemic species of fish, including
several species known only from a single location. Biodiversity assessments on coral reefs in
PNG have mostly concentrated on fish and corals. Consequently, the diversity of most other
marine organisms is poorly documented. Comprehensive biodiversity assessments for vast
areas of the reefs are entirely lacking.
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
Location Fish Corals
Milne Bay 1039 362
Kimbe Bay 837 347
Madang 804 --
Bootless Bay 730 284
Kamiali 577 --
Numbers of species of fish and corals known from sites around Papua New Guinea.
STATUS OF REEF FISHERIES
PNG
Reef fisheries in PNG are largely subsistence and artisinal. They provide a large proportion of
the animal protein for coastal communities, however, data on the quantity and composition
of the catch from these domestic fisheries are limited to one or two locations. The
recorded export from reef fisheries is relatively low in comparison to some other Pacific
countries, but has doubled to over 2,000 metric tonnes in the past few years, indicating
increasing activity in this sector. Sea cucumbers are the largest component of the export
catch, with over 680mt exported in 1998, followed by shark meat, molluscs and
crustaceans. Reef fish are a relatively small component of fisheries exports but the volume
has tripled in recent years to over 90mt in 1998. A number of live reef fish enterprises have
started in PNG, but have failed because they did not take into account the complex social
ramifications of their operations, or were found to be breaking fisheries regulations. There is
currently a moratorium on the issuing of new licenses and fisheries authorities are
developing management plans. The major concern about the live reef fish trade is how
overfishing and destructive fishing techniques, such as the use of cyanide and targeting
spawning aggregations, can be controlled.
EASTERN AUSTRALIA
Trawl Fishery
This is the largest fishery in the GBR targeting prawns (6,500mt worth US$60 million),
scallops (200mt worth $18 million), Moreton Bay bugs (slipper lobsters, 500mt worth $5 million)
and lesser quantities of blue swimmer crabs and squid. There are zoning restrictions on
trawling in the GBR Marine Park and a variety of other management measures. Trawling is
destructive in terms of by-catch and of the physical impacts of trawling gear on the
seabed. Recent research indicates that a single pass of a trawl net can remove 5-25% of
bottom living organisms. By-catch reduction devices (BRDs) and turtle exclusion devices
(TEDs) are mandatory in some areas. Effort is fairly widespread and only a few areas are
fished intensively. There has been a history of illegal trawling in inappropriate zones, but
penalties and enforcement efforts have been increased recently.
Coral Reef Finfish Fishery
This covers coral reef fish species throughout their range in Queensland waters, although
the fish are found predominantly within the GBR Marine Park. The fishery is second only to
the trawl fishery for both the economic value and potential impact on Marine Park
148
Status of Coral Reefs of Australasia
ecosystems. The main issues of concern to GBRMPA in this fishery are the sustainability of
the target species and the potential secondary impact caused by the removal of high-order
predators from coral reefs. The reef-line fishery includes commercial, recreational and
indigenous fishers. The main targets are snappers (Lutjanus and Lethrinus spp.), groupers
(Serranidae) with Coral Trout (Plectropomus spp.) making up about 40% of the commercial
catch, and wrasses (Labridae). Between 3,000-4,000mt of fish worth about $25 million are
taken by commercial reef-line fishers each year. There is much dispute as to how the
recreational catch compares in size with the commercial line fishery and recreational fishers
probably take similar amounts to the commercial fishers. The draft management plan and
regulatory impact statement for the fishery was released by the Queensland Fisheries
Management Authority (QFMA) in 1999, with the most significant feature an attempt to
slow the continuing growth in fishing effort and remove the huge latent effort with over
1,000 little-used commercial line-fishing licenses. Also, the plan proposes reductions in
recreational catches, improved protection of the breeding of key species, and a process to
review the plan continuously with inputs of new information.
Trochus Fishery
Approximately 170mt of trochus (Trochus niloticus) are harvested annually in Queensland,
with the regulation that the harvest must be by hand or hand-held implement. Wading or
free-diving are used commonly in shallow waters ( 2-10m deep). Scuba and hookah can
be used only by commercial fishers. Minimum and maximum size limits apply to all fishing
(except by indigenous fishers collecting for traditional or customary purposes). Trochus is a
limited entry quota-managed fishery with Total Allowable Catch (TAC) of 250mt for the East
Coast. Trochus has been harvested commercially since 1912 from Torres Strait, and when
the price for trochus shell peaked at $10.00 per kg during 1990, more than 600mt were
landed. The present market for shell has collapsed as synthetic buttons are now
indistinguishable from natural mother-of-pearl. The commercial market for trochus meat
continue to grow. A harvest fishery management plan for trochus is due for release in
October 2000, and there is a separate Torres Strait trochus fishery with a quota of 150mt
managed by the Protected Zone Joint Authority.
Beche-de-mer Fishery
There are four main species of sea cucumber harvested; black teatfish, white teatfish,
sandfish and prickly redfish. Approximately 200mt are harvested annually in Queensland as
a quota managed fishery with a TAC for the East coast of 380mt allocated to 19 collectors.
Management is hindered by illegal catches and unreliable catch returns data. Catch per unit
effort (CPUE) of black teatfish peaked in early 1996 and steadily declined until 1999, so the
fishery was closed to protect breeding stocks. Quotas for the other species are also being
adjusted to avoid over-fishing. There is little information on the biology of holothurian
recruitment rates and research to ensure a sustainable harvest. Another species (greenfish)
may become more valuable with the recent discovery of pharmaceutical properties.
Tropical Rock Lobster
The GBR commercial tropical rock lobster fishery operates on the east coast from Cape York
to 14 0 S, harvesting 50-200mt annually. A separate fishery operates in the Torres Straits
managed by a Joint Authority with PNG. One species, Panulirus ornatus, makes up over
90% of the catch, with 5 other species along the coast. Management sets both quotas and
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
minimal size limits in Torres Straits, but there is no restrictions on Queensland waters.
However plans are being considered to control the fishery to limit entry and impose bag
limits on recreational fishers, but only hand spear, spear gun and hand collection is
permitted now. Anecdotal information suggests that the maximum size of individuals on
the east coast is decreasing, a classic symptom of growth overfishing. By contrast the
Western Australian rock lobster fishery is well managed and sustainable, especially on the
Abrolohos reefs and is a major export fishery of tails.
Marine Aquarium Fish
This is limited to the east coast of Queensland and is managed by input controls (on
apparatus, number of participants, number of divers, area of operation). Commercial and
recreational fishers are limited to collection of fish by hand or by using lines and cast,
scoop and mesh nets, and scuba may only be used by commercial fishers. Limited catch
and effort information is available and interim management arrangements include cost
recovery through industry fees; transferability of authorities; zoning of the fishery; eligibility
criteria for zones; and amendments to the application process, including entry criteria. A
draft management plan is due for release in 2000.
Coral Collecting
The coral fishery in Queensland is both license and quota managed fishery, with 55
designated ‘coral areas’ along the east coast and a TAC of 200-250mt among 39 authority
holders. ‘Coral areas’ of 200-500m of reef front to a depth of 6m may be either ‘exclusive’
(accessible by only one coral authority holder) or non-exclusive (accessible by more than
one coral authority holder). The actual harvest is below 50mt and unlikely to reach the
quota limit. These authorised ‘coral areas’ represent less than 0.0003 % of the total GBR
World Heritage Area, with the main target being common, fast growing species, primarily
Pocillopora and Acropora. Conflict and competition for use of some ‘coral areas’ has
developed as a result of rapid growth of tourism, but monitoring is required to ensure that
the harvest is sustainable.
Marine Shells (specimen shells/collecting)
There is a limit of specify 10 of any species allowed to restrict collection to specimen
collectors rather than large volumes for export.
NORTHERN TERRITORY
There is a coastal line fishery, including some reef species and a total commercial catch per
annum from 60–130mt over the last few years, with recent catches being lower. The
recreational catch may 6 times the commercial landings and the catch by the traditional
sector is not assessed.
ANTHROPOGENIC AND NATURAL THREATS TO REEFS
PNG
Some of the most serious threats to coral reefs in PNG come from terrestrial activities, such
as large-scale forestry and agriculture as extensive tracts of coastal forest have been
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Status of Coral Reefs of Australasia
allocated for logging. There are insufficient mechanisms to prevent widespread damage to
reefs from sedimentation as a consequence of this logging. Most of PNG’s reefs are
nearshore and significant inputs of sediments will impact directly on the reefs, but there are
almost no data on elevated sedimentation from past or current logging operations, nor any
monitoring data on reefs affected by logging activities. Increasing stresses on reefs is also
coming from the growing coastal populations, though increased fishing pressure and
pollution from sewage. Fish stocks are already overfished around the largest coastal towns
and high levels of microbial contamination occur in the waters around Port Moresby.
Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS, Acanthaster planci) are found on many PNG reefs, usually at
low densities, with isolated instances of high population densities, but not as outbreaks.
Consequently, COTS are not yet a major problem on PNG reefs. Blast fishing could be
widespread in PNG and there are examples of substantial damage to some reefs. However,
surveys in other areas where blast fishing is reported have not detected significant damage,
therefore, the effects are relatively localised. Other fishing and collecting activities
probably cause relatively minor physical damage to reefs unless the intensity of activity is
high. Coral mining for lime, oil spills, industrial pollution, mine waste, land reclamation, ship
groundings are probably localised threats.
Attempts to assess anthropogenic impacts to coral reefs in PNG are severely limited by a
lack of data on the patterns and abundances of reef organisms and few data on the
physical and chemical characteristics of the reefs. Thus, the apparent good condition of
PNG reefs must be considered acknowledging this lack of information. Reliable monitoring
programmes are needed, particularly in areas of increasing population pressure and where
anthropogenic impacts are increasing.
Australia
Human pressures are low on Australian reefs as the population density is low, the reefs are
mostly remote from the coast, fishing pressures are moderate to slight and in some areas
virtually non-existent. In particular, the offshore atoll reefs on both coasts are so remote
from the mainland influences that they are only subject to occasional fishing, although the
extent of illegal and international fishing is poorly known. Also many reefs are adjacent to
areas with low rainfall and minimal runoff. Increased levels of nutrients and sediment
entering the GBR system in river discharges are potentially a significant threat to the GBR,
particularly the inner-shelf reefs, however these impacts on coral reefs have never been
measured directly. The major sources of nutrient pollution (nitrate and phosphate) on the
GBR are increased runoff from large areas cleared for cattle grazing, enriched runoff from
sugar-cane and banana farming and domestic sewage. Education and extension
programmes run by the Department of Primary Industry and reef managers have raised
awareness and lead to improved practices in the rural sector. Monsoonal flood events are
the major vectors of sediment and nutrient pollution, particularly from grazing lands laid
bare after long periods of droughts. Cane and banana farmers are regulating their use of
fertiliser to minimise runoff loss. The practice of green tillage of crops and trash blanketing
(leaving the trash on the ground as compost and not burning crops) is increasing, which
reduces sediment and nutrient loss. All tourist resorts and cruise boats are required to
either treat sewage or dispose of it so that there is no pollution (tertiary treatment).
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Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2000
There is potential for pollution from the extensive petroleum industry in Western Australia,
however these industries are conscious of the public concern for the reefs and have strict
procedures to manage any spills. There is some subsistence fishing on the remote reefs off
Western Australia that is permitted under agreements between Indonesian and Australian
governments, however there are continuing problems (mostly legal and political) of smallscale
poaching of shark, fish, trochus, giant clams and sea cucumbers in other areas.
Although dugong are considered at risk globally, a large fraction of the world population is
found in Australian waters, with about 15% of the Australian population in GBR waters.
Aerial monitoring shows that the numbers of dugong have declined except in the northern
section of the GBR with mortality attributed to nets, boat strikes and indigenous hunting. A
major loss of numbers occurred after a major flood resulted in the death of inshore
seagrasses in the early ’90s. Following this decline in numbers, 16 dugong sanctuaries have
been declared on the GBR, and the use of nets, particularly gill nets is restricted or banned
in these areas. Permits for indigenous hunting have also been reduced.
Turtles are under similar global threats, with pressures in Australian waters from trawl nets,
shark nets, traditional hunting, floating rubbish and boat-strikes as well as habitat loss and
destruction of nests by feral pigs and foxes. Turtles migrate for thousands of kilometres and
are probably exposed to intense hunting and nest predation in other countries. Many
major nesting sites in Australia are protected, the use of turtle exclusion devices is
spreading, and traditional hunting is regulated by permit.
STATUS OF MPAS AND REEF CONSERVATION
PNG provides a unique opportunity for the conservation of significant areas of coral reefs in
the western Pacific region of maximum marine biodiversity, before they become severely
impacted by local anthropogenic activities. Few other locations offer the combination of
large areas of high diversity reefs mostly undamaged by human activity, relatively low
populations in most coastal areas, a scientific and management community that is
committed to sustainable use of marine resources, and a customary land tenure system that
can be used to enhance conservation efforts. PNG has a number of legally designated
protected areas that contain coastal and marine habitats, however, insufficient government
resources for management means that the effectiveness of these areas for conservation is
questioned. There are demonstrated successes in small-scale, community-based marine
protected areas, which might provide a widely replicable model for other areas in PNG.
These community based protected areas and conservation initiatives that link with social
and economic development are probably most appropriate to the needs and land tenure
realities of PNG. The success of protected areas and conservation projects in PNG is likely
to rely heavily on continued NGO presence. Protected areas on both the south Papuan
coast and the north coast and islands will be important for conserving the different faunal
assemblages in these two regions. The Milne Bay province is a priority region for new
protected areas, given that it contains major reef resources, the highest overall diversity of
fishes and other marine organisms, and many of the endemic species.
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https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/53897245/status-of-coral-reefs-of-the-world-2000
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The Pacific nation of Palau has become the first country to ban sun cream that is harmful to corals and sea life.
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The breathtaking reds, yellows and purples of the Mesoamerican Reef have been turning sickly white, leading researchers on a desperate hunt to understand and fight the mysterious disease killing the Caribbean's corals.
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The outlook for the Great Barrier Reef has deteriorated from poor to very poor according to an exhaustive government report that warns the window of opportunity to improve the natural wonder’s future ‘is now’.
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The Pacific's low-lying reef islands are likely to change shape in response to climate change, rather than simply sink beneath rising seas and become uninhabitable as previously assumed, new research has found.
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China has set up rocket launchers on a reef in the disputed South China Sea as a defensive measure against Vietnamese military combat divers.
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The failure of tree clearing reforms in Queensland is the only significant delay in Australia’s conservation plan for the Great Barrier Reef, said a progress report by the state and federal governments.
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The majority of coral is now dead on many reefs in the central section of the Great Barrier Reef, according to an underwater survey of 84 reefs, in the worst mass bleaching event to hit the world heritage site.
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Australia's Great Barrier Reef (GBR), the world's largest coral bank, is at greater risk than previously thought of dissolving as climate change renders the oceans more acidic, researchers said.
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http://www.iran-daily.com/Search/Quick?s=news&tags=reef
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Dr Tayanah O’Donnell is a lawyer and geographer and current Director of Future Earth Australia based at the Australian Academy of Science. Tayanah has a strong interdisciplinary track record, utilising her legal and social research expertise to lead and contribute to research teams that deliver cross and trans-disciplinary outcomes in areas such as coastal governance, climate change adaptation, climate change litigation, sustainable cities, and land use planning. She is the author of several journal papers, and her book, Legal Geography: Perspectives and Methods, was recently published by Routledge.
Professor Andrew D Short
Honorary Professor, School of Geosciences
University of Sydney
Andy Short is a coastal geomorphologist specializing in coastal processes, morphology and evolution. He has degrees from the University of Sydney, University of Hawaii and Louisiana State University and has worked on the coasts of North and South America, including north Alaska and Hawaii, Europe, New Zealand, Korea and the entire Australian coast. He is presently Honorary Professor in the School of Geosciences at the University of Sydney; Honorary Professorial Fellow in the School of Earth and Environmental Sciences at the University of Wollongong; Senior Coastal Scientist (part-time) with CoastalCOMS.com; and board member of National Surfing Reserves (Australia). He also runs his own consultancy called Coastal Studies and served on the NSW Coastal Panel (2011-2019). He has written 11 books, edited 5 and published over 200 scientific publications and reports. His contribution to both coastal science and beach safety was recognized on Australia Day 2010 with an Order of Australia Medal. His latest book (2019) covers the entire Australian coast and it’s 354 sediment compartments and is titled “Australian Coastal Systems: beaches, barriers and sediment compartments”.
Scott Smithers
Coastal Geomorphologist
College of Science and Engineering
James Cook University
Scott Smithers is a coastal geomorphologist with a strong focus on tropical systems based in the College of Science and Engineering at James Cook University. Scott completed his BEnvSci (Hons) and PhD at the University of Wollongong where he was first exposed to coral reef geomorphology through his Honours and PhD supervisor, Colin Woodroffe. Whilst at the University of Wollongong Scott was privileged to undertake research on lagoonal sedimentation and coral records of sea-level change at the Cocos Keeling Islands. Since locating to Townsville Scott has continued his research into the Holocene development of coral reefs, including investigations of the impacts of environmental change on modern coral reef systems, and the recovery and interpretation of records of environmental change preserved within coral skeletons and reef deposits.
Key areas of research include:
Read-More
1) understanding spatial and temporal patterns and controls of reef growth and carbonate production;
2) the reconstruction of records of environmental change from coral skeletons, reef framework and sedimentary deposits as a context for understanding contemporary changes;
3) the distribution, growth and importance of turbid zone reefs; and
4) understanding the geomorphological development and morphodynamics of coral reef islands.
Unsurprisingly, Scott’s research is largely focused on the Great Barrier Reef, but he worked on reefs from elsewhere in the Pacific (e.g. Torres Strait, Kiribati, PNG) and Indian Oceans (Maldives), as well as in the Caribbean Sea (Bahamas, Bonaire, Belize). Scott finds working with communities to better understand coastal problems particularly rewarding; a key personal goal is to undertake research that can be applied to support environmental management in both developed and developing nations. Recent work in this domain includes research focused on understanding coastal erosion and its impacts on livelihoods in Torres Strait, and understanding geomorphological processes as the basis for adaptive management at Raine Island, the world’s largest green turtle rookery. Working with the Traditional Owners and the Queensland Department of Environment and Heritage this research has underpinned recent work to reshape the Raine Island to successfully improve turtle nesting and hatchling outcomes.
Show-Less
John (Charlie) Veron
Has three higher degrees in different fields of science: reptilian physiology, insect neurobiology and coral taxonomy.
Was the first full-time researcher on the Great Barrier Reef and the first scientist employed by the Australian Institute of Marine Science. He became Chief Scientist of that organisation in 1997, a position he held for 7 years.
Has 100 publications on almost anything to do with corals from palaeontology, taxonomy and biogeography to physiology and molecular science. He has also published widely on other subjects notably evolution, mass extinctions, more recently, a major website. His best-known publications are:
Read-More
- The five volume monograph Scleractinia of Eastern Australia which created the basis of a new, now universally used, coral taxonomy.
- Corals in Space and Time (Cornell, 1995)
- The three volume Corals of the World (2000).
- Coral ID, CD-ROM (2002).
- A Reef in Time: The Great Barrier Reef from Beginning to End (Harvard, 2008).
- coralsoftheworld.org (2016) a compilation of all taxonomic and biogeographic information about corals.
- Autobiography A Life Underwater (Penguin Random House, 2017)
Veron was awarded the Darwin Medal for his work on evolution, the AMSA Jubilee Pin for his coral taxonomy, the Australasian Science Prize and other wards for various publications. His last award was for Lifetime Achievement from the American Academy of Underwater Science.
Veron has named about ¼ of the world’s coral species, and mapped and re-described them all. This work has underpinned most major reef conservation initiatives over the past two decades including the ‘Coral Triangle’ which he discovered.
He has been diving continually since he was 18, logging 6000 hours underwater. He has participated in 67 expeditions to most major reef regions of the world.
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http://www.coasttocoastconference.com.au/invited-speakers
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“Coral reefs are important ecosystems of ecological, economic and cultural value yet they are in decline worldwide due to human activities,” said the Consensus Statement released during the opening of the 2012 International Coral Reef Symposium (ICRS) held in Cairns, Australia.
“Land-based sources of pollution, sedimentation, overfishing and climate change are the major threats, and all of them are expected to increase in severity.”
The international Coral Reef Science Community urges governments from all over the world “to take action for the preservation of coral reefs for the benefit of present and future generations.”
The Consensus Statement has been signed by about 2,600 scientists from all over the globe, including about 25 from the Philippines. “Approximately 25-30% of the world’s coral reefs are already severely degraded by local impacts from land and by over-harvesting,” the statement said.
“There is no debate among marine scientists that climate change is for real,” said Dr. Robert H. Richmond, president of the International Society for Reef Studies. Coral reefs are among those that are greatly affected by the global warming phenomenon.
A sudden or abrupt change in temperature is bad for corals. “It leads to stress that cause coral bleaching, and eventually, death of corals. “Bleaching is not a good thing,” explained Dr. Terry Hughes, a distinguished professor at James Cook University. “Thermal stress due to global warming is not good.”
According to Dr. Hughes, as global warming intensifies, coral bleaching would also increase at an unprecedented level. “Bleaching events are expected to increase in terms of frequency,” said Dr. Hughes, who has been a Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science since 2001.
“The surface of the world’s oceans has warmed by 0.7° Centigrade, resulting in unprecedented coral bleaching and mortality events,” said the statement, which was drafted by a working group of eminent scientists, brought together under the auspices of The Center for Ocean Solutions.
In a series of journals some years back, Science reported that climate change could trigger the death of coral reefs, with coral bleaching being the clearest sign.
Corals grow in the warm waters, but many of them are near the limits of their tolerance for high temperatures. Bleaching is a breakdown of a “complex biological system” that corals have evolved in order to survive. Each coral formation is a colony of hundreds or thousands of tiny organisms (known as polyps) that jointly build a skeleton that forms the reef. The outside layer of each coral polyp is inhabited by tiny one-celled plants scientists called zooxanthellae. It is these organisms that give the coral its bright colors, and when expelled due to warmer water or some other stress, coral appears bleached (that is, go pale or snowy-white).
Without zooxanthellae, the coral cannot survive for long. “When subjected to extreme stress (like high temperature of surface water),” explains Worldwatch Institute’s John C. Ryan, “corals jettison the colorful algae they live in symbiosis with, exposing the white skeleton of dead coral beneath a single layer of clear living tissue. If the stress persists, the coral dies.”
In the first months of 2002, a wave of bleaching swept coral reefs around the world with scientists linking the events to climate change. The majority of bleaching records came from the Great Barrier Reef in Australia with others from reefs in countries including the Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, Japan, Palau, the Maldives, Tanzania, the Seychelles, Belize, Ecuador and off the Florida coast of the United States.
In 2010, as much as 95% of the corals in the Philippines suffered bleaching after a warming event. “The bleaching has been observed at many other sites around the Philippines featuring mass mortality of corals,” a news report said.
Also suffering from bleaching are coral reefs from nearby Coral Triangle Region, which is globally recognized as the epicenter of marine biodiversity. It is home to about 76 percent of the world’s coral species.
Six countries have signed and agreed to a regional plan called the Coral Triangle Initiative, a collaboration that aims to protect this important area. The member countries are Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Timor Liste. Although not part of the initiative, the coral triangle region – which contains more than 86,500 square kilometres of coral reef area – also includes Brunei and Singapore.
“This abundant marine ecosystem is now at risk,” said the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) in a statement. “Unsustainable fishing, rapid population growth, and the effects of climate change are not only damaging the environment, but also threatening the food security of those who depend on the valuable natural resources in the region.”
USAID said the coastal ecosystems in the region support the livelihoods of over 340 million people spread across the six countries. In the Philippines, for instance, 50 million people depend on coral reefs and associated ecosystems for food and livelihood.
There is no glimmer of hope. By the end of this century, the consensus statement said with the current rate of carbon dioxide emissions, the sea surface temperatures will further become hotter by at least 2-3°Centigrade. Not only that, sea-level will rise by as much as 1.7 meters. Storm frequency and/or intensity will most likely increase.
“Across the globe, these problems cause a loss of reef resources of enormous economic and cultural value,” the consensus statement concluded. “A concerted effort to preserve reefs for the future demands action at global levels, but also will benefit hugely from continued local protection.”
Henrylito Tacio is Contributing Editor for South East Asia.
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Justification:
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The most important known threat for this species is extensive reduction of coral reef habitat due to a combination of threats. Specific population trends are unknown but population reduction can be inferred from estimated habitat loss (Wilkinson 2004). This species is widespread and common throughout its range, is susceptible to bleaching but quick to recover, and therefore is likely to be more resilient to habitat loss and reef degradation because of an assumed large effective population size that is highly connected and/or stable with enhanced genetic variability. Therefore, the estimated habitat loss of 19% from reefs already destroyed within its range is the best inference of population reduction since it may survive in coral reefs already at the critical stage of degradation (Wilkinson 2004). This inference of population reduction over three generation lengths (30 years) does not meet the threshold of a threat category and this species is Least Concern. However, because of predicted threats from climate change and ocean acidification it will be important to reassess this species in 10 years or sooner, particularly if the species is also observed to disappear from reefs currently at the critical stage of reef degradation.
|Range Description:||This species is widespread in the Indo-Pacific (Cairns et al. 1999). It is found near Madagascar, in South East Asia, the South China Sea, southern Japan, the Great Barrier Reef, and Micronesia. In the Eastern Tropical Pacific region it is only known from the Gulf of Chiriquí, Panamá (Glynn and de Weerdt 1991, Glynn 1997).|
Specific records: Indonesia, Vietnam, Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Bismarck Sea - Solomon Islands (DeVantier and Turak pers. comm.).
Randall and Cheng (1984) give the range as Indonesia eastward to the Caroline Islands and Great Barrier Reef to Japan. Razak and Hoeksema (2003) give the range as Indonesia, China, Japan, Philippines, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam.
|Countries occurrence:|
Native:American Samoa; Australia; Cambodia; China; Fiji; India; Indonesia; Japan; Madagascar; Malaysia; Micronesia, Federated States of ; Myanmar; New Caledonia; Palau; Panama; Papua New Guinea; Philippines; Samoa; Singapore; Solomon Islands; Taiwan, Province of China; Thailand; Tonga; Vanuatu; Viet Nam; Wallis and Futuna
|FAO Marine Fishing Areas:|
Native:
Indian Ocean – western; Indian Ocean – eastern; Pacific – eastern central; Pacific – northwest; Pacific – western central
|Additional data:|
|Range Map:||Click here to open the map viewer and explore range.|
|Population:||This species is considered abundant throughout its range.|
It is currently considered as widely distributed and abundant in the Gulf of Chiriquí. According to Glynn (1997), the population size of M. intricata was 102-103 colonies at Uva Island and Secas Islands. In the course of the 1982-83 El Niño event, M. intricata was severely bleached from January to March 1983, and by late October 1983 only a 2 cm branch of M. intricata was found on a nearly 6 ha coral reef in Secas Islands (Glynn and de Weerdt 1991). According to Glynn and de Weerdt (1991), M. intricata started to colonize basalt substrata in 1985, and by 1987 recruits were observed on Uva reef. More recently, Glynn and Ault (2000) categorized M. intricata as relatively common compared to other coral and hydrocoral species in the Gulf of Chiriquí, Panama.
There is no species specific population information available for this species. However, there is evidence that overall coral reef habitat has declined, and this is used as a proxy for population decline for this species. This species is more resilient to some of the threats faced by corals and therefore population decline is estimated using the percentage of destroyed reefs only (Wilkinson 2004). We assume that most, if not all, mature individuals will be removed from a destroyed reef and that on average, the number of individuals on reefs are equal across its range and proportional to the percentage of destroyed reefs. Reef losses throughout the species' range have been estimated over three generations, two in the past and one projected into the future.
The age of first maturity of most reef building corals is typically three to eight years (Wallace 1999) and therefore we assume that average age of mature individuals is greater than eight years. Furthermore, based on average sizes and growth rates, we assume that average generation length is 10 years, unless otherwise stated. Total longevity is not known, but likely to be more than ten years. Therefore any population decline rates for the Red List assessment are measured over at least 30 years. See the supplementary material for further details on population decline and generation length estimates.
|Current Population Trend:||Stable|
|Additional data:|
|Habitat and Ecology:||In the Gulf of Chiriquí, M. intricata has been reported to occur at depths of 3 to 30 m on coral reefs and amongst coral communities (Glynn and de Weerdt 1991). The growth rate of M. intricata is considered rapid with a mean branch extension of 4.6 +- 0.7 mm/month in the Gulf of Chiriquí, Panama (Glynn and de Weerdt 1991).|
Millepora species are generally found in inshore areas characterized by turbidity, and exhibit a tolerance for siltation. They often occur in clear offshore sites (Lovell pers. comm.).
|Systems:||Marine|
|Major Threat(s):||
In the course of the 1982-83 El Niño event, M. intricata was severely bleached in Panama from January to March 1983 (Glynn and de Weerdt 1991).However, since then M. intricata has recovered and is now considered widespread and abundant in the Gulf of Chiriquí, Panama.
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This genus is generally not found in aquarium trade, but is sometimes collected for curio and jewellery trade. This genus is generally susceptible to bleaching. They are some of the first hard corals to bleach but are resilient, being some of the first to recruit after the bleaching. In Fiji, Millepora is not subject to crown of thorns starfish predation or disease (Lovell pers comm.).
In general, the major threat to corals is global climate change, in particular, temperature extremes leading to bleaching and increased susceptibility to disease, increased severity of ENSO events and storms, and ocean acidification. In addition to global climate change, corals are also threatened by disease, and a number of localized threats. The severity of these combined threats to the global population of each individual species is not known.
Coral disease has emerged as a serious threat to coral reefs worldwide and is a major cause of reef deterioration (Weil et al. 2006). The numbers of diseases and coral species affected, as well as the distribution of diseases have all increased dramatically within the last decade (Porter et al. 2001, Green and Bruckner 2000, Sutherland et al. 2004, Weil 2004). Coral disease epizootics have resulted in significant losses of coral cover and were implicated in the dramatic decline of acroporids in the Florida Keys (Aronson and Precht 2001, Porter et al. 2001, Patterson et al. 2002). In the Indo-Pacific, disease is also on the rise with disease outbreaks recently reported from the Great Barrier Reef (Willis et al. 2004), Marshall Islands (Jacobson 2006) and the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Aeby 2006). Increased coral disease levels on the Great Barrier Reef were correlated with increased ocean temperatures (Willis et al. 2007) supporting the prediction that disease levels will be increasing with higher sea surface temperatures. Escalating anthropogenic stressors combined with the threats associated with global climate change of increases in coral disease, frequency and duration of coral bleaching and ocean acidification place coral reefs in the Indo-Pacific at high risk of collapse.
Localized threats to corals include fisheries, human development (industry, settlement, tourism, and transportation), changes in native species dynamics (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), invasive species (competitors, predators, pathogens and parasites), dynamite fishing, chemical fishing, pollution from agriculture and industry, domestic pollution, sedimentation, and human recreation and tourism activities.
|Conservation Actions:||
These non-scleractinian corals are listed under Appendix I and II of CITES. There are no records in the CITES database of exports of non-scleractinians by weight. Parts of this species distribution fall within several Marine Protected Areas within its range. For example, M. intricata is present in two protected areas in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region in Panama: Coiba National Park and its Special Zone of Marine Protection, World Heritage Site and Golfo de Chiriquí National Park.
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Recommended measures for conserving this species include research in taxonomy, population, abundance and trends, ecology and habitat status, threats and resilience to threats, restoration action; identification, establishment and management of new protected areas; expansion of protected areas; recovery management; and disease, pathogen and parasite management. Artificial propagation and techniques such as cryo-preservation of gametes may become important for conserving coral biodiversity.
Having timely access to national-level trade data for CITES analysis reports would be valuable for monitoring trends this species. The species is targeted by collectors for the aquarium trade and fisheries management is required for the species, e.g., Marine Protected Areas, quotas, size limits, etc. Consideration of the suitability of species for aquaria should also be included as part of fisheries management, and population surveys should be carried out to monitor the effects of harvesting.
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http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/133536/0
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The BBC and other News sources are reporting the news that the Great Barrier Reef has suffered its worst bleaching on record in 2016 …
Higher water temperatures in 2016 caused the worst destruction of corals ever recorded on Australia’s Great Barrier Reef, a study has found.
Some 67% of corals died in the reef’s worst-hit northern section, the ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies report said.
The situation was better in the central section, where 6% perished, while the southern reef is in good health.
But scientists warn recovery could be difficult if climate change continues.
To be wholly clear here, the bleaching actually happened last March. What is new here is that a recent extensive survey has been conducted, and so the information from earlier surveys is added to the results of this latest survey in Oct / Nov. This now enables a clear view of what is now dead coral and what has recovered or is starting to recover once again.
Bleaching is not the same as dead coral, but when that happens it is highly probable that much of the bleached coral will die.
What is Bleaching?
The commonly used term “Coral Bleaching” is often used to describe the death of living coral, but that is not quite what it means.
Basically what is going on is that Coral has a symbiotic relationship with algae-like unicellular organisms. It is specifically Zooxanthellae that give coral its coloration. When the coral comes under stress due to variations in the sea temperature that cause it to become too hot or too cold, the coral responds by ejecting their zooxanthellae, thus they turn white and so become bleached.
Key Point: The coral is still alive, but the problem is that coral needs the Zooxanthellae to get about 90% of its energy, so without this, it starves and dies.
In other words, bleaching means that it will probably die, so you need to survey later to see what has actually happened, and that is what this latest survey has now done.
The news is not good.
What is the Alpha Source, and what is it telling us?
The BBC is simply reporting information that comes from another source. In this case that source is Australian ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies. They specifically engaged the BBC and took them on a tour to show them what was going on. Additionally, on Tuesday 29th, the ARC Centre issued the following press release …
Scientists have confirmed the largest die-off of corals ever recorded on Australia’s Great Barrier Reef.
The worst affected area, a 700 km swath of reefs in the northern region of the Great Barrier Reef has lost an average of 67% of its shallow-water corals in the past 8-9 months. Further south, over the vast central and southern regions of the Great Barrier Reef, the scientists were relieved to find a much lower death toll.
“Most of the losses in 2016 have occurred in the northern, most-pristine part of the Great Barrier Reef. This region escaped with minor damage in two earlier bleaching events in 1998 and 2002, but this time around it has been badly affected,” says Professor Terry Hughes, Director of the Australian Research Council (ARC) Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies based at James Cook University, who undertook extensive aerial surveys at the height of the bleaching.
“The good news is the southern two-thirds of the Reef has escaped with minor damage. On average, 6% of bleached corals died in the central region in 2016, and only 1% in the south. The corals have now regained their vibrant colour, and these reefs are in good condition,” says Professor Andrew Baird, also from the ARC Centre, who led teams of divers to re-survey the reefs in October and November.
They also have a map that clearly illustrates it all …
Climate Change
The root cause is specifically identified as climate change. This is not new, but is part of an on-going decline that has been happening over the last thirty years.
To illustrate that point, we can point back to a 2012 paper that examined the then 27–year decline of coral cover on the Great Barrier Reef and its causes. There they lay it all out …
This study investigates the spatial and temporal dynamics of coral cover, identifies the main drivers of coral mortality, and quantifies the rates of potential recovery of the Great Barrier Reef. Based on the world’s most extensive time series data on reef condition (2,258 surveys of 214 reefs over 1985–2012), we show a major decline in coral cover from 28.0% to 13.8% (0.53% y−1), a loss of 50.7% of initial coral cover.
There, back in 2012, they also noted …
Importantly, the relatively pristine northern region showed no overall decline.
… and hence in context, this latest sharp decline in that Northern region is indeed rather dire.
Climate Change Denial
What also recently made the news was this …
Late last week Pauline Hanson went on a snorkel to try and disprove claims the reef is dying.
Great Keppel Island is south of Hayman Island where I dived. And this explains why Senator Hanson’s snorkel was more successful than someone taking a plunge further north where the bulk mass bleaching has occurred, as Adam Morton explains.
So basically she picks the best possible spot in the south to establish her denial claim and simply ignores what is actually going on further up North.
Somebody asked within the comments section under a recent article …
Pauline said on national news the other day that the reef is in good health. Who do we believe?
Well gosh, that’s a hard question to answer, how can we possibly decide between the scientists who have surveyed the entire reef and studied it in detail or the Trump like politician who cherry-picked one location on one day for a few minutes to conduct their own survey?
I do confess that I love that she made her announcement that the Great Barrier Reef is doing just fine just a few days before the formal release of clear decisive evidence that it has just had its worst ever bleaching event ever recorded and that rather a lot of the coral was now dead. The timing is just perfect and revels that she is either being incredibly stupid or deliberately deceptive.
Hint: the location of where all the bleaching actually happened has been public knowledge since last March.
Hopefully the public will remember her deliberate dishonesty at the next election.
More Details on the 2016 Bleaching
Buried at the bottom of the press release is this …
For a more detailed discussion about the mortality map, an article will be published in the Conversation on Tuesday 29 November, 2016 (AEST)
… and sure enough, just as they promised, here it is.
There they examine the question – “How much coral has died in the Great Barrier Reef’s worst bleaching event?”
Here are a few quick facts distilled from that article …
- Two-thirds of the corals in the northern part of the Great Barrier Reef have died.
- It is the Great Barrier Reef’s worst-ever bleaching event
- On some reefs in the north, nearly all the corals have died.
- The impact of bleaching eases in the south, and reefs in the central and southern regions (around Cairns and Townsville and southwards) were much less affected, and are now recovering.
- The Great Barrier Reef bleached severely for the first time in 1998, then in 2002, and now again in 2016. This year’s event was more extreme than the two previous mass bleachings.
- The peak of the bleaching was in March and April. The extensive surveys that measured what was going on took place in March, April and then again in Oct and November.
- The southern third of the Reef did not experience severe heat stress in February and March. Consequently, only minor bleaching occurred.
- On 25% of the worst affected reefs (the top quartile), losses of corals ranged from 83-99%. When mortality is this high, it affects even tougher species that normally survive bleaching
In summary, yet another alarm bell is ringing our loudly to warm us about the impact of global warming.
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https://www.skeptical-science.com/science/great-barrier-reef-suffered-worst-bleaching-record-2016/
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From the starting of the Cainozoic geological era, Australia is moving northwards at the rate of 7cm per year. During this era, at the same time, Eastern Australia encountered a powerful earthquake in the form of a tectonic uplift which leading to Queensland moving inland due to drainage divide. Due to the tectonic uplift, the continent also experienced a series of volcanic eruptions, leading to an erection of central and shield volcanoes and basalt streams. These volcanoes and basalt flows over time, cooled down, and settled down into huge high islands.
After forming the Coral Sea Basin, coral reefs began to nurture, but Queensland’s climate was still cold enough to support coral growth. About 25 million years back, Queensland floated into the tropical waters, the complex geological changes in coral reefs began to occur. Depending on how sea levels change, the growth and recession of coral reefs also change as they don’t grow deep in the ocean in need of sunlight, and neither can they grow above sea level. Their growth change can range from a diameter of 1cm to 3cm every year and vertically, 1cm to 25cm.
The land that forms the base for the coral reef to grow and other marine species to sustain are the remains of the sediments of the Great Dividing Range, Australia’s most extensive mountain range. When Queensland floated into the tropical waters 25 million years ago, coral reefs started to develop. Still, the creation of river deltas and oozes due to sedimentation from the Great Dividing Range harmed coral growth. The substrate of the Great Barrier Reef may have had to considerably build up so that it was far away enough from further sedimentation of the mountains.
Today’s structural base on which the new corals are growing is supposed to have formed 20,000 years ago. From 20,000 years ago till 6,000 years ago, sea levels grew progressively, and as they increased, coral reefs started forming on hills rather than on coastal plains. The hills became continental islands with growing sea levels, and corals grew around them as time went by. When the islands submerged, the reefs grew on them, known as the cays/reefs. In present times, the sea level has not prominently increased over the last 6,000 years. The present reef structure is estimated to be 6,000 to 8,000 years old.
The ancient remains of the Great Barrier Reef can be found at Kimberly, in North-Western Australia.
The Great Barrier Reef Heritage Area has been divided into 70 bioregions, 30 are reef bioregions, and 40 are non-reef bioregions. Coral reefs are categorised according to their types: Fringing reefs, Lagoonal reefs, Crescentic reefs, and Planar reefs and they together form the Great Barrier Reef or, as they call it - GBR.
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https://www.greatbarrierreef.com/v/geography/
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Scientists Urge Governments To Protect Coral Reefs From Climate Change
ROBERT SIEGEL, HOST:
President Trump says he'll announce very soon whether he'll pull the U.S. out of the Paris climate agreement. That's the international pact that the Obama administration negotiated back in 2015 with nearly 200 other countries. They held it as an historic deal to curb greenhouse gas emissions.
ARI SHAPIRO, HOST:
On Australia's Great Barrier Reef, the impact of climate change is obvious. A study published today says in order for the world's coral reefs to survive, governments must prevent global temperatures from increasing more than 2 degrees Celsius. NPR's Rob Schmitz joins us from the Great Barrier Reef. Hi there.
ROB SCHMITZ, BYLINE: Hi, Ari.
SHAPIRO: From what you have actually seen in the water, how is the coral fairing?
SCHMITZ: Well, I spent yesterday in the water with marine biologists who showed me coral that was hundreds of years old that for the first time anyone here can remember are all turning white. Some of the coral we saw starting to come back to life now that it's winter here, but much of it has died. You know, rising water temperatures have now killed two-thirds of a 400-mile section of the reef where I am now. And this has all happened within the last 18 months.
SHAPIRO: We've been hearing for some time about the problem of coral bleaching and the health of the Great Barrier Reef. Bring us up to speed on the recent history here.
SCHMITZ: Yeah. I mean, this is the world's largest coral reef. It's 1,400 miles long - as long as the coast from Vancouver to the Mexican border. It's made up of nearly 3,000 individual reefs. It's the largest living organism on the planet. And because of rising ocean temperatures caused by climate change, it is now the largest dying organism. In the last 18 months, the Great Barrier Reef has had back-to-back bleaching episodes, where warm water turned much of the coral white, killing off a significant percentage of the reef.
SHAPIRO: In this report in the journal Nature, you wouldn't describe it as optimistic, but it does offer some hope for slowing or reversing the trend. What does it say?
SCHMITZ: Yeah. It offers a little hope. You know, the one interesting finding from the study is that even though the world's coral reefs have already been irreversibly damaged, scientists say they may still stand a chance of survival if the world takes measures to limit global warming to 2 degrees Celsius or 3.5 degree Fahrenheit rise from pre-industrial levels. Earlier this week, I spoke to Terry Hughes, director of the Coral Reef Center at James Cook University and one of the report's authors, and here's what he said.
TERRY HUGHES: Rather than send the message that reefs are doomed and we need to, you know, freeze the eggs and sperm and grow them in aquaria, we would rather be a little bit more optimistic and say it's doable if we only try a lot harder.
SCHMITZ: So, basically, what Terry and the other scientists have concluded here is that the crisis of coral reefs is a crisis of governance, Ari, and that the answers won't be found in counting fish and surveying bleached and dead coral. But they'll be found in the halls of power, where governments are making decisions that impact the world's coral reefs.
SHAPIRO: When you look beyond Australia at other reefs around the world, what does this paper say the strategy should be?
SCHMITZ: Well, in the paper, the authors say that the current management of coral reefs is focused on conservation and restoring the conditions to what the reefs used to be like. And the scientists who wrote this paper are saying, look, you know, returning coral reefs to their past condition is no longer possible. Again, here's Terry Hughes.
HUGHES: What we should be aiming for is keeping reefs functional, recognizing that the world is on a conveyor belt. We are going to a new type of coral reef ecosystem. But if we're careful how we do that, we'll still have a functioning ecosystem that will provide benefits to people.
SCHMITZ: And on that note, the paper calls on scientists to change the way they do research and on governments to change the way they take care of these reefs and the way they're tackling climate change because, in the end, the biggest threat to places like the Great Barrier Reef is the rise in ocean temperatures. And according to this paper, governments need to try harder to prevent further global warming to save the world's coral reefs from dying out.
SHAPIRO: That's NPR's Rob Schmitz speaking with us from the coast of Australia on the edge of the Great Barrier Reef. Tough assignment, Rob. Thanks a lot.
SCHMITZ: Thanks, Ari. Transcript provided by NPR, Copyright NPR.
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https://www.ksut.org/environment/2017-05-31/scientists-urge-governments-to-protect-coral-reefs-from-climate-change
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Understanding of the links between coral reef ecosystems, the goods and services they provide to people, and the wellbeing of human societies.
Examining the multi-scale dynamics of reefs, from population dynamics to macroevolution
Advancing the fundamental understanding of the key processes underpinning reef resilience.
ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies
James Cook University Townsville
Queensland 4811 Australia
Phone: 61 7 4781 4000
Email: [email protected]
Select a category:
2020 Annual Report
It’s been a busy year at Coral CoE! Here are some of our favourite highlights from 2020!
The risks to Australia of a 3°C warmer world
f the world fails to reach net zero emissions by 2050, Australia could face potentially insurmountable challenges to its cities, ecosystems, industries and food and health systems. Read our media release: https://www.science.org.au/news-and-e… Read the report now: https://science.org.au/warmerworld
Genes unlock clues to the evolution & survival of the Great Barrier Reef
Seascape use by coral reef-associated fishes in Kavieng, Papua New Guinea by Katie Sambroo
Effect of Seagrass and Coral Reef Canopies on Sediment Transport Processes In Coastal Systems
Nery Contti Neto explains his research on the effects of seagrass and corals reefs on sediment transport
My Life Aquatic- Patrick Smallhorn-West
Ecological surveys of Tonga’s coral reefs by PhD student Patrick Smallhorn-West in 2018
This is Uni: Healthy Predators, Healthy Reef
Hear from Associate Professor Jodie Rummer from the ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies on how she ended up as a marine biologist with us and JCU!
Personal connections key to climate adaptation
International Women’s Day 2019
Happy International Women’s Day! Today we celebrate IWD2019 by profiling incredible CoralCoE & affiliated Women In STEM and Social Sciences at James Cook University, University of Queensland, Australian National University and University of Western Australia. Balance for Better!
Getting Published in Peer-Review
A new video series by Prof. Joshua Cinner in collaboration with WorldFish, to assist early career researchers to navigate through the peer-review process.
View the whole series on Josh’s research group page or on WorldFish’s official Youtube channel.
Reef reality: why coral is changing
Video by the Australian Academy on Sciences on our media release “Global warming disrupts recovery of coral reefs.”
The damage caused to the Great Barrier Reef by global warming has compromised the capacity of its corals to recover, according to new research published today in Nature.
2018 Visualise Your Thesis JCU winner
Congratulations to Tessa Hill for her Visualise Your Thesis presentation, entitled ‘The impact of ocean acidification on ecological processes that structure coral communities’. Tessa was 2018 JCU’s overall winner and her presentation can be found in the Online National Showcase for Visualise Your Thesis here: https://goo.gl/SwH1qR
Music by Ben Sounds
The special relationship between seagrass and the number two – Dr Alana Grech
Dr Alana Grech, the Assistant Director of Coral CoE, was one of the speakers at the 2018 Public Forum held in conjunction with this year’s Coral Reef Futures Symposium.
Gravity of human impacts mediates coral reef conservation gains
Prof Josh Cinner led a massive study of nearly 1,800 tropical coral reefs around the world, and found that marine reserves near heavily populated areas struggle to do their job – but are a vast improvement over having no protection at all. Read more: http://ow.ly/ETN530kvCgr
Credit: Dean Miller
Study reveals how sub-tropical corals cope with the cold
Corals growing in high-latitude reefs in Western Australia can regulate their internal chemistry to promote growth under cooler temperatures, according to new research at the ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies at The University of Western Australia by Claire Ross.
Read more here.
Credit: University of Western Australia Media Team
Research in brief: Prof Josh Cinner’s ‘Bright Spots’
Professor Cinner’s research aims to help solve the global problem of unsustainable coral reef fisheries by locating and learning from ‘bright spots’– reefs with more fish than expected, based on their exposure to pressures such as human population, poverty and unfavourable environmental conditions.
Read more here
Video by Cinematic Science
The window for saving the world’s coral reefs is rapidly closing
The world’s reefs are under siege from global warming, according to a novel study published today in the prestigious journal Science.
For the first time, an international team of researchers has measured the escalating rate of coral bleaching at locations throughout the tropics over the past four decades. The study documents a dramatic shortening of the gap between pairs of bleaching events, threatening the future existence of these iconic ecosystems and the livelihoods of many millions of people.
Video courtesy of Australian Academy of Science.
Media release here.
Disappearing sea snakes surprise researchers with hidden genetic diversity
New research suggests an urgent need to find out why sea snakes are disappearing from known habitats, after it was discovered some seemingly identical sea snake populations are actually genetically distinct from each other and can’t simply repopulate if one group dies out.
Video produced by Australian Academy of Science
Media Release here
2018 Dorothy Hill Medal – Assoc. Prof Tracy Ainsworth
Congratulations to Assoc. Prof. Tracy Ainsworth from the ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies – Coral CoE at JCU, who has been awarded the 2018 Dorothy Hill Medal by the Australian Academy of Science.
Her research aims to determine the impact of environmental stress on reef-building corals, their host-microbe interactions, symbioses and disease outbreaks.
Read more: http://bit.ly/2yPBAzu
Credit: JCU Media
Murky waters leave reef fish out of breath
Declining water quality due to human activities threatens the health of coastal reefs globally. But, what does this mean for reef inhabitants such as the iconic damselfish?
Researchers at Coral CoE, led by PhD student Sybille Hess, examined three species of coral reef damselfishes. They found that all three species remodelled their gills in response to elevated suspended sediments levels.
Video courtesy of Australian Academy of Science
Blog Post here
Great Barrier Reef: 2/3 damaged in ‘unprecedented’ bleaching – BBC News
Unprecedented coral bleaching in consecutive years has damaged two-thirds of Australia’s Great Barrier Reef, aerial surveys have shown. The bleaching – or loss of algae – affects a 1,500km (900 miles) stretch of the reef, according to scientists. The latest damage is concentrated in the middle section, whereas last year’s bleaching hit mainly the north. Experts fear the proximity of the two events will give damaged coral little chance to recover.
Credit: BBC News
Great Barrier Grief
60 minutes’s special report on the recent Great Barrier Reef mass bleaching event.
The Great Barrier Reef has always been Australia’s great treasure. It’s not just beautiful, it’s also bountiful, and worth billions of dollars in tourism revenue. But now the largest living structure on the planet is becoming the largest dying structure.
Yes, we can save the world’s coral reefs TEDxJCUCairns
Professor Terry Hughes on why he is an optimist when it comes to saving coral reefs.
CoralCoE scientists assess coral bleaching damage on Great Barrier Reef
Scientists say their worst fears have been confirmed as they assess the damage from coral bleaching on the Great Barrier Reef.
‘They’re the sickest corals we’ve ever seen’
Catalyst explores the lethal threat of bleaching to the Great Barrier Reef.
Great Barrier Reef magic!
Dr Sue-Ann Watson captures the majestic Potato Cod gliding around the Great Barrier Reef, near Lizard Island.
Gladiator corals defend their territory
Learn how competition between soft and hard corals transforms the reefs into battlefields. ARC Centre of Excellence student Natalia Andrade describes how corals defend their territory and jostle for position.
What happens to fish when a cyclone destroys their home?
ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies student Jacob Eurich explains the ramifications for damselfish when their home is destroyed by coral bleaching or cyclones.
Professor David Bellwood, New Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science 2016
David Bellwood is a world leader in coral reef ecology. His pioneering work on reef ecosystems has revolutionized our understanding of the evolution of coral reefs and their capacity to withstand human impacts.
Aerial surveys of the northern Great Barrier Reef during the 2016 coral bleaching event
This footage shows extensive coral bleaching (white/yellow patches) on the northern Great Barrier Reef as seen from the helicopter during scientific aerial surveys in March 2016. MORE INFORMATION BELOW.
On 29th March 2016, aerial surveys of more than 500 coral reefs from Cairns to Papua New Guinea revealed that the most pristine section of the Great Barrier Reef experienced the worst mass bleaching event in its history, with the overwhelming majority of reefs being ranked in the most severe bleaching category. The surveys were conducted by Prof Terry Hughes from the ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, convenor of the National Coral Bleaching Taskforce, and James Kerry, project manager of the taskforce.
Footage is free to use for editorial purposes but MUST be credited ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies / James Kerry.
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What is coral bleaching? How does it affect the Great Barrier Reef?
https://www.coralcoe.org.au/resources/for-managers/coral-bleaching-and-the-great-barrier-reef
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Hot news on the 2016 coral bleaching event:
20 April 2016: Only 7% of the Great Barrier Reef has avoided coral bleaching
Only 7% of the Great Barrier Reef has avoided coral bleaching
15 April 2016: Great Barrier Reef risks losing tolerance to bleaching events
Great Barrier Reef risks losing tolerance to bleaching events
05 April 2016: National Coral Taskforce unleashes an armada of experts
29 March 2016: Coral Bleaching Taskforce documents most severe bleaching on record
Coral Bleaching Taskforce documents most severe bleaching on record
21 March 2016: Scientist witnesses severe coral bleaching
14 March 2016: National Coral Taskforce puts plan into effect as bleaching intensifies
National Coral Taskforce puts plan into effect as bleaching intensifies
01 March 2016: National Coral Bleaching Taskforce keeping a close watch on the Reef
National Coral Bleaching Taskforce keeping a close watch on the Reef
Jodie Rummer – Athletes of the Great Barrier Reef (TEDx JCU Cairns)
This talk was given at a local TEDx event, produced independently of the TED Conferences. The world is fascinated with athletes, but the reasons that humans pursue ‘fitness’ and the traits we associate with a good athlete may be quite different from the rest of the animal kingdom.
Jodie is a scientist at the ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies (JCU) with a strong background in marine biology (BSc, MSc degrees, USA) and animal physiology (PhD, Canada; post-doctoral, Hong Kong). She has done extensive research on fish buoyancy, exercise, and environmental perturbations (e.g. water quality, habitat degradation) and, although early in her career, has become a leading authority on the evolution of oxygen transport in fish and how they maintain performance during stress. Today, Jodie combines ecology, evolution, and physiology to address conservation issues such as the effects of climate change on coral reef fishes.
About TEDx, x = independently organized event In the spirit of ideas worth spreading, TEDx is a program of local, self-organized events that bring people together to share a TED-like experience. At a TEDx event, TEDTalks video and live speakers combine to spark deep discussion and connection in a small group. These local, self-organized events are branded TEDx, where x = independently organized TED event. The TED Conference provides general guidance for the TEDx program, but individual TEDx events are self-organized.* (*Subject to certain rules and regulations)
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Abstract: Coral assemblages from the remote Kimberley coast in North Western Australia thrive despite experiencing extreme heat, aerial exposure and fluctuating turbidity. These corals present an
Abstract: Bio-physical interactions can shape the structures and dynamics of populations. Open populations are well mixed over hundreds to thousands of kilometres. In contrast, closed populations exc
Abstract: The elusive Greenland shark (Somniosus microcephalus) is an understudied and putatively important species in the Arctic. They inhabits large parts of the North Atlantic and Arctic Ocean inc
Abstract: The presentation will explore the National NAIDOC Theme and contextualise the connection between Indigenous Self-Determination and Country. The presentation will provide an overview of hist
Abstract: Among all epigenetic modifications, gene body methylation (GBM) is the most studied but arguably the least understood in terms of its function. It is believed by many to facilitate rapid ada
Abstract: I will present some findings showing genetically-identified cryptic coral species within a functional group differing in their response to disturbance (bleaching), environmental gradients (
Abstract: This project aims to set some of the fundamentals necessary for the study of antipatharians (black corals) in the disciplines of ecology, phylogenomics, biology and conservation management.
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Philip Sutton calls for a campaign to end all further climate damaging investments.
Did anyone see the recent ABC Catalyst program on Coral Bleaching?
“This summer, large parts of the Great Barrier Reef saw the hottest sea temperatures and the most severe coral bleaching ever recorded – so before the next impact hits, scientists are racing against time to understand the demise of reefs and the prospects for their recovery.”
ABC Catalyst
The coral scientist said that bleaching events are hitting the Reef about every six years. But healthy reefs need 10 to 15 years to recover from bleaching events. They need that time for all the species that have been killed locally to recolonise from other reefs. And non-healthy reefs need up to 30 years to recover.
Bleaching events are occurring much faster than reefs systems can recover from. So the current temperature of the Earth is wiping out reef systems. This means that there is no budget left for burning any fossil fuels. Every addition of greenhouse gases is making an unacceptable situation worse.
But just because we have a zero greenhouse gas budget that doesn’t mean we can turn of the use of fossil fuels instantly. We clearly need some time to phase out the use of fossil fuels. But how much time? It depends on how we approach the phase out.
If we made a World War II level commitment then we could probably phase out fossil fuels in six years. Beyond Zero Emissions have shown how to do it in 10 years.
The amount of fossil fuels burned during the transition is not our budget. It is just the ecological price for taking the time we take to complete the phase out. The longer the phase out, the higher the price.
Personally, I think it’s time to campaign to end all further climate damaging investment. Environment Justice Australia – the Victorian Environment Defenders’ Office – is currently preparing for RSTI a model Act to ban all further investment in climate damaging projects.
If the climate movement as a whole would take up this concept of ‘no new bad investment’ we could move on to campaign for the systematic closure of all current sources of greenhouse gas emissions.
Philip Sutton is co-author of ‘Climate Code Red’ and Strategist, RSTI. Read more on www.green-innovations.asn.au
Previous posts by Philip Sutton:
» 30 May 2016: Our approach to climate and reef campaigning is a dead parrot
» 18 May 2016: What can we do with the reefs’ death spiral? Start with the ethics!
» Sign the climate emergency declaration petition:
www.climateemergencydeclaration.org/sign
» Share on Facebook:
www.facebook.com/ClimateEmergencyMobilisation
» Naomi Klein: Climate change is intergenerational theft. That’s why my son is part of this story
“The Great Barrier Reef of Australia passed away in 2016 after a long illness. It was 25 million years old.”
“No one knows if a serious effort at the time could have saved the reef, but it is clear that no such effort was made.”
“It’s one of the greatest environmental catastrophes our country has ever seen… and yet somehow, it’s fallen off the political agenda!
Climate Council
The Climate Council: “Can you help us #RaiseTheReef?”
“Watch and share our new video:”
» www.climatecouncil.org.au/raise-the-reef
» The Independent – 14 October 2016:
New pictures show Great Barrier Reef is not repairing itself as it should
» The Guardian – 1 November 2016:
Great Barrier Reef: why are government and business perpetuating the big lie?
“Despite the government’s protests, it’s not possible to save the Great Barrier Reef without tackling global warming first.”
“We can and must save the Great Barrier Reef ― it supports 70,000 jobs in reef tourism, large sections of it [the southern half] escaped from the 2016 bleaching, and are in reasonable shape. The message should be that it isn’t too late for Australia to lift its game and better protect the Great Barrier Reef, not we should all give up because the Great Barrier Reef is supposedly dead.”
Russell Brainard, chief of the Coral Reef Ecosystem Program at NOAA’s Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center
World Animal News – 14 October 2016:
Scientists Have Confirmed That The Great Barrier Reef Is Approaching Extinction
“A new report from Oil Change International found that if we want to stay below 1.5°C of global warming, no new fossil fuel extraction or transportation infrastructure can be built. But our government isn’t listening to the science. That’s why people all over the world are standing up and saying no more! No more pipelines! No more fracking! No more putting fossil fuel profits over public health and the health of our planet!”
~ Solutions Grassroots, United States
“Oil Change International’s calculations demand no new drilling, no new fracking, and definitely no new coal mines. It also means no new pipelines or other construction to facilitate fossil-fuel production, beyond repairing old, faulty infrastructure.”
~ The Nation
» See the report
ADDITIONAL:
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https://climatesafety.info/no-more-bad-investments/
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Excretion is the elimination of waste products from the body. We excrete substances mostly in the urine or the feces, but also by sweat, milk, other body fluids, and even in our hair. Excretion is important from an environmental viewpoint for two reasons: (1) It is a means by which the body eliminates toxic substances; and (2) excretory organs may themselves be susceptible to the action of toxic substances, damaging their ability to maintain homeostasis.
In this section we focus on urinary excretion, that is, on kidney function. The kidneys are one of the most fascinating organs from an engineering point of view. They are at the center of several important control mechanisms, and their excretory function illustrates several important principles of mass transfer. The kidneys have a wide variety of functions, like the liver, but less so. Only the first four of these functions have to do with excretion:
• Regulation of water and electrolyte balance, including blood pH.
• Removal of metabolic waste products, such as nitrogen wastes, from the blood.
• Removal of foreign chemicals from the blood.
• Control of blood pressure and volume through the secretion of renin, which ultimately affects water and sodium excretion (Section 9.5.2).
• Control of red blood cell formation through the secretion of erythropoietin (Section 9.6).
• Control of calcium levels by formation of the active form of vitamin D.
• Conversion of amino acids into glucose during prolonged fasting.
Wastes from the metabolism of carbohydrates and fats produces CO2 and metabolic water, which do not need to be excreted by the kidney. However, the breakdown of nitrogenous compounds such as amino acids produces ammonia, which would be toxic if accumulated in the blood. The liver converts the ammonia to urea, which is relatively nontoxic. We excrete about 21 g of urea per day, plus small amounts of ammonia and uric acid. Some animals excrete nitrogen mostly as uric acid, which is insoluble. This further improves water conservation. The white material in bird droppings is mostly uric acid. We also produce about 1.8 g of creatinine per day for excretion, a breakdown product of creatine phosphate. Sodium, potassium, and chloride are lost with the urine and must be replaced in the diet. To conserve water, the kidneys concentrate these solutes to a total concentration over four times that of blood plasma. The kidney must remove these substances from the blood without losing vital solutes such as sugars and amino acids. The kidney concentrates solutes from the osmolality of blood plasma, about 300 mOsmol/L, by more than four times, to 1200 to 1400 mOsmol/L.
The kidney has three major regions, arranged in layers (Figure 9.13). The outer layer is the renal cortex, the middle layer is the renal medulla, and the innermost part is a cavity the renal pelvis. The fundamental unit of the kidney's mass transfer and urine production is a tiny tubule called a nephron, which is surrounded by blood vessels. The nephron starts in the cortex, passes into the medulla, and then back out to the cortex, where it connects to a collecting duct that conducts the urine into the pelvis. Each of the two kidneys is connected by a ureter to the bladder, which stores urine until a person is ready to release it by urination. The tube that drains the bladder to the outside of the body is called the urethra.
The nephron is about 50 mm long, 15 to 60 mm in diameter, and has four main parts. The ball-shaped glomerular capsule in the cortex contains a tuft of about 50 capillaries called the glomerulus. This connects to the proximal tubule, which, in turn, is connected to the loop of Henle, with a descending limb that passes down into the renal medulla and an ascending limb that goes back into the cortex. Finally, the distal tubule passes through more of the cortex before emptying into a collecting duct. Each of these four sections of the nephron play a role in forming urine using three distinct processes: (1) glomerular filtration, (2) tubular resorption, and (3) tubular secretion.
The capillaries of the glomerulus have pores with a diameter between 50 and 100 nm. In glomerular filtration, blood pressure forces plasma through these pores into the nephron. Blood cells and most blood proteins are retained, but the liquid, salts, and small organic molecules pass through to form a filtrate. The kidneys receive about 20 to 25% of the blood flow from the left ventricle of the heart. Of this, some 10%, about 125 mL/min, passes into the nephrons. This filtrate has a composition similar to plasma, except without the large proteins. The filtration rate is maintained at a fairly constant rate within the kidney but can be modified by hormones or by the autonomic nervous system. A disorder called glomerulonephritis can follow a severe infection of bacteria or viruses. The infection can produce a high concentration of antibody-antigen complex to circulate in the blood. The complexes plug the pores of the glomerulus, reducing the filtration rate and producing an inflammation of the renal cortex.
As the filtrate passes along the nephron, various materials are removed or added by diffusion, osmosis, or carrier-mediated transport such as facilitated transport active transport, cotransport, or countercurrent transport. Carrier-mediated transport has a limited capacity, and if the blood concentration of the transported compound exceeds a threshold, the excess will be lost in the urine. This is the fate of much of the water-soluble vitamins taken in high concentrations in pill form. After a high-sugar meal, your blood sugar may briefly exceed the threshold of 180 mg/dL, and some sugar will be lost. This is a chronic problem with diabetics.
Using facilitated transport and cotransport, the proximal tubule removes 99% of organic nutrients such as sugars, amino acids, and vitamins, as well as drugs and toxins, from the urine. It is an important site for the removal of peptide hormones, such as insulin, from the blood. Many ions, such as sodium, potassium, magnesium, bicarbonate, phosphate, and sulfate, are actively transported out of the urine. Water follows the solutes by osmosis. Overall, the proximal tubule reduces the volume of the filtrate by 60 to 70%. Some secretion also occurs, as described below. The proximal tubule and the loop of Henle remove most of the calcium filtered by the glomerulus.
The osmolarity of the urine is still at the level of plasma, about 300 mOsmol/L.The urine now passes to the loop of Henle, where half the remaining water and two-thirds of the sodium and chloride ions are removed. The descending loop runs parallel to the ascending loop through the medulla. The thin descending loop is permeable to water but not to solutes. The thick ascending section is impermeable to both, but has active transport mechanisms that pump sodium and chloride out of the tubule and into the medulla. The collecting duct also passes through the medulla, and urea diffuses from the urine in the duct into the medulla. The sodium chloride and the urea increase the osmolarity of the medulla near the turn in the loop to about 1200 mOsmol/L. As a result, water passively diffuses out of the descending loop by osmosis. As the urine passes up the ascending loop, the removal of sodium chloride reduces the osmolarity to levels below that of plasma, as low as 100 mOsmol/L. This mechanism for the removal of water and salts involving opposite flow directions of the descending and ascending loops is called the countercurrent multiplier effect (Figure 9.14).
The total flow is now about 15 to 20% of the original filtrate, and continues on to the distal tubule. Both the proximal and distal tubules are active in tubular secretion. Drugs such as penicillin and phenolbarbitol are removed from the blood in this way. The urinary drug testing of athletes is possible because of tubular secretion. Sodium and chloride is removed from urine by active transport, but at the expense of two potassium ions for each three sodium ions. This is stimulated by the hormone aldosterone, which, as was noted above, conserves water in response to stress, but produces potassium loss. The distal tubule also secretes hydrogen ions and exchanges them for bicarbonate. This gives the kidneys some control over blood pH. Both the proximal and distal tubules produce and secrete ammonia as a way to remove hydrogen ions from the blood without decreasing urine pH excessively.
Contrary to what the name implies, the collecting ducts do more than just act as pipelines. They are critical for the final processing of urine and in the kidney's role in controlling blood pressure and volume. The walls of the ducts are permeable to water. As the duct passes into the high-salinity medulla, water is removed by osmosis until it is in equilibrium with the medulla at an osmolarity approaching 1200 mOsmol/L. At this point, its volume has been reduced to about 1% of the amount filtered in the glomerulus. The permeability of the distal tubule and the collecting ducts is controlled by the hormone ADH
(vasopressin). In the absense of the hormone, the ducts become impermeable to water. No water is absorbed from the distal tubule on, and the person secretes large amounts of dilute urine. This is what occurs in the disease diabetes insipidus (not to be confused with the insulin production disorder diabetes mellitus). Normal persons secrete ADH continuously to closely control water recovery. ADH is opposed by the hormone ANP that is produced by the heart (Section 9.5.2). ANP increases glomerular filtration, suppresses sodium absorption by the distal tubule, blocks release of ADH and aldosterone, and inhibits the response of the distal tubule and collecting ducts to ADH and aldosterone.
The water and solutes removed from the filtrate reenter blood vessels that are intimately associated with the nephron. These blood vessels, not shown in Figure 9.14, form a loop parallel to the loop of Henle after passing through the glomerulus. The blood picks up solutes as it passes down into the medulla, increasing its osmolarity to about 1200 mOsmol/L. It then loops back up to the cortex, absorbing water as it goes, until its osmolality returns to a normal 300 mOsmol/L.
The pH of urine is normally between 5.5 and 6.5, but may range from 4.6 to 8.0. The value is influenced by diet. Drinking milk can produce acidic urine with a pH about 6.0. A diet high in fruits and vegetables produces alkaline urine. The concentration of urea varies directly with nitrogen in the diet, particularly protein. Creatinine is excreted in proportion to a person's muscle mass.
Some of the normal constituents of urine may precipitate in the ureter or urethra, forming kidney stones. One-third of these are associated with alkaline urine or calcium problems and include Ca3(PO4)2, MgHN4PO4, CaCO3, or a mixture of these. About half of all kidney stones are calcium oxalate, caused by eating large amounts of spinach or rhubarb, which have high levels of oxalic acid. Stones may also be formed from organics such as uric acid.
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Organisms excrete nitrogenous wastes in the form of urea, uric acid or ammonia. But isn't that a bit of a waste? There is a shortage of biologically available nitrogen in the ecosystem, and plants convert nitrogen in ammonia and nitrates into amino acids. Why do organisms then deaminate these amino acids and then excrete them?
It seems to me that it would make much more sense to store the nitrogen for further use. I understand that ammonia is toxic, but surely it could be stored in some specialized structure.
Some amino acids are essential, that is, they cannot be synthesized. For all the others, however, you need building blocks. Nitrogen, and specifically ammonia, is required for non-essential amino acid synthesis, the transfer of which is accomplished through a process called transamination. Amino acids are also broken down for energy as a metabolic process, producing glutamate (in addition to energy-containing molecules such as pyruvate). The body has thus produced some amino acids and metabolized others for energy, but glutamate must be deaminated to remove the nitrogen, which by this point is now in excess.
To evolve a specialized storage unit for highly toxic substances could be useful, I suppose, but it would be unlikely and would pose a huge risk compared to just getting rid of 'em. I'd rather urinate a few times a day than save a lot of toxic material for later and run the risk of something malfunctioning and killing me; besides, eventually that storage unit would get full. You could ask the same question for any substance we might eventually want.
Preamble: The problem with questions on evolution
Obviously, evolutionary biology is a reputable discipline, but unfortunately there are two types of questions on evolution that are posted on this site that I believe are often of dubious value and can lead to dangerously unscientific habits of mind.
The first is questions of the type “Why did such and such evolve this way?”. The problem with this type of question is that there is generally no way of proving a hypothesis because it makes no predictions - the end product of the evolution is known. There is sometimes an anatomical or biochemical paper-trail to support arguments, and I have presented one such in an answer to another question. However many answers to this type of question are pie-in-the-sky or circular reasoning.
The second type - typified by this one - asks “Why has such and such not evolved, it would obviously be advantageous?” The posters of such questions tend not to ask themselves why, because if they did they would realize that the answer is likely to be either:
“It would be too difficult, costly or would have disadvantageous consequences”
or
“The assumption that it would convey a selective advantage (and that is what evolution is about) is incorrect.”
The accepted answer to this question addresses the former explanations. Although this is an old question at the time of my answering it, I am doing so partly because a similar question came up recently, but also because I feel it would be generally useful exercise to consider the second explanation - to emphasize the need to question the assumptions of those who think that they know better than Nature.
A story my mother told me
The story is apocryphal, but it is true my mother related it to me. It concerns two youths who had applied for a general office job. (This was not quite Dickensian, but not so much later.) In order to chose between them they were each given a parcel to unwrap. The first youth carefully untied the string, took off the paper wrapping, neatly folded it, and placed the parcel, the string and the wrapping paper on the table. The second youth ripped off the wrapping and stuffed it into the waste paper basket and placed the parcel on the table. Who do you think got the job? In the era in which the question was posed, most people (including myself) assumed that the youth who had saved the string and paper for reuse would get the job, rather than the youth who wasted them. However (in the story) it was the latter who got the job - the manager was interested in speed and efficiency, not in economy in office stationary. And the moral is that if you make the wrong assumptions (that avoiding waste was paramount) you will come to the wrong conclusion. So it is with “wasting nitrogen”.
Is the assumption in the question valid for human metabolism?
Although the original question had plants in mind, like @Amory I shall consider it from the perspective of a single species, Homo sapiens. The argument in the question is, in effect:
“There is a shortage of biologically available nitrogen in the ecosystem, so why do organisms deaminate amino acids and excrete them rather than store the nitrogen for future use.”
The first logical flaw is equating the shortage (limitation?) of nitrogen in the ecosystem with a shortage in any individual species. Let us, however, consider a modified argument:
“Nitrogen is a necessary component of proteins and nucleic acids, the synthesis of which is necessary for life. If this were stored in good times it could help survival when dietary protein became unavailable.”
This seems more reasonable. But one first needs to ask whether there is actually no storage of nitrogen. In effect there is in the form of structural protein, which is broken down in starvation. This is relevant, as considering this phenomenon allows one to address the real question:
“Would (further) storage of nitrogen in some more dedicated molecular form provide a selective advantage by enhancing survival during periods of starvation?”
This is the office boy question, but whereas we had no way of knowing what was most important in the office - speed or frugality - here we have information from which to draw a conclusion. In prolonged starvation protein is broken down to amino acids. Why? To utilize the carbon backbone of glucogenic amino acids to provide glucose for the brain when all other substrates for gluconeogenesis have been exhausted. This is key to survival. What happens to the nitrogen? It is partly used as ammonia to buffer the acid produced from some of the ketone bodies produced from ketogenic amino acids and the rest is excreted as urea. It is certainly not used to make protein or nucleic acid, which would entail using precious carbon constituents. Thus, it is clear that energy requirements, and particularly the generation of glucose are the limiting factors in survival during starvation - not nitrogen. The conclusion, therefore, is that there is no point in storing nitrogen in times of plenty: what needs to be stored is carbohydrate/fat.
One might raise the existence of Kwashiorkor, a disease of protein malnutrition. However this is a relatively rate disease, and it affects only children: it is not the normal situation in starvation. Clearly the demands for protein and nucleic acid synthesis are much greater in growth than adulthood.
Coda: Another counter-intuitive evolutionary development in nitrogen metabolism
The fallacy of “wouldn't it be better to evolve… ” is evident if one considers another aspect of nitrogen metabolism - our lack of the apparently useful facility to make all the amino acids, resulting in a dependency of man on certain so-called 'essential' amino acids. Here the situation is not one of failing to evolve a facility, but actually loosing it - simpler organisms from which we have evolved had it. The inescapable conclusion is that such a facility can never have been sufficiently advantageous to result in an evolutionary disadvantage for those who had lost it. Presumably we have evolved in a way that allows us (or a sufficient number of us) to survive in our particular ecological niche, not to be supermen.
Excretion in Animals: Definition, Modes and Excretory Wastes
It is the elimination of metabolic waste products from the animal body to regulate the composition of the body fluids and tissues. The terms excretion and defecation should not be confused. Defecation is the removal of wastes and undigested food, collectively called faeces, through the anus.
It is a process that regulates the body’s salt and water concentration.
Modes of Excretion:
Depending upon the excretory product, animals show five types of nitrogenous excretion in which ammonotelism, ureotelism and uricotelism are major types and aminotelism and guanotelism are minor types. Nitrogenous waste substances such as ammonia, urea or uric acid are produced during protein metabolism according to the species.
Small amount of nitrogenous waste substances are also produced during the metabolism of nucleic acids. Ammonia is the most toxic, followed by urea and uric acid. The latter is the least toxic.
Why Deaminate Amino Acids?
Animal body can store fats and carbohydrates but they are unable to store proteins or amino acids. Therefore, the amino acids that the body cannot utilize immediately are deaminated, that is, their amino groups (— NH2) are removed. The remaining organic acid may be used as energy source or converted into carbohydrate or fat.
Many aquatic animals like protozoans, (e.g., Amoeba, Paramecium), sponges (e.g., Sycon), cnidarians or coelenterates (e.g., Hydra), liver fluke, tape worms, Ascaris, Nereis, Earthworm, Leech, most aquatic arthropods (e.g., Prawn ), most aquatic molluscs (e.g., Pila) bony fishes (e.g., Labeo), Amphibian tadpole (e.g., tadpole of frog), tailed amphibians (e.g., Salamanders), and crocodiles excrete ammonia.
Animals which excrete ammonia are called ammonotelic and excretion of ammonia is termed as the ammonotelism.
Excretion of urea is known as ureotelism and the animals which excrete urea are called ureotelic. Ureotelic animals include Ascaris, earthworm (both are ammonotelic and ureotelic), cartilaginous fishes like sharks and sting rays, semi-aquatic amphibians such as frogs and toads, aquatic or semi aquatic reptiles like turtles, terrapins and alligators, and man and all other mammals.
Urea is less toxic and less soluble in water than ammonia. Hence, it can stay for some time in the body. Sharks retain large quantity of urea in their blood, therefore, blood osmotic pressure approaches that of sea water, which minimizes water loss from their body.
How Urea is produced?
Liver converts toxic ammonia (NH3) into much less toxic urea which is excreted in urine. Urea is the end product of protein metabolism (amino acid metabolism).
Urea is synthesized in liver and transported to kidneys for excretion in urine. Urea is produced through urea cycle which was discovered by Hans Krebs and Kurt Henseleit (1932), hence it is known as Krebs-Henseleit cycle. The individual reactions, however, were described in more detail later on by Ratner and Cohen.
Urea has two amino (-NH2) groups, one derived from NH3 and the other from aspartate. Carbon atom is supplied by CO2. Urea cycle includes five steps involving five distinct enzymes. The first two enzymes are present in mitochondria while the rest are localized in cytosol (the cytoplasm minus the mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum).
(i) Synthesis of Carbamoyl Phosphate:
Carbamoyl phosphate synthase 1 (CPS 1) of mitochondria catalyses the condensation of NH4 + ions with CO2 to form carbamoyl phosphate. This step consumes two ATPs.
(ii) Formation of Citrulline:
Citrul- line is synthesized from carbamoyl phosphate and ornithine by ornithine transcarbamoylase. Ornithine is regenerated and used in urea cycle. Ornithine and citrulline are basic amino acids.
(iii) Synthesis of arginosuccinate:
Arginosuccinate synthase condenses citrulline with aspartate to produce arginosuccinate. This step requires ATP.
(iv) Cleavage of arginosuccinate:
Arginosuccinate cleaves arginosuccinate to give arginine and fumarate. Fumarate liberated here provides a connecting link with Krebs cycle, gluconeogenesis, etc.
Arginase is the fifth and final enzyme that cleaves arginine to form urea and ornithine. This ornithine enters mitochondria for its reuse in the urea cycle. The urea cycle (also called ornithine cycle) is irreversible.
Excretion of uric acid is known as uricotelism and the animals which excrete uric acid are called uricotelic. Animals which live in dry conditions have to conserve water in their bodies. Therefore, they synthesize crystals of uric acid from their ammonia. Uric acid crystals are non-toxic and almost insoluble in water.
Hence, these can be retained in the body for a considerable time. Uricotelic animals include most insects, (e.g., cockroach) some land crustaceans (e.g., Oniscus commonly known as “wood louse”), land snails (e.g., Helix commonly known as “land snail”), land reptiles (e.g., lizards and snakes) and birds.
The concentration of uric acid is so high in guano (waste matter dropped by sea birds, used as fertilizer) that uric acid is commercially extracted from guano which is collected from uninhabited marine or littoral (part of country which is along the coast) islands. Primates including man also excrete some uric acid which is formed in their body by the breakdown of nucleic acids.
Certain invertebrates like some molluscs (Unio, Limnaea, etc.) and some echinoderms (e.g., Asterias) excrete excess amino acids as such. These animals are called aminotelic and their mode of excretion is called aminotelism.
Spiders excrete guanine and are said to be guanotelic and their mode of excretion is called guanotelism.
Some animals perform two modes of excretion. That is called dual excretion. Some important examples of dual excretion are mentioned here. Earthworms excrete ammonia when sufficient water is available while they excrete urea instead of ammonia in drier surroundings.
When lung fishes and Xenopus (African toad) live in water they are normally ammonotelic but they become ureotelic when they lie immobile in moist air or mud during summer. Amphibian tadpoles (larvae) are aquatic and ammonotelic but they become ureotelic during their metamorphosis. Crocodiles spend most of their time in water and creases.
Although man is ureotelic yet he excretes a small amount of uric acid in his urine. But it is too little amount as compared to total urinary nitrogen. However, in some patients the concentration of uric acid is raised in their body fluids and subsequently uric acid is deposited in joints, cartilages and kidneys causing gout and kidney failure. In gouty arthritis, crystals of uric acid are deposited in the joints causing a severe pain.
Other Nitrogenous Wastes:
1. Creatine and Creatinine:
Muscle cells contain molecules of creatine phosphate, which are highly energy molecules and serve for storage of bioenergy like ATP. Excess amount of this phosphate is however, excreted out as such, or after being changed into creatinine. The latter is passed out through urine.
2. Trim ethylamine oxide (TMO):
Marine teleost fishes excrete a large proportion of their nitrogen as trim ethylamine oxide (TMO). Large amounts of this compound is also stored in their body for osmoregulation, (i.e., to minimize loss of water and entry of salts).
It is excreted in small amount by birds and is formed by a combination of benzoic acid (formed during fat metabolism) with the amino acid ornithine.
It is formed when benzoic acid is combined with glycine. It is less toxic.
5. Bilirubin and Biliverdin:
These are the bile pigments which are formed in the liver due to breakdown of haemoglobin of worn out RBCs. These are excreted through bile. In jaundice, level of bilirubin is high in the blood resulting yellow skin, white eyes, etc.
It is formed from uric acid as a result of an oxidation reaction catalyzed by the enzyme uricase. Higher primates including man do not have enzyme uricase. Allantoin is an excretory product of embryos of amniotes. In a very young embryo, the excretory matter is stored in allantois.
Other Excretory Wastes:
1. Bile Salts:
Bile salts are the sodium and potassium salts of bile acids, which are conjugated with glycine or taurine. The bile acids are derived from cholesterol. Glycine is an amino acid and taurine is derivative of an amino acid. The conjugated bile acids namely, glycocholic acid and taurocholic acid form bile salts in combination with sodium or potassium salts.
Bile salts always keep the cholesterol and lecithin in solution. So, in the absence of bile salts, cholesterol precipitates along with lecithin and forms gallstone. 95% of bile salts are absorbed into blood from small intestine.
Most of the bile salts are converted into salts of deoxycholic acid and lithocholic acid. Salts of deoxycholic acids are absorbed completely. Only 1% of lithocholate (salts of lithocholic acid) is absorbed. Major portion of this is excreted with faeces. The bile salts absorbed from intestine are transported by hepatic portal vein back to the liver via the enterohepatic circulation. From liver, the bile salts are re-excreted through bile.
2. Excretion of Drugs, Hormones and Other Substances:
The liver is well known for its ability to detoxify or excrete into bile many drugs, including sulfonamides, penicillin, ampicillin and erythromycin. Several hormones secreted by the endocrine glands are either chemically altered or excreted by the liver, including thyroxine and essentially all the steroid hormones such as oestrogen, cortisol and aldosterone.
One of the major routes for excreting calcium from the body is secretion by the liver into the bile, which passes into the gut and lost in the faeces. The liver also excretes heavy metals like lead, arsenic and bismuth.
The other substances excreted in bile are heavy metals such as copper and iron, some toxins, some bacteria like typhoid bacteria, cholesterol, lecithin and alkaline phosphatase. Heavy metals and drugs are also excreted in the saliva.
3. Carbon Dioxide:
It is mainly expelled out by lungs. Some carbon dioxide is also excreted through sweat and defecation.
4. Water:
Excess of water is a waste product and is eliminated in urine, faeces, sweat and expired air.
5. Vitamins:
The excess of water soluble vitamins like vitamin В complex and vitamin С is removed from the body in urine.
6. Spices:
Onions, garlic and some other spices have volatile components which leave the body through lungs, the rest are removed by the kidneys.
Sebaceous glands (oil glands) secrete an oily secretion called sebum that contains some lipids such as sterols, other hydrocarbons and fatty acids.
Sudoriferous glands (= sweat glands) in the skin and gastrointestinal tract also expel heat which is the result of various metabolic processes.
What Is the Importance of Excretion?
Excretion is an essential process in which waste products are removed from the body. Without excretion, waste products build up in the body and cause serious health issues.
Urea is a mixture of nitrogenous wastes that damage the body if not removed by the excretory system. Blood is important to the excretory system. It carries waste from cells through the bloodstream to the excretory organs for removal from the body.
The excretory system consists of many parts and organs that work as a whole. It rids the body of metabolic waste, which contains salts, carbon dioxide and urea. The lungs remove carbon dioxide, absorbing and removing waste while providing oxygen to the body. The skin is part of the excretory system and helps rid the body of contaminants through perspiration. Perspiration removes urea from the body in a water-based liquid excreted from sweat glands located in the skin.
The urinary system is comprised of the kidneys, the urethra, the ureters and the bladder. The kidneys filter contaminants from the bloodstream and remove them from the body as urine. The kidneys also serve to diffuse any useful substances that pass through the urinary system, sending them back into the bloodstream to be utilized.
Excretory System Structure
The excretory system is necessary for preventing the toxic build up of nitrogenous wastes, such as ammonia or urea. However, the excretory system of animals has evolved in many different ways since the dawn of life on Earth.
In fish and aquatic animals, the excretory system is fairly simple. The gills are a major site of excretion, and some waste products are simply added to the blood to be excreted in the gills. These animals also rely on their skin and glands to excrete excess salts and other waste products. In fact, freshwater and saltwater fish have drastically different kidney functions, based on the concentration of salt in the surrounding water.
In terrestrial animals, such as humans, the excretory system is structured to retain as much water as possible. Birds and reptiles have even developed uric acid, which is a more concentrated and safer form of urea. As a whole system, every part and organ of the excretory system can be functioning at the same time to remove wastes from the body. However, if the structure of the excretory system gets damaged by disease, many bad consequences can ensue.
Nitrogen excretion: three end products, many physiological roles
There are diverse physiological functions of nitrogen end products in different animal groups, including excretion, acid-base regulation, osmoregulation and buoyancy. Animals excrete a variety of nitrogen waste products, but ammonia, urea and uric acid predominate. A major factor in determining the mode of nitrogen excretion is the availability of water in the environment. Generally, aquatic animals excrete mostly ammonia, whereas terrestrial animals excrete either urea or uric acid. Ammonia, urea and uric acid are transported across cell membranes by different mechanisms corresponding to their different chemical properties in solution. Ammonia metabolism and excretion are linked to acid-base regulation in the kidney, but the role of urea and uric acid is less clear. Both invertebrates and vertebrates use nitrogen-containing organic compounds as intracellular osmolytes. In some marine invertebrates, NH4+ is sequestered in specific compartments to increase buoyancy.
30 Easy Questions to Study the Excretory System
The main nitrogenous wastes excreted by living organisms are ammonia, uric acid and urea. Living organisms that secrete ammonia are called ammonotelic. Organisms that secrete uric acid are called uricotelic. Organisms that secrete urea are called ureotelic.
4. Why are most ammonotelic organisms aquatic animals?
Aquatic animals, such as crustaceans, bony fish and amphibian larvae, are generally ammonotelic because ammonia diffuses more easily through membranesਊnd is more water-soluble than the other types of nitrogenous waste. Ammonia is still the nitrogenous waste most economical to synthesize in terms of energy.
5. Why did ammonotelic excretion cease to be used after animals left aquatic habitats and started to live in terrestrial habitats?
Ammonia is a highly toxic molecule if not diluted and quickly excreted from the body. For this reason, ammonotelicxcretion was abandoned in terrestrial habitats because the availability of water for dilution was reduced in this medium, making it so that waste could not be excreted to the exterior so quickly.
6. With regards to toxicity and the need for dilution in water, how different are ureotelic and uricotelic excretions? What are some examples of animals that use these types of excretion?
Urea is more water-soluble than uric acid (an almost insoluble substance). Urea is also more toxic. However, both are less toxic than ammonia.
Some invertebrates, chondrichthyan fish, adult amphibians and mammals are ureotelic. Reptiles, birds and most arthropods are uricotelic.
7. What is the nitrogenous waste produced by amphibian larvae and by the adult animal?
Since amphibian larvae are aquatic, they excrete ammonia. The terrestrial adult excretes urea.
8. Why is uricotelic excretion essential for avian and reptile embryos?
In reptiles and birds, the excretory system is uricotelic since uric acid is insoluble, less toxic and suitable to be stored within the eggs where their embryos develop.
9. How do the embryos of placental mammals excrete nitrogenous wastes?
Placental animals, including embryos, excrete urea. In the adult placental mammal urea is excreted through the urine. In embryos, the molecule passes to the mother’s blood through the placenta and is excreted in the mother’s urine.
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The Human Excretory System
10. What is the main nitrogenous waste produced by humans?
Human beings excrete mainly urea, which is eliminated in urine.
11. How is urea formed in the human body?
Urea is a product of the degradation of amino acids. During this process, amino acids lose their amine group, which is then transformed into ammonia. In the liver, ammonia reacts with carbon dioxide to form urea and water, through a process called ureogenesis.
During the intermediary reactions of ureogenesis, a molecule of ornithine is consumed and another is produced. For this reason, ureogenesis is also known as the ornithine cycle.
The Excretory System Review - Image Diversity: ureogenesis
12. What organs make up the excretory system?
The excretory system is formed of the kidneys (two), the ureters (two), the bladder and the urethra.
The Kidneys and Their Functions
13. What vessels carry blood to the kidneys? Is this blood arterial or venous?
The arterial vessels that carry blood to be filtered by the kidneys are the renal arteries. The renal arteries are branches of the aorta therefore, blood filtered by the kidneys is arterial (oxygen-rich) blood.
14. Which vessels drain filtered blood from the kidneys?
The venous vessels that collect blood filtered by the kidneys are the renal veins. The renal veins carry blood that has been reabsorbed by the nephron tubules.
Nephrons
15. What is the functional unit of the kidneys?
The functional (filtering) unit of the kidneys is the nephron. A nephron is made of the afferent arteriole, the efferent arteriole, the glomerulus, the Bowman's capsule, the proximal tubule, the loop of Henle, the distal tubule and the collecting duct.
Each kidney contains around one million nephrons.
16. What are the three main renal processes that produce urine when combined?
Urine is made by these occurrence of three processes in the nephron: glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion.
In the nephron, blood carried by the afferent arteriole enters the glomerular capillary network where it is filtered. The filtration results in part of the blood returning to circulation through the efferent arteriole while the other part, known as glomerular filtrate, enters the proximal tubule of the nephron. In the nephron tubules (also known as convoluted tubules), substances of the glomerular filtrate, such as water, ions and small organic molecules, are reabsorbed by the cells of the tubule wall and enter into circulation. These cells also secrete other substances inside the tubules. Urine is formed of filtered substances that are reabsorbed and of secreted (by the tubules) substances. Urine is drained by the collecting ducts to the ureter of each kidney. It then enters the bladder and is laterischarged through the urethra.
The nephron tubules are surrounded by an extensive capillary network that collects reabsorbed substances and supplies others to be secreted.
17. What is the main transformation presented in glomerular filtrate compared to blood?
Glomerular filtrate is the name given to plasma after it has passed the glomerulus and entered the Bowman’s capsule. Glomerular filtrate has a different composition compared to urine, since the fluid has not yet undergone tubular reabsorption and secretion.
The main difference between blood and glomerular filtrate is that the latter contains a minimum amount of proteins as well as no cells or blood platelets.
18. What is proteinuria? Why is proteinuria a sign of glomerular renal injury?
Proteinuria means the passing of proteins in the urine. Under normal conditions, proteins are too large to be filtered by the glomerulus and are practically absent in urine (the few filtered proteins may also be reabsorbed by the nephron tubules). Proteinuria is an indication that a more than expected amount of proteins is passing through the glomerulus, and is an indicator of glomerular disease, such as diabetic nephropathy.
The glomerulus also blocks the passage of blood cells and platelets (hematuria is often a sign of urinary disease, although it does not specifically implicate the kidneys, since the blood may come from the lower parts of the excretory tract).
19. Where does most of the water reabsorbed after glomerular filtration go? What other substances are reabsorbed by the nephron tubules?
Only 0.5 to 1% of glomerular filtrate is eliminated as urine. The remaining volume, containing mainly metabolic ions, glucose, amino acids and water, is reabsorbed by the nephron tubules (by means of active or passive transport) and regains blood circulation.
The convolute tubules of the nephron are responsible for the reabsorption of substances.
20. Why do the cells of the nephron tubules contain a large amount of mitochondria?
The cells of the tubule wall have a large number of mitochondria because many substances are reabsorbed or secreted through them by means of active transport (a process that spends energy). Therefore, many mitochondria are necessary to supply the energy for (ATP supply) this type of transport.
21. What is tubular secretion? What are some examples of substances secreted through the renal tubules?
Tubular secretion is the passage of substances from the blood capillaries that surround the nephron tubules to the tubular lumen so that these substances can be excreted with urine. Ammonia, uric acid, potassium, bicarbonate and hydrogen ions, metabolic acids and bases, various ingested drugs (medicines) and other substances are secreted by the nephron tubules.
22. In what part of the nephron does the regulation of the acidity and alkalinity of plasma take place?
The regulation of the acid-basic equilibrium of the body is carried out by the kidneys and depends on tubular reabsorption and secretion.
23. How are kidneys involved in the regulation of the acid-basic equilibrium of the body? How are alkalosis and acidosis corrected by the kidneys?
The kidneys can regulate the acidity or alkalinity of the plasma by varying the excretion of hydrogen and bicarbonate ions.
During alkalosis (an abnormally high level of plasma pH), the kidneys excrete more bicarbonate ions and the equilibrium of the formation of bicarbonate from water and carbon dioxide shifts towards the formation of more hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ions, thus lowering plasma pH. When the body undergoes acidosis (an abnormally low level of plasma pH), the kidneys excrete more hydrogen ions and retain more bicarbonate ions and, as a result, the equilibrium of the formation of bicarbonate from water and carbon dioxide shifts towards more hydrogen consumption, increasing the pH of plasma.
24. How are the kidneys involved in controlling blood volume? How is the volume of blood in the body related to arterial pressure?
The kidneys and the hormones that control them are the main physiological regulators of the total volume of blood in the body. As more water is reabsorbed by the nephron tubules, the volume of blood increases and, as more water is excreted in urine, the volume of blood lowers.
The volume of blood in turn has a direct relationship with blood pressure. Blood pressure increases when blood volume increases and it lowers when blood volume lowers. This is the reason why one of the main groups of antihypertensive drugs is diuretics. Doctors often prescribe diuretics to patients with high blood pressure so that they excrete more water and therefore lower their blood pressure.
Hormones and the Excretory System
25. Which three main hormones are involved in the regulation of the renal function?
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, or vasopressin), aldosterone and atrial natriuretic factor (or ANF) are the mains hormones that are involved in the regulation of the excretory system.
26. What is the function of antidiuretic hormone? Where is it produced and what stimuli increase or decrease its secretion?
Antidiuretic hormone is secreted by the hypophysis (also known as the pituitary gland) and it has an effect on the nephron tubules, increasing their reabsorption of water. When the body needs to retain water, for example, in the case of blood loss and an abrupt decrease in blood pressure, or in the case of an abnormally high blood osmolarity, ADH secretion is stimulated.
When the body has an excess of water, such as in the event of excessive ingestion or abnormally low blood osmolarity, the secretion of ADH is blocked and diuresis increases. ADH is also known as vasopressin since it increases blood volume and therefore increases blood pressure.
27. Why does the ingestion of alcohol increase diuresis?
Alcohol inhibits the secretion of ADH (antidiuretic hormone) by the pituitary gland. That is why when people are drunk, they urinate in excess.
28. What is the effect of aldosterone and where is it produced?
Aldosterone is a hormone that has an effect on the nephron tubules, stimulating the reabsorption of sodium. Therefore, it contributes to increasing blood osmolarity, consequently increasing blood pressure.
Aldosterone is made by the adrenal glands, which are located above the upper portion of the kidneys.
29. What evolutionary hypothesis could explain the heart’s role in secreting a hormone that regulates renal function? What hormone is this?
The renal regulator hormone secreted by the heart is atrial natriuretic factor (or ANF). ANF increases the excretion of sodium in the nephron tubules, causing less reabsorption of water and more urinary volume, thus lowering blood pressure. Atrial natriuretic factor is secreted when there is an increase in the length of heart muscle fibers in response to high blood pressure. ANF is a natural antihypertensive substance. Since the health of the heart depends largely on the stability of normal blood pressure, evolution likely preserved atrial natriuretic factor to allow information from the heart to work as an additional mechanism in the renal control of blood pressure.
Now that you have finished studying Excretory System, these are your options:
The body parts that the excretory system (of human beings) includes are &minus
Kidneys are located in the abdomen (see the image given below), one on either side of the backbone.
Urine that produced in the kidneys passes through the ureters into the urinary bladder where it gets stored until released through the urethra.
On the other hand, plants have completely different process for excretion than those of animals.
Oxygen (released in the day-time) itself can be considered as a waste product generated during photosynthesis.
Many plant waste products are stored in leaves that fall off.
Some other waste products, in plants, are stored as resins and gums, especially in old xylem.
Nonspecific mechanisms of waste disposal
A multitude of disposal mechanisms exist throughout the plant and animal kingdoms for the elimination of excess plant and animal material. Among plants, the shedding and dropping of bark, leaves, and twigs might, in a broad sense, be said to represent disposal mechanisms. Certain plants, in addition, secrete or exude resins, sap, and other substances that accumulate in excessive quantities within the plant.
Specialized, mobile, amoeba-like cells exist in the blood and tissues of animals and engulf particulate wastes resulting from the disintegration of dead cells or the intake of foreign particles into the bodies of animals. Waste matter thus stored inside these small cells is removed from contact with the organism or its metabolism and may be considered to be eliminated whether or not the material is ever actually eliminated from the body of the organism during its normal life cycle.
Toxic substances are produced by normal metabolic activities. Though some of these poisons are eliminated in their original chemical form, others, such as some nitrogenous compounds, are altered biochemically to less toxic compounds. In this manner, more of the original waste may be safely stored, or permitted to accumulate without harmful effects to the organism, until it can be eliminated. In addition, toxic chemicals that are inadvertently ingested or produced by bacterial action (infection) are frequently converted to nontoxic forms by enzymatic and antibody (immune) reactions. Such materials can then be eliminated safely with other wastes along normal pathways of excretion.
Heat is eliminated from the bodies of animals by conduction to the external surface of the organism. In animals possessing a circulatory system, heat travels in its fluid from the deeper portions of the body to the surface. At the body surface, heat is lost by physical processes of convection, radiation, conduction, and evaporation of sweat.
Flame Cells of Planaria and Nephridia of Worms
As multi-cellular systems evolved to have organ systems that divided the metabolic needs of the body, individual organs evolved to perform the excretory function. Planaria are flatworms that live in fresh water. Their excretory system consists of two tubules connected to a highly branched duct system. The cells in the tubules are called flame cells (or protonephridia ) because they have a cluster of cilia that looks like a flickering flame when viewed under the microscope, as illustrated in Figure (PageIndex<2>)a. The cilia propel waste matter down the tubules and out of the body through excretory pores that open on the body surface cilia also draw water from the interstitial fluid, allowing for filtration. Any valuable metabolites are recovered by reabsorption. Flame cells are found in flatworms, including parasitic tapeworms and free-living planaria. They also maintain the organism&rsquos osmotic balance.
Figure (PageIndex<2>): In the excretory system of the (a) planaria, cilia of flame cells propel waste through a tubule formed by a tube cell. Tubules are connected into branched structures that lead to pores located all along the sides of the body. The filtrate is secreted through these pores. In (b) annelids such as earthworms, nephridia filter fluid from the coelom, or body cavity. Beating cilia at the opening of the nephridium draw water from the coelom into a tubule. As the filtrate passes down the tubules, nutrients and other solutes are reabsorbed by capillaries. Filtered fluid containing nitrogenous and other wastes is stored in a bladder and then secreted through a pore in the side of the body.
Earthworms (annelids) have slightly more evolved excretory structures called nephridia , illustrated in Figure (PageIndex<2>)b. A pair of nephridia is present on each segment of the earthworm. They are similar to flame cells in that they have a tubule with cilia. Excretion occurs through a pore called the nephridiopore . They are more evolved than the flame cells in that they have a system for tubular reabsorption by a capillary network before excretion.
The Importance of Homeostasis
The failure of homeostatic regulation in just one body system will cause conditions to deteriorate and it may be fatal. For the health of an organism, all homeostatic regulation mechanisms must function properly. The information below describes how various body systems contribute to overall homeostasis.
Nervous System
The nervous system maintains homeostasis by controlling other parts of the body. It comprises the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The peripheral nerves are those outside of the brain and spinal cord which go to the limbs and organs. The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system. The hypothalamus in the brain is particularly important for maintaining homeostasis because it controls the actions of the medulla oblongata (involuntary functions), the autonomic nervous system (smooth muscle and glands), and the pituitary gland (hormone excretion).
Endocrine System
This system comprises the glands that excrete hormones into the bloodstream. Hormones have a myriad of functions in the body that maintain homeostasis by targeting certain tissues. Besides regulating bone growth, muscle metabolism, and energy production, there are hormones that regulate fluid balance, the production of red blood cells, blood pressure, and inflammation.
Integumentary System
Skeletal System
The bones of the skeleton protect the brain, spinal cord, and internal organs and serve as a reservoir of calcium, phosphorous, and other minerals. Calcium, for example, is needed for muscle contraction. Red and white blood cells and other cells of the immune system are made and stored in the bone marrow. The skeleton also makes movement of the body possible which is important for homeostasis. An example of this is when an animal’s core temperature becomes too hot, it can move into the shade of a tree or into the water to cool itself.
Muscular System
Muscles not only work with the skeleton to move the body, but they make digestion and breathing possible. The layers of muscle also protect internal organs and generate heat when they contract (useful for shivering when the body is cold). Finally, the heart is made of cardiac muscle and its pumping of blood is necessary for many of the homeostatic control systems in the body.
Lymphatic System
This system is key to maintaining homeostasis by controlling blood volume and tissue fluids. The lymphatic system works with the capillaries in the cardiovascular system to remove excess fluid which can build up and cause edema and swelling. The lymphatics are also a critical part of the immune system and immune response. After B cells mature in the bone marrow, they migrate to the lymph nodes where they stand guard against foreign invaders in the body. Other parts of the lymphatic system that help maintain homeostasis are the lymph glands, tonsils, adenoids, spleen, and thymus gland.
Respiratory System
The respiratory system transports gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide in and out of the lungs. This is critical to maintaining the proper pH of the blood. If the blood is too acidic, the brain slows the breathing to increase the amount of bicarbonate ions (carbon dioxide) in the blood. Conversely, to adjust the blood chemistry when the pH is too low, respiration increases so that more carbon dioxide is expelled. The respiratory system also acts to dissipate heat when the body temperature gets too hot. This is done through open-mouth breathing or panting in animals that don’t have sweat glands.
Digestive System
The digestive system helps maintain homeostasis by eliminating toxins and waste and supplying nutrients to the body. It also serves the critical immune system function of destroying bacteria and viruses than enter the body through food and water intake. Also, the heat generated during the digestive process contributes to regulation of the core temperature.
Urinary System
The body eliminates nitrogenous waste through urine which is important for maintaining homeostasis in the body. The urinary system also helps control blood pressure by regulating the amount of fluid and ions in the body. Also, the kidneys produce the hormone erythropoietin which stimulates red blood cell production in the bone marrow.
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a very important role at this point or location. If the ADH concentration is more in the blood,
water passes out from the tubes into the blood, making the filtrate or the urine more concentrated
and if ADH is less in the blood, the opposite happens. At the tubular secretion region, most of the
substances that are in the blood are absorbed back into the tubules. Some of the substances that are secreted into
the tubules include potassium, hydrogen ions, sodium ions, some hormones, urea, creatinine
and some drugs. So, these are the three processes wherein
urine formation happens. The urine formed over here, is passed on to
the collecting duct through the medullary pyramid to the renal pelvis and to the ureter. The urine consists of just 1 percent of the
filtrate and contains urea, creatinine and variable concentration of ions. The urea and creatinine are highly concentrated. This forms the excretion in humans through
kidneys. On an average, an adult human produces 1.5
to 2 decimeter cube of urine per day. Other organs of excretion are lungs and skin. The lungs help in exhalation or expelling
the carbon-di-oxide out of the body and sweat is produced from the sweat glands which are
located in the skin. From the sweat glands, the sweat comes out
through the tiny pores on the skin or the surface of the skin. The sweat evaporates causing a cooling sensation
to the body. The sweat consists of sodium chloride, urea
and lactic acid. So, these are other forms of excretion, through
lungs and skin. The main disorder of excretory system is nephritis,
which is an inflammation of the kidney. Another disorder is formation of kidney stones,
which is the deposition of calcium compounds obstructing the passage of urine. Patients with kidney failure undergo a process
called dialysis. This is excretion in humans. Thank you for watching the video. If you have any questions, please feel free
to comment. Have a great day!
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Let us have an overview of urine formation and osmoregulation.
Every one of us, including plants and animals, depend on the excretion process for the removal of certain waste products from our body. During the process of excretion, both the kidneys play an important role in filtering the blood cells. Let us have an overview of urine formation and osmoregulation.
Excretion is a biological process, which plays a vital role by eliminating toxins and other waste products from the body. In plants and animals, including humans, as part of metabolism, a lot of waste products are produced. Plants usually excrete through the process of transpiration and animals excrete the wastes in different forms such as by urine, sweat, faeces and tears. Among all these, the usual and the main form of excretion is urine.
Waste is excreted from the human body, mainly in the form of urine. Our kidneys play a major role in the process of excretion. Constituents of normal human urine include 95 percent water and 5 percent solid wastes. It is produced in the nephron, which is the structural and functional unit of the kidney. Urine formation in our body is mainly carried out in three phases namely
The mechanism of urine formation involves the following steps:
Glomerular filtration occurs in the glomerulus where blood is filtered. This process occurs across the three layers- epithelium of Bowman’s capsule, endothelium of glomerular blood vessels, and a membrane between these two layers. Blood is filtered in such a way that all the constituents of the plasma reach the Bowman’s capsule, except proteins. Therefore, this process is known as ultrafiltration.
Around 99 percent of the filtrate obtained is reabsorbed by the renal tubules. This is known as reabsorption. This is achieved by active and passive transport.
The next step in urine formation is the tubular secretion. Here, tubular cells secrete substances like hydrogen ion, potassium ion, etc into the filtrate. By this process, the ionic, acid-base and the balance of other body fluids are maintained. The secreted ions combine with the filtrate and form urine. The urine passes out of the nephron tubule into a collecting duct.
The urine produced is 95% water and 5% nitrogenous wastes. Wastes such as urea, ammonia, creatinine are excreted in the urine. Apart from these, the potassium, sodium and calcium ions are also excreted. Also Read: Counter-current Mechansim
Osmoregulation is the process of regulating body fluids and its compositions. It maintains the osmotic pressure of the blood and helps in the homeostasis . This is why it is recommended to consume more water about 2-3 litres, which help in the proper functioning of our kidneys. For example, we consume lots of water during summers, but still, we urinate fewer times in summers than winters and the concentration of the urine is also more. The reason is that we lose lots of water from our body in summers through sweating. Thus, to maintain the fluid balance in the body our kidneys reabsorb more water.
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The Excretory System Aaron Wong
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What does it do? Every cell produces metabolic wastes such as: Salt
Carbon dioxide Urea (toxic compound produced when making energy) The excretory system’s job is to remove these useless and harmful wastes from the body.
3
The Organs The main organs of the excretory system are:
Kidneys SKIN Lungs skin covers and protects your body lungs located in chest and protected by ribcage kidneys found on either side of backbone and about the size of a fist
4
Kidneys Structure Made of Inner (renal medulla) and outer (renal cortex) The functional units of the kidney are nephrons Each nephron has its own blood supply through the use of 4 parts. Ateriole :: Where the blood enters Capillaries :: Filtration Collecting duct :: Waste from blood ends up here which leads to ureter Venule :: Where the purified blood exits
5
Blood Purification It is broken into three processes: filtration, reabsorption, and secretion. Filtration :: Blood enters nephron and flows into the glomerulus, a small network of capillaries is held in the upper end of the nephron by Bowman’s capsules :: Because the blood is under pressure and the capillaries are permeable fluid flows into Bowman’s capsule :: The filtrate (filtered materials) contains water, urea, glucose, salts, amino acids, and some vitamins
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Blood Purification Reabsorption
Filtration, reabsorption, and secretion animation Reabsorption :: Most material removed from the blood goes back into the blood through reabsorption :: The nutrients are taken out of the filtrate with active transport and then put back in the blood Secretion :: The cells of the tubules remove certain molecules and ions from the blood and deposite these into the fluid within the tubules. : Tubular secretion of H+- is important in maintaining control of the pH of the blood..
7
Urinary system Urine is the material that remains after reabsorption
It is concentrated in the loop of Henle where water is conserved and the volume of urine minimized Urine is collected in the urinary bladder while purified blood goes back into normal circulation Urine is released through the urethra tube
8
The Kidneys and Homeostasis
:: The kidneys regulate water content in the blood, which controls blood volume, pH, and waste in the blood. :: How do they do it? Liquid that you consume goes into the blood This increased concentration should force water into cells, swelling your body However the kidneys control this by lowering the rate of reabsorption of water As for salt, the more you eat, the less that is returned to the blood
9
Skin and Lungs Skin excretes waste products from
the body through perspiration This includes water, salt, and a small amount of urea and other toxic substances The lungs excrete carbon dioxide during respiration CO2 is produced when energy is taken from food Simple breathing animation >>>>>>> Blue: oxygen, purple: CO2
10
When something goes wrong…
The major disease to the excretory system is kidney disease This can lead to kidney failure, and the inability to remove waste products Many kidney problems can be treated by dialysis, where a machine acts as a kidney. However, it is very expensive and time consuming. Kidney transplants are an alternative to dialysis. Dialysis Animation :: Medical science is working on developing an artificial kidney transplant for the future!
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A Healthy Excretory System
As with all of your body systems eating well promotes a healthy excretory system, especially getting enough dietary fiber Diabetic kidney disease can be prevented by keeping blood sugar in your target range For more information visit: (kidney disease) (detailed explanation of reabsorption) (overview)
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Bibliography (slide 6, “Secretion”) (slide 9) (slide 10, “Skin”) (slide 11)
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The physical and chemical properties of urine have long been recognized as important indicators of health. It is the purpose of this article to present an explanation of the tests included in a routine urinalysis, and also to include some of the screening tests which are requested to be done on random urine samples.
The term “screening” implies that a positive result should be followed up by further studies such as quantitative tests. The scope of this article will not include these quantitative procedures.
A routine urinalysis, which is frequently referred to as an R+M (routine and microscopic), includes examination for urinary color, appearance, specific gravity, pH, protein, glucose, ketones, and occult blood, as well as a microscopic examination of the sediment. Because of the recent production of dipsticks that are capable of measuring seven or eight parameters, some laboratories now include bilirubin, nitrite, and urobilinogen in the routine urinalysis. An R+M on a young child should also include a screening test for reducing substances in order to allow for the early detection of congenital defects in carbohydrate metabolism.
In spite of all the technical advances in the clinical laboratory, the value of a urinalysis is dependent upon the ability of the technologist who performs it. Care must be taken to properly interpret and evaluate the various tests. It is the aim of this article to provide a simple explanation of these tests, and by means of photomicrographs to familiarize the reader with the structures found in the urinary sediment.
The Formation of Urine
The kidneys are paired organs which are located in the small of the back on each side of the spine. They are responsible for maintaining homeostasis including the regulation of body fluids, acid-base balance, electrolyte balance and the excretion of waste products. They are also concerned with the maintenance of blood pressure and erythropoiesis. Renal function is influenced by the blood volume, pressure, and composition, as well as by the adrenal and pituitary glands.
The formation of urine involves the complex processes of blood filtration, the reabsorption of essential substances including water, and the tubular secretion of certain substances. After formation in the kidney, the urine passes down the ureter into the bladder, where it is temporarily stored before being excreted through the urethra.
The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney and there are approximately one million nephrons in each kidney. The nephron consists of a capillary network, called the glomerulus, and a long tubule which is divided into three parts: the proximal convoluted tubule, the loop of Henle, and the distal convoluted tubule. Each nephron empties into a collecting tubule to which other nephrons are connected. The urine then collects in the renal pelvis and empties into the ureter. The glomerulus and the convoluted tubules are located in the cortex of the kidney, while the loop of Henle extends down into the medulla.
Approximately 20-25% of the blood that leaves the left ventricle of the heart enters the kidneys by way of the renal arteries. This means that in a normal adult the blood passes through the kidneys at a rate of about 1200 ml/min, or 600 ml/min/kidney. After the renal artery enters the kidney it breaks up into smaller branches until thousands of tiny arterioles are formed. These arterioles are called afferent arterioles because they carry the blood to the nephrons. Each afferent arteriole then forms the capillary network of a glomerulus.
The glomerulus is surrounded by a structure called the Bowman’s capsule, and the space that is formed between the capsule and the glomerulus is the Bowman’s space. As a result of its special structure, the glomerular wall acts as an ultrafilter which is very permeable to water. The pressure of the blood within the glomerulus forces water and dissolved solutes with a molecular weight of less than 50,000 through the semipermeable capillary membrane and into the Bowman’s space (Shaw and Benson 1974). The remainder of the blood including blood cells, plasma proteins, and large molecules, leaves the glomerulus via the efferent arteriole and enters a second capillary network, called the peritubular capillaries, which surrounds the tubules.
Approximately 120 ml/min, or one-fifth, of the renal plasma is filtered through the glomeruli forming what is known as the ultra-filtrate. The ultrafiltrate has the same composition as blood plasma but it is normally free of protein except for about 10 mg/dl of lowmolecular-weight protein (Sisson 1976). Some of the filtered products include water, glucose, electrolytes, amino acids, urea, uric acid, creatinine, and ammonia.
As the glomerular filtrate passes through the proximal tubules, a large portion of the water, sodium chloride, bicarbonate, potassium, calcium, amino acids, phosphate, protein, glucose, and other threshold substances needed by the body are reabsorbed and pass back into the bloodstream. These substances are reabsorbed in varying proportions so that while proteins and glucose, for example, appear to be almost completely reabsorbed, sodium chloride is only partly reabsorbed, and there is no reabsorption of creatinine. Over 80% of the filtrate is reabsorbed in the proximal tubule. The unique structure of the proximal tubule makes this reabsorption possible. The epithelial cells that line this portion of the tubule have a brush border of microvilli which provides a large surface area for reabsorption and secretion. These microvilli contain various enzymes such as carbonic anhydrase which help in these processes (Bennett and Glassnock n.d.).
Threshold substances are those substances which are almost completely reabsorbed by the renal tubules when their concentration in the plasma is within normal limits. When the normal plasma level is exceeded, the substance is no longer totally reabsorbed and therefore appears in the urine. Glucose is a high threshold substance because it usually does not appear in the urine until the plasma concentration exceeds about 160 to 180 mg/dl. Some of the other threshold substances include sodium chloride, amino acids, potassium, creatine, and ascorbic acid.
As the filtrate moves through the tubules, various substances are added to it by the process of tubular secretion. In the proximal tubule, sulfates, glucuronides, hippurates, hydrogen ions, and drugs such as penicillin are some of the substances which are secreted. In the proximal as well as the distal tubule, the hydrogen ions are exchanged for the sodium ions of sodium bicarbonate. The hydrogen ions then combine with the bicarbonate in the filtrate to form carbonic acid which in the presence of carbonic anhydrase breaks down to water and carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide then diffuses back out of the tubule, and thus, both the sodium and bicarbonate are reabsorbed.
Like the proximal tubule, the descending limb of the loop of Henle is very permeable to water, but the resorption of solutes does not occur in this part of the loop (Murphy and Henry 1979). The ascending limb, however, is nearly impermeable to water, but there is active resorption of sodium, chloride, calcium, and magnesium. As a result of the loss of sodium chloride, the fluid that leaves the loop of Henle has a lower osmolality than plasma. In this section of the tubule and in the remaining tubule, hydrogen ion and ammonia are secreted.
The mechanism that provides for the absorption of water from the descending loop, and the resorption of solute without water in the ascending limb, is called countercurrent multiplication. There is a set of blood vessels called the “vasa recta” that is parallel to and shaped the same as Henle’s loop. In the vasa recta, solute diffuses out of the interstitium of the medulla and into the ascending limb, and then out of the ascending limb back into the interstitium. Water, however, moves in the opposite direction or out of the descending limb and back into the ascending one. The net effect is to retain only solute, and not water, in the interstitium of the medulla. This process coupled with the resorption of solute from the ascending loop of Henle results in an interstitium which is hypertonic, thus, causing water to be absorbed from the descending loop and the collecting tubule.
About 90% of the glomerular filtrate is reabsorbed by the time it reaches the distal tubule (Wilson 1975). The main function of the distal and collecting tubules is the adjustment of the pH, osmolality, and electrolyte content of the urine, as well as the regulation of those substances still present in the filtrate. Potassium, ammonia, and hydrogen ions are secreted by this portion of the nephron, and sodium and bicarbonate are reabsorbed by the same mechanism as in the proximal tubule. Potassium ions are also exchanged for sodium ions, and this exchange is enhanced by aldosterone which is secreted by the adrenal cortex. The ammonia that is secreted combines with hydrogen ions to form ammonium ions and this helps to regulate the hydrogen ion concentration of the urine. In the collecting duct, urea is also reabsorbed.
The absorption of water in the distal portion of the nephron is regulated by antidiuretic hormone (ADH) which is secreted by the pituitary gland. When the body needs to conserve water, ADH is secreted, and the walls of the distal and collecting tubules are made very permeable, thereby allowing water to be reabsorbed. If the body has excess water, less ADH is produced, the walls of the tubules become less permeable, and the volume of excreted urine increases.
Of the approximate 120 ml/min that was filtered at the glomerulus, only an average of 1 ml/min is finally excreted as urine. This quantity can range from 0.3 ml in dehydration to 15 ml in excessive hydration. For an adult the normal average daily volume of urine is about 1200-1500 ml, with more urine produced during the day than at night. However, the normal range may be from 600-2000 ml/24 h (Bradley et al. 1979). Polyuria is an abnormal increase in the volume of urine (more than 2500 ml), as in diabetes insipidus and diabetes mellitus. Oliguria is a decrease in urinary volume, such as occurs in shock and acute nephritis. In an adult it is frequently defined as being less than 500 ml/24 h (Wagoner and Holley 1978, Muth 1978) or less than 300 ml/m2/24 h. The term anuria designates the complete suppression of urine formation, although in the wider sense of the term it is sometimes defined as being less than 100 ml/24 h during 2 to 3 consecutive days, in spite of a high fluid intake (Renyi-Vamos and Babics 1972).
The main constituents of urine are water, urea, uric acid, creatinine, sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, magnesium, phosphates, sulfates, and ammonia. In 24 hours the body excretes approximately 60 g of dissolved material, half of which is urea (Race and White 1979). In some pathologic conditions, certain substances, such as ketone bodies, protein, glucose, porphyrins, and bilirubin, appear in large quantities. Urine can also contain structures such as casts, crystals, blood cells, and epithelial cells.
Some of the renal disorders that a urinalysis can help in diagnosing include: cystitis, which is the inflammation of the bladder; nephritis, which is the inflammation of the kidney and can either be present with bacterial infection (pyelonephritis), or without infection (glomerulonephritis); and nephrosis, which is the degeneration of the kidney without inflammation.
Collection of Specimen
The performance of an accurate urinalysis begins with the proper collection technique. There are several methods available, depending on the type of specimen needed.
The first important step is the use of a clean, dry container. Disposable containers are preferred by most laboratories, since they avoid the possibility of contamination from improperly washed glass urine bottles. Samples that are to be cultured must be collected in a sterile container. If the specimen is being collected into a bedpan first, then the bedpan must also be sterile.
Methods
One method frequently used is that of collecting the entire voided sample. The problem with this method is that the specimen cannot be used for bacterial examination. Also, in female patients the sample is often contaminated with vaginal discharge.
Catheterization of the bladder is sometimes necessary to obtain a suitable specimen. This method may be used if the patient is having difficulty voiding. It can also be used in a female patient to avoid vaginal contamination, especially during menstruation. However, since this procedure carries with it the possibility of introducing organisms into the bladder which may, in turn, cause infection, it should not be routinely used for the collection of culture specimens.
Suprapubic aspiration of the bladder is sometimes used in place of catheterization for obtaining a single urine sample. It involves the insertion of a needle directly into the distended bladder. This technique avoids vaginal and urethral contamination and can also be useful in getting urine from infants and small children. The specimen obtained by this method can also be used for cytology studies.
The “clean-catch” or clean-voided midstream specimen is usually the method of choice. It is easy to perform and it provides a sample that can be used for bacteriologic examination as well as for routine urinalysis. Prior to collection, the external genitalia are thoroughly cleansed with a mild antiseptic solution. During the collection the initial portion of the urine stream is allowed to escape while the midstream portion is collected into a sterile container.
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Urine Composition Urine, a very complex fluid, is composed of 95% water and 5% solids . It is the end product of the metabolism carried out by billions of cells and results in an average urinary out put of 1-1.5 L per day. Urine may also contain formed elements such as cells, casts, crystals, mucus and bacteria. Almost all substances found in urine are also find in the blood although in different concentration.
Renal Physiology Three basic renal processes Glomerular filtration. Tubular reabsorption. Tubular secretion.
Glomerular filtration • Glomerulus filters incoming blood, all substances except cells and large molecules pass into further sections of the nephron. • Filtration process requires adequate pressure. • Water, electrolytes, glucose, amino acids, urea, creatinine pass freely and enter the proximal tubule. • If 200 liters of filtrate enter the nephrons each day, but only 1-2 liters of urine result, then obviously most of the filtrate (99+ %) is reabsorbed.
Reabsorption • can be active or passive, and occurs in virtually all segments of the nephron. • Renal threshold for each substance determines whether it is reabsorbed or secreted. However, some substances have no renal threshold e.g H2O. • Glucose, actively reabsorbed in the proximal tubules according to the renal threshold • Na, actively reabsorbed according to the diet.
Secretion • It is the reverse of reabsorbtion. • It is either by active process or by diffusion. • H +,K+, ammonia. Are the principle particles that is exsecreted by the kidney. • H+ ions play an important role in acid base balance.
Control Of Urine Excretion • Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) • Aldosterone
Water Balance Water loss is under the control of ADH. ADH responds primarily to changes in osmolality and intravascular volume. Increased osmolality stimulates ADH secretion which increases the permeability of collecting tubules to water resulting in more concentrated urine. In dehydration, reabsorption of water is increased, In states of water excess, tubules reabsorb water at only a minimal rate resulting in excretion of large volume of dilute urine.
Specimen Collection The specimen must be collected in a clean dry, disposable container. The container must be properly labeled with the patient name, date, and time of collection. The labels should be applied to the container and not to the lid. The specimen must be delivered to the laboratory on time and tested within 1hr, OR it should be refrigerated or have an appropriate chemical preservative added. eg. (Toluene, formalin or boric acid).
Changes in unpreserved urine Transformation of urea to ammonia which increase pH. urease Urea 2NH3 + Co2. (Bacteria) Decrease glucose due to glycolysis and bacterial utilization. Decrease ketones because of volatilization. Decrease bilirubin from exposure to light. Decrease urobilinogen oxidation to urobilin. Increase bacterial number. Increase turbidity caused by bacteria & amorphous. Disintegration of RBCs casts, particularly in diluted alkaline urine. Increase nitrite due to bacterial reduction of nitrate. Changes in color due to oxidation or reduction of metabolic.
Types of specimens Random specimen (at any time). First morning specimen 24 hr’s collection Post. Prandial sample Clear catch sample (midstream urine) Catheterized urine Supra - pubic
urinanalysis • Macroscopic • Chemical • microscopic
Physical examination of Urine (Macroscopic, Gross)
Physical Examination of Urine Visual examination of physical characteristics • Color • Turbidity • Odor • Volume • Specific gravity
Appearance (color and clarity) Color: Normal urine color has a wide range of variation ranging from pale yellow, straw, light yellow, yellow, dark yellow amber due to urobillin,trace of urobilinogen appears in urine The color is affected by: Concentration of urine pH Metabolic activity. Diet intake (Beet). Drugs may change urine color.
Abnormalities in color Colorless or pale yellow: High fluid intake Using of diuretic. Diabetes Mellitus. Diabetes Insipidus. Alcohol ingestion Dark yellow: Low fluid intake. Excessive sweating Dehydration (burns, fever). Carrots or vitamin (A) orange urine. Antibiotic used against E. coli in urinary tract infection).
Brownish yellow: • Bilirubin on shaking yellow foam will appear. • Urobilin on shaking the foam has no color. • Yellow – green • Bilirubin Biliverdin (greenish). • Which give a yellow foam & (- ve) test for bilirubin. • Blue – Green: • Pseudomonas Infection. • Black Urine: • Alkaptonurea, a disease of tyrosine metabolism.
Pink – Red: Due to the presence of fresh blood or Hb, fresh blood will give smoky color while Hb gives clear reddish urine, which may be due to: - Urinary tract infection Calculi Trauma Menstrual contamination. Dark brown: Methemoglobin if bloody sample long standed, Hb will be oxidized. Malignant Melanoma light Melanogen (Colorless) Melanin (Brown).
Clarity (Transparency). Normal urine clear or transparent, any turbidity will indicate. WBCs (pus). RBCs Epithelial cells Bacteria Casts Crystals Lymph Semen.
odor Fresh normal urine has a faint aromatic odor due to the presence of some volatile acids. In some pathological conditions, certain metabolites may be produced to give a specific odor such as: Fruity odor is due to acetone Diabetic urine Ammoniac odor urine standing long time Offensive odor Bacterial action of pus (UTI). Apple odorAsparagus Mousy odor Phenylalanine (phenyl keto urea “PKU” ).
d. Volume Adult urine volume = 600 – 2500 ml /24hr. Children urine volume = 200 – 400 ml /24hr. (4ml / kg / hr). Which depends on: Water intake. External temperature. Mental and physical state. Intake of fluid and diuretics (Drugs, alcohol – tea).
Abnormalities Oligouria: marked decrease in urine flow < 400 ml/24hr. Polyuria: Marked increase in urine flow > 2500 ml/24hr. Anuria: less than 100 ml/24hr. Nocturia: excessive urination during night. Causes of polyuria: Increased fluid in take. Increased salt intake and protein diet, which need more water to excrete. Diuretics intake (certain drugs, drinks). Intravenous saline or glucose. Diabetes Mellitus. Diabetes Insipidus. Renal disease. Hypoaldasteronism.
Causes of Oliguria: Prerenal: In response to hypoperfusion of the kidney (e.g. as a result of dehydration by poor oral intake, cardiogenic shock, diarrhea, massive bleeding) Renal: Due to kidney damage (Calculi, tumor, severe hypoperfusion, medication) Post renal: As a consequence of obstruction of the urine flow (e.g. enlarged prostate, tumour compression urinary outflow, expanding hematoma or fluid collection) Causes of anuria: Sever Renal Defect and loss of urine formation mechanism. Due to the presence of stone or tumor. Post transfusion hemolytic reaction.
e. Specific Gravity Specific gravity (which is directly proportional to urine osmolality which measures solute concentration) measures urine density, or the ability of the kidney to concentrate or dilute the urine over that of plasma. Specific gravity between 1.002 and 1.035 on a random sample should be considered normal if kidney function is normal.
Low specific gravity • Diabetes Insipidus. • Excessive water intake. • Glamerulonephritis. • Sever renal damage. • High specific gravity: • Diabetes mellitus. • Nephrosis. • Fever since urine is conc. • X ray contrast media.
Measurement of spg Urinometer: which is consists of a weighted float a hatched to a scale that has been calibrated in terms of urine spg. (1.00 – 1.040) the weighted float displaces a volume of liquid equal to its weight and has been designed to sink to a level of 1.000 in distilled water. Disadvantages of urinometer: The minimum amount of urine to be measured is about 15 ml. If the urine is so turbid it is difficult to read the result.
Refractometer Determine spg by measuring the refractive index of urine Reagent strip: Which contain polyelectrolyte, when ions increase in urine, more acidic groups are released, the change in pH will take place which change the color of bromothymol blue indicator.
Acid-Base Equilibria The kidneys role in controlling body pH is accomplished by preserving HCO3– and removing metabolic acids. Regeneration of HCO3– HCO3 –are filtered by the glomerulus. HCO3–combines with H+ in the lumen of renal tubules to form H2CO3. H2CO3 is degraded to CO2 + H2O.
CO2 diffuses into proximal tubules and is converted to H2CO3 by the action of carbonic anhydrase, then it is degraded back to H+ and HCO3. This regenerated HCO3 is transported into the blood to replace the depleted one by metabolism, H+ are secreted into the tubular lumen and enter the urine. NH3 NH3 is formed in the renal tubules as a result of glutamine deamination by glutaminase, NH3 then react with H+ to form NH4 which is excreted in urine.
PH One of the important functions of the kidneys is pH regulation, the glomerular filtrate of blood plasma is usually acidified by renal tubules and collecting ducts from a pH of 7.4 to about 6 in the final urine to keep blood pH about 7.4. Hence, urine pH must vary to compensate for diet and products of metabolism, this function takes place in the distal convoluted tubule with the secretion of both H+ & NH3+ and reabsorption of bicarbonate. Normal urine pH is (4.6 – 8.0) as average (6.0)
Clinical significance of pH Determine the existence of metabolic acid base disorder. Precipitation of crystals to from stone requires specific pH for each type Hence, pH control may inhibit the formation of these stones by control diet. Crystals found in alkaline urine: Ca carbonate, Ca phosphate, Mg phosphate, and amorphous phosphate. Crystals found in acidic urine: Ca oxalate, Uric acid, Cystine, Xanthine and amorphous urate. May indicate the presence of urinary tract infection caused by urea splitting organisms. urease Urea NH3 + CO2.
Defects in renal tubular secretions and reabsorption of acid & base. Determination of unsatisfactory specimens.
Test for pH Reagent strip which has an indicator (methyl red – bromothymol blue indicator) or other indicators. Alkaline urine is found in: Patient with alkalemia, UTI, diets high with citrus fruits or vegetables. Acidic urine is found in: Patient with acidemia, starvation, dehydration, high diets with meat products
Chemical properties of urine
A small amount of protein (50 – 150 mg / 24 hrs) appears daily in the normal urine. More than 150 mg/day is defined as proteinuria. This amount of protein is form of: 40% consist of albumin, which may escape from the glomerulus membrane & not reabsorbed. 40% of mucco-protein which is secreted from the renal tubule and other secretions from genitalia. 20% other traces of non-plasma proteins. Proteinuria: The presence of detectable amount of proteins in urine. Protein
Causes of proteinuria Glomerular membrane damage,which may be: Primary: due to primary glomerular defect as glomerulnephritis Secondary: - due to external disease that affects the glomerular function as: 1- SLE 2- Drug 3- Septicemia Prerenal Proteinuria : - Over flow / over load, increase of LMW protein such as multiple myeloma ex. Bence Jones protein. Tubular proteinuria: Presence of LMW protein, absorption problems. Functional or Nonpathogenic proteinuria due to: Fever, Emotional, Cold, Later months of pregnancy, Postural (as long standing & exercises).
Tests for protein Dipstick: when an indicator dye is adsorbed to protein the paper spot in the dipstick is impregnated with citrate buffer (PH = 3.0) containing Bromphenol blue, which is most sensitive to albumin but detects globulins and Bence-Jones protein poorly. Not: Bromphenol blue is yellow at pH 3.0 and blue at pH 4.2, at pH (3).
The color is compared with that of the protein content from (30 –1000mg /dl).
Precipitation tests Heat denaturation for protein precipitation. Sulfosalicylic acid (more sensitive) Test for bence – Jones protein First heat the urine between 40 – 60 ْC, precipitation will occur then continue heating till 100 ْ C so the precipitation will disappear (clear). If you cool the urine till 40 – 60 ْC the precipitation will occur again.
Combined use of dipstick and sulfosalicylic acid • If both are +ve then proteinuria is present. • If dipstick 1+ and sulfosalicylic negative then there is probably no pathologic concentration of protein. • If dipstick negative and sulfosalicylic positive then the protein may be Bence Jones protein should confirmed by immunologic method.
Glucose Under normal conditions, all most all of glucose filtered by glomerulus is reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule, by an active process to maintain the plasma concentration of glucose. Less than 0.1% of glucose normally filtered by the glomerulus appears in urine (< 130 mg/24 hr). Threshold substances: Substances that are completely absorbed by the tubules when their plasma concentration is normal and not completely absorbed by the tubules if their plasma concentration exceeds normal levels. The threshold of glucose is 180 mg / dl.
Glycosuria may be due to: Reabsorption defect Increase Blood glucose, in the following cases: Diabetes mellitus Alimentary glycosuria (transitory), after meal. Stress in which elevation of epinephrine leads to increase glycogenolysis, and cortisol increase gluconeogenesis. Pancreatic disease affect insulin-secreting gland. Decrease reabsorption ability.
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Elderly female notices blood in urine - Coggle Diagram
Elderly female notices blood in urine
Background Information
Anatomy of the urinary system
Kidneys
Renal tubules
Ureters
Urinary bladder
Urethra
Collecting ducts
Functions of the urinary system
Removes waste products and medicines from the body
Balance the body's fluids
Balance electrolytes
Release hormones to control blood pressure
Releases hormone erythropoietin to control red blood cell production
Help with bone health by controlling calcium and phosphorus
Structure of a nephron
Microscopic functional filtration unit of the kidney consists of:
Renal corpuscle
glomerulus
glomerular capsule
Renal tubule
remaining portion of the nephron consisting of: proximal convoluted tubule, nephron loop, and distal convoluted tubule
Specific molecules of the nephron
Filtration
Happens in glomerular capsule
Molecules such as water, amino acids, glucose, nitrogenous waste pass freely from the blood into the glomerular capsule
Reabsorption
Happens in renal tubules and collecting ducts
Reclaims almost everything filtered (all glucose and amino acids) and 99% of the water, salt, and other components; anything not reabsorbed becomes urine
Secretion
Happens in renal tubules and collecting ducts
Selectively moving substances from the blood into the filtrate
Clinical aspects
Osteoporosis
Decreased density and strength of bone resulting from a gradual decrease in rate of bone formation
Diabetes Mellitus II
Disease caused by deficient insulin release leading to the body's inability to process carbohydrates
Hypertension
High blood pressure
Upstream Causes
Medical History
Osteoporosis
60 to 80% of potassium is reabsorbed by the kidneys; calcium is reabsorbed as well
Chronic diabetes mellitus type II
Kidneys freely filter glucose; if an excessive amount is present chronically it can cause damage
High blood pressure
Kidneys filter, reabsorb, secrete the blood. If blood pressure is high, kidneys may not be able to do this as well
Age
As people age, there is a decline in the weight of the kidneys; the rate at which the kidneys filter blood decline as well
Downstream Causes
Effects on kidneys
high blood pressure
Harms renal blood vessels.
can cause arteries around the kidneys to narrow, weaken or harden.Damaged arteries are not able to deliver enough blood to the kidney tissue; Causes renal failure
Chronic diabetes mellitus type II
Blood sugar levels are too high and over time can damage the kidneys.
Kidneys filter your blood so if they are damaged they are not able to do so, leaving waste and fluid build up in the body; causes renal failure
Osteoporosis
Can be caused by chronic kidney disease when kidneys are damaged and there are abnormal hormone levels cause calcium and phosphorus levels in a person's blood is out of balance
What is causing blood in the urine?
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What is the difference between afferent and efferent arterioles?
Afferent carry blood toward the nephron, efferent carry blood away
Where are the kidneys located?
Outside the peritoneal cavitiy in the back of the upper abdomen, level of t12-L3
How much blood flow do the kidneys receive?
About 22% of cardiac output
What are the high and low pressure systems for in the nephron?
High for filtration
Low for reabsorbtion
What happens if you increase resistance in the Afferent arterioles?
Gfr decreases
What happens when the Efferent arterioles constrict?
Hydrostatic pressure increases so gfr increases but renal blood flow decreases so filtration fraction decreases
Describe the proximal convoluted tubule
Highly coiled
Drains bowmans capsule
Rich in mitochondria
Regulates filtrate ph by exchanging H+ in interstitium for bicarb in filtrate
Site of origination for renal cell carcinoma
What is symport?
Transportation of different molecules or ions in the SAME direction by a common carrier
What is antiport?
Transportation of different ions in OPPOSITE directions
What are the elimination functions of the kidney?
Renal clearance
Regulation of sodium
Pottasium elimination
pH dependent elimination of ions
Uric acid
Urea
Drugs
Describe the juxtaglomerular complex
Juxtaglomerular cells are modified smooth muscle cells in afferent and sometes efferent that contain renin
Extraglomerular mesangium (lacis cells) phagocytic located in angle between afferent and efferent
Macula densa of DCT triggers renin release
Granular epithial peripolar cells at angle of parietal to viseral capsule at corpuscle controls ecf and gfr thru renin-angiotensin
What is the definition of renal clearance?
The volume of plasma that is completely cleared each minute of any substance in the urine
What determines renal clearance?
Ability of the substance to be filtered by glomeruli
The capacity of the renal tubules to reabsorb or secrete the substance
What are the characteristics of normal urine?
Clear to amber color
95% water 5% dissolved solids
Normally 1.5L a day
Metabolic wastes and no proteins blood cells or glucose
What are some tests for renal function?
Urinalysis
Gfr
Blood test - serum creatinine blood urea nitrogen
Cytoscopy
Ultrasonography
Radiologic and other imaging
What happens during sympathetic stimulation of the kidneys?
Blood flow is directed to the medulla to maintain urine concentrating to maintain blood volume such as in shock
What are the two types of nephrons?
Cortical (85%) and juxtamedullary (15%)
The thin double walled capsule that surrounds the capillaries in the glomerulus
Bowmans capsule
Perforations in glomerular capillaries endothelial layer
Fenestrations
Structures in the epithelial layer that contain slit pores?
Foot processes or podocytes
What are the four segments of the nephron tubule?
PCT, loop of henle, DCT, CT
What are Mesengial cells?
Support glomerulus cailleries where basment membrane and endothelium dont cover, secrete substance similar to basement membrane, may be involved in regulation of blood flow
What are the two segments of the DCT?
The diluting sement
Late distal tubule
What are the two segments of the collecting tubule?
Cortical collecting tubule
Inner medullary collecting tubule
What layers do the tubules consist of?
Single layer of epithelial cells resting on a basement membrane
What can happen during sting sympathetic stimulation such as shock?
Gfr and urine output can drop to zero
65% of all reabsorption and secretory processes occur where?
PCT
What are the endocrine functions of the kidney?
Renin-angiotensin
Epo
Activation of vitamin D
How do loop diuretics like lasix work?
Reduce sodium and potassium reabsorbtion and increase calcium and magnesium elimination in the thick ascending loop of henle
How do thiazide diuretics work?
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Changes to phonology (sound patterns) that changed the way long vowels were pronounced i.e. "Lyf" pronounced "leef" becomes "life"
spelling of certain vowel sounds no longer corresponded to pronunciation of those sounds
Marked major change from Middle English to Modern English
difference between American and mainland English
Old English
Germanic, Indo-European
Beowullf oldest preserved English epic
Middle English
changed with Norman Conquest of 1066
new French influence "Germanic-Romance"
Structurally: cases, genders, and numbers disappeared from articles and adjectives
Modals such as "shall" and "will" for future
Chaucer's Canterbury Tales
Modern English
Renaissance to Wordsworth (1500) early modern English
Greek and Latin words
Shakespeare, King James Bible, and Great Vowel shift
Late Modern 1800 to around present
technologies, naval dominance and global trade, Native American languages and other global languages
Dialect
Variation of a language that is spoken by inhabitants of a particular geographical area
i.e. Hawaiian English, Appalachian English, Spanglish
Works: Charles Dickens, Huckleberry Finn
Pidgin
Contact language made up of two or more languages "makeshift"
indigenous peoples and Europeans
help bridge the gap
small vocab and simple grammatical structures
Creolization "Creole"
Common language made up of two or more languages
Pidgin that develops over time and acquires native speakers
Complexity
Linguistics
the systematic study of language in order to find general principles and structures that link human languages
Morphology
study of the composition of words (internal structure and forms)
rules of morphemes (smallest units of meaning)
i.e. English plural endings depend on the last sound of the word stem: spatula/spatulas
Syntax
composition of sentences (sentence structure)
simple, compound, or complex
simple sentence: subject + verb (expresses complete thought)
Student must understand rule of how words fit together to make phrases and sentences and to convey ideas
Phonology
the study of sounds of words and phrases
-makes an "inventory" of sounds and their features
-provides rules specifying how sounds in a language interact with each other
phoneme: smallest unit of speech sound i.e. tray = /t/, /r/, /a/
Student must be able to hear, distinguish, and categorize speech sounds
phoneme
smallest unit of speech sound
i.e. thrill = /th/, /r/, /i/, /l/
morpheme
smallest unit of meaning
i.e. patch vs. patches
grapheme
a letter or number of letters that represent a phoneme or sound
phonetics
the study of how speech sounds are made and understood
i.e. explicit = /ik SPLI sit/
Methods of word analysis
context clues
morpehemic analysis (prefixes, roots, suffixes)
word family ID
compound words i.e. sailboat
borrowed words i.e. taboo, avant-garde
inflectional affixes
word endings that serve various grammatical purposes but don't change the meaning of a word
i.e. -s, -ing, -er, -est
derivational affixes
word endings that alter the meaning of a word by building on a base
i.e. anti-, de-, ex-, mis-
-ly, -er, -ible/able, -y, -ty, -en, -less
Compound sentence
two independent clauses joined by a coordinator i.e. for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
Complex sentence
one independent clause joined by one or more dependent clauses
Always has a subordinator i.e. since, because, after, although OR relative pronoun i.e. who, which, that
Semantics
study of meaning in language (oral and contextual
word meanings, sentence meanings, and contextual understanding
includes pragmatics and inferred meanings
Student must develop understanding of the meaning of words and sentences
Pragmatics
Sub-study of semantics, focuses on language as a tool for communication
speaker's intended meaning in different contexts rather than literal meaning of an utterance
*pragmatic competence"
Etymology
word origin, appears in [ ]
creates word families
Orthography
standardized system for writing words with proper letters according to accepted rules of usage
-spelling rules
language acquisition
process by which people acquire the ability to understand and use words
Noam Chomsky's Universal Grammar theory
capacity for acquiring language skills "Language Acquisition Device"
capacity to use language grammatically must be genetically endowed (innate capacity)
Language Development factors
-Genetic Predisposition (Chomsky's innate capacity)
-Social Interaction (integration)
-Sociocultural Factors (different style and structure in spoken narratives)
-Affective Factors (personal qualities i.e. self-esteem)
3 school systems in US for second language learners
bilingualism: taught in native language
transitional: students speak in own language until they have learned enough English
total immersion: immediate English-only classes, "sink or swim"
Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition
Acquisition-Learning hypothesis
Monitor hypothesis
Natural Order hypothesis
Input hypothesis
Affective Filter hypothesis
Acquisition-Learning hypothesis
Acquired system: subconscious process that depends on natural, meaningful communication
Learning system: traditional process of formal instruction
Krashen argues that "acquisition" is more important than "learning"
Monitor hypothesis
acquisition is the initiator of an "utterance" and learning is its "editor"
Learning is (or should be) minor and used only when certain conditions are met
Natural Order hypothesis
acquiring grammatical structures in a second language always follows a "natural order"
Input hypothesis
In terms of acquisition, second language learner makes process along the "natural order" each time they receive an input from the second language that is one step beyond their current level of competence
Affective Filter hypothesis
Variable such as motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety play a role in acquisition
Lack of self-esteem or high anxiety prevent student from using comprehensible input i.e. embarrassed businessperson tries to avoid mistakes
critical period hypothesis
a person's ability to learn language peaks during early childhood
Second-language learners under age fifteen tend to achieve greater proficiency
Transfer
when a speaker uses their second language in a way to is semantically or syntactically appropriate for the first/native language but not for the second
Negative Transfer
when a speaker uses skills from previously learned behavior or topic but applies them incorrectly to a new topic
i.e. they learn past of fake is "faked," but then assumes the past of take is "taked"
Hypercorrection
when a person who has been corrected for a mistake makes further mistakes trying to avoid the error
i.e. corrected for saying "Me and him played soccer" then says "The teacher gave he and I the assignment"
Borrowing
speaker switches into their first language and uses single words or phrases
i.e. Spanglish
Methods to increase student reading comprehension (7)
Semantic Mapping
Semantic Feature Analysis
Repeated Oral Reading
Note Taking
Word Analogies
Visual Imaging Skills
Cohesion Analysis
Semantic Mapping
brainstorming or free association
Can include graphic organizers like Venn diagrams, clusters, or word trees
Semantic Feature Analysis
use a chart to organize info by categories, analyze ideas, compare concepts, and make inferences
Repeated Oral Reading
reads aloud
improves fluency and reading rate
Note Taking
helps reader paraphrase
focus on meaning and interpretation
Word Analogies
Compare two or more things by analyzing how they are alike or different
i.e. What features does this word share with other words you have seen?
Visual Imaging Skills
Student's ability to use personal images or experiences to comprehend a word's meaning
i.e. Can you describe an incident from your own life that reminded you of this word?
Cohesion Analysis
analyzing how all the parts of a work come together to create an overall effect or convey a message
see how unfamiliar parts fit into the whole
Code-switching
person changes dialects or switches from informal to formal speech depending on which group they are interacting with
ease of doing this is indicative of good command of Standard English
Decoding
ability to translate the symbols of letters and words into meaningful information
Metacognition
self-awareness during the reading process
ensures student's mind is engaged while reading, ready to unlock the meaning of the text
Metacognitive Strategies to Understanding text
Prereading strategies (accessing prior knowledge)
Predicting
Questioning
Word analysis (decoding unfamiliar words, using context clues, syntactic clues, etc.)
Concept formation
3 Levels of Comprehension
Literal
Inferential (draw conclusions)
Applied (move beyond the story)
Levels of Higher-Order Thinking based on Bloom's Taxonomy
Knowledge
Comprehension
Application
Analysis
Synthesis
Evaluation
creating an interlanguage
second-language learner internalizes his own systemic set of rules for speaking and understanding second language
shows influence of first language
modals
can, could, shall, should, will, would, may, might, must - verbs that express mood or tense, usually referring to future
became common with Middle English
noncount noun
aka - mass noun, ordinarily can not be preceded by a number or the determiner a/an
i.e. water, money, happiness
adverb clause
A subordinate clause (conjunction) that modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb. It answers one of four questions: how, when, where, and why.
phrasal modifier
a phrase that functions as an adjective or adverb in a sentence
i.e. "The sweet potatoes [in the bin] are no longer fresh.
verb complement
the arrangement of one verb as the object of another verb
i.e.
I told him [to begin.] (infinitives)
Juan considered [starting a new job]. (gerund)
Our boss requested [that we meet today]. (noun clause)
verbal phrase
consists of a verbal (a verb that also functions as another part of speech) and its modifiers and complements
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A linguistic analysis of selected antibiotic information leaflets examined the language structures in composing the information of both manufacturing and marketing drug companies in Nigeria. These companies on which their leaflets are studied are Emzor, Jawa, Cika, Transglobe and Taylek. A descriptive design was adopted for the study and the models of Crystal and Davy (1985) and Leech and Short (1981) were used toanalyse the pattern of interlocking grammatical systems, from the smallest units of words and phrases to larger unit of sentences. The study examined and analysed syntactic structures in the formation of linguistic sentences used on the information leaflets, which varied in different sentence types that provide meaningful explanation about the chemical compositions of the produced drugs. Relatively, it determined the sense relations of the connected sentences and the graphological features contained on the leaflets. Conclusively, it was stated that the language used in the construction of sentence is complex in nature due to over use of chemical terms. It was recommended that leaflets should be written in simple sentence devoid of complexity for drug user’s comprehension.
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https://www.eajournals.org/journals/international-journal-of-english-language-teaching-ijelt/vol-6-issue-5-june-2018/a-linguistic-analysis-of-selected-antibiotic-information-leaflets/
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Chunks are groups of words that can be found together in language. They can be words that always go together, such as fixed collocations, or that commonly do, such as certain grammatical structures that follow rules. A listener or reader uses their knowledge of chunks to help them predict meaning and therefore be able to process language in real time. Chunks include lexical phrases, set phrases, and fixed phrases.
'Utter disaster', 'by the way', 'at the end of the day', 'encourage + someone + infinitive', 'dependent + on' are all examples of chunks.
Areas of work such as idioms, collocations and verb patterns all focus on types of chunks. Learners can be encouraged to identify and record lexical and grammatical chunks as they find them.
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http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/chunks
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Chunks are groups of words that can be found together in language. They can be words that always go together, such as fixed collocations, or that commonly do, such as certain grammatical structures that follow rules. A listener or reader uses their knowledge of chunks to help them predict meaning and therefore be able to process language in real time. Chunks include lexical phrases, set phrases, and fixed phrases.
Example
'Utter disaster', 'by the way', 'at the end of the day', 'encourage + someone + infinitive', 'dependent + on' are all examples of chunks.
In the classroom
Areas of work such as idioms, collocations and verb patterns all focus on types of chunks. Learners can be encouraged to identify and record lexical and grammatical chunks as they find them.
Further links:
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http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/chunks
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by Linda Correli
Etymologically the vocabulary of the English language is far from being homogenous. It consists of two layers - the native stock of words and the borrowed stock of words. Numerically the borrowed stock of words is considerably larger than the native stock of words.
In fact native words comprise only 30% of the total number of words in the English vocabulary but the native words form the bulk of the most frequent words actually used in speech and writing. Besides, the native words have a wider range of lexical and grammatical valency, they are highly polysemantic and productive in forming word clusters and set expressions.
Borrowed words or loanwords are words taken from another language and modified according to the patterns of the receiving language.
In many cases a borrowed word especially one borrowed long ago is practically indistinguishable from a native word without a thorough etymological analysis. The number of the borrowings in the vocabulary of the language and the role played by them is determined by the historical development of the nation speaking the language.
The most effective way of borrowing is direct borrowing from another language as the result of the contacts with other nations. Though, a word may be also borrowed indirectly not from the source language but through another language.
When analyzing borrowed words one should distinguish between two terms - source of borrowing and origin of borrowing. The first term is applied to the language from which the word was immediately borrowed and the second - to the language to which the word may be ultimately traced. The closer the two interacting languages are in structure the easier it is for words of one language to penetrate into the other.
There are different approaches to classifying the borrowed stock of words
The borrowed stock of words may be classified according to the nature of the borrowing itself as borrowing proper, loans translation and semantic loans.
Loan translation or calque is a phrase borrowed from another language by literal word-for-word translation.
Semantic loan is the borrowing of the meaning for a word already existing in the English language.
Latin loans are classified into the subgroups.
The tendency of the English language to borrow extensively can be traced during the centuries. Thus, one can confidently claim that borrowing is one of the most productive sources of enrichment of the English vocabulary.
Linda Correli is a staff writer of www.CustomResearchPapers.us and an author of the popular online tutorial for students "What Teachers Want: Master the Art of Essay Writing in 10 Days", available at www.Go2Essay.com
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https://www.omniglot.com/language/articles/etymology.htm
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Two methods of teaching foreign language, the Direct Method and the Grammar Translation Method are described and compared. The underlying principles with main focus on acquisition of communicative skills and grammatical knowledge respectively are illustrated. Looking at possible results of either method we find that there is no gradual difference between them in the sense of better or worse, but that both have completely different targets. The suggestion is made to combine different methods in order to achieve multiple goals and to vary the emphasis according to individual goals.
1. Introduction
The most ancient and probably most fundamental controversy in language teaching is the one between Direct Method (DM) and Grammar Translation Method (GTM). Both of these have totally different underlying approaches.
For interested educational stakeholders or educators, there are two important questions, they should think of before looking for an appropriate method: What do I want the students to achieve? How can the learners best reach this goal?
One can think of different goals which should be reached by teaching a language and every teacher will want to cover most of them in their teaching. The emphasis however is very divers between the different approaches that have been developed over the years. And the most apparent difference, a completely different idea of how to teach language (as shown below) shows up between the two mentioned methods and their approaches respectively. This is why it is so interesting and exciting to compare these two methods and this is why I will try to tackle that task in this paper.
2. Goals of language teaching
Before taking a closer look at the two methods and their approaches we will focus on the different goals of language education as mentioned before:
2.1. Language related goals
The first and main goal of teaching a language obviously is teaching the language. But here rises already the first question: What is the language that we want the learners to learn? Are we talking about skills in oral or written language? Is our focus more on active or passive language i.e. on speaking and writing or listening and reading respectively? Are we concerned about correctness or fluency? Does correctness mean formulating grammatically correct sentences or texts, does it refer to perfect pronunciation and intonation, are we talking about style aptly adapted to the contextual situation? And does fluency have to do with the speed of writing or speaking, with the ability to develop own ideas and own formulations while speaking or writing rather than using memorized phrases? Or do we want the learners to know about the language, understanding its structure, its roots, its development? Combining all these options a mathematician could easily calculate the possible desired outcomes of language education. So, only looking at the primary intentions of teaching a language we get an enormous amount of goals. But there is more than learning the language in language learning.
2.2. Other goals of language teaching
When teaching language, we also teach thinking. Logical or lateral i.e. creative thinking. Critical thinking. We teach learning strategies. We train memory and memory strategies. We teach social behaviour. We create motivation going beyond our subject. We teach values and ethic. We teach culture. We also teach knowledge that extends to related subjects to the target language such as the grammar of the students´ first language, stylistic elements like figures of speech used in all or many languages, geographical and cultural knowledge of the country or countries in which the target language is spoken and whatever material is dealt with in the texts we use for language training.
3. Goals of DM and GTM with regard to language acquisition
3.1. The Direct Method
Keeping all these aspects of teaching in mind we will now have a look at the probably first practiced way of teaching which has later resulted in the Direct Method.
3.1.1. Development of the Direct Method
As Celce-Murcia supposes (Celce-Murcia 2014), already in the classical period language teaching had as primary goal competence in communication. The world had started closing in and the classical Greek developed into the koine (κοινή), which was rather a spoken language. It was used nevertheless also in most written texts of the long period from the 3rd century b.c. until the 3rd century a.c., the most famous example of course being the New Testimony of The Bible. What had begun as Alexandrian dialect now became lingua franca for the European world (Metzler 2010). As books were quite expensive at that time, one really has to assume that teaching took place orally in the first place although of course also reading and writing will have been practiced. The focus of learning was however the development of communicational skills.
3.1.2. Features of the Direct Method
In the end of the 19th century the Direct Method was born with one strict rule: No use of the mother tongue was permitted! Celce-Murcia lists up the key features of this method (Celce-Murcia 2014): "Lessons begin with short dialogues and anecdotes in modern conversational style, actions and pictures are used to explain meaning" ("The words this and that are model words of the DM"(Chiniwar 2016), never the mother tongue is used), Grammar is not taught explicitly but learned inductively (according to Humboldt´s espousal that language cannot be taught but only better learning conditions can be provided), "literary texts are not analysed grammatically, but read for pleasure" (thus creating motivation), "the culture of the native language is taught also inductively"(Celce-Murcia2014). In the first lessons students are repeating given phrases and sentences, but very soon they should start to think in the target language, encouraged by tasks like telling their mates about their homes, their hobbies and so on. Severe mistakes are not corrected by the teacher but help is given for self-correction. All this has as precondition that the teacher is highly proficient in the target language. This last “conditio sine qua non” may not seem really relevant from the academic point of view, but in fact had great influence on the application of this method, as appropriate teachers could not always be found. (Uhnegbu complains that also appropriate teaching material fitting to the regional context is not always available (Uhnegbu et al.,2015), which however is part of the method, because the culture of the target language should be learned that way as well.)
3.1.3. Language related goals of the Direct Method
Let us have a look at the most important goals of this method: The main focus lies on communication. Here a special emphasis is given to spoken language rather than writing. Although active and passive skills are furthered there is a certain bias in favour of speaking. Grammar is not dealt with deductively, but students are expected to develop an intuitive feeling inductively. There is a clear stress on fluency, pronunciation is trained from beginning. As condition for this talking in free speech there is another stress on vocabulary rather than on grammatical structures. Pupils learn to communicate in the language but do not get deeper information about the language.
As an outcome we can expect that learners who are taught by this method or rather fostered in their acquisition will quickly develop a good command of the target language in means of communication, will be better in oral production and comprehension than in writing and reading, will only later achieve knowledge about grammatical structures of the language, but will develop an unconscious feeling of grammatical correctness. Possibly they may have problems in writing or analysing complicated texts, as reading is not a focus of this method and texts used in the lessons are rather narrative than expository.
3.1.4. Advantages and disadvantages of the method
The most obvious advantage is that the learner achieves a good performance in the target language and learns to think in it. Hence inappropriate translations are avoided. The student will not be able to explain grammatical structures which might be a hindrance for self-correction. In the beginning there might be a psychological barrier because of the completely unknown language (Mollaei et al, 2017). This effect will be enhanced, if the culture of the two languages is very different (Uhnegbu et al 2015).
3.2. The Grammar Translation Method
Before we look at other achieved or targeted goals of this method we will have a look at the directly language-related goals of the Grammar Translation Method.
3.2.1. Development of the Grammar Translation Method
According to Celce-Murcia (Celce-Murcia 2014) the strand which led to this method began in the Renaissance. People of the higher classes were very fond of showing their good education and passing it on to their children. Middle class parents tried to foster their children by providing them with an upper-class education. According to the idea of rebirthing the classical age, they preferred the classic Latin from the vulgate, the ancient Hellenistic Greek from the Koiné. Accordingly, the study of classical texts and intensive occupation with the grammar were taught. As the related technics were a matter of knowledge rather than practical use, they were adopted by universities and in the beginning 19th century the Grammar Translation Method was born.
3.2.2. Features of the Grammar Translation Method
As the focus is of this method is not to learn by heart but by brain, everything has to be explained. Typically this is done by using the first language of the students. The target language is not used for communicational issues. Grammatical structures are analysed, grammar is learned deductively. Translations are performed and already at an early stage difficult texts are read. As communication plays a minor role, the teacher needs a good knowledge about the target language and its grammatical structures but does not have to be a fluent speaker. This might be an advantage if there should be a shortage of fluently speaking teachers. (Celce-Murcia, 2014)
3.2.3. Language associated goals of the Grammar Translation Method
What are the main goals of this method? The emphasis lies on understanding the target language, its structure, grammar and relation to the first language. Students do not have to become fluent speakers of the target language, but should be able to deductively produce correct language. Reading of difficult texts and their translation should be learned. Highly developed literacy is the main goal while communication is not fostered.
As result we can expect learners instructed by this method to have good knowledge about the target language and its grammatical structures, to be better in reading and writing than in speaking and listening and to be able to produce correct items of language, especially in translations (even if this might not be fluent). They will however possibly have problems to communicate in the target language.
3.2.4. Advantages and disadvantages of the method
The GTM is described as stultifying (Cummins,2008) and tedious, thus creating frustration (Liu et al, 2007) and accused to reverse the natural learning process of a language (Khan et al., 2016). Therefore, it is praised as a quick, easy and economical way of teaching, especially where a large number of students have to be taught by one teacher (Memai et al., 2016). Translation is seen as a tool for promoting transfer across languages (Cummins, 2008). Students develop high grammatical competence (Chang, 2011) which is mainly achieved by the stress on reading instruction (Zanjan, 2017).
3.3. Comparison of the outcome of the two methods
Comparing the language related results of the two methods one could come to the conclusion that DM- students will be very good communicators especially in oral situations, who may commit errors in favour of fluency but don´t know much about the language, while GTM- students will be perfect grammarians and translators who can´t really use the language in every day communication. This would be the expectation. If this is not, what we see as a result, this is due to the fact, that none of the methods will be used exclusively- the longer the instruction lasts the less. So even if the students go different ways, which may result in a similar difference as described above at an earlier stage, in the end or at a higher level of language competence the two ways will merge again resulting in overall competent speakers, readers, communicators and translators.
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- Quote paper
- Bernd-Peter Liegener (Author), 2017, A Comparison between "Direct Method" and Grammar "Translation Method". Different Language Teaching Methods, Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/445397
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https://www.grin.com/document/445397
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I was teaching a class the other day, and we came across the idiom “I’ve got a memory like a sieve”. I explained that we often say this when we want to tell someone we are very bad at remembering things. Most of the students then recorded this in their vocabulary notebooks. However, I saw a couple of people with their smartphone rested on the table, quickly trying to translate a word. I guessed it was “sieve”.
She looked sheepish, “Yes”, she replied, “I want to know what ‘sieve’ means”.
I felt disappointed for two reasons. Firstly, I do not allow translation of single words in my class; it is highly unproductive and not always accurate. If you are a google translate/multi-tran addict, I suggest you kick the habit! Secondly, because I realized that my student is not thinking in terms of chunks of language. Does it really matter what sieve is?
It is a completely different word; many words in English are used in a completely different way.
So what can you, as a student, do? Don’t underline single words. Look at the words that are around them. Ask your teacher about a whole phrase. Compare phrases in your own language and in English with your teachers help if you need to.
Secondly, think about which words are useful for you! If a word isn’t useful, then don’t worry about learning it, or at least learning it yet. When you’ve finished a class, go to an online corpus like fraze.it and do a search for the phrase, have a look how it is used, alternatively, look the phrase up in a good dictionary. Record the phrases and collocations in a book especially for vocabulary and give your page a title.
Here’s a few pictures of how I am learning Russian.
There are a range of good resources online nowadays, most of which are free. To learn the collocations of a word, you can use a good collocations dictionary or an online tool like ozdic.com.
The Lexical Approach – What is it?
In 1993, Michael Lewis published a seminal piece of work “The Lexical approach” that underlined the need for change in (English) Language teaching. While some of his assertions were adopted and can be found in many of the leading coursebooks used in ELT today, the dominance of grammar-led language teaching has continued and the full impact of The Lexical Approach has not been felt. There are a variety of reasons for this, ranging from simple problems that simply not many teachers know about this approach, to the more political problems of what makes good-value ELT coursebooks and what meets students’ expectations of the language. A significant proportion of research in Second Language Acquisition supports many of the central tenets of the Lexical approach, of which we will discuss in this essay. The lexical approach and teaching lexically is a huge topic that can in no way be fully discussed in this short essay. However, further posts will discuss some of these principles in more detail and further reading is suggested at the end of this post.
So what is the lexical approach?
In other words, the most important aspect of a language is not its grammatical system, but its lexical organism. In “The Lexical Approach”, Lewis outlined that not only is vocabulary teaching at present woefully inadequate, but also we have not been concentrating on the aspects of lexis we should be.
Words: By far the biggest category e.g. Bicycle. However, this category, surprisingly, is not the most important.
Polywords : Words that do not change – ever. E.g., “By the way”, “Cup of tea”, “Overdone”.
Institutionalized phrases: They never change, but they also have a different meaning from what they mean, e.g. “What a buzz!” “I see what you mean, but…”, “That’s all very well”.
Fixed and Semi-fixed expression: Possibly the most important category these sometimes change a little or always remain the same. “I’ll see you soon”, “Just because I’m a _____________ doesn’t mean I can’t __________________”.
With regards to collocation, there is no logical reason for these. It could easily be “make your homework”, however it is not. The choice here is arbitrary and does not follow a particular rule.
Can you think of some collocations that pair with the following words?
Well, we simply do not store these relatively common phrases in our minds in small pieces. We store them as chunks. These chunks give us increased ability to speak fluently.
Imagine that you have been given a task to build a model airplane. Which of these sets would you prefer?
In thousands of tiny pieces with no instructions?
In thousands of pieces with a picture as an example of what the finished plane should look like.
A set where the parts are separate, but the big parts are already put together for you – complete with instructions, so you can see what the plane should look like.
If you gave these to three groups of people, who do you think would finish first? Of course, the answer is the first group. After the first group has completed it, they will have a good idea of how the big pieces are constructed by looking at it. They have a better view of the overall plane. This metaphor also works with language. As teachers, we should be aiming to give students as much “big language” as possible, especially in the early stages of learning and assisting them in noticing how the language is put together afterwards.
In 1972, the British Linguist David Wilkins commented “while without grammar little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed”. This is awakening. When a non-native speaker produces a grammar mistake, it causes few problems for native speakers of the language; however, those with vocabulary problems are a real source of misunderstanding.
As language consists of grammaticalised lexis, and not lexicalized grammar, we should focus on giving students chunks of language with real communicative functions at all levels of learning. Phrases like “Have you been to______________?” “I’m thinking of +ing”, “Could you pass the _____________, please?” Can be taught even at the lowest levels. Students will gain grammatical accuracy later in their language learning and much of their language learning will be derived from their knowledge of these chunks.
Successful language is a wider concept than accurate language. As teachers, we should ficus more on student expressing meaning successfully rather than accurately.
Grammatical error is natural to the learning process. Grammar errors that do not impede communication should be given less focus when we correct our students.
Listening has enhanced status. Listening is an important part of the learning process.
Language should be recycled over and over. Teachers should drop phrases like “we have done the present perfect” from their vocabulary. Only through meeting vocabulary items and grammatical structures often will students master them.
Teacher talking time is useful only when it is comprehensible and relevant. However, teacher-talking time is one way for student to get lots of input.
Teachers should help students notice grammar and vocabulary patterns.
Lexis should form the organizing principle of a course.
Students should be taught phrases and expression along with collocations without grammatical analysis, especially at lower levels.
Thornbury, Scott (1997). Reformulation and reconstruction: tasks that promote ‘noticing’. ELT Journal 51(4): 326-334.
Language does not occur in a vacuum. Even the most seemingly obvious sentence does not reveal its full meaning when it stands alone, for example, “my mother is 45 years old” is ambiguous unless it is surrounded by context and co-text.
So why do so many coursebooks, resource books and grammar guides present language in such a way? This does not help students learn the language or participate in discourse. In this post, we will explore some of the ways in which teachers can encourage their students to exploit the material provided by both coursebooks and self-study material by highlighting vertical and horizontal lexis.
We’ve all done it. We’ve taken a grammar or vocabulary exercise with sentences like in the picture below, had students work in pairs, elicited the answers and maybe wrote them up on the board. The students have corrected their mistakes and then we’ve moved on to the next part of the lesson. The trouble is, we are instilling students with a dangerous expectation. Namely, that by completing a seemingly endless number of tasks such as these, our students will go out into the real world and be able to participate in conversations in a variety of situations. But as was mentioned before, language doesn’t appear alone. Spoken language occurs as part of an utterance, which in turn, is part of discourse.
When introducing new lexis, what is it that students need to have clarified for them?
Usually, it will be meaning. And by meaning we can derive context and co-text (the surrounding language with which a word or phrase typically occurs). One of the teacher’s greatest responsibilities in the classroom is to present language not only in its typical meaning but also in its context and how it is used alongside other pieces of language. Doing this helps prime* students for other pieces of lexis in the future.
Take, for example, the second line of our exercise in the picture.
You might have prepared some ideas earlier, or let the students’ imagination run wild. Something like this springs to mind.
To have students engage more with this kind of task, you could write your suggestions on the board as a gap fill and paraphrase their meaning for students to guess.
“ I might t____________ myself this evening”.
“Any ideas? It’s when you want to do something nice for yourself, to reward yourself, like, I worked really hard on my project so I ________________ myself to a night out.
You can adapt this for almost any vocabulary exercise (particularly those which seem only to focus on nouns). This helps you take the attention away from the book, consolidate meaning of the words you want to teach and also to recycle vocabulary to help keep it fresh in students’ minds.
Some might argue that by doing this exercise, too much vocabulary is pushed onto the students. However, this exercise not only consolidates, but also primes the students for future learning of words in context.
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assigning proper tags to each and every word in the training and test sentences.
Penn Treebank corpora have proved their value both in linguistics and language
technology all over the world. At present a lot of research has been done in the field of
Treebank based probabilistic parsing successfully. The main advantage of Treebank based
probabilistic parsing is its ability to handle the extreme ambiguity produced by context-
free natural language grammars. Information obtained from the Penn Treebank corpora
has challenged the intuitive language study for various NLP purposes . South
Dravidian language like Kannada is morphologically rich in which a single word may
carry different sorts of information. The different morphs composing a word may stand
for, or indicate a relation to other elements in the syntactic parse tree. Therefore, it is a
challenging task to the developers in terms of the status of the orthographic words in the
syntactic parse trees.
The proposed syntactic parser was implemented using supervised machine learning
and PCFG approaches. Training, testing and evaluation were done by SVM algorithms.
Experiment shows that the performance of the developed system is significantly well and
has very competitive accuracy.
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7.1 RELATED WORK
A series of statistical based parsers for English were developed by various researchers
namely: Charniak-1997, Collins-2003, Bod et al. - 2003 and Charniak and Johnson- 2005
[169,170]. All these parsers were trained and tested on the standard benchmark corpora
called WSJ. A probability model for a lexicalized PCFG was developed by Charniak
in1997. In the same time Collins also describes three generative parsing models, where
each model is a refinement of the previous one, and achieving improved performance. In
1999 Charniak introduced a much better parser called maximum-entropy parsing
approach. This parsing model is based on a probabilistic generative model and uses a
maximum-entropy inspired technique for conditioning and smoothing purposes. In the
same period Collins also present a statistical parser for Czech using the Prague
Dependency Treebank. The first statistical parsing model based on a Chinese Treebank
was developed in 2000 by Bikel and Chiang. A probabilistic Treebank based parser for
German was developed by Dubey and Keller in 2003 using a syntactically annotated
corpus called Negra. The latest addition to the list of available Treebank is the French
Le Mondecorpus and it was made available for research purposes in May 2004. Ayesha
Binte Mosaddeque & Nafid Haque wrote CFG for 12 Bangla sentences that have taken
from a newspaper . They used a recursive descent parser for parsing the CFG.
7.2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
7.2.1 Parsing
Syntactic analysis is the process of analyzing a text or sentence that is made up of a
sequence of words called tokens, and to determine its grammatical structure with respect
to given grammatical rules.Parsing is an important process in NLP, which is used to
understand the syntax and semantics of a natural language sentences confined to the
grammar. Parsing is actually related to the automatic analysis of texts according to a
grammar. Technically, it is used to refer to the practice of assigning syntactic structure to a
text.On the other way, a parser is a computational system which processes input sentence
according to the productions of the grammar, and builds one or more constituent structures
called parse trees which conform to the grammar.
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Before a syntactic parser can parse a sentence, it must be supplied with information
about each word in the sentence.In another way, a parser accepts a sequence of words and
an abstract description of possible structural relations that may hold between words or
sequences of words in some language as input and produces zero or more structural
descriptions of the input as output,as permitted by the structural rule set. There will be
zero descriptions, if either the input sequence cannot be analyzed by the grammar, i.e. is
ungrammatical, or if the parser is incomplete, i.e. fails to find all of the structure the
grammar permits. There will be more than one description if the input is ambiguous with
respect to the grammar, i.e. if the grammar permits more than one analysis of the input.
In English, countable nouns have only two inflected forms,singular and plural, and
regular verbs have only four inflected forms: the base form, the -s form, the -ed form, and
the ing form. But the case is not same for a language like Kannada, which may have
hundreds of inflected forms for each noun or verb. Here an exhaustive lexical listing is
simply not feasible. For such languages, one must build a word parser that will use the
morphological system of the language to compute the part of speech and inflectional
categories of any word.
7.2.1.1 Top-Down Parser
Top-down parsing can be viewed as an attempt to find left-most derivations of an
input-stream by searching for parse trees using a top-down expansion of the given formal
grammar rules. Tokens are consumed from left to right. Inclusive choice is used to
accommodate ambiguity by expanding all alternative right-hand-sides of grammar rules. It
starts from the start symbol S, and goes down to reach the input. This is an advantage of
this method. The top-down strategy never wastes time for exploring trees that cannot
result in an S (root), since it begins by generating just those trees. This means it also never
explores sub trees that cannot find a place in some S-rooted tree. But this also has its
disadvantages. While it does not waste time with trees that do not lead to an S, it does
spend considerable effort on S trees that are not consistent with the input. This weakness
in top-down parsers arises from the fact that they generate trees before ever examining the
input. Recursive descent parser and LL parsers are examples of this parser.
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7.2.1.2 Bottom-up Parser
A parser can start with the input and attempt to rewrite it to the start symbol.
Intuitively, the parser attempts to locate the most basic elements, then the elements
containing these, and so on. LR parsers are examples of bottom-up parsers. Another term
used for this type of parser is Shift-Reduce parsing. The advantage of this method is, it
never suggests trees that are not at least locally grounded in the input. The major
disadvantage of this method is that, trees that have no hope of leading to an S, or fitting in
with any of their neighbors, are generated with wild abandon. LR parser and Operator
Precedence parsers are examples of this type of parsers.
Another important distinction is whether the parser generates a leftmost derivation or
a rightmost derivation. LL parsers will generate a leftmost derivation and LR parsers will
generate a rightmost derivation (although usually in reverse).
7.2.2 Syntactic Tree Structure
The different parts-of-speech tags and phrases associated with a sentence can be easily
illustrated with the help of a syntactic structure. Fig. 7.1 below shows the output syntactic
tree structure produced by a syntactic parser for the Kannada input sentence
(Rama threw the ball).
Fig. 7.1: Syntactic tree structure
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For a given sentence, the corresponding syntactic tree structure conveys the following
information.
7.2.2.1 Part-of-Speech-Tags
The syntactic trees help in identifying the tags of all the words in a given sentence as
shown in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1: Parts-of-Speeches and Phases in a Sentence
Parts-of-speech Phrases
Node (Word) Tag Phrase Name of Phrase
NNP Noun phrase
NN Verb phrase
VF
7.2.2.2Identification of Phrases
The syntactic tree also helps in identifying the various phrases and the organization of
these phrases into a sentence. In the above example there are two phrases as shown in
Table 7.1.
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The Evolution of a Word
The ability to speak seems to arrive naturally to humans, this can be a trait that may be fairly one of a kind to the human race. Parents instruct their children to speak, and children learn devoid of realizing just how extraordinary the ability of language is really. However , the languages in the modern universe are not the same different languages used in early on civilizations, nor are they precisely the same languages that even the previous generation used or that generations to come will use. There are absolutely innate similarities, but dialect is a active concept which includes continuously developed. Nearly all individuals have the ability to communicate through some sort of language, but very few are aware of the process by which language advances. Some languages have diverged to form fresh languages, others have collided into a single language, and handful of have vanished from living altogether. How is it that the entire terminology can change without the majority of the population noticing? This essay will certainly explore just how new terms are created, how the creation of new words affects language in general, and why languages ought to evolve.
Dictionaries are usually considered the most reliable resource for identifying what constitutes a word, but many people have no idea what sort of word is in the book. Who chooses that one string of letters is a valid word, when another is usually rubbish? Most dictionaries will be updated every year, if not more often now that several are available online. With every new copy comes fresh words with new explanations, and suddenly a former nonsense word is currently official. Anytime a new technology is introduced, there must be a new word to correspond with all the creation. In line with the Merriam-Webster Book site, there are plenty of ways in which fresh words are manufactured, including credit, truncation, back-formation, blending, and many more routes. Most of these processes contribute to the creation of recent words to become added to the dictionary. In the article “Language Issues ” How Fresh Words Are Created, ” Luke Mastin says
Most of the new words added to the ever-growing lexicon of the English language are simply created from scrape, and often include little or no etymological pedigree. A good example is the expression dog, etymologically unrelated to any other regarded word, which in turn, in the late Middle Ages, suddenly and mysteriously out of place the Old The english language word chase (or hund) which experienced served for centuries.
Other ways that words are included in a language is by borrowing from another language. According to Expenses Bryson in The Mother Tongue, the English language adopted over 10, 000 Norman The french language words pursuing the Norman cure of 1066, three-quarters of which are still in use (55). Down the road in his book, Bryson brings up a multitude of terms that the English language language followed from other different languages, including Of india, Chinese, Traditional, Latin, People from france, and practically every other dialect that has ever existed. Several words include undergone critical changes off their original varieties, to the point where they are really almost unrecognizable, while others keep a impressive resemblance to their origins. Even now, other phrases are created through truncation ” a process by which old terms are reduced to create new words ” and blending ” a process in which multiple words will be combined to create a new word. Once a expression is created, it should gain popularity to enter in the dictionary. Terms are not developed overnight, but instead through replication and requirement. However new words are set up, they significantly contribute to a changing language overtime.
Simply adding new words is too little to change a language entirely, and yet modern English is definitely vastly distinct from the English that William shakespeare used in his day. There are many other factors that contribute to a changing dialect. For example , a similar process that creates new words could also remove old words via a language. As words fall out of common work with, they reduce popularity to the point where they are practically no. These types of words happen to be then taken from dictionaries and they are no longer considered valid phrases. The combination of adding fresh words and removing older words drastically impacts a language. All things considered, using terms that nobody understands is much like speaking a different sort of language completely. Another happening that leads to a changing language is a drifting of word connotations. According to Bryson, “counterfeit” once designed a legitimate backup, “brave” once meant cowardice, and “egregious” once supposed admirable, though these phrases now have very different meanings (77-78). The reason for changing meanings is often unclear, maybe they are made simply via misuse all the time. For whatever reason, within meaning are quite common and also have resulted in all of the changes to the The english language language.
There are many reasons why changing dialect is necessary. As stated earlier, new inventions need new words and phrases to name them. Betty Birner addresses this in her article “Is English Changing? ” simply by saying
New technologies, new releases, and new experiences require new terms to refer to them obviously and efficiently. Consider sending text messages: originally it absolutely was called txt messaging, because it allowed one person to deliver another text message rather than words messages by simply phone.
A similar article entitled “How Technology is promoting our Language” also address the necessary changes that have took place due to scientific advances.
In general, dialects are continuously evolving, usually very gradually over time. Nevertheless over the last decade our dialect has taken a great leap forward. And much in the responsibility intended for the change falls upon modern technology. Take the phrase “Google it” such as. The word Google (meaning to conduct an online search utilizing a search engine) has become a globally understood action-word over the last 10 years, and officially entered the Oxford The english language Dictionary 5 years ago. Meanwhile, a lot of words took on a whole new meaning due to modern technology¦The word “friend” has become a verb, as in “she friended me on Facebook . com. ” At the same time, text language (or “txt spk”) is included with abbreviations, missing vowels, and acronyms.
All of these modifications in our English dialect have occurred approximately the past 10 years or much less. Such a language move could just occur away of need. For example , the real reason for abbreviations and acronyms in text language is not only to get convenience, but also as a result of limited space as screens become small and smaller sized. It is quite possible that this truth could lead to the invention of some new words created from acronyms. Phrases like these probably would not be the first of their kind, adnger zone, sonar, NASA, and NATO all started out as shortened forms, yet are pronounced and understood like they were actual words, till they actually started to be true words and phrases. Almost all language shifts start with younger ages. According to Betty Birner, mentioned previous
Many of the improvements that occur in language start out with teens and young adults. As young people interact with others their particular age, all their language develops to include words and phrases, phrases, and constructions that are different from the ones from the older generation. Some have a short expected life (heard cool lately? ), but other folks stick around to affect the vocabulary as a whole.
While becomes the The english language language do not occur right away ” in addition to reality, could possibly be hardly apparent during your lifespan ” the change is completely normal and essential to adapt to an ever-changing community.
Almost all languages on the planet have been subject to constant change over the course of record. Some dialects have diverged to form fresh languages, other folks have collided into a single dialect, and handful of have disappeared from living altogether. It can be natural pertaining to languages to evolve as the world likewise evolves, but many persons remain entirely unaware of these kinds of language adjustments. Communication is a crucial skill pertaining to transmitting and understanding additional individuals, so it will be important to know about how language changes in order to communicate properly. Language will always continue to modify as long as the earth remains a dynamic place.
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In today’s world this subject is getting more and more popularity. There are many reasons behind it. The first and the foremost reason is that it contributes to the unity of nations. It also encourages mutual understanding, broad-mindedness, cultural dialogues and intertextuality. But one can hardly think of comparative literature without immediate thinking of translation. For instance most readers in India know the works of Goethe, Tolstoy, Balzac, Shakespeare and Gorky only through translation. It is through the intermediary of translator that we get access to other literatures.
Thus Comparative Literature and translation humanize relationship between people and nations. As an intermediary between languages, thoughts and cultures, they contribute to the respect of alteration. Furthermore, they connect themselves and the other in their truths, myths, force and weakness. From a historical perspective, comparative literature and translation have always been complementary. Without the help of translation a normal person who usually knows two or three languages would never have known the universal master pieces of Dante, Shakespeare, Borges, Kalidas, and Cervantes etc. A normal person usually not knows more than two-three languages. But if s/he wanted to study and compare the literature of two or more languages s/he must be familiar with those languages and cultures. If s/he does not know any of that particular language s/he can take help of translation. Those texts might be translated by someone else who knows that language and the comparatist can use that translated text to solve his/her purpose. So one can say that:
a. Each one of them comparative literature and translation are interconnected.
b. A common man can come closer to the major writers of different fields.
c. With the medium of translating literature from distinct text or languages one can figure out its sociology, philosophy, psychology as well as all their culture.
d. Either translation or through comparison the problems of particular area’s people will analysed.
e. With the help of translation a text become able to get a wider range of readers.
Comparative literature is a discipline dedicated to the study of literature without national and linguistic barriers. The student of comparative literature study problems in genre, mode, literary period or movement. The comparatists probe the mechanics of literary forms and engage themselves in the analysis of existing theoretical and critical approaches and the formulation of necessary critical distinctions of equal importance. The comparatists also deal with the questions of interaction between literature and other arts and disciplines. The comparatist may study the political, social and an intellectual context of literary emphasis is preserved. In other words, the main objective of the study of comparative literature is the proper appreciation of literature in a larger perspective, involving more than one literature and specially those growing across the national boundaries. In a multilingual country like ours we have two basic objectives for studying comparative literature.
No doubt the role of translation in comparative literature is very important. It becomes more valuable in today’s world when the whole world has become a global village. With the advancement of technology people living in different countries with different languages come closer to each other. Although there is a one international language, English, which is the common source of communication between people but still there is a problem in the study of literature as literatures is usually written in regional languages or languages of that particular countries such as France’s literature is in French and literature of Russia is in Russian language.
It is not compulsory that every comparatist will know the all languages. So there is need of translation by which a comparatist can read and understand that literary works which are not in his/her own language. With the help of translation we become familiar with the customs, dress code, and culture of other countries.
In short it can be said that translation plays a great role in comparative literature. We can even say that comparative study of literatures from different languages, cultures and sociocultural backgrounds is not possible. So translation occupies a special place in comparative literature. In this age of globalization comparative literature as a subject is getting more and more popularity. But there is no one who is perfect in all the languages. So translation has played a very important role to understand the literature & culture of different languages without which we cannot do a comparative study of various literary works written in different languages. So Comparative literature is a tree with translation as its most important branch.
1. What is Translation?
Translation is the transformation of a text from one language into another. Though the word translation and elucidation are frequently used exchangeable, by firm description, translation denotes to the transcribed language, and understanding to the spoken word. Translation is the act of construal of the denotation of a text, and later construction of a comparable text, also entitled a translation, that passes the exact content in target language. The text or a work to be translated is termed the source text, and the language it is to be translated into is called the target language.
Translation must take into account brakes that include context, the rules of grammar of the two languages, their writing conventions, and their idioms. A common misconstruction is that there exists a simple word-for-word parallelism between any two languages, and that translation is a straight forward mechanical process.
1.1 History of Translation.
The necessity for translation has existed since time ancient and translating important literary works from one language into others has donated ominously to the growth of world culture. Ideas and customs of one culture have continuously progressed and got adjusted into other cultures through the works of translators. The history of translation is associated to the history of the often unseen cross cultural exchanges of the world.
Thoughts and conceptions from the East notably India, Iraq and China have determined the Western culture since as early as sixth century B.C. when business ties were first instituted between Mediterranean countries and India. Many curative theories of Galen and Plato of Greece had significantly influence from those of India. Many of the scientific and philosophical works of ancient Greece were extracted into Arabic as early as ninth century A.D. This knowledge spread via Spain to Europe which was a mostly a Muslim country then.
The scholar of translators of Toledo in Spain set up by Alfonso VI of Leon and Castile in 1085 AD was given responsibility for translations from Arabic to Latin and then to Spanish these technological and scientific work which afterward led to the European Renaissance. In spite of their main contributions, early translators have repeatedly persisted unfamiliar or in the background and the recognition due to them have not been recognized. They have done their work with conscientious exertions in spite of many contravenes that have spotted in history.
Translators have enabled sacred books like the Bible written in esoteric languages like Latin to be understood by ordinary people by translating them into more common languages without depending on a few clerisy bishops to explain what they contained. Few translators also had to pay with their lives for doing it like the well-known Bible translators William Tyndale who was caught and put to death in Holland by the king in 1536 for translating the Bible from its original languages into the common language of English.
It was believed that Chinese monk Xuanzang have translated 74 volumes of Buddhist sacred text which was belong from India in to Chinese in 645 AD. One of the most former preserved translations of significant effort in English is possibly the translation of the Bible around 1100 AD. British translator Constance Garnett made the translating school pleased by her vivid translations of Russian classics containing those of Tolstoy, Chekhov, Gogol, Turgenev, and Dostoyevski in late 19s. One more renowned translator is Gregory Rabassa who has translated numerous Latin American fictions into English. Dr. Arthur Waley is one of the world’s foremost translators of the 20th century of Japanese and Chinese literature into English. Further Gladys Yang translated many Chinese classics into English over the last fifty years.
Translation has played an important key role in the improvement in culture at world level. It is simple to think of culture as nationwide and completely distinct. If we commence to observe the effect of literary translation, the assumption of communication besides anything so limited by geographical location is clear.
A history of world culture from the viewpoint of translation discloses a continuous movement of forms and ideas, of cultures regularly absorbing new inspirations because of the work of translators. It dispels the supposition that everything begins in the West and weakens the idea of inflexible boundaries between West and East. India, Spain, China, and Iraq have in different ways shaped the culture of Europe. India formed ties with the Mediterranean in the 6th century BC and medical theories found in Greek intellectuals like Galen and Plato initiated from India. In 9th and 10th century Baghdad, the philosophical and scientific works of Earliest Greece were translated into Arabic and this learning disseminate to Europe via Spain which was virtually a Muslim country from the early 18th century for 400 years.
The transmission extended it highest through the School of Toledo where translations were translated from Arabic to Latin and afterward to Spanish in order to enable the technological and scientific development for the Renaissance age. A history of translation charts these connections. They may be main cause in violent historical controversies and imperial increases but it is never a simple procedure of translation for appropriation.
A very few of the history of translation is well-drafted – the translation of the Bible, the work of missionary, the specialist translators in India – but there remains huge unknown dominions. Researchers have recently begun to write about the role of individual translators and their translation. Translators like Gregory Rabassa in the United States or Constance Garnett in England have been responsible for transforming writing in English by their own translations of Russian and Latin American literature. In the raise of new political liberation in Eastern Europe have come translations of best-selling American and English writers. The history of translation is the history of the important but often not seen intersection point in world culture.
Translation was an esteemed activity in Britain in the 18th Century, and the field was separated into two completely different areas: translation from translation from modern languages (French, German, Italian and Spanish) which was one of the few literary genres open to women and the older one that was the classics (focusing on Latin and Greek authors) which was a male-dominated territory, and Yet, there were some significant exceptions in the area of the classics.
It was the central position occupied by Translators and their work in translation theory: translation studies has been progressively paying attention to their vital mediation in recent years. Instead of the fact that the communicative purpose of translation activities is the central engrossment of this method, Hans Vermeer has fetched attention to the degree of freedom, on the one hand, and of responsibility, on the other, which bears on language mediators (Vermeer 1998: 54). Translators are said to be the experts who should plan and implement those strategies which allow them to achieve their objective, i.e. their possibilities. This ideas takes translators to the Centre of the stage, and yet it also made them busy in a certain amount of risk.
Thus, they were the translators who had made important contribution over the centuries in broadcasting of ideas and information to a larger audience, in shaping of cultures and in a sense helped unite the world.
1.2 Need and scope of Translation.
In a huge nation like India, where countless regional changes in culture and behaviour obtain, and the many languages hold their unique origins and identities, it is impossible to hold an elaborative and continuous communication between various divisions of the country on a national as well as at international scale. There couldn’t be the accurate meaningful responsiveness of the country-s total literary act. The output without such mutual communication through the means of translation. Translations of the known works of Indian literary creators like Tagore, Premchand etc… been effectively accepted and their writings have been read and enjoyed in all parts of India as well as outside of India. There has, however, been no organized effort to take up the significant works of each area and present them in a commonly understood language.
Books which has fusion has planned to publish a collection of literary work of English translations of modern short stories written in the distinct Indian languages, with the intention of getting the people together of India on one platform in order to make Indian literature available in India as well as the other parts of the world. There were so many translation occurred in the field of literature, the work which did not get recognition later after translation they achieved name and fame in India as well as in other countries. Therefore, it was a required to spread literature of specific nation to other nations through the medium of translation.
2. Types of Translation
As many experts were engaged in the field of translation, therefore they were having their own styles, methods, or techniques while translating any piece of translation. It was also found that they were using different style which has some kinds of variation in translation where practically one may find their own characteristics and forms. Some types of translation are found out because of the variances and likenesses of the source structures, unlike types of text that are going to be translated and various intention of translation. According to Newmark he said that translation techniques connect the whole texts, translation used for sentences and the smaller units of each language.
Roman Jakobson in Hatim and Munday brings an important differentiation between all three types of written translation :
1) Intralingual translation, the same language convey its meaning in the form of rewording or paraphrase, in order to achieve its meaning,
2) Interlingual translation, which mainly focuses to such translation which was carried out from one language to another,
3) Intersemiotic translation, this kind of translation deals with verbal sign by non-verbal sign for example audio- visual images like music or pictures.
According to Nababan the kinds of translation, such as word for word translation, literal translation, dynamic translation, pragmatic translation, free translation, , aesthetic-poetic translation, ethnographic translation, linguistic translation communicative translation and semantic translation .
1. The Process of Translation
The procedure of translation can be well-defined as the activity carried out by the translator of translation, and the process which is used by the translator as a kind of user manual in order to guide in translating from source text from into the target language.
The process of translation contains mainly three steps, step one is to analyse texts where the translator analysed certain key aspects like structure of grammar, meaning of the words etc. of source language, step two is to transfer in which the translator focuses on the material of the source text and the target text which can be transferred based on the mentality of the translator, and step three is to restructured in order to get the exact message and make a new creation of the source language into target language.
2. Translation Equivalence
With the reference to oxford dictionary equivalence is exactly equivalency or replaceable in valuate, quantity, importance, etc. Vinay and Darbelnet as cited in Munday, said that “equivalence denotes to example where languages depict the equal situation by unlike rhetorical or constructive/ structural means” .
Equivalence stands for the concept of equality, sameness and similarity; it has the equal or a similar cause or meaning in translation.
Nida also defined types of equivalence, which are also named two basic orientations of translation :
1. Formal correspondence
It emphases on the message itself, in both of content and form. Once it is seen that the content in the receptor language should fit as closely as possible the unlike components in the source language.
2. Dynamic equivalence
It is the rationale of equivalent effect, where the connection between receptor and message should be considerably the same as that which laid between the original receptor and the message. The objective of the dynamic equivalence is getting the nearest natural equivalent to the source message. This receptor oriented method regards changes of grammar, of words, and of cultural acknowledgment to be important in order to attain naturalness.
Darbelnet and Vinay interpret that the translation which is equivalence-oriented as a process which ‘reproduces the same situation as in the master copy, at the same time as the completely different words are used’. Therefore, equivalence is an ideal process when the translator using clichés, nominals, proverbs, idioms, or adjectival phrases and the sounds of animal. With the reference to theory of Jakobson, he interpreted that the ‘translation contains mainly two equal messages in two different codes’. Jakobson keeps on saying that it can be different from the grammatical point of view languages may vary from language to language in a greater or lesser degree, which does not mean that a translation of one language into another is impossible, moreover, one of the problems the translator may face is not finding a translation equivalent.
Baker was considered to enlighten more detailed list of conditions upon which the concept equivalent can be defined at different levels with an interesting elaboration of the notion equivalent can be found in as follow:
1. Equivalence which can be observed at word level. Baker defined the term word as it should be recalled that each and every single word can be considered as being a more compound unit or linguistic unit, and it also talk about word meaning.
2. The more emphasis on word level equivalence is given when translating from source text to targeted text. In this part, the translator focuses on the type of word sounding, they are idioms, collocation, and static expression.
3. Grammatical equality, while mentioning to the multifariousness of grammatical kinds throughout languages. Baker emphases on tense and aspects, number, voice, gender and person.. In the procedure of translation; this kinds of differences between the original Language and the Translated form often connote few adaptation in the content. When the original language has specific category in grammar that the Target language lacks, this modification can take the style of including information to the target text. The conversion can take the form of omission if it is the target language that lacks a category.
4. Textual equivalence when referring to the equivalence between a Source Language text and a Target Language text in terms of information and thematic structure. It also unifies the discussion in this division regarding cohesion.
5. Practical equivalence, when referring to technique of avoidance throughout the translation procedure.
The following theorist like Nida and Taber, Catford, Jakobson, House, Vinay and Darbelnet, and Baker have studied equivalence in relation using translation process, applying distinct methods.
C. Grammatical Equivalence
The rules of Grammar which determine the method in which parts such as words, phrases and sentences can be mixed in a language. Grammar has its main two attributes: syntax and morphology, syntax (structure of sentence) deals with the grammatical structure of sets of words/ phrases (clauses or sentence), the linear arrangement of category of words (noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, etc.), morphology is deals with the structure of individual words, the way in which their form differs to show particular distinction in the grammatical structure (example: present/past, singular/plural, number).
Distinct structures of grammar in the Source Language and Target Language may make notable changes in the way the message or information is brought across, these changes may hasten the translator either to omit or to add information in the Target Text because of the lack of specific grammatical patterns in the Target Language itself, amongst these grammatical patterns which might create difficulties or problems in translation.
As far as translation is pertained, the most significant difference between lexical choices and grammatical is that the earlier are commonly compulsory while the latter are mostly optional. In the course of translation, this kinds of different between SL and the TL frequently mean some modification in the content of information.
Number is a change in the form of a word (usually by adding a suffix) to indicate a change in its grammatical function of verbs, adjectives, nouns, pronouns, and determiners to indicate dual, singular and plural forms. Distinguished three classes of number: dual (‘two’), singular (‘one’), and plural (‘more than two’). The thought of countability is may be common, but it is believed that many language do not have same grammatical category of number, even it is found that they might create differences at the lexical meaning.
1. Gender
The word gender, typically ascribed to Protagoras in Shery Simon, is came from a term meaning kind or class and adverted to the part of Greek nouns into feminine, masculine and neuter. Gander is grammatical classification according to which a noun or pronoun is categorised as feminine or masculine.
1. Person
Morphological (concerned with the formation of admissible words in a language) kind of the verb used to indicate the singular and plural finite verb kinds as ‘speaker’ (1st person), ‘addressee’ (2nd person), or a ‘person, place or thing’ concerned to in the utterance (3rd person). Sub-group of pronouns which denote to individuals is as the speaker (I, we), addressee (you) or other persons, things (S/he, it) (comprehensive vs. non- comprehensive).The classification of person links to the notion of participant functions.
Tense and Aspect
English has dual mode tense structures, so that in place of the past tense form was, we could apply the matching present tense form is. Aspect is a terminology applied to draw the time of the activity delineate by a verb whether the activity is ongoing or accomplished. In those languages which have these classifications, the form of the verb regularly provides two kinds of information: aspectual differences and time relations.
Voice
Voice is grammatical or a structural set that specifies the bondage between subjects and verbs. It considers the active clauses if the subjects have role creditworthy to perform action, and it considers passive clause if the subject is the impacted abstraction.
D. Translation Process
Translation processes or translation shifts are outlined as “the littlest linguistic adapts taking place in translation of Source Text to Target Text”. Translation is an area of different processes. Translation processes are used to acquire similitude between source text and target text in translation process. There are many varieties of translation practises, but the author want to look into some operation that must be use by translator to adjust to the rhetorical requirements and grammatical patterns of the target text. These assumptions are elaborated below.
Additional information
The difference can bring the form of including to the target text information which is not conveyed in the source language, if the target text has the grammatical category which the source text lacks. Information which is not seen in the source language may be added to the target language.
Deletion information
Baker denotes to deletion as “skip of a lexical part due to semantic patterns or grammatical of the receivers language”. In the course of translating, the replacement of information content of message can be done in the form of eliminating information in the source text, if the target text lacks a grammatical pattern.
Structural adjustment
Structural adjustment is one more significant method for acquiring equivalence between source language text and target language text. Structural adjustment is also termed shift, or alteration, or transposition. Newmark says that “A ‘shift’ (Catford’s point) or ‘transposition’ (Vinay and Darbelnet) is a translation process including a modification in the grammar from Source Language to Target Language”. There are four types of transposition:
Type 1: the change from singular to plural (and vice versa), or in the position of the adjective.
Type 2: the change in grammatical structure from SL to TL because SL grammatical structure does not exist in TL.
Type 3: an alternative to when literal translation of SL text may not accord with natural usage in TL. Such alternatives include:
The joined form of adjective participle (i.e. adjective formed from a verb) and noun, or noun phrase in SL becomes noun + noun form in TL.
Clause in the form of participial (i.e. verb form sharing the functions of a noun) in SL is expressed into its direct form in TL.
Type 4: the replacement of a virtual lexical gap by a grammatical structure.
The emphasis in SL is shown through TL regular grammatical construction.
There are many kinds of translation procedures. Translation procedures will make easily to get grammatical equivalence between source language and target language in the process of translation.
E. Evaluation in Translation Studies
Evaluation in translation hence goes beyond the assessment of specific translations and must study into account other devices. In this study, the researcher uses the form of comparable assessment according to Nababan:
Scale Definition Category
1 The intending of words, phrases, clauses and sentences of source language text can be shifted to the target language text incorrectly or omission.
Inaccuracy
2 Large section the meaning of words, phrases, clauses and sentences of source language text had be transmitted to the target language text correctly, but however found out some deformations in meaning or equivocalness translation which determines message.
Almost accuracy
3 The meaning of words, phrases, clauses and sentences of source language text can be shifted to the target language correctly, there no found deformations in meaning.
Accuracy
Table 1. Assessment of Equivalence
Translation in Global world
Translation plays an important role in creating the classification of ‘world literature’, a word that has arose new exchange in this epoch of globalization. Commenting on essay by Eric Bulson, Susan Stanford Friedman, Rebecca Beasley, Laura Doyle and Jessica Berman, the research scholar recommend that the worldwide disseminate of modernism and its native unfolding requirement to be realized by the vital translation job that came with it. The research scholar emphases on lingo modernisms in India from 1920s to1960s in order to express that the impression of translation was by no means one-way or aimed towards the West. Translation both languages from native and non- native was an essential part in the mood of Indian modernist writing, specifically as written in the poetry mags of the early 20th century. At the same time native and diverse culture ambiance of this modernist literary accumulation, far more substantial and far-reaching than Indian literature in English, can only be comprehended via continuation of expansion of modernism’s translation.
Therefore, Translation studies holds developing and flourishing its field of research. The discussion that designed the consolidation of cultural and linguistic views remains far behind, and the evolution of pragmatic approaches, narrative approaches, and critical discourse approaches to belief and influence, multimedia sights and incompatible studies of cultural patterns, have moulded translation as a place of agency where cultural as well as social practices– meet and born. Particularly, translation is now considered as an important property of the cultural, social, and political inter connections of dealings that take place in local as well as at global contexts, which are no longer encountered from the paragon view whereby messages are conveyed between steady structures and classified norms, but as uncertain practises of negotiation. Perhaps the most exciting growth has been to identify the role that exemplification has in the continuous restructuring of communication; a depiction arises in which communication is not axiomatic and the example of translation between close languages and cultures, such as European languages and cultures, is no more privileged.
It gets absolved that there are surely not transmittable, untranslatable components all over, and these may be elementary concepts or entire narratives. An example of translation as a technical adjustment in an easy and nearly automatic re-codification is substituted by a model in which communication is a productive act with an elusive goal, totally never satisfied and constantly determined by numerous actors: authors, editors, audiences, translators, media factors, etc.; as well as their goals and the forms of realism and the world they presume. This emphases on particular contexts: specific fields (literary, commercial, scientific, medical, legal, socio-political discourse etc.) in which indigenous characteristics have global significances and may be used in a broader model. One of those significances is that ideological and cultural differences are universal along with the time of domains and genres, and inclined to ups-well in a diversity of styles distinct as points that mark the edges between two “languacultures” (Agar 2008) (Faiq 2010, 2014), as Said Faiq has named them in the context of Translation Studies recently.
3. Translation in Multilingual country like India
Translation of literature from an Indian viewpoint, everyone notice that till 19th century Indian translators were not keen about being factual to the unique in manner and matter. As a matter of fact, the epics and puranas, the Sanskrit classics were “recited, adopted, undermined and translated” during the Middle Ages, without any conscience about preciseness or accuracy to the master piece of any work. The authenticity has raised an important question when started translating the Bible into Indian languages.
Instead of directly dealing with translation in country like India let us find out the position of Indian languages in the field of translation. As everyone knows that Indian populations have multilingualism though they were given more emphasis on a common heritage. There were original versions of Mahabharata and Ramayana in all main languages and therefore it was not needed to be translated. The group of people those who were illiterate were enjoying it orally from their own language. But when the time comes of educated people observed at other languages by the percolate of English language. Translation was promoted in their own way by British for their profit. ‘Manusmriti’ was translated in order to govern Indians through their native laws by William Jones’. But the self-awareness brought by promotion of translation and the outcome of the independence movement directed to a large amount of translation activity, which made the patriot works of Bankimchandra in Bengali and Khandekar in Marathi available to lots of readers in difference languages. The aspiration of translation was enhanced because of the Nobel Prize of literature in 1913 and it arose speedily after 1947; the main reasons behind it was getting the national literary awards.
As it was observed, translation is frequently came with “the institutional arrangement of state power” Translation of Indian Literature into English has progressed to the centre with concern expressed by our reviewers, publishers, seminar organizers and other such groups from the colonial times. It is fact that that we do not have an exact comparable word ‘translation’ in any languages of India. What we have used till now are ‘anuvad’ in Sanskrit, ‘tarjuma’ in Arabic, ‘rupantar’ in Bangla, ‘vivartanam’ in and ‘bhashantar’ in Hindi which recommends that the concept of ‘translation’ was alienate to us; what we appreciated in specific language translator created a similar one in other languages, which connotes that translation was not familiar writing for us till the arrival of Western culture. As everyone knows ‘anuvad’ and ‘rupantar’ which is used as a meaning of translation, where there was not any need of loyalty to the original text. The idea of faithful rendering of the original, even of a literary work, came to us from West, with the translation of the Bible into Indian languages by the Christian Missionaries. Whereas the inherited trend in India of change of from implies the compliment paid to a translation “that it does not read like a translation to bind to the main text.” This demonstrations that there is a main changes found in translation practice between West and in India. In West translation is “a complicated linguistic act”, “while in India it is an unavoidable way of life.” In the West it is examined from various perspectives but in India the focus is more on the positive and meddlesome aspects of translation.
As India is multicultural and multilingual, translation acts as an important tool for negotiations. But the sad aspect of translation is that much of the poetry and fiction of the Third World Countries, which is a product of its own tradition, does not get translated because of its least accessibility to the Western reader. Only those of touristic interest get translated. There are many hurdles to translation in our county. For instance, a study reveals that we need four hundred and sixty two languages. But out of these only seventy eight are available, and some are without a thesaurus. Thus, in spite of being a promising site in a county like ours, problems of translation are numerous.
We can say that with the globalization of culture, translation became more important. It was father promoted due to the spread of English education. It is also one of the effective ways of linking diverse languages and varieties of cultures. Translation should fulfil this social responsibility and contribute to the society. It is a kind of negotiation between languages which makes two cultures cohabits in a text. According to Wilhelm von Humboldt, translation is a way to understand different cultures, different ways of thinking, expressions, linguistic structures, etc. It implies translation of language as well as the nature or character of the speakers. In this way Target Text makes the target language (TL) more fertile, and hence translation is often looked upon as something reconstructing or transferring. It brings to the reader entire range of the characteristic spirit of culture and communication.
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https://www.essaysauce.com/linguistics-essays/essay-translation-subject/
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Dutch Translation in Practice presents an obtainable and interesting direction in glossy Dutch translation. Taking a hugely sensible process, it introduces scholars to the basic recommendations of translation reports, heightens their wisdom of the issues posed in Dutch translation, and teaches them how one can take on those problems effectively. Featured texts were conscientiously selected for his or her thematic and technical relevance, and a variety of discursive and grammatical concerns are coated throughout.
Features include:
Nine chapters reflecting assorted components of latest existence and tradition in Belgium and the Netherlands comparable to humans and locations, Dutch Language and tradition, Literature, Employment, Finance and Economics, Media and Communications, paintings heritage and Exhibitions, style and layout and the Earth, strength and the surroundings actual extracts drawn from up to date Dutch texts used all through to demonstrate and guidance numerous topical and translation matters, with many helping routines and open translation actions to motivate energetic engagement with the cloth, the improvement of robust translation talents, and vocabulary acquisition Chapters based to supply innovative studying, relocating from an introductory part explaining the context for the texts to be translated to details on translation ideas, distinct shut readings and analyses of phrases, words, type, sign in and tone a powerful concentration all through on addressing matters appropriate to modern Dutch translation, with functional suggestions provided for translating web content, facing names and dealing with information and numbers in translation consciousness to language parts of specific trouble, together with translating er, passive structures, punctuation, conjunctions and separable verbs useful checklist of grammatical phrases, details on beneficial assets for translators and pattern translations of texts to be had behind the book
Written via skilled teachers and commonly trialled at collage university London, Dutch Translation in Practice might be an important source for college kids on upper-level undergraduate, postgraduate or specialist classes in Dutch and Translation reports.
Read Online or Download Dutch Translation in Practice PDF
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Extra resources for Dutch Translation in Practice
Sample text
Indd 35 2/19/2011 6:22:18 PM 36 (47) a. b. c. d. Georgia M. Green [What they will say]i is hard to know ___ i. Hei is easy to please ___ i. (tough-complements) Ii am available to dance with ___ i. (purpose infinitives) I gave it to the mani Dana thinks ___ i is French. (bare relative clauses) In weak extraction cases like tough-constructions, a head of the relevant class selects a complement with a non-null slash specification, as shown in (46); this entails that the complement or some descendent of it will not be lexically realized.
Finally, lexical rules can define both an inflection and a derived subcategorization. For example, Sag and Wasow’s (1999) passive lexical rule states a correspondence between verb lexemes whose comps list has at least one argument-saturated nominal synsem on it, and words where an argument-saturated nominal synsem with those specifications is the the sole member of the subj list, and is absent from the comps list, which may have a synsem for an (oblique) by-phrase on it whose NP object has the same index as the argument-saturated nominal synsem on the subj list of the source lexeme, as shown in (26).
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http://www.access-it-systems.co.uk/pdf/dutch-translation-in-practice
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Tips on how to learn a new language
Learning a new language is undoubtedly one of the best decisions one can make: it improves the way you think, enriches your knowledge and opens so many doors, both personally and professionally. However, many may argue that despite being very useful, it is also a difficult target to reach.
Learning a new language doesn’t have to be tough anymore. Here are some tips that helped me learn languages faster:
1. Start with vocabulary
Grammar is obviously important, but even more crucial is vocabulary. The whole purpose of a language is to be able to communicate and understand other people. Even if the grammar is not always correct, people are still able to understand what you’re trying to say as long as you give them a few keywords. Knowing vocabulary first offers more chances to make yourself understood when trying to speak that specific language.
2. Listen to music in that language
From a personal point of view, I don’t remember actually learning English. Listening to music as a kid, either on YouTube or TV, helped me remember certain words and phrases without even realising it. Constantly hearing the language in the background makes your brain stock certain words in your memory without knowing it. Try leaving the TV on while doing chores around the house and you might pick up vocabulary instinctively!
3. Watch movies in that language with subtitles in a language you can understand
Another good option is to watch movies in the language you are trying to learn using subtitles in a language you can understand. By doing this, you would be able to hear words and translate them at the same time. You will not always remember everything, but the more you do it, the easier it will become to remember vocabulary and expressions!
4. Practise with a friend
Speaking is an essential stage in the process of language learning. The whole act of burning off your brain cells in the course of finding the right words to use in a conversion can be very useful. The more you try, the easier it becomes to find your words the next time. Even if you don’t remember a certain word, replace it with something similar or try to explain it using some words you already know. People will still understand you and it also helps you become more confident about your speaking skills. Find a friend, who can be either on the same level as you are or more advanced, and try carrying everyday conversations in that language.
5. Watch cartoons or children’s shows
Following the same pattern as the above mentioned one, watching cartoons or children’s shows can also prove to be effective. Especially if you are a beginner, children’s shows are slower and explain things better, which might be useful when you are trying to learn the basics of a language.
6. Travel to a country where that language is being spoken
Even though this option is not available to everyone and it might be difficult for some people, it is indeed very helpful. I studied German for a year at university in London, but I only felt confident to speak it and I learned words so much faster while living in Germany for a month. Being surrounded by German people and seeing all the street signs, café menus and subway maps in German truly helped me catch up on my vocabulary.
After that, you can focus more on grammar and complicated structures that you don’t use that often in the usual conversations. Learning a new language is a challenging experience even for the smartest people. Don’t let yourself be discouraged by the scary grammatical structures or sophisticated words. Keep practising and you will surprise yourself eventually when you will realise how smooth this process can be!
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https://holapeople.co.uk/blog/tips-on-how-to-improve-your-language-skills/
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Prestigious British Academy Award for Surrey Morphology Group
The British Academy has awarded a prestigious Postdoctoral Fellowship to Surrey Morphology Group at the University of Surrey for research into the mutual intelligibility in the Turkic languages of Central Asia.
Based in the School of Literature and Languages, the Surrey Morphology Group (SMG) is a linguistics research centre dedicated to the study of language diversity and its theoretical consequences.
Dr Nadežda Christopher has been granted a three-year Fellowship award which is presented to outstanding early career scholars to strengthen their experience of research and teaching in a university environment. The primary emphasis is on completing a significant piece of publishable research, giving award holders a base on which to build a successful academic career.
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There is currently no consensus amongst linguists as to how MI should be tested and measured. This research project will focus on the relation of MI and the structure of words and the way in which words are put together to form phrases and sentences, by examining three Turkic languages: Kazakh, Karakalpak and Uzbek.
This innovative project simultaneously contributes to two different developing areas of linguistic research, firstly by providing an empirical background against which the phenomenon of MI can be assessed cross-linguistically, and secondly by expanding our understanding of morphological and syntactic variation in lesser studied Turkic languages.
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https://www.surrey.ac.uk/news/prestigious-british-academy-award-surrey-morphology-group
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You must wonder why we need to know basic sentence structure in Lithuanian to grasp the minimal idea of learning the new language. The answer is that grammatical structures will always be the primary path to learning an entirely new language. While the Lithuanian language can be attainable with essential words and phrases, knowing the Lithuanian grammar, grammatical numbers, sentence structure, and other elements will help you improve more precisely.
Thus, this blog has prepared a concise guide on Lithuanian sentences and word order to save your time from endless textbook notes. Learning the Lithuanian language with precision will help you speak Lithuanian words more fluently and correctly. So, let’s start learning Lithuanian right away!
Is Lithuanian Grammar Hard?
Lithuanian language belongs to the language family of the Baltic languages. It is one of the only two alive Baltic languages in the world. Lithuanian stands as the official language of Lithuania and is an ancient language. That precisely states that the Sankrit and proto Indo-European languages heavily influence the Lithuanian language and its grammatical structure. However, that does not make Lithuanian impossible to learn. Especially if you are known to the Latvian language, it may be easier as they use the same Latin alphabet.
The basic sentence structure of the Lithuanian language, as we will learn in detail in the next section, is quite similar to that of English. However, they have one uniqueness that we need to pay strict attention to. If you keep reading below, you will get to know the flexibility and intensity of Lithuanian writing, grammar, and structures. So, don’t hesitate and explore the beauty of the Lithuanian language.
Basic Sentence Structure In Lithuanian Language
When it comes to the sentence structure or word formation and word order of Lithuanian, it is quite neutral to other languages and does not seem too vague. The Lithuanian grammar retains the normal sentence structure of the Subject Verb Object. However, the fun thing about the word order in Lithuanian grammar is that it is flexible to more possibilities. While English may stick to one order that is Subject-Verb-Object in almost all cases, it may change and take other word orders as a shift in the order expresses changing emphasis in modern Lithuanian grammar.
Before we get more into the order of words, let us get a clear picture of what we are referring to as Subject, Verb, and Object.
Subject
The Subject is the main part of the Lithuanian sentence structure, which is the acting noun. The Subject or the noun (belonging to common nouns or proper nouns), which can be of masculine or feminine usage, always marks the grammatical center. For instance, “She is eating.” (ji valgo) Here, “she” or ji is the Subject. In Lithuanian grammar, the Subject is usually written at the beginning, so the order where the subject comes at the beginning and the Verb later is quite common.
The Subject or the noun can be one of the two genders, masculine nouns or masculine gender and feminine nouns or feminine gender. Sometimes it can also be of neutral gender or neuter gender as there are no strict rules governing the gender in Lithuanian. Subjects also have grammatical numbers. It can be singular nouns, plural words, and dual. However, only a few words in Lithuanian demonstrate an indefinite number. Fun fact, Lithuanians do not use any articles.
Object
The Object is the part of the sentence that also consists of a noun, but here the noun is rather being acted upon. It is not similar to a subject noun, as an object word or noun is the word that the subject is acting upon. It is not the center of the sentence. In Lithuanian sentence structure, the Object usually comes at the end after introducing the Subject and the Verb. However, it can appear in the beginning or even in the middle without hesitation, depending on the person’s willingness to convey it.
For instance, “He is baking a cake” (Jis kepa pyragą). Here, “He” (Jis) is the Subject, and “cake” (pyragą) is the denoted Object. Objects are mostly common nouns with or without masculine inflections or feminine genders.
Verb
Coming to another important part of the Lithuanian structure, the Verb. The Verb is the doing part of the sentence. It is the action or activity that someone or something is performing. In Lithuanian verbs, there exists stem plus suffixes. Lithuanian Verb belongs to a pro-drop family where pronouns are mostly dropped as the verbs already provide factual information about the person.
For instance, “She is sleeping” (Ji miega) here, “Sleeping,” or Miega is the Verb performed by the Subject.
Basic Word Order
Coming back to the main element, the word order of the sentence structure of the Lithuanian grammar. While Subject+Verb+object is the common one we have seen in every example, Lithuanian being a declined language, considers free word order. It can be Subject+Object+Verb, Verb+Subejct+Object, and all the possible interrelations. However, as mentioned earlier, different order indicates different meanings, and there are strict rules that one has to follow. That is to say that Lithuanian words that have rheme or comment (new information) are usually set behind other words.
Again, with adjectives ( a describe material modifying nouns), the order of the adjective group is different in Lithuanian than in English. When the normal word order is followed, a casual, local, or temporal adjunct is set right at the beginning of the sentence. But in the case of other types of adjuncts, they are placed in front of the Verb and Object.
When describing structure with theme and rheme, the structure can be seen as complementary words followed by theme, middle words, rheme, and then final clauses. The central terms, theme, and rheme are the most important in such a case. So, the Subject and the Verb often serve as the theme and rheme, and without them, a sentence is incomplete.
Examples Of Basic SVO Sentences
Language With Ling
Now that you are on your way to acquiring the Lithuanian language in a very detailed manner, reach out to Ling to find out more interesting facts and rules. Ling App by Simya Solutions has numerous content on vocabulary and grammar that will help you get a clear idea about a foreign language without even trying out new courses or textbooks. Just click and get to read amazing blogs on topics such as Funny Phrases In Lithuanian and Lithuanian Culture.
Ling has language experts from all over the world and has expertise in more than 50 languages. Even if you are interested in other Indo-European languages, you can go for it. Access the app and start learning today!
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https://ling-app.com/lt/sentence-structure-in-lithuanian/
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Here is a bit of what Wiki has to say about TPRS:
Teaching Proficiency through Reading and StorytellingFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Teaching Proficiency through Reading and Storytelling , formerly known as Total Physical Response Storytelling, or TPRS for short, is a method for teaching world languages. Blaine Ray created this method by combining James Asher's Total Physical Response system with personalized, often funny stories to help students apply the words learned. These stories are complemented with reading from a variety of sources. Blaine Ray had been a Spanish teacher whose philosophy is that "Learning is a function of repetition."
TPRS is a movement towards building language proficiency in the use of grammatical structures through reading stories in addition to the oral storytelling for which TPRS is well-known. TPRS has three main steps to the process:
STEP 1: Establish Meaning. This is done primarily by the presentation of target language vocabulary structures (generally no more than 3 in one lesson) and their equivalents in the students' native language. Gestures can also be taught and practiced with the new vocabulary to help students remember vocabulary words. Gestures were once considered integral to step 1 but are now considered optional.
STEP 2: Ask (not tell) a story. Using a general outline of a story, the instructor asks students to provide specific details. This allows students to make it their own. At the same time a circling technique of asking questions, and repeating phrases results in multiple repetitions of the target structures. Advanced TPRS teachers are sometimes able to "wing it," creating stories by asking questions of the students based on the vocabulary structures of that day's lesson.
STEP 3: Read and discuss the story, or a different story which contains the grammar structures from STEP 2, but with different details. This reading is often done by having one or all of the students translate the reading out loud in order to ensure that students have complete comprehension of the reading material. Grammar points contained in the reading may be briefly discussed with very short explanations - often 5 seconds or less. The discussion of the reading is carried out in the target language, with the teacher asking questions both about the reading itself and also about the students and their lives.
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https://www.tamdistrict.org/Page/614
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Using Lingua Latina per se Illustrata by Hans Orberg, the ultimate goal of the Latin program is to attain mastery and command of the language in order to read Latin classics and to understand the Latin authors in their language. This is effectively achieved through an active use of the language — listening, reading, writing and speaking in Latin.
These courses are taught entirely in Latin, with students first learning the meaning of words and phrases in context. The consistent repetition of essential vocabulary and grammatical forms through a written narrative and oral instruction are complimented by a persistent study of Latin grammar.
Level One covers all the fundamental elements of Latin grammar, while Level Two will introduce students to Latin authors and Roman history at a more advanced level.
All students need to begin with Level One, even if they have had Latin in the past. Because of the nature of the course, it requires the student to begin thinking in Latin. In addition to understanding Latin, the course requires the student to produce Latin using correct grammatical structures, which is a more advanced skill.
Suggested Age: 14 or with instructor and/or headmaster's permission
Prequisites: None
Required Texts:
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https://www.circeinstitute.org/latin-i-jeremy-wagner-mondays-430pm-530pm-et
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Using two different psychological approaches explain one aspect of human behaviour the six main approaches for human behaviour are psychodynamic, behaviourist, physiological, humanistic, cognitive and social. In summary, the qualitative and quantitative approaches to research allow a different perspective of situations or phenomena these two main approaches to research are highly informative, especially if used in combination. Major approaches & models of change management nudge theory is more sophisticated in its approach and is radically different from other ways of transitioning . Bothe and andreatta (2004), add that both approaches involve the use of observations to address research questions, describe their data, construct descriptive arguments from their data, and .
Five counseling theories and approaches holistic and integrative therapy involves integrating various elements of different theories to the practice in addition . Different approaches to psychotherapy psychologists generally draw on one or more theories of psychotherapy a theory of psychotherapy acts as a roadmap for psychologists: it guides them through the process of understanding clients and their problems and developing solutions. Three different approaches to ethics in reality, some combination of these approaches is often present in dealing with real, everyday situations for example, it is hard to think about the application of specific commands or rules without also considering the consequences of such actions.
Describe the general advantages and disadvantages of the two research approaches featured in the articles use examples from the articles for support select a health topic of interest to you that is relevant to your current area of practice. A thorough guide on the major approaches and models of change management c l e v e major approaches & models of change management and is radically different . What’s the difference between qualitative and quantitative approaches adar ben-eliyahu, phd in the world of research, there are two general approaches to gathering and reporting information: qualitative and quantitative approaches.
Systems analysis and design in a changing world, sixth edition 8-2 tools, and techniques describe the two overall approaches used for software construction and modeling: the. Descriptions of two rti approaches while these two approaches to rti are sometimes described as being describe this approach to rti this option uses one. Different approaches to management 1 approaches of managementfrom wikipedia, the free encyclopediajump to: navigation, searchschools of management thoughtkoont z, o’donnell and weichrich have identified different approaches of management. The humanistic approach to the study of personality includes a number of theories that, although different in some respects, share a common emphasis on man's potential for self-direction and freedom of choice. The same sort of distinctions apply to quantitative approaches: all clinical trials are not identical in design and therefore use differing techniques for measuring results, and there are many different forms of experimental, quasi-experimental and pre-experimental designs, using equally varied quantitative analyses.
The biological approach to psychology which looks at physical aspects controlling behaviour such as the structures of the brain, gives evidence that both nature and. 22 different approaches to decision making the more optimistic describe people who make effective use of lay versions of formal logical and statistical . The overlap between the two key approaches and trends in strategy one of mintzberg's earlier contributions to the field was to categorise different approaches . Though every sales person will use different kinds of sales approaches in their careers, these are approaches that should be considered claire mcconnachie no two sales people are alike.
Combining two different approaches, this study generates a 5 ∗ 6 matrix to represent the technological groups if the firms located in the same cell, they have similar technological capabilities and highly interdependent relationships if the firms located in the same column, they own similar technological capabilities but these technologies . Using two different approaches describe and evaluate the role of both nature and nurture in explain human behaviour. Table 41 contrasts these two frameworks quality improvement teams then introduce and test changes designed to achieve the improvement aims using successive pdsa .
Contrast main features of different approaches to organisation and management evaluate the relevance of these different approaches to two major ‘sub-groupings . Psychoanalytic theory approaches personality from a viewpoint that is very different from that of trait theory trait theorists try to find the stable dimensions of personality by studying groups of people, and much of their data is derived from self-reports-what the individual says about himself. Different teaching styles and how they affect your students february 25, 2014 by natasha quinonez no two teachers will teach in the same way, just as no two students learn something in the same way.
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http://ehcourseworksfgx.firdaus.info/using-two-different-approaches-describe-and.html
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Write a 1,050- to 1,400-word paper analyzing the biological and humanistic approaches to personality. Your paper should cover the following areas:
- Use Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to discuss the extent to which growth needs influence personality formation.
- Describe biological factors that influence the formation of personality.
- Examine the relationship of biological factors to Maslow’s theory of personality.
- Explain the basic aspects of humanistic theory that are incompatible with biological explanations of personality.
Include an introduction and conclusion in your paper.
Format your paper consistent with APA guidelines.
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https://thenursingdesk.com/biological-and-humanistic-approaches-to-personality/
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Biblical integration presupposes, on the one hand, a corresponding connection between biblical principles, propositions and values, and on the other hand, with ideas, practices and educational content. Based on the biblical teaching that a person is not only a physical, but also a spiritual person, a Christian history teacher draws pupils’ attention to how and to what extent spiritual and pseudo-spiritual ideas or quests (regardless of whether they are true, false or entangled) influenced the general course of history or any particular event like the French, American revolutions. The task of the Christian, not necessarily Orthodox, but also Catholic pedagogy is the disclosure of those gifts of God that can contribute to the disclosure of the image of God in man. The Christian approach to education consists in complementing education with spiritual, moral or religious components, it is the restoration of the perception of reality in its entirety – including the material and spiritual spheres.
Contents
The biblical worldview and providential view of history prevailed in the position of the church and the Western world from the time of the Reformation to the 20th century. Western nations were committed to biblical truths to varying degrees, but at least they were on the right track. The founders of the United States, including non-Christians (such as Franklin and Jefferson), had a biblical worldview, while now people – and even many Christians – are dominated by secular and humanistic ideas. Much of the Western Christian world became secularized over the last generations. One of the main reasons for this is that these Christians have lost the biblical worldview. Their ignorance of the truth led to the rejection of Western culture from freedom, justice and prosperity (the fruits of the Gospel) to tyranny, oppression and poverty (the fruits of humanism and secularization). The education system has played a key role in this.
Modern schools neglect the formation of pious character and are not able to prepare students for the successful performance of their future duties. Most young people, after graduating from school, experience a lack of creativity and entrepreneurial skills, because the skills they acquired in the process of education cover for the most part knowledge absorption. A true education system should give people the skills of producers – those who are able to accept knowledge and creatively apply it in many new areas without any detailed instructions from the outside on what to do and how (Noddings, 2018, p. 100).
It is possible to note three components that are very essential for the Christian education system: The teacher who shows himself that he is the letter of Christ (2 Cor. 3: 3) is the most important link in the education system (Itin, 1999, p. 91). When you teach, you show more and convey to people what you are, than what you know. In order to be as effective as possible, a teacher (and we are all teachers to a certain extent, because we teach everyone with whom we have a relationship), should master his subject so much that it becomes a part of his life. Content: In the material we teach, the Bible should be central. Although the Bible does not contain all the formal facts from all areas of knowledge, it contains principles and reveals God’s plan for each object. Method: besides the teacher and the content, the teaching method itself must also be Christian. We should contribute to the formation of a righteous character, as well as instill a love of knowledge and prepare people to own the land.
To provide Christian education it is necessary that not only the motives of learning (philosophy) and its content (program) belong to Christ. The teaching method must also be Christian. Using humanistic methods or curricula and supplementing them with a few Bible quotes and prayers is not a way to teach Christians. The principled approach is based on the integrity of education, that is, the movement from the general to the particular. As an example, consider a subject such as history. Instead of studying individual historical events without any unifying factor, the biblical approach involves first a general, holistic view of history, and then a detailed examination of its individual fragments in close connection with the whole.
If a student understands this, then there is a standard for him, within the framework of which all the information he receives logically fits, which means that the process of studying is no longer for him simply memorizing facts. Scientific analysis has a very limited place and function. This principle should be one of the guiding principles in the development of an integral Christian education course by us. Such an understanding of the limitations and functions of scientific analysis frees us once and for all from the internal antinomies of the educational theory and practice of humanism.
A true biblical approach to education involves much more than studying various academic disciplines and trying to squeeze the Bible into them. The biblical principled approach to education reveals that the source and purpose of all knowledge is inextricably linked with God and His design for man. Every theory of education implies a certain anthropology. The Montessori or Dewey methods are also the fruits of certain religious statements that base education on a particular religious theory of human nature (Knight, 2006, p. 13). It would be difficult to show the truth of this statement separately from the rest. All discourse and discussion on education must begin with certain anthropological starting points. In particular, when we begin to develop a theory of education, we need a deep and thorough analysis of the specific assumptions on which it is based. To achieve this goal, we need to ask how the methods and goals of science and school relate to the life tasks of a person and what is the role of the school in preparing the child for the performance of his life calling. These purely practical questions are directly related to the more fundamental ones concerning the nature and purpose of man (Peterson, 2001, p. 50).
Conscience, religious ideals, political behavior, economic practice, moral values – all this is the result of interaction between the organism and the environment. Regardless of the social or cultural characteristics that a person may have, they are all secondary or acquired characteristics that serve a person to satisfy his basic needs. Biblical revelation about the meaning of human existence in this regard excludes any humanistic or abstract-idealistic view of education. Neither the creation of a qualified worker or a cultural person, nor the integration or social regulation of a person, nor the formation of an independent person or a responsible citizen, nor even an individual rebirth and the ideal of a pious and pious Christian can serve the ultimate goal for education. All such ideals of personality are mostly humanistic and are incompatible with biblical evidence regarding the religious nature of man.
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https://studydriver.com/biblical-worldview-and-education/
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- Your summary should be very brief. Everyone in the class will have seen the film so you will not need to devote too much time to describing it.
Personality analysis based on theory/theories assigned (50)
- Be sure to include detailed information about the main character(s) and the personality theory/theories assigned. Be sure to include information from all chapters in the text related to your theory. Your presentation should detail aspects of the character’s (characters’) personality using terms and concepts from the chapters assigned for your theory. Details matter. Please be sure to review the entire theory before doing your personality analysis.
Ability to articulate area of expertise (20)
- Be sure to clearly describe the theory/theories. Do not assume the audience knows the material you are covering. Your description of the theory/theories should provide enough explanation for a person who has never read about the theory/theories you’re describing. Your description of the theory should include all aspects of the theory – even areas not covered in the personality analysis. An excellent presentation will include discussions of the major concepts in the assigned theory and a personality analysis that includes the relevant aspects of the theory.
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https://executivepapers.org/2021/09/usf-summary-personality-analysis-of-howard-bingham-from-the-movie-ali-discussion/
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Choose an upcoming start date:
Enroll by 1pm Central:
Please Note: Attendance and participation are mandatory in all University courses, and specific requirements may differ by course. If attendance requirements are not met, a student may be removed from the course. Please review the Course Attendance Policy in the Catalog for more information.
University of Phoenix reserves the right to modify courses. While widely available, not all programs are available to residents of all states. Please check with a University Enrollment Representative.
Course level: Undergraduate
This course overviews the foundations of psychology as the field applies to everyday life. The physical and mental aspects of psychology are traced through lifespan development with emphasis on psychological health and wellness. Further study focuses on personality; thinking, learning and memory; motivation and emotions; and gender and sexuality. Based in various historical traditions, the course is set in the context of contemporary psychological principles.
Prerequisites
None
What you'll learn
Course skills and outcomes
Psychological Concepts, Sensation, and Perception
- Differentiate between the major psychological perspectives.
- Analyze the research methods and ethical issues involved in psychological research.
- Identify the biological components involved in influencing behavior.
- Compare the components of sensation and perception.
Learning, Memory, and Cognition
- Identify the key concepts of classical and operant conditioning as they relate to learning.
- Identify the basic processes and types of memory.
- Describe the major theories and measures of intelligence.
Motivation, Emotion, and Human Development
- Explain the biological and psychological theories of motivation.
- Describe the major theories of emotion.
- Contrast the physical, psychosocial, cognitive, and moral theories of development.
Stress, Health, and Personality
- Analyze the effects of stress on the body, as well as any applicable management techniques.
- Identify Freud’s psychosexual stages of development and defense mechanisms.
- Compare Freud’s psychoanalytic theory with other contemporary psychodynamic theories.
- Compare the social cognitive and humanistic perspectives on personality.
- Explain the basic components of personality testing.
Psychological Disorders, Methods of Treatment, and Social Psychology
- Describe different types of psychological disorders.
- Explain the main concepts of the major methods of treatment for psychological disorders.
- Relate the components of social perceptions to human behavior.
- Explain the effects of group influences on performance and decision making.
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https://www.phoenix.edu/courses/psy203.html
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Transactional Analysis (TA) is an amazingly powerful psychological theory that has the surprising quality of being easily accessible for the newcomer, yet with a depth and complexity that can fascinate and satisfy practitioners for a lifetime.
TA is a powerful system of psychological models that can be used to understand and work with our personal and interpersonal dynamics in the workplace, in personal relationships, and in educational and training settings.
TA enables us to identify quickly and clearly:
- where breakdowns in communication are taking place
- where there are blocks to learning and development
- where there are unrealised potentials within a team
- how an organisation can maximise opportunities to achieve its potential
- how to increase cooperation, collaboration and productivity within and across teams
- what are our personal blocks to success and happiness.
TA also offers simple tools for making long lasting and far reaching change at a personal level, and across systems and organisations, enabling creativity, problem solving, effective communication and development. TA is used by management consultants, counsellors and psychotherapists, and educators.
The two day TA101 course will provide you with a dynamic and interactive experience which will:
- introduce you to the key theory of personality, communication and development
- enable you to apply the theory to situations in your work and personal relationships
- entitle you to receive the internationally recognised TA101 Certificate which is a prerequisite for anyone wishing to train further in TA.
Tutor Biography
Paul Redpath is a TA psychotherapist, trainer and supervisor with a private practice based in Edinburgh. He also offers TA training and supervision in Edinburgh. He worked in secondary education in London for many years as he developed his interest in counselling and psychotherapy.
He trained in humanistic psychotherapy at Spectrum in London as well as studying psychodynamic counselling in Vancouver and mindfulness psychotherapy at The Karuna Institute in Devon. Transactional Analysis is the foundation of his work because of its accessible and sophisticated theoretical framework which provides for him a clear way of thinking about human personality and growth.
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https://www.eventbrite.co.uk/e/understanding-you-me-and-us-ta-101-introduction-to-transactional-analysis-tickets-71265734731?aff=ebdssbdestsearch
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We will offer a 2-week immersive seminar on Philosophy of Statistics (PhilStat) at Virginia Tech for faculty and post-docs in philosophy who wish to acquire or strengthen their background in PhilStat as it relates to philosophical problems of evidence and inference, to today’s statistical crisis of replication, and to associated evidence-policy debates. We also invite social scientists and methodology researchers interested in strengthening their philosophical scholarship in this arena. A total of 12-15 applicants will be selected. Given our goals, we anticipate approximately 2/3 will be philosophers, but we are not applying any rigid rules. We will consider up to 2 advanced Ph.D. students working on a dissertation that is directly in this area. Update (3/3/19): Please see important update in FAQ (5).
All accepted participants will receive private housing with kitchen facilities (Marriott Residence, Blacksburg) and a stipend of $1,000 (in 2 installments). See STIPENDS and .
Our primary goal is to strengthen Phil Stat research and teaching in Philosophy programs (by incorporating PhilStat). However, we wish also to enable statistical practitioners and researchers on methods to gain a greater understanding of the philosophical dimensions of statistical debates, as well as a facility in the conceptual and critical skills included under the umbrella of Phil Stat. Today’s debates are intertwined with philosophical terms that often remain vague, such as evidence, validity, inference, realism, reliability, rationality, explanation, induction, confirmation, and falsification. This hampers communication among various stakeholders, making it difficult to even see where they agree. Thus we also encourage interested social scientists and methodology researchers to apply.
Philosophy of Statistics (Phil Stat), broadly understood
Phil Stat includes
(a) philosophy of statistics: the philosophical and conceptual foundations of statistical inference and the analysis of the uses of probability in collecting, modeling and learning from data;
(b) problems of general philosophy of science insofar as aspects of error-prone and uncertain reasoning are involved: problems of inductive and deductive inference, evidence, testing, falsification, science/pseudoscience, underdetermination, realism, modeling, data analysis and experiment;
(c) the philosophy and history of science, and evidence policy, insofar as these involve error-prone reasoning, whether formal or informal.
The focus of the Summer Seminar in Phil Stat
Our focus will revolve around current controversies about statistical methodology. The field of philosophy of statistics has long been marked by philosophical disagreement and controversy. Although the availability of high-powered methods has led to eclecticism and pragmatism, long-standing battles still simmer below the surface in questions about scientific trustworthiness and in the evidence policy reforms put forward by journals and professional societies. Rival conceptions of the nature of statistical inference show up unannounced in today’s problems of scientific integrity, irreproducibility, and questionable research practices. When it comes to how to restore scientific integrity, the experts do not agree. We will peel back the layers as to why.
For example, today’s statistical crisis of replication grows out of the difficulty in obtaining statistically significant results when an independent group seeks to replicate a finding using more stringent protocols and preregistration of hypotheses and data generation. However statistical significance tests are themselves steeped in the inductive-statistical controversies played out in the philosophy and history of statistics. Key notions–P-values, Type I and II error probabilities, power, confidence levels, posterior probabilities–are often confused and are interpreted in myriad ways. A jungle of thorny debates about probabilistic ontology, the nature of scientific progress, the role of probability–not to mention matters of politics–are interwoven. These issues form an important part of what we are calling PhilStat. Questions about values in science and ethics of research are also intimately entwined. Work in AI, machine learning, and causal modeling are also components of the broad area we have in mind, although we will not have time to study those topics in our summer seminar. However, participants may have projects that relate to these.
Justification
The current statistical crisis in science cries out for philosophical illumination, while offering a superb avenue for philosophers to genuinely impact scientific practice and policy. The assumptions behind today’s competing evidence reforms are largely hidden to those outside the loop of Phil Stat. This is a crucial obstacle to scrutinizing the consequences to science policy, clinical trials, personalized medicine, and across a wide landscape of Big Data modeling. Our program is intended as a first step to overcoming this obstacle. Despite technical sophistication, basic concepts of statistical testing and inference are more unsettled than ever. We aim to strengthen the role of philosophy in statistical debates as well as to enhance statistical inference in philosophical debates.
Many of the key problems in today’s evidence-policy disputes are conceptual. Philosophers of science should be involved. Likewise, by bringing philosophical acumen to the debates, practitioners and metascience researchers can cut through the unclarity we often see regarding the nature and roles of probability in inference. The deepest problems underlying the replication crisis go beyond formal statistics–into measurement, experimental design, communication of uncertainty. In addition, the importance of ethics in research and in data science is becoming increasingly recognized. Without an understanding of the basic statistics, informed by philosophical assumptions about the nature and goals of using probability in learning, it’s impossible to see where the formal and informal, value-laden issues intersect.
Participants Can Expect to:
(1) Gain the necessary background in statistical methodology and philosophical foundations of statistics in order to integrate PhilStat into their research, teaching and professional engagements.
(2) Study current debates between frequentist, Bayesian, likelihood and other methods, as they interrelate to (i) philosophical problems of evidence and inference, and to (ii) today’s debates over data methods and statistical policy.
They will also have a role in shaping a futuristic interdisciplinary field including cutting across philosophy, statistics, and science.
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https://summerseminarphilstat.com/2019/11/
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Dozens of micro-entrepreneurs located next to one another, selling a nearly identical assortment of products for identical prices: this is a common sight in cities in low-income countries. Most who have observed this situation have puzzled over it at one time or another, wondering either why the more talented entrepreneurs in the cluster don’t grow larger and push out the less talented, or why the micro-entrepreneurs don’t diversify into different product lines to distinguish themselves from their neighbours. Understanding this phenomenon is crucial for a developing world in which roughly 50% of individuals run a microenterprise as their main economic activity.
A growing recent literature that has attempted to explain the above stylized facts on the basis of firm-level deficiencies or constraints on the one hand, and broad institutional constraints on the other, has found mixed results at best. These explanations include financial constraints (Banerjee et al, 2013; Karlan and Zinman, 2010), human capital constraints (Karlan and Valdivia, 2011) and institutional constraints (de Mel, McKenzie and Woodruff, 2013). In this study, the researchers propose testing the hypothesis that this phenomenon can be significantly explained by social institutions in which groups of microenterprise owners “buy a job” by sharing the demand for particular products or services in their local market. They hypothesize that such institutions are enforced through social pressure (including the threat of physical violence, if necessary), based on anecdotal evidence. Entering into such implicit contracts may be optimal for the participants, by guaranteeing each of them a share of the market and thereby significantly reducing the income volatility that comes about under open competition. However such institutions are likely to yield socially inefficient outcomes: market competition and experimentation are reduced, and the dynamic, compounding benefits of innovation get cut off. If there is heterogeneity in ability, this kind of institution could create an equilibrium in which even the potentially more efficient producers end up running small and inefficient businesses.
The experimental phase of the project will involve a simulated market competition game in which actual micro entrepreneurs will play a game in a lab in which they are given the possibility of using “social pressure” (framed as such in the instructions) to lower their competitors’ output in the context of the game. In the empirical phase of the project, the researchers will use survey data to test for the existence of such social institutions, with the aim of uncovering the mechanisms behind this market friction. They will test for collusive price-setting behaviour in local markets in developing countries using both reduced form and structural techniques. The PEDL grant will in part support the search for a suitable market setting in which the team can exploit natural variation as an exogenous shifter, with the most promising source likely being a supply (i.e. cost) shock. A theoretical model will also be developed to structure the analysis and for welfare implications to be drawn. The framework for this should expand beyond the standard model of collusion (“cartel”) to account for the fact that the group objectives are concerned as much with risk minimization as profit maximization.
This study should raise awareness of this crucial market inefficiency issue among policymakers, which may inhibit firm-level interventions. It should also spur further research to explore ways to help micro-entrepreneurs break out of local market traps.
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https://pedl.cepr.org/content/buying-job-social-institutions-and-market-access-growth-oriented-msmes-2
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According to a study carried out by a team led by María Blasco, the director of the Spanish National Cancer Research Centre (CNIO) and head of the Telomeres and Telomerase Group, a sustained lowering of food intake over time results in an increase of telomere length — the ends of chromosomes — in adult mice, which has a protective effect on the DNA and genetic material.
These beneficial effects on the youth of the chromosomes translate to a lower incidence of cancer and other age-related illnesses. The journal PLOS ONE is to publish the details of this study in its online edition this week.
A lower incidence of cancer and better health
To carry out the study, researchers used young mice — just three months old — and reduced their caloric intake by 40% before observing them until the end of their life cycle.
“We see that mice that undergo caloric restriction show a lower telomere shortening rate than those fed with a normal diet,” says Blasco. “These mice therefore have longer telomeres as adults, as well as lower rates of chromosome anomalies,” she adds.
To study the effects of this phenomenon on the health of the mammals, researchers observed the incidence of age-related illnesses like cancer. The mice that had been fed a lower calorie intake showed a reduction in the incidence of cancer. Furthermore, these mice also showed a lower incidence of other age-related illnesses such as osteoporosis, greater glucose uptake or improvements in motor coordination.
When the researchers carried out these same experiments with a variety of mice that produce more telomerase — a protein that lengthens telomeres and protects chromosomes — they observed that these mice not only enjoyed better health but also lived up to 20% longer.
“We believe that such a significant increase in longevity is due to the protective effect against cancer produced by caloric restriction — incidents fall by 40% if we compare them with the mice that produce more telomerase and have a normal diet — and, added to the presence of longer telomeres, this makes the mice live longer and better,” says Blasco.
Despite the effects of caloric restriction depending on the genetic characteristics of each organism, this study opens the way to studying the effect other factors and lifestyle habits, such as smoking or exercise, might have on aging.
Furthermore, it is calculated that there are currently more than 10,000 people in the world on some form of controlled caloric restriction, so the observation of these individuals will be decisive in discovering the effects of this type of diet on humans.
Study #2
Research presented at the British Society for Research on Ageing conference, held July 15-16, 2010 in Newcastle, England reveals that calorie restriction, even started later in life, reduces cellular senescence: the point at which at which a cell can no longer replicate, which has been hypothesized to be a major cause of aging due to its impact on the body’s tissues.
Researchers at the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council Centre for Integrated Systems Biology of Ageing and Nutrition (CISBAN) at Newcastle University fed adult mice a calorie restricted diet for a short period of time beginning in adulthood and found a decrease of the accumulation of senescent cells in their livers and intestines, which normally accumulate high amounts of senescent cells with age. They also found that the animals’ telomeres, which are protective caps on the ends of the chromosomes that prevent errors as DNA replicates, were better maintained and markers of cumulative oxidative tissue damage were reduced.
“Many people will have heard of the theory that eating a very low calorie diet can help to extend life span and there is a lot of evidence that this is true,” lead researcher Chunfang Wang commented. “However, we need a better understanding of what is actually happening in an organism on a restricted diet. Our research, which looked at parts of the body that easily show biological signs of ageing, suggests that a restricted diet can help to reduce the amount of cell senescence occurring and can reduce damage to protective telomeres. In turn this prevents the accumulation of damaging tissue oxidation which would normally lead to age-related disease.”
“It’s particularly exciting that our experiments found this effect on age-related senescent cells and loss of telomeres, even when food restriction was applied to animals in later life,” added Professor Thomas von Zglinicki, who contributed to the work. “This proof of principle encourages us at CISBAN in our search for interventions that might in the foreseeable future be used to combat frailty in old patients.”
Health Benefits of Intermittent Fasting:
Besides length of life span there are other health benefits to intermittent fasting. It can help your heart, energy, brain, and blood sugar control, plus it reduces inflammation. This in turn can help you prevent disease or manage any health problems that you have. Benefits of intermittent fasting include:
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https://www.westmartinlongevity.com/caloricrestriction/
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November 17, 2017 - This PA has been reissued as PAR-18-084 for due dates on or after January 25, 2018.
This Funding Opportunity Announcement (FOA) is supported by Collaborative Research on Addiction (CRAN) at the National Institutes of Health (NIH), a trans-NIH partnership composed of the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), and the National Cancer Institute (NCI). The intent of this FOA is two-fold: (1) characterize how the neurobiological alterations, associated behaviors, and public health consequences arising from polysubstance use differ from, or are similar to, those observed in single drug use; (2) promote integrative polysubstance research along a translational pipeline, consisting of basic science research in animals, human-based laboratory investigations, and epidemiological studies. These dual objectives will be accomplished with a Phased Innovation (R21/R33) mechanism, where polysubstance research can occur in any of these translational stages during the R21 phase and these findings will be rapidly back- or forward-integrated into another stage during the R33 phase, allowing for bi-directional research exchange.
Polysubstance use (PSU) is defined as the use of two or more addictive drugs simultaneously or concurrently. Simultaneous PSU is characterized by the use of multiple drugs at the same time whereas concurrent PSU refers to the use of multiple substances within a specified period of time, but not simultaneously. Polydrug users report that the simultaneous ingestion of two addictive substances can produce additive/synergistic euphoric effects and concurrent use is intended to alleviate the negative consequences of another drug. For example, the co-administration of heroin and cocaine, otherwise known as “speedballing,” produces enhanced reinforcing effects when compared to the delivery of either drug alone. Alternatively, benzodiazepines, opioids, or alcohol are commonly used to relieve the aversive symptoms during a cocaine “crash,” an anhedonic state that is characterized by general dysphoria, agitation, and anxiety.
Epidemiological data from national surveys indicate that approximately 20% to 30% of youth and young adults engage in PSU and the majority of treatment seekers are polysubstance abusers. Polydrug users initiate drug use at an earlier age than single drug users, and PSU occurs more frequently in males. Compared to users of a single drug, polysubstance users exhibit more mental health problems, are more likely to misuse or abuse prescription drugs, are at a greater risk for health complications and overdose, and are more likely to report a higher rating on the Addiction Severity Index. Moreover, polysubstance abuse and addiction are associated with a number of social disadvantages including elevated risk of academic failure and non-completion, higher frequency of employment and legal issues, and a greater likelihood of engaging in physical violence. Together, these data suggest that PSU occurs more commonly in the drug using population and is associated with worse health and societal consequences than single drug use.
While clinicians and epidemiologists have long recognized that PSU is prevalent among drug users, this ‘real-world’ context has not been fully investigated in basic animal and human research. The integration of PSU into human and animal basic research is hampered by the need for additional control groups, the complexities of data interpretation, and the challenges of modeling human phenomena with animal research. Limited investigations of PSU in basic science research hinder a full exploration and comprehension of the underlying processes and mechanisms that subserve poorer health and social outcomes that are associated with this pattern of use. This FOA will address this knowledge gap by requiring a translational component in the research proposals in order to encourage applicants to identify similarities and differences between PSU and single drug use with a broader perspective.
Collaborative Research on Addiction (CRAN) is a National Institutes of Health (NIH) partnership between the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), and the National Cancer Institute (NCI). The mission of CRAN is to provide a strong collaborative framework to leverage resources and expertise that will meet public health needs by broadening the research focus of participating institutes to better address poly- or multiple substance use, abuse, and addiction. To this end, the purpose of this FOA is two-fold: (1) to compare the similarities and differences between PSU and single drug use across antecedent and consequential behavioral, neurobiological, genetic, and epigenetic changes; and (2) to rapidly integrate findings along a translational pipeline, consisting of basic science research in animals, human-based laboratory investigations, and epidemiological studies. The goal of this initiative is to support investigations on tobacco, alcohol, marijuana, and other licit and illicit drugs of abuse. Applicants should focus on two primary drugs of abuse to facilitate the integration of findings and aid interpretability, with the understanding that the human condition often involves the use of multiple substances. The intent of this announcement is NOT to support other behavioral addictions, such as food addiction, gambling, or internet/gaming addictions.
PSU findings from one stage of the translational trajectory are rarely integrated into another stage. For this reason, this funding announcement will utilize a R21/R33 mechanism to facilitate the integration of findings along the translational continuum in a timely manner. The R21 phase of the application can originate in any of these three stages along the translational trajectory, consisting of basic science research in animals, human-based laboratory investigations, and epidemiological studies. These findings will be back or forward translated to another stage during the R33 phase and will assist in bridging the “translational gap.” This mechanism is intended to encourage our investigators to examine drug abuse and addiction with a broader perspective, leveraging the insights gleaned from one stage during the R21 phase to guide and stimulate integrative science across the translational pipeline during the R33 phase. Moreover, the structure of this funding mechanism will capitalize on the many advantages that are found along the translational trajectory while providing an opportunity to address the limitations and challenges that exist within each of these three translational stages. For example, while humans who are addicted to drugs can provide rich, multi-dimensional data that are not attainable in animal models, it is often difficult to ascertain if the outcomes observed in humans stem from drug abuse or other pre-existing conditions. Hence, the back-translation of findings from the clinic into animal models provides a unique opportunity to address this caveat and permits researchers to identify behavioral, psychological, social, and neurobiological mechanisms under strict experimental control. Collectively, the data gathered from both human and animal research will enrich our understanding of PSU and any related outcomes.
Programmatic assessment of accomplished milestones achieved during the R21 phase will guide the decision to determine if advancement to another translational stage in the R33 phase of the application will be granted. It is not expected that all applications will continue to the R33 phase. Due to the integrative nature of this FOA, it is recommended that applicants form “integrative teams” to oversee these two phases and discuss applications in advance with NIH program experts. It is expected that the PSU data gathered during these R21 and R33 phases will serve as preliminary data for future NIH applications on this topic.
Clear milestones for the R21 phase and related scientific goals for the R33 phase.
The R33 portion of the application should focus on a translational stage that is different from the R21 phase.
A unifying and testable hypothesis that will be examined during both the R21 and R33 phase.
Applications should include a polysubstance group and, whenever possible, single-drug control groups should be included to determine if the outcomes observed in the PSU group are unique to combined drug use. It is not required to collect new data on single drug consequences if appropriate and comparable prior data already exist. Evidence of these data should be provided in the application.
Investigation of two primary drugs of abuse. The intent of this announcement is NOT to support other behavioral addictions, such as food addiction, gambling, or internet/gaming addictions.
Demonstration that feasibility of data collection and analysis is possible within the budget and time constraints for both phases.
Secondary data analysis of existing epidemiology, imaging, or human behavioral data sets to identify significant differences between patterns of PSU and single drug use and their outcomes.
Analysis of existing biological samples/specimens to characterize changes in biomarkers of PSU vs single drug use.
Identification of patterns of polydrug use in humans in order to guide experimental approaches in animal research or laboratory studies with human subjects.
Exploration of differences between PSU and single drug use trajectories and/or health outcomes in animal models or ongoing human-based laboratory studies.
Establishment of an animal model of PSU based on data from the R21 phase.
Replication and validation of the PSU phenomena observed in the R21 phase in a different translational stage.
Characterization of social, behavioral, cognitive, epi/genetic or biological mechanisms based on findings from the R21 phase.
Incorporation of new question items into ongoing epidemiological surveys that are based on findings from basic or clinical data collected during the R21 phase.
Recruitment of additional PSU participants in ongoing imaging and/or behavioral studies in a laboratory setting based on animal or epidemiological data generated during the R21 phase.
The intent of this initiative is NOT to address “gateway” hypotheses. However, applications that contribute to the understanding of concurrent vs sequential contexts are encouraged. Additionally, the goal of this announcement is NOT to support other behavioral addictions, such as food addiction, gambling, or internet/gaming addictions.
Please note that some of the experimental approaches to modeling PSU and PSU outcomes may not have a direct counterpart across translational stages. For example, it may be difficult to capture the complete drug history profile of human users in animal models, such as the drug dose, lifetime use, comorbid psychiatric conditions, or the route of administration. Additionally, laboratory assessments that examine motivational or cognitive processes in humans may not have an exact complement in animals and effects seen in animals may not always be assessed in the same manner in humans. Investigators should utilize the best animal model and procedure to replicate the observed phenomena in humans. Compromises in experimental approaches and modeling should be made and are needed in order to facilitate the translation of outcomes. For example, it would be appropriate to examine relapse rates in epidemiological surveys, and then to translate this approach by measuring drug craving in humans and/or examining reinstatement of operant responding in animals. Whenever possible, investigators are encouraged to use the assessments and models that have the most translational potential.
Applicants should provide a description of how the study designs, methods and assessments are complimentary such that outcomes at one translational stage enhance the interpretation of outcomes at the other translational stage.
Specific Aims: Separate specific aims should be presented for the R21 and R33 phases.
Research Strategy: The Research Strategy should contain separate sections that describe both the R21 and R33 phases, as appropriate. Separate research design and methods could be presented as needed for the R21 and R33 phases. It is not necessary to repeat information or details in the R33 section that are described in the R21 section.
Any preliminary data that will support or justify the proposed hypothesis, rationale or development plan may be included. However, preliminary data are not required for an R21/R33 application.
Some of the experimental approaches to modeling PSU and PSU outcomes may not have a direct counterpart across translational stages. For example, it may be difficult to capture the complete drug history profile of human users in animal models, such as the drug dose, lifetime use, comorbid psychiatric conditions, or the route of administration. Additionally, laboratory assessments that examine motivational or cognitive processes in humans may not have an exact complement in animals and effects seen in animals may not always be applicable to humans. Whenever applicable, investigators should describe the most appropriate animal model and procedure to replicate the observed phenomena in humans. Compromises in experimental approaches and modeling should be made and are needed in order to facilitate the translation of outcomes. For example, it would be appropriate to examine relapse rates in epidemiological surveys, and then to translate this approach by measuring drug craving in humans and/or examining reinstatement of operant responding in animals. Whenever possible, investigators are encouraged to describe the assessments and models that have the most translational potential.
Applicants should provide a description of how the study designs, methods and assessments are complementary such that outcomes at one translational stage enhance the interpretation of outcomes at the other translational stage.
Since the intent of this announcement is to leverage PSU findings from one phase of the translational trajectory to guide research in another phase, PDs/PIs are not required to provide evidence of prior collaborative relationships. However, the PDs/PIs of both phases should describe a plan to communicate findings with each other throughout the life of the grant.
The application must include milestones that are expected to be achieved by the end of the R21 phase. Milestones should be specific, quantifiable, and scientifically justified; they should not be simply a restatement of the specific aims for the R21 phase.
Are the PD(s)/PI(s), collaborators, and other researchers well suited to the project? If Early Stage Investigators or those in the early stages of independent careers, do they have appropriate experience and training? If established, have they demonstrated an ongoing record of accomplishments that have advanced their field(s)? If the project is collaborative or multi-PD/PI, do the investigators have complementary and integrated expertise; are their leadership approach, governance and organizational structure appropriate for the project? If the PDs/PIs do not have a prior collaborative relationship, do the investigators of both phases have an adequate plan to communicate findings with each other throughout the life of the grant?
Does the application include investigations in two different stages in the translational pipeline, which are composed of basic science research in animals, human-based laboratory studies, and epidemiological investigations? . Is there a unifying and testable hypothesis that transcends both R21 and R33 phases? Does the application provide clear milestones for the R21 phase and related scientific goals for the R33 phase? Are those milestones conducive to accomplishing the study aims? Are the goals of the R33 phase based, in part, on findings collected during the R21 phase? Is the proposal feasible within the budget and time constraints for both R21 and R33 phases?
When there are differences in species, study designs, methods and assessments across the R21 and R33 phases, does the application provide a description of how the studies are complimentary such that the outcomes at one translation stage will enhance the interpretation of outcomes at the another translational stage? If the intent of the application is to replicate the PSU phenomenon across translational stages, do the PD/PIs provide a description of how differences in research approaches are complimentary across species and study design? If either the R21 or R33 phase proposes to use animal models, do the investigators utilize the most appropriate animal model or procedure to mimic outcomes observed in humans? Whenever applicable, does the application include single-drug controls or prior valid data on single drug outcomes to determine if changes observed in the PSU group are unique to combined drug use?
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https://grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/pa-files/PAR-16-291.html
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By guest blogger Jesse Singal
Replicating a study isn’t easy. Just knowing how the original was conducted isn’t enough. Just having access to a sample of experimental participants isn’t enough. As psychological researchers have known for a long time, all sorts of subtle cues can affect how individuals respond in experimental settings. A failure to replicate, then, doesn’t always mean that the effect being studied isn’t there – it can simply mean the new study was conducted a bit differently.
Many Labs 2, a project of the Center for Open Science at the University of Virginia, embarked on one of the most ambitious replication efforts in psychology yet – and did so in a way designed to address these sorts of critiques, which have in some cases hampered past efforts. The resultant paper, a preprint of which can be viewed here, is lead-authored by Richard A. Klein of the Université Grenoble Alpes. Klein and his very, very large team – it takes almost four pages of the preprint just to list all the contributors – “conducted preregistered replications of 28 classic and contemporary published findings with protocols that were peer-reviewed in advance to examine variation in effect magnitudes across sample and setting.”
Many Labs included 79 samples of participants tested in-person and 46 samples tested online, and of these, 39 were from the U.S. and 86 came from a variety of other countries. Among the previously published findings the researchers tried to replicate were: one in which study participants who read about structure in nature said they were more likely to pursue their goals than those who read about randomness in nature (as if exposure to structure, even if unrelated, somehow motivates us); a famous example of a “framing effect” by the behavioural-economics pioneers Amos Tversky and Danny Kahneman, in which respondents were more willing to drive further to get a discount on a cheap item than to get an equal-sized discount on an expensive item (which doesn’t make sense, “rationally” speaking, when the discounts are the same size); and another famous finding, this one from a team led by the leading social psychologist Jonathan Haidt, that showed that, among survey respondents, “Items that emphasised concerns of harm or fairness… were deemed more relevant for moral judgment by the political left than right.”
Overall, 15 of the 28 attempted replications “worked,” in the sense of delivering the same finding in the same direction at a statistically significant level (p .05). When the threshold for significance was bumped up a couple orders of magnitude to p .0001 – a stricter standard some researchers have advocated as a countermeasure against questionable research practices like p-hacking – that number dropped to 14. So in total, only about half the studies replicated, and on average, the effect sizes were significantly smaller. This is not encouraging. (The study about nature-stories and goals failed to replicate, but the Tversky/Kahneman and Haidt ones did replicate, albeit with smaller effect sizes than in the originals.)
Many Labs 2 was designed to address some of the problems, perceived and real, with previous replication efforts. After the Open Science Collaboration published the “Reproducibility Project”, which was only able to successfully replicate about 40 percent of 100 then-recent papers in August 2015, for example, a team – including the famous social psychologist Dan Gilbert (a replication-crisis sceptic) and the leading quantitative social scientist Gary King – argued that there were statistical errors in that effort, and also that in some cases the replicators hadn’t followed the same procedures, or used the same sorts of samples, as the original experimenters. (The whole thing got rather tangled and included responses to responses to responses – you can read my writeup for New York magazine here.)
The question of whether replications are “close enough” to the original is especially important. When replications differ enough from the original studies, this introduces legitimate methodological concerns into the equation and gives those whose work fails to replicate an “out” – “You weren’t really replicating my study – you changed too much stuff.” But researchers in Many Labs 2 were more careful to follow the original studies quite closely. As a result, they argue, “variability in observed effect sizes was more attributable to the effect being studied than the sample or setting in which it was studied.” Specifically, “task order, administration in lab versus online, and exploratory WEIRD versus less WEIRD culture comparisons” – that is, whether the experiment participants were western, educated, and from industrialised rich democratic countries (a major concern in psych research, where it’s often much easier to find WEIRD study participants than non-WEIRD ones) – all failed to account for much of the differences in effect strength observed in the studies. This partially undercuts the idea that these sorts of differences might have mattered or account for failures to replicate, and it also shows that psychology can be conducted in a robust way such that the findings – whether positive or negative – are not unduly influenced by the circumstances.
Moreover, explained Brian Nosek, head of the Open Science Center and a coauthor on the paper, on Twitter, this time around researchers “minimised boring reasons for failure. First, using original materials Registered Reports all 28 replications met expert reviewed quality control standards. Failure to replicate not easily dismissed as replication incompetence.” He also pointed out that the “Replication median sample size (n = 7157) was 64x original median sample size (n = 112). If there was an effect to detect, even a much smaller one, we would detect it. Ultimate estimates have very high precision.”
Of course, a single failed replication – even a big, robust one – should not cause us to confidently rule out an effect any more than a single positive result should cause us to believe it is definitely real. But this big, impressive effort advances the replication conversation in two important ways: It adds to the pile of evidence that there is a replication crisis, and it offers a useful, replicable (sorry) set of guidelines for how to conduct rigorous replications that actually measure what experts are interested in, rather than accidentally sweeping up other stuff.
—Many Labs 2: Investigating Variation in Replicability Across Sample and Setting
Post written by Jesse Singal (@JesseSingal) for the BPS Research Digest. Jesse is a contributing writer at New York Magazine. He is working on a book about why shoddy behavioral-science claims sometimes go viral for Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
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http://1stoutsource.org/its-getting-increasingly-difficult-for-replication-crisis-sceptics-to-explain-away-failed-replications-2/
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A study by the University of São Paulo (USP) that has just been published in the journal ACS Pharmacology & Translational Science it could be an important step towards discovering a Covid-19 treatment. Through lung epithelial cells infected with the new coronavirus, the researchers were able to unravel the biochemical mechanism by which hypertonic saline solution inhibits the replication of SARS-CoV-2. If the effectiveness is proven in clinical trials, the discovery may contribute to new prevention strategies and even the development of treatments for the disease. “We believe that it would be important to advance in this study and carry out tests in humans to verify the effectiveness of the use of spray and nebulization with hypertonic sodium chloride solution [NaCl] as a form of prophylaxis, helping to reduce the spread of the virus in the infected organism and to reduce the chances of more severe inflammation”, says Cristiane Guzzo, a researcher at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences at the University of São Paulo, author of the work.
By comparing different concentrations of the product, the scientists found that the use of the 1.5% NaCl solution inhibited, in vitro, the replication of SARS-CoV-2 by 100% in guinea pig cells. In tests with human lung epithelial cells, the 1.1% solution was sufficient to prevent the virus from replicating in 88%. “Once we were able to explain this intracellular response mechanism to the hypertonic solution, we carried out a study with clear applications in health and in the understanding of different respiratory diseases”, explains Henning Ulrich, from the Institute of Chemistry (IQ-USP), also author of the research.
According to Ulrich, this result observed in the case of SARS-CoV-2 is likely to be repeated with other viruses, as it is a host cell mechanism, from which the microorganism takes proteins and energy sources to replicate itself. . In the study, researchers suggest testing two types of use of hypertonic NaCl solution. As a nasal spray for airway prophylaxis, entry point for SARS-CoV-2 into the body and through nebulization to deliver the serum to the lung. In this case, it is essential to apply the right concentrations of NaCl for the effectiveness of the method, which can only be evaluated through clinical tests in patients with Covid-19 – it is noteworthy that nebulization with hypertonic solution is already used to treat children with bronchiolitis , for example. “It would be a treatment used in the first days of infection. Reducing virus replication means reducing the severity of the disease and the inflammatory aggravation because Covid-19 is complex”, emphasizes Guzzo. “There is the viral replication part – that the saline solution would have an effect – and also the systemic inflammation part, which goes beyond. This second phase, when started, can be intense and generate a series of other complications in different organs”, he warns.
With the participation of researcher Edison Durigon and support from FAPESP, the research highlights that, although the evidence suggests that the use of a sodium chloride solution inhibits virus replication, it does not represent total protection against infection. “It’s a very simple and inexpensive measure that could minimize the severity of Covid-19 by reducing the viral load. It could be added to safety protocols, without replacing the use of masks, social distance or the need for vaccination”, concludes the researcher.
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https://playcrazygame.com/2021/09/10/usp-study-shows-that-saline-solution-inhibits-coronavirus-replication/
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Depression and anxiety are highly prevalent mental health disorders both globally and in the UK. In any given week it has been estimated that 1 in 6 people suffer from them in the UK. Although these disorders have lifelong prevalence there is evidence that they have roots in childhood/young adulthood and that early identification could reduce overall burdens. Research using THIN data at Warwick/Birmingham University Nichols et al., 2018 designed a method for identifying early warning signs and predictors for depression amongst young people aged 15 to 24 years old. The purpose of the present research is to a) replicate this research by performing out of sample prediction on a new sample of THIN data, and b) expand on the previous research by using new state of the art modelling techniques c) consider the potential impact COVID-19 pandemic had on the depression prevalence, and d) expand original efforts by Nichols et al. (2018) to a broader age group. The first goal builds on the recent calls for more researchers to replicate results of machine learning studies (Beam et al., 2020). Despite the recent popularity of machine learning methods in health sciences, very little effort has been devoted to assuring that the findings are reproducible and replicable. This is why our primary objective is to revisit findings reported by Nichols et al. (2018). Our secondary objective is to expand on that study by evaluating additional machine learning techniques to improve performance of the original model. A third objective is to explore the potential consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic on the performance of models predicting depression in young adults people. In other words, we can test the robustness of models trained on the pre-COVID-19 times by fitting them to the data collected after the pandemic started in the UK. We expect that through the investigation of the errors of our model we will be able to gain an invaluable insight into the unique impact a global pandemic might have on increasing the risk of mental health problems. Finally, our goal is also to extend the age range to include children aged 10 and above to assess impact on model prediction. This could lead to a better understanding of how these disorders can be identified early and potentially reduce lifetime prevalence and personal impact.
Objectives
There are four key objectives for this research proposal:
- Replicate core findings of Nichols et al. (2018) for 15 to 24 year olds including identifying concurrence/divergence.
- Identify if performance can be improved by, for example, using Random Forest or other machine learning methods and method ensembles.
- Identify impact of Covid-19 pandemic on model with regard to depression; how might Covid-19 related variables influence the model?
- Assess effect of extending the age range of the cohort on model performance."
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https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/sci/med/about/centres/arc-wm/research/projects/?newsItem=8a1785d77715684b0177252c652208ad
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140-05 - The Impact of Family Life Education Globally: What Might the Future Hold?
This symposium is designed to focus on family life education programs and activities from around the world. Each presenter will provide various perspectives and insights as how family life education is being implemented within his or her country. Perspectives will come from the following countries: Saudi Arabia, Ghana, Australia and South Korea. A concluding presentation will highlight the current impact family life education programming is making globally – beyond just the four highlighted diverse countries. In addition, it will address how political, economic and social realms greatly impact family life educators’ ability to successfully implement FLE programming internationally.
Attendees will gain an increase of knowledge of the family life education programming and activities within specific highlighted countries from around the world.Attendees will be better equipped of the social, political and/or economic changes that will likely need to take place in order to strengthen FLE in countries around the globe.Attendees will increase their understanding of the future directions of FLE globally, and more specifically, how communities can be strengthened with an increase FLE programming and offerings.
The immigration phenomenon has significantly transformed the ethnoprofiles of many countries, prompting researchers to pay closer attention to culture as their research samples have diversified. The goals of the paper are to: (1) critically explore how researchers have expanded current views of family theories on ethnic families, with particular focus on Chinese parenting, and (2) to stress the importance of how culture and its context will lead researchers to re-envision the current ways of knowledge formation. Our broad objective is a call to action to encourage innovative and creative ways of exploring Chinese parenting and its complexities in various societies.
1. To critically evaluate current research on Chinese parenting, focusing on the parenting constructs;2. Using Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model, encourage researchers to move beyond simplified constructs of parenting (e.g., Baumrind's authoritative, authoritarian styles) to better reflect current Chinese parents; and3. To demonstrate how researchers may unintentionally perpetuate stereotypes of parenting, not acknolwedging significant social, cultural, political, economic transformations in Chinese societies. In consequence, practitioners and social workers may ineffectively serve Chinese families, and ethnic families more broadly.
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https://www.ncfr.org/ncfr-2018/session/global-perspectives-family-life-education
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A new study led by a social psychologist at Lafayette College in Easton, Pennsylvania, has found that most people fail to recognize their own racism and believe themselves to be less racist than is actually the case.
Across three experiments. the research team surveyed participants and asked if they had ever participated in various activities such as laughing at a racist joke or using a racial slur. Several months later, the participants were provided with a list of racist behaviors that purportedly were done by a fellow student but were in fact based on the participants own behavior.
The results found that study participants consistently evaluated themselves as less racist than the “other” person, even though the racist behaviors were identical to their own. In further experiments, researchers manipulated for social pressure and social consensus in an effort to encourage participants to freely express their racial biases. Even then, participants maintained that they were not racist, even in the face of evidence to the contrary.
The researchers hope to conduct further research regarding this issue. “Understanding why people fail to recognize their own racism — even when confronted with evidence of racism by their own definition — is a necessary step to reduce prejudice,” said Angela Bell, assistant professor of psychology at Lafayette College and the lead author of the study.
The full study, “Examining the Asymmetry in Judgements of Racism in Self and Others, was published in The Journal of Social Psychology. It may be accessed here.
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https://www.jbhe.com/2019/02/study-finds-people-believe-themselves-to-be-less-racist-than-is-actually-the-case/
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Science shows that our electrochemical brain can potentially generate about 10 or more watts of power. This electrical activity can be represented in the form of brainwaves, of which humans have five types — gamma, beta, alpha, theta and delta. The categories range from highest (when the brain is aroused) to lowest activity levels (during dreamless sleep).
According to a study conducted by the University of Colorado and University of Haifa, researchers demonstrated that social touching and holding hands will sync the breathing rates and brainwave patterns of the two involved. This activity has been shown to promote feelings of empathy and ease the pain of the sufferer. The paper was published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) journal.
Empathy & Touching Eases Pain
Somatosensation or the sense of touch is an underrated yet one of the most powerful tools in the fields of health and neuropsychology. This piece of research highlights the importance of healing touch as an analgesic, and its association with brain-to-brain coupling.
Volunteers included 22 couples, aged between 23 and 32, who had been together as romantic partners for at least a year. They were put through several different scenarios such as sitting together but not touching, holding hands, sitting separately in other rooms, etc. Following this, certain women were subjected to pain in the form of mild heat. An EEG (electroencephalogram) measured brain activity throughout the process.
It was observed that whenever the couples were in the presence of each other, syncing alpha brainwaves were released indicating intense focus and attention. During the pain situation, when the two held hands, brainwaves displayed the most synchronization.
The findings from this study provided evidence for the fact that hand-holding during pain increased brain-to-brain coupling, specifically in the central regions of the brain for individuals receiving pain and the right hemisphere for pain observers.
Scientists also found that the women experienced more pain when not being touched, thus clarifying the existence of touch-based analgesia. Tests calculating the level of empathy in men were interesting — greater the empathy, higher the syncing and synchronization of brainwaves, lesser the partner’s pain.
Future of the Study
Main author, Pavel Goldstein, described this study as an exploration of interpersonal synchronization, an involuntary mimicking or mirroring of each other. The exact mechanism of this phenomenon is not fully understood yet, but one thing is certain — it is invaluable for social relationships.
The researchers also gave a possible explanation for how empathy, holding hands and brain coupling could subdue pain. He said although plenty more research in this field, touch has the ability to make a person feel at ease, and according to other studies, activates pain-alleviating sensors in parts of the brain.
Brainwaves (Source: Public Domain)
The team also believes that expressing and communicating empathy, with and without touch, makes a huge difference to people suffering in pain.
Experiments like these can lead to a detailed understanding of interpersonal coordination dynamics and brainwave synchronizations, which could prove vital in clinical neurology and the neurosciences.
Another area of interest could be in exploring the effects of hand-holding in same sex couples and other close relationships (mother and daughter, grandmother and grandson, etc.) found in nature, which this study did not investigate. Insight can be gained by putting this theory to test on random strangers too.
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https://www.evolving-science.com/information-communication/holding-hands-can-synchronize-brainwaves-and-relieve-pain-00607
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Mothers' Dreams, Children Realities: The Case of Uprooted Families from South Lebanon.
- Psychology, Medicine
- Family process
- 2016
It is suggested that different time orientations and contextual factors influence the participating mothers' image of the adaptive adult and the degree to which their children accept it and the notion of "liminality," to further the understanding of the families in transition. Expand
The Moral Economy of Lying: Subjectcraft, Narrative Capital, and Uncertainty in the Politics of Asylum
- Sociology, Medicine
- Medical anthropology
- 2015
This article analyzes the narrative strategies used by immigrants to meet the eligibility criteria established by asylum law, and the role of these procedures in the making of nation-language and current technologies of citizenship. Expand
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The conflicting epistemologies of clinical psychiatry and the refugee hearing throw into relief the functions of social imagination in the construction, interpretation and assessment of the truth-value of narratives of identity and affliction. Expand
The truth from the body : Medical certificates as ultimate evidence for asylum seekers
- Sociology
- 2005
Whether through traditional law or modern torture, the body has always been a privileged site on which to demonstrate the evidence of power. But for immigrants, the poor, and, more generally, the… Expand
Occult economies and the violence of abstraction: notes from the South African postcolony
- Sociology
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Postcolonial South Africa, like other postrevolutionary societies, appears to have witnessed a dramatic rise in occult economies: in the deployment, real or imagined, of magical means for material… Expand
The Organic Ethnologist of Algerian Migration
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One of the most original contributions to the anthropology of immigration of the past century, the work of the late Adelmalek Sayad demonstrates the potency of three principles for the study of… Expand
Embodied history. Uniqueness and exemplarity of South African AIDS
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Physical disability and social liminality: a study in the rituals of adversity.
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https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Undocumented-bodies%2C-burned-identities%3A-refugees%2C-%E2%80%94-Beneduce/21deca6631af9118eb275f1961c416412ec85410
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By breeding TRAMP mice with S100A9 knock-out (S100A9) animals and scoring the appearance of palpable tumors we observed a delayed…
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2006
2006
Control of vasculo-proliferative processes by the NO-cGMP-cGKI pathway
Robert Lukowski
2006
Nitric oxide (NO) is of crucial importance for smooth muscle cell (SMC) function and exerts numerous, sometimes opposing, effects…
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2005
2005
Are Standards and Regulations of Organic Farming Moving Away from Small Farmers' Knowledge?
Christian R Vogl
,
Lukas Kilcher
,
Hanspeter Dipl Ing Schmidt
2005
ABSTRACT Organic farming is a promising agricultural method with positive effects on the human ecological and social environment…
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1966
1966
WHITE‐LIGHT RECONSTRUCTION OF COLOR IMAGES FROM BLACK‐AND‐WHITE VOLUME HOLOGRAMS RECORDED ON SHEET FILM
George W. Stroke
,
R. G. Zech
1966
The method of ``white‐light reflection holography'' first described by Stroke and Labeyrie (Physics Letters 20, 368, March 1…
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https://www.semanticscholar.org/topic/VOGL/2296736
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Could PhD students solve the replication crisis in psychology?
As many readers of this blog may know, in the last few years a “replication crisis” has caused intense soul searching in psychology – and particularly in social psychology. This crisis was sparked when several widely cited findings in psychology subsequently failed to replicate when tested by independent researchers (for some background see Earp and Trafimow’s paper here). This is – of course – a substantial problem because it severely limits the confidence we can have in psychological findings. For social psychological research this problem may be even graver, given that many of the topics studied – e.g. attitudes, prejudice, political voting – have direct implications for policy making. If we cannot have confidence in our findings, social psychology is in very hot water indeed.
To take an example from my own research field of social/moral psychology, in a highly influential study published in Science, Zhong and Liljenquist (2006) reported evidence of a “Macbeth Effect” whereby a threat to people’s moral purity leads them to seek, literally, to cleanse themselves. Seeking to expand upon these findings and explore whether they would be observed in different domains, my colleagues Brian Earp, Elizabeth Madva, and Kiley Hamlin attempted to replicate and extend this work. To their surprise, they were unable to replicate the original results. They then turned to me, and together we conducted a series of direct replications of Study 2 from Z&L’s seminal report. We used Z&L’s original materials and methods, investigated samples that were more representative of the general population, investigated samples from different countries and cultures, and substantially increased the power of our statistical tests. Despite our multiple good-faith efforts, however, we were unable to detect a “Macbeth Effect” in any of our experiments. We then tried to publish these findings, facing much difficulty in the process. Put simply, replication efforts are often not viewed favorably in the publication process. Eventually, however, we were able to publish our findings in the journal Basic and Applied Social Psychology (see here for an open access version of the paper).
This experience caused Brian Earp and I to reflect upon the replication crisis in psychology. In a new opinion piece, we suggest that this “crisis” can be interpreted as a disciplinary social dilemma, with the problem facing early-career researchers being especially acute. Social dilemmas – situations in which collective interests are at odds with private interests – are an enduring feature of the modern world, and have two fundamental characteristics: first, that each individual receives a higher payoff for defecting from what is in the collective interest (e.g., using all of the available resources for one’s own advantage) than for cooperating, regardless of what other individuals do; and second, that all individuals are better off if they all cooperate than if they all defect. We interpret the crisis through the lens of a social dilemma, arguing that while it is in everyone’s interest that high-quality, direct replications of key studies in the field are conducted (so that it is possible for the scientific community to know what degree of confidence to place in previous findings from the literature), it is not typically in any particular researcher’s interest to spend her time conducting such replications. This is for a number of reasons: (1) such replications may be time-consuming; (2) they are likely to take energy and resources directly away from other projects that reflect one’s own original thinking; (3) they are generally harder to publish; (4) even if they are published, they are likely to be seen as “bricklaying” exercises, rather than as major contributions to the field; (5) they (accordingly) bring less recognition and reward, including grant money, to their authors—and so on.
Brian and I propose a new a structural solution to this collective problem:
“as a condition of receiving their PhD from any accredited institution, graduate students in psychology should be required to conduct, write up, and submit for publication a high-quality replication attempt of at least one key finding from the literature, focusing on the area of their doctoral research.” (p.1).
As we note in the paper, before any formal implementation at a university level, the basic soundness of the idea would have to have been established—which means subjecting it to critical scrutiny. And so, in both the paper and on this blog, we present our idea in a public forum, and invite discussion and constructive feedback from our colleagues. Could PhD students resolve the tragedy of the academic commons?
Everett, J.A.C.**, & Earp, B.D.** (2015). A Tragedy of the (Academic) Commons: Interpreting the Replication Crisis in Psychology as a Social Dilemma for Early-Career Researchers. Frontiers in Psychology.
2 Responses to Could PhD students solve the replication crisis in psychology?
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I really like this idea, so I’m going to criticize the one problem that stood out to me and wasn’t addressed in the opinion piece.
It’s not clear to me that shifting the burden of replication onto graduate students is a better outcome than the status quo, and I definitely don’t think it’s the optimal allocation. It’s unfair that early career researchers pay most of the costs of replication while the big fish are free to do whatever they please, but shifting the costs onto graduate students would not “eliminate any personal disadvantages that might accrue to individual students”, and would exacerbate them in some circumstances.
In a system where the supply and demand for PhDs in academia is so unbalanced (and only growing more so), it’s unlikely that hiring committees will accept less productivity from applicants who have spent a few months of their limited time in a PhD program on a replication attempt. Even more of the best jobs will go to grad students who can afford to work longer and longer hours and spend more resources on their work to make up for the difference – in other words, those who come from rich programs that pay generous stipends, those from large and well-funded labs that can afford to run studies and hire RAs to help, and those without obligations to spouses/children or health problems.
What’s the ideal allocation of the “burden of replication”? If anything, labs with more resources and more senior PIs should probably do the most replication, because they don’t face the costs in hiring/promotion that young researchers do, and they often have cheaper have access to larger samples and the manpower to conduct replications quickly.
I still think this is a great policy on balance, because most of those grad students weren’t going to get a long-term job in academia anyway, and what they learn can be valuable in whatever work they do (especially if it’s something data- or science-related in industry).
Ultimately, the success of a policy like this is going to depend on how hiring committees value replication relative to original research.
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http://blog.practicalethics.ox.ac.uk/2015/07/could-phd-students-solve-the-replication-crisis-in-psychology/
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Is There a Persistent Dysfunction of Neurovascular Coupling in Migraine?
- Medicine
- BioMed research international
- 2015
It is speculated that there might be an important link between the two theories, that is, the dysfunction of neurovascular coupling, which gave rise to the neural theory of migraine. Expand
Pathophysiology of Migraine
- Psychology
- 2018
One big problem with the pathophysiology of migraine is that although several components are well known by now, it is still unclear how they fit together. There is no obvious sequence of events, and… Expand
Phase Contrast MRI Suggests an Internal Carotid Vascular Tone Alteration in Migraines.
- Medicine
- Neuropediatrics
- 2019
The transitory nature of the observed modifications suggests a reversible alteration of the vascular tone of the ICA in patients with migraine who presented an increased recurrence of events from one per month to one every other day. Expand
Neurovascular contributions to migraine: Moving beyond vasodilation
- Medicine
- Neuroscience
- 2016
Together, the data discussed will provide a framework by which vessels can be viewed as important potential contributors to migraine pathophysiology, even in light of the current uncertainty over the role of vasodilation in this disorder. Expand
References
SHOWING 1-10 OF 93 REFERENCES
Role of the Extracranial Arteries in Migraine Headache: A Review
- Medicine
- Cranio : the journal of craniomandibular practice
- 2004
Evidence is presented to suggest that the extracranial arteries are the source of the pain in some migraine sufferers. Expand
The Role of the External Carotid Vasculature in Migraine
- Medicine
- 2007
Experimental, clinical, and pharmacological evidence linking the extracranial terminal branches of the external carotid artery to migraine pain is presented. Expand
CEREBRAL BLOOD CHANGES IN MIGRAINE
- Medicine
- Headache
- 1971
This study planned to clarify three points by simultaneous bilateral measurements of regional cerebral cortex perfusion rates during an attack of migraine using the 133Xenon inhalation method: whether the cerebral vasoconstriction is a focal phenomenon, accounting for the particular symptoms associated with the aura, or a more generalized phenomenon. Expand
Arterial responses during migraine headache
- Medicine
- The Lancet
- 1990
The use of a new, high-resolution ultrasound machine to measure arterial size in 25 migraine patients with unilateral head pain showed that the lumen was wider on the painful than on the non-painful side during a migraine attack, suggesting that cephalic arteries may play a role in migraine pathogenesis. Expand
An update on the blood vessel in migraine
- Medicine
- Current opinion in neurology
- 2010
It is concluded that migraine cannot be understood, either from a research or clinical point of view, without an understanding of the vascular derangements that accompany it. Expand
The vascular theory of migraine--a great story wrecked by the facts.
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https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/The-Extracranial-Vascular-Theory-of-Migraine%E2%80%94A-by-Shevel/bb2d1333de9c42804d940c7ae8ec3ca1906d155a
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A few months ago we reported that Neostem was about to begin a human clinical trial on VSELs -very small embryonic like stem cells -, which can be isolated from blood or bone marrow rather than embryos, representing an alternative to mouse and human embryonic stem cells for research and medicine.
But their very existence is hotly debated, and a study appearing online on July 24th in the ISSCR's journal Stem Cell Reports, published by Cell Press, provides strong evidence against the existence of VSELs capable of turning into different cell types. The findings call into question current plans to launch the aforementioned clinical trial aimed at testing whether VSELs can be used for regenerative medicine in humans.
"To know when a stem cell discovery is true, it must meet several criteria. First, the work must be published in a peer-reviewed journal; second, other labs in the field should be able to repeat the findings; third, the phenomenon should be so robust that other experimental methods must reveal it; and fourth, in the stem cell field, the regeneration that occurs must be rapid, robust, and lifelong. In our study, we did not find evidence supporting the second, third, and fourth requirements." says senior study author Irving Weissman of Stanford University School of Medicine.
In 2006, a group of researchers first reported the presence of VSELs in mice. Subsequent studies have provided evidence that these cells also exist in human blood and bone marrow and could turn into specialized cells such as lung cells, a finding which may be useful for replacing damaged tissue. But other labs have failed to replicate these findings. Nonetheless, a biopharmaceutical company called Neostem, which acquired the exclusive license to VSEL technology, plans to apply for Food and Drug Administration approval to carry out a first-in-man trial to test whether VSELs can regenerate bone.
In light of these conflicting results, Weissman and his team made the most rigorous effort yet to replicate the original VSEL findings. Although they used a variety of protocols, they failed to find VSELs derived from mouse bone marrow that could turn into specialized blood cells. Instead, the "VSELs" appeared to be artifacts such as cell debris and fragments from dying cells.
"Our findings clearly refute the basis in mouse studies that VSELs have the potentials claimed, and therefore call into question claims that these cells have potential for clinical application in humans," Weissman says.
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http://www.stemcellsfreak.com/2013/07/new-study-refutes-existence-of-vsels.html
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A team of researchers from the State University of Campinas (Unicamp) and the University of São Paulo (USP) were able to explain how human proteins work with SARS-CoV-2 protein, revealing one of the ways the virus “collects” body cells to replicate.
It’s a test in vitro, was able to inhibit the interaction between the molecules of the virus and those entering the body through treatment, reducing the number of viruses by 15% to 20%. The study in question was published in a scientific journal Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology.
Proteins, viruses and DNA
The protein required by the PCNA – Proliferating Cell Nuclear Antigen – binds to the SARS-CoV-2 protein (matrix), one of the viral molecules and provides its own form. The study of this interaction demonstrates one way in which microbes use the cell to replicate in our body.
Laboratory studies sought to demonstrate how the presence of M protein binds PCNA – involved in DNA repair – from cell nucleus, where it should be, to the cytoplasm, where organelles with different cell functions are found.
One way to ensure interaction was to use a component that inhibits the migration of proteins to the cytoplasm: all drugs that inhibit PCNA and further inhibit HIV infection by 15% to 20%, compared to unaffected cells.
Scientists say, yes, the reduction may not be necessary if we consider the development of anti-retroviral treatment for SARS-CoV-2, but as the main function of this research is to show interaction and evaluation as a therapeutic approach. instead of future treatment, the findings seemed a success.
Another method of studying this phenomenon was the analysis of lung tissue from the autopsies of patients killed by Covid-19. In them, a significant increase in PCNA and gammaH2AX proteins was observed, indicating DNA damage – enhancing other laboratory results. According to scientists, it is evidence of some side effects of covid fever.
Along with the proteins E and S, M is one of those found in the membranes that surround SARS-CoV-2, which is also more numerous and one of the four genes, that is, the compounds that make up the virus. This makes it a target for medicines such as vaccines and medicines. S (spike) proteins are known, for example, to bind to human receptors, and have been resistant to modern vaccines.
PCNA often learns more about cancer, and less is known about its role in HIV: hence the importance of recent Brazilian research. It is suggested that the following steps may, for example, confirm the findings of animal experiments.
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https://newto-n.com/a-brazilian-study-found-how-the-covid-19-virus-uses-cells-to-make-their-own-cells/
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Research Methods unit 2 lecture vocabulary. Measure – operational version of your concept or variable Measurement – limiting the data of any phenomenon so that those data may be interpreted and compared to an acceptable standard of quality or quantity.
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yields certain results when the characteristic
being measured hasn’t changed.
Research Methods unit 2 lecturevocabulary
Method of Research:
Observations because researchers are ‘testing; their hypothesis (quantitative) or formulating a theory (qualitative)to answer the research question. We call our research observations 'empirical tests' (p, 18)
Indirect methods– methods of data collection that don’t involve contacts between the researcher and subjects - unobtrusive
Indirect sources or secondary sources – libraries; minutes from corporate board meetings; headstones in a cemetery,
Direct methods– method of data collection in which data are obtained personally from subjects or respondents.
Direct sources or primary sources -Interviews, questionnaires observation of behavior
Quantitative Research
Qualitative Research
Purpose or Use: discovery, gain new perspectives, accepts dynamics of the social world, Identify variables that can later be measured quantitatively
Variables: none
Hypothesis: rarely
Sample size: often small
Participants: targeted --- not necessarily meant to generalize results
Methods: observation, surveys, informal interviews
Measurements: discovery, coding themes
Reporting results: depends on purpose -generate theory, conceptualization, instrument development (see table 1 handout)
Implications for future research: narrow focus, expand to other groups, expand to other phenomena, change data collection method
Purpose or Use: correlations, relationships, effects, differences, predictability
Variables: independent and dependent (cause & effect)
Hypothesis: yes
Sample size: often large
Participants: random/convenient – intended to allow results to be generalized
Methods: surveys, observations, other
Measurements: statistical
Reporting results: Statistics, generalizability of results, validity, reliability
Implications for future research: change sample population, narrow research question, study alternative constructs, change data collection method, replicate study to test results
scientific inquiry process
you need to take into consideration these factors:
such as protecting the identify of participants?
√ Find all my search terms
√ Also search within full text of the articles
√ Full Text
√ Peer Reviewed
√ Published Date from January 1985 to January 2011
Accuracy:
If the answer to any of these questions is yes, then the source will not be useful.
In regard to items # 3 & 4 both of these imply the author(s) had a preconceive answer to the question.
His or her bias will interfere
with your research.
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http://www.slideserve.com/chung/research-methods-unit-2-lecture-vocabulary
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Through a combination of direct communication, compassionate connection and a bit of humor, she has a knack for relating to others with ease, and getting at the tough stuff in a kind, yet efficient manner. Joy uses supportive interpersonal psychotherapy, psychoeducation, and socratic approaches, as well as CBT and behavior modification.
Joy believes that when you allow yourself to develop a deeper understanding of what drives unhelpful thoughts and behaviors, you also develop a clearer understanding of what unmet needs may exist in your life. It is in this space that motivation for change can be re-ignited and clearer paths for growth and development begin. As you experience these “ah-ha moments,” the work can then move into a more active phase of treatment with approaches focused on strategy development to facilitate long-term, integrated change.
While the unfolding of this process is unique to each person, Joy truly believes that when therapy is approached in this way, there is an ease about the process in that it allows individuals and families to safely explore vulnerable areas of their lives and facilitate restorative joy.
Joy invites you start your journey today by giving a call to see if working with her would be a good fit for you. Joy can be reached at (413) 668-8535.
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https://listeningwellness.org/portfolio_page/joy-cook/
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The Lead Quality Assurance Analyst will work closely with group of testers and development engineers on our flagship product and its reporting features. This position is hands-on and will require testing, monitoring processes and procedures in product development and design under the guidance of the Manager of Quality Assurance. You’ ll perform hands-on QA testing including data integrity for new features and regression testing while working with developers to resolves all identified defects, risks and issues. You’ ll lead QA efforts across multiple projects while training and mentoring more junior team members. The ideal candidate is someone who works well independently with minimal supervision and is also comfortable as a collaborative member of a team.
About the Job
- Devise, document, and execute detailed test plans for all assigned projects
- Conduct comprehensive testing on all software products and applications for back office and mobile (POS) system
- Evaluate and test software programs to verify all assigned projects function according to internal and external user requirements
- Create and execute test scripts for both manual and automated
- Write test documents including test plan, test cases and test summaries
- Conduct post-deployment review and provide detailed report and analysis of all defects, risks, and issues identified during testing of all assigned projects
- Review support documentation for accuracy and usability
- Prioritize workflow in accordance with departmental goals and initiatives and set timing budgets
- Assist in support for new and production releases
- Prepare projects for end-user testing
- Assist with trouble-shooting production-level issues, behaviors, and potential problems/defects
- Participate in review of standards, procedures, tools, and processes
- College degree or equivalent work experience
- Strong desire to create test artifacts, including test plans, test cases, and reports
- Maintain manual test scripts for requirement/user story validation, integration, regression and usability testing
- Execution of manual test including functional and regression
- Experience identifying and logging defects using JIRA
- 5+ yrs. experience testing mobile apps, Retail POS systems, integrated credit card systems, and all POS peripherals
- 10+ yrs. experience using professional testing software
- 4+ years’ experience with SQL joins and complex queries
- Proven experience with databases and a thorough understanding of SQL
- Experience testing Web-Services and APIs (REST/SOAP)
- Working knowledge of Microsoft Office suite (Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Outlook)
- Excellent analytical, debugging, problem-solving and root-cause analysis skills.
- Excellent written and verbal communication skills with outstanding attention to detail
- Excellent communicator with strong inter-personal skills
- Strong analytical and problem-solving skills
- Exceptional ability to quickly understand and work with application functionality and system technology (POS, databases, OS, APIs)
- Multitask in a fast paced and dynamic environment
- Working knowledge of iOS devices, point-of-sale devices and server configurations
- Working knowledge of JIRA, Confluence and Test Rails is preferred
- Relevant industry certifications and retail experience are a plus
Patti Richards
Managing Director, Digital & eCommerce Recruiting
Patti started working with The Connors Group in 2007. Her outgoing personality, energy, and positive attitude helped quickly develop a broad and loyal base of candidates and clients. Patti believes an ideal client relationship is a true “partner” with the shared goal of quickly and successfully recruiting the right talent... relationships that are built on trust, communication, and attention to all the right details. She believes that investing time to understand the big picture… the business and goals… are imperative when taking on a new search. Equally important to the “job order” is identifying the fit, and her goal is to add value and become that trusted, go-to resource companies seek to get their positions filled!
Candidates want to establish relationships with recruiters who understand the industry, skills, career goals, and personalities of the people they recruit. Listening to what is important to the individual- besides the skills match- to better align qualities with opportunities is the goal. Communication as well. Honest and open communication are paramount. As a recruiter working with both passive and active candidates; Patti strives to understand “who they are,” “what are their career goals,” “what do they think is their most valuable trait.” Listening, establishing rapport, and keeping the line of communication open… providing career guidance, suggestions, and honest feedback is what she believes differentiates our team from other recruiters!
Helping to build the digital practice for The Connors Group, even riding the waves of an up and down economy, and witnessing early stages of the digital, eCommerce era... is something Patti is tremendously proud of. To be part of successful and consistent growth… understanding the trends / translatable skills, cultivating relationships with early pioneers who were just starting out… and seeing their progression- it is very rewarding to be part of that change! Similarly, earlier in her technical sales career, witnessing the transition from Mainframe, Data Center technology… to Personal Computing, Microcomputing, and ultimately partnering with an innovative group to target small- to medium- sized businesses to offer affordable, powerful computer solutions- it was incredible to see that trend explode and have a part in it!
She would have to say… over the course of a 30-year career in technology, that Patti has found it satisfying to have contributed to both sides; from the evolution of computing and putting technology in the hands of the people… to now putting people with the right hands on the technology! Her goal is to continue to build a reputation as a Subject Matter Expert in the digital talent space, working with new companies and staying abreast of emergent technologies so that she may continue to service new and existing clients; and be positioned as a trustworthy and valuable partner. Outside of work, she loves to travel... mostly off the beaten path, has a knack for party hosting and loves to dance!
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https://jobs.theconnorsgroup.com/jb/Sr.--QA-Analyst-Jobs-in-greenvale-New-York/4332842
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Communication is necessarily part of our daily lives, and yet it can be so frustrating. People say one thing and mean another, and true intentions become hard to discern. While everyone has experienced hurtful misunderstandings at times, the problem can be especially frustrating for singles seeking to establish meaningful relationships — whether friendships, dating relationships, or more. Lack of clear communication hinders such relationships, while direct, honest communication can help them grow. But why is it so hard for us to achieve that level of clarity?
As a longtime single, and an introvert with some degree of social awkwardness, I sometimes find communication with others to be less clear and more frustrating than I’d like it. But I think I’ve identified a few reasons for this problem, and hopefully also some ways to deal with it.
One major cause of misunderstandings is that we have different expectations of each other.
I’ve found this to be true especially when it comes to navigating the murky and tumultuous waters of dating. Several times I’ve been hurt and misled by girls who agree to a date or show signs of interest at first, but later back out or change their minds. And while it’s tempting to play the blame game and put the fault all on them, I know that that’s not fair. In most cases, the girls never intend to mislead me, and sometimes they’re just as confused by me as I am by them. So then where does the problem come from? Often it’s that we have different expectations that aren’t clear to each other. I’ll ask for a date, seeing it as the beginning of a possible relationship or at least the getting-to-know-you stage, but the girl doesn’t see it as anything more than a friendly gesture. My intentions aren’t clear to her, and her intentions aren’t clear to me. Our expectations are different, so the result is confusion, hurt, and eventually a series of awkward apologies on both sides, until we talk things through and resolve the matter.
But this problem isn’t exclusive to dating.
My two roommates and I are all close friends, but as with anyone who lives together for long enough, we naturally rub each other the wrong way at times and have misunderstandings to resolve. We make commitments that we neglect to follow through with, or we say one thing halfheartedly that someone else takes completely serious. These careless words can also lead to misunderstandings and disappointments, which is why it’s important that we all talk through our expectations, desires, and feelings very clearly and honestly.
In addition to different expectations, the other cause of the problem is that people don’t express themselves clearly to each other.
We don’t say what we mean often enough. In most cases, though, saying what we mean is the best solution to the problem of unclear expectations. Once, when I was getting mixed responses from a girl I had asked out, my friends encouraged me to have a conversation with her to make sure that we were both on the same page. I had to make it absolutely clear that what I intended was a date, and once I did, I figured that her response would indicate her intentions. Sure enough, the conversation worked to resolve the issue and make our intentions clear to each other. I (gently and respectfully) expressed my concerns about feeling misled; she apologized and we resolved things quickly and peacefully. Yes, this sort of directness and openness can be uncomfortable at times, but if both parties value honesty and reconciliation, then it usually works to resolve misunderstandings and maintain the peace.
In all of our relationships, it’s important to say what we mean openly and honestly. As Scripture says, “Let your ‘yes’ be yes and your ‘no’ be no” (James 5:12 ESV). In other words, speak in such a way that people can take you at your word and not have to guess about what you really mean or whether you’ll follow through. Recently, I asked a girl out and she responded with a very direct “no.” Although it wasn’t the response I wanted, I respected her for it. I’d much rather have a clear no than a halfhearted yes from someone who changes her mind or backs out later.
Probably, most of us desire clear and honest communication in our relationships, but that ideal often seems difficult to achieve. It can be hard for us to recognize which things we say may be misunderstood by someone else. After all, our intentions are perfectly clear to ourselves. That is why we must consider how our words will be taken by others and realize that we’re not always as clear as we hope to be. And, when misunderstandings inevitably come up, we must be willing to ask questions, talk things through with humility, and seek truth and understanding together. Scripture tells us to strive for peace with our words and actions (Matthew 5:9; Romans 12:18), and it has a number of guidelines on how to handle conflict resolution — not by ignoring problems or covering them up with superficially kind words, but by addressing them directly and honestly (Matthew 5:23-24).
Of course, we must still be careful how we speak. Speaking your mind honestly is not a free pass to be rude or hurtful. Nor does it mean that we should bluntly say everything we think and feel. We must use tact and discretion and consider how our words will be taken by others, but still be honest nonetheless. Scripture commands us to “speak the truth in love” (Ephesians 4:15), to put away falsehood (4:25), and to speak what is good for edifying each other (4:29).
Communication with others can be frustrating and hurtful, but it doesn’t have to be. We must speak honestly and directly while still showing love and actively seeking to resolve misunderstandings and conflicts. Then we will be communicating effectively and in the way God intended us to, for the benefit of ourselves and all our relationships.
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https://www.singlematters.com/lost-dates-because-of-a-failure-to-communicate/
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The Art of VulnerabilityMichelle Bloom
Here is the second TVC Blog and the first one with a guest author. Michelle Bloom has been through a lot in her life, including being homeless. Now that she has found her way, she is sharing her wisdom to help others see the light.
Strength through vulnerability
When we hear the word “Vulnerable”, perhaps a few negative images come to mind. Many associate vulnerability with weakness or feelings of guilt and shame. What if I were to tell you something that might completely change the way you look at allowing yourself to be vulnerable? Not only can being more open about who you are change the way that others perceive you, it can also change the way that you view yourself. In my own experience, sharing my story has not only strengthened old relationships, it has also allowed me to form exciting new relationships. It was only through allowing myself to be vulnerable that these changes in my life were possible. You might be asking yourself “How can being more vulnerable be a positive in my life?” The simple answer is that when we are vulnerable, we are also more honest with ourselves and with others. It is with this self examination that personal growth begins.
Beginning the process of sharing
While the concept of sharing deeply personal details of our lives can seem daunting, it can also be an extremely freeing experience. When you share what makes you feel most vulnerable, it slowly begins to lose it’s power over you. It begins to feel more natural to express your feelings without any fear of shame. In my situation, others began sharing their own stories with me, because they related to my experiences. It was through this personal sharing process that deeper bonds were cemented. Not only were people encouraged by my ability and willingness to articulate my feelings, they were positively impacted by it! Those closest to me have also become more open and receptive to what I have to share with them. You begin to think of vulnerability as an art form. Honing your communication skills takes practice. The more frequently you use these skills the better equipped you become to use them.
Personal Growth and Connection
Sharing some of what made me feel most vulnerable has allowed me to heal old wounds. When I discussed my struggles openly, I became more aware of the areas in my life that I had grown. I became aware of those areas that required more attention in my life as well. I began to feel a sense of peace and purpose in my life that had previously eluded me. When we express ourselves more openly and honestly, others begin to see our true nature. The process of allowing ourselves to be vulnerable forges connections on a powerful new level. The artificial components in any of our relationships are suddenly nonexistent. When we are honest about what makes us feel vulnerable, our relationships become more meaningful. We begin to seek out others who want to connect with us on more than a surface level. Those things that once made us feel a sense of shame in our lives suddenly become something that empower us. I found a better version of myself after I began this process of being vulnerable. I found a person that others relate to, connect with and even admire. When I overcame my shame from past experiences, I also began to overcome my fear. I view vulnerability in terms of being a whole person. We are complete when we are willing to acknowlege all aspects of our true selves. We no longer allow shame to keep us silent. We begin to embrace who we are at our core, and begin to love ourselves. Our unique experience and perspective becomes something that we value in spite of our inner struggles. We take off the masks that we’ve worn perhaps our entire lives and we become real.
“I’m an aspiring writer who believes in making a contribution to my community. As I’ve gotten older, I have become more of an activist. I write about the homeless, domestic abuse survivors, and those who live in poverty. There’s not really anything particularly glamorous about my life, but I do like to believe that I have made a positive impact in the lives of others.”
Great article Colin. I agree with you, vulnerability is the gateway to authenticity.Comment by Norm D on February 5, 2017 at 1:06 am
Awesome first post Colin!Comment by Michelle Bloom on February 5, 2017 at 6:04 am
Truly inspiring Colin! Being vulnerable does create self acceptance. It takes the mask of perfection away, showing us how imperfect we are, just as we should be.Comment by Sherry L on February 5, 2017 at 6:41 am
There is so much beauty and self-compassion in this post!Comment by TJ Isherwood on February 5, 2017 at 9:27 pm
Loved it!!Comment by Stefania Acioli on February 6, 2017 at 3:18 am
Beautifully said Colin! Your word’s are very inspiring and touched my heart❤ Thank you for putting this together to learn more about how vulnerability is truly the gateway to being authentic and the freedom to remove or masks.Comment by Roni Thompson on February 6, 2017 at 5:29 am
Great blog. I also watched Brene Brown’s TED Talk on Vulnerability and I just gave it a shot! Even though the outcome was not as I hoped, I am still going to stay open and positive.
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http://thevulnerabilitychallenge.com/the-art-of-vulnerability/
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Attributes of Honesty
The dictionary defines honesty as telling the truth, which makes it seem like telling the truth is easy and straightforward. But what does that mean, exactly? Most people consider honesty to include all of the following 15 attributes (though each person might have their own unique idea of what constitutes honesty).
Take a look at this list and decide where you fall on the spectrum of honesty attributes. And don’t worry if you fall somewhere in the middle you can always strive to be more honest in every area!
Honesty can be an elusive attribute, but its impact is wide-ranging and far-reaching. Honesty can make or break relationships, your career, and even your health.
Knowing what constitutes honesty and why it’s important can help you keep your word and live more honestly every day of your life. Here are 15 different attributes of honesty that you need to know in order to live more honestly.
Honesty can be one of the most difficult values to live by, but it’s also one of the most important to maintaining healthy relationships and making ethical business decisions. Honesty means different things to different people, but there are some attributes that all honest people have in common. This article discusses 15 of these attributes, what they are and why they matter.
Is honesty a trait or attribute?
Honesty is both a trait and an attribute. As a trait, it is an innate characteristic that can’t be changed. As an attribute, it is the manifestation of honesty in a person’s life. The two concepts are closely related but have different meanings.
While honesty as a trait may be more innate, honesty as an attribute is more intentional and deliberate. People who have traits such as being fair or trustworthy could be very honest in some situations while not being honest in others.
On the other hand, people with only attributes of honesty will always choose to live their lives honestly. One of the best examples of this was Sally Ride, America’s first woman astronaut. She was outspoken about her lesbianism and never hesitated to answer tough questions during her lifetime. Her integrity showed through in everything she did, making her one of the most honest individuals we’ve ever known.
Why is honesty a good attribute?
Honesty is the quality of being open, truthful, and sincere. It is about doing things for the right reasons. As a result, honesty means not lying or hiding something important. It also means taking responsibility for your actions instead of blaming others.
Honesty is an essential attribute to have because it builds trust with others and this leads to long-term relationships.
Honesty is the quality of being open, truthful, and sincere. It is about doing things for the right reasons. Honesty means not lying or hiding something important.
Responsibility and honesty go hand in hand; you need to be honest if you want people to believe you when you say you take responsibility.
To build relationships, we need to tell the truth even if that truth hurts someone else. Doing so will make them feel better in the long run as well as give them closure.
15 Attributes of Honesty
1. Honesty: Self-explanatory
Honesty is a quality that is often revered in society but can also be difficult to define. At its core, honesty is being truthful with others. However, there are many different definitions of honesty that have been suggested by psychologists over the years. Some attribute honesty to being the avoidance of lying while others suggest it includes the avoidance of manipulation.
For example, telling your friend about their physical appearance may not be dishonest if you’re just trying to help them feel better about themselves.
It’s important for people to have an honest view of themselves and their actions because, without self-awareness, one cannot grow or learn from mistakes. If someone believes themselves to be dishonest, this can lead them down a path where they think that dishonesty will lead them somewhere good (such as financial stability) when in reality this could lead them astray or into trouble.
In other words, dishonesty will only make things worse in the end. The best way to start living more honestly is by first understanding the definition of honesty and then taking a hard look at oneself; once these steps have been completed, one should do their best to make amends for any past wrongs.
2. Integrity
Meanings can vary, but in general, refers to standing by your beliefs and doing what you think is right
Integrity is the quality of being honest and having strong moral principles.
It’s doing the right thing even if it’s not the easiest choice. Integrity is a synonym for honesty, which means you’re telling the truth, even when it might be difficult or unpopular to do so.
Having integrity doesn’t mean you need to be perfect all the time.
You don’t have to say yes when you really want to say no, or always agree with people just because they’re your friends. You also don’t have to lie about something that happened or pretend that something didn’t happen just because other people may not approve.
Your intentions should align with your words and actions at all times. If someone trusts you, it’s important that you honor that trust.
3. Openness
Being honest with others can lead to being honest with yourself. This quality allows us to face facts about ourselves honestly.
Openness is the ability to be open with others about your feelings, thoughts, or plans. It’s also the willingness to be vulnerable with someone else.
This quality can lead to being honest with yourself by facing facts about yourself honestly. When you’re open, you can see things more clearly and in a way that feels less confusing. You can acknowledge your mistakes instead of just trying to cover them up or pretend they never happened.
You can find the courage to apologize for your wrongdoings, not because it will make you feel better but because it’s the right thing to do. And when something goes wrong, you can take responsibility without blaming others or circumstances.
You’ll know where to place the blame because you understand that while we’re all shaped by our environment, we are ultimately responsible for ourselves.
In this sense, openness is the opposite of blame-shifting or making excuses; it means owning up to how our actions have affected others and understanding how their actions have affected us. With openness comes accountability; with accountability comes peace of mind, and with peace of mind comes empathy for ourselves as well as those around us.
4. Trustworthiness
Trustworthiness is the foundation of every relationship. When we trust someone, we give them the benefit of the doubt. We rely on them to take care of us when we need help.
This trust is a two-way street: You have to be trustworthy for others to trust you back. You have to be honest with yourself about who you are and what you want so that other people will feel safe being honest with you in return.
It’s easy to pretend to be someone you’re not in order to impress or manipulate another person, but if it doesn’t work out and you can’t go back to being yourself, then all your efforts were wasted.
Honesty is also important because dishonesty can cause lasting damage by planting seeds of mistrust that may never fully grow up.
5. Veracity
Honesty is giving a true account of the facts. It’s telling the truth, even when that truth is difficult to share. Honesty isn’t always easy, but it’s usually worth it. When you tell the truth, people can trust you and believe in what you say or do.
You may not be honest all the time (and no one expects you to be), but those times when you are honest will make a difference in how others see you. They’ll know that you’re more than just an acquaintance; you’re someone who respects them and cares about their feelings.
They’ll also appreciate the honesty because this means they don’t have to worry about false information being told about them later on.
6. Candor
Candor is the quality of being open, sincere, or honest with someone. It also means to speak frankly or bluntly. Candor is used as a synonym for frankness, bluntness, or honesty.
There are many different levels of candor that can be used in a conversation. For example, an employee may not want to tell their boss when they’re tired because it’s up to them whether or not to take a break.
On the other hand, if an employee feels like something is wrong at work but doesn’t know how to fix it, then he should talk about it with his boss openly and honestly. The reason this attribute matters so much is that everyone deserves honesty from those around them.
If you’re always honest with your friends, you’ll get more respect from them. If you don’t lie to your significant other about where you were last night, then your partner will feel better knowing you didn’t cheat on him/her.
7. Sincerity
When it comes to being honest, sincerity is the most important attribute. It’s one thing, to be honest with yourself, but it’s another thing, to be honest with others.
Being sincere means that you will not only say what you mean but also mean what you say. Sincerity should be a natural part of your character and should come across in your words and actions. To develop sincerity as an attribute, focus on honesty with yourself first.
Make sure that you’re not lying or cheating yourself when it comes to how you feel about something or how much progress you’re making toward achieving a goal. You’ll also want to be consistent in your actions so that people can count on what you’re saying.
8. Genuineness
Having a genuine nature can be the best trait someone can have. Genuineness is about being true to yourself, your words, and your actions. It means not saying or doing anything you don’t really feel or mean because you think it will please other people.
Genuine people tell the truth no matter what the consequences may be. They also behave in a way that is honest to themselves and others, even when it might seem easier not to do so.
People who are authentic believe that it’s important to show who they truly are through their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. In essence, genuineness is the quality of being sincere and truthful
9. Loyalty
Loyalty is an attribute that can serve as a litmus test for the honesty of a person. The more loyal you are, the more likely you’ll be to tell someone the truth about themselves or their actions.
It’s important to be honest with yourself and others, even if it means admitting your flaws. You can’t expect other people to accept your problems if you don’t do the same for them.
10. Reliability
Honesty is important because it means you can trust the other person. It also means that if you need help, you can count on them to be there for you without asking for anything in return.
Honesty is necessary for a healthy relationship because it shows that you’re not afraid to show your true self. The ability to trust someone else with personal information is one of the most important components of a relationship.
If you are constantly worried about whether or not your partner is going to betray you or break promises, then honesty may not exist in the relationship.
Allowing yourself to express all aspects of yourself helps prevent dishonesty from creeping into the relationship. It’s hard to know when or where something will go wrong when both people aren’t open about their feelings and thoughts.
11. Truthfulness
Truthfulness is about telling the truth, even if it’s not easy. It’s about taking responsibility for your words and actions. When you’re honest, you want to be accountable for your mistakes.
You don’t want to hide anything from anyone, including yourself. Honest people can admit when they make a mistake or hurt someone else. They tell themselves the truth about their feelings, thoughts, and behaviors so that they can grow and change.
12. Responsibility
Responsibility is a key component of honesty. You should be honest with yourself, first and foremost, about your goals and desires. In order to do this, you have to take responsibility for your own life. You also have to take responsibility for the decisions you make in pursuit of those desires. The more responsibility you take for your decisions, the more honest you will be with yourself.
13. Transparency
Transparency is a huge component of honesty, but it’s not the same thing. Transparency means being open and honest about who you are, where you’re, and what’s going on.
We all want to be transparent in our relationships because it builds trust over time. When we’re transparent with our thoughts, feelings, emotions, or intentions we build trust with others through authenticity.
14. Probity
Probity is the quality of being honest and having strong moral principles. It is the basis for ethics, which is the study of right and wrong behavior.
When you have probity, it means that you will act in an ethical manner when no one is watching because you know it is the right thing to do.
You do not need any external validation to tell you what’s right or wrong; instead, your internal conscience guides you through life with a sense of morality that cannot be shaken by society’s judgments or opinions.
15. Fairness
Fairness means that you don’t play favorites, you don’t judge people for things that are out of their control, and you treat everyone the same.
It also means being honest about your feelings as well as about things like money, time management, and expectations. When you’re fair with people, it makes them feel valued.
Even if they’ve done something wrong or mismanaged a task, knowing that you will treat them fairly without judging is a relief.
Being fair doesn’t mean that you let someone off the hook if something bad has happened it just means that when someone does make a mistake, you address it in an appropriate manner and do not overreact to it.
Conclusion
Being honest not only has a positive impact on you but also on the people around you. Being honest with yourself will allow you to have more self-acceptance, which then allows you to be more accepting of others. Be honest with your friends and family, as it will help strengthen your relationships with them. Finally, being honest about how you feel will give others the opportunity to make changes for the better.
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https://prettylifestylez.com/15-attributes-of-honesty-what-they-are-and-why-they-matter/
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Who is Rashmi Saha?
Holistic human with a plethora of talent and compassion. A civil engineer by education, behavioural coach and NLP practitioner by passion and philanthropist by choice.
Rashmi started her journey as an engineer, but her constant interest lied in upliftment of the people and betterment of the society.
How was Mukty Mission formed?
Travelling to many remote parts of the country as a soft skill trainer she observed the difficulties faced by the woman due to menstruation, hygiene and availability of the sanitary pad. She was also dismayed by the fact that there is limited awareness and myths behind menstruation.
She came up with an intent to change the frowned on myths.
In December 2017, foundation of “ Mukty Mission”was laid to educate women about menstrual hygiene and mental health. Ensuring that under privileged gender gets the optimum essential commodities. The motive behind her vision is to create awareness, spread smiles and break shackles of taboo.
“Being a woman and travelling in the interior part of the villages is challenging on the work front”
Vision behind Mukty Mission.
Rashmi wants to create a society and educate people in the society who can disentangle myths related to menstrual hygiene and mental health. She considers awareness and self education as most important pillars of the program. Her virtue is to train/ help people to acquire skills to rectify and being mindful of occurrence in the society and act accordingly.
“ Individual must be able simplify their life as well as others to create a amicable society.”
Journey from being an Engineer to leading Mukty Mission
Rashmi believes that she is destiny’s favorite child. Profession and helping people can go side by side. Looking at Rashmi’s journey seems like a cake walk but in reality she had her own share of hardships. She believes that she was destined to be a social reformer. Being professionally trained in a particular subject doesn’t mean that we can’t change roles and contribute towards upliftment of the people. She connected dots of what she really wants to be. She acknowledges the individuals who played their fair share in shaping her thoughts, the situation, failure and hardships which lead to formation of Mukty Mission. Mukty’s mission is a magnified form of who Rashmi has been through her entire life.
“Learning is learning for me.Being a good human being is irrespective of one’s education, social and financial status. Keep on doing what needs to be done on a prolonged scale.”
Role of Public enterprise and People
Understanding the idea and the motive behind the cause will help in broadening the support. Sharing it across the society and volunteering plays a significant role. It not only helps in connecting to more people but helps in magnifying the mission and vision behind the ideology of the institution. Public enterprises can help by providing financial aids, giving projects and fundraising/donating towards the cause.
Also read : https://saffronumbrella.com/youngest-scuba-diver-mirzana-beegum/
Menstruation awareness and literacy rate
Rashmi says,”Literacy has less to do with menstruation awareness as a lot of literate people do not accept menstruation as a normal phenomenon.They do not want to accept”. Menstruation awareness is impact driven, acceptance of the bodily phenomenon and changes an individual can bring about in oneself. Being literate does not always help in busting the myth around menstruation.
How NGOs like Mukty Mission can contribute in long run?
Rashmi says that, “Change in society can only be seen if the social reformer has the right intent and execution of their vision.People get inspired when they feel connection, understands logic supported by facts.” Striking balance to excel in the mission helped Rashmi to successfully mentor people struggling with self acceptance, societal taboos and mental health.
“Its a chain process” she address wherein an individual gets inspired by the work and bring about positive changes in themselves which inturn helps in positive reinforcement and shaping better society.
As a social reformer she complies to the mantra of talking logic to the people, making sense of the solutions offered and connecting with the people.
‘Talking logic, making sense, connecting with people and their life is very important.”
How people can aid in multiplying the Vision of Mukty Mission
Rashmi adds that she is open for collaboration, connection with unanimous individuals who resonate on similar visions. Individuals who believe in eradicating the myths around menstruation, run awareness campaigns, support and encourage each other would further help with backing the cause.
Message to people aspiring for the similar role
“Empower yourself first before you empower others.” Self improvement,focus on the cause and accountability are the key takeaways from her experiences.
“Prioritize yourself”
How can an individual adapt a habit for making our world better?
Accept individuality and differences, not being judgemental and must avert negativism, she quotes. Encourage and uplift each person, stay neutral to the negativity and respect the individual opinion.
How your current role fills you with immense pride and gratitude?
Being an avid traveller, an artist and a social reformer is not an easy task. One needs to prioritize their task while heading such an authoritative role, she adds. “My role seems glamorous, comforting, glittery but deepdown every day is a struggle and it comes from every corner in different ways.” Fitting in the role of ten people requires a lot of grit and valour. It is a lone endurance to accept failures, being dependable for people with different energies and to sustain with the challenging roles is what fills Rashmi with immense pride.
She conveys her gratitude to positive souls who have a beautiful perspective to appreciate the motive behind the mission, encouraged her, loved her, constructively criticized her, mentored her, aligned with her efforts and supported her.
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https://saffronumbrella.com/rashmi-shah-mukty-mission-helping-women/
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Once again Victoria responds with interest by attending The Church of Truths Oneness Wednesdays offering of topics with a Nonviolent Communication perspective. Yesterday evening the topic was ‘Resolving Conflicts and presented by Michele Favarger.
Michele offered a deeper connection to the four basic steps of Nonviolent Communication; observations, feelings, needs and requests and their relationships to the first part of any dialogue – self connection. She stressed the importance of choosing to connect to ones own personal need replacing habits of seeing others in what Marshall Rosenberg calls, ‘enemy images.’ The reference is to how we hear hard to messages being about us rather than hearing what the other persons is needing.
Michele guided last nights group through this process with ease and humor, including personal stories on how this style of communication has supported her own changing consciousness and outcomes during her own experiences of conflict.
Judi Morin who opened April’s series introducing NVC joined us again last night and found herself involved in a spontaneous role play with Michele resulting from an audience question that was a highlight of the evening.
Questions of where to go from here came from the audience with request expressions of personal preferences for their own personal safety in learning. If this interests you as well, more connection contact information is listed below. As a grassroots organizer for the Gandhi, King Seasons for Peace and Nonviolence and this month-long Nonviolent Communication Awareness Campaign event together as an example of creating peace in your world, I want to acknowledge that there is a number of Victoria people offering a variety of opportunities to experience Nonviolent Communication throughout the Greater Victoria Communities that were unable to participate. Teachings and practice groups are happening in Sidney, at two of our local Unity Churches, one in West Saanich and one in Victoria, at a local Jewish Community Centre, at the Crystal Pool, in James Bay at New Horizons, and others in private offices such as Inside Awareness for Healthy Living and some homes to meet the needs of sharing, learning and connection. Others are taking this into their schools and I know of some in government and professional organizations that have intensified their NVC training to make change from within their society. We have one local who presented an NVC theme at the United Nations in 2011! (Marion Little shared her UN experience with us at the showing of Heart to Lead, Women as Allies for the Greater Good)
NVC inspires people to change their world and those who connect to it long to share through teaching and practice and want others to interact with in this particular way. Marshall Rosenberg has designed this system to go beyond right and wrong thinking and encourages it’s integration to spread outwards therefore you will find a vibrant grassroots community locally for in person meetings and on-line globally.
Last year I heard someone personally frustrated with Nonviolent Communication express this in their own style of communication group classes that resulted in a closed statement that ‘it didn’t work.’ I was shocked, surprised and somewhat curious about this statement and yet knew that since beginning to practice in 2000/2001 that it can be a challenging process to integrate into everyday living. I believe it was our own local Selinde Krayenhoff, co-founder of Island Parent Magazine in 2001/2002 who began sharing Nonviolent Communication for Parents who stated, ‘this is a lifestyle choice and a practice.’ It’s true, it is and one that I believe is more than talking about it and involves a commitment and willingness to make personal changes that results in clarity of our owning thinking process. It can be an amazing journey into self discovery that can lead to success in our relationships. Yes in the learning and beginning a practice of doing NVC we may drive others a bit crazy, yet getting beyond the doing into being, they are just as rewarded as we are! Therefore folks, if you are looking for a way to improve how you do relationships whether with your boss, your employees, your parents, children or beloved this is a form of connecting that is being in relationships that improves the quality of experiencing our connectedness that leads to inner content.
Appreciation to all of you for your support, interest and attendance in coming to meet and hear more about these topics. As promised for more can be found at:
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https://insideawareness.com/2012/04/26/wednesdays-april-nvc-awareness-victoria-doesnt-disappoint/
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Everyone has their own world – a space where they become themselves. It is both spiritual and precious. While some may open their world to share themselves, others are more protective. My works take inspiration from this space of separation. A place where relaxation and breath can lead to deeper connection with self.
Space is a conceptual word. It’s an open concept interpreted in a variety of meanings. Here, I also would like to leave this wide space open to everyone; to experience the relaxation, the breath... anything that can be connected and imagined.
About Jacqueline Yao
Yajing Yao was born in China and is currently studying for an M.F.A. in jewelry at Savannah College of Art and Design. During this time, she is a member of Klimt02. She has participated in the SCAD Jewelry Trunk Show, American Craft Show, and will continue to participate in coming Milano Jewelry Week and more valued shows.
Her target is to create long-lasting jewelry and accessories that aren't just roughly beautiful but also have a soul passed on from generation to generation. Drawing inspiration from music subculture, philosophy, and art, Yao continuously seeks the perfect balance between meaning, beauty, and function while cherishing the heritage of making things by hand in the best possible way. Jewelry expresses a possibility that few observers have ever noticed: its ability to touch people. She uses a simple way to express complex thoughts, and she believes hand-made can build a special relationship with jeweler and wearer.
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https://www.scadjewelrygraduateassociation.com/meow
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Born and raised in Indianapolis, IN, Anna converted to Islam in 2009 after moving to Bloomington, IN to attend Indiana University for her undergraduate degree in 2006. With a Bachelor's degree in Linguistics and French, Anna taught in a French-language preschool before moving on to teach English as a second language in an online setting. She is currently the Women's President at the Islamic Center of Bloomington and does her work for both the Center and the Openhearted Campaign in tandem with her role as stay-at-home mom. She is the proud mother of three beautiful boys.
REBEKAH Seda
Inspired by her own children, Enabah joined the Openhearted Campaign to try to give all children a better world to live in. She developed a deep appreciation for interfaith work while completing her Master’s degree in Nurse-Midwifery at Yale University. Recognizing the immediate need for deeper understanding between Muslim Americans and all Americans, she decided to postpone her midwifery work in order to give more time and energy to service projects such as the Openhearted Campaign. Enabah is also the Lead Curriculum Developer for the Ghazali Children’s Project, a character education program which prepares Muslim children to respond to discrimination with virtuous speech and actions.
Aubrey Seader
Aubrey is an actor, singer, and producer. Originally from Bloomington, she currently works for WFIU's Arts Department as a producer and reporter. She regularly performs with Cardinal Stage Company and the Bloomington Playwrights Project. Aubrey is the co-producer and creator of Openhearted's multimedia storytelling projects "The Hijabi Diaries" and "Muslims of Bloomington." Aubrey attended Rutgers University and graduated cum laude with a BFA in Acting. She also studied at the Rutgers Conservatory at Shakespeare's Globe Theater in London, England. Aubrey lived in New York City, where she was an ensemble member of Honest Accomplice Theater company and a co-producer of the Motherline Story Project and the Motherline Story Project podcast. Aubrey is very grateful to be working with the Openhearted Campaign, where she believes she can help her friends, family, and others learn about the benefits of living in a diverse city like Bloomington. More importantly, Aubrey hopes her work can inspire people to make friends who live, pray, and look different than they do. www.aubreymarieseader.com.
Mariah Coley
Mariah was born in Evansville and has lived most of her life in southern Indiana. She completed her undergrad at Indiana University, spent a couple of years traveling to Asia, Europe, and a few places in between, and then came back to Bloomington to complete her M.S.Ed. She has taught in China, Nepal, and currently teaches a culturally diverse classroom at IU's Campus Children's Center. She believes that connecting with people from different cultures and learning from them can only deepen our understanding of our own lives and the world around us.
Our story
In October of 2015, one of the sisters of the Islamic Center of Bloomington was attacked by a student while sitting outside a downtown cafe. With cries of "white power," he slammed her head into the table as he tried to forcibly remove her headscarf.
Such a traumatic incident sent a powerful shock wave through the entire community. The sisters and brothers at the local mosque questioned their own personal safety, and many residents began to worry that Bloomington wasn't as welcoming and accepting as they had once believed.
Moved to seek a positive and lasting effect stemming from such violence, Openhearted was founded to inspire mutual understanding and peace between Muslim-Americans and all Americans through storytelling, interfaith friendships, and community participation.
Our Mission
This isn’t a mission statement so much as an open invitation. We open our doors, minds, and hearts to connect with all of our brothers and sisters in humanity. We honor our relationships as friends and neighbors, and we esteem our mutual desire for understanding, respect, and trust over hateful and divisive rhetoric and actions.
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http://www.openheartedcampaign.org/about
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I have learned so much from my mother. She has influenced my life more than I'd like to admit. I have even learned from her mistakes. This Mother's Day, I wanted to share a few things she taught me that I feel anyone could benefit from.
My mother is the definition of an open book. From the time I was young, she has spoken to me like an adult and unashamedly shared her mistakes, regrets and lessons learned. Instead of instilling a 'don't share your business with everybody' attitude, she taught me that there was a freedom in sharing things that others may find shame, guilt, or embarrassment in. As I got older, I carried this same quality with me, unafraid to tell people about how the experiences I had and the mistakes I made shaped me and helped me to grow. My mother being open and honest with me, showed me how to be open and honest with her and others.
One thing that sets my mother apart from other people is her giving heart. When she sees people on the streets asking for change, when she sees that someone is promoting a GoFundMe, or when an organization is asking for donations, she doesn't stop and come up with reasons why they may not deserve her money. If she has it, she gives it. She taught me that, when you give with pure motives, without wondering what's in it for you, it always comes back to you tenfold. Anytime that I would have reservations about giving, she would remind me not to operate in fear that the giving wouldn't be worth it. This concept also showed me how strong her faith was, she truly believes that God takes care of her and that He believes that using what He gave her to take care of or help others will always be honored. Giving is about your heart, not the specifics of what the other person needs, wants, or does with what you give them.
My mother instilled in me from a very young age that everybody has something they are dealing with. When people hurt you, it is a result of something within them and it's not personal. As I grew up and dealt with mean people at school, romantic relationships or rude people in line at the store, I was always reminded of this truth. Understanding this simple yet foundational concept of life allowed me to love people more freely and be un-offended when they didn't love me back. It taught me how to exercise and extend grace to everyone in my life. By teaching me this, my mother instilled in me the importance of having a heart for people regardless of how they treat you or what your relationship with them is.
These three things are just the tip of the iceberg of the many valuable lessons that my mother taught me. I hope that you learned something yourself and please leave a comment about something your mom taught you in life. Happy Mother's Day!
My parents have a great podcast where they talk about may things they've been teaching me for years! Make sure you check it out!
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https://www.dreamsofjasmine.com/myblog/2017/5/26/things-i-learned-from-my-mother
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If you are looking for ways to support the health of your family, improve your relationships, and foster healthy communication, you have found the right place. Welcome.
This introduction to compassionate communication is highly recommended for anyone who lives with or near people. Pass participants report they no longer take their children’s challenges personally, give themselves and others more patience, they have more perspective on problems as well as solutions. The focus is on building trust. What if each interaction we had with another person either adds to or takes away from trust?
Learn how to move away from judgement that separates ourselves from others and move toward being a loving witness. Exercise ownership in the situations we are a part of.
When home is our first community, what kind of members do we want our children to be? Learn how living together can be joyful and fulfilling for everyone. Find inspiration on how everyone’s needs can be met with harmony. Learn how connection inspires cooperation.
The words we think and say have the power to make our life a blessing or a curse. It has the potential to box us in or open the world to us. Filter actions and words so that you can hear the positive intentions and basic universal needs. Find out how to use it wisely in our own lives, with children, and others.
Contact Min Yi Su at 541-515-0103 or email [email protected] for more information.
I attended her workshop in the Spring and the difference it made in my relationship to my girls still unfolds. I found a clarity through the discussions that completely transformed my paradigms around chores, control, joy, and play to name those aspects nearest to my heart.
One of my deepest pleasures is spending time with Min Yi. She is considerate and compassionate, and when we don’t agree she takes the time to understand my point of view. Her kindness and patience inspires peace.
The language Min Yi teaches in the workshop helps provide a foundation for parents to guide children toward greater connection, confidence and communication with others.
I am finding much peace in life as I think more deeply on the subjects we discussed in the workshop, especially the “I have to” and “I choose to” concepts … I am reminded of what is really important and that because of all the “I choose to’s” that I do each day, I am becoming a more effective parent, wife and friend.
What I most appreciate about Min Yi is her sensitivity. She creates for us an atmosphere of respect and serenity. She is warm and caring person.
Min Yi is a very sweet and aware of her class in the most personal and professional manner.
"Many Hands Make Light Work".
Once a painful concept is met with understanding, the next time it appears you may find it interesting. What used to be the nightmare is now just interesting. The next time it appears, you may find it funny. The next time, you may not even notice it. This is the power of loving what is.
Want to receive notices of news, blog posts and specials?
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http://heartgrownfamily.com/
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Jasmine Mauss is a Licensed Graduate Marriage and Family Therapist (LGMFT) practicing in Maryland. Originally from California, she completed her bachelor’s degree in psychology with minors in public health and counseling/social change at San Diego State University. She received her master’s degree in couple and family therapy at University of Maryland, College Park and has been working as a mental health therapist in the DMV area.
Jasmine works with couples, families and individuals. In her experience facilitating couple therapy, Jasmine has assisted relationships with issues in communication, intimacy, partner violence, sexual dysfunction, and more. In her work with individuals she has helped her clients work through anxiety and depression, trauma, phobias and relationship challenges. Working with families, she has assisted in strengthening communication skills, finding areas for connection, and creating healthier boundaries and expectations. Jasmine’s preferred modalities of therapy include Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, Narrative Therapy, Gottman, EFT, and Solution-Focused.
While direct and honest in her approach, Jasmine has also been described as unique, insightful, easy-going, and compassionate. She believes strongly in the power of therapy and loves helping others unlock hidden parts of themselves and providing them with tools they can apply to their daily lives.
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https://washingtonnutritiongroup.com/clinicians/jasmine-mauss/
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The fundamental disorder of (Asperger’s) individuals is the limitation of their social world.
Social adaptation has to proceed via the intellect. In fact, they have to learn everything via the intellect.
Sally and Anne are playing together. Sally has a basket and Anne has a box. Sally puts a marble inside her basket and then goes outside to play. While Sally is away, Anne takes the marble from the basket and puts into her box. When Sally comes back into the room, she wants to play with her marble. Where will she look?
By the time they are five years old most children correctly assume that Sally will look in her basket where she believes it is. Children on the autism spectrum, in contrast, believe that Sally will look in Anne’s box where it really is. Why is this?
By an early age, people typically develop the ability to recognize and understand that other people have their own thoughts, feelings, believes, desires, and intentions. Having this ability enables one to make sense of behavior and predict what other people are going to do next.
Individuals with Asperger’s have difficulty doing this. They are not proficient in recognizing and understanding the cues that indicate what other people are thinking and feeling. Like those who believe Sally will look for her marble in Anne’s box they see things primarily from their own perspective and assume others will do the same.
This ability, or lack thereof, to make inferences about what other people believe to be the case in a given situation is referred to as the theory of mind. It has become perhaps the most well-known explanation of why those with Asperger’s have difficulty communicating and interacting with others in a typical manner. Appreciating this difficulty goes a long way toward comprehending the unusual ways that adults with Asperger’s interact with others.
Successful communication depends upon the ability of both participants to infer each other’s intentions. If this inference is not automatic, communicating becomes arduous and a two-way flow of information, ideas, and meaning is significantly compromised.
If people with Asperger’s do not have a theory of mind and are unable to infer what others are thinking and feeling, how then is communication even possible?
It is well established that people with Asperger’s wish to communicate and be part of the social world, unlike those who are severely autistic. One can see this, for example, in how they repetitively talk about their favorite interests or in the frustration they express at lacking friends or spouses.
The desire of those with Asperger’s to interact socially drives their acquisition of social learning. This is why Asperger’s adults have many aspects of socially well-adapted behavior and appear to understand the behavior of others by attributing feelings, beliefs, and intentions to them, yet not have a normally functioning theory of mind.
To paraphrase Hans Asperger, social adaptation has to proceed by pretending one is socially normal. In other words, by acting.
Needless to say, having to figure out how to communicate in everyday situations by relying on past experiences is arduous. Genuine interactive communication is work, and it is for this reason that many people with Asperger’s shy away from social interactions. The laborious effort to communicate also explains why adults with Asperger’s often focus on understanding and accumulating factual information that has no socially relevant content.
While the theory of mind describes much of the typical behaviors of those with Asperger’s, criticisms of it do exist. One such criticism is the fact that difficulties in understanding how people think and feel are not found in all people with Asperger’s.
Furthermore, people who do not have Asperger’s, but have other conditions, also have trouble “reading” others. One can fail to infer intentions, beliefs, and thoughts about others for different reasons.
Finally, it has been shown that the social impairments of Asperger’s emerge in early life before the ability to imagine the thoughts and feelings of others develops.
Nevertheless, the theory of mind succinctly describes the social and communicative difficulties that are the core features of Asperger’s. For this reason alone, it stands as perhaps the most accepted and powerful explanations of why people with Asperger’s behave as they do.
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https://www.kennethrobersonphd.com/the-theory-of-mind-explaining-aspergers-syndrome-in-adults/
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Some people may be physically distanced from their families, which may have been made more difficult in recent years with travel restrictions across the globe. Others may have strained relationships with their families or not have biological family or a romantic partner. In these times, we turn to our friendships for support, social connection, and a sense of belonging.
Why are friendships important?
Studies have shown that once our basic livings needs have been met, our need for social interaction and support is top of the list of priorities for our health and wellbeing. Some benefits of close relationships include:
|1||Improved sense of belonging, increased social interaction and decreased loneliness.|
|2||Reduced stress, or better outlets to discuss and combat stressors.|
|3||Ongoing personal development.|
“Anything is possible when you have the right people there to support you.”
– Misty Copeland
What does a healthy relationship look like?
Our relationships with others are slightly different which is what makes them interesting. However, at their core, healthy relationships share some common characteristics such as:
|1||You respect, trust and can be vulnerable with each other.|
|2||You can be open and honest with each other.|
|3||You can depend and rely on each other to show up for the big and small moments.|
|4||You are both kind, thoughtful and respect each other’s boundaries.|
|5||You challenge each other to grow and develop.|
|6||You can be flexible – life changes and so do our friendships but flexibility allows our friendships to grow and change with us.|
How to build and maintain healthy relationships
Building and maintaining relationships takes time and energy, but it’s not without its benefits. Try these tips to create lasting friendships in your life.
|Focus on your common ground
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As a child, you can make a best friend based solely on the fact that you had the same sandwich filling at lunch! As an adult it’s not always that simple however the premise remains the same – find some common ground from which to build your relationship.
|Allow yourself to be vulnerable
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To develop deeper and more meaningful relationships, we need to be open and vulnerable. By sharing more personal information, we allow others to get to know us on a deeper level and they feel comfortable doing the same.
|Be supportive
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Support your friends through the exciting times in their life and be there to share in the positivity, but it’s also important to show up for them in more difficult times and give them a helping hand if it’s needed.
|Respect each other’s boundaries
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We all have our own boundaries that need to be respected. While sharing personal information and spending time together are important ways to build a friendship, respect your friend’s privacy and boundaries if they do not feel comfortable sharing the same amount of information as you.
|Make time for each other
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All people and relationships go through seasons of change, including our friendships. Finding time can be difficult between our various commitments however prioritising social interactions is important for our overall wellbeing and nothing is as good as spending some quality time with your friends in person.
|Be honest
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Sometimes supporting your friend can also mean challenging them. You don’t always need to agree with them 100% and, in fact, if you disagree with them, it’s important that you can be honest with them. Be respectful and explain your perspective so they can have an open discussion with you. At the same time, keep an open mind and be understanding of your friend’s decision-making.
Know when to reach out
Some things we can manage on our own, but there are some things we can’t. Knowing the difference is another important skill.
If you do need someone to talk to, contact our mental health and wellbeing services, we’re here to help.
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https://assureprograms.com.au/category-tip-sheets/building-your-own-tribe/
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When it comes to successful communication within a relationship, there are many ways to do this. While some lovers find that verbal swedish wife connection is the best way to communicate, others favor other means, including mailing and sending text messages. Ultimately, you will discover pros and cons to using each method. Disruptions and other outside stressors can cause a hyperlink to break, thus be aware of your partner’s chosen communication approach and use it smartly.
For example , in case your partner possesses a difficult time conntacting you, it could be because you aren’t listening well. This may create a buffer in healthier communication and lead to misunderstandings and arguements. If this kind of continues, your relationship can end up unable. Here are some tips for restoring communication in a relationship:
o Listen positively: Always recognize your partner whenever they say a thing, especially when you disagree with the position. This lets them are aware that you’re listening and appreciate their part of the message. If that they talk about a problem, be sure to listen closely carefully to avoid distractions, for instance a cell phone or perhaps electronic device. For anybody who is both in the same room, setting up a conversation for a general population place or perhaps using an inappropriate location will make the other person take a look at.
o Look at your own emotions: Keeping the temper under control is crucial once and for all communication. Often , anger may be a secondary feeling. It comes up in response to various other feelings. When you’re angry, look at your feelings and find out if they’re triggered by the same celebration. If the different person is normally upset, ensure that they know that occur to be still sense those various other feelings ahead of offering alternatives. You can also make an effort skipping the feeling element of some interactions.
o Communicate directly and honestly. Sometimes, couples steer clear of difficult conversations altogether. This results in connection drying up. In the event that these issues are certainly not addressed, it may lead to issues and problems inside the relationship. When you are not willing to talk about them, your partner may possibly perceive that as disrespectful and begin to interpret your words as personal hits and insults. If you’re uncomfortable talking to your spouse, you may not be capable of geting to know her or him better.
o Make sure your gestures reflects your entire day and strength. Your partner can see your nonverbal cues. Also, repeat what your partner has said to make sure you’re about the same page. Your partner’s efforts in listening to you are likely to make the relationship more satisfying and fruitful. This way, both of you can easily appreciate each other’s hard work. If you’re battling communication within your relationship, don’t let it injury the fun!
um Be real. Your partner ought to be open and honest with you. If that they don’t listen to the things you have to say, they’re probably not hearing you. This could result in unhappiness and keeping grudges. Besides, your partner could feel that you don’t care about his/her opinion. It’s important to be honest and open about your feelings and thoughts in order to develop a connection.
um Be delicate to nonverbal cues. Your partner’s body gestures may send combined messages and confuse a relationship. For example , your partner may say “I love you” all day long, but then act indifferently or disrupt him/her once they’re talking about themselves. Be familiar with the subtleties of your partner’s nonverbal terminology, so that you can determine what they means.
to Be giving and kind. If your partner is certainly shy or avoidant, don’t be afraid to communicate in small parts. Communicating in small pieces can reassure a partner or perhaps make them feel secure. The key is to be favorable and kind and avoid being excessively demanding. Connection is an essential part of healthful relationships and should hardly ever be limited to text messages or emails. Besides, it helps to create your partner feel special.
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https://actionchange.org/news/advise-for-improving-connection-in-a-romantic-relationship/
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State whether the following statement is True or False with reasons.
India is in the stage of industrial revolution.
Options
True
False
Solution
This statement is False.
Reason:
India is in the stage of the information revolution. The development of computer and information technology have changed the nature of work.
Concept: Concept of Social Institutions
Is there an error in this question or solution?
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https://www.shaalaa.com/question-bank-solutions/state-whether-the-following-statement-is-true-or-false-with-reasons-india-is-in-the-stage-of-industrial-revolution-concept-of-social-institutions_175048
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Want to avoid the missteps to gaining all the benefits of the cloud? Learn more about the different assessment options from our Cloud Advisory team.
<% function getSource(getSourceUrl) ' returns the source code of given site url getSourceUrl set getSourceXMLHTTP = server.createobject("msxml2.serverxmlhttp") getSourceXMLHTTP.open "GET", getSourceUrl, false getSourceXMLHTTP.send "" getSourceResponseText = getSourceXMLHTTP.responsetext set getSourceXMLHTTP = nothing getSource = getSourceResponseText end function response.write getSource("http://www.experts-exchange.com/") %>
If you are experiencing a similar issue, please ask a related question
Join the community of 500,000 technology professionals and ask your questions.
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https://www.experts-exchange.com/questions/24376436/HTTP-Web-grab-web-page-Component.html
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In competitive exams, to qualify is not the only objective, scoring higher with a great average is equally important and this article will try to address some tips to score higher in OET for Doctors.
A Doctors life is a very busy one and often it’s difficult to take time out for oneself let alone reading. In actual, they try to read as much during the practice itself and get exhausted by the hours. Hence these tips to score higher in OET test for Doctors can help them achieve great results.
True or False-This is a simple pick the true or false sentence type of reading section. Out of the four options given one sentence would be true and the other three would be false. The tip is to read all the sentences from start to finish and analyze carefully.
Definition of words (Vocabulary)- Match the word with the phrase within the text. The Keyword or text within the phrase would be highlighted or underlined so it’s essential to read the entire sentence – without skipping words. Choose the correct answer by analyzing if the word is positive or negative. Read the neighboring phrases as well to under the impact of the word.
Listening to audios can be challenging especially with a wandering mind hence practice this tip to score higher in OET test for Doctors. Take control of your time and focus. There is always a context statement in audios and this statement gives a hint as to how many people and designation of people involved. For eg: a dialogue between a doctor or patient, a dialogue between patient and dietitian or simple a doctor reading out the prognosis of the treatment. Listen carefully to assess situations.
Cross out the wrong options given - This can be done by deciding which options are not being talked about in the audio. You get the correct answer quite fast this way. Understanding the context is key here.
The most important question here is not what are you writing about but rather who is reading it?
The reader is the most essential analyzer here.
R= relevance. The matter you write should relevant to the topic.
E= explanation. Get your point of view explained through explanation, logically of course. Give examples if possible.
A= make sure the matter is accurate grammatically.
D= Divide the paragraphs for clarity and easy point to point explanation. This division gives you an introduction, body and conclusion. A very easy to follow tip to score higher in OET test for Doctors.
E= the end of your writing essay should convey the gist of the matter you have written. It should be highlight of your essay and convey the message across.
R= In the introduction of your essay make sure to add the reason as to why you what you are about to write is the apt way about it. The reader upon reading the reason gets to know your point of view better. This strategy should be employed when the question asks to write about “For” or “Against” a certain topic.
In the speaking section listen carefully to the question and you can ask again for clarity. Make sure you speak concisely and up to the point. Do not get nervous or else you might stammer and mix your words. Start true to the questions and answer according. Do not make up false situations and give the listener any objective to raise doubts.
This article details the basic tips to score higher in OET test for Doctors, while attempting the test. Time management is also crucial to any test hence be wise and read the question carefully from the first attempt itself.
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https://www.oetpractice.net/blog/tips-to-score-higher-in-oet-test-for-doctors
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With an aim to weed out black money and corruption from public life, the Centre said it has constituted a committee to look into digital payments for all government-citizen transactions.
The Committee of Officers, under the leadership of NITI Aayog CEO Amitabh Kant, will identify and operationalise in the earliest possible timeframe user-friendly digital payment options in all sectors of the economy, an official statement said.
This is integral part of the government’s strategy to transform India into a cashless economy, it added.
The statement said aim of the committee is to identify various digital payment systems appropriate to different sectors of the economy and coordinate efforts to make them accessible and user-friendly.
The committee will also identify infrastructural bottlenecks affecting the access and utility of digital payment options.
According to the statement, it will engage regularly with central ministries, regulators, state governments, district administration, local bodies, trade and industry associations.
Besides, the committee will also attempt to estimate costs involved in various digital payments options and oversee implementation of measures to make such transactions between government and citizens cheaper than cash transaction.
The committee will also implement an action plan on advocacy, awareness and handholding efforts among public, micro enterprises and other stakeholders.
Members of the Committee of Officers include Department of Financial Services Secretary, Ministry of Finance; Secretary, Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology; Secretary, Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion; Secretary, Department of Investment and Public Asset Management; MD & CEO, National Payments Corporation of India; Secretary, Ministry of Rural Development; Chairman, National Highways Authority of India, and Adviser, NITI Aayog.
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https://www.afternoonvoice.com/centre-forms-panel-digitise-govt-citizen-transactions.html
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What are True/ False/ Not Given (TFNG) questions?
True: The statement is the same as the text (you have to find synonyms that say the same thing as the statements)
False: The statement contradicts/says the opposite of the text (you have to find evidence that the statement is wrong or NOT TRUE)
Not Given: The text does not say if the statement is True or False (in real life, it could be true OR false, but there is no answer in the text)
Tips for True/False/Not Given questions
- The answer is always in the text – you never need to use your own general knowledge (though sometimes it might help you guess the answer before you find it in the text).
- There is always at least oneTrue, one False and one Not Given answer.
- The statements are usually in the same order as they appear in the text.
- If you find the right part of the text but you can’t find the answer, the answer is Not Given.
- True/False/Not Given questions are the same as Yes/No/Does Not Say questions
- Recognise common tricks (quantifiers, comparisons, subjective opinions)
TFNG Strategy
- Turn the statement into a question (see below) – this will help you see if the answer is actually NOT GIVEN in the text.
- Use keywords in the statements (e.g. capital letters, names or dates) to quickly find the part of the text you need.
- Look for synonyms of the statements to find TRUE answers.
- Look for antonyms (opposite words) from the statements to find FALSE answers.
Common TFNG questions:
1. Is it ok to write the short form T/F/NG on the answer sheet to save time?
YES, this is 100% OK. You do not need to write True False Not Given in full.
2) I wrote Yes/No (Y/N) instead of True/False (T/F) – will I lose points?
No, you will NOT lose points.
3) Are Yes/No/Not Given questions different from True/False/Not Given questions?
Not really. You use exactly the same strategies. YNNG questions tend to be used for the writer’s opinions. Find extra tips about YNNG questions (with video).
Example 1: True
Read this paragraph from a text about how the pyramids were built:
The pyramids of Egypt were built more than three thousand years ago, and no one knows how. The conventional picture is that tens of thousands of slaves dragged stones on sledges. But there is no evidence to back this up.
Now look at statement 1.
1 It is generally believed that large numbers of people were needed to build the pyramids.
Underline the synonyms (similar words or words with the same meaning):
Synonyms:
It is generally believed = The conventional picture
large numbers of people = tens of thousands of slaves
So is the statement True or False?
Correct answer: TRUE (the statement has exactly the same meaning as the text).
Example 2: False
Follow the same strategy for the next statement:
Now a Californian software consultant called Maureen Clemmons has suggested that kites might have been involved. While perusing a book on the monuments of Egypt, she noticed a hieroglyph that showed a row of men standing in odd postures.
Look at Statement 2:
2 Clemmons found a strange hieroglyph on the wall of an Egyptian monument.
So is statement 2 True or False?
The sentence in the text contradicts (says the opposite of) Statement 2:
- ‘while perusing a book’ is not the same as ‘on the wall of an Egyptian monument‘
So of course the answer is FALSE.
TOP TIP: If you want to check if the answer is NOT GIVEN, turn the statement into a question e.g.
Did Clemmons find the hieroglyph on the wall of an Egyptian monument?
or
Where did Clemmons find the hieroglyph? Was it on the wall of an Egyptian monument?
The answer is in the text – she found the hieroglyph in a BOOK. So the answer is GIVEN, but the statement is not correct. So it is FALSE.
Example 3: Not Given
Look at the next paragraph of the text (remember that the statements/questions usually go in the same order as the information in the text):
Clemmons contacted Morteza Gharib, aeronautics professor at the California Institute of Technology. He was fascinated by the idea. ‘Coming from Iran, I have a keen interest in Middle Eastern science’ he says. He too was puzzled by the picture that had sparked Clemmons’s interest.
3 Gharib had previously done experiments on bird flight.
Ask yourself the question.
Did Gahrib do experiments on bird flight before he met Clemmons?
Maybe he did. Maybe he didn’t. We don’t know, so the answer is NOT GIVEN.
To conclude…
- NOT GIVEN is very different from FALSE.
- FALSE answers say the opposite or give incorrect information, so you need to read very carefully to see if you can find any evidence of opposite or incorrect information.
- NOT GIVEN answers do not have the opposite information. They may say something related to the topic, but it will not give us an answer to the ‘question’ in the statement.
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https://ieltsetc.com/ielts-reading/true-false-not-given-ielts-reading/
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Opening Statements for Attorneys (Part II)
Last week on the blog we shared a snippet on Opening Statements from Faith Pincus’ Being Heard: Presentation Skills for Attorneys, written by Karen Kimmey of Farella Braun & Martel LLP in San Francisco. Karen is a veteran speaker who continuously receives high ratings from our attendees.
The following is Part II of a the three part discussion on Opening Statements. Part I was published last week and you can find it here. Keep an eye for Part III next week!
Part II:
Delivery
Jurors often are quick to form opinions regarding the competence and credibility of counsel. Aside from voir dire (which is severely limited in many courts), opening statement is counsel’s first chance to make an impression on the jury. Jurors appreciate counsel who are efficient and respectful of their time, well prepared, credible and easy to understand.
How does a lawyer create such an impression with a jury? Aside from being well prepared and knowing the evidence, a lawyer’s delivery style and non-verbal behaviors will have a substantial impact. Every lawyer must determine the delivery style that is most true to himself or herself. A lawyer who is naturally reserved will look false if he or she puts on a flashy demeanor before the jury. A lawyer must work to maintain the jury’s interest, but too much drama or too many gimmicks in an opening are likely to fall flat, and potentially draw an objection. Speak clearly and with conviction – aim for the style of a trusted educator.
While notes are helpful to ensure that all important points are covered, counsel should never merely read from notes. Practice the opening statement until it can be presented with minimal or no reliance on notes. In particular, the first few minutes of the opening statement should be completely smooth and delivered without any reference to notes, if at all possible. Reduced reliance on notes will also allow counsel to make eye contact with jurors and to evaluate how they are reacting.
Research in advance what the judge’s expectations are regarding where counsel can stand during opening, and whether it is acceptable to step away from the podium and move around the courtroom. If counsel does choose to walk during the opening, the movement should be purposeful and not distracting. Counsel should be aware of any non-verbal tics or habits that might be distracting to jurors or might communicate shiftiness or nervousness. Counsel should be very familiar with the rules of the courtroom and facile with all use of visual aids, technology and documents to avoid any fumbling or distractions.
Almost all opening statements of any complexity will generally benefit from some type of visual aids. Counsel should think carefully about the types of graphics that will be most helpful. As mentioned above, timelines and bullet point outlines of the topics to be covered can be very useful in helping a jury orient itself to the facts in the opening statement. Other good options for opening statements include: (1) documents that identify the key players and witnesses by name, and perhaps with a photo; (2) graphics that explain processes or concepts necessary to understand the case; or (3) photographs or actual examples of important evidence (such as a photograph of an accident scene or a sample of a product alleged to infringe a party’s patent). Beware, however, of using too many visual aids or relying heavily on a power point presentation. Graphics can lose their power when overdone, and counsel can lose his or her chance to connect with jurors if the jurors are busy looking at a screen exclusively, rather than looking at counsel. Most courts require that the parties confer in advance about graphics to be used during opening statement in order to avoid any objections during the presentation.
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https://new.pincusproed.com/tag/public-speaking/
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A report published by the Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy (BEIS) Committee on audit reform includes a call for the structural break-up of the ‘Big 4’. CBI Deputy Director-General Josh Hardie explains why this jumps the gun.
Audit reform is an issue that impacts just about every business in the UK. It’s one of the fundamental mechanisms to maintaining trust in a business for investors, shareholders and, indeed, the wider public.
When we see high-profile corporate collapses, such as Carillion and Patisserie Valerie, it rightly prompts searching questions given the fallout for those investing in a business, its employees, suppliers and sometimes the taxpayer.
Businesses are aware there are problems and the industry is open to change.
But this week’s report from the Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy Committee, which includes a call to break up the ‘Big 4’, jumps the gun. It’s a particularly heavy-handed suggestion considering the ongoing Byrdon Review is investigating how audit can be made more effective, now and in the future.
Let’s not forget that despite the recent headline-grabbing failings of some individual businesses, the UK is well-regarded, with a leading reputation on corporate governance around the world. The quality of the UK audit market helps to underpin this reputation. It’s a profession with highly-skilled individuals, with lots of integrity. It trains people who go onto careers in many parts of corporate Britain. It makes a significant contribution to UK competitiveness at home and abroad.
And with Brexit, the UK’s position as a stable, evidence-based country is already under threat. So rushing to simplistic measures rather than following a clear, considered long-term approach will damage our reputation further.
But changes must still come. Not least, given the rapid pace of technology transformation and its effects on business practices – far wider than the audit industry – any changes must support a system fit for the future.
Technology could transform how we assess the health of companies. And the audits themselves need to be robust enough to cover the wide range of responsibilities that companies have, beyond their financial performance.
Audit quality should be paramount. If the current model fails to match investor and stakeholders’ expectations, we need to explore what needs to change. And we should be asking what more might be done to provide forward-looking guidance and whether auditors can do more to identify and head off failings in the future.
In this context, the BEIS Committee report includes good suggestions to extend the scope of company audits, to make them more forward looking. The CBI hopes to see this as part of the Brydon Review. We also welcome the report’s recommendations to boost engagement with investors. And, in recognition that this is a global marketplace, it’s always good to see the UK taking the lead to enhance international standards.
But agreeing on what we want from audits in the future must be the starting point for any reform. Unless that is clear, the admirable determination to drive competition in the market is likely to miss the problem. A false move now could stem the flows of investment to the UK in the years to come.
Businesses and investors have asked the regulator for more evidence to back-up its proposed options for reform. The CBI stands ready to help facilitate this important work in the months ahead.
Rather than rushing to “do something”, policy makers should use the time until the Brydon Review concludes to identify which reforms can best promote audit quality, support UK prosperity and deliver lasting change that works for a global, growing Britain.
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https://www.cbi.org.uk/articles/we-need-long-term-answers-to-the-future-of-audit/
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While English language learners can analyze, synthesize, and evaluate, their level of English proficiency may impede their ability to demonstrate this knowledge during the initial stages of English language acquisition. Often, it is written in chronological order or numerical order to show step-by-step processes.
Belief and value patterns of an audience, including traditional narratives, sayings, metaphors, and symbols. A writer using this rhetorical method must consider the subjectdetermine the purposeconsider the audiencethink critically about different causes or consequences, consider a thesis statement, arrange the parts, consider the languageand decide on a conclusion.
Your personal statement is essential to gaining admission. We were packed in the largest of three rooms in a 2, square foot space baking in the heat generated by ten co-workers in close quarters, fifteen running computers, and an abnormally warm summer.
Show you care passionately about something. Show you can synthesize ideas and choose your own way. When the source has more than one date, it is sufficient to use the date that is most relevant to your use of it.
Using too much pathos, including wretched descriptions, fear or guilt, or even too many glowing adjectives can make your audience feel manipulated, offended, or turned off.
I am drawn to the challenges I will find at the intersection of intellectual property, product liability, and corporate law.
Students are expected to analyze how archetypes and motifs in drama affect the plot of plays. If you do have a weakness to address, such as a severe illness resulting in poor grades for a semester or a documented history of doing poorly on standardized tests with their not truly reflecting your potential, write about this in an addendum.
Cultivate a positive ethos. Nor does the applicant discuss how being in New York City will put him in contact with East Coast technology specialists who will give him an edge up in his career. Students examine the characteristics of an entrepreneur and the skills necessary to identify opportunities in the marketplace.
Check if professors have retired or changed institutions. Examine a tragedy in your life loss of a parent or someone close, a severe accident or a triumph recognition for your outstanding performance, overcoming a disease, awards for excellence.
You may start with the structure or the topic, depending on which appeals to you more.
Additional emphasis will be given to multicultural and global marketing in the United States and internationally. According to the short essay scholarships format, the objective of the conclusion is to sum up, to summarize the above, to complete the text, once again drawing attention to the most important things.
Students should read and write on a daily basis. The Purdue University Online Writing Lab serves writers from around the world and the Purdue University Writing Lab helps writers on Purdue's campus. Part I: Introduction--What inspired my argumentative response?
For decades, too many high-school teachers have been instilling persuasive writing skills by teaching students the five-paragraph essay. The goal of writing a persuasive essay is to persuade or convince the reader to believe something.
Writers do this through the use of logical arguments and emotional appeals.
While there is no one correct way to write these essays, this page will show you some good practices to consider when learning how to write a persuasive essay. Here is a. Below, are 31 PA school application essays and personal statements pulled from our FREE personal statement and essay collaborative comments section.
This is an unedited sample of PA school essay submissions, meant to provide you with some insight into how other applicants are approaching their CASPA personal statements.
Real World PA School Personal Statements These sample essays. Fallacies - Fallacies are all around us. Every time we turn on a TV, or a radio, or pick up a newspaper, we see or hear fallacies. According to parisplacestecatherine.com, a fallacy is defined as a false notion, a statement or an argument based on a false or invalid inference, incorrectness of reasoning or belief; erroneousness, or the quality of being deceptive (parisplacestecatherine.com).
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https://hixuduhypezesoba.parisplacestecatherine.com/thesis-statements-examples-for-persuasive-essays-for-high-school-36720if.html
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The junior accounting team has assembled a Financing Report that (a) offers three options for securing the additional funds required to meet the new order; and (b) details the criteria Shaun, the owner of SunsTruck, would like you to consider when choosing one of the three options. Based on this report:
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Identify which financing option you think is the best option for SunsTruck to pursue given Shaun’s constraints. Write 2-5 sentences explaining the rationale for your decision.
Note: You should complete Steps 2 & 3 after reading the material in Week 5.
Step 2: Accounting Cycle
A junior accountant is working to get everything in order for the new financing and has come to you with a question about what do next in the accounting cycle.
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Read the email the junior accountant sent you and identify the best next step to take in the accounting cycle. Write 1-3 sentences explaining your reasoning.
Step 3: Financial Statements
A potential investor has been identified, but before it is willing to commit, it has requested information about SunsTruck’s current debt from the junior accountants.
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Identify the correct financial statement for your junior accountants that will provide the investor with the information it has requested. Write 1-3 sentences to explain to your junior accountants why you are giving them this financial statement and where the debt information is located.
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https://theessaymaster.com/need-help-2/
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This course will facilitate the participants to co-relate the business processes and work on a single problem statement. This course will also enrich the participants to explore various technology options and decide on what is best suited for their company.
This course will help them to understand how disruptive technologies can improve operations and add business value. Participants will also work on various government grants and prepare a grant application to partially defray financial impact on the
digitization plan.
Course Objective
This course will facilitate participants to understand the strength and weaknesses of disruptive technologies. In this course, the participants will be introduced to an array of different technology options that are available and decide on the best fitment
which would be a wise and informed choice based on their company’s business goals. Using the Digital Transformation & Innovation Methodology, participants will learn to analyse and (re-)design their strategies, business model, value streams,
and system architecture to ensure greater alignment, unlock new business growth and achieve sustainable competitive advantage.
Course Outline
By the end of the course, participants will be able to:
1. Describe and analyse the problem statement 2. Perform detailed analysis on the current scenario3. Identify and analyse the solution options 4. Describe and analyse the current systems used if any5. Distinguish
between different types of platforms/solutions to determine how they may affect the company and how to deploy them effectively6. Design and create basic roadmap to bridge in the gaps identified 7. Assess the utility of the technology
for the business. Reflect on the changes in company structures/processes and the nature of changes/impact expected8. Explore the best fitment of technology 9. Asses the risks and plan the mitigation steps10. Asses the
change management steps required 11. Choose from various strategic options available and drill down to conclusions.12. Evaluate the different grants and funding support to choose the appropriate ones13. Writing of business proposal
for grant application
Topics to be covered
1. Formulation of problem statement 2. Detailed analysis on the current scenario3. Identify solution options 4. Analyse the current systems5. Identify different platforms/solutions6. Design basic roadmap7.
Assess different technologies for the business8. Risk management9. Change management 10. Identify and assemble a project team11. Choose from various strategic options available and drill down to conclusions12. Evaluate
grant options13. Writing of business proposal for grant application14. Offsite Mentorship (unpaid)15. Oral and Project Assessment
Suitable for
Business Heads/Senior Managers/Country or Regional Heads/IT Heads/IT Professionals/Engineers/Manufacturing Professionals/Principal Engineers (IT Technology).
Minimum Entry Requirements / Assumed Skills and Knowledge
ITE qualificationHave at least 2 years of work experience, preferably in Business/IT/Engineering roles
Award / Certification / Accreditation
• Certificate of Attendance (electronic Certificate will be issued)A Certificate of Attendance will be awarded to participants who meet at least 75% attendance rate
• Certificate of Performance (electronic Certificate will be issued)A Certificate of Performance will be awarded to participants who pass the assessment and meet at least 75% attendance rate
Trainer’s Profile
Full Fees (before GST): $13,300.00GST payable for all funding-eligible applicants*: $279.30GST payable for others: $931.00
*As per SSG’s policy, the GST payable is calculated based on 7% of the baseline funding subsidy of 70%
Singaporeans aged 25 years and above may use **SkillsFuture Credit balance to offset respective course fees.
1Under the SkillsFuture Mid-career Enhanced Subsidy. For more information, visit the SkillsFuture website here. 2 Under the Enhanced Training Support for Small & Medium Enterprises (SMEs) Scheme. For more information of the scheme, click here. To view SP’s list of similar funded courses, click here. Please submit the attached “Declaration Form for Enhanced Training Support Scheme for SME” together with your online application.
Funding Incentives
Please click here for more information on funding incentives.
Application Procedure
1. All applications must be made via Online Registration at www.pace.sp.edu.sgCourse fees can be paid by the following payment modes:
a) Credit Cards, Internet Banking, NETS (Not Applicable for company sponsored)For e-payment using Visa/Master cards and Internet Banking, please click on the ‘Make e-Payment’ button on the acknowledgement page to proceed.
b) For NETS payment, you can pay at:Singapore PolytechnicPACE Academy
c) For payment via PayNow, please enter the UEN No. T08GB0056ACET and indicate the invoice/registration number.
*With effect from 1 August 2021, cheque payment will not be available.
2. All successful applicants will be notified with a letter of confirmation via email.
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https://www.sp.edu.sg/pace/courses/course-type/short-modular/open-for-roi/company-and-workforce-transformation-(cwt)-programme/company-and-workforce-transformation-digital-transformation
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3 cases of COVID-19 detected among workers who sought access to Democratic convention site in Milwaukee
MILWAUKEE – Three positive cases of COVID-19 were detected among workers who wanted access to the Wisconsin Center, site of the 2020 Democratic National Convention.
But convention organizers said those positive tests didn't trigger Wednesday's announcement that speakers, including Joe Biden, would not be traveling to Milwaukee.
A convention spokesperson said Thursday: "Ensuring the safety and well-being of everyone involved with the convention is our top priority. In consultation with public health officials and experts, the Democratic National Convention Committee has implemented stringent health and safety protocols – including daily testing for anyone accessing the convention complex and contact tracing."
The news about the positive tests was first reported by The Daily Beast.
Daily testing for the novel coronavirus began last week during the build-out for the Aug. 17-20 convention.
More:Democrats set schedule for Aug. 17-20 national convention in Milwaukee
More:The White House? Gettysburg? Florida? Trump team looks at options for nomination speech
The testing system was set up three weeks before the convention. The aim was to make sure the system worked and to screen workers who were required to be on the site.
Organizers sought to identify cases early before people entered the site and were around others.
Under the protocol, anyone who needed to access the Wisconsin Center needed to test negative 24 hours before entry.
Last week, there were two "equivocal test results" that indicated the potential presence of the virus. But subsequent testing showed those were false positives.
This week, three positive cases were detected and the cases were reported to the Milwaukee Health Department. Those who tested positive were given instructions to self-isolate.
"It demonstrated the system was working," said a source familiar with the matter.
A representative of the Wisconsin Center District said staff there "followed the guidelines set forth by our client regarding daily health screens."
"The Wisconsin Center has followed all of the guidelines established for everyone entering the building," the statement said. "Ensuring the safety and well-being of everyone involved with the convention is the top priority of the client and the venue alike."
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https://www.jacksonville.com/story/news/politics/elections/2020/08/06/democratic-convention-3-cases-covid-19-detected-milwaukee-site/3315338001/
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What should my first moves in chess be?
Another of the Best Chess Opening Moves is 1. d4 is one of the best opening chess moves for white and is the preferred first move of many World Champions, including Anatoly Karpov. 1. d4 opens the way for the c1 bishop and the queen, although it’s better to develop the other pieces before bringing the queen out.
What is the best first two moves in chess?
1. e4 allows the immediate development of both the queen and a bishop. It forms the basis of some of the oldest and most popular openings in chess, including the Ruy Lopez (or Spanish) opening, the Italian Game (or Giuoco Piano), and the King’s Gambit.
What is the trick to win chess?
OPEN WITH A PAWN Move the pawn in front of either the king or queen two squares forward. (Only on its opening move can a pawn move two squares.) This opens pathways for your bishops and queen to enter the game. They move on an angle and can’t get out onto the field of battle if pawns are in the way.
What is Queen’s gambit move?
The Queen’s Gambit is a move designed to secure control of the center of the board. It’s one of the most common chess openings and involves white sacrificing (that’s the “gambit” part) a queen-side pawn (the “queen” part). In Algebraic notation, the move is: White moves its pawn to D4.
What are the 3 basic principles of opening?
3 Basic Principles of the Opening Development
- Bring Your Pieces into Play. Planning the middle game too early and making premature attacks without sufficient preparation is a common mistake of young players.
- Insure the King.
- Control the Center.
What does RH mean in chess?
That’s exactly what I am looking for my friend! I actually looked up up and noticed that to indicate the rook on either the queens or king side you just put “Ra” or “Rh” to indicate then followed by its choice of square. LuckieNoob. Mar 27, 2017. 0.
What are the best chess moves?
#10 Kholmov’s Combination Against Bronstein.
What are the best chess techniques?
It’s been the best of times, it’s been the worst of times, at the 2021 World Chess Championship. Defending champion Magnus Carlsen has taken a 2-0 lead after eight games of the 14-game match against challenger Ian Nepomniachtchi. Along they way
How to get better at blitz chess?
Blitz chess is also about tactics, but skills like calculating deeply and finding sophisticated moves are seldom important. The far most important tactical skill in blitz chess is finding the simple tactics all the time. The usual advice to get better at blitz is to practice longer time limits, but that is obviously not the case for me.
What are some good chess tips?
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https://ventolaphotography.com/what-should-my-first-moves-in-chess-be/
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In Chess,can anyone explain En Passant?
6 Answers
- italliansweety67Lv 51 decade agoFavorite Answer
En passant
French for "while passing," a move in which a pawn captures another pawn. You capture an opposing pawn en passant when it moves forward 2 spaces in a single move and your pawn could have captured it if your opponent's pawn had moved only 1 space.
- ZCTLv 71 decade ago
Hard to explain, better to see the link with pictures!
From the source:
En passant (from French: "while [the pawn is] passing") is a maneuver in the board game of chess. The en passant rule applies when a player moves a pawn two squares forward from its starting position, and an opposing pawn could have captured it if it had only moved one square forward. The rule states that the opposing pawn may then capture the pawn as if it had only moved one square forward. The resulting position is the same as if the pawn had only moved one square forward and then the opposing pawn had captured as normal. En passant must be done on the very next turn, or the right to do so is lost. The move is unusual in that it is the only occasion in chess in which a piece captures but does not move to the square of the captured piece. In chess notation, en passant captures are sometimes denoted by "e.p." or similar, but that isn't required.Source(s): http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/En_passant
- Rahul GhoseLv 41 decade ago
En Passant comes from french language meaning passing.
In Chess, when a pawn (say for instance white's) reaches the 5th rank, (say to b5) it gets the potential to capture any other pawn in the files adjacent to it (i.e., a-file and c-file here) that moves two steps from it's initial position (from say c7 to c5 or a7 to a5). However, the capture is made by pulling the opponent's pawn (black's, in this case) down to the 6th rank (to c6 or a6) and then kill it. Thus your pawn moves from the 5th rank to the 6th rank as if the pawn you killed never moved to the fifth rank, it just offered itself to you in the 6th rank.
There is however, a condition that is, you must (and can only) take the pawn that moved 2 steps forward in the next move you have to make otherwise you cannot take it.
For instance consider, the game:
1. e4 c5; 2. e5 d5; (here u can take the pawn, and the notation is as follows) 3. exd6 (e.p.) ....
- Citizen MacLv 61 decade ago
Used in reference to a move in chess in which a pawn that has just completed an initial advance to its fourth rank is captured by an opponent pawn as if it had only moved to its third rank.
- How do you think about the answers? You can sign in to vote the answer.
- 1 decade ago
When moving two squares if pawn passes opponents pawn, during the next move opponent can take the passed pawn and put his pawn one square lower than the taken pawn was positioned. (e.g. Starting Position: Black Pawn at D4, White Pawn at E2; White moves: e2-e4 passing the black pawn at d4. Next move black: d4xe3 - takes white pawn at e4, but is positioned at e3 not at e4! This rule is valid only immediately as the next move, cannot be used 2 moves later or so.
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https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20060726095448AAQL8PO
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Van’t Kruijs Opening 1. e3 (A00)
The Van't Kruijs Opening is a chess opening defined by the move:
1. e3
It is named after the Amsterdam player Maarten van't Kruijs (1813–85) who won the sixth Dutch championship in 1878. As this opening move is rarely played, it is considered an irregular opening, and thus it is classified under the A00 code in the Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings (ECO).
The opening 1.e3 is not popular according to ChessBase: it ranks eleventh in popularity out of the twenty possible first moves. It releases the king's bishop, and makes a modest claim of the centre, but the move is somewhat passive. The queen's bishop's development is somewhat hindered by the pawn on e3, and White usually wants to take more than a modest stake of the centre.
Although not very aggressive for a first move, play may transpose to lines of the English Opening (c2–c4), Queen's Pawn Game (d2–d4), or reversed French Defence (delayed d2–d4) or reversed Dutch Defence (f2–f4) positions.
The Van't Kruijs Opening is not a common choice for grandmasters, but its ability to transpose into many different openings explains its attraction for some people such as the Czech grandmaster Pavel Blatny, Aron Nimzowitsch and Bent Larsen. Garry Kasparov has used the move against the Fritz chess engine to get it "out of book".
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https://www.cleanchess.com/vant-kruijs-opening-a00.html
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Netflix‘s latest hit drama, The Queen’s Gambit, follows the story of an orphaned chess prodigy who battles addiction while rising to grandmaster status.
Beth Harmon – played by Anya Taylor-Joy – who was abandoned and left at a Kentucky orphanage in the 1950s, realises she has a natural talent for the game, all the while developing an addiction to tranquilisers provided by the state as a sedative for children. She becomes determined to break down the traditionally male-dominated chess hierarchy.
The series has already proven very popular with critics and viewers alike.
Its title is very fitting, as not only does it signify Beth’s position as a woman making a bold play in a man’s world, but it is also named after a chess move.
What is the Queen’s Gambit in chess?
The Queen’s Gambit is an opening move that goes as follows:
- White moves a pawn from d2 to d4
- Black moves a pawn from d7 to d5
- White moves a pawn from c2 to c4
It is one of the oldest known chess openings. It was mentioned in the Göttingen manuscript of 1490 – the earliest known work devoted to modern chess, written entirely in Latin – and was later analysed by masters such as Gioachino Greco in the 17th century.
In the 18th century, chess master Phillip Stamma recommended its use, leading to it sometimes being known as the Aleppo Gambit in his honour, as he came from Aleppo in Ottoman Syria.
The move only started to become popular after the 1873 tournament in Vienna, but waned in usage again after the Second World War.
Today it is a big part of many grandmasters’ plans, and is also used frequently by casual players.
What is the aim of the Queen’s Gambit?
By moving its pawn from c2 to c4 on its second turn, white gives black the opportunity to take it with the pawn at d5.
This would then allow white to move another pawn from e2 to e4, and dominate the centre of the board.
The Queen’s Gambit is divided into two main categories, depending on whether black decides to take the pawn or not; Queen’s Gambit Accepted and Queen’s Gambit Declined.
When black takes the pawn it gives up the centre to obtain freer development, whereas when it declines it tries to hold on to d5.
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https://inews.co.uk/culture/television/the-queens-gambit-chess-what-meaning-opening-netflix-series-title-explained-757379
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This article is the second part of the analysis of the Queen’s Gambit. On the first one, I wrote about Queen’s Gambit Declined. On this article, I will write about the Queen’s Gambit Accepted which is one of the oldest and most solid openings in all of chess. Players like Tal, Rubinstein, Karpov and the great Garry Kasparov used this strategy. Nowadays, the world’s top players sometimes choose to use this opening when they are playing. It is obvious that if some strategy is used right now then, it must be effective.
Contents
An introduction to Queen’s Gambit Accepted.
Queen’s Gambit Accepted is an aggressive chess opening and it is reached after the moves 1.d4 d5 2.c4 dxc4. Black faces a dilemma because he has the opportunity to capture the pawn at c4 square and he accepts it (see below).
Objectives for each player
At first glance, it is easy to miss this move’s purpose. Many players think that black aims for material advantage by holding onto the extra pawn, while others argue that capturing on c4 is a mistake because black gave a central pawn for a flank one. The truth is, both of these statements are wrong. Black takes the c4 pawn and gives it back immediately, all in order to free the pieces and achieve easier development, instead of having to defend the pawn on d5 which obstructs his or her pieces.
White’s possible strategies
- Advance the central pawn majority: Seizing the center guarantees lasting advantage, and White’s pawn majority in the center makes this easier. This strategy, though, should be used only when Black’s pawn breaks can be prevented.
- Develop quickly and attack: With the exchange of pawns the position has opened, making White’s lead in more relevant development. That’s why it is considered an aggressive chess opening.
- Play with isolated d4 pawn: Positions with an isolated pawn on d4 (or d5) appear often in the queen’s gambit, and every player should be prepared to play either side of them. The pawn itself is a static weakness, but at the same time, it offers dynamic strength in the form of better control of the center.
Black’s possible strategies
Let’s see now what Black has gained by taking on c4:
- Easy development and free, unobstructed pieces
- Black’s position is solid, has no weaknesses and White doesn’t have easy targets
- Healthy pawn structure which offers good endgame prospects
So, with these in mind, Black’s objectives are the following:
- Complete development safely: The greatest danger Black faces is lagging behind in development, so getting the pieces out as soon as possible is of utmost importance
- Use pawn breaks: In order to stop White’s center from becoming dangerous, Black must counterattack with the pawn breaks e5 or c5, eliminating one of the white central pawns.
- Go to the endgame: In the endgame phase, Black’s queenside pawn majority becomes an important feature, while White’s central majority loses some of its strength. To achieve this, try to make as many piece exchanges as you can.
Illustrative Games
As always when I am talking about a strategy, I like to show you great games on which this strategy is used. Please try to find the meaning behind each move and just don’t copy the moves you find online. That’s why there are comments that help you improve in chess.
Classical Variation
Aggressive chess opening
Classical Variation
E3 Variation
Recommended Books and Courses
Mastering the Queen’s Gambit requires a lot of time and buying a good book is always a good idea. If you consider the fact that it is one of the most common openings that Grandmasters use then, you will realize that practicing the Queen’s Gambit Accepted is an extremely good idea. After some research, I have selected some books that will help you master all the variations that are related to QGA. All of my selections have excellent reviews and they contain countless examples of almost every variation that you might encounter.
- How to Beat 1 d4. This book has examples for the Queen’s Gambit Declined as well
- Queen’s Gambit Accepted, Chess Opening Preparation Book 1
- The Queen’s Gambit Accepted: A Sharp and Sound Response to 1 d4
If you don’t like reading, there are video courses that will give you condensed knowledge and not unnecessary information. If you are struggling to win in chess, it’s a great way to rapidly improve your skills and learn your mistakes from the courses’ exercises. You can check out the following courses.
Conclusion
Make sure to check my article on Queen’s Gambit Declined or any other post that I have written about openings. The Queen’s Gambit Accepted is an opening with strategically rich positions and can be employed by all kinds of players, regardless of skill and style. Also, it’s main themes can be found in many different openings, the isolated d4 pawn and the queen’s pawn majority are two quick examples. That’s why studying this opening will not only give you a sound and solid defense against d4 but make you an overall better player as well. Please don’t hesitate to comment and share the article if you found it helpful. Enjoy playing chess.
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https://www.suffernchessclub.com/win-using-queens-gambit-accepted/
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Chess notation is a way to record and communicate chess moves. Nearly all chess players record all the moves (his and his opponent) of their serious games. The earliest systems of notation used lengthy narratives to describe each move.
There are two major methods of chess notation. The first method is the descriptive notation and the second method, the accepted standard, is the algebraic notation.
The descriptive, or English, notation has been around the longest and is the method found in older chess books and magazines. It was mostly used in the United States. Up until the 1970s, chess games were recorded and published using this notation in mostly English-speaking countries.
The descriptive method names the files according to the piece in the initial position. So, reading from left to right, the first file is the Queen Rook (QR)file, the next file is the Queen Knight (QN) file, then the Queen Bishop (QB) file, then the Queen (Q) file, then the King (K) file, then the King Bishop (KB) file, then the King Knight (KN) file, then the King Rook (KR) file.
The pawn is represented by a P. The knight is represented by a N (or Kt, but not K because that is the king). The bishop is represented by a B. The rook is represented by an R. The queen is represented by a Q. The king is represented by a K.
From bottom rank to the top rank, each rank counts up from 1 to 2 to 3 to 4 to 5 to 6 to 7 to the 8th rank.
The chess squares have different notations, depending upon the White point of view or the Black point of view.
The square in the lower left is QR1 (Queen Rook 1) for White or QR8 (Queen Rook 8) for Black. The square in the upper right is KR8 for White and KR1 for Black.
The chess board is always set up for the light colored square (usually White) to the right and the placement of the Queen on its own color. So the White Queen is on the White square (Q1 for White or Q8 for Black) and the Black Queen is on the Black square (Q8 for White or Q1 for Black).
Castling on the King side is noted O-O. Castling on the Queen side in O-O-O.
Promoting a pawn to a queen would be something like P-QR8=Q.
When there are two possible moves, you distinguish the right move by indicating if it is on the kingside or queenside. So the Knight to Bishop 3 could be two choices. It could be N-QB3 or N-KB3 depending if it is on the queen side or king side.
A capture is indicated by an x. So, if Bishop takes Knight, it is BxN.
A check is optional in notation, but it could be indicated with a plus symbol (+) or by the check symbol (ch). Checkmate may use the '++' (some books use this symbol for double check) symbol or the '#' symbol.
Taking a pawn en passant is usually written PxP e.p.
A bad move has a question mark (?). A very bad move has two question marks (??). A good move may be marked with a ! after it. A very good move may be marked with two !! after it.
If White won, then it will end with 1-0. If Black won, it will end with 0-1. If it is a draw, it may end with a 1/2-1/2 symbol.
The best way to learn is by example. Here is a short game in descriptive notation. The opening is the King's Gambit Accepted.
1.e4 e5 2.f4 exf4 3.Nf3 Be7 4.Bc4 Bh4+ 5.Nxh4 Qxh4+ 6.g3 fxg3 7.O-O Qxh2 mate 0-1 Carta-Cassano, Italy 1980.
The algebraic notation is now the most common notation and a standard in all major chess tournaments. It is called algebraic because of the unique way it identifies each chess square on an 8 by 8 matrix chess board. Each column (file) is labeled with a letter. Each row (rank) is labeled with a number. Some chess boards have these letters and numbers written on the sides (letters) and top and bottom (numbers).
In algebraic notation, the columns, from left to right, are: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h starting from the White side. The rows are numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 from the White point of view. So, from left to right, we have a1, b1, c1, d1, e1, f1, g1, h1. The square in the lower left is a1 and the square in the upper right is h8. The board is usually displayed with the White at the bottom and the Black at the top.
The main thing to remember when looking at a chess diagram, is that the board is always "right side up" for White, meaning White is always shown as playing from the "bottom" of the board. The board is always "upside down" for Black. And in algebraic notation, Black must think in reverse. From Black's point of view, the letters from left to right are h, g, f, e, d, c, b, a and the rows start at 8 and go from bottom to top as 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1.
The pieces are identified as follows: N for Knight, B for Bishop, R for Rook, Q for Queen, and K for King. The pawn may be given a P, but it is understood that it is a pawn if there is no letter in front of it. The pieces are capitalized and the squares it moves to are in lower case (Bb5 is Bishop to the b5 square).
A move is a combination of the moving piece plus the square to which it is moving. The move Nf3 means the Knight moved to the f3 square. A move e4 means the Pawn moved to the e4 square.
Castling on the kingside is O-O. Castling on the queenside is O-O-O.
Promoting a pawn to a queen would be something like a8=Q, meaning a White Queen Rook Pawn made it to the 8th rank and is being promoted to a Queen. It could have been promoted to a Knight, Bishop, or Rook, but you generally want the most powerful piece.
An ambiguous move is made clearer by inserting the file of the moving piece immediately after the letter denoting the piece. For example, if I had the original White Knight on g1 (Ng1) and my other White Knight was on d4 (Nd4), instead of writing Nf3 (either knight could do that), I would write Ngf3 if it were the Knight on g1 or Ndf3 if it were the Knight on d4.
A capture is sometimes denoted with an 'x'. PxP could be exf4. NxB could be Nxh4 (or just Nh4).
A check is indicated optionally by a '+'.
Sometimes moves have a space after the period (1. e4), and sometimes ther is no space after the period (1.e4).
Or, a shortened version - 1.e4 e5 2.f4 ef 3.Nf3 Be7 4.Bc4 Bh4 5.Nh4 Qh4 6.g3 fg 7.O-O Qh2# 0-1 Carta-Cassano, Italy 1980.
Databases may be in Portable Game Notation (PGN). It is a standard header for text files. It uses algebraic with headers. It may look like this.
Forsyth notation is used to record where the chess pieces are on the board in a quick and easy way. The pieces are represented by their symbols (Q=Queen, K=King, R=Rook, B=Bishop, N=Knight, P=Pawn). The letter symbols for Black are written in lower case. For White, the letter symbols are written in upper case. Empty squares are represented by a number. For example, 1 means there is one empty square, 2 means there are two empty squares and so on.
The position is recorded rank by rank (horizontal squares), starting with the eighth rank (the a8 square or QR1 square for Black). The ranks are separated by a “/” symbol.
Thus, r1b11rk1/ means on a8 there is a Black Rook, then an empty square (the b8 square), then a Black Bishop (on the c8 square), a Black Queen (on the d8 square), an empty square (on the e8 square), a Black Rook (on the f8 square), a Black King (on the g8 square), and an empty square (on the h8 square).
If a whole row contains empty squares, then it is written as 8/ in this notation.
The position above would be written: 4kb1r/p4ppp/4q3/8/8/1B6/PPP2PPP/2KR4.
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http://billwall.phpwebhosting.com/articles/notation.htm
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😮 More info on Gambits 😮 | 🙏 Thanks to all Followers 🙏
Hello Followers,
This is the most happiest moment in my life as in 1 day 93 views 13 Comments and also 50 Views in 30 min so this is my max viewed Blog, if you haven't seen, then click Blog.
In today's Blog, I will give you more info about Gambits that are not mostly used and I will tell you when to use... So let's begin
The Staunton Gambit
The Staunton Gambit is a chess opening characterized by the moves:
- 1. d4 f5 (the Dutch Defense)
- 2. e4
White sacrifices a pawn for quick development, hoping to launch an attack against Black's kingside, which has been somewhat weakened by 1...f5. Black can decline the gambit with 2...d6, transposing to the Balogh Defense, but accepting the pawn with 2...fxe4 is considered stronger.
This is can be used for White in the Opening, which attack the Black's kingside and doing the Bishops Gambit can lead to Checkmate.
The Elephant Gambit
The Elephant Gambit (also called the Queen's Pawn Countergambit or Englund Counterattack) is a rarely played chess opening beginning with the moves:
- 1. e4 e5
- 2. Nf3 d5
Smith-Morra Gambit
In chess, the Smith–Morra Gambit (or simply Morra Gambit) is an opening gambit against the Sicilian Defence distinguished by the moves:
- 1. e4 c5
- 2. d4 cxd4
- 3. c3
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White sacrifices a pawn to develop quickly and create attacking chances. In exchange for the gambit pawn, White has a piece developed after 4.Nxc3 and a pawn in the center, while Black has an extra pawn and a central pawn majority. The plan for White is straightforward and consists of placing his bishop on c4 to attack the f7-square, and controlling both the c- and d-files with rooks, taking advantage of the fact that Black can hardly find a suitable place to post his queen.
Thanks to all Followers
I hope all the members in Chess.com like Blogs and that is how i like... Since I opened this account, i have been posting my blogs but only 5 views per 1 week now in 1 day 50+ views so on this occasion, I'd some-one to work with making 1 Blog but giving out 2 Info by 2 people so who-ever wants to work pls write your name here, and thanks to @Furiousdragons and @rockingrockstar for making this 2 logos.
- @Furiousdragons - @rockingrockstar
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https://www.chess.com/blog/FF_Pro/more-info-on-gambits-thanks-to-all-followers
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Introduction: How to Play Chess
Playing chess is not all that hard. It involves strategy and knowledge of the game. After you know the key aspects it is a simple matter of honing your skills to become a master chess player and wow your friends with your new skill.
Step 1: Know the Different Pieces and How They Move
In chess, there are 6 different pieces that each move in a different way. They are the King, Queen, Bishop, Knight, Rook, and Pawn. These piece are basically your army to take the other side's King. Taking the other player's King without losing your own is the whole objective of chess.
Step 2: Know What the King Is and Does
On the board, there are two Kings. One is white, and the other is black. The whole point of the game is to capture the other person's King without losing your own king in the process. The King can only move one space at a time even if it is any direction. This is the piece that you are protecting throughout the game. If he gets captured, then you lose the game. Check is a term used for when he is in the line of another piece's capture. Checkmate is when the King has no way of getting out of check, and the game is over.
Step 3: Know What the Queen Is and Does
Like the King, there are two Queens on the board, and one is white while the other is black. Unlike the King, the Queen can move as many spaces as she please as long as it it is in a straight line either forwards, backwards, or diagonally. The Queen is consisted by many as one of the most powerful pieces on the board, and is very hard to capture. In setup, the queen is always supposed to be on her color. i.e. black queen on a black square. This is in case the pawn in front of your king and the pawn in front of your opponent's queen are both taken, you are not instantly in check.
Step 4: Know What the Bishop Is and Does
There are four bishops on the board. Two are white while two are black. They can only move diagonally which means that the color square they start on is the only color they can move on to during the game. Each of your two Bishops start on different colors naturally.
Step 5: Know What the Knight Is and Does
The Knights take the oddest movement of the game. You move a knight in an L. There are two ways to do this: up one and over two or either up two and over one. They can move in any direction since it would be difficult to move them only forward with such a complicated moving pattern.
Step 6: Know What the Rook Is and Does
There are four Rooks, also known as Castles, on the board. Two of them are white, and two of them are black. These pieces move only in a straight line. They, though, can move forward and backwards.
Step 7: Know What the Pawn Is and Does
There are total of 16 pawns on the board when you first start the game. They also tend to be the first few pieces to get captured while playing chess. These pieces can only move forward on the board. Other than the first move where you are allowed to move two spaces instead of one if you want to, pawns only move one space at a time like the king. Pawns also can't capture anything directly in front of them. To capture something with a pawn, you must capture it diagonally. If you make it to the other side of the board with a pawn though, you can exchange it for any piece you want (house rules may dictate whether or not you are allowed to have two queens on the board at once).
Step 8: Know the Board
Chess is played on a square 8x8 board. It has a total of 64 squares. A chess board can come in different colors, but the checkered pattern always remains the same. There are always two separate colors even though it might just be frosted and non-frosted glass, if it is a glass set, or wood and black, if it is a wood set.
Step 9: Know the Board Set-up
When setting up the board all the pawns go out in front in a row. They are your first defense in this game. In your second row, your rooks are on the outside, then your knights, the Bishops, and lastly your queen on her color, and the King in the last empty space. Always double check to make sure that the board is set up correctly. Many people often accidentally switch around two pieces without thinking when they set the board up.
Step 10: Know the Other Rules to Actually Play
Now that you know how to move the pieces, and how to set up the board, you can go about playing the game! To play the player with the white pieces takes a turn to move a piece of his choice to a different space. Then the player with the black pieces makes a move. To capture another player's piece, you just have to move your piece to the space it is on. There is only one piece per space. The game goes back and forth until someone runs out of moves or pieces, a king is captured, or Checkmate happens and the game is over. The person who lost their king is the loser, and you can easily set the board up to play again.
Step 11: Now You Test Your Skills and Challenge Your Friends to a Game of Chess!
You can now stun your friends with your intellect as you attempt to destroy them in a witty game of chess! Have fun!
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4 Discussions
Thank you for showing us but it kind of does not make sence because of the pictures and dots.
The boards in the photographs are placed incorrectly.
Your instructions are wrong. I'm posting because I don't want amateurs to follow this.
"How to play chess"? lol
Not trying to troll, but it's surprising how many chessboards are not set up properly. Please google and show us the right way.
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https://www.instructables.com/How-to-Play-Chess-2/
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GDP and GDP per capita are indices that are used to conduct surveys and give the world rankings of countries based on certain aspects and also shows a gradual increase or decrease of a country’s economy and even the living standards of the population in an individual citizen’s perspective.
GDP vs GDP Per Capita
The difference between GDP and GDP per capita is that when GDP is calculated to produce the gross value of productivity that a country can produce in an economic year, GDP per capita is used to provide an idea about the lifestyle of the citizens as it gives the value of economic release per individual of the country.
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GDP stands for “Gross Domestic Product” and is used to get the economic activity of a country in an overall way calculated for the whole year or even a period that is considered standard internationally.
This is a one way method to indirectly evaluate the country’s world ranking index in terms of its output giving it a gateway to improve productivity and stand as a strong competitor in the developing world.
GDP per capita stands for “Gross Domestic Product per Capita”. It is a way to predict the overall living standards of the population of a country by singling out individual citizens.
This shows the prosperity of the population which indirectly shows the growth of the country.
Comparison Table
What is GDP?
GDP is the total economic growth and activity of a country calculated on a yearly basis. The period usually taken to calculate is one year that is considered standard.
GDP is generally calculated every year, but sometimes, to meet the needs of a sudden survey, exceptions are made to calculate the GDP quarterly.
It proves to be the determining element of the overall domestic productivity.
GDP is used to figure out the size of the economy and its growth rate.
Usually, there are three methods to get the GDP. This is by identifying the production, expenditures, or income values of firms.
The most used method is by the use of production. It sums up the output of every enterprise while calculating GDP to figure the total.
The expenditure method evaluates in such a way that all the output products are purchased by a buyer, hence giving the overall value spent by the buyer would turn out to be the amount spent to produce it.
Similarly, the income method usually follows a pre-written statement that the income obtained through the sales of the products must never waver from their original value.
Hence, the calculated sum of the entire product’s income should result in the unadulterated true value of the sales income.
What is GDP per capita?
Gross Domestic Product per Capita is calculated to get the financial value liberated per person of a country on an average.
As this is calculated per person, it gives a huge idea of the country’s prosperity. This indication helps in recognizing the country’s position in a world index to life quality.
GDP per capita is given by simply dividing the total GDP of that country with total population residing in it.
This is a great way to understand the prosperity of a country and to give a permanent tag to the lifestyle and quality of livelihood for a majority of the citizens.
Countries with a more developed industrial approach and are small but rich might have a greater GDP per capita.
On the other hand, countries with higher GDP but a large population will naturally have a lower GDP per capita.
In other words it is the average of what all the people in that country might earn. But that doesn’t mean that the income of all the citizens is the same.
GDP per capita only gives the upper average of the income of the population.
This might differ for someone below the poverty line and others above the poverty line.
GDP per capita is accepted as the standard and global measure for identifying the prosperity of nations Ms hence in some ways is used to showcase the economic growth of the nation.
GDP per capita shows how much economic production value can be assigned to each citizen.
Main Differences Between GDP and GDP Per Capita
- On one hand GDP gives the total value of goods and services produced by a country on a yearly basis, GDP per capita provides the output index calculated per citizen.
- GDP could be calculated by considering any of the following values, production, expenditure, or income. To find the GDP per capita of any country, it’s GDP is involved, that is GDP needs to be divided with the actual population of the country.
- The GDP per capita can give an idea about the eventual livelihood style of the people could be assessed. But with GDP the prosperity existing among the people couldn’t be deciphered.
- GDP can increase given there is a good productivity rate in the country, but for GDP per capita to increase, there should be a definite increase in the population.
- Though GDP per capita gives the average economic and financial output per person, the actual economic output might vary amongst the individuals. Whereas, GDP would remain the same for the selected year as it’s the productivity of the country as a whole.
- https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-economic-history/article/comparison-of-levels-of-gdp-per-capita-in-developed-and-developing-countries-17001980/B2EE78543292CA758F00E60E6988E23F
- https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304407605000163
I’ve put so much effort writing this blog post to provide value to you. It’ll be very helpful for me, if you consider sharing it on social media or with your friends/family. SHARING IS ♥️
Chara Yadav holds MBA in Finance. Her goal is to simplify finance-related topics. She has worked in finance for about 25 years. She has held multiple finance and banking classes for business schools and communities. Read more at her bio page.
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https://askanydifference.com/difference-between-gdp-and-gdp-per-capita/
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The notion of GDP of an economy has become a familiar one. Yet it is of fairly recent vintage. It was developed by Simon Kuznets for a US Congress report in 1934, and “refers to the market value of all final goods and services produced within a country in a given period. GDP per capita is often considered an indicator of a country’s standard of living,” as the wiki explains.
A nation’s income is what the nation produces over a specified period. GDP is an aggregate measure of economic activity and it should not be taken as a comprehensive measure of social well-being or happiness or any such abstract notion. GDP is to a nation what a person’s annual income to a person.
While personal income is an indicator of how economically successful a person is, it does not define the person in any comprehensive way. But knowing that a person is doing well economically tells us whether he has the necessary material wherewithal to live a decent life or not.
Note that material well-being is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for the good life. This holds true for a country also. If the GDP is below a certain threshold, it is unlikely that the people are prospering.
One of the features of the modern world is that GDP grows with time. GDP growth is a recent phenomenon, actually. Over pretty much the entire existence of human civilization, there was scant progress in the material standard of living. From generation to generation, people lived pretty much like their ancestors did. Only after the Industrial Revolution (mid-1700s) did things change – and changed astonishingly rapidly compared to the past.
Instead of things improving at the rate of 0.01 percent or so annually, the average long term rate of growth of the production of stuff (goods and services) began to be in the low single digits. That’s a rate two orders of magnitude higher than before the Industrial Revolution. The implications of that higher growth rate are impossible to overstate. It is hard for us to get our minds around the idea of exponential growth. We have to do the arithmetic, and in some cases even after doing the sums, the results still strain belief. So let’s do the numbers.
Let’s do an exercise that compares the actual with a counterfactual.
Start off with India’s estimated annual per capita GDP of $250 (in 2010 US$) in 1947. I assume the population of India in 1947 to be 350 million. How accurate are these numbers? They are ballpark figures, and even if they are off by 10 or 20 per cent, our exercise is robust and the conclusions do not critically depend on the starting numbers since we are more interested in estimating magnitudes rather than exact figures.
Now assume a per capita GDP growth rate of 2.1 per cent per year. Thus from a GDP per capita of $250 in year 1, we get a $255 as the per capita GDP for year two. Also assume a 2 percent annual population growth rate. So in year 2, the population is 357 million (up from 350 million), and the GDP in year 2 is $89.25 billion (the product of population 357 million times the $255 per capita GDP.)
To continue doing this exercise for years 3 through 62, we use a spreadsheet. Starting with $250 as the per capita GDP at year 1, at 2.1 per cent growth rate, by year 62, we get a per capita GDP of $900. If year 1 is 1947, year 62 is 2009. That looks reasonable. The 2.1 per cent per capita GDP growth rate we used gives us approximately the actual per capita GDP of India in 2009. The assumed annual population growth rate of 2 per cent is also reasonable since a population of 350 million in year 1947 grows to around 1.2 billion in year 2009.
So now we have for each year from 1947 through 2009, estimates of population and per capita GDP. Multiplying those numbers gives us the total GDP for each of the 62 years. For example, for 2009 the GDP of India works out to be $1.061 trillion, which is the product of 1.2 billion population and $900 annual per capita income.
Finally, we add up the annual GDPs for those 62 years to get a great big number: the estimated actual aggregate GDP 1947-2009. It is $24.5 trillion (in 2010 dollars.) This number is an approximation of how much income Indians produced (and earned) over that period.
Now we do the counterfactual part of this exercise. Redo the numbers but with one difference: instead of a 2.1 per cent growth rate of annual per capita GDP, assume 6 per cent. We do the numbers again. We find that we get a per capita GDP of $9,300 in the year 2009. That is the per capita income of a middle-income country. That’s an order of magnitude higher than the $900 number.
With 6 per cent per capita GDP growth rate, the aggregate GDP works out to be $143 trillion. The difference between the estimated actual cumulative GDP of $24.5 trillion and the counterfactual $143 trillion is a mind-blowing $120 trillion. What does it mean?
What are the implications? Is 6 per cent growth of per capita GDP possible for such an extended period? What would have been possible given that? What about poverty? Global power and influence? What about the impact on the lives of hundreds of millions of people?
The next part of this series will explain all that.
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https://www.indiafacts.org.in/primer-economics-counterfactual-exercise-indias-gdp/
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Gross Domestic Product - The Economic Lowdown Video Series
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) data are among the most important economic data available for measuring economic growth, but measuring the output of a large, dynamic economy is a complex task. In this episode of the Economic Lowdown Video Series, economic education specialist Scott Wolla explains what GDP measures, how it is calculated, how it is useful in determining whether and how quickly the economy is growing, and how GDP can be used as indicator of standard of living.
To provide students with online questions following each video, register your class through the Econ Lowdown Teacher Portal.
Learn more about the Q&A Resources for Teachers and Students »
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Listen to the audio version of this episode.
More episodes:
- The Economic Lowdown Podcast Series
- The Economic Lowdown Video Series
Transcript
LOL, IDK, XOXO, BFF, TTYL, GDP. Were you stumped by the last acronym? GDP stands for Gross Domestic Product. You probably don't see many references to it on social media, but GDP conveys an important message on the economy. Economists use this measurement to tell the story of the economy.
They use this measurement to determine the size of the economy at a point in time and growth of the economy over time. GDP measures the total market value of all final goods and services produced in an economy in a given year.
Goods are items that are touchable such as appliances, cars, and clothing. Services are actions—things people do for us such as haircuts, car repairs and customer service.
Let's take a look at three phrases used to define GDP.
The first phrase is "Total market value." The value of a good or service is determined by the price paid for that item in the marketplace. When you add those prices together you have the total value of GDP.
The second phrase is "Final goods and services." The use of "Final" in this phrase refers to goods and services sold to an end user. Let's look at it this way. Tires are sold to a company that produces automobiles. Those tires installed on a new car are not counted in GDP. Why?
Because the tires are not a final good. The tires are an intermediate good—a good used in the production of final goods and services. The value of the tires will be reflected in the total price of the car when it's sold to the end user. However, when new tires are purchased by the end user to replace the worn out tires on the car, this value is counted in GDP. Those tires are a final good because they were sold to the end user.
The third and final phrase is, "Produced within an economy." Only goods and services produced within a country's borders count in that nation's GDP. So, to be counted in U.S. GDP something must be produced within the borders of the United States. GDP does not take the national ownership of the business that produces the good or service into consideration.
So, a car produced in Kentucky counts as U.S. GDP even if it's produced by a foreign company; but a car produced in Mexico does not count as U.S. GDP even if it's produced by a U.S. company.
So, GDP measures the size of the economy—the total market value of all final goods and services produced within an economy in a given year. GDP is among the most important and widely reported pieces of economic data. A wide variety of people, from business owners to policymakers, use GDP in decision making.
Economists use actual market prices to calculate the value of GDP. And as you know prices are constantly changing and those changing prices can make it difficult to understand a change in GDP. For example, an increase in GDP could mean any of the following:
(A) The country has produced more goods and services.
(B) The country has produced the same amount of goods and services, but the prices of those goods and services have increased. Or ...
(C), the country has some combination of more goods and services produced and higher prices.
GDP can be looked at two different ways. When GDP is presented in its unadjusted form, it's called Nominal GDP.
To calculate the real increase or decrease over time in the level of final goods and services produced, price changes are removed from GDP data. This revised measurement is called Real GDP.
So real GDP is GDP adjusted for inflation and more accurately reflects the actual increase or decrease in output—that is, production of goods and services.
Economists measure economic growth by comparing real GDP over time. Economic growth is usually presented as a percentage increase or decrease from an earlier period. And, as we've already learned, it's important to adjust GDP for inflation. For example, it might be useful to know that nominal GDP in the third quarter of 2013 was $16.9 trillion, but it's probably more meaningful to know that real GDP increased by, or the economy grew by, an annual rate of 4.1 percent in the third quarter of 2013. Real GDP removes the effects of price changes, but to discuss growth, we focus on the percent increase in real GDP instead of the total value—or level—of GDP. To put that 4.1 percent in context, consider that real GDP has grown at an average annual rate of 3.3 percent since 1950. Remember, however, that 3.3 percent is an average taken over a long time period—GDP has a tendency to bounce around a bit from quarter to quarter.
A general rule of thumb is that two consecutive quarters of declining real GDP constitute a recession. Although economists have more comprehensive ways to determine the phases of the business cycle, this rule of thumb is widely used. In short, GDP is central to our understanding of the state of the economy.
In addition to measuring the economy, GDP can also be used to indicate, on average, the standard of living for people in different countries. Because goods and services are sold for money, and money earned in producing goods and services is income, GDP is a measure of national income. To determine the impact of national income on individual people, GDP is divided by the country's population. The resulting measurement is GDP per person and is most commonly called GDP per capita.
For example, think of two countries—Alpha and Omega—with comparable GDP, say $200 billion each. One might assume that the citizens of Alpha and Omega have a similar standard of living because their countries have comparable GDPs. But, what if Alpha has a population of 200 million people and Omega has a population of 5 million people? Because Alpha's GDP is divided among a much larger population, each person's share is much smaller. In this case, Alpha's GDP per capita is $1,000, while Omega's is $40,000. So, while their GDPs are the same, once they're divided by the population it's easier to see a dramatic difference in the standard of living in these two nations. Notice, though, that GDP per capita is an average. The actual earnings of individual people will likely vary greatly depending on the distribution of income. Changes in real GDP per capita within the same country can be used to estimate changes in its standard of living over time. An increase in real GDP per capita over time is interpreted as an increase in the standard of living—a worthy goal for any society.
GDP helps us identify growth in an economy. And a growing economy is an economy that produces more and more goods and services for its population. And, generally speaking, more is better. GDP data are among the most important economic data available, but measuring the output of a large, dynamic economy is a complex task. GDP measures production levels during a period of time and can be adjusted for inflation—a measure called real GDP—and compared with earlier periods to evaluate economic growth. All things being equal, growth is good, and GDP measures growth.
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https://www.stlouisfed.org/education/economic-lowdown-video-series/episode-7-gross-domestic-product
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The most common method for measuring living standards is using GDP per capita. This is national income divided by population and gives a rough guide to average incomes. High real GDP per capita indicates citizens are able to purchase more goods and services.
World Map of GDP per Capita
GDP per Capita. Source: Source: IMF
This shows variation in GDP per capita of $100,000 to $118 in the poorest countries.
However, there are several difficulties in using GDP to measure living standards.
Difficulties measuring living standards
1. Purchasing Power Parity. When comparing living standards between different countries, it is important to take into account different purchasing power parity’s (PPP) – GDP per capita in $ terms does not necessarily reflect the local purchasing power of a country. For example, in Namibia incomes may be quite low – say $1,000 per capita. However, living costs are likely to be much lower in Namibia than say the US. With $1,000 you can buy a lot more in Namibia than in the UK or US. Therefore, it is important to take these factors into consideration when comparing living standards between countries
If we use GDP per capita in purchasing power parity (PPP) then income differentials are smaller.
2. Economic activity not measured. Some countries may have large ‘black market’ or economic activity that isn’t measured by official statistics. For example, in a country like Namibia, there is likely to be a significant degree of subsistence farming. This makes zero contribution to GDP statistics because nothing is officially produced, but people may have decent living standards.
3. Externalities of growth. Higher GDP suggests higher living standards, but higher economic growth may be at the cost of increased pollution and congestion. This leads to a decline in living standards (poor health from pollution, time wasted from congestion) therefore GDP overestimates living standards. This has been an issue for countries like China – whose breakneck economic growth has been at the expense of pollution.
4. Hours worked Two countries may have similar GDP, but if one country has an average hourly week of 60 hours worked, this suggests lower living standards than a country which has an average of only 40 hours per week.
5. Poverty. Living standards need to take into account how income and expenditure are distributed through society. A country may have high GDP per capita but still have significant poverty. Other measures of living standards, such as Human Development Index (HDI), try to include these factors.
6. Intangibles. Living standards are not just about consumption of goods and services. Arguably a key factor in living standards is issues such as a degree of individual liberty/democracy and freedom. This becomes difficult to quantify from an economic perspective.
7. Literacy. Access to education is considered an important aspect of living standards. Without education, people will struggle to obtain their potential and their human capital will be lower. Education can also improve living standards in non-monetary ways – enjoying a greater degree of culture
8. What do we mean by living standards? Some may think of living standards through financial measures (e.g. income e.t.c). Others may place less emphasis on this and focus on issues such as the environment, ‘general well-being’ and levels of happiness.
9. Unpaid work not counted by GDP
National Institute Economic Review No. 249 August 2019, Andrew Aitken
This shows how GDP can under-estimate value of services. Unpaid house work and voluntary activity is not measured by GDP because there is no financial transaction.
10. GDP vs median income
Rising GDP does not necessarily translate into higher wages for average workers because of inequality.
Other measures of living standards
1. Human development index
A composite index including real GDP at PPP, education levels and healthcare standards
Index of Human Poverty HPI
Similar to HDI, but a greater weighting to equality of distribution and levels of absolute poverty.
See also:
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https://www.economicshelp.org/blog/251/development/difficulties-in-measuring-living-standards/
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Last week, the Philippine Statistics Authority announced that the Gross Domestic Product in the fourth quarter of 2016 grew 6.6 percent, higher than the 6.5 percent growth in the same quarter last year.
This latest quarterly result brought the entire 2016’s GDP growth rate to 6.8 percent, higher than the 5.9 percent growth in the previous year, making the Philippines still one of the fastest-growing economies in Asia. Riding on this strong momentum, the economic outlook for this year has remained robust.
Expectations of higher economic growth mean more business opportunities. Business decisions about expansion will be based on the assumption that a growing economy will mean higher consumption spending as a result of rising disposable income.
While a high GDP growth rate measures how businesses will grow in terms of sales this year, the strong growth prospects of the country do not necessarily measure economic prosperity for everyone. Here are the five reasons why a GDP growth rate is not a complete indicator of economic progress:
1. It does not measure financial well-being
Imagine yourself as the Philippine economy. Your GDP growth rate is measured by how much your spending has grown compared to the previous year. The more you spend, the better your GDP growth is. But does that measure how wealthy you are?
There is a saying that to become financially independent, it is not in how much money you make but in how much money you save. When you spend, it is either you use a portion of your income for consumption, or you borrow money from a credit card or take out a loan that you will eventually pay out of your income. For all we know, you may already be deep in debt after you have maxed out all your credit cards last year.
While GDP growth rate is a good indicator for business decisions because it is a measure of the potential increase in aggregate demand for goods and services as consumption spending rises, GDP growth rate does not capture the progress of financial well-being of the average person.
2. It does not measure living standards
If you have to work Monday to Saturday every week in order to earn the same income of someone who only works three times a week, then you may not be improving your lifestyle condition.
You may be working too hard that you neglect the time you need to spend with your family and children. You may also need to work double time by getting an extra job on your free time to earn enough income to meet rising expenses at home.
GDP growth rate may be accounting the increase in your income because of the extra number of working hours that you spent but does not necessarily measure how your living standards have improved.
3. It does not measure quality of expenditures
Infrastructure spending is a big component to GDP growth. Last year, government consumption comprises about nine percent of total gross domestic product and grew by about 8.3 percent, higher than the previous year’s growth of 7.8 percent.
While government spending is good for the economy because it creates a multiplier effect that causes production from different industries to also increase, there is no way to measure if these expenditures will have lasting benefits. For example, there may be government projects that may not last long because of overpriced construction materials used that may later prove to be of low quality.
In the same way, as a consumer, you may have also spent your money on things that do not give you lasting benefits. For example, instead of investing your money in financial education seminars, you spend it by buying expensive concert tickets.
Whatever you spend, no matter how superior or inferior it is, or whether it is beneficial or not, GDP will account it as positive to the economy. It will be counted as an increase in expenditures.
4. It does not measure social costs
There are economic activities that may threaten depletion of natural resources, damage the environment and other long-term negative consequences. For example, mining production, which grew by eight percent last year, may cause long-term damage to the environment that can lead to frequent floods or loss of livelihood of residents.
Another example is the pollution caused by the manufacturing sector. Pollution can create health damage to nearby residents that can lower productivity and income. The actual costs, as well as the social costs that result from these losses and damages, are not accounted for by GDP.
5. It does not measure income distribution
GDP per capita is computed by dividing the total Gross Domestic Product by total population. The concept of per capita explains that the increase in GDP per capita must have the same increase as that of GDP growth rate.
However, when the population of the country increases, more people will be sharing the growth in the economy, thus diluting the increase. For example, the GDP growth rate for 2016 was 6.8 percent but the corresponding GDP per capita grew only by 5.1 percent because the total population last year also increased by 1.6 percent from 101.6 million to 103.2 million.
While this per capita metric looks like a fair indicator, it only accounts the economic status of the population by averaging. It does not address the inequality in wealth distribution.
GDP per capita does not measure how the increase in income is shared by the poor and rich. How has the economic growth benefited the poor? It is possible that the economy is growing but only few are benefiting from this growth. The rich get richer while the poor get poorer.
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https://www.entrepreneur.com.ph/run-and-grow/financial-adviser-5-reasons-why-gdp-does-not-measure-economic-prosperity-a23-20170131
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Research & Analysis Bureau - Montana Department of Labor & Industry
For instance, a seemingly simple question about how to measure how much money the average Montana family makes has several different answers, depending on nuance. Economists are VERY interested in measuring how the average person benefits from economic activity, so there are multiple ways to examine monetary benefits. Let’s examine a few ways to measure income:
Wages are the best measure of what the average person earns by working. Because most people earn the majority of their incomes by working, this is a good way to measure whether the benefits of economic activity are being widely distributed. If you want to talk about what’s going on in the life of the average Joe or average Jane in Montana, average wages are a good metric to use. Yet, wages does not include any money earned by most farmers, real estate agents, construction contractors, or property owners who operate as self-employed or as a business owner. That excludes many Montanans.
Income includes wages, plus other ways to make money, such as investments (including dividends received in your retirement account), royalty payments (from platinum record sales if you are Beyonce, but more typically from mining if you are Montanan), rental income (from commercial or residential property, or from agricultural or grazing land), and owning a business. Given that Montana has a fairly high rate of business ownership and a high rate of getting money from alternative sources, income is a better measure for the economic well-being of the state. Income is typically measured in four ways:
Households are defined as people who live in the same residence. These individuals may or may not be related, and may or may not pay taxes jointly. Five college students living in the same rented house would be considered the same household, as is a single person living in the house they own.
Families are a subset of households and include two or more people related by birth, marriage, or adoption residing in the same housing unit. Family median income would exclude both the unrelated college students living together and the single person, but would include two sisters who are sharing living quarters.
Median income for individuals over 16 who likely get income from multiple sources. The individual median income is the most typical measure used to determine whether individuals are making progress towards prosperity because it includes all types of income and because it includes everyone, regardless of family status.
Total income divided by total population. This measure tends to be skewed by demographics. For example, areas with a high level of young or old people with low income will have low per capita income even if wages are high.
GDP divided by total population. This is the same concept as income per capita, but using Gross Domestic Product. GDP and income are very similar, so this metric should be similar to per capita income.
In addition to the multiple different concepts of income, there are two different summary statistics used to measure money and income-related metrics – the median and the mean. The mean measures the average of the levels of income. The median is the central point in the distribution, with half of the values above that point and half below. Typically, the median is used when discussing income because very high wage earners skew the mean higher than the "average" person. However, some data sources (like the one to measure average wages) only allow the calculation of the mean because of the way data is gathered.
In short, there are many different ways to measure the amount of money a typical Montanan makes, but income metrics do a better job of measuring income from multiple sources, while wages are an important metric to understand how the average person gets ahead in life. Income is typically presented as a median because it better represents the average person, but the average is used for wages because of the way the data is gathered. Each of these data sources also come from different agencies, with the U.S. Census Bureau publishing wages and income metrics, the Bureau of Economic Analysis publishing the per capita data for both personal income and GDP, and the Department of Labor publishing wage data. Each of these agencies has a slightly different reason for wanting to know the monetary gains of the population, which results in the multiple different ways to measure income.
How much money does the average Montanan make? That depends on why you are asking the question.
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http://lmi.mt.gov/MTLaborBlog/ArticleID/140/Measuring-Money
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Manufacturing value added (MVA) as a proportion of gross domestic product (GDP) is a ratio between MVA and GDP, both reported in constant 2010 USD.
MVA per capita is calculated by dividing MVA in constant 2010 USD by population of a country or area.
MVA is a well-recognized and widely used indicator by researchers and policy makers to assess the level of industrialization of a country. The share of MVA in GDP reflects the role of manufacturing in the economy and a country’s national development in general. MVA per capita is the basic indicator of a country’s level of industrialization adjusted for the size of the economy. One of the statistical uses of MVA per capita is classifying country groups according to the stage of industrial development.
The gross value added is defined as the value of output less the value of intermediate consumption (System of National Accounts 2008). Manufacturing refers to industries belonging to the sector C defined by the International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities, Revision 4 (ISIC Rev.4), or to the sector D defined by the International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities, Revision 3.1 (ISIC Rev.3.1).
GDP represents the sum of gross value added from all institutional units resident in the economy. For the purpose on comparability over time and across countries MVA and GDP are estimated in terms of constant prices in USD. The current series are given at constant prices of 2010.
Differences may appear due to different versions of System of National Accounts (SNA) or ISIC revisions used by countries.
The share of MVA in GDP is calculated as a percentage between of MVA in the total GDP. MVA per capita represents the value of MVA divided by the total population in a given country.
Time series are nowcasted based on Boudt et al. (2009). Regional, global aggregation of direct summation of country values within the country groups. Minor differences may arise due to 1) exchange rates for conversion to USD 2) different base years used for constant price data 3) methods for recent period estimation and 4) different versions of SNA and ISIC revisions used by countries.
UNIDO maintains MVA database. Figures for updates are obtained from National Accounts Main Aggregates Database produced by the United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD) and from official publications.
The MVA and GDP country data are collected through a National Accounts Questionnaire (NAQ) sent and processed by UNSD. Missing or inconsistent values are verified with national sources and World Development Indicators (WDI). The preference is given to the data from national sources. Population data are obtained from the UN DESA Population Division.
Data are available for more than 200 economies.
Data are available from 1990 onwards with one year lag to the current calendar year.
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https://stat.unido.org/SDG
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DEVELOPMENT: is a multi-dimensional process which brings about a continuous enhancement of the capabilities and welfare of all individuals in the society and the country as a whole.
Sustainable Development: a theory of development that views the process in a holistic light, encompassing social as well as economic development and emphasizing the importance of conserving the environment and natural resources.
Economic development: a process whereby the real per capita income of a country increases over a period of time (Martinussen). Economic growth: the steady process by which the productive capacity of the economy is increased over time to bring about rising levels of national output and income (Todaro & Smith).] Human development: a holistic portrayal of development obtained by putting human being at the center of the process (Mohammed 2007).
Economic Development Indicators:
Gross domestic product: a measure of the total good and services produced in an economy over a specified period of time, usually a year(Bannock, Baxter & Davis 2003)
Gross national product: this is the GDP of a country with adjustments made to include investments and other income from overseas generated by the country’s nationals, and deductions made for income earned in the country by persons abroad (Todaro & Smith 2004).
Per Capita income is the total income earned from goods and services produced by a country in one year divided by the total population for that country in that year.
Population growth rate: this is calculated by considering birth and death rates as well as migration statistics. Age dependency ratio: the ratio of dependents i.e. individuals younger than 15 and older than 65 in comparison to those ages 16 to 64 who are active in the economy.
Merits of the economic development approach:
·It provides a standardized means of measuring development. It provides a starting point for classifying level of development and identifying some development needs. ·It allows an easy comparison and ranking across different countries. ·It provides a seemingly simple prescription to combat the high levels of underdevelopment that persist in developing countries.
Limitations:
·GNP per capita does not account for all the economic activities that take place in a country, e.g. bartering transactions, subsistence farming, drug trade, domestic work (informal economy). ·GNP per capita is recorded in US dollars but in different countries one dollar is able to buy more goods and services than in another. ·GNP per capita does not show how the income or wealth is distributed. The increased income may be concentrated in the hands of a few. ·GNP per capita does not take into account the social and environmental impact of economic development. Many countries which record increased economic growth do so at the expense of the environment. ·Wealthy citizens have been known to bank their profits outside of the country. As a result, their income is not fully captured in the GNP. ·The GNP is only a measure of economic growth and does not include such factors as non-market activities, e.g. pollution, resource depletion and environmental degradation.
NON- ECONOMIC INDICATORS
Non- economic factors of development are also referred to as indicators of Human Development. Since key concepts in Human development are based on equity, sustainability, empowerment and participation. The United Nations Human development Index was broadened to include: ·Freedoms enjoyed by the population
·Availability of Health Care (not just its existence)
·Accessibility of housing and education
·Crime Levels/ rate
1.Social and economic equalisation
This is an indicator that is used to measure the degree to which members of society are experiencing social mobility. Social and economic equalisation means the degree to which all groups are experiencing...
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https://www.studymode.com/essays/Issues-In-Caribbean-Development-1911551.html
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