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We added firing factors that are free to diffuse in the covolume left by the chain and that can bind to proximal p-oris to initiate replication, move along the chromosomes with the replication forks and be released when two fork merges. As shown in Figure 2 a,b for Xenopus embryo and S. These works illustrate that untangling spatio-temporal correlations in replication kinetics is challenging. For example in S. Recently, profiling of replication fork directionality obtained by Okazaki fragment sequencing have suggested that early firing origins located at the border of Topologically Associating Domains TADs trigger a cascade of secondary initiation events propagating through the TAD Petryk et al.
Early and late replicating domains were associated with nuclear compartments of open and closed chromatin Ryba et al. In human, replication timing U-domains 0. Understanding to which extent spatio-temporal correlations of the replication program can be explained by the diffusion of firing factors in the tertiary chromatin structure specific to each eukaryotic organism is a challenging issue for future work. Each model simulation allows the reconstruction of the full replication kinetics during one S-phase.
Chromosome initial replication state is described by the distribution of p-oris along each chromosomes. For Xenopus embryo, p-ori positions are randomly determined at the beginning of each simulation following two possible scenarios:. Within each segment, the position of the origin is chosen randomly in order to avoid spurious synchronization effects.
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For yeast, the p-ori positions are identical in each S-phase simulations and correspond to experimentally determined positions reported in OriDB Siow et al. The simulation starts with a fixed number N D T of firing factors that are progressively made available as described in Results. A random number is generated, and if it is inferior to this probability, an unreplicated p-ori is chosen at random, two diverging forks are created at this locus and the number of free firing factors decreases by 1.
Finally, every fork is propagated by a length v d t resulting in an increase amount of DNA marked as replicated and possibly to the passivation of some p-oris. If two forks meet they are removed and the number of free firing factors increases by 1. Forks that reach the end of a chromosome are discarded. Simulation ends when all DNA has been replicated, which define the replication time. Replication kinetics simulation for the 3D model follows the same steps as in the well-mixed model except that the probability that a free firing factor activates an unreplicated p-ori depends on their distance d obtained from a molecular dynamic simulation performed in parallel to the replication kinetics simulation.
The details of the interaction between the diffusing firing factors and the p-oris is illustrated in Figure 2—figure supplement 1. For each set of parameters of the well-mixed and 3D models, we reported the mean curves obtained over a number of independent simulations large enough so that the noisy fluctuations of the mean I S t are small compared to the average bell-shaped curve. The complete set of parameters for each simulation series is provided in Supplementary file 1.
The scripts used to extract yeast I t from the experimental data of Alvino et al. In the interests of transparency, eLife includes the editorial decision letter and accompanying author responses. A lightly edited version of the letter sent to the authors after peer review is shown, indicating the most substantive concerns; minor comments are not usually included.
Thank you for submitting your article "The eukaryotic bell-shaped temporal rate of DNA replication origin firing emanates from a balance between origin activation and passivation" for consideration by eLife. Your article has been reviewed by three peer reviewers, and the evaluation has been overseen by a Reviewing Editor and Kevin Struhl as the Senior Editor. The reviewers have opted to remain anonymous. The reviewers have discussed the reviews with one another and the Reviewing Editor has drafted this decision to help you prepare a revised submission.
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Based on the three positive reviews, it is possible that this model can by published in eLife , but there are some issues that two of the reviewers raise that require a response. Once a response is received, the paper will be re-considered. This appealing paper advances a new hypothesis to explain the observed, apparently quite general phenomenon in eukaryotic replication that the initiation rate of origin firing relative to the amount of unreplicated DNA decreases at the end of S-phase after having increased substantially throughout the first part of S-phase.
There is agreement on the mechanism of the increase, but three different groups one of which includes two of the present authors have advanced three different hypotheses subdiffusive motion, a dependence on replication fork density of firing factor affinity for p-oris , or inhomogeneous firing probabilities. The present paper proposes a fourth, that the limiting factor is the finite average spacing between potential origins p-oris and makes a case that this new hypothesis is both simple and natural.
The evidence presented is a mix of heuristic argument, simulation, and a limited comparison of experimental data. The authors further look at a 3d simulation of the diffusion process in a simple model where all origins are treated on an equal footing and find a qualitative agreement in the I t curves. The paper thus gives a simple model that advances our understanding of the replication process, adding a reasonable dynamical model to explain kinetics, and providing at least some experimental support-probably not enough to be completely convincing on its own but enough to make others take the hypothesis seriously and inspire further experimental tests.
It is thus a nice advance. In that reference, though, Figure 3D shows only that the minimum average distance between fired origins decreases to 3kb. Put another way, the authors argue in the Discussion section second paragraph that their modeling implies that all p-oris are the same.
Identification of mammalian replication origins
But in the S. It may be that the model set forth here does a good job explaining the I t dependence but not the full I x,t dependence, where x is the genome position. However, there is also evidence that chromatin looping can inhibit the firing of neighboring origins. Both effects could be present, suggesting that untangling spatiotemporal correlations might be subtle.
Is this correct? If so, it is surprising, as activation of late-firing origins are suppressed or delayed in HU, and according to Figure 1a, one might expect less origins to be passivated with slower replication forks in HU. The authors need to comment on this.
The authors need to discuss potential reasons for this. Based on the authors' model that the localization of origins and recycling of replication factors can explain most of DNA replication kinetics, the authors need to discuss how the presence of replication foci would affect origin usage and replication kinetics. This paper should be cited and discussed to compare it to the proposed model. We used as a proxy for the number of potential origins in Xenopus embryo the highest density 0.
Assuming that a potential origin corresponds to a dimer of MCM hexamers, this experimental quantification provides an estimate of one p-ori every 3 kbp i. Note that in the work of Loveland et al. The 1D simulations as well as the 3D simulations indeed do not consider any heterogeneity between potential origins properties. Hence, neglecting origin passivation, the median firing times for all the origins are identical. Any inhomogeneity in I x,t in our simulations thus reflects the inhomogeneity in the distribution of the potential origins in the genome, and not the heterogeneity of origin strengths.
We are sorry if our presentation suggested that all yeast origins behave the same. Interestingly, this heterogeneity between origins is captured by the Multiple-Initiator Model MIM where origin firing time distribution is modeled by the number of MCM complexes bound at the origin Yang et al. In these models, MCM and ORC have the same status as our p-oris, they are potential origins with identical firing properties.
However, Gindin et al. These two modeling works illustrate that indeed untangling spatio-temporal correlations in replication kinetics is challenging. In that respect, 3D modeling explicitly taking into account the transport of firing factors will allow us to quantify the contribution of physicochemistry to replication spatio-temporal correlations and in turn underline the requirement for specific biological mechanisms.
In our model, during the second part of S-phase when most firing factors are free, the dynamics of activation of p-oris is controlled by the productive-interaction rate k on between a free firing factor and a p-ori so that a reduced replication speed will indeed result in firing of most late p-oris and thus a very low frequency of origin passivation. However, Alvino et al. Up to a rescaling of time, the replication kinetics of our model is governed by the ratio between replication fork speed and k on neglecting here the possible contribution of the activation dynamics of firing factors.
Up to a rescaling of time, the replication kinetics of our model is governed by the ratio between replication fork speed and the productive-interaction rate k on neglecting here the possible contribution of the activation dynamics of firing factors. Hence, our model can capture the main observation of Alvino et al. We agree that dubious origins are not expected to fire as frequently as Confirmed and Likely origins. A number of scenarios can contribute to the requirement for a larger number of potential origins than the number of Confirmed and Likely origins.
In the model we used a value of 1. The modeling in this work is performed under the assumption of a well-mixed system. It thus does not address the effect of the presence of replication foci. Replication foci would locally enhance the concentration in firing factors once released from the merging of two forks. Matthew Meselson — and Franklin Stahl — devised an experiment in to test which of these models correctly represents DNA replication Figure They grew E.
This labeled the parental DNA.
Archaeology of Eukaryotic DNA Replication
The E. The cells were harvested and the DNA was isolated. DNA grown in 15 N would be expected to form a band at a higher density position than that grown in 14 N. Meselson and Stahl noted that after one generation of growth in 14 N, the single band observed was intermediate in position in between DNA of cells grown exclusively in 15 N or 14 N.
This suggested either a semiconservative or dispersive mode of replication. Some cells were allowed to grow for one more generation in 14 N and spun again. These results could only be explained if DNA replicates in a semiconservative manner. Therefore, the other two models were ruled out.
As a result of this experiment, we now know that during DNA replication, each of the two strands that make up the double helix serves as a template from which new strands are copied. The resulting DNA molecules have the same sequence and are divided equally into the two daughter cells. DNA replication has been well studied in bacteria primarily because of the small size of the genome and the mutants that are available. This means that approximately nucleotides are added per second. The process is quite rapid and occurs with few errors.
DNA replication uses a large number of proteins and enzymes Table The addition of these nucleotides requires energy. This energy is present in the bonds of three phosphate groups attached to each nucleotide a triphosphate nucleotide , similar to how energy is stored in the phosphate bonds of adenosine triphosphate ATP Figure The initiation of replication occurs at specific nucleotide sequence called the origin of replication, where various proteins bind to begin the replication process.
The origin of replication is approximately base pairs long and is rich in adenine-thymine AT sequences. Some of the proteins that bind to the origin of replication are important in making single-stranded regions of DNA accessible for replication. Chromosomal DNA is typically wrapped around histones in eukaryotes and archaea or histone-like proteins in bacteria , and is supercoiled, or extensively wrapped and twisted on itself.
This packaging makes the information in the DNA molecule inaccessible. However, enzymes called topoisomerases change the shape and supercoiling of the chromosome. An enzyme called helicase then separates the DNA strands by breaking the hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous base pairs. Recall that AT sequences have fewer hydrogen bonds and, hence, have weaker interactions than guanine-cytosine GC sequences.
These enzymes require ATP hydrolysis. As the DNA opens up, Y-shaped structures called replication forks are formed. Two replication forks are formed at the origin of replication, allowing for bidirectional replication and formation of a structure that looks like a bubble when viewed with a transmission electron microscope; as a result, this structure is called a replication bubble.
The DNA near each replication fork is coated with single-stranded binding proteins to prevent the single-stranded DNA from rewinding into a double helix. Because this sequence allows the start of DNA synthesis, it is appropriately called the primer. The primer is five to 10 nucleotides long and complementary to the parental or template DNA. During elongation in DNA replication, the addition of nucleotides occurs at its maximal rate of about nucleotides per second.
This continuously synthesized strand is known as the leading strand. It does so until it bumps into the previously synthesized strand and then it moves back again Figure Okazaki fragments are named after the Japanese research team and married couple Reiji and Tsuneko Okazaki , who first discovered them in The strand with the Okazaki fragments is known as the lagging strand, and its synthesis is said to be discontinuous.
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[New approaches in eukaryotic DNA replication].
A genomic view of eukaryotic DNA replication. This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access. Bell 1 Email author 1.
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- Kapler's broad research interests are concerned with the replication and transmission of eukaryotic chromosomes. The failure to completely replicate the genome during S phase or partially re-replicate chromosomes leads to genome instability- a hallmark of cancer cells. The central questions investigated in the laboratory are concerned with how replication initiation sites are established in chromosomes and how they are regulated during conventional (G1/S/G2/M) and alternative cell cycles, including endoreplication (gap-S-gap-S...) and locus-specific gene amplification. The laboratory uses the early branching model eukaryote, Tetrahymena thermophila, as its model system to study these questions. As a member of the Ciliophora lineage, Tetrahymena contains two nuclei within each cell, the diploid germline micronucleus and polyploid somatic macronucleus. The complex developmental program that generates a new macronucleus in exconjugants has provided fertile ground for studying the differential regulation of replication origin usage. A strength of the model system is Tetrahymena's ability to support replication of naturally occurring and artificially engineered minichromosomes. These features have provides excellent opportunities to use forward and reverse genetic approaches to identify and characterize cis-acting determinants and trans-acting regulatory factors. While Tetrahymena employs conserve eukaryotic DNA replication machinery, including the origin recognition complex (ORC) and MCM2-7 replicative helicase, we have discovered novel regulatory factors, including an RNA molecule that selectively targets ORC to origins of replication in the rDNA minichromsome, which is amplified 9000-fold during development. The current focus of the lab is to use high throughput (nascent strand) DNA sequencing to generate a comprehensive map of replication initiation sites under different physiological conditions. We recently reported that ORC and MCM protein levels are reduced >50-fold under conditions of replication stress, and that upon removal of the stressor, cells replicate their entire macronuclear genome prior to replenishment of ORC and MCM subunits. Known origins are inactive during this highly unconventional S phase, yet new initiation events generate bidirectional replication forks and faithfully replicate chromosomes. Comparative analysis of origin usage under high and low ORC conditions should reveal ORC-dependent and ORC-independent replication initiation sites. Functional assays will be used to determine the underlying mechanism for ORC-independent replication initiation. The laboratory takes advantage of powerful molecular and genetic tools available in the Tetrahymena model system, including classic genetic analysis, an array of approaches for making gene knockouts and replacements, the ability to synchronize the cell cycle and development, single molecule DNA fiber imaging, molecular approaches to visualize DNA replication intermediates, high throughput RNA-Seq and nascent strand DNA sequencing. Finally, the functional analysis of genetically modified Tetrahymena is used to test models and has established new paradigms in the DNA replication field.
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https://medicine.tamu.edu/faculty/kapler.html
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the DNA at the foundation of each chromosome and reassemble the proteins that interpret this essential cellular blueprint. Remarkably,
during an average human lifetime this process accurately synthesizes trillions of miles of DNA. Inaccurate, incomplete, or excessive DNA
replication can lead to cell death, developmental abnormalities, or cancer. Consistent with its critical role, chromosome duplication is
carefully coordinated with cell division.
Our studies focus on the events that occur at the starting points of chromosome duplication, called origins of DNA replication. These DNA sequences are found at multiple sites on each eukaryotic chromosome and direct the assembly of a bidirectional pair of replication machines, or replisomes, that replicate the DNA on both sides of the origin. Each replisome must coordinate the activity of multiple enzymes, including a DNA helicase, three DNA polymerases, and an RNA polymerase. The events that occur at origins can be broken down into four steps: origin selection, helicase loading, helicase activation, and replisome assembly. To maintain proper chromosome numbers, dividing cells separate origin selection and helicase loading from helicase activation and replisome assembly. This separation ensures that each origin of replication can initiate replication only once per cell division, preventing rereplication of the genome (Fig. 1).
Figure 1
The six-protein origin recognition complex (ORC) mediates the initial selection of origin DNA sequences. ORC was
initially discovered in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, through its ability to bind to a conserved sequence
present in this organism's origins of DNA replication. Although these sites are present in many positions across the genome,
only a subset are bound by ORC. In collaboration with David MacAlpine's lab (Duke University), we used genome-wide mapping of
nucleosomes to demonstrate that nucleosome-depleted regions are a critical determinant of the sites bound by ORC (Fig. 2).
Once bound to origin DNA, ORC establishes the precise position of nucleosomes on both sides of the origin. Our previous experiments indicate that
this positioning is critical for helicase loading. We are currently focused on understanding how these nucleosome-depleted regions are
encoded at origins of replication and how the positioned nucleosomes influence helicase loading and replication initiation.
Figure 2
As cells enter the G1 phase of the cell cycle, ORC recruits two other helicase-loading factors (Cdc6 and Cdt1) and the replicative DNA helicase
(the Mcm2-7 complex) to the origin DNA. In a series of ATP-dependent events, ORC, Cdc6, and Cdt1 load
the DNA helicase onto the adjacent DNA. After loading, two ring-shaped, hexameric Mcm2-7 complexes encircle double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) as a head-to-head
double hexamer. Although inactive, these loaded double hexamers mark all potential origins of replication and are poised for bidirectional initiation.
We have investigated ATP control of helicase loading extensively. Analysis of Cdc6, ORC, and Mcm2-7 ATPase mutants reveals different roles for each protein. Mcm2-7 ATP binding and hydrolysis are primarily responsible for the ATP requirement for helicase loading. Although Cdc6 ATP hydrolysis mutants also contribute to helicase loading, this function is primarily involved in the release of Mcm2-7 complexes that fail to load. ORC ATP hydrolysis is not required for helicase loading but is important for multiple rounds of Mcm2-7 loading and is essential in vivo.
Our latest studies use single-molecule approaches to address protein dynamics during helicase loading and provide insights into the mechanisms that
establish bidirectional replication initiation (Fig. 3). In collaboration with Jeff Gelles's laboratory at Brandeis University, we have developed
methods to monitor the association of multiple helicase-loading proteins with DNA by using colocalization single-molecule spectroscopy (CoSMoS). Our
studies reveal that the sequential loading of the two Mcm2-7 helicases in a double hexamer involves the ordered binding and release of distinct Cdc6
and Cdt1 molecules. In contrast, only one ORC molecule directs loading of both helicases in a double hexamer. Single-molecule fluorescence resonance
energy transfer (FRET) detection of Mcm-Mcm interactions shows that double hexamer formation occurs rapidly after arrival of the second helicase.
Together, our studies suggest that distinct mechanisms load the first and second helicase in each double hexamer and ensure that they are in the
head-to-head conformation required for subsequent bidirectional initiation. We are expanding these studies to monitor additional events during helicase
loading and to study mutant helicase-loading proteins to gain insights into the many new steps in helicase loading we have uncovered.
A model for the head-to-head loading of the Mcm2-7 double hexamer is shown in Figure 3. ORC recognizes origin DNA and binds Cdc6. This complex recruits the Mcm2-7 helicase bound to Cdt1 by binding the C-terminal regions. Sequential release of Cdc6 and Cdt1 results in loading of the first Mcm2-7 helicase. After ORC binds a second Cdc6, the interactions between the N-terminal domains of the two Mcm2-7s recruit the second helicase. Arrival of the second Mcm2-7 drives release of Cdc6, followed by Cdt1 and ORC. The result of this mechanism is loading of the two helicases in opposite orientations that are poised for bidirectional replication initiation.
Figure 3
Modified from Ticau et al. (2015)
Mcm2-7 complexes loaded onto the origin DNA during G1 are only activated upon entry into the S phase of the cell cycle.
Helicase activation requires the action of the Dbf4-dependent Cdc7 kinase (DDK) and S-phase cyclin-dependent kinase (S-CDK).
These kinases trigger recruitment of the helicase-activating factors Cdc45 and GINS, forming the Cdc45-Mcm2-7-GINS (CMG) activated helicase.
In addition to activating the helicase, the cell must assemble the rest of the DNA replisome, including the three replicative DNA polymerases
that are dedicated to leading-strand (Pol ε) or lagging-strand (Pol α/primase, Pol δ) synthesis.
We used assays that recapitulate the origin-dependent initiation of replication to determine that DDK and S-CDK trigger distinct and sequential events during helicase activation and that DDK is active prior to S phase at early origins of replication. By analyzing replisome assembly, we found that the leading-strand DNA polymerase is recruited before its lagging-strand counterparts. This order of events ensures that the leading-strand DNA polymerase is present before any RNA primer synthesis so that it can elongate the first primers.
We have used this replication assay to understand the functions of Mcm2-7 during replication initiation. Although many of the Mcm2-7 ATPase motif mutations we studied were defective in helicase loading, a subset of these mutant complexes showed only minor defects. Analysis of these mutants in the replication initiation assay revealed defects in CMG complex formation, suggesting roles for specific Mcm2-7 ATPase motifs in helicase activation. We have also collaborated with Eric Enemark's lab (St. Jude Children's Research Hospital) to demonstrate that a newly identified single-stranded DNA–binding domain in the N-terminal region of Mcm2-7 is also involved in helicase activation. Intriguingly, the polarity of this interaction predicts preferential binding to the single-stranded DNA that the Mcm2-7 complex encircles during replisome movement. This observation suggests a mechanism for Mcm2-7 to retain the translocating strand in the central channel during Mcm2-7's transition from encircling double-strand to encircling single-stranded DNA. We continue to exploit these assays to gain insights into the mechanics of replication initiation and are pursuing single-molecule assays for these events.
Mcm10 regulates DNA replication elongation by stimulating the CMG replicative helicase. Lõoke M, Maloney MF, Bell SP. Genes Dev 2017 Feb 1;31(3):291-305 .
Nucleosomes influence multiple steps during replication initiation. Ishara F Azmi, Shinya Watanabe, Michael F Maloney, Sukhyun Kang, Jason A Belsky, David M MacAlpine, Craig L Peterson, Stephen P Bell. eLife 2017;6:e22512 .
Mechanism and timing of Mcm2-7 ring closure during DNA replication origin licensing. Ticau S, Friedman LJ, Champasa K, Corrêa IR Jr, Gelles J, Bell SP. Nat Struct Mol Biol. 2017 Mar;24(3):309-315.
Rethinking origin licensing. Bell SP. ELife 2017;6:e24052.
Chromosome Duplication in Saccharomyces cerevisiae Stephen P. Bell, Karim Labib. Genetics <2016 Vol. 203, 1027–1067.
The dynamics of eukaryotic replication initiation: origin specificity, licensing, and firing at the single-molecule level. Duzdevich D, Warner MD, Ticau S, Ivica NA, Bell SP, Greene EC. Mol Cell. <2015 May 7;58(3):483-94.
Single-Molecule Studies of Origin Licensing Reveal Mechanisms Ensuring Bidirectional Helicase Loading. Ticau S, Friedman LJ, Ivica NA, Gelles J, Bell SP. Cell 2015 Apr 15. pii: S0092-8674(15)00265-2.
Multiple functions for Mcm2-7 ATPase motifs during replication initiation. Kang S, Warner MD, Bell SP. Mol Cell 2014 Sep 4;55(5):655-65.
A conserved MCM single-stranded DNA binding element is essential for replication initiation. Froelich CA, Kang S, Epling LB, Bell SP, Enemark EJ. Elife 2014 Apr 1;3:e01993.
Eukaryotic origin-dependent DNA replication in vitro reveals sequential action of DDK and S-CDK kinases. Heller RC, Kang S, Lam WM, Chen S, Chan CS, Bell SP. Cell 2011 Jul 8;146(1):80-91.
CDK prevents Mcm2-7 helicase loading by inhibiting Cdt1 interaction with Orc6. Chen S, Bell SP. Genes Dev. 2011 Feb 15;25(4):363-72.
Mec1 is one of multiple kinases that prime the Mcm2-7 helicase for phosphorylation by Cdc7. Randell JC, Fan A, Chan C, Francis LI, Heller RC, Galani K, Bell SP. Mol Cell. 2010 Nov 12;40(3):353-63.
Conserved nucleosome positioning defines replication origins. Eaton ML, Galani K, Kang S, Bell SP, MacAlpine DM. Genes Dev. 2010 Apr 15;24(8):748-53.
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http://web.mit.edu/bell-lab/
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Received March 26, 2019; Revised April 16, 2019; Accepted April 16, 2019
DNA replication in human mitochondria has been studied for several decades; however, its mechanism still remains unclear. During the last 15 years, many new experimental data on the mitochondrial replication have appeared, although extremely contradictory. Two asynchronous (strand displacement and RITOLS) and one synchronous (strand-coupled) replication models have been proposed. In the asynchronous models, replication from the origin in the H-chain starts earlier, so that the replication of the two chains ends at different times. The synchronous model is more traditional and implies two replication forks with leading and lagging strands initiated at the same origin. For each of the three models, both confirming and contradicting experimental data exist. Most likely, there is no single model of mitochondrial replication. It is possible that the unique mitochondrial replication machinery that has originated as a results of endosymbiosis has an unexpected variety of replication strategies to maintain the mitochondrial genome. An unusual combination of enzymes of different origin (phage, bacterial, eukaryotic) and unique features of the mitochondrial genome (existance of heavy and light chains, insertions of ribonucleotides, a variety of origins) can allow replication through different mechanisms. In human mitochondria, asynchronous replication seems to dominate; however, synchronous replication is also possible under certain conditions. In the human heart mitochondria, circular mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) molecules can rearrange in a network of rapidly replicating linear genomes, thereby suggesting possible existence of a wide range of replication mechanisms in the mitochondria. The review describes the main stages of mtDNA replication and enzymes involved in this process, as well as discusses the prospects of mitochondrial replication studies.
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http://www.protein.bio.msu.ru/biokhimiya/contents/v84/abs/84081115.html
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Mode of Replication and Origins of Replication
The study of DNA replication in B. burgdorferi has just recently commenced. What has been established is the position of the replication origin for the linear chromosome and the minimal complement of open reading frames (ORFs) required for autonomous replication of several examples of the circular and linear replicons.
A key study physically mapped the origin of replication of the linear chromosome to a small 2-kb region almost exactly in the centre of the chromosome (Picardeau et al. 1999). In combination with examination of AT- and CG-skew to identify a candidate origin region, a technique called nascent DNA strand analysis was employed. By further analysis of the switch point of the polarity of CG-skew and sequence analysis for origin-like characteristics, the authors conclude that the origin most likely lies in the intergenic region between dnaA and dnaN. Replication from this origin proceeds bidirection-ally. A further important point is that the hp telomeres show no origin activity in the nascent DNA strand assay, eliminating the possibility of their use as replication origins (Picardeau et al. 1999).
The discovery of a specific binding site for the Hbb protein in the dnaA-dnaN intergenic region lends further support to the designation of this area as the origin (Kobryn et al. 2000). Hbb is the B. burgdorferi homologue of the nucleoid proteins HU and IHF (Tilly et al. 1996). These accessory DNA bending proteins often act in conjunction with DnaA in the open complex formation step of origin firing in other bacterial systems (Hwang and Kornberg 1992; Kornberg 1992; Roth et al. 1994). Hbb binding to its specific site introduces a sharp U-bend between two flanking direct repeats and induces KMnO4 sensitivity of several T nucleotides outwith the Hbb binding site (Ko-bryn et al. 2000). These are all biochemical features consistent with a role of Hbb binding to this site in replication initiation.
The bidirectional internal origin and the demonstration of the lack of origin activity of the hp telomeres strongly argued against replication models for the chromosome that do not invoke a DNA breakage and reunion event (telomere resolution) at the replicated telomeres (rTels; see Casjens 1999 for a review of replication models for the linear replicons). The lack of hp telom-ere origin activity also argues against models similar to those proposed for poxvirus replication, which invoke site-specific nicking at one telomere followed by strand displacement synthesis and telomere resolution to process the resulting linear head-to-head, tail-to-tail concatamers into unit length viral genomes terminated by hp telomeres (Fig. 1; see Kobryn and Chaconas 2001, and references therein).
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https://www.alpfmedical.info/telomere-resolution/mode-of-replication-and-origins-of-replication.html
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DNA replication: Unravelling the secrets of the replisome
At some point in their lives, every cell has the ability to reproduce. To do so, cells need to have two copies of their genetic information, one to give each of the daughter cells. The first step in this process is known as DNA replication, and it involves making an identical replica of the cell’s DNA using the existing version as a template. This occurs billions of times a day in the human body and it’s done with high accuracy and precision.
The DNA present in every cell is made up of two strands, assembled in a well-known double helix. As a starting point, this structure needs to be uncoiled and separated, and each single strand can then be used as a template for the production of another strand. As a result, the two final DNA copies each have one ‘new’ strand and one ‘old’ strand.
This is a highly complex and regulated process involving multiple proteins. One of the most important is an enzyme known as helicase, which commands charge of separating the two DNA strands. Then come DNA polymerases that have the ability to add small DNA building blocks (called nucleotides) to the chain, producing a new double-stranded DNA. Curiously, and nobody yet knows why, but DNA replication requires two different polymerases, known as Pol epsilon and Pol delta.
This mechanism has long fascinated Professor Michael O’Donnell, based at The Rockefeller University, New York, USA. It all started back in the 90s, when Professor O’Donnell and his team were the first to show a doughnut-shaped protein wrapped around DNA, with the ability to recruit a polymerase and ensure that it stayed in place during replication. They named it ‘sliding clamp’ after noticing that it literally slid along the DNA strand while holding the polymerase to DNA.
…the replisome plays the role of a zipper slider to produce two individual strands appearing much the same way as the two separate rows of teeth from the zip.
These were exciting scientific discoveries but there is still much to understand about the process of replication. One aspect that particularly interests researchers is the point where the two strands are separated. This location is teeming with many different proteins, each following their own agenda yet working together with a common goal of duplicating the DNA helix. The Rockefeller University team is keen to dissect each component and understand their localised function within the bigger picture of replication.
The replication point is a hive of activity
Most of Professor O’Donnell’s early work was done in bacteria – including the sliding clamp discovery – but now his team has shifted their attention to eukaryotic organisms. Eukaryotes are complex organisms varying from yeast to humans, whose DNA is enclosed within their nucleus. Eukaryotes differ from bacteria (or prokaryotes) whose DNA moves freely inside the cell.
This change proved successful and the team were the first to purify and use the individual components that constitute the replication machinery in yeast. A painstakingly long and complex process, the team successfully purified complexes that total 35 individual proteins, which make up what is termed the replisome.
These proteins play a crucial role at the replication fork – where the double DNA strand becomes two separate single strands. It’s easy to imagine the replication process like a zip opening, where the replisome plays the role of the zipper slider to produce two individual strands appearing much the same way as the two separate rows of teeth from the zip.
One of the main characteristics of the replication fork is its asymmetry. Because the two strands of DNA sit head to tail but DNA can only be synthesised in one direction, this creates a bit of a traffic jam during replication. The two new strands are produced with different timing, with a leading strand and a lagging strand appearing in opposite directions.
Knowing it would be virtually impossible to study this replication fork in vivo (in living cells), Professor O’Donnell opted for the next best thing: adding all the ingredients to a test tube, including enzymes helicase and polymerases, and a pinch of double stranded DNA with a few nucleotides.
They found that one of the polymerases – called Pol epsilon – doesn’t like to be on its own and only attaches to the DNA if the helicase is present. In contrast, the other polymerase (known as Pol alpha-primase) prefers to bind to the sliding clamp, but only when the clamp is on the lagging strand.
Professor O’Donnell demonstrated that this starkly contrasts with the bacterial system, which uses the same polymerase for replication of both strands of DNA. This raises an interesting question as to why more complex animals need a different strategy?
Professor O’Donnell believes it’s because each strand requires polymerases with vastly different characteristics: the polymerase connected with the leading-trand (Pol epsilon) must be able to keep going without disconnecting from the replisome, while the polymerase for the lagging strand (Pol delta) is geared for short bursts of replication and then easily disconnects from the template.
Wrong drawings
Understanding how polymerases choose their specific strand is impressive, but Professor O’Donnell and his team wanted to go further and understand how all the replisome components fit together. To solve yet another mystery, the team began to build the replisome piece by piece and examined its structure under the microscope. This work was done in collaboration with Huilin Li, a microscope expert currently based at The Van Andel Institute in Michigan. For Professor O’Donnell’s team, it was time to make history once again; this was the first time that the replisome was to be captured in action.
Every cell needs the ability to reproduce. This occurs billions of times a day in the human body and it’s done with high accuracy and precision.
Much to their surprise, their images were not as they had expected. In fact, their results went against years of wrong textbook drawings picturing what people thought the replisome should look like. They showed that polymerases do not trail behind as most textbook drawings would have us believe, but in fact one is located on top of the helicase and the other sits just below. In yeast, this is Pol delta for the lagging strand on top, and Pol epsilon for the leading strand at the bottom.
And this wasn’t the only discrepancy. In addition, the helicase sits in a way that is completely opposite to what was assumed until now. As replication starts, researchers know there are two helicases that move in opposite directions to form two forks. It was always believed that the two helicases simply move in opposite directions from a central point. It turns out from the microscope images that’s not the case. Helicases are not facing outwards but inwards, and the first obstacle is to cross each other to start moving.
Professor O’Donnell proposes this is actually part of a quality control mechanism. Crucially, helicases cannot cross each other and start replication while still encircling double strand DNA. The process can only start when each helicase surrounds the opposite strands of single strand DNA. Once this happens, the two helicases are free to cross each other and start moving to produce two replication forks, not just one.
Challenging pre-conceived ideas
As described before, every organism needs the ability to copy its own genetic material, of which replication is one of many different mechanisms. Curiously, proteins involved in most processes appear consistent throughout evolution, and proteins are similar from simple organisms, like bacteria to more complex ones, like humans.
Replication, however, follows a different pattern. Proteins involved in this mechanism are not similar between bacteria and higher organisms. For Professor O’Donnell, this means the replisome they discovered in yeast evolved after the evolutionary split between bacteria and eukaryotes. Nevertheless, although massively different, the two systems retain some core elements: including that both have a helicase and both have polymerases and sliding clamps.
But that’s about where the similarities end. A major difference involves a swap of strands: in bacteria, the enzyme sitting at the top of the helicase replicates the leading strand, whereas in eukaryotes, the leading strand is located at the bottom of the helicase. This comes from a fundamental difference between helicases: bacterial types prefer the lagging strand, while their eukaryotic counterparts opt for the leading strand.
The reasons behind this swap remain a mystery. “There is much excitement over these new discoveries, and there are many more questions to address in the future than have thus far been answered,” concludes Professor O’Donnell.
Personal Response
Your team has uncovered some of the fascinating mechanisms behind polymerases and helicases – what is your next target?
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https://researchoutreach.org/articles/dna-replication-unravelling-secrets-replisome/
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Accurate transmission of genetic information to daughter cells is central to cell proliferation and relies on the exact and complete duplication of genetic material at each cell cycle. Apart from environmental genotoxic assaults, cells experience throughout their life common impediments to replication fork progression which include endogenous DNA damage and structured DNA, that disturb progression of the replicative DNA polymerases alpha, delta and epsilon.These specific genomic loci where progression of replication forks is slow or problematic undermines genome integrity, and may lead to premature ageing and other disorders associated with genomic instability. Failure to stabilize and restart stalled forks or prolonged arrest of replication forks may result in fork collapse, leading to chromosomal breakage and rearrangement, and increases the possibility of leaving fractions of the genome incompletely replicated. In addition to the established and direct consequences of replication problems (chromosomal aberrations), there exists another, yet unappreciated fate of under-replicated genomic loci: after entry into mitosis, a fraction of such unresolved loci becomes converted to complex broken DNA structures that are then transmitted to daughter cells, where they become sequestered in nuclear compartments described as nuclear bodies of 53BP1.
The present application focuses on 2 major steps of regulation of the replication program, yet unexplored, that needs to be extremely robust to minimize the formation of under-replicated DNA or to repair these unresolved intermediates: The regulation of repair of broken forks after collapse in S phase, a process that remains poorly understood, and the regulation of repair of under-replicated/broken DNA in G1, once they are transmitted to daughter cells, a totally unexplored field. We will test the role of a highly relevant candidate able to connect DNA repair and DNA replication at these two critical processes: the human polymerase theta (Pol theta), a multi-domain protein which contains con¬served helicase and polymerase domains and which is known to function in the repair of double-stranded breaks (DSB) by performing DNA synthesis during an alternative NHEJ pathway, called micro-homology-mediated end-joining (MMEJ).
Based on our unpublished preliminary data supporting that Pol theta functions at early collapsed forks shortly after replication stress and our recent publication demonstrating that Pol theta functions during the earliest steps of DNA replication shortly after mitosis and influences the timing of the replication initiation program, the overall objective of this proposal is to demonstrate how important is Pol theta to connect DNA repair and DNA replication in these two major steps: the repair of early collapsed forks in S phase and the repair of transmitted complex lesions in G1 daughter cells, coupled to the regulation of origin of replication of the next S-phase. The project proposes to test whether, in human cells, Pol theta can hold specific MMEJ DNA repair activity of DSB strongly connected to these two critical regulatory steps of DNA replication. We expect to identify a novel pathway connecting DNA replication and DNA repair, where Pol theta might hold a cardinal place.
This proposal will bring molecular insights in our understanding how Pol theta controls such essential crosstalk and will explore whether its helicase-like domain, unique in the world of the human DNA polymerases could be important for such regulation.
Since defects in the control of the crosstalk replication-repair leads inevitably to endogenous DNA damage and breaks that in turn affect the accuracy of both processes and contribute to accumulation of mutations, aging, senescence and the inheritance of offspring diseases, the present proposal is in accordance with the call "Life, Health and Wellness”.
Monsieur Jean-Sébastien HOFFMANN (Centre de Recherches en cancérologie de Toulouse)
The author of this summary is the project coordinator, who is responsible for the content of this summary. The ANR declines any responsibility as for its contents.
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https://anr.fr/en/funded-projects-and-impact/funded-projects/project/funded/project/b2d9d3668f92a3b9fbbf7866072501ef-23c0973fda/?tx_anrprojects_funded%5Bcontroller%5D=Funded&cHash=ee4d23687921be3cb0c969ff31398d2a
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Initiation of DNA replication at the primary origin of bacteriophage T7 by purified proteins. Initiation of bidirectional synthesis.
The Journal of biological chemistry (1985), Volume 260, Page 3197
Abstract:
Replication of bacteriophage T7 DNA initiates in vivo at an origin located 15% of the distance from the genetic left end of the chromosome. Bidirectional DNA synthesis from this site results in complete replication of the chromosome. The combination of T7 RNA polymerase, T7 DNA polymerase, and T7 gene 4 protein initiates DNA synthesis in vitro within the cloned origin sequence (Fuller, C. W., and Richardson, C. C. (1985) J. Biol. Chem. 260: 3185-3196). DNA synthesis is primed by T7 RNA polymerase transcripts, and proceeds in the same direction (rightward) as transcription to yield partially replicated Y-form DNA molecules. The DNA product of in vitro synthesis (Y-form DNA) has been characterized by electron microscopic, sedimentation, and gel electrophoretic analyses. These studies show that Y-form DNA is the product of unidirectional replication of both leading and lagging strands from the origin to the right-hand end of the template. The inclusion of either Escherichia coli single-stranded DNA-binding protein or the functionally similar T7 gene 2.5 protein results in marked stimulation of bidirectional synthesis. Studies using purified Y-form DNA provide direct evidence that this species is an intermediate in the complete replication of the linear template. Purified Y-form DNA is converted to linear DNA in a reaction catalyzed by T7 DNA polymerase, T7 gene 4 protein, and single-stranded DNA-binding protein. Y-form DNA is a competent, transient intermediate during the bidirectional replication of linear DNA molecules and DNA-binding protein is essential to initiate leftward synthesis.
Polymerases:
Topics:
Status:
|new||topics/pols set||partial results||complete||validated|
Results:
No results available for this paper.
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https://polbase.neb.com/references/6612
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An in vitro system reconstituted from purified proteins has been used to examine what happens when the DNA replication apparatus of bacteriophage T4 collides with an Escherichia coli RNA polymerase ternary transcription complex that is poised to move in the direction opposite to that of the moving replication fork. In the absence of a DNA helicase, the replication fork stalls for many minutes after its encounter with the RNA polymerase. However, when the T4 gene 41 DNA helicase is present, the replication fork passes the RNA polymerase after a pause of a few seconds. This brief pause is longer than the pause observed for a codirectional collision between the same two polymerases, suggesting that there is an inherent disadvantage to having replication and transcription directions oriented head to head. As for a codirectional collision, the RNA polymerase remains competent to resume faithful RNA chain elongation after the DNA replication fork passes; most strikingly, the RNA polymerase has switched from its original template strand to use the newly synthesized daughter DNA strand as the template.
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https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7855590/
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Explanation: The high species richness or biodiversity found in tropical rain forests is mainly due to their geographic location and the amount of precipitation they receive. … Plants, which are primary producers, can be limited by many things, such as precipitation, sunlight, nitrogen, soil conditions, and etc.
Why does the rainforest have high biodiversity?
Rainforests have an abundance of plants and animals for the following reasons: … Since there is a lot of sunlight, there is a lot of energy in the rainforest. This energy is stored in plant vegetation, which is eaten by animals. The abundance of energy supports an abundance of plant and animal species.
Are rainforests high biodiversity?
Tropical rainforests are the most biologically diverse terrestrial ecosystems in the world. The Amazon rainforest is the world’s largest tropical rainforest. It is home to around 40,000 plant species, nearly 1,300 bird species, 3,000 types of fish, 427 species of mammals, and 2.5 million different insects.
Why does a rainforest have more biodiversity than a temperate forest?
Ample sunlight, consistently warm temperatures and frequent, abundant precipitation — all plentiful in tropical rainforests — tend to produce highest biodiversity among ecosystems.
Why are tropical rainforests so productive and biodiverse?
In Tropical Rainforests, water, sunlight, and high temperatures are consistent and a dense concentration of plants is present, causing both the GPP and NPP to be very high. So, high levels of productivity increase biomass.
Why is the biodiversity of the rainforest important quizlet?
is a wide range of plant and animals species. Or the variety of organisms within an ecosystem. … The rainforest is important resource because of its vegetation help clean the earth atmosphere , regulate the climate, and shelter millions species of plants, animals, insects, and fish.
Why is the biodiversity of a tropical rainforest very high quizlet?
Biodiversity is high because the warm and wet consistent climate in tropical rainforests is able to sustain life in all different forms. Soil nutrient is poor in tropical rain forests because the sunlight that is intended to reach the floor of the tropical forest is blocked by the tall and dense trees.
Why are tropical rainforests so productive and biodiverse quizlet?
Why are tropical rainforests so productive and biodiverse? -They have abundant light. -They have year-long growing seasons. … Despite its high biodiversity and productivity, this biome contains most of its nutrients in the plants themselves, instead of the soil.
Why tropical regions are richer in biodiversity than the temperate regions?
It is generally seen that there is more biodiversity in the tropical region than the temperate region because of a variety of factors: … The tropical forest has a stable ecosystem as well as a suitable climatic condition and favorable reproductive environment for animal and species to thrive.
What is the biodiversity in the Amazon rainforest?
The Amazon Rainforest and Biodiversity
As an ecosystem, the Amazon is one of the most biodiverse places on earth. Over 3 million species live in the rainforest, and over 2,500 tree species (or one-third of all tropical trees that exist on earth) help to create and sustain this vibrant ecosystem.
Which has more biodiversity a rainforest or a desert?
The biodiversity of these two biomes is vastly different. Both biomes have warm climates, but the desert is very dry, and the rainforest is very wet. The desert has very few organisms, so it has low biodiversity. … In contrast, the rainforest has the highest biodiversity of any biome on Earth.
Why are tropical wet forests and estuaries most productive?
Tropical Rainforests have high primary productivity because of availability of plenty of solar light and water. A typical estuary has high primary productivity because it is shallow (gets plenty of sunlight) and has turbulent water (which brings the nutrient rich material from sea bed).
How does a tropical rainforest differentiate from a desert?
Difference between Desert Plants and Rainforest Plants. The deserts are very dry land areas that can be hot or cold and experience very less rainfall. On the other hand, rainforests receive an enormous amount of rain. Both are homes to a variety of plants.
What is diversity and biodiversity?
The term biodiversity (from “biological diversity”) refers to the variety of life on Earth at all its levels, from genes to ecosystems, and can encompass the evolutionary, ecological, and cultural processes that sustain life.
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https://challengeracquisitions.com/ecosystem/best-answer-why-are-rainforest-rich-in-biodiversity.html
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Does Borneo have a rainforest?
The Tropical Rainforest of Borneo. The Bornean Rainforest. It is an umbrella containing the tropical rainforest of Southeast Asia and its islands. The rainforest covers an area of 4,500,000 km2 or 17% of the landmass in Southeast Asia.
What type of biome is Borneo?
This island belongs to the Indo-Malaysia Borneo tropical forest biome. It does not actually lie in the tropical forests of tropical rainforests, instead it belongs to a transitional zone between a tropical rainy forest and a deciduous or subtropical forest.
Do bananas grow in Borneo?
They are usually in abundance during the rainy season in Borneo. The banana plant is an evergreen, has a canopy of large, dark green leaves and produces yellow-green, heart-shaped fruit. Banana leaves are often used in food preparation in Borneo as they are considered a nutritious source of food.
How many animals live in the Borneo rainforest?
Bornean jungle elephants are just about the only animals in the forest that can outrun you. There are approximately 1,000 orangutans (up to 2,000 as of 2017) in Borneo, mainly in the northern part of the island and in Sarawak, the third biggest island of Malaysia.
What is the tallest tree in the rainforest?
The tallest Rainforest tree is the Guanacaste Dryad (Acacia spectabilis), which grows to 150 meters (550 feet). It is one of the tallest trees in the rainforest and also one of the oldest trees.
What is a lowland rainforest?
A lowland rainforest is a tropical or subtropical rainforest that is adjacent to the ocean within the eastern and western coasts of Africa and south of the Amazon region. Lowland rainforests have a tropical or subtropical climate and humid climate with high annual rainfall and a pronounced rainy season. Lowland rainforests typically cover large areas of land.
Is Borneo still burning?
The fires are now burning for the second year running in the Democratic Republic of Borneo, including the island of Kalimantan. In 2014 the fires killed an estimated 6,700,000 hectares spread over Borneo.
Are there tigers in Borneo?
The Borneo Tiger Subspecies is found only within a specific area of Borneo is now found around Mount Kinabalu in Sabah. The last Bornean Tigers are believed to have disappeared by the end of the 20th Century, since then this subspecies has been officially classified as extinct.
How can we stop deforestation?
The main reason for increasing deforestation in Malaysia involves our need for more land for plantation agriculture. The solution to our land shortage problem is simple, but may not be as straightforward: more forest. There are many reasons why we must save our own rainforests.
What is the climate of Borneo rainforest?
The forest of Borneo (commonly referred to as “the forests” or “the rainforest”) is a tropical rainforest. Borneo has three main types of forest: the coastal lowland tropical rainforest (called the “east jungle”), the dipterocarp forest (called the “wild east jungles”) in the south and the mixed dipterocarp forest (called “west jungle”) in the northeast.
Likewise, is Borneo in the Amazon?
Borneo. It’s been said countless times that Borneo is the one place in the world where you can live in your pajamas (the most tropical thing) and swim naked (on other days and on other sides of the island) and not be spotted by anyone.
What country is Borneo in?
Borneo comprises Brunei, East Malaysia and Sarawak, as well as the Indonesian island of Sabah.
Where does the Amazon rainforest?
The Amazon rainforest is one of the largest biomes in the world. Located in the heart of South America, the Amazon is a densely forested and fertile region that is home to more than 20 percent of the world’s species. It stretches across 5,000 miles and consists of an interconnected series of jungle forests, wetlands, savannas, and flooded forests.
What is the capital of Borneo?
Kuala Lumpur
How much rainforest is left in Indonesia?
About three-quarters of Indonesia’s rainforest are left. In the 1950s, Indonesia’s rainforest covered 50 million hectares and made up almost half of the world’s rainforest. Now, with almost a quarter of the world’s rainforest gone and another quarter threatened, that figure is expected to drop to only 20 million hectares (47 million acres) by 2060.
Why is Borneo losing its jungle?
Man has been killing off or eating the elephants in Borneo in record numbers in recent years. And this trend is having a major impact on the forest habitat and the habitat of the orangutans. The logging is taking place on a steep slope by elephants in the forest for their food.
Regarding this, how much of Borneo is covered by rainforest?
Most of Borneo’s rainforests remain in the island nation of Brunei Darussalam, located on the island of Borneo in Southeast Asia. Rainforests on Borneo span an incredibly vast range of climates and terrains.
Subsequently, one may also ask, what trees are in the Borneo rainforest?
Most species of trees that grow in the rainforest are epiphytic — that is, they usually climb trees growing in the canopy. Epiphytes are supported by an aerial root (called a holdfast or perforation)
Where is the jungle of Borneo?
Borneo is an island in Southeast Asia at an equatorial latitude of 5 degrees north and longitude 105 degrees east. The island is part of the larger island chain known as Wallacea. Many rainforests exist, but the most biologically intact rainforests in nature are the Bornean rainforests in Indonesia. These rainforests cover about half of the island.
What is the tallest flowering tree in the world?
The world’s tallest tree is Gunuifera klotzschiana, found in Brazil. A member of the peyote cactus family, it can grow up to 30 meters (100 feet) in height, although it is only a few meters wide. It can survive at the very top of its 30-meter spines. Gunuifera klotzschiana is one of the tallest trees in the world.
What is the vegetation in Borneo?
The most common vegetation is tropical evergreen forests and deciduous dipterocarp or hardwoods, while some areas are still covered by the extensive coastal rainforest (mangroves). Other examples of forest vegetation include heath forests, dipterocarp forests and limestone karst landscape.
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https://civic-express.com/does-borneo-have-a-rainforest/
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The planet is losing an estimated 80,000 acres of tropical rainforest every day. And while that amount of deforestation – more than twice the area of Costa Rica each year – seems like it could result only from a colossal bulldozer plowing across an entire continent of forestland, the reality on the ground is anything but uniform.
In the Amazon, Congo, and Indonesia, the three regions that are home to nearly all of the world’s tropical rainforests, the human motivations behind and methods of deforestation are entirely distinct. In South America the most significant driver of forest loss is the need to clear land for industrial-scale agriculture and ranching, so huge swaths of forest are burned into oblivion by human-set wildfires. In Southeast Asia, on the other hand, the high price of timber in the global market makes clear-cutting a lucrative venture. In Africa, deforestation lacks this industrial scale, but is more haphazard as small farmers clear land in piecemeal efforts to plant subsistence crops.
The net result is that the rainforests of today’s post-industrial world are more like millions of tiny, isolated patches of forest than the massive stretches of jungle that blanketed the tropics for millennia. The ramifications echo far beyond sentimental conservation – these forest fragments collectively emit 31 percent more greenhouse gases to the atmosphere than intact rainforests, even after accounting for emissions from deforestation. In addition, numerous plants and animals that call the tropical rainforests home, and that inspire pharmaceuticals for human medicine, have struggled to adapt to patchwork forests, and so face extinction.
These forest patches in the Amazon, Congo, and Indonesia were created in different ways, so it seems inevitable that the complex forest mosaics left behind by deforestation are unique across the regions. Yet a new study, published in Nature last month, found that despite the differences in where, why, and how rainforests are destroyed, from a mathematical perspective the resulting mosaics look essentially the same. And, ominously, the math suggests that tropical rainforests may be nearing a tipping point beyond which deforestation will spiral out of human control.
The key to this warning is a mathematical concept called percolation theory. Percolation theory may not sound familiar – it lacks the fame of the Big Bang theory or evolution – but like gravity, it seems to apply ubiquitously in the natural world. At its simplest, the theory seeks to describe how structures that repeat themselves in nature, like ice crystals in near-freezing water, cliques in a social network, or clouds across the sky, behave when subjected to an outside change. The equations derived from percolation theory seem to fit nearly everywhere scientists look: they’ve been applied to phenomena as disparate as earthquakes, epidemics, and forest fires.
But there’s a common thread: all of these phenomena have a so-called critical point, a point beyond which behavior transforms from moving slowly and steadily to moving all at once. Take disease, for instance. When only a few people are sick, the infection can spread – but only slowly, a few people at a time. However, percolation theory states that once the number of people infected surpasses the critical point, the disease is almost certain to rapidly infect the rest of the population. In the case of deforestation, the critical point represents the point beyond which forests will shift from human-caused destruction to self-collapse, as forest fragments shrink and die due to the inherent instability of small forests fragments.
Now, it appears that the same equations fit the fragmented remains of the planet’s great rainforests. And that we’re getting close to the critical point.
This unexpected finding came about when researchers, led by mathematician Franziska Taubert, began combing through satellite images of the world’s entire remaining stock of tropical rainforest. But rather than simply count up the total area of intact forest that remains across millions of individual fragments, they counted the fragments themselves: how many there were and how much area each covered. While they expected to come away with different equations describing these rainforest fragments for each continent, they found instead that, across the world, the proportion of tiny fragments to large fragments was the same. Even more interesting, that proportion was exactly the ratio predicted by percolation theory.
They followed the thread, developing a computer simulation of deforestation based on the equations, derived from percolation theory, and current rates of rainforest loss. The simulation results exactly matched the patterns Taubert and his team observed from the satellite data. The advantage of the simulation, though, was that it could go one step further – it could identify the level of deforestation that would push the world’s rainforests past the critical point. The result: at current rates of deforestation, tropical rainforest are only several years’ worth of deforestation away from smashing through the critical point.
To get a sense of what happens once deforestation surpasses the critical point, the research team played out their simulations in the Amazon basin. Just as in the case of an epidemic, the simulations predicted that the scale of deforestation would increase exponentially once the forest began to collapse on itself. By 2050, without an end to human deforestation, the overall area of the Amazon rainforest was predicted to drop by half. Even in a scenario in which reforestation was undertaken, but without concerted efforts to end deforestation, the rainforest fared little better.
That's a bleak forecast considering how essential massive rainforests are to the planet as we know it. A 2015 study suggested that losing the world's tropical rainforests could not only cause nearly a degree of atmospheric warming, but could also dramatically alter rainfall patterns around the world. Without rainforests to serve as an atmospheric sponge around the equator, places as distant from the tropics as the United States' corn belt could see drought become commonplace. Closer to where the forests once stood, fires will run rampant as the land dries up. Tropical soils, without trees to turn over nutrients, will turn toxic to agriculture.
However, Taubert's team identified one scenario that offered a glimmer of hope. When the simulations assume that deforestation is phased out over the next decade and replaced with reforestation programs that increase each year, the Amazon would lose only one-quarter of its area over the next 30 years.
And while that still represents a staggering amount of lost rainforest, this outcome nonetheless demonstrates the immense power of conservation efforts to direct the future of the world’s rainforests. In that vein, this research and percolation theory itself are warnings, rather than death knells for tropical rainforests. Without action, both grassroots and government-driven, the time will come when rainforest fragments begin to collapse on themselves and it is too late to undo the damage. But that time has not yet passed.
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https://dev.massivesci.com/articles/rainforest-deforestation-tipping-point-collaps/
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What are the 6 major rainforests?
The following is a list of the largest rainforests on the planet.
- The Amazon.
- The Congo Rainforest.
- Bosawas Biosphere Reserve.
- Daintree Rainforest.
- Southeast Asian Rainforest.
- Tongass National Forest.
- Kinabalu National Park.
- Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve.
What are the 4 major rainforests regions on earth?
We can, however, identify and list the world’s largest rainforests by their size, type and location.
- Amazon Rainforest.
- Congolese Rainforest.
- New Guinea Rainforest.
- Valdivian Temperate Rainforest.
- Heart of Borneo.
- Pacific Temperate Rainforest.
- Tropical Rainforest Heritage of Sumatra.
- Eastern Australian Temperate Forests.
What are the main 7 biomes?
Biomes of the World
- Tropical Rainforest.
- Temperate Forest.
- Desert.
- Tundra.
- Taiga (Boreal Forest)
- Grassland.
- Savanna.
How many rainforests are there?
There are only seven temperate rainforests in the world. The Pacific Temperate Rainforest is the biggest of these. It stretches for 23,300 square miles across North America, encompassing the Tongass National Forest and the Great Bear Rainforest.
How many types of rainforests are there?
two types
There are two types of rainforests, tropical and temperate. Tropical rainforests are found closer to the equator where it is warm. Temperate rainforests are found near the cooler coastal areas further north or south of the equator. The tropical rainforest is a hot, moist biome where it rains all year long.
What are the 8 forest biomes?
There are eight major terrestrial biomes: tropical wet forests, savannas, subtropical deserts, chaparral, temperate grasslands, temperate forests, boreal forests, and Arctic tundra.
Where are the main rainforests in the world?
The largest rainforests on Earth surround the Amazon River in South America and the Congo River in Africa. The tropical islands of Southeast Asia and parts of Australia support dense rainforest habitats. Even the cool evergreen forests of North America’s Pacific Northwest and Northern Europe are a type of rainforest.
What is the biggest rainforest in the world?
The Amazon
The Amazon is the world’s largest rainforest. It’s home to more than 30 million people and one in ten known species on Earth.
How many rainforests are in the world?
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https://rf-onlinegame.com/what-are-the-6-major-rainforests/
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A 1.8 million year history of Amazon vegetation
During the Pleistocene, long-term trends in global climate were controlled by orbital cycles leading to high amplitude glacial-interglacial variability. The history of Amazonian vegetation during this period is largely unknown since no continuous record from the lowland basin extends significantly beyond the last glacial stage. Here we present a paleoenvironmental record spanning the last 1800 kyr based on palynological data, biome reconstructions, and biodiversity metrics from a marine sediment core that preserves a continuous archive of sediments from the Amazon River.
Tropical rainforests dominated the Amazonian lowlands during the last 1800 ka interchanging with surrounding warm-temperate rainforests and tropical seasonal forests. Between 1800 and 1000 ka, rainforest biomes were present in the Amazon drainage basin, along with extensive riparian wetland vegetation. Tropical rainforest expansion occurred during the relatively warm Marine Isotope Stages 33 and 31 (ca. 1110 to 1060 ka), followed by a contraction of both forests and wetlands until ca. 800 ka. Between 800 and 400 ka, low pollen concentration and low diversity of palynological assemblages renders difficult the interpretation of Amazonian vegetation. A strong synchronicity between vegetation changes and glacial-interglacial global climate cycles was established around 400 ka. After 400 ka, interglacial vegetation was dominated by lowland tropical rainforest in association with warmer temperatures and higher CO2. During cooler temperatures and lower CO2 of glacial stages, tropical seasonal forests expanded, presumably towards eastern Amazonia. While this study provides no evidence supporting a significant expansion of savanna or steppe vegetation within the Amazonian lowlands during glacial periods, there were changes in the rainforest composition in some parts of the basin towards a higher proportion of deciduous elements, pointing to less humid conditions and/or greater seasonality of precipitation. Nevertheless, rainforest persisted during both glacial and interglacial periods. These findings confirm the sensitivity of tropical lowland vegetation to changes in CO2, temperature, and moisture availability and the most suitable conditions for tropical rainforests occurred during the warmest stages of the Mid Pleistocene Transition and during the interglacial stages of the past 400 kyr.
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https://www.usgs.gov/publications/a-18-million-year-history-amazon-vegetation
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Learning all about the tropical rainforest includes learning more about the plants, animals, people, and climate that together, create these spectacular environments. Due to the destruction of the Earth’s rainforests, they now only cover less than six percent of the land surface on Earth. Amazingly enough, however, more than half of the animals and plants in the world are estimated to live in tropical rainforests. In addition, more than 40 percent of the oxygen on Earth is produced by tropical rainforests.
Tropical Rainforest Climate
Tropical rainforests are a part of the tropical wet climate group. The annual average rainfall within this type of rainforest is 50 to 260 inches, but is often more than 100 inches. The temperature ranges between 68 degrees Fahrenheit and 93 degrees Fahrenheit. These rainforests are also vary humid averaging between 77 percent and 88 percent humidity.
Tropical Rainforest Animals and Insects
There are several different types of mammals that live in tropical rainforests ranging from very small to very large. The most well-known mammals are the larger mammals, such as tigers, leopards, jaguars, apes, and monkeys. However, most of the mammals in this type of rainforest are small, as well as nocturnal, and include several different species of rodents and bats, such as different types of mice, lemurs, and squirrels.
Tigers are possibly the most dangerous big cat in the world and it is also the biggest. It is native to southern and eastern Asia. They can weigh as much as 660 pounds and reach eleven feet long. This endangered cat can be found in a variety of areas including the tropical mangrove swamps.
Apes are an endangered species mostly due to the loss of their tropical rainforest habitat. There are several different apes and they all eat plants and insects. They are generally peaceful and quiet, but are also quite large . The males can reach 400 pounds and six feet tall, and the females can reach 200 pounds and five feet tall.
There are several different species of birds, some of which are migratory. Some of the most well-known birds include parrots, toucans, eagles, hornbills, vultures, and hawks.
Parrots are well-known birds that inhabit tropical rainforests. Their main feather color is green, but it is accompanied by several other bright colors, such as orange, red, blue, and yellow. They vary greatly in size. Their diet consists of seeds, fruit, nuts, flower buds, and other plant parts and material.
Vultures are birds of prey and scavengers. They feed on dead animal carcases, but will sometimes kill an animal that is sick or wounded and eat them. Two of their most dominant characteristics is that they are devoid of feathers and they have a bald head.
Reptiles and amphibians are also very abundant in tropical rainforests. Some of the most well-known include snakes, tortoises, crocodiles, turtles, lizards, toads, newts, frogs, salamanders, and caecilians.
Crocodiles can be found in the tropical rainforest and other tropical areas of Asia, Australia, Africa, and the Americas. They often congregate in freshwater habitats, such as lakes, wetlands, rivers, and in some cases, brackish water. They most often feed on fish, mammals, and reptiles, but may also feed on mollusks and crustaceans. Crocodiles vary greatly in size from anywhere between three feet to 16 feet in length and up to 2,600 pounds.
The insects in tropical rainforests range from small to rather large and from dangerous to non-dangerous. Some of the most well-known include several different butterflies, leaf insect, moths, several different types of beetles, and several different types of caterpillars.
Tropical rainforest butterflies are crucial to the rainforest because they pollinate the flowers and feed on nectar. These butterflies tend to be bigger than your typical garden butterfly and come in a large variety of colors. In the Amazon rainforest, some of the butterflies have transparent wings. Up to 150 different species of butterfly can be found within just eight square kilometers.
Tropical Rainforest Plants
There are more than 40,000 different species of plants found in tropical rainforests, including primary producers. These plants are used for a variety of things, such as by the animals and insects, and people for survival, and to make traditional medications. Some of the most well-known plants of tropical rainforests include orchids, bromeliads, Bengal bamboo, the Kapok tree, jambu, strangler figs, bougainvillea, curare, durian, tualang, mangrove forests, and the coconut tree.
- Mangrove Forests: These forests, also referred to as mangals, consist of shrubs and trees that grow along tropical coastlines. Fifteen percent of the mangals in the world are found in Brazil.
- Bougainvillea: This tropical flowering plant is usually pest-free and is native to South America. The main flower is usually white and small, but it then surrounded by three to six bracts comprised of bright colors, such as magenta, red, white, pink, purple, orange, or yellow.
- Strangler Figs: This tropical tree is a common sight in tropical rainforests and there are approximately 1,000 different species. This canopy tree is tall and can reach 148 feet high. They begin as seedlings on a tree’s branches or crook then they grow quickly into vine-like roots which dangle as aerial roots or snake down the trunk. As the roots grow and spread, they squeeze their host tree’s trunk to a point that its flow of nutrients gets cut off.
People of the Tropical Rainforests
When learning all about the tropical rainforest it is important to learn about the people who inhabit them and live around them. The Amazon rainforest supports the biggest populations. Some of the most well-known people who live in tropical rainforests include the pygmies (Africa) and the kaiapo Indians (Amazon rainforest, Brazil). The pygmies are forest dwellers who have intimate knowledge of the plants, animals, and rainforest. In order to eat, they hunt antelopes, monkeys, pigs, and fish. They also gather wild yams, honey, berries, and other plants. They believe that the rainforest is their god and that it will protect them and provide them what they need. The Kayapo participate in many modern world activities, such as the lumber and mining industry, and using a cash economy. This group is a highly ecologically evolved group and they use biological pesticides to cultivate several plants.
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https://www.brighthub.com/environment/science-environmental/articles/72978.aspx
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At around 1,200 square kilometres (460 sq mi), the Daintree is a part of the largest continuous area of tropical rainforest on the Australian continent. The Daintree Rainforest is a part of the Wet Tropics of Queensland Rainforest, that spans across the Cairns Region.
How much of Australia is forest?
Australia has a total of 134 million hectares of forest, which is equivalent to 17% of Australia’s land area. Of this total forest area, determined as at 2016, 132 million hectares (98%) are ‘Native forests’, 1.95 million hectares are ‘Commercial plantations’ and 0.47 million hectares are ‘Other forest’.
Which is the largest rainforest in Australia?
Largest Rainforest in Australia
The region referred to as ‘The Daintree Rainforest’ encompasses an area of approximately 1,200 square kilometres, from the Daintree River north to Cooktown and west to the Great Divide, representing the single largest block of tropical rainforest in Australia.
What is Australia’s best known rainforest?
From the 180-million-year-old Daintree Rainforest in the north of Queensland to the cool, misty temperate rainforests of Tasmania, Australia’s rainforests can be found right across the country.
What is the largest forest on earth?
The Amazon is the world’s largest rainforest. It’s home to more than 30 million people and one in ten known species on Earth.
Does Australia have any jungles?
Australia has many types of rainforest, varying with rainfall and latitude. Tropical and subtropical rainforests are found in northern and eastern Australia in wet coastal areas. … A total of 0.9 million hectares (26 per cent) of the Rainforest forest type is on private land.
What happened Australia’s forest?
New research published in the journal Nature Climate Change found that a staggering 21 percent of Australia’s forested area burned in the 2019-2020 fire season, a figure the authors say is “globally unprecedented” and may indicate “the more flammable future projected to eventuate under climate change has arrived …
Where is the oldest forest in the world?
Scientists have discovered the world’s oldest forest in an abandoned quarry near Cairo, New York. The 385-million-year-old rocks contain the fossilized woody roots of dozens of ancient trees.
What is the smallest rainforest in the world?
As of 2014, the smallest rain forest in the world is the Bukit Nanas Forest Reserve, which is contained within the city of Kuala Lumpur in Malaysia. The approximately 25-acre patch is the only remaining stand of the jungle that once covered the area now taken up by the city.
What is the youngest rainforest in the world?
“Did you know that Perak has a 130-million-year-old tropical rainforest?
Does it snow in Australia?
Yes, it does snow in parts of Australia, and yes – the snow is significant. … The aptly named “Snowy Mountains” region has substantial snowfall each winter, as does Victoria’s “High Country” region, which is only a few hours drive from Melbourne.
Which country is this Australia?
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands. It is the largest country in Oceania and the world’s sixth-largest country by total area.
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Australia.
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Does Africa have rainforests?
Around 2 million km² of Africa is covered by tropical rainforests. They are second only in extent to those in Amazonia, which cover around 6 million km². Rainforests are home to vast numbers of species.
Which country has no trees?
There are no trees
There are four countries with no forest whatsoever, according to the World Bank’s definition: San Marino, Qatar, Greenland and Oman.
Which is the dangerous forest in the world?
Amazon Rainforest (South America)
Covering an area of more than 7,000,000 sq kilometers, the Amazon Rainforest deserves a place in the most dangerous forest in the world due to the sheer fact that most of the forest is still undiscovered and hides many mysteries within it.
Why are there no trees on the English moors?
When trees were cleared from the uplands, heavy rain washed soil off the hills and into the valleys below, leaving a much reduced mineral fertility and turning the uplands into sodden bleak moors that resist the return of woodland.
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https://hike-australia.com/for-travelers/quick-answer-what-is-the-biggest-forest-in-australia.html
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While all forests have climate-cooling superpowers, tropical forests trap larger amounts of carbon dioxide and evaporate more water. In doing so, they produce that thick (and beautifully dramatic) cloud cover that reflects sunlight back to space.
Why is climate important to the rainforest?
Rainforests are often called the lungs of the planet for their role in absorbing carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, and increasing local humidity. Rainforests also stabilize climate, house incredible amounts of plants and wildlife, and produce nourishing rainfall all around the planet.
How does climate affect the rainforest?
Rapid climate change could affect the rainforest by increasing the temperature and driving animals to regions farther away from the equator with cooler temperatures but greater seasonal swings they must adapt to, while organisms that remain in the rainforests either adapt to the higher temperatures or die out.
What climate do rainforests need?
As tropical rainforests are located on or close to the Equator, the climate is typically warm and wet. The high rainfall and year-round high temperatures are ideal conditions for vegetation growth. … The temperature never drops below 20°C and rarely exceeds 35°C. Rainfall levels are high, typically over 2000mm per year.
What does climate mean in the rainforest?
A tropical rainforest climate or equatorial climate is a tropical climate usually found within 10 to 15 degrees latitude of the equator. They experience high mean annual temperatures, small temperature ranges, and rain that falls throughout the year. … A tropical rainforest climate is typically hot, very humid, and wet.
How will climate change affect the Amazon rainforest?
The changing nature of the Amazon
Over time, global climate change and more deforestation will likely lead to increased temperatures and changing rain patterns in the Amazon, which will undoubtedly affect the region’s forests, water availability, biodiversity, agriculture, and human health.
How do forests regulate climate?
Forests regulate climate at local, regional and continental scales, by producing atmospheric moisture and rainfall, and controlling temperature. … Forests provide multiple water and climate-related services, including precipitation recycling, cooling, water purification, infiltration and groundwater recharge.
What is the climate for the Amazon rainforest?
Climate. While the climate is humid tropical (Af) with warm temperatures and rain falling year round, the forest region is far from uniform in precipitation amounts and season of maximum rainfall. Annual precipitation totals vary from 59-118 inches, increasing from east to west.
How do rainforests create their own climate?
Rainforests, like all forms of vegetation, affect the “surface albedo” or reflectivity of a surface by absorbing more heat than bare soil. In turn, this warm carries moisture from forest trees into to atmosphere, where it condenses as rain. In other words, tropical forests cool local climate and help generate rainfall.
What is the climate of tropical rainforest Class 7?
Solution 7: The tropical region has a hot climate because of its location around the equator. Minimum temperature in this region is 15°C. … Tropical rainforests get continuous warmth and rain and hence this region has a wide variety of plants and animals dwelling there.
How is tropical climate?
Tropical climates are characterized by monthly average temperatures of 18 °C (64.4 °F) or higher year-round and feature hot temperatures. … There are normally only two seasons in tropical climates, a wet (rainy) season and a dry season. The annual temperature range in tropical climates is normally very small.
What type of climate does a tropical rainforest experiences?
In general, tropical rainforests have hot and humid climates where it rains virtually everyday. The level of rainfall depends on the time of year. Temperatures vary through the year – but much less than the rainfall. The graph shows average rainfall and temperature in Manaus, Brazil, in the Amazon rainforest.
Why tropical rainforest is called tropical rainforest?
Moist seasonal tropical forests receive high overall rainfall with a warm summer wet season and a cooler winter dry season. Some trees in these forests drop some or all of their leaves during the winter dry season, thus they are sometimes called “tropical mixed forest”.
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https://aslebiennialconference.com/ecologic/how-does-climate-help-the-rainforest.html
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From GCSE Bitesize… The destruction of the rainforest is: … reducing the amount of oxygen that people can breathe. myth , there is plenty of oxygen in the air for people to breathe. … losing valuable genetic material that may be useful to people in the future. likely - pharmaceutical companies are searching for valuable medicines and drugs in rainforest areas. Agricultural companies are also looking for wild strains of crops to cross with domestic crops. If species become extinct, then genetic diversity is lost. … affecting the weather patterns across the globe. possibly , the changes in humidity in deforested areas are creating less rainfall and having knock-on effects on savanna climates to the North and South. Rainfall is becoming more unpredictable. Exam tip To get a higher grade - you need to look at the scientific evidence about some of the common claims about the importance of the rainforest to the planet. There is a lot of propaganda about.
Let’s take a quick look
Scientific uncertainty This is only a possible theory. An uncertainty is when scientists cannot know for sure, due to other possible ways the Earth can react. In this case, increase in temperatures may cause a decrease in biodiversity because these new temperatures may go beyond what the current species can tolerate. If the temperature change is gradual, this model may be right. But if the change is sharp (as it is today), then this rapid increase may not give species time to adapt. (Assuming NO human interference to the ecosystem)
(Assuming human interference to the ecosystem by deforestation)
Climate change may have a significant impact on the Amazon, according to a number of studies conducted since the mid-1990's. Of particular concern is the ...
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January 2013 - The Amazon rainforest is vulnerable through a combination of human influences, including deforestation, fire and climate change.
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We are already seeing the dramatic effects of climate change, including rising sea levels, extreme weather shifts and severe flooding. If we don’t act ...
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Climate change will ... Climate change is an extended change in the average state of the climate or a change in ... In 2003 the Rainforest Cooperative ...
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Global climate change initiated by global warming is expected to have wide-ranging effects for tropical rainforests (also see section 9). Changes in ...
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Global climate change is happening now. The Amazon plays a crucial role in regulating the Earth's climate, but destructive forces could push it over a ...
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Rainforests help to stabilize the climate state of the world by absorbing the carbon dioxide from the Earth’s atmosphere and using it in the process of ...
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What is climate change? Climate change refers to the increase in the Earth’s average temperature experienced over the last century, and projected to ...
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Climate change crisis for rainforests. Drought could turn carbon sinks into sources. ... How is climate change affecting the growth of the forests?
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On the program today we look at bird song, climate models and tree kangaroos to see what global warming really means for the rain forest. And the dangerous ...
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http://www.slidesearchengine.com/slide/rainforests-climate-change
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A map now reveals, how sensitive rainforests in different regions are to drought, heat and deforestation. The corresponding index, which researchers at the Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry in Jena were involved in creating, shows where forests are particularly susceptible to these changes and provides early warning signals for regions that are in a phase of critical transition.
Humid tropical rain forests around the globe play a dominant role in the Earth system. They improve water filtration, provide biodiversity habitats and critically regulate the cycling of water and carbon. Rainforests are mostly endangered by a hotter and drier climate as well as by large-scale deforestation from wildfires and for agricultural and timber production.
The vulnerability of rainforests has in the past been measured with indicators from mostly local studies. In their novel approach, published in the journal One Earth recently, a large international researcher team now combined satellite data from the past decades, including climate and vegetation datasets, to analyze rainforest vulnerability on a global scale. With their unique tropical rainforest vulnerability indicator (TFVI), the researchers established a continuously updated tool to track the response of tropical rainforests to multiple stressors.
The Amazon rainforest is particularly vulnerable to droughts and deforestation
As first surprising results, it became evident that different tropical regions react differently to similar climate stressors, with some being more resilient than others. Also, rainforests at different continents differ in their sensitivity to climate and land use pressures. For example, the Amazon Basin shows particularly high vulnerability to both droughts and land-use change such as deforestation for agriculture, when compared to the Congo Basin.
“The data from TFVI will provide a first and fast instance on risk and vulnerability, allowing us to further focus on key processes relevant for rainforest’s carbon storage and productivity, energy and water exchanges” says Nuno Carvalhais, coauthor and group leader at Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry in Jena, Germany. Such spatially explicit analyses will be crucial for identifying potential tipping points for each rainforest, which may occur as a gradual decline of ecosystem services or as an abrupt change. By tracking the rainforest responses to stressors, the TFVI index can provide early warning signals for threatened regions, in order to stimulate measures aimed at increasing resilience and climate mitigation.
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https://www.mpg.de/17399778/tropical-rainforests-differ-in-their-vulnerability-to-threats-imposed-by-land-use-and-climate-change
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What are 3 fascinating info concerning the tropical rainforest?
- There are a number of various kinds of rainforests.
- Rainforests cowl lower than 3 % of the planet.
- The world’s largest rainforest is the Amazon rainforest.
- Rainforests home extra species of crops and animals than some other terrestrial ecosystem.
- Much of the life within the rainforest is discovered within the timber.
What are the three foremost areas of the tropical rainforest?
Tropical rainforests develop primarily in three areas: the Malesian botanical subkingdom, which extends from Myanmar (Burma) to Fiji and consists of the entire of Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu and elements of Indochina and tropical Australia; tropical South and …
What are the options of the forest?
Characteristics of the tropical forest
- excessive animal and vegetal biodiversity.
- evergreen timber.
- darkish and sparse undergrowth interspersed with clearings.
- scanty litter (natural matter selecting the bottom)
- presence of “strangler” creepers (e.g. Ficus spp.)
What is a tropical forest biome?
The tropical rainforest is a scorching, moist biome the place it rains all yr lengthy. It is understood for its dense canopies of vegetation that type three completely different layers. They climb timber within the cover to achieve for daylight. The center layer, or understory, is made up of vines, smaller timber, ferns, and palms.
What are biome examples?
There are 5 main kinds of biomes: aquatic, grassland, forest, desert, and tundra, although a few of these biomes may be additional divided into extra particular classes, akin to freshwater, marine, savanna, tropical rainforest, temperate rainforest, and taiga.
What are the 2 kinds of tropical forests?
There are two main kinds of moist tropical forests: equatorial evergreen rainforests and moist forests, which incorporates monsoon forests and montane/cloud forests.
Where is tropical forest discovered?
Tropical rainforests are present in Central and South America, western and central Africa, western India, Southeast Asia, the island of New Guinea, and Australia.
What is one other title for tropical forest?
Another title for the Tropical Rainforest is the jungle. The Rainforest biome is a forest of tall timber that cowl about 6% of the earth. It has extra species of timber than anyplace else on the earth. The Tropical Rainforest receives extra rain than some other biome making it the wettest biome.
What is an instance of a tropical rainforest?
Tropical rainforests comply with the Equator around the globe. The world’s most well-known rain forests, together with the Amazon Rainforest, are present in South America. Other well-known rainforests embrace Africa’s Congo rainforest, Australia’s Daintree Rainforest, and the rainforests of Sumatra and Borneo.
What is tropical rainforest quick reply?
The Tropical Rainforest is a forest occurring in tropical areas of heavy rainfall. It is plentiful with many species of wildlife and vegetation. Rainforests cowl lower than two % of the Earth’s floor. Rainforests are the best and most advanced ecosystems on Earth.
What are the layers of tropical rainforest?
Most rainforests are structured in 4 layers: emergent, cover, understory, and forest ground. Each layer has distinctive traits based mostly on differing ranges of water, daylight, and air circulation.
What are the 5 layers of the tropical rainforest?
Primary tropical rainforest is vertically divided into not less than 5 layers: the overstory, the cover, the understory, the shrub layer, and the forest ground. Each layer has its personal distinctive plant and animal species interacting with the ecosystem round them.
What are the three layers of the tropical rainforest?
There are 3 ranges within the tropical rainforest. The cover is the highest layer that covers a lot of the forest. The center stage is named the understory, and the underside stage is named the forest ground.
What are the three layers of forest?
Rain forest layers
- Emergent layer. The emergent layer has excessive treetops that rise above every little thing else.
- Canopy. The cover is made up of thick branches and leaves of taller timber.
- Understory. The understory is the nice and cozy, damp, and sheltered layer under the cover.
- Forest ground. The forest ground is the darkest and dampest layer.
Which is the bottom layer within the forest?
herb layer
What is a forest layer?
Rainforests are divided into 4 layers, or storeys: emergent layer, cover, understorey, and forest ground. Each layer receives a unique quantity of daylight and rainfall, so various kinds of animals and crops are present in every layer.
What is a forest ground referred to as?
detritus
What animals are discovered within the forest ground?
On the forest ground you discover a number of bugs that feed on the leaf litter and break it down into vitamins that crops can use. In South America, jaguars and smaller mammals like agouti are discovered right here; in Africa, you may see gorillas and leopards, and in Asia, elephants, tapirs and tigers reside right here.
Why do animals reside within the forest ground?
The forest ground is the bottom layer the place it’s darkish, scorching, and damp. Only two per cent of daylight will get by way of the thick cover timber and understorey crops to achieve the forest ground. Fungi break down this decaying plant matter, and lots of bugs reside among the many useless leaves.
How are animals tailored to the forest ground?
Many camouflaged rainforest animals, akin to strolling stick bugs which look identical to a tree department and the slow-moving, inexperienced algae-covered sloths that hold from timber and mix in with their surroundings, use camouflage to keep away from predators. …
What are the primary adaptive options of Animals dwelling in rainforest?
Top 7 Tropical Rainforest Animal Adaptations:
- Camouflage.
- Mimicry.
- Having A Limited Diet.
- Poison.
- Reduction of Size and Stature.
- Nocturnality.
- Changing of Habitats.
What crops and animals reside within the rainforest?
Rain Forest Animals Other rain forest mammals embrace sloths, tapirs, jaguars, ocelots, kinkajous, lemurs and agouti. The heat, moist surroundings can be a really perfect habitat for reptiles and amphibians. Many kinds of frogs, salamanders, snakes and lizards may be present in virtually each layer of the forest.
How animals and crops are tailored to swimsuit their surroundings?
Did you understand that animals camouflage themselves to allow them to adapt to their surroundings? Adaptation can shield animals from predators or from harsh climate. Many birds can cover within the tall grass and weeds and bugs can change their color to mix into the environment.
What are some examples of animal variations?
Many animals have developed particular elements of the physique tailored to survival in a sure surroundings. Among them are webbed toes, sharp claws, whiskers, sharp enamel, giant beaks, wings, and hooves. In most aquatic animals, swimming is a should. To support swimming, many animals have tailored and advanced with webbed toes.
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https://dofnews.com/what-are-3-interesting-facts-about-the-tropical-rainforest/
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The Rain forest
We are gradually coming into the new year and while it is still winter, and the cold is still clinging to the air, hopefully warmer weathers are right around the corner. But just because it is cold and frigid here in the UK right now, does not mean that this is true for all of the world. Tropical rainforests, while moist and damp, actually remain warm and damp all year round. There are many wonderful features of tropical rainforest such as the greenery, the wild life and even the reasons in which it stays a certain way through every month of the year.
The consistent temperature of the rainforests is between twenty-six and thirty degrees Celsius. This can be attributed to the existence of the imaginary equator around the world, as the rainforests maintain a consistent 12 hours of sunlight everyday throughout the year. This may also explain several of the other things that occur within the rainforest, such as the photosynthesis that powers the continued survival of the rainforest throughout the year. Where as in other place there are shorter days and colder temperatures which damage the vegetation and wild life, the rainforest does not suffer such affects. The cover from the many trees in this environment can actually make moving through the rainforest quiet annoying because of the humidity.
There is lots of diverse wildlife in the rainforests as well as a wide range of plant life that make the rainforest one of the most biodiverse ecosystems known to man. One such integral part of this ecosystem is the Amazon river, which maintains a temperature of around twenty-six degrees year-round. The presence of this river, as well as the heavy rainfall, is what makes the flora and fauna within the ecosystem of the rainforests able to be maintained throughout the entire year. The rainforest sustains more than just itself as well. The quantity of flora within the system actually processes enough air for the entire world in the process of photosynthesis. While the number of trees dwindles every year due to humanity, the rainforests that still exist continue to process the air we are breathing and pump it back out to once again make it breathable for use. Though this isn’t really something that we think about in a day to day basis, without the rainforests that we are beginning to take down, it may one day become very hard for us to even breathe.
While we are struggling through the cold weather at the moment, we know that soon the cold will lift and that we will slowly be brought back into the warmth. The world keeps turning and we keep on living our lives in ways that we see fit. Something however, the ways that we see fit may be damaging to our very chances of continued survival on this planet. Perhaps our solution to be looking at the things that are protecting and saving us and perhaps considering protecting them in turn. Perhaps that way, they earth will continue to spin.
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https://www.charlottedaems.com/2022/01/06/the-rain-forest/
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A new study in Science is likely to reopen the contentious debate about the impact of climate change on tropical rainforests. Scientific modeling of future climate conditions in tropical rainforests, such as the Amazon, has shown that climate change—combined with deforestation and fire—could create a tipping point whereby a significant portion of the Amazon could turnover to savannah, pushing untold species to extinction and undercutting the many ecosystem services provided by tropical rainforests. Yet, a new study headed by Carlos Jaramillo, staff scientist at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI), has found a tropical forest ecosystem thriving in much warmer conditions than today.
While the study is notable, a conservation biologist at James Cook University who has spent decades working in the tropics, Dr. William Laurance, told mongabay.com that he “urge[s] people to be very cautious in extrapolating the lessons [of the study] to today.”
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The Tambopata River flows by the Amazon rainforest in Peru. Photo by: Rhett A. Butler.
According to the study’s findings, some 56 million years ago, rainforests thrived in temperatures 3-5 degrees higher than today. Conservative estimates expect the tropics to see a 3-degree-rise by the end of the century. In addition, atmospheric carbon dioxide levels at the time were 2.5 times higher than today’s levels.
Examining prehistoric pollen in the Amazon from the global warming event dubbed the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum, researchers found that biodiversity exploded during this time with new species forming at a faster than species went extinct. Both passionflower plants and chocolate first evolved during this time.
But what does this really mean for the likely impacts of current global climate change on the world’s tropical rainforests?
“It is remarkable that there is so much concern about the effects of greenhouse conditions on tropical forests,” says Klaus Winter, staff scientist at STRI, in a press release.
Yet Winter adds that, “however, these horror scenarios probably have some validity if increased temperatures lead to more frequent or more severe drought as some of the current predictions for similar scenarios suggest.”
Laurance goes further, explaining that there are considerable differences between current climate change impacts and those highlighted in the study.
“The doubling of carbon dioxide at the Paleocene-Eocene boundary occurred over a period of some 10,000 years. Our current doubling of carbon dioxide is occurring far faster, with most of the increase happening in just a century or so—a rate a hundred times faster. This gives species far less time to migrate or adapt to changing conditions,” he says.
Like Winter, Laurance says that the key to rainforest survival in the future may not be temperature, but rather shifts in precipitation. This year, the Amazon experienced its worst drought in decades, pushing the Amazon River to its lowest point in a century.
“Rainfall regimes could change with global warming, and quite possibly in unpredictable ways. You can’t have a healthy rainforest without fairly consistent rainfall. In general atmospheric humidity will likely rise, but beyond this our capacity to predict local- and regional-scale changes is often appalling poor.”
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Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon. Scientists say a combination of climate change, deforestation, fragmentation, and fire could flip a significant portion of the world’s largest rainforest to savannah. Photo by: Rhett A. Butler.
In addition, while the study looks at species in lowland rainforests, Laurance points out that it neglects “higher-elevation specialists in the tropics.”
“It is these species which are adapted for living in wet, cloudy, cool conditions, that are probably most vulnerable to global warming,” he explains. “As the world heats up, these species literally have nowhere to go—aside from heaven, which is where a lot of them could end up.”
Finally, Laurance points out another significant difference between climate change 56 million years ago and climate change today: humans. Tropical forests are not only facing warmer temperatures, higher carbon levels, and perhaps drier conditions, but also have been undergoing vast environmental changes by people—including unprecedented deforestation.
“Species today are often besieged by an array of environmental insults—habitat loss and fragmentation, overhunting, invading species, and manifold other environmental changes—and these could greatly exacerbate the pressures resulting from climate change,” Laurance explains. “If this were a boxing match, nature isn’t just being jabbed once, but is suffering a flurry of blows arriving all at once.”
The theory that a significant portion of the Amazon is susceptible to flip over to savannah under climate change was a part of a recent journalistic scandal. Jonathan Leake, Science and Environment Editor of the Sunday Times, claimed that the theory was put forth by “green campaigners” with conservation group WWF and not scientists, since this was how it was cited in an IPCC report. However the Sunday Times was forced to retract the column when they realized the theory had robust scientific studies behind it and that Leake had misrepresented the opinions of scientists he spoke with and never contacted WWF.
CITATION: Jaramillo, C., Ochoa, D., Contreras, L., Pagani, M., Carvajal-Ortiz, H., Pratt, L., Krishnan, S., Cardona, A., Romero, M., Quiroz, L., Rodriguez, G., Rueda, M., de la Parra, F., Moron, S., Green, W., Bayona, G., Montes, C., Quintero, O., Ramirez, R., Mora, G., Schouten, S., Bermudez, Navarrete, R., Parra, F., Alvarán, M., Osorno, J., Crowley, J., Valencia, V., Vervoort, J. 2010. Effects of Rapid Global Warming at the Paleocene-Eocene Boundary on Neotropical Vegetation. Science.
Related articles
Amazon suffers worst drought in decades
(10/24/2010) The worst drought since 1963 has created a regional disaster in the Brazilian Amazon. Severely low water levels have isolated communities dependent on river transport. Given a worsening situation, Brazil announced on Friday an emergency package of $13.5 million for water purification, tents, and food airdrops.
Satellites show fragmented rainforests significantly drier than intact forest
(10/13/2010) A new study in Biological Conservation has shown that edge forests and forest patches are more vulnerable to burning because they are drier than intact forests. Using eight years of satellite imagery over East Amazonia, the researchers found that desiccation (extreme dryness) penetrated anywhere from 1 to 3 kilometers into forests depending on the level of fragmentation.
An undamaged Amazon produces its own clouds and rain
(09/21/2010) Researchers recently traveled to the remote Brazilian Amazon to investigate how clouds are formed and rain falls in an atmosphere unburdened by human-caused pollution. Studying the atmospheric aerosol particles, which impact cloud formation and particles, above a pristine forests, researchers discovered that when left alone the Amazon acts as its own ‘bioreactor’: clouds and precipitation are produced by the abundance of plant materials.
(06/21/2010) The Sunday Times over the weekend retracted a column that accused the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) of making a “bogus rainforest claim” when it cited a report warning that up to 40 percent of the Amazon could be “drastically” affected by climate change. The “Amazongate” column, authored by Jonathan Leake, Science & Environment Editor of the Sunday Times, was immediately seized upon by climate skeptics as further evidence to discredit the IPCC just two weeks after it was found to be using shoddy glacier data in its 2007 climate assessment. But now the Sunday Times has removed Leake’s column from its web site and issued on apology, admitting that the Amazon claim was indeed supported by scientific research. The Sunday Times also acknowledged misconduct in the way one of the story’s sources—Simon Lewis of the University of Leeds in Britain—was quoted.
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Scientists: new study does not disprove climate change threat to Amazon
(03/19/2010) Recently, Boston University issued a press release on a scientific study regarding the Amazon’s resilience to drought. The press release claimed that the study had debunked the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC) theory that climate change could turn approximately 40 percent of the Amazon into savanna due to declining rainfall. The story was picked up both by mass media, environmental news sites (including mongabay.com), and climate deniers’ blogs. However, nineteen of the world’s top Amazonian experts have issued a written response stating that the press release from Boston University was “misleading and inaccurate”.
Amazon confusion: new research shows forest is resilient to drought, but is this the whole picture?
(03/15/2010) A drought that happens once in a hundred years had little negative or positive effect on the Amazon rainforest according to a NASA funded study in Geophysical Research Letters. “We found no big differences in the greenness level of these forests between drought and non-drought years, which suggests that these forests may be more tolerant of droughts than we previously thought,” said Arindam Samanta, the study’s lead author from Boston University.
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https://news.mongabay.com/2010/11/rainforests-thrived-in-warmer-conditions-in-the-past-yet-study-requires-caution/
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Apr 1, - Most tropical rainforest in Asia is found in Indonesia (on scattered islands), the Malay peninsula Map showing world distribution of rainforests.
Map of asian rain forest
The map below shows the location of the world's tropical rainforests. The rainforests of Asia stretch from India and Burma in the west to Malaysia and the. Physical Map of Asia Rainforest. On this page is a physical map of Asia rainforests. You can zoom in to see the places closer by using the + and - signs in the top.
Can help nothing. map of asian rain forest pity, that
Nov 22, - The tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia span across several Southeast Asian countries ranging from India and Burma in the west to Malaysia. Nov 24, - Known for their rich biodiversity, the tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia harbor thousands of different tree species (as many as in one.
The flags, maps, exports, natural resouces, geography, economy, landforms, islands, and Much of Southeast Asia is rainforest and the climate is very wet. The rainforests of Southeast Asia and Oceania are under immense pressure. This rainforest region has lost a larger proportion of its original forest cover and has.
A vegetation map of tropical continental Asia -. Table 1. Forest formations of Continental Asia. Some ecological correlations. R = mean annual rainfall in mm; Dry. Jan 22, - However, the recent forest maps of Southeast Asia were generated from This new m map of tropical forests could serve as a baseline map. https://svwesleyan.com/bi-sexual/
Indonesia (South East Asian Rainforests). Eastern Madagascar. Venezuela. Central American Rainforests. Amazon Rainforest. Nigeria. Rainforest in South. Tropical rainforests are rainforests that occur in areas of tropical rainforest climate in which . It's estimated that perhaps 75% of the tree species at La Selva Biological Station, Costa Rica The soils of the eastern and central Amazon as well as the Southeast Asian Rainforest are old and mineral poor whereas the soils of the.
The tropical rain forest is a forest of tall trees in a region of year-round The bark of different species is so similar that it is difficult to identify a tree by its bark. rainforests--the American, the African, and the Asian--has a different group of. Jul 28, - Rainforests are vitally important, producing most of the oxygen we and Central America, Indonesia, Southeast Asia and Australia — on Map shows tropical rainforests in dark green and temperate rainforests in light green.
May 25, - Unmapped roads raise risk to Southeast Asian rainforests: study sq km by analyzing satellite images and maps showing forest loss and. Remind the class that virtually all of the Earth's tropical rainforests are facing serious African, and Southeast Asian rainforest regions on a world wall map.
Tropical rainforests cover about % of the Earth's land surface and are River Basin in West Africa and the. Jan 17, - Large parts of Southeast Asia experiences a tropical climate. Tropical rainforest climate has heavy precipitation throughout the year and has.
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https://svwesleyan.com/amateur/map-of-asian-rain-forest.php
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As rainforest is called forests caused by a particularly humid climate due mostly more than 2000 mm of precipitation are presented (annual average). Because of the radically different climatic conditions, a distinction is made according to the climatic zones between the rainforests of the tropics (which in a few regions change into subtropical rainforests ) and the moderate latitudes . In a broader sense, the humid forests of the tropics and subtropics are sometimes treated as rainforests.
term
The biologist Andreas Franz Wilhelm Schimper defined and used the term tropical rainforest for the first time in 1898 , which was also adopted in other languages, for example into English as rainforest , in his work Plant Geography on a Physiological Basis (1898).
In the media and popular scientific literature, the term rainforest is often equated with tropical rainforest , since the subtropical and temperate rainforest forms are less well known.
Tropical and subtropical rainforests
Evergreen, tropical rainforests emerged on all continents , on both sides of the equator up to about 10 degrees of latitude , but in some cases well beyond. There they go into the subtropical rainforests . The largest contiguous area - at the same time more than half of the total area of all tropical rainforests - is in the area of the Amazon basin . The Congo Basin in Central Africa and the many islands of Indonesia have other large rainforests .
The term tropical rainforest denotes an ecosystem that includes a large number of forest types: on the one hand, the lowland rainforest up to around 800 m in height, on the other hand, the mountain rainforest up to around 1500 m in height, and finally the cloud and cloud forest beyond 2000 m height. Occasionally, further distinctions are made in the specialist literature for certain regions, for example “cloud forest” for the ridge of the Northern Coastal Cordillera in Venezuela .
Rainforests of temperate latitudes
Rainforests of the temperate zones occur mainly on the west coast of North America , in Chile, as well as on Tasmania and New Zealand . Although the tree species that determine the picture also occur in the temperate deciduous and coniferous forests , they are the most species-rich habitats in these zones.
Tropical and subtropical wet forests
In the warm and humid climatic zone, which is characterized by a monsoon climate , the monsoon forests join, which many authors no longer count as rainforests due to the annual rainfall of less than 2000 mm. Since the rainy seasons there are regularly replaced by dry seasons, the conditions are less balanced than in the tropical rainforest. They are also known as tropical / subtropical wet forests. The most pronounced monsoon forests are found in India and Southeast Asia, as well as in Africa between the rainforests and the humid savannas .
In the cooler east side climate of the subtropics - in which a clear distinction can be made between summer (often with high levels of precipitation) and winter (occasional frost possible) - are the laurel forests , which, depending on the amount of precipitation, can be viewed as wet or rainforests. The largest laurel rainforests are in South China , Florida and Southeast Brazil .
Until now, the tropical forests in particular were considered to be a carbon sink or regulator of carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the earth's atmosphere due to their photosynthesis ability . However, according to a study published in 2020, they store significantly less CO₂ than they did in the 1990s due to global warming . If the negative trend continues, according to the study, rainforests could develop from a CO₂ sink to a CO₂ emitter by 2035. For their analysis, the scientists examined 300,000 trees in the rainforests of the Amazon and Africa over decades. According to the current analysis, the rainforests already stored a third less carbon dioxide in the 2010s than in the 1990s.
See also
literature
- Anton Fischer: Forest vegetation science. Blackwell, Berlin, Vienna 1995, ISBN 3-8263-3061-7 .
Individual evidence
- ↑ Catherine Caufield: The Rainforest: A Waning Paradise . FISCHER Digital, December 29, 2017, ISBN 978-3-10-561946-9 , p. 41.
- ^ David Bruce Weaver: The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism . CABI, January 1, 2001, ISBN 978-0-85199-368-3 , p. 194.
- ↑ a b c Wannes Hubau, Simon L. Lewis, Oliver L. Phillips, Kofi Affum-Baffoe, Hans Beeckman: Asynchronous carboxylic sink saturation in African and Amazonian tropical forests . In: Nature . tape 579 , no. 7797 , March 2020, ISSN 1476-4687 , p. 80–87 , doi : 10.1038 / s41586-020-2035-0 ( nature.com [accessed March 8, 2020]).
- ↑ a b DER SPIEGEL: Climate change: Rainforests store up to 30 percent less CO2 - DER SPIEGEL - Wissenschaft. Retrieved March 8, 2020 .
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https://de.zxc.wiki/wiki/Regenwald
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Both biomes have warm climates, but the desert is very dry, and the rainforest is very wet. The desert has very few organisms, so it has low biodiversity. … In contrast, the rainforest has the highest biodiversity of any biome on Earth.
Does the rainforest have the most biodiversity?
No one knows exactly how many species live in the world’s tropical rainforests — estimates range from 3 to 50 million species — rainforests are the undisputed champions of biodiversity among the world’s ecosystems, containing far higher numbers of species on a per-area basis relative to sub-tropical, temperate, and …
Why do deserts have less biodiversity than rainforests?
Biodiversity is low in hot desert ecosystems. There are far fewer species supported by the extreme climate compared to other biomes. This is due to the high temperatures, low rainfall and a lack of available water.
Is a rainforest a biodiversity?
Biodiversity: Tropical rainforests are areas of extremely high biodiversity compared to other ecosystems. … Biologists estimate that tropical rainforests contain about 50% of the world’s terrestrial plant and animal species, yet they encompass only about 6% of the world’s land area.
Which biome has the highest biodiversity?
Tropical forests have the highest biodiversity and primary productivity of any of the terrestrial biomes.
Why does the tropical rainforest have the greatest biodiversity?
Explanation: The high species richness or biodiversity found in tropical rain forests is mainly due to their geographic location and the amount of precipitation they receive. Tropical rainforests fall along the equator and receive a large amount of precipitation.
Why tropical rainforest has maximum biodiversity?
Both the plant and animal biodiversity produce a wide array of food as well as fabrics. Complete Answer: Option A: The maximum biodiversity is found in tropical rain forests as they are less seasonal, they are neither too hot nor too cold and are more predictable. Therefore, this is the correct option.
What is the main difference between desert and rainforest?
The deserts are very dry land areas that can be hot or cold and experience very less rainfall. On the other hand, rainforests receive an enormous amount of rain. Both are homes to a variety of plants.
What is the difference between tropical rainforest and desert?
The deserts are very dry land areas that can be hot or cold and experience very less rainfall.
…
Rainforest Plants:
|Desert Plants||Rainforest Plants|
|They are less diverse than rainforest plants.||They have more diversity than desert plants.|
|They do not experience much rain.||They encounter constant rain up to 180 inches a year.|
Why do deserts lack biodiversity?
Increasing evaporation and dust storms are pushing deserts out into communities at their edges. This desertification is exacerbated by human exploitation of ecosystems that border deserts, causing land degradation, soil erosion and sterility, and a loss of biodiversity.
What is desert biodiversity?
Desert biodiversity
Deserts covers one fifth of the Earth’s land surface. Biodiversity includes all organisms, species, and populations. Due to harsh climate in deserts, only some of the most unusual plants and animals can survive in such regions. Most of them are succulents, which mean that they store water.
How much biodiversity is in the Amazon rainforest?
Not only does the Amazon encompass the single largest remaining tropical rainforest in the world, it also houses at least 10% of the world’s known biodiversity, including endemic and endangered flora and fauna, and its river accounts for 15-16% of the world’s total river discharge into the oceans.
Which biome has the least amount of biodiversity?
Low species diversity :
The tundra biome has the least biodiversity, but the northern coniferous biome also has low species diversity.
Which rainforest layer supports the greatest biodiversity?
Canopy Layer
The next layer is the canopy layer, which is known to contain the majority (about 60 to 90%) of living species in the whole rainforest.
Is there more biodiversity at the equator or pole?
Species diversity is higher at the equator than at the poles. In biological terms, this is referred to as the latitudinal diversity gradient (LDG), in which the number of species increases from the poles to the Equator. This ranks among the broadest and most notable biodiversity patterns on Earth.
Which layer of the ocean has the greatest biodiversity?
The epipelagic zone stretches from the surface down to 200 m and is home to the greatest biodiversity in the sea, largely because of the availability of sunlight that enables photosynthetic organisms to thrive. Both marine plants and animals are found here.
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https://blueollis.com/recycling/your-question-which-has-more-biodiversity-a-rainforest-or-a-desert.html
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Rainforests have been described as “the lungs of the earth”. Rainforests cleanse the atmosphere by absorbing carbon dioxide and churning it out as oxygen. In addition to this, they act like giant sponges; soaking up moisture and then releasing it slowly back into the atmosphere as rain. Tropical forests also moderate the flow of rivers, preventing flooding and insuring adequate flow during periods of low rainfall.
Tropical forests account for only 12% of the land-area on Earth, yet it is home to approximately half of the world’s animal species and two thirds of its plant species. They offer us a bounty of foods such as; coffee, cocoa, bananas, nuts and spices. As well as numerous industrial products like rubber, gums, resins, dyes and tannin.
For many years it was believed that rainforests were seemingly unaffected by global warming. Recent studies now show that tropical forests are being affected presently by climate change. The extinction rate for the rainforest’s species is now 400 times faster than at any other time in history. The impacts that climate change could have on rainforests are much worse than what scientists had previously thought. Scientists now believe that the Amazon (which stores over half of the world’s rain water alone) could shrink by 85% due to climate change. Even in the best case scenario, a moderate rise in temperature could still see a 20-40% loss within 100 years.
In the Montverde Cloud Forest Reserve, Costa Rica clouds are forming higher, drying out some of the habitat and causing changes in the flora and fauna. The troubling disappearance of the golden toad, the distinctive orange amphibian has not been seen since 1991 and is now feared extinct; along with 60 other amphibians and lizards. Scientists believe that the lifting level of the clouds has changed the temperature and moisture of the rainforest. In turn, this has created optimal growing conditions for diseases that are wiping out species at astonishing rates.
According to Peter Cox, professor of climate system dynamics at the University of Exeter in the UK; the loss of the rainforest (the drivers of the world’s weather systems) would be ecologically devastating to our own climate. We can’t predict exactly what would happen but we could assume to experience much more extreme weather. Without rainforests continually recycling mass amounts of water, feeding the rivers, lakes and irrigation systems; droughts would become more common potentially leading to widespread famine and disease.
The loss of tropical forests could potentially hold devastating
consequences for the Earth and those whom inhabit it. Not only would we loose natural resources like fruits, nuts and cocoa; we could witness a devastating loss of approximately half of the world’s species. We would also see the loss of the great carbon sinks, tropical forests act as. Thus, we would also loose our “weather regulator” and really be in for some tough weather patterns. For me, this raises a great deal of concern, as the majority of scholarly sources on the subject point (to some degree) in the direction of irreversibility.
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https://www.easterbrook.ca/pmu199/?p=994
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Aug 25, 2014 - Explore Daniel Proctor's board "Birds Of The Amazon", followed by 386 ... Progne subis Common name: purple martin (en); andorinha-azul (pt); ... a sa...
thebirdnature.com/rainforest-birds
May 11, 2020 ... Tropical jungles are actually house to numerous kinds of birds, featuring parrots, hornbills, toucans, as well as raptors like bald eagles, hawks, ...
www.youtube.com/watch?v=fUoh3gVJOY8
Jun 6, 2016 ... Top 10 Most Beautiful Birds of Amazon Rainforest:10. ... Yellow Headed CaracaraScientific Name - Milvago Chimac... ... EXOTIC BIRDSONG - Birds sound in jungle - T...
www.youtube.com/watch?v=_jSsUQWFgvo
Jun 9, 2020 ... 10 Most Beautiful Amazon Birds | Amazon Rainforest Birds | Colorful Birds Of The RainforestThe Amazon Rainforest Contains Some Of The Highest ... Best Relaxing Ju...
www.naturetours.com/amazon-creature-list-of-common-names/amazon-bird-list
Check out the birds on our Amazon Birds List you may encounter aboard the Motor Yacht Tucano Amazon ... The list is grouped by family name and within these groups each species is...
www.rainforest-facts.com/rainforest-birds.html
Most of the world's 10,000 species of birds are found in the tropics. macaw bird. Probably the most obvious are the large and colourful macaws, parrots and ...
study.com/academy/lesson/animals-of-the-rainforest-birds-insects.html
The tropical rainforest is a paradise for birds. Scientists estimate about 3,800 species of birds live in South American rainforests alone, many of them endemic to ...
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birds_of_the_Amazon
An immense number of bird species live in the Amazon rainforest and river basin Over 1,300 of these species are types of birds, which accounts for one-third of ...
animals.mom.com/kind-birds-live-jungle-11606.html
Nov 1, 2017 ... The group has representatives in all major tropical rain forests, including ... Not all rain forest birds bear kaleidoscopic colors or other flamboyant features; ....
amazonaid.org/birds
Unsurprisingly, bird watchers often flock to the rainforests of Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia to view such rare species. Throughout many different areas of the tropical ...
rainforests.mongabay.com/kids/elementary/203.html
Jul 16, 2020 ... Tropical rainforests are home to many kinds of birds, including parrots, hornbills, toucans, and raptors like eagles, hawks, and vultures.
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https://www.reference.com/web?q=Tropical+Rainforest+Birds+Names&qo=relatedSearchNarrow&o=600605&l=dir&sga=1
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Deep-diving marine mammals, like baleen whales and some seals and sea lions, have elevated levels of the oxygen-carrying protein myoglobin within their muscles. This allows them to collect oxygen at the surface to store in the muscles for supporting their long, extended dives. Young baleen whales develop high myoglobin levels as they mature, and according to a new PLOS ONE study, exercising helps drive the development of these myoglobin stores.
By not having to come up for air that much, marine mammals can exploit deeper food sources. Their myoglobin levels are between 10 and 20 times greater than their terrestrial counterparts. Previous work revealed that levels of muscular myoglobin can vary a lot during the development of sea lions, seals, dolphins, and porpoises, but little is known about myoglobin levels in baleen whales.
To investigate, a team led by Rachel Cartwright of California State University Channel Islands examined samples of muscle tissue collected from 18 stranded whales. These included calves, juveniles, and adults from three different species: minke (Balaenoptera acutorostrata), humpback (Megaptera novaeangliae), and gray (Eschrichtius robustus) whales. The team also compared myoglobin levels between and within the muscles, and they studied the differences in myoglobin accumulation rate in the young whales.
Sampling sites used for the provision of muscle tissue samples. Yvette Hansen
The development of elevated myoglobin levels is prolonged over the course of their extended maturation. The calves have between 17 and 22.8 percent of the muscular myoglobin stores of adults, and juvenile myoglobin levels ranged between 28 and 60 percent of adult levels.
The team also found that levels of exercise may influence the rate of development of myoglobin stores in some young whales. While gray whale calves are quiescent and aerial behaviors are rare, bouts of energetically expensive exercises – such as breaching (pictured above) – occur frequently during the early development of humpbacks. In fact, it’s common to see 30 or more consecutive breaches.
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https://www.informationsociety.co.uk/how-young-whales-train-for-long-dives/
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Your body is a complex system of bones, skin, organs, chemicals, and more. Among the chemicals are special proteins known as hemeproteins (or hemoproteins), which are made of amino acids and iron.
You can find these proteins in the muscles and blood, where they bind with oxygen. The proteins in your blood are called hemoglobin. The proteins in your muscles are called myoglobin.
What Does Myoglobin Do?
Myoglobin has several roles, but its most important role is to act as storage for oxygen. This protein attaches to oxygen in the blood and takes it to the muscles throughout your body, especially your heart and skeletal muscles. Once there, myoglobin finds a resting spot and stores the oxygen until you need it.
The more active you are, the more oxygen your muscles use. For example, if you do a lot of exercising or sports activities, your muscles may use up more of their oxygen. This can leave your muscles tired and sore.
But you don’t need to do intense physical activity to use up oxygen in your muscles. Even regular body movements such as bending, lifting, or walking need some oxygen.
Myoglobin helps your muscles stay oxygenated by releasing stored oxygen into the muscle fibers. This also helps the muscles contract and relax.
This protein also acts like an enzyme when it helps break down nitric acid and turn it into nitrate. By doing so, myoglobin helps the mitochondria inside cells — the small structures that take in nutrients — get full access to oxygen.
What Are Normal Myoglobin Levels?
Healthy myoglobin levels in your blood could range from 25 to 70 micrograms per liter. There will always be a small amount of myoglobin in your bloodstream as it brings oxygen to your muscles. Myoglobin has to link up with oxygen in the bloodstream; it can’t get oxygen from anywhere else.
Under normal conditions, the small amount of myoglobin in your blood makes its way to your kidneys. Here, your kidneys break down the protein and pass it into your urine for removal.
Myoglobin Levels in Your Blood and Urine
There shouldn’t be too much myoglobin in your blood. If there is a lot, it’s a sign that your muscles are damaged. Because damaged muscles can’t hold onto myoglobin, they can’t stop it from leaking into your bloodstream. High amounts of myoglobin in your blood could even harm your kidneys and lead to kidney disease.
Normally, the amount of myoglobin in your urine is so minimal that lab tests often can’t measure it. This means you might have too much myoglobin in your urine — a term called myoglobinuria — if a lab test can easily detect it.
What Causes High Amounts of Myoglobin?
Several factors can lead to higher amounts of myoglobin in your blood or urine.
Rhabdomyolysis.Rhabdomyolysis is a condition that causes muscle damage and muscle death. You could get this life-threatening condition from certain medications, alcohol and drugs, extreme amounts of fitness, infections, or trauma from an accident.
Severe muscle injury. If you seriously injure a part of your body, the affected muscles often release myoglobin into the blood. This release of myoglobin can show up in your urine as well.
Heart attack. A sudden increase in myoglobin can point to a heart attack that injured the heart muscle.
Malignant hyperthermia. This condition is most often a severe reaction to anesthetics and muscle relaxants. It can also happen if your body gets very heat stressed. Some of the symptoms of this condition, called malignant hyperthermia, include muscle spasms and muscle rigidity.
Muscular dystrophy.Muscular dystrophy is a group of diseases that leads to muscle weakness. This weakness can happen in some of your muscles but not others, and it can range from mild to severe.
Myositis.Myositis is the name for a group of diseases with inflammation in the skeletal muscle. This inflammation causes muscle damage as well.
How Can You Get Your Myoglobin Levels Checked?
If you’re showing specific signs and symptoms, your doctor might be concerned about myoglobin in your blood and urine. They’ll likely want you to get one or two different myoglobin tests.
Myoglobin blood test. Also called a serum myoglobin, this test measures how much myoglobin you have in your blood. You can get higher amounts of myoglobin in your blood two to three hours after the muscle damage happens. The highest amounts happen about eight to 12 hours later.
Myoglobin urine test. This test checks to see if your urine has myoglobin in it. Myoglobin in your urine can cause kidney damage and may even lead to kidney failure. Depending on the results, your doctor might want you to get intravenous (IV) fluids or other treatments.
If you feel unwell, don't hesitate to speak to your doctor. The sooner you get these important tests, the sooner you can begin treatment.
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https://www.webmd.com/heart-disease/what-to-know-about-myoglobin
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Myoglobin—the first protein for which a 3D structure was determined by x-ray crystallography—still has some tricks up its sleeve, or in its pocket. This is the pocket into which myoglobin’s oxygen-carrying heme group is tucked.
According to a new study by an international team of researchers, myoglobin may be encoded by a gene that carries a deleterious mutation. If this mutation is present, the shape of the heme pocket is subtly altered, modifying the heme’s biochemical function. Specifically, the mutation alters the kinetics and thermodynamics of oxygen binding and may result in elevated superoxide levels.
The mutation’s clinical consequences include the adult onset of proximal and axial weakness that progresses to involve distal muscles and causes respiratory and cardiac failure. In fact, the mutation is proposed to account for a new disease—myoglobinopathy.
This suggestion was offered by researchers representing the University of Western Australia, the Karolinska Institute, and the Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBELL). The researchers presented their findings in an article (“Myoglobinopathy is an adult-onset autosomal dominant myopathy with characteristic sarcoplasmic inclusions”) that appeared March 27 in the journal Nature Communications.
These data, the article concluded, define a recognizable muscle disease associated with myoglobin mutation.
Olivé is a co-corresponding author of the current study, as is the study’s leader, Nigel Laing, PhD, a professor at the University of Western Australia.
The study also involved, among others, researchers from the ALBA synchrotron and the Autonomous University of Barcelona. The infrared microscopy of the MIRAS beamline at the synchrotron, which is able to characterize the chemical composition and structure of proteins, allowed researchers to demonstrate the presence of oxidized lipids in the damaged muscle cells. “We have observed that sarcoplasmic bodies correspond to oxidized lipids and misfolded proteins,” noted Nuria Benseny, PhD, a researcher at the ALBA synchrotron.
Myoglobin, the protein that gives muscles their red color, has as its main function the transportation and intracellular storage of oxygen, acting as an oxygen reservoir when there are low levels (hypoxia) or a total lack thereof (anoxia). It also acts as a scavenger of free radicals and other reactive oxygen species, avoiding cell damage due to oxidative stress.
By discovering a myoglobin mutation that accounts for a previously unrecognized disease, the scientists responsible for the current study have made it possible to diagnose myoglobinopathy patients properly. Also, researchers will be able to focus on finding a cure for this disease.
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https://www.clinicalomics.com/topics/precision-medicine-topic/mutation-in-myoglobin-gene-points-to-new-muscle-disease/
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A cheetah lies still in the grass. Finally, a gazelle comes into view. The cheetah plunges forward, reaches sixty-five miles per hour in three seconds, and has the hapless gazelle by the jugular in less than a minute. Then it must catch its breath, resting before eating.
A blue whale surfaces, blasting water high from its blowhole. It breathes in great gasps, filling its thousand-gallon lungs with air. Then it descends again to look for krill, staying below for 10, 20, even 30 minutes before taking another breath.
Both animals need oxygen, of course. And both depend on the protein myoglobin to store and then release that oxygen within their working muscles. But how they need oxygen differs. The whale must have enough to last a whole dive. Its muscles have a high concentration of myoglobin that delivers oxygen steadily. In contrast, the cheetah’s myoglobin must perform like a fast-shooting cannon. The cheetah needs to suddenly take up and release large doses of oxygen to stoke its explosive speed.
How does myoglobin do all that? For decades, biologists have wondered how — and with what atomic motions, exactly — the folded structure of myoglobin allows it to hold and release oxygen.
Now, two physicists at the University of Vermont have an answer. They’ve developed a new way to peer into the inner workings of proteins and detect which specific atoms are at work. Their work was published in the Aug. 27 issue of the journal Physical Review Letters.
Using myoglobin as a test, the scientists were able to home in on the critical functional piece of the protein, separating it from the vast number of other “jigglings and wigglings of atoms” says William DeWitt, a UVM graduate student and the lead author on the paper that describes the finding.
“We’ve been able to identify the motion of one particular amino acid — this group of atoms called the distal histidine — that controls the binding process,” he says.
Shaped a bit like a tennis racket over a basket, this tiny arm of the protein moves, through thermal fluctuations, to open or close the binding site near the myoglobin’s iron-filled center. “As the atoms move in one direction it becomes easier to bind oxygen,” says DeWitt, “and as they move in the reverse direction it becomes less easy.”
And how this distal histidine moves should vary between the whale and the cheetah. “I would imagine,” says Kelvin Chu, associate professor of physics and DeWitt’s co-author, “that there has been evolutionary pressure on every species to adapt this motion in the myoglobin for their particular oxygen-binding needs.”
“That’s a testable hypothesis,” Chu says. “What we would expect to see across species is that the tennis rackets are in different places or move different amounts.”
DeWitt and Chu’s work extends far beyond myoglobin. The two physicists see broad application of their new method in creating custom-crafted proteins.
“Once you know what these motions are and what the important atoms are,” says Chu, “you can make mutants of proteins that have different binding attributes.” And these different attributes have promise in developing new biotechnologies “ranging from blood substitutes to organic solar cells,” he says.
Proteins are a cell’s heavy laborers: hauling water, taking out the trash, carrying in the groceries — and trillions of other tasks that make life. But how the shape of a protein determines its function remains one of the most vexing and important questions in the physics of biology.
Proteins are not the static, Lego-like objects you might see in an x-ray photograph in a biochemistry textbook. Instead, made from long chains of amino acids scrunched into various blobs and globs, a protein is always jumping between slightly different structural arrangements due to thermal motion of its atoms. Even a modest-sized protein like myoglobin has more possible arrangements of its atoms than there are stars in the universe. And each of these arrangements slightly changes a protein’s function.
“But what are the important motions that control its function?” asks Chu.
“Relating the structure of a protein to what it is doing is the holy grail,” he says. For myoglobin at least, the two UVM scientists seem to have brought the prize a lot closer to hand.
Their method — called temperature derivative spectroscopy or TDS — involves cooling myoglobin to as low as -450 degrees Fahrenheit, about 18 degrees above absolute zero, and then measuring its oxygen-binding process. At these chilly temperatures, each protein basically gets stuck in just one arrangement. These individual atomic arrangements can’t be observed directly, but, using infrared light, a pack of myoglobin molecules does yield a kind of group portrait — a summing, called a TDS surface — of the position of all the proteins as they bind to the oxygen in carbon monoxide.
The Vermont scientists’ innovation comes largely from what they have been able to do with this group portrait.
“This scenario is called an inverse problem,” DeWitt notes, “we have measured the effect but want to determine the cause.” Unfortunately, a bit like asking what two numbers add up to ten, there are many solutions.
But, usually, nature does not build wasteful structures — and though the universe is undoubtedly complex, it does not seem given to capricious complexity. In other words, the scientific principle of parsimony — what philosophy students encounter as Occam’s Razor — suggests that the least complex explanation is the most likely.
Applying a mathematical version of this idea from Bayesian statistics, called the principle of maximum entropy, DeWitt and Chu went looking for the simplest solution to the TDS surface created by their group of myoglobin molecules. And the answer: the motion of the distal histidine most simply explains how myoglobin regulates oxygen binding.
They followed this prediction by performing a computer simulation of the molecular dynamics of the distal histidine, which confirmed their interpretation.
“Will did a lot of this on his own,” says Chu, “He took the data, and the analysis was done on a MacPro,” plus some time on the National Science Foundation’s high-performance computer network, the TeraGrid.
“He’s a clever guy,” says Chu.
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https://scienceblog.com/39025/a-new-way-to-view-atomic-motion-of-proteins/
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Rhabdomyolysis is a syndrome caused by muscle injury: damaged skeletal muscles break down and release myoglobin (a protein that stores oxygen in muscles) in the bloodstream. This can lead to kidney damage and acute kidney injury (AKI), a life-threatening condition. Different types of muscle injuries can lead to rhabdomyolysis, including excessive exertion during sports, lack of oxygen in the muscle, medications and drug abuse, as well as injuries sustained in natural disasters or wars.
The molecular mechanism underlying rhabdomyolysis-induced AKI is still largely unknown. There is strong evidence that myoglobin and heme (a molecule containing an iron ion) released from the necrotic muscle cells and reactive oxygen species play a role, as does the infiltration of macrophages in the kidneys.
Now, writing in Nature Medicine, Junichi Hirahashi from the Keio University School of Medicine and colleagues put forward a new hypothesis for the mechanism: the released heme activates platelets that interact with macrophage antigen-1 (Mac-1, a receptor) and induces the generation of reactive oxygen species, histone citrullination, and the resulting release of macrophage extracellular traps (METs) ― an immune response normally aimed at immobilizing and killing microorganisms. The METs damage tubules and promote AKI. It is the first time METs have been demonstrated to contribute to the pathogenesis of a disease.
The authors started by studying a mouse model of rhabdomyolysis. They verified the presence of METs in the kidneys, linking it to increased tubular damage, and observed that extracellular traps are present in the blood of mice with rhabdomyolysis-induced AKI, but not in that of the control group. Macrophages and platelets clearly play a role, as depleting those cell types inhibits renal injury. The importance of Mac-1 in the disease is highlighted by the observation that mice not expressing it show a renal function similar to that of healthy mice, even though they exhibit evident muscle degradation; METs are reduced or absent in this case. Moving on to humans, the authors found evidence supporting the hypothesis that METs are responsible for rhabdomyolysis-induced AKI.
A treatment that reduces the formation of platelet-induced METs in vitro markedly prevented renal damage in mice. "Early volume-repletion and renal-replacement therapies have been established for rhabdomyolysis-induced AKI; however, the delivery of medical supplies is often not feasible shortly after disasters", write the authors. "Our results suggest that inhibitors of Mac-1 and/or direct inhibitors of METs [...] might be new therapeutic strategies for the prevention of platelet-mediated MET formation and associated renal tubule injury in rhabdomyolysis-induced AKI."
About the researcher
Junichi Hirahashi― Assistant Professor
Center for General Medicine Education, Keio University School of Medicine
Junichi Hirahashi was born in Kumamoto, Japan, in 1967. He got his MD in 1993 and PhD in 1997, both from Keio University. He conducted basic research as a postdoctoral fellow at Harvard University in Boston from 2001 to 2004. He returned to Japan in 2004 and worked for Tokyo University Hospital from 2004 to 2013. Since 2014, he has been working at Keio University as a physician-scientist. His research interests focus on inflammation-induced vascular injury and development of a new therapeutic agent targeting autoimmune diseases.
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https://research-highlights.keio.ac.jp/2018/11/a.html
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This color is a result of a high concentration of myoglobin (the oxygen carrying protein in muscle). The high myoglobin load acts as a SCUBA tank for these diving animals by storing oxygen in the muscles. Notice in the photos of the young animals below, the muscles are more light pink than dark red. This is because there is a developmental period required for young animals to fully develop their diving capacity which can last up to three years in some species.
In cetaceans, the fluke, or the propeller of the animal, is powered by two sets of powerful muscles that run nearly the length of the body. The continuous muscle that inserts on the fluke and which sits on top of the transverse processes of the vertebrae is the EPAXIAL muscle. Remember that “epi” is “on top of” and “axial” is referring to the long axis of the animal. The right and left muscle run nearly the entire length of the animal’s body and when contracted, pull the fluke up. Similarly, the HYPAXIAL muscles (left and right) lie below the transverse processes of the vertebrae. The hypaxial muscles insert on the fluke and along the dorsal surface of the rib cage; when contracted, they pull the fluke down.
There are also special features of the skeletal system of marine mammals as well. For example, you will notice when dissecting the ribs that there is a joint in most of the ribs which allows the rib cage to collapse as the animal dives and is exposed to increasing amounts of pressure. NECROPSY TRICK: When dissecting the ribs, locate the joint with your finger and cut through the rib at this point – it will be easier on YOUR musculoskeletal system!
You can also learn a lot about the animal by looking at the teeth. Porpoise teeth are SPATULATE meaning they are flat on top while dolphin teeth are CONICAL or pointy on top. Even if you only find a skull you should be able to identify the animal down to the porpoise or dolphin level. Teeth can also indicate relative age. Are the teeth very worn? This is likely an indication that the animal was older.
For more information about the musculoskeletal system of odontocetes see Pabst 1990 and 1993, Long et al., 1997, Dearolf et al., 2000, Noren et al., 2000, Etnier et al., 2004, and Cotton et al., 2008.
Detailed annotated images of the musculoskeletal system of a harbor porpoise are shown below.
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https://www.mmapl.ucsc.edu/normal-anatomy-harbor-porpoise/musculoskeletal-harbor-porpoise
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Quiz
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Maintenance of a stable internal environment
Homeostasis
What are the three main parts of a cell?
Cell membrane
Cytoplasm
Cell nucleus
What three things easily pass through a cell membrane?
Oxygen
CO2
lipids
What is the site of communication and transport within the cell?
Endoplasmic reticulum
(also responsible for protein and lipid synthesis)
What does protein synthesis?
Ribosomes
What refines, packages and delivers proteins?
Golgi apparatus
What synthesizes ATP for the cell?
Mitochondria
aka the powerhouse of the cell
What is the movement of molecules from areas of high concentration to low concentration?
Diffusion
What is the diffusion of water molecules across a selectively permeable membrane?
Osmosis
What is the movement of molecules from an area of low concentration to high concentration?
Active transport
What happens during interphase?
Duplication of cell contents; prepping for reproduction.
It is a very active period.
What is the movement of a molecule that is too large to enter through normal circumstances?
Endocytosis
What is the metabolic reaction involved in building tissue, cell growth and repair?
Anabolism
Small molecules joined together to create larger molecules.
Requires energy.
Aka dehydration synthesis
What is the metabolic reaction used to break down tissue?
Catabolism
Large molecules broken down to smaller molecules.
Energy is released.
Aka hydrolysis
What are proteins whose function is to control the rate of reactions?
Enzymes
What are the four signs of inflammation?
Redness
Heat
Swelling
Pain
What layer of skin is affected with a first degree burn?
Epidermis
What layers of skin are affected with a second degree burn?
Dermis and epidermis
Blistering usually occurs
What layers of skin are affected with a third degree burn?
Epidermis, dermis and accessory organs
The injured skin becomes dry and leathery and may vary in color from red to black to white.
What are the membrane-like layers of unspecialized connective tissue that diffferentiates into osteoblasts?
Intramembranous bone
Aka intramembranous ossification
i.e. skull bones
What is bone tissue that replaces hyaline cartilage?
Endochondral bon
Aka endochondral ossification
It's the most common
i.e. femur bone
What is the function of the epiphyseal plate?
bone lengthening
What is the name given to the process that occurs in every cell in our body on a chemical level?
Metabolism
Name the structures of a skeletal muscle.
Muscle
Fascicles
Muscle fibers (muscle cells)
Myofibrils
Filaments (actin and myosin)
What are the two types of myofibril filaments that function in muscle contraction?
Actin (thin)
Myosin (thick)
What are the segments of myofibrils between Z lines?
Sarcomeres
What is the site where motor nerve fibers (axons) and muscle fibers meet?
Neuromuscular junction
Motor neuron and the muscle fibers it controls
Motor unit
What is the neurotransmitter that motor neurons use to control skeletal muscle?
Acetylcholine
It is stored in the synaptic knob and released into a synaptic cleft when a nerve impuls reaches the end of an axon.
What type of cellular respiration is not dependent on oxygen?
Anaraerobic
It breaks down glucose into a few molecules of ATP
What type of cellular respiration requires oxygen?
Aerobic
Breaks down glucose into many molecules of ATP
What muscle protein stores oxygen in muscle tissue?
Myoglobin
The minimal stimulus needed to produce a muscle contraction (twitch)
Threshold stimulus
(It's an all or none response)
A rapid series of stimuli that causes individual muscle twitches to combine.
Summation
Infrared head rays escape from warmer surfaces to cooler surroundings. These rays radiate in all directions.
Radiation.
Primary means of heat loss
Heat loss directly to a cooler object (that is in contact with its surface)
Conduction
Heat lost to air; cooler air replaces air warmed by the body
Convection
Sweat turns from liquid to gas taking heat with it away from the skin
Evaporation
If hypothermia is not treated it can lead to...
mental confusion, loss of reflexes and consciousness and shutting down of organs
Five functions of bones
Support and protect
Body movement
Blood cell formation (red marrow)
Yellow marrow (stores fat)
Inorganic salt storage (calcium and phosphorous)
What functions in the formations of red blood cells, white blood cels and platelets?
Red marrow in bones
What holds on to calcium and releases it into the cytosol when muscle fibers need to contract?
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
What theory explains that sarcomeres shorten during muscle contraction?
Sliding filament theory
The filaments slide past one another.
The amount of oxygen required to convert lactic acid back to glucose in the liver, and restore original amounts of oxygen, ATP, and CP.
Oxygen debt
Length of muscle changes during contraction
Isotonic contraction.
Muscle stays the same length during contraction
Isometric
Slow twitch or fast twitch: The red fibers that are resistant to fatigue, good blood supply, and a lot of myoglobin/mitochondria. They tend to be postural muscles.
Slow twitch
Slow twitch or fast twitch: The white fibers that have a high rate of fatigue, poor blood supply, less mitochondria/myoglobin, and extensive SR that allows muscle to contract very quickly.
Fast twitch
Nerve cells have one axon but can have many...
dendrites.
What receives input and transmits a nerve impulse to the nerve cell body?
Dendrites
What cells form myelin sheaths around axons in the PNS?
Schwann cells
What forms myelin sheaths around axons in the CNS?
Oligodendrocyte
Lack a neurolemma
Where are Schwann cells found?
Around axons in the peripheral nervous system
How neurons transmit info to other neurons or cells
Nerve impulse
(dendrites -> soma -> axon)
Nerve impulses from the CNS conducted to effectors (muscles or glands) via...
motor nerves (PNS)
Neurons that conduct imulse from PNS to CNS
Sensory neurons (afferent = ascending)
Neurons located in the CNS that form links between other neurons
Interneurons (association)
Neurons that conduct impulses out of CNS to effectors (muscles and glands)
Motor neurons (efferent = exit, either excite or inhibit)
In which nervous system are nerve axons more likely to regenerate?
PNS
CNS unlikely to regenerate because oligodendrocytes don't proliferate
Sodium-Potassium Pump: high concentration of ____ ions inside cell
potassium
(overal positive charge)
By what mechanism is the concentration of sodium/potassium maintained?
Na/K pump using active transport
Order of ions and how easily they diffuse
Potassium (easiest)
Sodium
Calcium (most difficult)
Phosphate, sulfate and proteins are trapped inside cell because of their size (negative charge)
Chemical communicators used by neurons
Neurotransmitters
Author:
barbostick
ID:
108280
Card Set:
Phys1 Final
Updated:
2011-10-13 02:31:35
Tags:
Soma physiology final Phys1
Folders:
Description:
Study for Physiology final
Show Answers:
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https://www.freezingblue.com/flashcards/print_preview.cgi?cardsetID=108280
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So go the words of a well-known Canadian children’s song depicting belugas, one of only three whale species that live in the Arctic year-round.
Their life amid the sea ice means the young whales do swim wild and free – from an early age, baby belugas must follow their mothers under the sea ice, where air holes are transient and scarce.
Now we are learning how baby belugas achieve that: they are born with more mature diving muscles than any other marine mammals studied so far and they develop more rapidly over their first year of life.
Shawn Noren at the University of California, Santa Cruz, and Robert Suydam from the Wildlife Management Department of Alaska’s North Slope Borough collected muscle samples from 23 female and male beluga whales of various ages and studied the biochemistry of their muscles.
They found that belugas are born with much higher stores of myoglobin, an oxygen-binding protein, than other cetaceans (whales, dolphins and porpoises), making them better prepared for diving at birth than other species. Myoglobin allows oxygen to be stored and slowly released if an animal needs to hold its breath.
The researchers showed that myoglobin in baby beluga whales increased by some 450 per cent between birth and their first birthday, to levels similar to those of fully grown adults. In fact, belugas have adult levels of myoglobin in their muscles by 14 months of age.
It means belugas are in some respects mature before they wean. That is unique among cetaceans, whose muscles mature after weaning, typically between 2 and 3 years of age.
This, in theory, would allow young belugas to double the amount of time spent under water within a year of their birth, the researchers say. They calculate that both the dive length and depth increased dramatically over the first year of life, from 3.6 minutes and 216 metres at birth to 8.5 minutes and 512 metres.
Using this new data on the physiology of beluga’s muscle tissue, the researchers then calculated how long adult belugas could hold their breath.
They found that an adult male and female can hold their breath for a maximum of 13.6 and 12.5 minutes respectively, allowing them to dive to 812 and 755 metres deep. Observations in the wild confirm that belugas are diving to these depths.
But they are also known to dive even deeper, which Noren says suggests that they are pushing their physiological limits.
Noren is concerned that as climate change alters the Arctic seascape, whales may have to dive longer to find food. Since belugas are already diving at their limits, she says they may not be able to adapt to changing conditions.
But Kim Shelden at the Alaska Fisheries Science Center in Seattle, Washington, says belugas might be in a good position to deal with melting sea ice because they are opportunistic feeders, and there is some evidence that warm water fish are moving into the Arctic.
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https://www.newscientist.com/article/2106782-how-baby-beluga-whales-dive-deeper-and-longer-than-any-others/
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Muscle tissue has four main properties: Excitability (ability to respond to stimuli), Contractibility (ability to contract), Extensibility (ability to be stretched without tearing) and Elasticity (ability to return to its normal shape). Based on certain structural and functional characteristics, muscle tissue is classified into three types: cardiac, smooth and skeletal.
Cardiac muscle tissue forms the bulk of the wall of the heart. Like skeletal muscle tissue, it is striated (the muscle fibres contain alternating light and dark bands (striations) that are perpendicular to the long axes of the fibres). Unlike skeletal muscle tissue, contraction is usually not under conscious control (involuntary).
Smooth muscle tissue is located in the walls of hollow internal structures such as blood vessels, the stomach, intestines, and urinary bladder. Smooth muscle fibres are usually involuntary (not under conscious control), and they are nonstriated (smooth). Smooth muscle tissue, like skeletal and cardiac muscle tissue, can undergo hypertrophy. In addition, certain smooth muscle fibres, such as those in the uterus, retain their capacity for division and can grow by hyperplasia.
Skeletal muscle tissue is named for its location - attached to bones. It is striated; the fibres (cells) contain alternating light and dark bands (striations) that are perpendicular to the long axes of the fibres. Skeletal muscle tissue can be made to contract or relax by conscious control (voluntary).
All skeletal muscle fibres are not alike in structure or function. For example, skeletal muscle fibres vary in colour depending on their content of myoglobin (myoglobin stores oxygen until needed by the mitochondria). Skeletal muscle fibres contract with different velocities, depending on their ability to split Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP). Faster contracting fibres have greater ability to split ATP. In addition, skeletal muscle fibres vary with respect to the metabolic processes they use to generate ATP. They also differ in terms of the onset of fatigue. Based on various structural and functional characteristics, skeletal muscle fibres are classified into three types: Type I fibres, Type II B fibres and type II A fibres.
The following is the definition of Fascia provided by the Fascia Research Congress (2009) "Fascia is the soft tissue component of the connective tissue system. It interpenetrates and surrounds muscles, bones, organs, nerves, blood vessels and other structures. Fascia is an uninterrupted, three-dimensional web of tissue that extends from head to toe, from front to back, from interior to exterior.
It is responsible for maintaining structural integrity; for providing support and protection; and acts as a shock absorber. Fascia has an essential role in hemodynamic and biochemical processes and provides the matrix that allows for intercellular communication.
After an injury, it is the fascia that creates an environment for tissue repair. Fascia can refer to dense planar fascial sheets (such as the Fascia lata) as well as joint capsules, organ capsules, muscular septa, ligaments, retinacula, aponeuroses, tendons, myofascia, neurofascia, and other fibrous collagenous tissues".
Langevin and Huijing (2009) state that we need to be aware of possible ambiguities and misunderstandings stemming from different meanings of the word "Fascia" because the general meaning of the term can be so vague as to imply little more than some form of connective tissue. "Fascia" encompasses both loose and dense, superficial and deep, and multiple and single layered connective tissues.
Myoglobin is a Protein and has oxygen bound to it, thus providing an extra reserve of oxygen so that the muscle can maintain a high level of activity for a longer period of time.
Mitochondria are known as the powerhouses of the cell. They act like a digestive system that takes in nutrients, breaks them down, and creates energy for the cell.
These fibres also called slow twitch or slow oxidative fibres, contain large amounts of myoglobin, many mitochondria and many blood capillaries. Type I fibres are red, split ATP at a slow rate, have a slow contraction velocity, very resistant to fatigue and have a high capacity to generate ATP by oxidative metabolic processes. Such fibres are found in large numbers in the postural muscles of the neck.
These fibres also called fast twitch or fast oxidative fibres, contain very large amounts of myoglobin, very many mitochondria and very many blood capillaries. Type II A fibres are red, have a very high capacity for generating ATP by oxidative metabolic processes, split ATP at a very rapid rate, have a fast contraction velocity and are resistant to fatigue. Such fibres are infrequently found in humans.
These fibres also called fast twitch or fast glycolytic fibres, contain a low content of myoglobin, relatively few mitochondria, relatively few blood capillaries and large amounts glycogen. Type II B fibres are white, geared to generate ATP by anaerobic metabolic processes, not able to supply skeletal muscle fibres continuously with sufficient ATP, fatigue easily, split ATP at a fast rate and have a fast contraction velocity. Such fibres are found in large numbers in the muscles of the arms.
Most skeletal muscles of the body are a mixture of all three types of skeletal muscle fibres, but their proportion varies depending on the usual action of the muscle. For example, postural muscles of the neck, back, and leg have a higher proportion of type I fibres. Muscles of the shoulders and arms are not constantly active but are used intermittently, usually for short periods, to produce large amounts of tension such as in lifting and throwing. These muscles have a higher proportion of type I and type II B fibres.
Even though most skeletal muscle is a mixture of all three types of skeletal, all the skeletal muscle fibres of any one motor unit are all the same. In addition, the different skeletal muscle fibres in a muscle may be used in various ways, depending on need. For example, if only a weak contraction is needed to perform a task, only type I fibres are activated by their motor units. If a stronger contraction is needed, the motor units of type II A fibres are activated. If a maximal contraction is required, motor units of type II B fibres are activated as well. Activation of various motor units is determined in the brain and spinal cord. Although the number of the different skeletal muscle fibres does not change, the characteristics of those present can be altered.
The fast muscle (what the researchers call type IIa) moves 5 times faster than the slow muscle, and the super-fast (called type IIb) moves 10 times faster than the slow muscle fibre.
The average person has approximately 60% fast muscle fibre and 40% slow-twitch fibre (type I). There can be swings in fibre composition, but essentially, we all have three types of muscle fibre that need to be trained.
Various types of exercises can bring about changes in the fibres in a skeletal muscle. Endurance type exercises, such as running or swimming, cause a gradual transformation of type II B fibres into type II A fibres. The transformed muscle fibres show a slight increase in diameter, mitochondria, blood capillaries, and strength. Endurance exercises result in cardiovascular and respiratory changes that cause skeletal muscles to receive better supplies of oxygen and carbohydrates but do not contribute to muscle mass. On the other hand, exercises that require great strength for short periods, such as weight lifting, produce an increase in the size and strength of type II B fibres. The increase in size is due to increased synthesis of thin and thick myofilaments. The overall result is that the person develops large muscles.
You can develop your fast-twitch muscle fibre by conducting plyometric or complex training (combination of plyometrics and weights) to build the fast muscle (IIa) and performing sprinting types of training to build the super-fast (IIb) to the point where you can release exercise-induced growth hormone.
The body itself produces the best form of growth hormone. If you want to accelerate muscle building then, use large muscle group targeted weight training in combination with anaerobic sprinting-types of exercise to increase your body's natural muscle building steroids.
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https://www.brianmac.co.uk/muscle.htm
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What is Henry's law?
The amount of a given gas dissolved in a given type of liquid (e.g. blood) at a constant temperature is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas in equilibrium with the liquid
2
What is the partial pressure of a gas in solution equal to?
Its partial pressure in the gas mixture with which it is in equilibrium with
3
What are the 2 mechanisms by which oxygen is carried by the blood?
Physically dissolved
Oxygen bound to haemoglobin (98.5% of O2 carried in this way)
4
How many ml of O2 is normally carried in 1L of blood?
200ml (at a normal arterial PO2 of 13.3kPa and a normal haemoglobin concentration of 15g/ 100ml
5
How many harm groups does each haemoglobin contain?
4
6
How many oxygens does each haem group reversibly bind?
1
7
When is haemoglobin considered as fully saturated?
When all the Hb present is carrying its maximum O2 load
8
What is the primary factor which determines the percentage saturation of haemoglobin with O2?
PO2
9
What is Hb made up of?
2 alpha chains
2 beta chains
4 harm groups each with an iron which binds 1 O2
10
What is the normal PO2 at pulmonary capillaries?
13.3 kPa
11
What is the average resting PO2 at systemic capillaries?
5.3kPa
12
What shape does an oxygen haemoglobin dissociation curve have?
A sigmoid shape
13
What does the cardiac index do?
Units?
Relates the cardiac output to the body surface area
L/min/metre2
Normal range is between 2.4 - 4.2 L/min/metre2
14
What are the units of the oxygen delivery index? (DO21)
ml/min/metre2
15
What are the units of the oxygen content of arterial blood?
ml/L
16
What does DO2I=?
DO21=CaO2 X CI
17
What does CaO2=?
CaO2 = 1.34 X [Hb] X SaO2
18
How many ml of O2 does 1 gram of Hb carry when fully saturated?
1.34ml
19
Units of [Hb]?
gram/L
20
What determines SaO2?
PO2
21
What factors can impair oxygen delivery to the tissues? (4)
Decreased partial pressure of inspired oxygen
Respiratory disease
Anaemia
Heart failure
22
What does partial pressure of inspired oxygen depend on? (2)
Total pressure (i.e. atmospheric pressure)
Proportion of oxygen in gas mixture (about 21% in atmosphere)
23
What does binding of one O2 to Hb cause?
An increase in the affinity of Hb for O2 (co-operativity)
24
What shape is the oxygen haemoglobin dissociation curve?
Sigmoid
25
What does the flat upper portions of the oxygen haemoglobin dissociation curve mean?
Moderate fall in alveolar PO2 will not much affect oxygen loading (very protective)
26
What does the step lower part of the oxygen haemoglobin dissociation curve mean?
The peripheral tissue gets a lot of oxygen for a small drop in capillary PO2
27
What is it called when the oxygen haemoglobin dissociation curve is shifted to the right?
What can cause this?
Bohr effect (increased release of O2 by conditions at the tissues)
Increased PCO2
Increased [H+]
Increased temperature
Increased levels of 2,3-Biphosphoglycerate (will bind better to the deoxygenated haemoglobin compared to the oxygenated haemoglobin promoting partially emptied haemoglobin to release the rest of its oxygen)
(features of metabolically active cells will shift the curve to the right facilitating the release of oxygen from haemoglobin)
28
How does foetal haemoglobin differ from adult haemoglobin?
Foetal haemoglobin (HbF) has 2 alpha and 2 gamma subunits
29
Why does HbF have a higher affinity for oxygen compared to adult Hb?
HbF interacts less with 2,3-Biphophoglycerate in RBCs (shifts the O2-Hb dissociation curve to the left)
30
What is on the left on a O2-Hb dissociation curve, foetal or maternal?
What does this allow?
Foetal - due to HbF having a higher affinity for O2 compared to HbA
O2 to transfer from mother to foetus even if the PO2 is low
31
Where is myoglobin present?
In skeletal and cardiac muscles
32
How many harm group is present per myoglobin molecule?
1 (therefore no co-operative binding of O2)
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Shape of Mb (myoglobin) dissociation curve?
Hyperbolic
34
What is the purpose of myoglobin?
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https://www.brainscape.com/flashcards/physiology-3-lecture-4-5063797/packs/7269619
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Penguins are seabirds, first identified in the polar zones around 1600 by a group of explorers. They belong to the Spheniscidae family , but despite being birds and possessing a body covered in feathers, they are not capable of flight due to their own anatomy.
They are surely one of the most popular and charismatic animals in these latitudes, but many people are unaware of many of their characteristics and way of life. Do you want to know where penguins live and what they eat ? In the following AgroCorrn article we will explain it to you!
How are penguins
While penguins’ wings do not allow them to fly, they are not useless, in fact they are very important for their survival. The penguin’s wings become flippers, allowing them to swim at high speeds (approximately 60 km / h) when threatened by predators, due to the fact that they have strong bones capable of withstanding large impacts and reducing their buoyancy in the water. Their natural predators are usually sea lions, sharks, seals and, above all, killer whales. The orcas pose the greatest threat to their survival.
Penguins keep important oxygen reserves during their dives, not only in the lungs, but also in their muscles, which have high amounts of myoglobin (a protein that stores and transports oxygen in the muscles). Despite this, the immersion time varies between penguin species, being the highest in the emperor penguin (around 18 minutes).
These animals are fully adapted to maintain their body heat in the conditions of their habitats, thus they have three layers of feathers, thick layers of fat and blood vessel systems in fins and legs that allow them to regulate heat losses with the environment depending on of the temperature of its habitat. The size of their bodies also influences: species from more temperate zones are smaller in size, dissipating heat faster than larger species.
In terms of behavior, there are very territorial species , especially when making nests. The nests are usually built with branches, stones and leaves, some are underground and others are superficial. However, the emperor and king penguins lay an egg and hatch it between their legs. The incubation period is usually between 33 and 62 days, depending on the species. If two eggs are laid, usually only one survives. When they are chicks, they squawk, requesting food and protection, but from the first molt, they are independent, which usually happens after two or three weeks.
What did the penguins eat
Penguins are carnivorous animals , which eat shellfish and fish such as:
- Plankton.
- Crustaceans.
- Fishes.
- Squid
- Other cephalopods.
The search for food is their main activity throughout the day, spending up to 70% of the day submerged and looking for food. Once captured, they are able to grab their prey with small hooks located at the ends and the presence of hairs or bristles on the tongue, with which they retain food.
When it comes to drinking water, most of the water they consume is sweet , although they can also drink salt water. This is thanks to regulatory glands in your body, which allow them to remove excess salt.
Where penguins live?
Penguins live exclusively in the Southern Hemisphere and, contrary to what we see on television, they do not coexist with the polar bear , while they are not found in the Northern Hemisphere.
The main areas where we can find penguins are the coastal areas of the Antarctic continent and some surrounding areas such as:
- New Zealand.
- Australia.
- Argentina.
- Falkland Islands.
- Peru.
- Chili.
Also, penguins can be found in the Galapagos Islands and South Africa , but high temperatures and climatic changes are a serious threat to them. In fact, climate change is destroying their natural habitats, in the following article you can see the consequences of the melting at the poles . So, if you were wondering where penguins live at the north or south pole, you now know that they live at the south pole.
Curiosities about penguins
Penguins are extremely interesting animals, did you know these curiosities about penguins ?:
- They are warm-blooded: their body temperature ranges between 36 and 38 degrees, due in part to their thick layers of fat and their plumage.
- When they are in colony, they are grouped very tightly between them, to give each other warmth.
- If they are not in colonies, they secrete an oil that makes their feathers waterproof, thanks to glands.
- They sleep standing up.
- Penguins orient themselves thanks to sunlight, with which they know their time to dive and identify their migration routes.
Hello, I am a blogger specialized in environmental, health and scientific dissemination issues in general. The best way to define myself as a blogger is by reading my texts, so I encourage you to do so. Above all, if you are interested in staying up to date and reflecting on these issues, both on a practical and informative level.
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https://agrocorrn.com/where-do-penguins-live-and-what-do-they-eat/
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The heme group and hemoglobin part 1
Heme or haem (from Greek αἷμα haima meaning blood) is a cofactor consisting of an Fe2+ (ferrous) ion contained in the centre of a heterocyclic macrocycle organic compound called a porphyrin, made up of four pyrrolic groups joined together by methine bridges. Not all porphyrins contain iron, but a substantial fraction of porphyrin-containing metalloproteins have heme as their prosthetic group; these are known as hemoproteins. Hemes are most commonly recognized as components of hemoglobin, the red pigment in blood, but are also found in a number of other biologically important hemoproteins such as myoglobin, cytochrome, catalase, heme peroxidase, and endothelial nitric oxide synthase.
Contents
- The heme group and hemoglobin part 1
- Heme group of hemoglobin and myoglobin
- Function
- Major hemes
- Other hemes
- Synthesis
- Degradation
- In health and disease
- Genes
- References
Heme group of hemoglobin and myoglobin
Function
Hemoproteins have diverse biological functions including the transportation of diatomic gases, chemical catalysis, diatomic gas detection, and electron transfer. The heme iron serves as a source or sink of electrons during electron transfer or redox chemistry. In peroxidase reactions, the porphyrin molecule also serves as an electron source. In the transportation or detection of diatomic gases, the gas binds to the heme iron. During the detection of diatomic gases, the binding of the gas ligand to the heme iron induces conformational changes in the surrounding protein. In general, diatomic gases only bind to the reduced heme, as ferrous Fe(II) while most peroxidases cycle between Fe(III) and Fe(IV) and hemeproteins involved in mitochondrial redox, oxidation-reduction, cycle between Fe(II) and Fe(III).
It has been speculated that the original evolutionary function of hemoproteins was electron transfer in primitive sulfur-based photosynthesis pathways in ancestral cyanobacteria-like organisms before the appearance of molecular oxygen.
Hemoproteins achieve their remarkable functional diversity by modifying the environment of the heme macrocycle within the protein matrix. For example, the ability of hemoglobin to effectively deliver oxygen to tissues is due to specific amino acid residues located near the heme molecule. Hemoglobin reversibly binds to oxygen in the lungs when the pH is high, and the carbon dioxide concentration is low. When the situation is reversed (low pH and high carbon dioxide concentrations), hemoglobin will release oxygen into the tissues. This phenomenon, which states that hemoglobin's oxygen binding affinity is inversely proportional to both acidity and concentration of carbon dioxide, is known as the Bohr effect. The molecular mechanism behind this effect is the steric organization of the globin chain; a histidine residue, located adjacent to the heme group, becomes positively charged under acidic conditions (which are caused by dissolved CO2 in working muscles, etc.) releasing oxygen from the heme group.
Major hemes
There are several biologically important kinds of heme:
The most common type is heme B; other important types include heme A and heme C. Isolated hemes are commonly designated by capital letters while hemes bound to proteins are designated by lower case letters. Cytochrome a refers to the heme A in specific combination with membrane protein forming a portion of cytochrome c oxidase.
Other hemesThe following carbon numbering system of porphyrins is an older numbering used by biochemists and not the 1–24 numbering system recommended by IUPAC which is shown in the table above.
The names of cytochromes typically (but not always) reflect the kinds of hemes they contain: cytochrome a contains heme A, cytochrome c contains heme C, etc. This convention may have been first introduced with the publication of the structure of heme A.
Synthesis
The enzymatic process that produces heme is properly called porphyrin synthesis, as all the intermediates are tetrapyrroles that are chemically classified as porphyrins. The process is highly conserved across biology. In humans, this pathway serves almost exclusively to form heme. In other species, it also produces similar substances such as cobalamin (vitamin B12).
The pathway is initiated by the synthesis of D-aminolevulinic acid (dALA or δALA) from the amino acid glycine and succinyl-CoA from the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle). The rate-limiting enzyme responsible for this reaction, ALA synthase, is negatively regulated by glucose and heme concentration. Mechanism of inhibition of ALAs by heme or hemin is by decreasing stability of mRNA synthesis and by decreasing the intake of mRNA in the mitochondria. This mechanism is of therapeutic importance: infusion of heme arginate or hematin and glucose can abort attacks of acute intermittent porphyria in patients with an inborn error of metabolism of this process, by reducing transcription of ALA synthase.
The organs mainly involved in heme synthesis are the liver (in which the rate of synthesis is highly variable, depending on the systemic heme pool) and the bone marrow (in which rate of synthesis of Heme is relatively constant and depends on the production of globin chain), although every cell requires heme to function properly. However, due to its toxic properties, proteins such as Hemopexin (Hx) are required to help maintain physiological stores of iron in order for them to be used in synthesis. Heme is seen as an intermediate molecule in catabolism of hemoglobin in the process of bilirubin metabolism. Defects in various enzymes in synthesis of heme can lead to group of disorder called porphyrias, these include acute intermittent porphyria, congenital erythropoetic porphyria, porphyria cutanea tarda, hereditary coproporphyria, variegate porphyria, erythropoietic protoporphyria.
Degradation
Degradation begins inside macrophages of the spleen, which remove old and damaged (senescent) erythrocytes from the circulation. In the first step, heme is converted to biliverdin by the enzyme heme oxygenase (HMOX). NADPH is used as the reducing agent, molecular oxygen enters the reaction, carbon monoxide (CO) is produced and the iron is released from the molecule as the ferrous ion (Fe2+). CO acts as a cellular messenger and functions in vasodilation.
In addition, heme degradation appears to be an evolutionarily-conserved response to oxidative stress. Briefly, when cells are exposed to free radicals, there is a rapid induction of the expression of the stress-responsive heme oxygenase-1 (HMOX1) isoenzyme that catabolizes heme (see below). The reason why cells must increase exponentially their capability to degrade heme in response to oxidative stress remains unclear but this appears to be part of a cytoprotective response that avoids the deleterious effects of free heme. When large amounts of free heme accumulates, the heme detoxification/degradation systems get overwhelmed, enabling heme to exert its damaging effects.
In the second reaction, biliverdin is converted to bilirubin by biliverdin reductase (BVR):
Bilirubin is transported into the liver by facilitated diffusion bound to a protein (serum albumin), where it is conjugated with glucuronic acid to become more water-soluble. The reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme UDP-glucuronosyltransferase.
This form of bilirubin is excreted from the liver in bile. Excretion of bilirubin from liver to biliary canaliculi is an active, energy dependent and rate limiting process. The intestinal bacteria deconjugate bilirubin diglucuronide and convert bilirubin to urobilinogens. Some urobilinogen is absorbed by intestinal cells and transported into the kidneys and excreted with urine (urobilin, which is the product of oxidation of urobilinogen, is responsible for the yellow colour of urine). The remainder travels down the digestive tract and is converted to stercobilinogen. This is oxidized to stercobilin, which is excreted and is responsible for the color of feces.
In health and disease
Under homeostasis, the reactivity of heme is controlled by its insertion into the “heme pockets” of hemoproteins. Under oxidative stress however, some hemoproteins, e.g. hemoglobin, can release their heme prosthetic groups. The non-protein-bound (free) heme produced in this manner becomes highly cytotoxic, most probably due to the iron atom contained within its protoporphyrin IX ring, which can act as a Fenton's reagent to catalyze in an unfettered manner the production of free radicals. It catalyzes the oxidation and aggregation of protein, the formation of cytotoxic lipid peroxide via lipid peroxidation and damages DNA through oxidative stress. Due to its lipophilic properties, it impairs lipid bilayers in organelles such as mitochondria and nuclei. These properties of free heme can sensitize a variety of cell types to undergo programmed cell death in response to pro-inflammatory agonists, a deleterious effect that plays an important role in the pathogenesis of certain inflammatory diseases such as malaria and sepsis. There is an association between high intake of heme iron sourced from meat and increased risk of colon cancer; however, there is no solid evidence that this is a causal relationship. The heme content of red meat is 10-fold higher than that of white meat such as chicken.
Genes
The following genes are part of the chemical pathway for making heme:
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https://alchetron.com/Heme
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It’s a surprising fact that out of all the nutrients, iron happens to be the one women in North America are most deficient in. 35 to 58 percent of young, healthy females experience some degree of low iron levels and the number goes slightly higher during pregnancy. Fatigue, a weakened immune system and impaired brain activity are all symptoms of iron deficiency. By the time you’re diagnosed with anaemia, your iron levels can be in the danger zone. A low iron count means your body isn’t making enough healthy red blood cells to deliver oxygen from your lungs to your body’s tissues. About 70 percent of the body’s iron is contained in the blood in the form of hemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells that carries and delivers oxygen to tissues in the body for survival. Myoglobin, a protein in the heart and skeletal muscles, also requires iron to function efficiently. Iron is needed for several key enzymes to assist in energy production and metabolism, particularly in DNA construction.
Medicinal Ingredients:
Each capsule contains Iron (Ferrochel® Ferrous Bis-glycinate Chelate) 20mg Magnesium (TRAACS® magnesium bis-glycinate chelate buffered (magnesium bis-glycinate chelate, magnesium oxide) 42mg Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) 300mg Vitamin B6 (pyridoxal-5-phosphate) 25mg Vitamin B12 (methylcobalamin) 400mcg Folate (folic acid) 200mcg Copper (TRAACS® copper bis-glycinate chelate) 35mcg
Non-medicinal Ingredients:
Vegetable-grade magnesium stearate, vegetable capsule.
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https://www.buywell.com/canprev-iron-bis-glycinate-20-90-vegicaps
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Penguin Species, Habitat, and Evolution
There are 17 species of penguin, some of which are found as far north as the equator, but only eight penguin species can be seen in Antarctica and the sub-Antarctic islands: chinstraps, emperors, Adélies, gentoos, kings, Magellanics, rockhoppers, and macaronis.
Scientists believe that around 40 – 50 million years ago, when Antarctica was breaking away from Gondwanaland, penguins formed their own species. They were originally native to warmer climates but had to adapt to the frozen region of Antarctica as they made their way south. Here are seven characteristics these polar penguins share across species.
1. Penguins Are Flightless Birds
Penguins are unique flightless seabirds that are at home on both land and sea. Unlike flying birds, which moult and replace their feathers slowly so they can remain airborne, penguins moult all at once over a period of 2 – 5 weeks during the summer.
This sudden moulting lets the birds head back out to sea without any “leaks” in their insulation. Moulting is an important process for the penguins, as their feathers wear out through the course of a year due to rubbing against other penguins, contact with the ground and water, and constant preening.
Once the moulting is done and new feathers appear, penguins are ready to head out to sea with a brand new coat.
2. Swimming Is a Penguin Talent
Over time, penguins have evolved their wings into flippers that enable them to zip through the water with ease. They have well-developed breast and wing muscles that help them push through dense water.
To make swimming easier, the penguin’s blood – the haemoglobin within it – has been adapted to transport large volumes of oxygen throughout the body while swimming.
Also, a large amount of myoglobin is in their muscle tissues, so they can store oxygen when underwater. While swimming, penguins like to tuck their heads near to their shoulders to keep their body compact.
They also keep their feet close to the tail, enabling them to navigate. Penguins have good eyesight underwater, and in fact the species’ vision is better suited to the water than the air.
Penguins can tell the difference between shades of blues, purples, and greens, and they have a secondary “see-through eyelid” to see clearly underwater.
3. Penguins Have an Open Diet
Penguins eat krill, which is a shrimp-like creature, as well as squids and fishes. For example, Adélie penguins, which can be seen in the Ross Sea, eat a variety of readily available high-energy food that is easy to gulp down.
During the summer months, penguins like to eat Antarctic silverfish, which are the most abundant small fish in the shallow coastal waters off Antarctica. Their shape is easy for penguins to swallow head first.
Meanwhile king and emperor penguins, a major wildlife attraction of Antarctica cruises, like to feed on lantern fish in addition to krill. Emperor penguins are particularly determined to catch food at great distances, known to forage anywhere from 164 – 1,454 km (102 – 903 miles) from their colony in a single hunting trip.
4. Large Colonies Are Preferred Penguin Breeding Grounds
On land, penguins form colonies that can contain up to a million nesting pairs. Adélie penguins in the Ross Sea migrate each spring from the outer pack ice towards land where they breed.
Most of the time spent travelling to their colonies is spent either walking, tobogganing, or swimming. The migration to the colonies is only done when the penguins have obtained a huge supply of body fat to sustain them while the southern ice pack is too thick to allow constant feeding.
They arrive at their breeding colonies in early October. The males are first to arrive, followed by the females. The colonies reach peak population around early November. It only takes them between one and 12 days to find a mate, and between one and three eggs are laid per breeding pair.
5. Penguins Drink Salty Water
Most penguins live in environments where there is little or no fresh water. They have either ice or saltwater to choose from when thirsty. With saltwater being more convenient and easier to obtain, penguins have a special adaptation that helps keep their salt levels balanced.
Penguins have a distinct supraorbital gland located near their eyes that filters salt out of their systems. As blood passes through the gland, it traps the salt before it can travel through the rest of their body. When the gland filters salt from the blood, the excess salt has to be expelled from the body.
Salt in the gland mixes with a small amount of moisture inside the gland before travelling down the nasal passage. Salty drops then drip out of the penguin’s nose.
Nonetheless, just because every penguin has this gland does not stop them from drinking freshwater when they can find it: Rockhopper penguins, which can be found on cruises to the Falkland Islands, prefer to live around freshwater sources rather than drink from the sea.
6. Research into Penguin Dives Reveals a Complex Biology
Emperor penguins can dive below the sea ice for up to 20 minutes at a time. To stay underwater that long, they have developed the ability to control how and when their muscles use oxygen. They can switch between two types of oxygen utility, either starving their muscles for oxygen or giving them a boost to keep them working during long dives.
To figure out how emperor penguins can dive for such lengths of time, scientists in McMurdo Sound designed special probes to monitor several penguins’ muscles during dives. In 50 recorded dives ranging between 7 – 64 metres deep (23 – 210 feet), the penguins stayed underwater anywhere from 2.3 – 11.4 minutes.
During the deeper dives, researchers found the penguins selectively sent extra oxygen from their blood into their muscles. They can only do this for short periods of time, however, until blood oxygen levels become too low for the rest of their body. When this occurs, penguins have to come back to the surface.
The downside of their oxygen-boosting adaptation is that it builds up lactic acid, so penguins will only do it if the prize (a good dinner) is worth it.
7. Penguin Feet Don’t Freeze on the Ice
Because most of the penguin’s body is warm and waterproof due to all their fat and feathers, they can easily overheat on a sunny day. To stay cool, heat escapes from their beak and feet, helping the body maintain a constant temperature.
However, this leaves their feet exposed to the cold. To stop their feet from freezing, penguins have special arteries in their legs that can adjust blood flow in response to foot temperature, enabling them to send just enough blood to their feet to keep them above freezing.
To make sure the heat isn’t lost, the warm blood on the way to their feet passes the blood that is coming back up, resulting in the warmer blood heating the colder blood before it continues down toward their feet.
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https://oceanwide-expeditions.com/blog/7-facts-about-antarctica-s-beloved-bird-the-penguins
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Today marks the 57th anniversary of the beginning of the disastrous Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961. The invasion was an attempt at seizing military control of the island nation by the United States, orchestrated by the CIA and fought by Brigade 2506, a paramilitary force constituted of Cuban exiles and American operatives. The invasion was a dismal failure, with the invading force surrendering after less than three days.
Prior to the Cuban Revolution, Cuba was ruled by a strongarm president named Fulgencio Batista, who had a cozy relationship with American political and corporate powers. Americans dominated multiple Cuban industries. After the Revolution, Castro took dramatic measures to nationalize those industries and institute sweeping land reforms. President Eisenhower responded by having the CIA recruit and train Cuban exiles living in Miami to form an invasion force. He also imposed an import embargo on Cuban sugar. Sugar export was a critical pillar of the Cuban economy. The USSR, a recent Cuban ally, stepped in to purchase the sugar America left on the table.
When John F. Kennedy took office in 1961, he was told by multiple advisors that Fidel Castro did not pose a significant threat to the United States. Kennedy, however, imagined that humbling upstart Castro would set an example for the Communist world. Kennedy approved the invasion plan on April 4, 1961.
The invasion force assembled in Guatemala. On April 15, eight B-26 bombers attacked airfields in Cuba. The following night, the land forces landed at Playa Girón, a beach in the Bay of Pigs. A quick victory over local militia forces seemed to be an encouraging sign. However, defeat loomed.
As the world learned about America’s actions, global opinion soured. In an attempt to improve optics, Kennedy decided against providing the air support that Eisenhower had originally prescribed for the operation. It would prove a dramatically bad decision. The Cuban forces, led directly by Castro, trounced the invasion. Bereft of air or naval support, the American-backed forces surrendered on April 20. Most of them were interrogated and thrown in prison.
The Bay of Pigs invasion was a complete disaster. Far from ousting Castro, it galvanized the Cuban people in their support of him. It also made Cuba’s ties to the USSR much stronger, leading directly to the Cuban Missile Crisis.
The Bay of Pigs was a national embarrassment and presaged many coming decades of political monkeywrenching in the Latin world by American intelligence. The CIA tried over six hundred times to kill Fidel Castro, and he survived them all.
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http://www.mcm7.com/today-in-history-bay-of-pigs-invasion-begins/
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Fidel Castro was one of the most famous figures of the Cold War. He was especially famous in the United States because United States government officials were desperate to see him removed from power. President Kennedy spent more time on Cuba than any other foreign policy problem during his time in office.
Operation Mongoose was developed out of desperation to get rid of Castro. Through this secret operation, the CIA and the Kennedy administration came up with what can only be described as wacky and outrageous plots to remove Castro from power — at any cost.
Origins
Before John F. Kennedy was elected, the Eisenhower Administration and the CIA clandestinely explored ways in which Cuban leader Fidel Castro could be undermined and expelled from power. Castro’s communist policies, his close ties with the Soviet Union, and Cuba’s proximity to the United States made U.S. government officials anxious.
Primary documents assert that the CIA explored the notion of assassinating Castro by enlisting the Mafia’s help before Kennedy came into office. The mafia, after all, would have a motive in wanting Castro killed after he had disrupted casinos, travel, and mafia business interests in Havana. Similarly, the mafia would give the CIA plausible deniability if an assassination plot was to be uncovered.
When Kennedy took office, these clandestine assassination plans were largely discarded. What was not abandoned, however, was the CIA planned invasion of Cuba. In March 1960, Dwight D. Eisenhower ordered the CIA to train and arm a force of Cuban exiles for an armed attack on Cuba. When Kennedy became president in 1961, not only did he inherit this plan from Eisenhower but, against the advice of his military advisors, he decided to move forward with it.
On April 17, 1961, around 1,200 Cuban exiles armed with American weapons and using American landing craft came ashore at the Bay of Pigs in Cuba. The idea was that this exile force would motivate other Cuban citizens to rise up and overthrow Castro and his government.
The reality of the situation was, of course, much different than its idealized expectation. The plan immediately fell apart, over 100 of the attackers were killed, and more than 1100 were captured.
Operation Mongoose
It was in the aftermath of the failed Bay of Pigs invasion that Operation Mongoose was created. After this failed invasion, the Kennedy administration was determined to get Castro out of power in Cuba- one way or another.
Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara recalled both himself and the Kennedys being “hysterical about Castro at the time of the Bay of Pigs and thereafter.” From this point forward, the Kennedy administration and CIA ramped up their attempts to rid Castro of power in Cuba.
In November 1961, a clandestine operation known as Operation Mongoose was officially authorized by President Kennedy. The goal of this operation was to do exactly what the Bay of Pigs invasion had failed to do — remove the Communist Castro regime from Cuba.
President Kennedy, who felt that his military advisors had betrayed him during the Bay of Pigs Invasion, put his brother Robert Kennedy in charge of overseeing the operation, while General Edward Lansdale was tasked with coordinating activities between the CIA, Defence Department, and State Department.
At a meeting on Cuba at the White House in November 1961, Robert Kennedy wrote that his “idea is to stir things up on the island with espionage, sabotage, general disorder, run & operated by Cubans themselves.” The goal was that by October 1962, a revolt would take place in Cuba, by Cuban people to overthrow Castro.
Dirty Tricks and assassination plots
The Kennedy administration undertook many tactics to get the Cuban people to revolt against Castro. These tactics included psychological operations led by Edward Lansdale, who created an anti-Castro radio broadcast to covertly aired in Cuba.
One operation that was suggested by Lansdale was titled “Operation Good Time.” This operation was meant to “disillusion the Cuban population” by circulating fake photographs of an obese Castro in a lavishly furnished room to make the Cuban people think he was taking advantage of the Cuban citizens.
CIA operatives in Cuba also circulated stories about heroic freedom fighters in hopes of rallying the Cuban people.
However, the central portion of Lansdale’s plans against Castro was a series of large-scale “dirty tricks” meant to evoke calls to arms against Cuba in the international community.
Some of these “tricks” included having friendly Cubans in Cuban army uniforms attack the U.S. base at Guantánamo Bay and sabotaging an empty U.S. ship in the harbor. Another “dirty trick” suggested carrying out a “terror campaign in the Miami area and other Florida cities, and even in Washington.” These attacks could be blamed on Castro and would allow for U.S. military intervention in Cuba.
Another dirty trick that came out of Operation Mongoose involved the Mercury space capsule and astronaut John Glenn, the first American to orbit the Earth. The proposed idea was to “provide irrevocable proof, that should the Mercury manned orbit flight fail, the fault lies with the Communists, et al Cuba.” Planners suggested that this could be accomplished “by manufacturing various pieces of evidence which would prove interference on the part of the Cubans.”
Although none of these plans either proposed by or to Lansdale were ever adopted, attempts to kill Castro were undertaken by members of Operation Mongoose. This part of the operation, which became known as “Executive Action,” was run by CIA agent William King Harvey.
Supposedly, “executive action” was a CIA euphemism, defined as a project for research into developing means for overthrowing foreign political leaders, including a “capability to perform assassinations.” Harvey’s specific project was given the codename ZR/RIFLE. Harvey attempted to use mobsters to assassinate Castro but was unsuccessful in all attempts.
Decline
For all the imaginative plans and proposals developed, Operation Mongoose existed more on paper than in actual practice. Once the Cuban Missile Crisis began on October 16, 1962, President Kennedy suspended Operation Mongoose.
More from us: CIA Documents Reveal Early Plot Against Raúl Castro
Although efforts to overthrow Castro eventually resumed, Operation Mongoose was officially disbanded in 1963. However, it wasn’t until 1974, in the wake of the Watergate scandal that notes on Operation Mongoose surfaced for the first time.
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https://www.warhistoryonline.com/war-articles/operation-mongoose-fidel-castro.html
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A classic example of groupthink was the decision making process that lead to the Bay of Pigs invasion, whereby the US administration looked to overthrow Fidel Castro. In this instance president Kennedy made the decision, and through the strength of his character the rest of the team supported him despite having their private concerns.
Another example of groupthink that is often cited in business books, is that the Challenger Space Shuttle disaster was caused by groupthink. These books will quote how NASA knew about the potential for failure but did not want to delay the launch so they went ahead with the launch anyway. However, what is really interesting about this example is that groupthink did not cause the disaster; faulty o-rings did, with groupthink being a contributory factor on the day of launch, when the program manager plus others met with one of the contractors. The fact that all of these business books blame groupthink as the cause of the disaster is in itself a kind of groupthink, and thus not without irony.
Conditions of Groupthink
William H. Whyte coined the term groupthink in Fortune magazine in 1952, but it was Irving Janis who did considerable research on it in the 1970s. Janus identified three conditions which can be used as clear groupthink warnings:
- Directive leadership: where the group leader directs the group and its discussions
- Group homogeneity: where the group know each other, come from the same social background, and share the same ideology
- Group isolation: where the group does not have exposure outside information which could be used to help reach a more balanced decision
Since Janus produced the above list it has become clear that groupthink can occur within many different types of groups. For this reason it’s important to look out for the symptoms of groupthink, again put forward by Janus.
Symptoms of Groupthink
The eight symptoms of groupthink defined by Janus are as follows:
- Illusions of invulnerability
- Rationalization of warnings
- Complacency
- Stereotyping
- Loyalty pressure
- Self-censorship
- Illusion of unanimity
- Mind-guards
Illusions of invulnerability
The group begins to believe it’s own hype and starts to think it always makes the right decisions – they can do no wrong.
Rationalization of warnings
The group convinces itself that despite evidence or warnings to the contrary it is making the right decision. The group creates rationalizations such as:
We know there is contrary opinion to this decision but we’ve been right before in the face of negativity and we’ll we right this time too
Complacency
After reaping the rewards of making many correct decisions the group begins to overlook the negatives. Think how derivative models were never run showing what would happen to a banks financial position if house prices began to fall in the years leading up to 2007.
Stereotyping
Those who have views that contradict the group’s views are pigeonholed as heretics, non-believers, or just plain stupid.
Loyalty pressure
Direct pressure is place on any team member who raises a contrary opinion, with typically the entire group openly calling the team member disloyal or fickle.
Self-censorship
Individuals refrain from airing any private concerns they may have for fear for ridicule, for example, if you are in a group with 10 clever people who all agree with each other, then you begin to question if you might look like a fool for raising your concern – perhaps you a just being stupid.
Illusion of unanimity
If asked whether everyone agrees with a decision and nobody speaks up, then its a sign of unanimous decision. In essence, silence is considered compliance.
Mind-guards
The group contains self-appointed members who protect the group from conflicting opinions from both inside and outside of the group.
Avoiding Groupthink
In consulting, engagement managers and leaders need to be mindful of groupthink and actively work to avoid it. After the Bay of Pigs, president Kennedy actively sought to avoid groupthink during the Cuban Missile Crisis; he invited outside experts into discussions. He also broke the group into subgroups to discuss the problem separately. Thus, he broke team cohesion and circumvented groupthink.
There are a number of general principles and specific tools that you can use to avoid groupthink. Firstly, let’s examine the general principles:
- Explore different scenarios
- Encourage each member of the team to be a critical evaluator, allowing them to openly question ideas and propose alternatives
- Leaders should deliberately not express their opinion when asking a group to find a solution to a problem
- Invite outside experts into the meeting and take their opinions seriously
- Allow the group members to speak with the experts individually and privately if they desire
- For major decisions, instruct several different groups to solve the same problem simultaneously but independently of each other
- Assign at least one group member to deliberately play the role of devil’s advocate
Methods to avoid groupthink
Secondly, here are some of the specific tools you can use to avoid groupthink:
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https://thinkinsights.net/consulting/groupthink-how-to-avoid-it/
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Imagine a group of investors who are planning to open a gourmet restaurant. They are holding a meeting to choose a head chef from three finalists. But there’s a catch. What they don’t know is that there is an objectively correct choice. Whether they find the best possible candidate and eliminate the other two depends on how well they manage to resist the pressure of groupthink.
The task was part of an experiment conducted by Dr Colin Fisher, associate professor at University College London School of Management. The participants of the experiment all received some shared information. But to see the full picture, they would have to bring their individual pieces of information together to create a whole.
The way we make decisions as groups is fundamental to family life, policymaking and the way businesses operate. It's helpful to look at the psychology of decision-making, specifically exploring the issue of groupthink and how businesses overcome common pitfalls.
“When information is held by all or most group members, it is especially likely, as a statistical matter, to be repeated in group discussions,” according to Cass Sunstein and Reid Hastie in Wiser: Getting Beyond GroupThink to Make Groups Smarter. The opposite is true for insights that only one person or a few people have.
Share information at the right time
To coax group members into sharing information, behavioural scientists have come up with interventions. In Fisher’s gourmet restaurant example, the experiment leader makes a point of telling the group: ‘‘I’d like to give you some advice about how to conduct your discussion. Try to share as much information as possible before coming to a decision; having all the information available will help your team to make the best choice.”
Prior to the discussion, 19 per cent of participants made the right choice. When groups received this simple reminder before their discussion, they made high-quality decisions 42 per cent of the time. What Fisher discovered was that not only the intervention itself mattered, but its timing mattered too. If groups were told to share their information either five minutes or fifteen minutes into a half hour discussion, they made high-quality decisions 63 per cent of the time. It’s therefore more effective to remind groups to share information once they’re in the process.
Appoint a devil’s inquirer
Groupthink originated as an academic concept in the early-1970s, when Yale psychologist Irving Janis analysed the Bay of Pigs fiasco, an ill-conceived US invasion that aimed to overthrow Fidel Castro’s regime in Cuba.
The problem was that while President John F. Kennedy’s advisers had private doubts about the invasion, they failed to voice them. Why? Because of groupthink. As Arthur Schlesinger, who was one of the advisers, put it: “Our meetings were taking place in a curious atmosphere of assumed consensus.” There was strong pressure to conform.
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To counter this tendency, boards can appoint a devil’s advocate, who is tasked with challenging the group’s consensus. For larger groups of more than seven members, for example, some studies recommend two devil’s advocates to avoid isolation.
But, Fisher says, rather than appointing a devil’s advocate, make it a “devil’s inquirer”. Their aim should be to ask for information that is counter to the prevailing viewpoint. That’s different from advocacy, which tends to result in conflict, where people focus on their opinions. “Whereas this inquiry tends to get people talking about information, rather than further entrenching the positions they have,” he says.
Consider the best and worst outcomes
There’s another way of broadening the pool of information. Gary Griffiths, co-founder of venture capital fund Wisdom and a board member of his portfolio companies, recommends asking: “What’s the worst that could happen?” He says: “I was recently engaged in a decision regarding a lawsuit for wrongful termination. The company had already spent several hundred thousand dollars on legal fees, with several hundred thousand ahead of them before trial.”
To find the answer to the worst-case scenario, he did some basic research and discovered the maximum settlement for cases of this type was far less than the forecast legal costs. “So, the decision was straightforward: stop retaining counsel, let it go to trial and accept the settlement.”
The corollary is asking: “What’s the best that could happen?” And again, Griffiths recommends assessing the best possible outcomes coupled with some “knee-jerk” statistics, as opposed to an exhaustive analysis. “Often, it becomes clear that the best possible outcome is not worth the time and effort,” he says.
Be open to different perspectives
Recently, more decisions have been made on Zoom. Anytime we change media, it’s going to take a more proactive approach to make sure the decision-making process is productive, cautions Fisher. Standards might slip, as Zoom participants worry about their hair, now they can see themselves on camera, or board members juggle having a discussion with making sure others haven’t frozen or accidentally muted their mic.
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https://www.worldfirst.com/uk/insights/business-tips/how-to-avoid-groupthink/
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The Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962
The Cuban missile crisis was a major direct confrontation between the USA and USSR that occurred on October 1962 over the issues of the soviet which had supplied missile in installation in Cuba.
Sometimes this is referred as a Caribbean crisis or October crisis and the Cuban missiles crisis is regarded by many countries of the world as a closest approach to nuclear war.
The Cuban crisis began when the U.S.A discovered that Cuba had secretly installed soviet missiles which was able to carry nuclear weapons and these nuclear weapons to hit targets across most of the U.S.A hence the discovery led to spark off/ increase the enmity between U.S.A and USSR whereby U.S.A imposed a naval blockage of Cuba and demanded that the USSR must remove her missiles.
The genesis/origin of the Cuban missile crisis
i. In 1960 a tension began between Cuba and U.S.A; this led to the soviet President Nikita Khrushev began planning to supply secretly missiles in Cuba which could produce/deliver nuclear weapons, assuming that U.S.A would not take any action.
ii. By 1962 the missile crisis was spread in U.S.A because of reports that USSR was channeling weapons to Cuba and in September 1962 US president John F Kennedy warned the soviets that “the greatest issue would arise” due to press of dangerous weapons in Cuba.
iii. In October 14, 1962 the US planners flying over in Cuba investigated on the ballistic missiles and on October 16, 1962 the US intelligence officers presented President Kennedy with photograph showing nuclear missile bases under construction in Cuba. The photo suggested for the preparation of two which were the medium range ballistic missile which was able to travel about 1100 neutral miles. Intermediate range ballistic missiles which was able to reach targets at distance of about 2200Nm (4100 Km) this missiles placed most major US – cities such as Los Angles, Chicago and new York city within a range of nuclear attack.
iv. Kennedy saw the evidence of nuclear capable bombers; hence Kennedy faced a situation with potentially grave consequences. However he had no clear choice on the action to take against Russia though he knew that an attack on soviet is like to attack the global nuclear war that would result in loss of millions of life of the people.
v. U.S.A promised to defend the city of Berlin in Germany which was under the pressure following the threats from the communist. East Germany in which Khrushev had threatened to take over the west Berlin and told Kennedy that he was willing to bring the matter to the point of war e.g. president khrushev set a deadline of 13 days for the resolutions of the matter.
vi. Before the Cuban missile crisis began Kennedy and his advisors believed that US nuclear superiority would prevent any aggressive soviet moves; but when the photographs of missiles arrived Kennedy and his experts agreed that the weapons might have placed in Cuba to keep USA from going to war over West Berlin. However Kennedy continued in believing in his nuclear superiority for him “doing nothing about the missiles would only increase the danger in another war threatening crisis later in the year this time over Berlin”.
vii. The Cuban missile crisis lasted only 30 days but it had very important psychological and historical significances.
REASONS FOR THE USSR LAUNCHING OF NUCLEAR MISSILE IN CUBA
i. To stop USA attempt to over throw communist government of Cuba under Fidel Castro. USA attempted to overthrow Fidel catro in two movements.
a) The bag if pigs invasion – It was an unsuccessfully action by a CIA trained force of Cuban exilar to invade southern Cuba; it was an attempt to overthrow Fidel Castro in April 1962. But the movement proved failure after being defeated by Cuban trained soldiers.
b) Operation Mangoose (The Cuban Project)
-This project was also known as special group Augmented
– It was a program of central intelligent Agency (CIA) Convert operations develop during the early years of president of U.S.A John F. Kennedy. On November 30, 1961 the aggressive convert operation was launched against the communist government of Fidel Castrol.
– There fore even that movement failed again USSR launched the Nuclear Missile in Cuba so as to threaded US interference on Cuba internal affairs.
ii. It was also a reaction toward western European and US a moment process.
USSR was threatened by the military advancement of Western Europe and the USA. Far instance in 1958 United Kingdom deployed. Thor IRBM (International Range Ballistic Missiles) Also Jupiter IRBM in Italy an Turkey in 1961. Also USA built 100 missiles having capacity to strila Moscow with Nuclear war heads.
3. Military strategic reason to USSR. Cuba is very near to USA; therefore, nuclear missile in Cuba was a serious threat to the USA.
HOW THE CONFRONTATION ENDED
The confrontation ended on October 28, 1962 when President John F. Kennedy of USA and secret agreement with Khrushcher (Nikita) of USSR.
Publicity they agreed that societ Union would dismantle their offensive weapons in Cuba and return them to societ Union, subject to UN verification in exchange for a USA public declaration and agreement to never invade Cuba.
-Secretly the US agreed that it would dismantle all us built the and Jupiter IRBMS, developed in Europe and Turkey.
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https://dukarahisi.com/the-cuban-missile-crisis-in-october-1962/
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The Bay of PigsEarlier in 1959, Fidel Castro consolidated power in Cuba and the country became communist. The CIA received permission to train Cuban exiles in secret for an invasion of Cuba. Kennedy had just been elected president a few days before and approved the plan. The CIA and exiles hoped that this invasion would overthrow Castro.
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Cuban Missile CrisisThe invasion was launched on April 17, 1961. Due to some bad intel and lack of air support, the invasion forces were crushed. This made Kennedy looked really bad while Cuba received a huge moral boost. After the invasion, Soviet supplies to Cuba increased, including Nuclear Warheads.
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Soviet ArmsCuba was backed by the Soviet Union. Before the Bay of Pigs invasion, the USSR had been supplying Cuba with arms for a long time. Hovever, following the failed Bay of Pigs invasion, the flow of arms increased to Cuba. Among these arms were nuclear weapons.
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US Spies Spot WeaponsThe US was very cautious about Cuba following Bay of Pigs but kept surveillance up. Then, on Oct. 14, 1962, they found something. A US spyplane found something unusual and menacing. It found a Soviet missile base containing missiles ready to launch.
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Kennedy respondsUpon receiving this intel, Kennedy decided to act. He told the country that if Cuba decided to launch a missile attack, it would prompt an all-out war with Soviet Union. This made the whole world stop. Everyone feared a nuclear war.
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A Quarantine While the Earth Stands StillFearing the Soviet Union would give more nuclear arms to Cuba, Kennedy made a bold move. He quarantined the island of Cuba. Essentially he made a naval blockade. These ships provided a unbreachable wall, and if it were breached, a war would start.
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Soviets HaltSince Kennedy launched a blockade, the Soviets feared breaching it, not wanting to prompt a war. So they ordered a halt. All their ships laden with weapons suddenly stopped to avoid confrontation. Everyone was relieved.
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Missile RemovalKhruschev, leader of the USSR, finally announced on the 28 of October that he had a deal for Kennedy. Pledge not to invade Cuba (and withdraw missiles from Turkey) and we will withdraw our missiles. Kennedy readily accepted. The Cuban Missile Crisis was over.
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https://www.timetoast.com/timelines/bay-of-pigs-and-cuban-missile-crisis--8
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WASHINGTON — Hours earlier an American U-2 spy plane had been shot down while snapping photos of nuclear missiles secretly placed by the Soviet Union in Cuba, just 90 miles from US shores. Despite a US naval blockade, Soviet cargo ships carrying more military supplies were steaming toward the Caribbean island.
It was Oct. 27, 1962, “the most difficult and tense time’’ of the Cuban missile crisis, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy scribbled on a legal pad after huddling with his brother, President John F. Kennedy, and his closest advisers.
“This was the moment we had prepared for which we hoped would never come,’’ he continued. “We had to either intercept [the Soviet ships] or announce we were bluffing.’’
The sense of impending danger “hung like a cloud over us all. And no one more than the president.’’
The attorney general’s handwritten notes from these around-the-clock meetings 50 years ago this month are part of more than 2,700 pages of his personal and confidential files made public Thursday by the John F. Kennedy Library and Museum in Dorchester with the approval of his family.
Although they do not appear to contain any blockbuster revelations, the documents spotlight the central role — a highly unusual one — that the attorney general played in foreign policy, including helping the United States and Soviet Union step back from the brink of nuclear holocaust.
The files contain several early drafts of his memos to the president as he served as a go-between with Soviet diplomats. The efforts ultimately defused the crisis with a public US pledge not to invade Cuba if the Soviets removed their missiles, and with a private pledge to dismantle American missiles in Europe.
The seven boxes of newly released files are among the 62 covering Kennedy’s three-year tenure as attorney general that researchers have been angling to see for decades. The Kennedy family, which was granted unusual purview over the collection by the National Archives after Robert Kennedy’s assassination in 1968, pledged in a statement Wednesday to work with the government to declassify and release the remaining 55.
Many of the newly declassified files on Cuba, which cover 1961 to 1963, are marked “top secret’’ or “ultrasensitive’’ or “eyes only.’’ They provide insight into how Robert Kennedy presided over a maze of US-sponsored efforts to overthrow the regime of Cuban leader Fidel Castro, from the failed CIA-backed Bay of Pigs invasion to renewed efforts after the missile crisis.
His handwritten notes hint at how the Bay of Pigs fiasco staggered the young administration. One dated May 11, 1961, days after the failure, contains doodles of triangles, a reference to the CIA, and the line: “If we do not get back to a position where nations have some respect, and even fear [illegible], we shall never beat these bastards.’’
At one point in May 1963, after he met with a leader of the Bay of Pigs operation and other Cuban exiles, an aide warned him about the potential implications of his continued role. A CIA report had recounted that exiles were dropping his name while building support for plans to remove Castro.
“It seems to me the CIA report presents the question of whether your name should be circulated in general like this,’’ the aide wrote.
Historians called the newly available documents invaluable to understanding the full role of Robert Kennedy in Cuba policy and the wider Cold War.
“The anomaly of Robert Kennedy was that the attorney general of the United States was moonlighting as director of covert operations against Cuba,’’ said Peter Kornbluh of the National Security Archive, a research center at George Washington University, and an expert on Cuba and the Cold War.
Kornbluh said the initial covert efforts Kennedy oversaw to remove Castro — collectively called Operation Mongoose — were halted after the missile crisis but were revived in 1963. “The Cuban exiles are in some way reporting to Robert Kennedy,’’ he said.
For example, the documents show that months after the United States vowed publicly it would not try to remove Castro, RFK presided over a secret meeting on May 14, 1963, in the White House Situation Room to discuss potential opportunities to take stronger action in Cuba. One possibility involved exposing US spy planes to enemy fire in an attempt to provoke an incident for political purposes.
Kennedy biographer Larry Tye said “the documents show that long after the Bay of Pigs and missile crisis Bobby continued playing CIA chief, counterinsurgency boss, and chief provocateur.’’
But it is the documents relating to the tense 13 days of October 1962 — the closest the world came to a nuclear war — that generated most interest.
One is a draft copy of a letter written for President Kennedy’s signature on Oct. 18, four days before he went on television to reveal American knowledge of the missiles in Cuba.
In it, he gave Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev a short time to dismantle the missiles before the United States would launch air strikes on the missile sites. The letter, signifying a belief by some advisers that the crisis could be kept a secret, was never dispatched.
RFK’s personal musings on his notepad also provided insights into the stakes of the standoff.
When the meeting turned to civil defense — preparing the nation for a nuclear war — he jotted down the numbers of Americans the president and his advisers were told might be affected in different scenarios — “92 million’’ in one, “40 million’’ in another.
Some researchers were puzzled by the large number of documents that have portions blocked out for national security reasons.
“It is striking how 50 years after the missile crisis they still see some of this stuff as secret,’’ said historian Michael Dobbs.
Yet the government did not withhold a document timely today. In a lengthy report provided to Kennedy on May 13, 1963, the CIA predicted that in the event of Castro’s death his “cold and unattractive’’ younger brother Raul would take the reins. When Castro stepped aside for health reasons in 2008, his brother took over.
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https://www.boston.com/news/national-news/2012/10/12/in-rfks-cuba-papers-a-new-glimpse-of-power-and-pitfalls/
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The Cuban missile crisis, (October 1962), a major confrontation which brought the U.S. and Soviet Union closer to war, over the Soviet presence in Cuba of nuclear-capable missiles. During the Cuban Missile Crisis, leaders from the U.S. and the Soviet Union engaged in a tense, 13-day political and military confrontation in October 1962 over the placement of nuclear-armed Soviet missiles in Cuba, only 90 miles from U.S. soil. The Cuban missile crisis began in October 1962, when U.S. U-2 planes took reconnaissance photographs of Cuba, which showed the Soviet Union had recently placed nuclear-capable missiles there, and was preparing them to be launched against U.S. targets. Placing the nuclear missiles in Cuba was a way for the Soviet Union to demonstrate its support for Cuba, and support for the Cuban people, who saw the U.S. as a threatening force, since the United States had become their ally following the 1959 Cuban revolution.
In what became known as the Cuban missile crisis, President John F. Kennedy and a vigilant, excited American government, military, and public forced the Soviet Union to remove from Cuba not just intermediate- and medium-range ballistic missiles, but also all offensive weapons. Although the Soviets removed missiles that were already on the island of Cuba, they ramped up their building of military armory; the Cuban Missile Crisis was over, but the arms race was not. Thus, during the summer of 1962, the Soviet Union increased exports of vital military supplies to Cuba, thereby denying previously favored allies, like Gamal Abdel Nasser’s Egypt. John F. Kennedy decided to place a naval-quarantine, or blockade, on Cuba in order to stop further Soviet shipments of missiles.
John F. Kennedy announced the quarantine in October 1962 and warned that American forces would capture offensive weapons and related materials which Soviet ships may try to bring into Cuba. John F. Kennedys deliberations with advisers, and, on October 22, made a TV speech that revealed locations, demanded they be reversed, and announced the Naval Quarantine on Cuba, which would not allow any transfers related to missile-related training. In a televised address on October 22, 1962, President John F. Kennedy (1917-63) informed Americans about the existence of Soviet missiles armed with nuclear weapons, explained his decision to implement a naval blockade around Cuba, and made it clear the United States was prepared to use military force, if necessary, to eliminate this perceived national security threat. During the Cuban Missile Crisis, Americans and the Soviets exchanged letters and other communications, and on October 26, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev sent Kennedy a message offering to remove the Cuban missiles in return for the American leaders promise not to invade Cuba.
Cuban Prime Minister Fidel Castro was forced to cave, and to the great relief of Soviet First Secretary Nikita Khrushchev and the rest of the Soviet Union, Soviet missiles were packed up and returned to the Soviet Union by sea in December 1962. That day, Kennedy sent a letter to Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, declaring that the U.S. would not allow the delivery of offensive weapons to Cuba, and demanding that the Soviet Union dismantle the missile bases that were either under construction or completed, and return all offensive weapons to the U.S. The Cuban missile crisis continued unabated, and on the evening of October 24, Soviet press service TAS carried a cable from Soviet first secretary Nikita Khrushchev to President John F. Kennedy, in which Khrushchev warned that direct U.S. piracy would result in war. Following a failed American attempt to overthrow Castro’s regime in Cuba through an invasion at Bay of Pigs, and as the Kennedy administration was planning Operation Mongoose, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev reached a secret deal in July 1962 with Cuban Premier Fidel Castro, in order to plant Soviet nuclear missiles on Cuba in order to avert any future invasion attempts, in July 1962, with Cuban Premier Fidel Castro, that Soviet nuclear missiles to deter any future invasion attempts.
After a few tense days, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev agreed, to the satisfaction of John F. Kennedy, to the removal of the nuclear missiles in return for formal American recognition of the government of Fidel Castro in Cuba, an end to quarantine, and to remove American nuclear missiles from North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) member Turkey. For thirteen days, fears of impending nuclear war continued until agreement was reached to remove the weapons. Then-Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy met secretly with Soviet ambassador to the U.S., Anatoly Dobrynin, and indicated that the United States was planning on removing the American Jupiter missiles from Turkey regardless, and that the United States would soon do so, but this could not form part of any public resolution to the missile crisis.
By August 29, reports had surfaced about new military construction and the presence of Soviet technicians by American U-2 spy planes flying over Cuba, and by October 14, reports had surfaced about a ballistic missile at a firing range. Reconnaissance photographs showed what appeared to be Soviet nuclear-capable medium-range ballistic missiles (MRBMs), as well as Soviet military support personnel, stationed in the island country — only 90 miles south of the U.S.
From the Soviet point of view, nuclearizing Cuba would also provide an effective answer to American Jupiter missiles deployed in Turkey. An attempted break-in of a Soviet vessel bound for Cuba, which could lead to military clashes, would probably precipitate a military clash which might rapidly spiral into nuclear exchanges.This post was proofread with Grammarly.
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https://whatisandhowto.com/what-is-the-cuban-missile-crisis/
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JFK Documents Highlight Talks On Clandestine Anti-Cuba Ops
It was the late summer of 1962.
The previous year, the U.S. invasion of the Bay of Pigs, meant to topple the communist regime of Fidel Castro, had been an embarrassing failure.
The administration of President John F. Kennedy had turned instead to a Plan B to destabilize Cuba and hopefully take down Castro: Operation Mongoose.
A National Security Council memo released Thursday as part of the JFK assassination documents details a meeting to discuss possible clandestine operations aimed at sabotaging and destabilizing the Cuban regime.
Among those present at the meeting, which took place on Sept. 6, 1962 — just six weeks before the Cuban Missile Crisis – included National Security Advisor McGeorge "Mac" Bundy; Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy; Air Force Gen. Edward Lansdale, who led clandestine operations against Cuba; and Edward R. Murrow, the famous broadcast reporter who was serving at the time as the director of the U.S. Information Agency, and Deputy Director of Central Intelligence, Gen. Marshall Carter.
Here are some of the possible operations against Cuba. Some are only alluded to, others given a bit more detail. It is not known which, if any, were actually put into practice:
Copyright 2021 NPR. To see more, visit https://www.npr.org.
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https://www.kazu.org/2017-10-27/jfk-documents-highlight-talks-on-clandestine-anti-cuba-ops
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On Wednesday, President Trump announced new sanctions on Cuba. The new measures will block US citizens from staying at properties owned by the Cuban government and restrict US imports of Cuban cigars and liquor.
“Today, as part of our continuing fight against communist oppression, I am announcing that the Treasury Department will prohibit US travelers from staying at properties owned by the Cuban government,” Trump said at the White House. “We’re also further restricting the importation of alcohol and Cuban tobacco.”
The new sanctions are part of Trump’s plan to reverse the Obama administration’s steps to open up trade and normalize relations with Cuba. Since 2017, President Trump has slowly increased travel restrictions to Cuba for US citizens, rolling back historic Obama-era policies.
The announcement was made during an event recognizing veterans of the Bay of Pigs invasion, the failed CIA-orchestrated attempt to overthrow Fidel Castro, that took place in 1961. The new measures rolled out by Trump are likely an effort to secure the Cuban-American vote in Florida ahead of the November election.
The sanctions are also part of the administration’s campaign against Venezuela and Nicaragua, who, along with Cuba, were dubbed the “Troika of Tyranny” by former National Security Advisor John Bolton. While Bolton is long gone from the administration, the campaign against these left-wing governments is still alive. Trump administration officials often blame Cuba for Washington’s failure to oust Venezuelan President Nicolas Maduro.
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https://news.antiwar.com/2020/09/23/president-trump-announces-new-sanctions-on-cuba/
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As part of the so-called “millennial generation” we have experienced an unprecedented use of technology. Technology is omnipresent. Revolutionary technologies such as artificial intelligence, 3D printing, robotics, biotechnology, etc., are changing our lives in a rapidly accelerating pace. It is no longer possible to consider personal and professional lives without the Internet, smartphones, computers, and geolocation devices, among others.
Due to technology and globalization, today´s world configuration is by far more complex than it was in the past. The Fourth Industrial Revolution and the disruptive technological changes accompanied with socio-economic, geopolitical and demographic developments are changing the employment and talent landscape. Fortunately, these topics have been placed at the forefront of dialogues across the globe. In particular, the Diplomatic Courier examined “The Future of Jobs and Education” by 2050, during the 3rd annual Global Talent Summit in January of 2016. Speakers and panelists discussed the nexus between those topics, with highlights including:
- Why enhancing skills, knowledge, and competences cannot be neglected.
- The importance of getting a job that covers more than just basic needs.
- The education challenge.
Why enhancing skills, knowledge and competence cannot be neglected.
If there is a ‘constant’ thing, it is only ‘change.’ Thinking about future jobs and requirements of creating them compels ways of equipping youths with compatibility and skills needed to overcome challenges that are not there yet! However, one has to be cautious when talking about skills; for example, critical thinking skills is among the highly demanded skills in the labor market, but can we really define what critical thinking is? This is a question asked by Brandon Busteed, the Executive Director of Education and Workforce Development at Gallup. The question triggered a discussion about how the definitions of certain soft skills and their requirement can vary over time and place.
It is fundamental to focus on building skills early on from Kindergarten as expressed by Carol O’Donnell, Director of the Smithsonian Science Education Center affirms. O’Donnell, pointed out the importance of developing student’s ability to identity problems rather than handling them only. For example, Smithsonian is one of those schools which focuses on project-based learning and Hands-on experience. Through participating in student-centered classroom the students not only learn about critical thinking skills but also other important soft skills such as problem-solving skills, teamwork, and communication skills, etc.
The pressure of acknowledging skills, knowledge, and competence is unprecedented as the world become more globalized. Corporations value a diverse set of skills, awareness and exposure to different cultures, global experiences, and education. Edith Cecil, the Vice President of Institute of International Education, expressed concerns regarding the U.S. students’ inability to prepare themselves to the global market due to their lack of global experience. There is a prominence of global education and overseas experiences as global students’ mobility increase competitiveness.
Jobs that cover more than just basic needs
Global joblessness is 5.9% (ILO data). 40% of world’s unemployment is unemployed youth. By 2025, in just under 10 years, we will experience 25 million new job seekers in just one country, Nigeria (Andrew Mack, AMGlobal). The technological changes of the Fourth Industrial Revolution will change the job nature, ways of job searching and employment trends. “The Future of Jobs” report by the World Economic Forum 2016, highlighted job losses in industries and job families such as office and administrative, manufacturing and production and construction and extraction. At the same time, new jobs and skills will be created in business and financial operations, management, computer and mathematical, architecture and engineering and sales.
Job seekers’ needs are not limited to basic requirement anymore; as they look for jobs that provide purpose, prospects of development and meaning (Jim Clifton, CEO of Gallup). Clifton, embrace the idea of entrepreneurship as a solution of the change in job nature. However, such solution doesn’t capture the complexity of creating such jobs that would still provide equal opportunities to everyone. The challenge here is to encourage recruiters to see beyond the pre-designed molds of what constitute a “good typical employee.”
Andrew Mack, founder of AMGlobal, emphasizes the need for structural changes where youth drive, energy and creativity is truly appreciated otherwise the result would be employee disengagement. In the U.S. 68% of the employees are either not engaged or actively disengaged (Gallup, 2015). Furthermore, companies need to reconsider their inclusiveness and diversity approaches; according to the “Future of Jobs” report, technology and data analytics could be useful tools to advance workforce parity.
The education challenge
The current state of education system has been highlighted as a great challenge in many conferences and platforms locally and globally. A Gallup survey for WISE experts from over 140 countries shows that 75% of them expressed dissatisfaction with their countries’ education system, its inability to be innovative and inability to prepare students for the future job market. This reflects the prevalent education system’s inability to provide students with the knowledge and skills required to fit in the work market.
In this sense, education is not a domestic matter, as Carol O’Donnell, Director of the Smithsonian Science Education Center notes, “Education is a global effort.” Consequently, serious and continuous calls for reforming education to cope with the coming technological revolution were released in the Global Talent Summit 2016 and the World Economic Forum Annual Meeting 2016. “Companies cannot afford to not have a big global education strategy” (Edith Cecil, IIE), for that reason, public and private entities should be engaged to provide solutions in order to allow “people to understand how the world is changing” (Larry Quinlan, CIO, Deloitte).
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https://atlascorps.org/2050-jobs-future-challenges/
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The issue of unemployed graduates is not new and has been a persistent problem for years, however, it has become more alarming in recent times as the number of university graduates continues to increase but job opportunities remain limited.
According to a recent report by the Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, the unemployment rate among those with a university degree is currently at 6.5%, compared to the overall unemployment rate of 6%. This suggests that graduates are facing a disproportionately high level of unemployment compared to those without higher education.
The problem is particularly acute for those with degrees in certain fields, such as the arts and humanities. Graduates in these fields often find themselves unable to find jobs in their chosen field, and are forced to take on low-paying, unskilled work in order to make ends meet. This is a sad reality for many young people who have invested a significant amount of time and money in their education, only to find that their degrees are not providing them with the opportunities they were hoping for.
The root cause of this problem is a lack of job opportunities in Pakistan, particularly in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). The country has a rapidly expanding economy, but it is not creating enough jobs to keep pace with the number of graduates entering the workforce. This is partly due to the fact that many businesses in Pakistan are small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) that lack the resources to hire large numbers of employees. Additionally, the country has a growing population, which is putting pressure on the job market.
Another contributing factor is the mismatch between the skills that graduates possess and the skills that employers are looking for. Many graduates in Pakistan are not equipped with the practical skills and knowledge that are required for the jobs that are currently available in the market. This is partly due to the fact that the education system in Pakistan is not sufficiently geared towards equipping students with the skills that are needed for the job market. Many universities and colleges are still focused on traditional teaching methods that do not adequately prepare students for the real world.
The government has acknowledged the problem and has announced plans to create more job opportunities in the country. These plans include initiatives to promote entrepreneurship, encourage foreign investment, and increase access to credit for small and medium-sized businesses. Additionally, the government is investing in technical and vocational education and training (TVET) to improve the skills of young people and make them more employable.
However, many experts believe that these efforts will not be enough to address the scale of the problem. A lot more needs to be done to create more job opportunities for graduates, especially in the fields of STEM. The government should be investing more in research and development, as well as in infrastructure and education, in order to create an environment that is conducive to innovation and economic growth.
The private sector also has a role to play in addressing the unemployment crisis among graduates in Pakistan. Businesses should be investing more in human capital and providing training and development opportunities for their employees. Additionally, they should be working more closely with universities and colleges to ensure that graduates are equipped with the skills that are needed for the job market.
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https://www.thefridaytimes.com/2023/01/22/the-crisis-of-unemployed-graduates/
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SEGi University has decided to invest in knowledge and expertise as its strategy for success as per our five-year strategic R&D plan from 2016 – 2020. We are in the midst of integrating Education, research and innovation (ERI) to produce the best minds for the world. The university recognizes the need to equip the students with practical and industrial knowledge for employment purposes but our mission does not end there. SEGi University is preparing the students for their long-term career growth in a global environment and hence combining business, social, technology and innovation skills to ensure their survival in a competitive environment. The development programme focuses on the recommendations and policies that will be most important for the Malaysia National Development Plan.
SEGi University recognizes that this can only be achieved with an innovative and research based workforce which supports quality, impact and specific outcomes in critical fields and niche areas. The university is prepared to develop innovative education in all sectors and to enhance the research skills of students within the national innovation system. The strategy also aims to train lecturers and supervisors along with the provision of well-equipped resources to encourage and nurture innovation and innovative thinking in a transformational journey that would empower the standards of SEGian’s educators and students across the nation.
A major benefit expected from this integration is equipping students and academics with strong research and innovation skills that enable them in the medium and long term, to make real contributions to education, industry, and commerce in particular, and the job market in general. A further result of this will be for us to position Malaysia in the world map for R&D contributions.
To be the premier R&D hub offering quality and innovative research based on international standards with accessible terms, delivered through the most innovative technologies and research-centric learning techniques.
The university recognizes that the quality and vibrancy of its research and innovation growth is dependent upon the enthuasiasm, engagement and ambition of its staff.
Excellence in knowledge-gain and research is fundamental to a world-class student experience and the university will create the necessary academic integration and environment to achieve it.
The university will drive research to create new knowledge areas at SEGi University and to have a significant cultural, social, environmental and economic impact.
Most of the challenges being faced by the society today requires multidisciplinary solutions. Exchanges between disciplines and external stakeholders are critical for advancing research and innovation in new areas. The universiity will work towards building research centres focusing on niche areas.
There are real prospects to generate revenue across the whole spectrum of research and innovation activity by ensuring the research has a return on investment.
Within the context of its new five-year mission, the University has developed and adopted six strategic goals:
Attract, Recruit and Retaining Research Talent.
Boosting multidisciplinary research through
Increase and Diversify R&D funding resources.
Establishing “Research Partnership Network” (RPN) for expert grooming and global positioning strategy.
Strengthening support and assistance for researchers through strong engagement, monitoring and evaluation strategy.
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https://segiuniversity.edu.my/vision-mission-strategic-goals/
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1. Purpose, educational objectives
The idea behind “History of Philosophy and Contemporary Philosophy” program is to prepare professional and competent specialists or researchers with a broad profile in the history of philosophy and its current state, to prepare teachers for social sciences and humanities in secondary and higher education, to help translators and editors of philosophical and humanitarian literature.
Our general objectives are: to cultivate knowledge, skills, habits and attitudes relevant to today’s rapidly evolving national, European and global socio-historical processes and to understand philosophical theories that attempt to comprehend these processes. The program aims to prepare graduate with an in-depth look at the history of philosophy and contemporary philosophy, professionals with extensive erudition, methodological skills, analytical ability and critical thinking. Students will gain widespread basic knowledge and additional specialized knowledge in the field of philosophy, its complexity, communicative potential, different traditions and values. By developing the ability to self-improve they enrich their knowledge and skills. This type of training is aimed at the formation of knowledge on the evolution of the philosophical and social thought, various intellectual systems, forms of critical and creative thinking, and forms of cultural self-reflection.
2. Learning (knowledge and skills necessary for successful professional activity, general theoretical preparation, special preparation, etc.).
The body of the necessary knowledge and skills related to the general objectives is structured to introduce students from a wide range of disciplines with the main trends, schools and styles of philosophizing, and their genesis, reception, interpretation and influence. We aim to reconstruct the specificity of solving philosophical problems not only through its own philosophical development and philosophical life, but through the context of social changes imposing their imprint on the links and interactions between philosophy and other areas of culture – politics, economics, religion, art, science, everyday life and more. Preparation of the program is through the study of mandatory and elective courses in two modules covering the main areas of historical and philosophical tradition. The educational process ends with a Master’s thesis.
3. Professional competence
The knowledge and skills created in the master program prepare competent professionals with a broad profile: specialists and researchers in philosophy, teachers for social sciences and humanities in secondary and higher education, translators and editors of philosophical and humanitarian literature.
4. Career and professional realisation
Graduate students can work as specialists in secondary education, teachers, school headmasters, collaborators in the scientific organizations and non-governmental experts in educational organizations as well as experts in the system of government administration.
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http://ma.su-phls.info/en/?page_id=25
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The Master of Business Administration is a business-oriented, academic degree programme that offers students a solid academic background of and insights into economics and management. Students acquire skills and develop attitudes to analyse and solve complex, business-related problems on national or international level by means of scientifically sound methods. They will be able to contribute to various multidisciplinary research projects in a creative and independent way. Graduates will be prepared to grow in a professional environment and ultimately end up in an executive position in enterprises, governmental and other organisations. A graduate, who aims to become an entrepreneur, will be well-prepared to find a job on the labour market. However, a MA of Business Administration might also start a career as a researcher because of his/her advanced knowledge of business economics. HUBrussel offers the student the possibility to put acquired knowledge and insights into practice, being the business and research environment. In this way, the programme differs from similar theoretical programmes that mainly train analytic thinkers. A HUBrussel student broadens its academic knowledge and acquires skills necessary to function adequately in complex situations and to anticipate changes in the evolving business and research world. The relevance of economic course contents is adjusted to the current business environment. A personalised learning path is developed and students are offered multidisciplinary, real-life, business-projects with input from prominent managers. As such, the programme has a strong business-oriented dimension. Both the European and international context are taken into account, also due to HUBrussel's unique location. Students choose one graduation subject on the basis of their interests and abilities. The following graduation subjects are on offer: General Management, Accountancy, Taxation, Finance & Risk Management, ICT Management, International Relations, HRM and Marketing. As a result, HUBrussel students are of great value on the labour market. They acquired a variety of skills that enables them to function in different professional situations. The programme at HUBrussel differs from similar programmes in other schools since it offers a unique combination of HUBrussel competences, i.e. applicability, life long learning, ability to reflect and learn independently, international orientation, respect for the person as a whole and the ability to cooperate in a constructive and sustainable way.
The competence profile consists of three competence clusters: - HUBrussel-competences - general competences - domain-related competences. Each cluster is then divided up into competence domains. Each degree programme offered at HUBrussel strongly focuses on the HUBrussel-competences. Therefore, the six competence domains of the HUBrussel-competence cluster are identical for all degree programmes. However, each degree programme might determine autonomously how it wants to translate HUBrussel-competences into domain-related competences. General competences especially focus on behavioural skills. No distinction is made between skills and attitudes (being allowed to do something, wanting to do something, and being able to do something). Acting and thinking in a scientific way is also classified under general competences. Examples of competence domains in the general competence cluster are: thinking and acting scientifically, problem-solving behaviour, managerial skills, entrepreneurship, creativity and initiative, quality awareness, customer-oriented behaviour, analytical thinking, and formation of judgment. Domain-related competences are knowledge-related and of a more "technical" nature. They are "related" to the "domain" of the degree programme. The domain may be related to a well-determined vocational field as well as to a certain scientific-disciplinary delimitation. E.g. in the former case "competence domains" may be defined as "a role played" or "a function fulfilled" by a professional. In the latter case one may prefer a more traditional classification into fields of knowledge (e.g. legal aspects of company management, functioning of people and organisations, basic concepts from international business).
This is an initial Master's programme and can be followed on a full-time or part-time basis.
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https://millian.nl/ku-leuven/master-of-business-administration
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Bachelor of Science in Accounting and Finance (BSAF) is designed to enable students to cope successfully with the challenges of a rapidly evolving global business and financial environment. The degree provides a strong foundation for a successful career in accounting and finance and prepares students for higher studies. Teaching methodologies include lectures, interactive class discussions, case studies, article presentations, projects, reports, industrial trips, seminars, workshops and guest speakers.
Learning Outcomes
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Explain core concepts in business and related disciplines
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Demonstrate interpersonal and intrapersonal skills in groups and teams
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Analyze business and related problems and formulate optimal solutions
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Communicate through oral and written means by using appropriate technology
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Identify and implement business opportunities and ideas
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Exhibit work ethics and promote sustainable development goals
Job Market
The BS (Accounting & Finance) is a highly specialized degree, preparing the graduate as having expertise in Accountancy and Finance. Roles related to an Accounting & Finance degree include:
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Accounting technician
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Chartered accountant
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Investment banker
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Stockbroker
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Tax adviser
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Actuary
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Data analyst
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Retail banker
Entry Criteria
2nd Division (45%) in HSSC or Equivalent.
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https://www.iqrauni.edu.pk/bs-accounting-and-finance
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•Around 250 million students (between the age of 6 and 17) in 1.5 million schools and over 10 million teachers will benefit from this USD 500 million programme.
•It will strengthen public school education and support the country’s goal of providing ‘Education for All’, for which the Bank had provided total assistance of more than USD 3 billion prior to this plan as well.
•STARS will assist India in participation in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA)
Extra Learning
•Addressing demands from stakeholders, especially parents, for greater accountability and inclusion by producing better data to assess the quality of learning.
•Giving special attention to students from vulnerable sections, with over 52% (as a weighted average) of children in the government-run schools in the six project states belonging to vulnerable sections, such as Scheduled Caste (SC), Scheduled Tribe (ST) and minority communities.
Delivering a curriculum that keeps pace with the rapidly evolving needs of the job market.
•Equipping teachers to manage this transformation by recognizing that teachers are central to achieving better learning outcomes.
•Investing more in developing India’s human capital needs by strengthening foundational learning for children in classes 1 to 3 and preparing them with the cognitive, socio-behavioural and language skills to meet future labour market needs.
•It is in line with the Sustainable Development Goal for education (SDG 4) and will help produce better data on learning levels by improving the National Achievement Survey (NAS).
•India has successfully achieved gender parity in enrolment in primary education but that is not the case in secondary education.
•Under STARS, each state is expected to not only stabilize this downward trend but also improve the completion rate for secondary education.
•India has significantly improved access to education across the country.
•Between 2004-05 and 2018-19, the number of children going to school increased from 219 million to 248 million.
•However, the learning outcomes of students across all age groups continue to remain below par.
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https://revisefast.com/strengthening-teaching-learning-and-results-for-states-stars-programme-world-bank/
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NP-501 Foundations Nonprofit (Variable; Yearly; 3.00 Credits) In this course students will develop an informed understanding of the nature of the nonprofit sector, and the criteria that shape and define nonprofit organizations. Students will explore the factors that have shaped the expansion of nonprofit work and current trends influencing the structure of nonprofit organizations and the roles they play in governance and social change efforts as part of civil society.
NP-502 21st Century Leadership (Variable; Yearly; 3.00 Credits) This course examines the challenges of providing leadership in the information age of global and cultural contexts. Leadership as manifested in today's workplace provides both opportunity, and a great responsibility. The role and function of leaders looks very different today than years ago. Change is the norm. Leaders must understand today's challenges and be able to function effectively given a borderless, multicultural, virtual, and diverse group of partners, stakeholders and constituents.
NP-503 Leading and Managing NP (Variable; Yearly; 3.00 Credits) The past decade has seen an explosion of nonprofit and nongovernmental organizations, and an accompanying expansion of academic research and training about, and for, the field. This course utilizes this information to explore what it means to lead and manage nonprofit organizations. In particular this course will explore leadership roles within a nonprofit organization, the management tasks necessary to develop and run a healthy and successful organization, and examine what leadership looks like outside the organization when working with constituents, stakeholders, partners and the " opposition. " Students will learn theories to enhance their capacities to provide effective leadership for nonprofit organizations and explore the leadership skills needed to build partnerships across sectors, respond to emerging trends and challenges, to partner with diverse groups, and to leverage power in order to bring about desired changes.
NP-504 NP Fiscal Management (Variable; Yearly; 3.00 Credits) This is a core course in the Non-Profit Leadership Master's program. The course introduces students to the basics of financial management as applied to non-profit organizations. Students will be invited to learn about the fundamentals of budgeting and accounting for public, health, and not-for-profit organizations. Through readings, webcasts, online chat, assigned problems, case studies, and problem sets, students will gain an understanding of how to use financial information in organizational planning, implementation, control, reporting, and analysis.
NP-508 Research Methods (Fall & Spring; Even Years; 3.00 Credits) Social Science Research Methods is an intensive, graduate-level research methods course with the overarching purpose of preparing students from a variety of POEs to be able to design, implement, and report original social science research in their respective fields of interests.
NP-510 Organizational Communication and Culture (Variable; Yearly; 3.00 Credits) This course blends the exploration of a critical, theoretical understanding of organizational culture with the theories and skills of leadership and change, equipping students with the knowledge and ability to develop a healthy, successful nonprofit organization. As part of this course, students will explore how values shape and define organizational culture, along with management structure, geographic scope, size, client groups and governance structures. Students will develop the theories and skills needed to lead organizational change processes.
NP-520 Fundraising for the NP (Variable; Yearly; 3.00 Credits) This course builds the student's understanding of the sources of income for nonprofit organizations, with a specific focus on the fundamentals of effective resource development and fundraising. Students will explore principles and theories of " best practices " of fundraising, the fundraising process (research, planning, cultivation, solicitation, stewardship, and evolution), and emerging trends in the field (crowd sourcing, public/private partnerships, social investment, and social entrepreneurship). The course also provides students with a clear understanding of the historical, organizational, legal and ethical contexts that define how leaders and managers raise funds to support the organizations mission and vision.
NP-522 Marketing in Info Age (Variable; Yearly; 3.00 Credits) This course examines traditional marketing and how it has adjusted as a result of the challenges and opportunities of marketing in the Information Age. Information technology as manifested in the Internet and other enabling technologies creates a valuable marketing opportunity, and a great peril. As customers and competitors learn the power of real-time information, companies must learn to compete in a world where location and other long-held advantages may be less important.
NP-530 Conflict and Change (Variable; Yearly; 3.00 Credits) This course provides the student with an introduction to the study and conflict and its resolution. We will explore the basic theoretical concepts of the field and apply this knowledge as we learn and practice skills for analyzing and resolving conflicts. The first section of the course examines the causes of conflict and explores methodologies for understanding, analyzing, and responding to them. The second section of the course focuses on skills for waging conflicts productively, and for resolving and transforming them. Throughout the course we will examine conflicts occurring within different contexts that stem from a variety of needs and interests.
NP-540 Social Entrepreneurship (Variable; Yearly; 3.00 Credits) The goal of the class is to expose students to the field of social entrepreneurship, with a particular emphasis on understanding how social entrepreneurs effect positive social change. The course aims to provide you with a comprehensive overview of the emerging field of social entrepreneurship, understand what makes it distinctive from traditional entrepreneurship, and identify and understand the framework needed to start and grow a sustainable social venture. The course will explore the assessment of the variations of social entrepreneurship, from the creation of an organization aimed at creating positive social change, to social responsibility initiatives within the concept of corporate social entrepreneurship.
NP-590 Internship (Variable; Variable; 2.00-9.00 Credits) See catalog
NP-594 Internship Seminar (Variable; Variable; 2.00-6.00 Credits) See catalog
NP-595 Capstone (Variable; Yearly; 3.00-6.00 Credits) The Nonprofit MA capstone is designed to provide students with the opportunity to synthesize the materials they have worked with over the course of the program. The capstone provides students with a critical learning opportunity either in the form of public service project where students work with a client organization on a specific challenge or task, or conduct original research. The capstone project provides students with the opportunity to pursue a specific body of knowledge within a particular context, thus honing their expertise in a specific knowledge area, while also developing research skills, gathering and analyzing data, and in the case of a project, the opportunity to apply their knowledge and skills to a real-time need. Students are encouraged to work in teams to complete the capstone project.
NP-599 Special Topics (Variable; Variable; 1.00-6.00 Credits) Allows departments to offer subjects not normally taught.
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https://www.juniata.edu/catalog/courses/npl.php
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Welcome to the Humanities and Social Science Department at Oglala Lakota College. We offer an AA in Graphic Arts and a BA in Leadership and Communication.
Humanities Faculty,
Kim Bettelyoun, Department Chair, M.A.
Marty Two Bulls, Jr., B.F.A.
Holly Boomer, Ph.D.
Jessica Charest, M.F.A.
Judith Graham, M.S.
Nikki Pipe On Head, M.A.
Carol Quaas, M.A., CRCC
Whitnee Pearce, M.F.A.
John Higgins, Ph.D.
Social Sciences Faculty
Anna West, M.A., CRCC
Margaret Ross, M.A.
Josh Bond, M.A.
Richie Meyers, Ph.D.
HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCE DEPARTMENT: VISION, MISSION, PHILOSOPHY, GOALS, AND OUTCOMES
DEPARTMENT VISION STATEMENT
To produce graduates who will become leaders in their chosen field and help rebuild the Lakota nation through education.
DEPARTMENT MISSION
The mission of the Humanities and Social Science Department is to provide programs ensuring students have the opportunity to learn key workplace skills while integrating cultural aspects of Wolakolkiciyapi. Our programs equip students with:
- verbal, written, and visual communication skills,
- the background necessary for competent and ethical government administration,
- the ability to think critically, and
- a general knowledge in humanities and social science content areas.
DEPARTMENT PHILOSOPHY
The Humanities and Social Science Department offers a career-focused liberal arts education with courses in graphic design, communications, government administration, and social science. The breadth of offerings reflects the commitment of the faculty to challenge students to develop an interdisciplinary comprehension of and the ability to excel in a complex, diverse, and rapidly changing world. The Humanities and Social Science Department’s degrees encourage students to develop an informed view of the world and the ability to critically analyze their view while actively participating responsibly in society. An Oglala Lakota perspective is facilitated in all curricula and programs.
HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCE DEPARTMENT GOALS
The Humanities and Social Science Department has adopted the following goals:
- Provide and monitor quality post-secondary academic teaching and learning emphasizing an Oglala Lakota cultural perspective as it relates to global diversity.
- Offer students learning opportunities to acquire knowledge and skills for personal and professional development.
- Prepare graduates for career and life success and for leadership roles in their families, tribe, and the global community.
DEPARTMENT STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES
Humanities and Social Science graduates will be able to:
- analyze and apply professional ethics in a leadership context
- identify, define, and solve problems
- locate and evaluate information using current technology
- communicate with accuracy and clarity
- comprehend, retain, and apply information
- demonstrate skills for leadership and participation in Oglala Lakota culture and policy within the larger context of a diverse tribal and global society (Wolakolkiciyapi)
AA IN GRAPHIC ARTS
GRAPHIC ARTS PROGRAM GOALS
Program graduates will:
- Compete successfully in all aspects of the print industry as graphic designers.
- Have the skills needed to promote and market their art works, including Internet marketing that would allow them to work anywhere that there is an Internet connection.
- Be prepared for entry into more specific art programs, such as fine arts, animation, illustration, or 3-D rendering.
GRAPHIC ARTS PROGRAM STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES
Program graduates will be able to:
- Communicate using graphic design techniques to compete on a professional level.
- Qualify to work in all electronic media.
- Professionally market their artworks on an international level using social media and the Internet.
- Produce an electronic portfolio website for future employment.
- Create graphics for industrial printing applications.
BA IN LEADERSHIP AND COMMUNICATIONS
LEADERSHIP AND COMMUNICATIONS PROGRAM GOALS
Program graduates will:
- practice culturally competent leadership in decision making, organizational development, and human and natural resource management
- lead non-profit organizations
- lead tribal or other governmental programs>
- gain admission to graduate school or law school
LEADERSHIP AND COMMUNICATIONS PROGRAM
STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES
COMMUNICATIONS EMPHASIS
Program graduates will be able to:
- Use the interpersonal, engagement, and organizational skills necessary to be effective leaders in harmony with Wolakota
- Interpret the historical, intercultural, and international contexts of diverse human experience, with a focus on impacts on tribal governance
- Complete oral and written communication projects
- Incorporate critical thinking into written and oral communication activities.
- Communicate within the context of changing technology and digital markets.
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http://wiki.olc.edu/departments/humanities_soc.htm
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At Tuxford Academy we recognise and value the role ICT and business can play in enhancing the teaching and learning across all subjects. Cross-curricular links allow the students to see the wider applications of the skills and concepts learned.
Regardless of ability, ICT is an accessible subject that affords individuals greater access to education and the jobs market in the future. We encourage students to showcase their creative talents as they build up skills in software as it would be used in real world environments. For example, students develop websites, use sequencing programmes to create animations and games, and utilise media applications to make movies.
Business studies is a dynamic subject which allows students to gain an understanding of organisations and the environments in which they operate. It also gives students the opportunity to develop their enterprise skills. Since most of our students will eventually either run their own businesses or work in other businesses, this subject has relevance for all individuals. Budgeting and personal finances are essential skills, benefiting everyone.
Our course offer is reviewed regularly to ensure we continue to meet the curriculum needs of students.
GCSE Business is a qualification that is engaging and inspiring, and which reflects the demands of a truly modern and evolving business environment. It is a qualification that enables you to develop as commercially minded and enterprising individual and helps you to succeed in your chosen pathway. The engaging themes will spark your imagination and inspire commercial thinking as you develop your business knowledge.
The NCFE Level 2 Certificate in Business and Enterprise is a Level 2 vocational pathway that covers the key knowledge and skills needed in an ever changing business world. It is a qualification that enables you to develop as commercially minded and enterprising individual and helps you to succeed in your chosen pathway. The engaging units will spark your imagination and inspire commercial thinking as you develop your business and enterprise knowledge.
The course gives students the practical skills and applied knowledge they will need in business. Practical elements build on theoretical knowledge so that students can put their learning into practice while also developing valuable transferable skills.
Students must complete the four mandatory units.
This unit aims to give students an introduction to business and enterprise. It gives learners an introduction to start up projects and helps them to identify risks and rewards.
This unit aims to give students an insight into market research, and different marketing opportunities and techniques.
This unit aims to provide students with a basic knowledge and understanding of business finance for a new business or enterprise.
This unit aims to develop a project plan and implement the project. The students will then go on to evaluate the overall success of the project.
Introduction to business and enterprise – internally assessed portfolio of evidence.
Marketing for business and enterprise – externally assessed assignment.
Finance for business and enterprise – internally assessed portfolio of evidence.
Plan, develop and participate in a business or enterprise project – internally assessed portfolio of evidence.
To achieve the Level 2 Certificate, students must successfully demonstrate their achievement of all learning outcomes and assessment criteria of the units as detailed in the qualification specification.
As well as the external assessment, each unit of the qualification is graded using a structure of Not Yet Achieved, Pass, Merit and Distinction. Due to the synoptic nature of this qualification, the knowledge, understanding and skills developed are equally important throughout each unit, and therefore all units are weighted equally.
During the course, students develop their understanding of current and emerging technologies. They will use this knowledge to become independent and discerning users of IT, able to make informed decisions about the use of and implications of different technologies. They will acquire and apply their understanding of the use of algorithms in computer programs to solve problems using programming. Students will acquire and apply creative and technical skills, knowledge and understanding of IT in a range of contexts.
The Cambridge National Certificate in Creative iMedia will equip you with a range of creative media skills and provide opportunities to develop, in context, desirable, transferable skills such as research, planning, and review, working with others and communicating creative concepts effectively. Through the use of these skills, you will ultimately be creating fit-for-purpose creative media products.
The examined unit looks at the planning of media products. Planning is an essential part of working in the creative and digital media sector. The unit enables students to acquire the underpinning knowledge and skills needed to create digital media products and gain an understanding of their application.
The following units use and build upon this knowledge through the study and creation of a number of different digital media products, starting with the basics of digital graphic creation. This leads on to the creation of more complex media products (currently animation and interactive multimedia products) which utilise a wide range of different software skills.
IT offers essential skills for life beyond school. To quote the Marketing Director of one of the largest UK insurance companies, “as an employer we look for a good mix of IT, maths and English… communication, project management, data handling and analysis skills, vital for digital growth”.
The government talks about a ‘huge digital skills gap’. People with a knowledge of cyber security, big data, project management and emerging technologies are in demand. IT careers are fast-moving with plenty of chances of promotion, and demand for IT professionals is surging.
In this digital age, the ability to use IT is paramount. In every walk of life, the way we work, learn and socialise has been affected by the digital revolution. Whichever path you decide to follow when you leave school, you will need IT skills for your future education and employment.
Information technology is an ever-changing, fast paced practical subject – equipping you with the skills to take on new and unknown problems, and design answers to new challenges, due to the speed at which the industry is evolving.
BTEC Digital Information Technology allows you explore user interface design and development principles, investigate how to use project planning techniques to manage a digital project and discover how to develop and review a digital user interface.
You will also explore how data impacts on individuals and organisations, how to draw conclusions and make recommendations on based on data intelligence. You will develop effective, user friendly dashboards using data manipulation tools, explore how modern information technology is evolving, consider legal and ethical issues in data and information sharing and understand what cyber security is and how to safeguard against threats.
The OCR Cambridge National in Marketing and Enterprise is a Level 2 vocational pathway that covers the key knowledge and skills needed in an ever changing business world. It is a qualification that enables you to develop as commercially minded and enterprising individual and helps you to succeed in your chosen pathway. The engaging units will spark your imagination and inspire commercial thinking as you develop your marketing and enterprise knowledge.
This course gives students the practical skills and applied knowledge they will need in business. Practical elements build on theoretical knowledge so that students can put their learning into practice while also developing valuable transferable skills.
Students must complete three mandatory units.
By completing this unit, students will understand the main activities that will need to happen to support a start-up business and what the key factors are to consider when starting up a business.
Students will understand how and why customer segmentation is used and how to target a customer market. They will also develop an understanding of how to attract and retain customers, the techniques to use when developing products and how to investigate what makes a product viable.
This unit will provide students with the skills and knowledge to design a product proposal to meet a business challenge scenario. Students will be able to identify a customer profile for their own product design, develop market research tools and use these to complete market research for their product.
Students will use their research outcomes to generate product design ideas, assess their strengths and weaknesses and work collaboratively with peers to gain feedback to inform final design decisions. Students will complete financial calculations to select a pricing strategy and determine whether their proposal is viable.
On completion of this unit, students will have gained some of the essential skills and knowledge required when considering starting a business, but also the transferable skills of self-assessment, providing and receiving feedback, research and evaluation. The skills and knowledge developed by completing this unit will also be transferable to further learning in related areas and will be required by students when completing the next unit.
This unit will provide students with the skills and knowledge to create a brand identity and promotional plan for their product proposal, developed in the previous unit. They will be able to pitch their product proposal to an external audience after completing a practice pitch, and complete a review of both their pitching skills and product proposal, using their learning from this qualification, self-assessment and feedback generated.
By completing this unit, students will know how to use a combination of branding and promotional methods that complement each other and appeal to a specific customer profile. They will gain the crucial skills of professionally pitching to an unknown audience. This will help to prepare them both for employment situations such as interviews and for starting up a business in the future, while also developing the transferable skill of presenting information to others in a clear and persuasive way.
Enterprise and marketing concepts – external exam that lasts 1.5 hours.
Design a business proposal – internally assessed through an assignment that will be sent to OCR for moderation.
Market and pitch a business proposal – internally assessed through an assignment that will be sent to OCR for moderation.
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https://www.tuxford-ac.org.uk/curriculum/faculties/business-computing-and-ict/
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The following article describes an approach to maximizing the impact of experiential learning by first developing transferable skills in the context of in-class activities.
The specified process, captured within a technology called peerScholar, provides structured practice with these skills first in the context of peer assessment, and then in the context of the formative use of feedback. A specific approach for using this process in combination with experiential learning is proposed.
Important points to consider include:
- In the modern world, transferable skills are critical to student success in both their careers and their lives more generally.
- Experiential learning is currently a “hot” approach for allowing students to develop these skills in authentic settings.
- The success of experiential learning, however, depends on the extent to which students are ready for the challenge.
- Educational institutions should therefore place a strong emphasis on preparing students before they work with external agencies, which means we need to take a more formal approach to the development of skills.
- An evidence-based process now exists for the formal development of skills, a process that gives students practice thinking critically and creatively, while communicating critically with peers.
- The exercise first occurs in the context of peer-assessment, and then occurs again in the context of formative revision informed by peer feedback.
- This process can be managed by existing technologies, requires little in the way of additional time and resources from faculty, can scale to any course at any level, and is valued by both faculty and students.
- The formal proposal then is that the described process be employed early in the education process, and that it continue to be employed throughout. Meanwhile experiential learning can be phased in, with more intense experiential opportunities being presented once students have developed their skills further.
The Changing Job Market
Our graduates will enter a continually evolving job market, which includes jobs that didn’t even exist as little as a few years ago. Most graduates will move from job to job, as many as five to seven times, before settling into a career. Therefore, those of us who see education as a form of empowerment must do a better job developing so-called transferable skills in our educational systems—skills such as critical thought, creative thought, effective communication, and enhanced metacognitive awareness. These skills allow one to succeed across a range of life and work contexts, and if we could better develop them in our students they would be more flexibly able to succeed.
Experiential Learning
One approach to preparing our students is through experiential learning. Generally speaking, experiential learning involves the student working with external agents on real world problems. The authenticity of these contexts enhances learning, and generally students are required to use skills like those highlighted in the previous section. Thus, they are gaining practice with problem solving and communication in a real-world context.
However, the success of experiential learning depends on how well students can apply their knowledge to real world problems. The term “problem solving” can be broken down in terms of two specific skills:
- Critical thought allows one to see flaws or inefficiencies.
- Creative thought allows one to find alternative approaches.
Of course, to share one’s ideas and to base them on the proper information in the first place, students also need good receptive and expressive communication skills. If the student brings all of these skills to an external agency, then all works well.
But what if the student does not possess these skills, or possesses them, but at a level of proficiency that is still low? When this happens, experiential learning can go wrong. Working with our students can become a waste of time for external entities, and the students themselves may feel overwhelmed and underprepared. If we wish to optimize the positive impact of experiential learning it would do us well to develop these critical transferable skills in our classrooms before we send students to work with external agencies.
Skill Development
This is a big ask! Universities have traditionally transferred knowledge to students rather than develop skills, and the process of skill development differs markedly from the process of knowledge acquisition. While knowledge can be transferred via a single great lecture, reading, or resource, developing skills is very different.
Skills always start out weak, and then are slowly strengthened via repeated practice using the skill, preferably in a structured manner within a context that provides rich feedback. Our educators already have a lot on their plates, and our curricula are generally well defined. How, within the constraints of our educational institutions, can we provide this kind of repeated structured practice with critical thought, creative thought, and effective communication that our students need?
Given how important skill development is to the future success of our students, my Advanced Learning Technologies Lab at the University of Toronto Scarborough has made this issue the primary focus of our work. Over the last decade we have devised a process that provides a formal structured approach to skill development, we have embodied that process with an educational technology called peerScholar. We have conducted research directly with and on this technology to verify its efficacy, and to optimize its impact.
Structured Peer Assessment
The process begins with structured peer-assessment. Students first create some composition in accord with instructions and then are required to formally assess the work submitted by a subset (typically four to six) of their peers. The instructor can guide the assessment steps as they wish. For present purposes imagine that part of what students are asked is to do when assessing each peer is the following:
“Think of all the ways this composition could be improved, then zero in on the one thing that, if improved, would lead to the largest overall improvement of the work. Clearly express to your peer what that one thing is, and then give them an idea of how to go about improving it.”
In order to conform with this instruction, students must first think critically to find the primary weakness of the work, then must think creatively about how it can be fixed, and then must expressively communicate these thoughts effectively to the peer. Then they move on to the next peer and do it again, then again, then again, etc. That is, they are gaining repeated structured practice thinking critically and creatively, as they learn to express critical feedback effectively.
As they go through this process they are seeing how their work compares to that of their peers. They get a very strong sense of the relative quality of their work, and when they see peers who are doing better than they did, they are seeing and analyzing an exemplar that they can use to improve. Thus, in addition to the structured practice students are also enhancing their metacognitive awareness, their understanding of their own strengths and weaknesses.
The process then continues by providing further practice with these transferable skills, this time in the context of formative revision. While a given student was assessing a subset of peers, a similar subset was assessing that student’s composition. In the third phase of the process students see the feedback that other students gave to their work and, again, are asked to formally assess it. Once again the instructor has control over the specifics of the assessment, but imagine as part of their assessment students were asked the following question:
“This peer has given you feedback on how your work could be improved. If you revised your work in accord with this peer’s suggestions, how much do you think it would improve the final quality of your composition?”
Once again, to answer this question students must first think critically about the feedback, think creatively about how they might implement it in a revision, and then think critically about how much better that composition may be. This time they are doing all of this in the context of receptive communication—listening to what somewhat else thinks. They do all of this for the feedback provided by the first peer, then they do it again, and again, etc. Once again, repeated structured practice with the transferable skills most critical to problem solving and communication.
Integration
Part of the appeal of this approach is that fact that it can be integrated into our institutions with minimal disruption. The process is managed by technology and requires little extra time or effort on the part of the instructor. Yes, they must define the activity and ultimately add their own grades and comments, and it’s highly recommended that they also grade the feedback students provide to peers.
However, the vast majority of the learning is driven by the students, which is as it must be to develop skills. This is active “assessment as learning” and both students and faculty attest to the value of this process and their desire to see it used more widely. In addition, the process is scalable in that that it can be used in the context of any course and at any level of instruction. No matter what you teach, and how busy you are, you could be adding this to your course now and, when considered at an institutional level, these factors mean that students could be practicing the same skills across a wide range of course contexts, supporting a generalization of the skills to any context.
Returning to experiential learning, my proposal then is that early on in their education students should be exposed to the sort of formal skill-development process described above, perhaps managed by peerScholar or by some other technology capable of the task. This stage of skill development would occur within a safe classroom context, and students would benefit from both peer and expert feedback in a relatively low-stakes context. We then continue to build these skills as we phase in experiential learning opportunities.
Experiential Learning Within the Classroom
An aside is necessary here. Early on experiential learning was primarily identified with co-op work terms. That is, students left our institutions to work somewhere else. More recently though, technologies like Riipen allow a less embedded form of experiential learning to happen within our classrooms. That is, students may do a final project in some class that involves them working, through e-mail and/or virtual meetings, on a problem defined by an “external” entity.
In fact, we have recently worked with Riipen to create a module that allows their approach to work within even very large courses, including large first year classes. Thus, experiential learning now falls on a continuum that can be thought of in terms of how intense the interaction with the external entity is. The most intense interactions would occur in co-op settings, but classroom experiences of varying intensities are now possible.
Conclusion
As students develop their skills, we can place them in increasingly more intense experiential contexts. Doing so will properly prepare our students for what can be relatively high stakes interactions, maximizing their success and, in so doing, also maximizing the experience for the external entity. This strengthens trust and cements bridges that can allow our experiential opportunities to grow.
About the author:
Professor Steve Joordens in the Director of the Advanced Learning Technologies Lab at the University of Toronto Scarborough. He teaches a very large Introduction to Psychology class at his institution, and also on Coursera.org. His research focuses primarily on the creation and assessment of educational technologies, especially those focused on formal approaches to skill development. His teaching and research have won him a number of institutional, provincial and national awards recognize a sustained and significant impact on higher education in Canada.
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https://higheredconnects.com/maximizing-the-impact-of-experiential-learning-empowering-students-by-developing-transferable-skills-in-the-classroom-first/
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Defining what place HPS should take in official guidelines is not an easy task. But it is of primary importance, and academics have a role to play in it. In the context of U.S. primary and secondary education, a national framework (pdf) provides guidelines for science education standards, developed and adopted (or not) at the state level and which help define the criteria with which teachers are certified and evaluated.
The point can be made—probably by HPS scholars more than anybody else—that teaching the historical development of science is a way to teach scientific content without adding anything to an already crowded curriculum, and without requiring more time. But that requires from the teachers a solid training in HPS, in addition to their training in science. However, the incentive that U.S. science education standards can provide to that effect is limited.
• core ideas (matter, motion, ecosystems…).
These objectives favor instructional methods in which HPS can more easily find a place. But it is not enough to make the incorporation of HPS necessary (or even obviously relevant). To do so would require, for instance, an explicit emphasis on critical thinking skills, which is absent from the framework.
But then comes a second difficulty: in an education system in which each state, county, or school has a real degree of autonomy, recommending a critical attitude toward science (or such notions as the provisionality of scientific knowledge, the impossibility of absolute certainty regarding matters of fact, the fact that once well-entrenched scientific theories have been abandoned, etc.) may conflict with preserving the authority of science (e.g., about evolutionary biology). Philosophers can help make the case that scientific knowledge, even though it should be revisable, is not arbitrary. But they can also help delimitate its domain of authority.
The twenty-six lead state partners of the Next Generation Science Standards. Source: Kenn Scott/CNN.
Alternatively, if HPS cannot find a home in the science standards, it may be easier in terms of policy for other (humanistic) content areas to integrate HPS material (as part of the common core standards for instance).
We can wonder how much of that is relevant in the Canadian context. Education here is a provincial responsibility, but a pan-Canadian science framework provides general guidelines. The obstacles to the inclusion of HPS in the science classroom are much less acute than in the U.S.; guidelines at the federal or provincial level explicitly emphasize the importance of critical thinking and recommend themes that can be introduced through HPS (e.g., Specific Learning Outcome 114.1: “It is expected that students will explain how a paradigm shift can change scientific world views”).
Implementing such goals and encouraging an adequate dose of critical attitude toward science (neither dogmatism nor relativism) requires that teachers be adequately trained in HPS. The development of teaching and training materials can be of assistance. But it has to make clear how it fulfills education standards. As in the context of U.S. education, it is the burden of those who develop pedagogical material without an obvious connexion to the standards (or established practices) to make this correspondence explicit, and consider the variety of instructional practices.
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http://www.rotman.uwo.ca/how-to-include-the-history-and-philosophy-of-science-hps-in-science-education-standards-by-yann-benetreau-dupin/
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Higher Digital’s CEO discusses challenges and opportunities created by automation and other disruptions in a new Medium article.
Higher Education institutions have an incredible opportunity to increase enrollment and remain viable in today’s uncertain market. The modern workplace is evolving rapidly, so workers in many industries need to develop new or enhanced skills—either to keep up with changing technology in their current positions or to prepare for new positions/careers. This is leading many large companies to set up subsidized retraining programs in partnership with higher ed institutions, and increasing consumer demand for education and training programs designed to help workers advance their careers.
Higher Digital CEO Wayne Bovier describes the challenges and opportunities presented by this evolving job market in today’s Medium article, Grow or Die – The Case for Education Institutions to Capitalize on the Rapidly Evolving Needs of An Automated Job Market. In it, he describes the ways that this growing market is different, and outlines the nimble transformations that institutions will need to execute to serve it effectively, and ultimately, to succeed and grow.
- Prospective students occupy a different demographic, consisting of older, mid-career students, often working full-time;
- These students are sometimes underwritten by the corporations sponsoring such retraining programs, requiring completely different payment models;
- The programs themselves often need to either cover new/current/different technologies and job requirements, confer different kinds of credentials, or report results to different stakeholders.
Read Wayne’s article to find out more about what institutions need to do to meet these challenges, and how Higher Digital can help.
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https://higher.digital/blogs/job-market-disruptions-inspire-higher-ed-transformation/
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The ultimate guide to being work-ready
Despite being the fastest developing country in the world, India’s unemployment numbers are worrying. This gap arises due to the lack of “work-ready” candidates. Being work-ready is a popular term in the process of recruitment today. In a sea of prospective candidates, all vying for the same few job profiles, the right candidate is often identified based on the work readiness displayed.
What is work-readiness?
Work readiness essentially implies to the skills and experience gathered by an individual beyond their formal education that makes them more adaptive to a working environment. Formal education in India is often akin to being in a bubble with students often lacking the practical skills and adaptability necessary to survive in a competitive job corporate environment.Surveys indicate that although 15 million youngsters enter the Indian workforce every year, only 25-35% of them are actually employable and equipped with new-age skills. This staggering figure showcases the extent of the lack of job-readiness in the Indian job market, thus, providing an astute reasoning for the country’s unemployment rates.
There is a stark difference that an individual experiences during the transition between being a student and being a professional. Being work-ready is essentially about being able to cross into these roles seamlessly. Students without practical skills often have a hard time with the transition and are unable to handle the pressures of being in a corporate environment. Being work-ready is, therefore, not only about finding the right job but also the ability to stay in employment and transition effectively in case of a change in job roles.
What does it mean to be work ready?
Identifying skills beyond formal education
The most essential aspect of being work-ready is developing the right set of soft skills, especially communication and interpersonal skills. Such skills are crucial in an individual when working in a team environment that is prevalent in most organizations today. The ability to work effectively in a team, while showcasing initiative by an individual, is an integral part of showing work-readiness. Additionally, skills like problem-solving and critical thinking depict an ability to be able to look at situations from new perspectives, which is an invaluable asset to an organization in a competitive market.
Role of work experience
Work experience plays another vital aspect in defining the work-readiness of an individual. For fresh graduates, this can seem daunting, but that is a myth. Investing time early on into part-time internships or freelance projects during free time is an excellent way to depict experience. The experience and skills that are acquired on-the-job are invaluable and cannot be taught in a classroom. Thus, the importance of live projects in educational institutions has increased to ensure work-readiness in students. Freelance projects are another way to learn about the cogs of different industries within the chosen roles. Such candidates with relevant internships and freelance projects on their CV can play an integral part in not only the quality of work at an organization but can also significantly reduce costs in the on-boarding process such as initial training.
Developing relevant technical skills
In an environment that is rapidly changing, owing to the advent of technology and evolving job cultures and functions, it is incredibly vital for an individual to update his technical skills even after they have graduated. For example, aspects like Social Media Marketing or Search Engine Optimization wasn’t an integral part of the marketing strategies of organizations before. However, with the growth in internet, they have become necessities. Therefore, an individual must be equipped with such technical skills to understand such functions. Therefore, short part-time courses to constantly update to stay relevant in the market are extremely important in today’s industry.
How can organizations make their employees work-ready?
Lastly, being and staying job-ready is not an effort put only on an individual’s part but also the organization. Periodical corporate training to keep employees updated with new technologies and refreshing the fundamentals is an essential, but often forgotten, step for an organization in maintaining the work-readiness factor among their employees. While employees can put in their effort in staying relevant to the industry, it would be a much more efficient way for organizations to allow employees to periodically check in with the skill-sets in their repertoires and allow them easy access to quality training. Thus, employees would not only be more self-aware but also consciously take steps to maintain their status in the industry today.
Job-readiness is therefore, about being a well-rounded person that not only has theoretical knowledge but also understands the nuances of practical knowledge and skills necessary to work in a corporate environment. Perhaps, the most important thing to note is that becoming work-ready is not an overnight concept but something that has to be maintained through continuous efforts not only on an individual level but also an organizational level.
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https://www.peoplemattersglobal.com/blog/guest-article/the-ultimate-guide-to-being-work-ready-22875?page=2
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Collins English Dictionary defines curriculum as "all the different courses of study that are taught in a school, college, or university". This is a rather narrow definition, focussing as it does on the explicit curriculum. I am going to redefine curriculum as what students need to learn (with my focus being specifically on what school age learners need to learn).
My vision for education is encapsulated in the phrase 'Individual fulfilment and universal wellbeing'. So the curriculum becomes what students need to learn in order to attain individual fulfilment and universal wellbeing, in the context of our rapidly changing world.
We face technological challenges, issues around:
- privacy, data ownership and surveillance capitalism;
- biotechnology and genetic engineering,
- robotics, AI and cyborg engineering;
- and the potential of automation to change the nature of work, possibly rendering many people unemployable, undermining market economies and exacerbating the equity gulf between the very rich and everyone else.
These come on top of challenges such as population growth and changing demographics, resource sustainability, and pollution and global warming. All of which feed into issues of mass migration and raise the likelihood of conflict and civil strife.
Schools ought to be equipping young people with the knowledge, skills and attributes that will enable them to overcome these global challenges.
This is NOT a choice between content OR skills, it is about developing skills and attributes through the application of information and understanding. Content matters, because without it you cannot develop skills and attributes.
The diagram below provides an overview of the key elements of what the curriculum should include (see Unpacking the Yin-Yang vision for more details).
What each of these elements would look like in practice will vary from learner to learner and between contexts. Thus, for example, in all cases values matter, but the values will vary from culture to culture. If you combine this with my views about effective pedagogy then I would argue that it is inappropriate to pre-define the curriculum in detail. Indeed, the curriculum cannot be captured in written statements of what should be taught, because it emerges from the ethos and practices within the school as well as from any specified learning intentions.
However, if you don't have a tightly pre-defined curriculum then the challenge is how to assess what has been learnt. I start to try to unpack what the characteristics of effective assessment are in another post.
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https://halfbaked.education/some-thoughts-on-curriculum/
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The Chief Operating Officer of AIMS-Cameroon, Mr. Honore Youfegnuy Bernard has organized and delivered a five-day professional development training to AIMS-Cameroon students.
In today’s labor market, employability is a key factor for graduates and an immediate transition from school to work life or a well-defined career path is highly essential. The African Institute for Mathematical Sciences is not just a breeding ground for scientists but for great minds who are adequately equipped to contribute to organizations be it academia or industry.
It is with this knowledge that the recently appointed Chief Operating Officer of AIMS-Cameroon took the 43 students from 11 African countries on an enriching journey to professional development where he schooled them on how they can brand themselves during a job search and strive during job interviews.
Assisted by Co-op tutors, Edinio Zacko and James Njong Jnr, in delivering the professional development classes, Mr. Honore emphasized on the importance of being apt in defining one’s career plan and goals in a concise manner.
Day one flagged off with a lecture on how to set goals and attain a substantial level of self-discovery. The students were asked to perform certain tasks in a bid to help them discover their core strengths and weaknesses, define their purpose and career plan in addition to pulling out their own core values and utilizing their positive obsessions. The students were equally encouraged to build SMART goals and conduct gap and SWOT analysis for themselves.
Day two comprised of a presentation by AIMS-Cameroon’s visiting lecturer, Prof. Kristan Schneider who talked on the topic: “How Not To Screw Your Presentation”. His talk proved very vital as it touched the various challenges students face while using the beamer package for their group presentations, emphasizing on what templates to use and the best practices to follow. The students, in addition, were made to understand the right way to respond to application calls and foster effective communication in every interview process they might come across in the future. The class ended with a leadership lecture detailing the various forms of leadership that transcends across industry and the characteristics expected of a good leader. Practical in nature, the students then took turns to explain the various expectations that are required of a leader in various situations with the apt understanding of teamwork.
On Thursday, the students were made to undergo a mock interview process where they prepared an application to several job vacancies cutting across academia and industry. Many of these roles were matched to AIMS-Cameroon 2019/2020 cohort’s probable career paths hence the students were able to apply the knowledge they had acquired since the start of the program. The mock interview came in handy as students got the opportunity to put into practice what had been learned while noting the areas for improvement.
The celebrations which followed the graduation ceremony of the 2018-2020 Co-operative Masters students on Friday February 21st did not hinder the program as Dr. Charles Kimpolo, Director of AIMS Industry Initiative (AIMS I2) gave a talk on the advantages of the IBM Digital Nation Africa and Amazon Educate platforms, utilizing these platforms to acquire free world-class knowledge from anywhere in Africa with as simple as an internet connection. He implored the students to make aggressive use of the tools made available to them as these tools make available knowledge in emergent technology.
The professional development program ended on Saturday with an entrepreneurship class where Mr. Honore exposed the students to the tenets of designing a business model. Students were divided into subgroups with each group charged to find an innovative solution to any of AIMS-Cameroon’s challenges and model this solution to any tailored industry. The students, through their group representatives made a one-minute pitch of their business models and their solutions.
The program ended with testimonials of overwhelming success as the students bore testament on the top skills they were exposed to. Amongst these skills, were skills that will enable them enhance employability, aid them in becoming successful entrepreneurs, and equip them with necessary tools to prepare them for life after AIMS.
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https://aims-cameroon.org/2020/03/05/aims-cameroons-chief-operating-officer-equips-students-during-a-one-week-professional-development-training/
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In close conjunction with Groupe Nduom (Group of companies in West Africa, UK and US) and other well-known companies in the IT, banking and finance, consulting and consumer goods industries, this exciting and pioneering programme offers a unique balance of IT, management and business that is designed to ensure that our graduates have the tools they need to excel in, and lead the industries of the future. Bill Gates once said “How you gather, manage, and use information will determine whether you win or lose”. Information is now a vital asset for organisations. Its effective use and exploitation contributes to success and competitive advantage. This course develops students’ understanding of information and knowledge management and their value at strategic and operational levels.
This programme is designed to address the IT skills gap among IT and Business graduates. It seeks to develop the IT and business knowledge of the students to maximise technology to improve business performance. Additionally, this programme aims at equipping students with a broad background of business operations, procedures and culture applicable to become business leaders. It is designed to make students gain sufficient technical knowledge to play a key role in an IT environment and develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills as well as modelling skills appropriate to IT-related business operations. Students will also develop entrepreneurial and management skills appropriate to IT projects and lifelong learning skills allowing them to be abreast of developments in a rapidly changing business environment.
to enable students learn how to use it to solve real-world problems within the context of a field in which they wish to work.
to build and maintain information systems in organisation.
to design information systems to better support business processes and strategies.
to develop problem solving skills and analytical skills to address it related challenges in organizations.
to lay the needed theoretical and practical background for the students to pursue further studies as well as becoming self employed in an IT related field.
Upon completion of the programme, graduates would have been sufficiently equipped and ecouraged to start up their own businesses. Graduates could be employed in any business organization or institution in any part of the world particularly in Ghana as System Analyst, Software Engineers, Network Administrators, Database Managers or even set-up and manage their own businesses.
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https://nsbt.edu.gh/bsc-information-technology-management-for-business/
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LEARNING OUTCOMES: This course provides the tools used by policy to solve problems related to imperfect competition markets, such as taxation and regulation. The course focuses on Natural Monopoly, Monopolistic Competition, Oligopoly making a comparison with perfect competition. We will develop strategic interaction, game theory through rational and behavioral approach.
KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING: The course aims to provide students with both theoretical and methodological tools through which they can have an organic framework of basic knowledge useful to understand: 1) the market structures of imperfect competition; 2) which are the instruments of the policy able to encourage solutions that optimize the welfare of the community and regulate monopolistic markets; 3) the taxation system.
APPLYING KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING: Students will participate in several exercises on imperfect markets and experimental games where they will make decisions in a strategic context through experiments in a virtual or in-person (or mixed) lab.
MAKING JUDGEMENTS:
At the end of the course, students will be able to have the tools of critical analysis necessary to interpret and deal with autonomous judgment the main issues related to: 1) markets in imperfect competition and their regulation; 2) interactive, strategic and behavioral relationships.
COMMUNICATION SKILLS: The student will acquire the ability to communicate, expressing himself with economic-technical language properties, his own knowledge acquired in the context of the topics covered during the course.
LEARNING SKILLS: At the end of the course, students will have at their disposal the conceptual tools and the knowledge necessary to continue their studies, also analyzing critically: 1) the motivations underlying the choices in the contexts of strategic interaction; 2) the different contexts of imperfect market and the related public regulations.
Basic knowledge of microeconomics and elementary algebra is required.
The exam consists of a written exam, (plus a mandatory experimental laboratory), necessary to verify the level of knowledge of the topics indicated in the program and treated during the lessons by Prof. Papa.
The task consisting of different questions and exercises. It focuses on everything done in class.
The assessment will be based on the following criteria: Knowledge of the topics, ability to apply rational or behavioral theory to specific problems, language properties and analytical skills.
Possible outcomes, as the average of the two written exams of the two parties: Best result: 30 cum laude; excellent result from 30 to 28; good result from 27 to 26; fair result from 25 to 23; from 22 to 20 satisfactory outcome; from 19 and 18 sufficient outcome.
As said above, in addition to the written exam, it is necessary to carry out an experimental laboratory during the course with the Prof. Papa.
Taxation
Monopoly
Natural Monopoly
Natural monopoly regulation
Monopoly competition
Oligopoly
Comparisons with perfect competition
Competition policies
Dominant and dominated strategy.
Pure and mixed strategy, Nash equilibrium.
Sequential games, credible and non-credible threats,
Equilibrium of Cournot, Bertrand, Stackelberg,
Entry game, the credible and not credible threats,
Experimental games: Dictator game, ultimatum game, Trust game, Public good game. Social preferences
Distinctions of the motivations underlying the choice
The role of communication
Psychological and moral costs.
Students will participate in experimental games in behavioral economics labs in presence or virtual or blended.
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https://economia.uniroma2.it/master-science/ba/corso/2159/
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According to Cyert and March, fundamental structure analyzes the process of decision making in terms of the variables that influence the decision-making process, the goals of an organization, the expectations of the organization, and the choice of the organization.
In the case of Siemens, several variables influenced the decision-making process of the organization. Siemens is a large company that has interests in various fields the world over. They include information and communication, automation and control, power, medical solutions, transport, and lighting. Technological advancements and the acceptance of novel technologies had an influence on businesses in the field of information and communication and medical solutions.
All the businesses that Siemens had a stake in were adversely affected in the wake of the global economic downturn that was witnessed towards the end of the year 2000. In addition to these developments, political uncertainty in the Middle East, as well as South America, complicated the situation for Siemens further since the organization had business interests in the mentioned regions. Investor sentiment nose-dived leading to a significant drop in the value of Siemens’ shares around the globe.
The information and communication sector was particularly affected by the economic downturn. The power generating group, on the other hand, grappled with drastic changes in the market conditions. The demand for power generating equipment hit record low levels. This phenomenon came about as a result of other firms that were customers of Siemens cutting back on their operating costs and expenditure as a result of the economic slump.
Siemens was forced to find out ways and means of responding to the situation it was facing. The organization enhanced its capacity while constantly improving the conditions of its gas turbines. The organization had to adopt extreme measures to counter the strict conditions that it was encountering at the time. The organization decided to cut back on its cost by way of consolidating its manufacturing facilities, streamlining its range of products, and sacking some of its staff.
Siemens’ products were up against strong competition from rival firms that were larger and had greater resources at their disposal. The markets in which Siemens operated in witnessed rapid changes due to technological advancements. Therefore, for Siemens to meet its customer’s needs, it had to develop new products continuously, update existing products as well as developing new technologies.
In light of Cyert’s and March’s viewpoint, choice takes place in response to a problem. In Siemens’s case, the problem came in the form of a global economic slump, rapid changes in the marketing environment due to technological advancements as well as a fiercely competitive marketing environment. These developments prompted the management of Siemens to take action in response to the problems that it was encountering at the time. These developments are considered as variables that had an influence on the next course of action to be taken by Siemens. Cyert and March were of the view that those variables that influence a choice are those that control the definition of a problem within an organization, those that influence the standard decision rule and those that affect the order of consideration of alternatives. The standard decision rules in return are shaped by experience and record of the organization. Alternatives are considered depending on the section of the organization in which the decision is being made and expertise in finding options.
Organizational expectations are deemed as the result of coming to a conclusion after analyzing the information available to the organization. Therefore, organizations have to consider variables that affect either the process of concluding, the process by which information is collected and made available to the organization. Concerning methods used to gather information, some variables influence the process of looking for information for an organization such as intensity, the success of search & direction of search.
The information available to Siemens at the time was gathered from various sources. This information revealed the looming crisis concerning the economy, extremely fierce rivalry in the market, and the unprecedented pace of technological advancement. This kind of information had to be responded to one way or the other hence it led to the decisions that Siemens took in response to the information that was available to it at the time. After analyzing the information that was made available to it, Siemens chose to consolidate its interests in specific fields of business while at the same time relinquishing its interests in other fields of business.
Brusson’s model defined decisions as a conscious choice between at least two alternatives. Concerning Siemens’ case, there were a couple of alternatives at its disposal. In light of the challenges that the organization was encountering, such as the global economic downturn and rapid technological changes, Siemens had the option of staying put and engage in business as usual or review its operations and practices subject to the changes that were taking place around it. Siemens, after evaluating the available alternatives, opted to alter its structures, operations, and practices in an effort of adjusting to the prevailing climate at that particular time. In this regard, Brusson’s model on decision making appears to be similar to Cyert’s and March’s model.
Cyert’s model was of the view that decision making in any organization is influenced by the goals of that organization, the expectations of that organization, and the choices of the organization. Brusson’s model, on the other hand, pointed out that for an organization to arrive at a decision, two or more alternatives have to be weighed, and one chosen over the other, the consequences of choosing either of the options have to be estimated before choosing the ideal replacement for the organization.
The actions that Siemens undertook in the light of the challenges that they were facing at that particular time were influenced by their goals. By its engagements and interests the world over, Siemens came off as an ambitious organization whose main goal was to expand its operations and capacity constantly. The future expectations of the organization were for it to keep growing and extend its operations to as many sectors as possible. The factors mentioned above had a bearing on the decision-making process of the organization. In the wake of the economic downturn, the decisions that were made considered the organization’s goals, its future expectations, and the choices of the organization. For instance, the decision to cut on its operating costs and competitively pricing its products was informed by the firm’s aims of maintaining its profit margins in the hard economic times.
According to Brusson’s model, the evaluation of viable alternatives is of extreme necessity before arriving at a decision. In reality, it is much easier to find decision processes that consider few alternatives than ones that consider many since considering multiple alternatives evokes uncertainty, which in turn reduces motivation & commitments. Concerning Siemens, the organization chose to develop new products, update existing products, and develop new technologies in response to rapid technological advancements in the market they were operating in. The organization opted for this alternative to that of doing nothing about it after the evaluation of both alternatives.
Rational decision-makers are required to consider all relevant consequences that alternatives might have. Siemens considered the consequences of maintaining the prices of its products internationally after the strengthening of the Euro relative to other currencies making the prices of its competitors cheaper than its prices. The organization chose to review its prices after concluding that it would adversely impact the organization’s profit margins in the event it fails to revise its prices in a manner that they are competitive when compared to those of its rivals.
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https://academic.tips/question/critically-apply-cyert-and-marchs-analysis-of-organizational-decision-making-to-the-siemens-case/
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Literature can be referred to as the “society’s mirror”. This is because, through literature, authors are able to address pertinent issues affecting the society. An author can address him or herself directly to the issue and give his or her ideas regarding the issue. The society, therefore, takes up the issue while trying to resolve any problems associated with the issue as raised by an author. Through literary fiction, authors are able to create unnaturally occurring scenarios thus push the reader’s imagination. Most readers find this rela and thus have reading fictional work as a favorite pastime.
One of the central aspects of Japanese culture is Japanese literature. Japanese literature has heavily evolved through the year. This has been influenced by various factors including technological advancements and culture changes. Ancient Japanese literature borrowed heavily from the Chinese. The Japanese created the man’yogana from assimilating characters known as the Kanji from the Chinese. Some of the works done in this period known as the Nara period include the Kojiki and Nihon shoki. Both of this works were mainly based on Japanese history with Nihon shoki being more illustrated than the former. The classical era also referred to as Heian period introduced fictional writing into Japanese literature. This was a new form of writing. Among the most prominent works in this era includes Genji Monogatari. This is a fictional masterpiece written by Murasaki Shikubu, which created waves in the world of literature for years. Some other works from this era includes Kokin Wakashu, which was a poetry anthology.
The tale of the Genji revolves around, who is the son of the emperor. His father is emperor Kiritsubo, who has a Korean concubine. As a result of the increased acrimony at the court, Kiritsubo dies leaving behind, Genji, the emperor’s son. The emperor is distraught and thus marries another concubine; Fujitsubo. Genji lacks support at the court and thus is not crowned prince. Genji thereby marries Princess Aio. Genji life is filled with controversy and mystery. For example, he approaches one of his friend’s wives. He sleeps with his friend’s wife and but later the lady discourages the relationship.
There are different themes that emerge from the above work. One the primary theme is lust. Genji sleeps with many women and does not find them appealing. This leads to acrimony between him and his wife. Genji’s wife, Lady Aio bears him a son who later dies and thus marries Murasaki. The literary styles employed in the above text include satire. While Genji is a son of the emperor, he does not engage in any meaningful political activities. This is quite evident where after he is turned 40, his political and love life was on the decline. In addition, the use of poetry in the makes the work of quite difficult to comprehend as it made of certain analogies that require completion by the reader.
Early modern Japanese literature is associated with the Tokugawa or Edo period. This period (1603-1868) was peaceful, and thus genres that are more literary were introduced into Japanese literature. Authors were able to blend various genres together and come up literary masterpieces. For example, Tokaidochu Hizakurige by Jippensha Ikku was a travelogue that incorporated comedy. Success of Japanese literature in this period was aided by among other factors, increased rural- urban migration. Town residents were well read and thus, increased the demand of more creative writing from Japanese authors.
Modern Japanese literature is associated with Meiji period (1868-1945). Japan opened its borders to international trade after a period of isolation. Therefore, there was rapid industrialization as the Japanese assimilated outside technology into their methods of production. Similarly, there was increased influence of western literature in Japanese literature. Authors shifted from fiction and historical writing to addressing themselves to issues affecting the society. Some of the issues addressed by the authors include poor working conditions for workers, disparity within society and women rights. Most of these societal problems were as a result of rapid industrialization being experienced in the country. Authors, also, introduced new themes in novel writing including romanticism and naturalism. Authors such as Mori Ogai introduced romanticism through his translated poems and magazines such as Bungaku – Kai. Naturalism, which in Japanese is Watakushi-shosetu, revolved the author’s mental states. This was depicted in Katai Tayama’s work, Futon, in 1907.
After the Second World War, Japanese literature was heavily influenced by war themes that include loss of life and property and rebuilding Japan after her defeat in the war. Works such as The Setting Sun by Osamu Dazai depicted a dejected soldier returning from the war. The American School by Nobou Kojima is a story about coping mechanisms employed by Japanese, English teachers due to increased American presence in their territory.
In the present day, Japanese literature has significant influence in the world literature. Introduction of Manga, comic books, has been significant and the idea has been adopted in many other disciplines as an effective mode of communicating the authors’ message. Additionally, introduction of cell phone novels has greatly improved reading among Japan’s young adult population. These novels are more reader friendly and thus readers are quite comfortable while going through them.
Japanese literature is, therefore, considered an important part of the Japanese culture. Culture refers to the way of life of a group of people. From the above analysis, it is clear that most authors’ themes were informed by culture of the Japanese people. Ancient literature, for example, provided a form of written communication through which vital communication could be relayed. However, there are several additional aspects to Japanese culture apart from Japanese literature.
One of the most distinct aspects of the Japanese culture is Japanese architecture. One of the mainstays of Japanese architecture was the introduction of Buddhism in Japan. This saw the construction of huge temples based on the design of Ch’angan, the Chinese capital. These designs were exemplified after the introduction of tea party and were central to the silent protest against excessive aristocratic power. Traditionally, the Japanese put emphasis on interior design ensuring its remains simple with natural decorations. Some of the materials preferred for this interior design include rice straw mats, silk and bamboo. Shonji is used to separate rooms and thus add to the intricacy of the rooms.
The “kimono” is popular Japanese clothing worn by women, men and children. It is worn for various occasions and is in several designs. Women Kimono designs include Furisode, which is worn by young, unmarried women. Both the married and single women wear the Homongi and Iromuji designs can, however.
Japanese culture is quite diverse as evidenced by the above analysis. One of the central aspects of Japanese culture is Japanese literature. Japanese literature has evolved through the years incorporating new literary styles and themes. Therefore, it has been used as a main communication tool while addressing various issued within the society. Post war Japanese literature, for example, was instrumental in encouraging citizens to participate fully in national rebuilding. Modern Japanese includes a variety of literary styles that are suitable for the diverse tastes and preferences of the readers. Aspects such as Japanese architecture and clothing are also an important part of Japanese culture.
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http://kiffe-me.info/japan-culture.html
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- Economic recovery refers to the process by which businesses and local economies return to conditions of stability following a disaster. Its importance and complexity are being increasingly recognized in disaster risk reduction research and practice. This paper provides an overview of current research on economic recovery and suggests a research agenda to address key gaps in knowledge. Empirical studies have provided a number of robust findings on the disaster recovery of businesses and local economies, with particular insights into short- and long-term recovery patterns, influential factors in recovery, and disparities in recovery across types of businesses and economies. Modeling studies have undertaken formal analyses of economic impacts of disasters in which recovery is usually addressed through the incorporation of resilience actions and investments in repair and reconstruction. Core variables for assessing and understanding economic recovery are identified from the literature, and approaches for measuring or estimating them are discussed. The paper concludes with important gaps in the development of a robust theory of economic recovery. Systematic data collection is needed to establish patterns and variations on how well and how quickly local economies recover from disasters. Research is urgently needed on the effectiveness of resilience approaches, decisions, and policies for recovery at both the business and local economy levels. Detailed, testable theoretical frameworks will be important for advancing understanding and developing sound recovery plans and policies. It will be especially important to consider the relationship between economic recovery and recovery of the built environment and sociopolitical fabric of communities in developing a comprehensive theory of disaster recovery.
Town Watching As A Tool For Citizen Participation In Developing Countries: Applications In Disaster Training
- Authors
- Antonio L Fernandez, Teruhiko Yoshimura, Yujiro Ogawa
- Issue
- August 2005
- Description
- Town Watching As A Tool For Citizen Participation In Developing Countries: Applications In Disaster Training\r\nAuthor(s): Yujiro Ogawa, Antonio L. Fernandez, Teruhiko Yoshimura\r\nPages: 5-36
Traditional Families in Turkey
- Authors
- Cigdem Kagitcibasi
- Issue
- March 1983
- Description
- Though disasters, especially earthquakes, floods and landslides, are common in Turkey, policy making, planning, and even research have ignored their social -psychological aspects. In this paper an attempt is made to build a hypothetical model for conceptualizing disaster-related coping behavior in traditional society. It is based on individual, familial and social behavior and values, derived from research conducted in Turkey. In this model it is proposed that belief in external control, in fitting with the objective conditions, results in resignation and in the conception of disaster as inevitable. Close-knit family and community ties provide further relief and security in the face of disaster. This primary group solidarity also provides the mechanisms necessary for coping with disaster in the context of underdevelopment where formal social welfare organizations are inadequate.
Traditional Societies in the Face of Natural Hazards: The 1991 Mt. Pinatubo Eruption and the Aetas of the Philippines
- Authors
- Jean-Christophe Gaillard
- Issue
- March 2006
- Description
- This article explores the response of traditional societies in the face of natural hazards through the lens of the concept of resilience. Resilient societies are those able to overcome the damages brought by the occurrence of natural hazards, either through maintaining their pre-disaster social fabric, or through accepting marginal or larger change in order to survive. Citing the case of the 1991 Mt. Pinatubo eruption in the Philippines and its impact on the Aeta communities who have been living on the slopes of the volcano for centuries, it suggests that the capacity of resilience of traditional societies and the concurrent degree of cultural change rely on four factors, namely: the nature of the hazard, the pre-disaster sociocultural context and capacity of resilience of the community, the geographical setting, and the rehabilitation policy set up by the authorities. These factors significantly vary in time and space, from one disaster to another. It is important to perceive their local variations to better anticipate the capability of traditional societies to overcome the damage brought by the occurrence of natural hazards and therefore predict eventual cultural change.
Trapped: Expanding Student Understanding of Multiorganizational Coordination through the Use of Fiction
- Authors
- Thomas E. Drabek
- Issue
- November 2018
- Description
- While professors in other sub-fields of sociology occasionally have incorporated fictional works into their courses, rarely, if at all, has this been attempted in disaster and hazard studies. This paper is a summary of one such effort including both the rationale and approach. Following discussion of context, a case example of an original fictional story is described including its origins and method of analysis. The story is rooted in an actual disaster and based on data obtained shortly afterwards. This approach provides both links to the humanities and greater depth of student understanding of core concepts, like multiorganizational coordination which is used in this case example. Through this strategy students enhance their ability to empathize with disaster responders and victims who too often are trapped in social structures that result in failure.
Trapped in Politics: The Life, Death, and Afterlife of the Utah Seismic Safety Advisory Council
- Authors
- Robert A. Olson, Richard Stuart Olson
- Issue
- March 1994
- Description
- Utah faces serious earthquake risk from the alignment of its major population centers with the historically active Wasatch fault. This paper identifies the origins and traces the life history of the Utah Seismic Safety Advisory Council, paying special attention to the partisan political shift which contributed to its 1981 legislative failures and organizational demise.
Trauma, Victims, Time, Changing Organizations and the Nepal 2015 Earthquake
- Authors
- Samantha Penta, Sarah DeYoung, Daryl Yoder-Bontrager
- Issue
- November 2016
- Description
- This paper summarizes findings from reconnaissance fieldwork conducted five weeks after the Nepal earthquake in 2015. Data were collected using an exploratory, qualitative, semi-inductive approach. Themes converged through classic disaster research theoretical ideas but were also evident through the unique convergence of globalization and development in Nepal. Findings from informal conversations, photographs, and observations of relief and recovery efforts revealed several key themes: the occurrence of organizational transitions in activities and tasks, psychosocial well-being of Nepalese individuals and communities, issues in qualifying the definition of an earthquake victim, and the importance of chronological and social time in recovery processes. Other findings gleaned from fieldwork included uncovering complexities of cultural and social systems such as caste structure in Nepal, issues related to humanitarian logistics, and the vulnerability of special populations such as new mothers and migrant Nepalese. The massive presence of international non-profit organizations created an interesting setting for relief and recovery, mostly described in the section on organization evolutions and transformation. Finally, we also encountered various perceptions about what it means to shift from “relief” to “recovery”- a notion which intersected with all of the four main themes from our findings.
TV Network News Coverage of Three Mile Island: Reporting Disasters as Technological Fables
- Authors
- Dan Nimmo
- Issue
- March 1984
- Description
- Nightly network news coverage of the accident at Three Mile Island raised questions about the nature of TV news as well as the capacity of the three major networks to inform viewers during disasters. A key emphasis in TV news is story-telling, especially the weaving of fables. Quantitative and qualitative analyses of the content of network news coverage of TMI reveals differences between networks in techniques of newsgathering and reporting, but even more so in stories told: CBS narrated a tale of responsible political and technological elites, ABC a nightmare of common folk victimized by elites, ABC a nightmare of common folk victimized by elites, and NBC a story of resignation and demystification. Coverage of TMI, when compared to network coverage of other crises, suggests that in reporting disasters CBS, ABC, and NBC respectively and consistently construct rhetorical visions of reassurance, threat, and primal assurance.
Uncommon Hazards and Orthodox Emergency Management: Toward a Reconciliation
- Authors
- Neil R. Britton
- Issue
- August 1992
- Description
- Effective emergency management requires a close fit between state of risk and state of hazard management. If these components get out of phase, a marked increase in societal vulnerability is likely to prevail. Recognizing that the major burden for developed societies has shifted from risks associated with natural processes to those arising from technological development and application, disaster-relevant organizational networks have adopted a Comprehensive Emergency Management \\"all-hazards\\" approach.
Understanding Divergent Constructions of Vulnerability and Resilience: Climate Change Discourses in the German Cities of Lübeck and Rostock
- Authors
- Gabriela B. Christmann and Thorsten Heimann
- Issue
- August 2017
- Description
- In social-science based research, it is still an open question how cities cope with the multi-faceted challenges of climate change. Via the example of the German coastal cities of Lübeck and Rostock and on the basis of a discourse analysis (of news articles and expert interviews), this paper contributes to this research question by asking how cities actually perceive their vulnerability and resilience related to climate impacts. The study reveals that perceptions in the two cities differ considerably and are idiosyncratic when compared to each other. This is remarkable because both cities share similar geographic conditions as well as climate forecasts. Furthermore, they both have in common a long history as Hanseatic cities. What makes Rostock special, however, is that it was part of the former German Democratic Republic and that, after the German reunification in 1990, it suffered from socio-economic problems and marginalization. The paper’s findings raise the question of how divergent local knowledge about climate-related vulnerability and resilience can be conceptualized. It is also imperative to consider how local experiences of economic problems and social marginalization influence local knowledge regarding climate change. Consequently, the authors suggest a theoretical approach which is mainly based on social constructionism. Furthermore, they highlight the role that locally shared experiences—such as of social marginalization—play in the emergence of climate change constructions.
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http://www.ijmed.org/articles/?page=72
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Climate change places major transformational demands on modern societies. Transformations require the capacity to collectively envision and meaningfully debate realistic and desirable futures. Without such a collective imagination capacity and active deliberation processes, societies lack both the motivation for change and guidance for decision-making in a certain direction of change. Recent arguments that science fiction can play a role in societal transformation processes is not yet supported by theory or empirical evidence. Advancing the argument that fiction can support sustainability transformations, this paper makes four contributions. First, building on the imaginary concept, I introduce and define the idea of socio-climatic imaginaries. Second, I develop a theory of imagination as linked cognitive-social processes that enable the creation of collectively shared visions of future states of the world. This theory addresses the dynamics that bridge imagination processes in the individual mind and collective imagining that informs social and political decision-making. Third, emphasizing the political nature of creating and contesting imaginaries in a society, I introduce the role of power and agency in this theory of collective imagination. I argue that both ideational and structural power concepts are relevant for understanding the potential societal influence of climate fiction. Finally, the paper illuminates these different forms of transformational power and agency with two brief case studies: two climate fiction novels. I contrast a dystopian and utopian science fiction novel – Paolo Bacigalupi’s The Water Knife (2015) and Kim Stanley Robinson’s Green Earth (2015). The two books are very similar in their power/agency profile, but the comparison provides initial insights into the different roles of optimistic and pessimistic future visions.
I. Imagining transformational change
Responding to grand societal challenges such as climate change involves complex, systemic change in linked social, economic, political, cultural, and technological systems. Scholars have begun to conceptualize such fundamental change as transitions or transformations to sustainability (Olsson et al., 2014; Patterson et al., 2017; Smith and Stirling, 2010), implying that the kinds of changes required will fundamentally alter the nature and structural configurations of our current societies. Yet, little is known about the processes that enable deliberate transformations (O’Brien, 2012). Identifying conditions that are conducive to or can be exploited for transformative change is one of the key tasks of sustainability science.
Imagination lies at the heart of social change, but its causal role and social functions are poorly understood. The ability of individuals and groups to envision possible, likely, and desirable futures that can guide decision-making and direct social change in collectively determined directions is an essential capacity for securing social well-being and prosperity in times of rapid and often unpredictable global change (Shaw et al., 2009; Sheppard et al., 2011; Wiek et al., 2006). W. Patrick McCray argues that managing these transformational shifts requires “creating visions of the future and the technologies that might help shape it.” McCray (2012, p. 16) stresses that this visioning “is a political act as well as an exercise of imagination”. Explicit visions of desirable (sustainable) and undesirable futures are necessary to motivate and guide any kind of change, but might be particularly important for triggering transformational change – a process of fundamentally altering the structure and character of a given system.
The need for imagination is particularly evident in the case of climate change (Wapner and Elver, 2016). Humanity’s slow and, so far, largely ineffective response to climate change demonstrates difficulties in creating compelling, shared visions of alternative futures that can trigger social transformations. The lackluster response of affected communities and societies reflects a double failure of imagination with significant implications for human well-being. First, there is a failure of imagination concerning the reality and severity of the risks of climate change. Second, there is a failure to imagine solution pathways and visions of possible and sustainable futures.
Recently, some authors have suggested that climate (also speculative) fiction can play a role in societal transformation processes (Yusoff and Gabrys, 2011), but so far there is neither a theory nor empirical evidence to support this argument. There has been little attention in the social sciences to the role of art and (popular) culture in political processes of change, leaving a significant knowledge gap concerning the ways in which art does and can affect – possibly support – societal change. In the social sciences, the imaginary emerges as a central concept when it comes to collective imagination. The concept has been developed extensively in the field of science and technology studies (STS) and in sociology. However, political, psychological and cognitive-emotional dimensions of collective imagination implicit in the concept of the imaginary remain undertheorized. Further, it does not capture the role of fiction or other forms of pop-cultural storytelling.
Advancing the argument that fiction can support sustainability transformations, this paper makes four contributions. First, I introduce the idea of socio-climatic imaginaries, building on and adjusting the concept of the imaginary to the context of climate change and deliberate transformation. Second, I embed the idea of socio-climatic imaginaries in a theory of imagination as linked cognitive-social processes that enable the creation of collective visions of desirable future states of the world. This theory addresses the dynamics that bridge imagination processes in the individual mind and collective imagining that informs social and political decision-making. Third, I introduce the role of political power in this theory of collective imagination. I argue that both ideational and structural power concepts are relevant for understanding the potential societal influence of climate fiction.
Finally, the paper illuminates these different forms of transformational power and agency and their distribution among different actors with two brief case studies of imaginary-making activities in the climate change context: two speculative fiction novels. I contrast dystopian and utopian speculative fiction novels – Paolo Bacigalupi’s The Water Knife (2015) and Kim Stanley Robinson’s Green Earth (2015). The two books are very similar in their power/agency profile, but the comparison of the two stories provides initial insights into the different roles of optimistic and pessimistic future visions – socio-climatic imaginaries in story form.
My theoretical arguments build on an interdisciplinary literature review covering political science, STS and sociology, human geography, cognitive theory, futures and transformations. Despite the breadth of fields covered, a number of additional, potentially relevant bodies of literature have remained outside of this review, in particular research on culture, broadly defined, for example, in anthropology, literary criticism or the interdisciplinary field of cultural studies.
II. The imaginary
The concept of the imaginary has become central to theorizing about imagination as an essential feature of social life. Cornelius Castoriadis used the concept of the social imaginary to refer to societies’ ability to self-institute, i.e., to create and recreate institutions, norms and social relationships by first creating shared ideas or meanings about the reality of these – “the imaginary constitution of society” (Castoriadis, 1997). Steger and James offer a more recent definition of the imaginary as “patterned convocations of the social whole. These deep-seated modes of understanding provide largely pre-reflexive parameters within which people imagine their social existence” (Steger and James, 2013, p. 23). The concept has been adapted and applied across multiple disciplines, giving rise to the idea of socio-economic imaginaries (Jessop, 2010, 2004) and modern social imaginaries (Gaonkar, 2002; Taylor, 2004). In political science, Benedict Anderson’s Imagined Communities (Anderson, 1983) stands out as a theoretical anchor point for understanding the central importance of imagination for any type of political process beyond the local or community scale.
1. Imaginaries and the Future
These various definitions emphasize the role of the imaginary in reflecting on and making conscious the otherwise backgrounded deep structure of a group or society. They focus on the group’s present conditions, possibly including a historical dimension tending to the question of how the current structures took form. That changed in 2009, when Sheila Jasanoff and Sang Hyun Kim introduced the concept of sociotechnical imaginaries as an inherently future-oriented concept. The authors defined (2009, p. 120) sociotechnical imaginaries as “collectively imagined forms of social life and social order reflected in the design and fulfillment of nation-specific scientific and/or technological projects. Imaginaries, in this sense, at once describe attainable futures and prescribe futures that states believe ought to be attained.” This new future-orientation of the imaginary raises important questions related to the role of shared future visions in social change processes, especially the psychological function of motivating change. It is this forward-looking aspect of imaginaries that make them potentially interesting for scholars of transformational change.
More recently, Jasanoff and Kim broadened their initial definition, suggesting that a sociotechnical imaginary can be held not just by a state, but any kind of collective. Importantly, Jasanoff adds (2015a, pp. 5–6) that imaginaries “encode not only visions of what is attainable through science and technology, but also of how life ought, or ought not, to be lived; in this respect they express a society’s shared understandings of good and evil.” She rightly acknowledges that imagining a collective future always involves beliefs about values, norms and ways of life that characterize a society. Questions and visions of how life ought to be lived form the centerpiece of the need for and direction of change.
In their jointly edited volume, Jasanoff and Kim begin to develop more detailed insights concerning the processes by which imaginaries are established (e.g., the actors involved) and contested. They distinguish four phases, called origins (often involving individuals and their ideas), embedding (turning ideas into material, institutional and behavioral realities), resistance (by defenders of the previously dominant imaginary) and extension (Jasanoff and Kim, 2015). They argue (Jasanoff and Kim, 2015, p. 338) that “Those imaginaries help explain, why societies differ (…), how they evolve through time (…), how powerful visions spread through space (…), and how they in turn burrow into human identity and subjectivity.”
2. Imaginaries and Climate Change
Some authors have begun to connect the concept of the imaginary with climate change (Strauss, 2014; Whiteley et al., 2016; Wright et al., 2013). For example, Levy and Spicer define (2013, p. 662) a climate imaginary as “a shared socio-semiotic system of cultural values and meanings associated with climate change and appropriate economic responses”. They too conceive of the imaginary as “visions of ideal futures,” but focus more on the idea of “field stabilization” than large-scale societal change processes.
Both the view of imagination as a collective process of meaning- and world-making and the future-oriented concept of sociotechnical or climate imaginaries are relevant for understanding the political processes of creating shared ideas of possible climate futures. Yet, they appear limited in important ways that might be constraining our efforts to understand the role of imagination in social change processes more broadly.
One of these limitations is the absence of nature, for example, the climate system or other biophysical systems, in collective visions of the future, and the associated need to use scientific knowledge to inform visions of climate futures. Only Jasanoff and Kim pay close attention to science. Science is a natural ingredient of a sociotechnical imaginary, but in a very distinct way: new scientific knowledge triggers a new form of technology, which in turn shapes the future make-up of a social system, including its values, norms, beliefs practices and political institutions. What their imaginaries do not consider is the human environment as such – nature and a changing climate as a setting and driver for social change independent of – or rather interacting with – scientific and technological developments. Scientific knowledge is a necessary source material for climate imaginaries in a very different way: it facilitates our understanding of what the environmental conditions of future societies might look like. Taking a coupled human-environmental systems perspective, we need to pay attention to environmental change if we want to understand how and why societies change. Perceiving of the world in terms of coupled human-environmental systems draws analytic attention to the multiple relationships between, rather than the separation of, the social and natural worlds, highlighting their interdependence and co-evolution.
A second limitation of both Jasanoff’s sociotechnical imaginaries and Levy and Spicer’s climate imaginaries is their exclusive focus on desirable and attainable futures, ignoring a spectrum of undesirable and potentially unattainable ones. Dystopic visions of the future might harbor as much motivational potential as utopias.
3. Socio-Climatic Imaginaries
Releasing these two constraints – the absence of the biosphere and the focus on desirability – I define the socio-climatic imaginary or socio-environmental imaginary as:
Collectively held visions of the future (Jasanoff), that
Include the natural environment (informed by climate change science) possibly even as an agent rather than a mere object or context,
Are informed by beliefs about patterns and pathways of environmental and social change (including political, economic and technological change),
Pay attention to the complex interactions between natural and social systems over time, and
Can include desirable, undesirable and mixed visions of possible futures.
Grounded in a systems perspective that acknowledges the tight coupling of human and environmental systems, this definition of the socio-climatic imaginary focuses on the interaction and interdependencies between the climate system and social-political system over time. Nature is not just a backdrop to social imagination and change; it actively shapes what can be and is imagined. Both human impacts on their shared environment (e.g., deforestation in the Amazon), and environmental impacts on the human experience (e.g., sunny-day floods in Florida) contribute to the process of collective future imagining. The role of nature in future thinking is strengthened by science, in particular the predictive components of climate change science, which continuously develops information about possible futures in the form of modeling results, temperature graphs, sea-ice measurements and descriptions of past worlds whose climatic conditions might have been similar to the ones we are currently moving towards.
The inclusion of positive-desirable (utopian), negative-undesirable (dystopian) and mixed visions of the future in my definition of socio-climatic imaginaries is an important departure from Jasanoff. All three types of future visions can have different cognitive-emotional effects on political actors. The full spectrum of future thinking on political behavior needs to be explored to develop a good understanding of the psychology of utopian vs. dystopian thinking and its motivational effects for creating sustainability transformations. For example, Skrimshire’s work on future-oriented ethics and climate change focuses solely on apocalyptic thinking in climate politics, making the case (2010, chap. 1) that the expectation of crisis and associated fears provide particularly important – yet so far neglected – impulses for political action in the present. His work begins to complement Jameson’s writing on the politics of utopia (2005), who explores the political functions of utopian thinking in a globalized world (e.g., representing otherness), explicitly drawing on works of science fiction.
This new emphasis on emotions points to the final and theoretically most challenging shortcoming of our current understanding of imaginaries: the absence of the individual and of all cognitive processes that create ideas, systems of ideas and ultimately the ability to share meaning in a group. The (social) psychology of imagination and creativity as well as cognitive theories can provide a much richer account of the mental processes that contribute to and also constrain future thinking. Imagination is, in its very essence, a cognitive process, taking place in individual minds. All of the definitions of the imaginary I mentioned above – social, sociotechnical or climate – are grounded in a conception of imagination as a strictly collective phenomenon. Once we recognize the importance of cognition for the existence of an imaginary, we have to ask about the relationship between the ideas in one person’s mind and collectively shared vision of the future. How do individual ideas become shared? How do shared ideas in a group affect the individual mind and its imagination abilities? Can one expand or limit the other? And how about the interactions between multiple social scales of imagination – the family, community, society, transnational NGO, etc.?
III. The cognitive-social nature of the imaginary
In this section I develop a theory of imagination as interdependent cognitive and social processes. This multi-scale conceptualization offers a more comprehensive approach to the study of imaginaries, especially in the context of transformational change. Bringing cognitive theory, political science and science and technology studies (STS) into conversation with each other, I outline how this theory of imagination can be used to study socio-climatic imaginaries.
I distinguish two dimensions of imagination: (1) the cognitive-emotional processes that generate imagination in individual minds and (2) the socio-political processes that produce shared imaginations within a group or society, including imaginaries – bounded, and emotionally coherent sets of ideas about possible futures. A theory of socio-climatic imaginaries also has to consider the dynamic linkages between the cognitive and social scales. Fiction can play an interesting role in shaping both cognitive-individual and social-collective imagination processes.
1. Cognitive-individual Imagination
The cognitive sciences and psychology treat imagination as a mental phenomenon with a variety of important functions for the flourishing of a human being. Imagination is involved in learning, abstract thinking, planning, problem-solving, motivation, and creativity. Some scholars define imagination rather broadly as “possibility thinking” (Greene, 1995) or discuss the necessary interdependence between perception and imagination for the ability to grasp reality (O’Connor and Aardema, 2005). However defined, it is a necessary part of thought, decision-making and action. More generally, imagination concerns the ability to generate in one’s mind (novel) ideas and images of states of the world, which are not perceivable with the senses (e.g., sight or touch). This can involve states of the world that are no longer or not yet real (historical and future thinking, including prediction and scenario thinking), fictional worlds, but also dimensions of the world that are real but simply not open to sensual experience (e.g., abstract ideas such as democracy, socio-ecological system or identity; real but inaccessible places like the deep ocean).
The ability to create mental images (Pelaprat and Cole, 2011) is often considered central to imagination, but the cognitive processes involved do a lot more, such as generating concepts, smells, sounds, stories, processes, emotions (O’Connor and Aardema, 2005) and combinations of these. The brain can not only create places in our mind (e.g., a planet not yet discovered), but it also allows a person to simulate the mental states of fictional characters, experience their emotions such as fear, jealousy or happiness. Imagination allows a person to hear non-existent sounds, or smell an ocean he or she has never seen.
Fiction writing as well as films can facilitate and boost such imagination processes, offering verbal and audio-visual source material for mental processes. Reading a fictional text stimulates and prods certain kinds of thoughts (mental representations), not only inviting the mind to generate certain images or to simulate a specific scene that relates to the words on paper, but guiding the reader’s mind through this process (Burke, 2010). When we watch a movie, the producers have done much of this imagination work for the viewers’ minds – they present images of a fictional world, characters with certain features, their voices, the places and environmental conditions they live in. Without these determinations, the mind would have to create rooms, spaces, facial features and body shapes, clothing and bird sound in the background without the clues provided by the movie’s visual and audio material.
More generally, imagination is a cognitive process that has to adhere to basic principles of cognitive functioning, primarily the tendency to maximize (emotional) coherence (Thagard, 2006). Research in cognitive science has demonstrated that most complex reasoning tasks are driven by a process of maximizing coherence between different aspects of a situation, e.g., different goals, data and evidence, motivations and past experience. It is based “on the Gestaltian tenet that human cognition is substantially affected by mutual interaction of the constituent elements of cognitive representations” (Simon et al., 2015, pp. 370–371). Maximizing coherence in such a system of interdependent mental representations was initially considered to be a ‘cold’ cognitive process, relying on fact-based analysis, evidence evaluation, probability assessments, analogies etc. More recently, coherence-based reasoning was shown to involve not only cold but also ‘hot’ cognitions, such as valences, liking and emotions. Theories of emotional coherence assert that social cognition is a process that integrates analytic as well as evaluative, motivational and emotional reactions to everyday situations (Pessoa, 2008).
More generally, coherence-based reasoning theories imply that certain combinations of ideas are possible or more likely to be generated by the mind, and others are not possible or less likely to emerge due to the interdependence of a variety of mental representations and their parallel activation. The drive towards mental coherence does not imply that the imagination has to be grounded in the sensible reality. For example, a mind is perfectly capable of entering a fictional world (e.g., being an avatar driver on planet Pandora) as long as the fictional world is emotionally coherent – it makes logical and emotional sense.
With regard to socio-climatic imaginaries, two dimensions of cognitive-individual imagination are particularly relevant: first, the ability to create sets of mental representations of what is not yet present – emotionally coherent belief systems of the future affected by changing social and climatic conditions, and second, the observed tendency of the brain to rely on memories of the past when trying to anticipate the future. The former is necessary to envision possible future states of the world that could be pursued or prevented. It provides the necessary motivation for strategic – goal-oriented – decision making in the present. Mentally exploring possible futures enables goal-setting, e.g., identifying future ways of life to avoid or forming the intention to create certain conditions, to develop certain technologies etc. Goals are a condition for strategic – goal-oriented – intentional action in the present; they enable an actor to identify sequences of actions and resources necessary to pursue and achieve goals. Envisioning futures also includes moral reasoning and can motivate a reconsideration of ethical principles in the present. Future-thinking inevitably entails a comparison to the present that can create motivational impulses, e.g., to preserve certain conditions or change a current trend.
The substance of future possibility thinking in the context of socio-climatic imaginaries has to involve a broad range of phenomena, including the concept of climate change itself, the physical-environmental processes one believes will unfold over the coming decades, their timing and interaction with each other. It further includes thoughts about the patterns of future social, economic, political and technological change. Both the imagination of environmental and social change require causality beliefs, (scientific) knowledge and a set of assumptions about the world (a mental model of change). Further, this kind of dynamic, long-term thinking has to pay attention to the multiple interactions (feedbacks) between environmental and social systems – a core insight of the global environmental change and resilience literature (Folke, 2006; Homer-Dixon et al., 2015; Smith and Stirling, 2010).
Today, such systemic imagination, paying attention to both changes in the physical world and the social world seems to take place only in the minds of artists. Climate fiction (cli-fi) books (Atwood, 2004; Bacigalupi, 2015; Turner, 1987) and movies (Nolan, 2014) tell stories and create images of worlds that have not merely been climatically changed, but whose characters, communities and societies have fundamentally altered in the process of grappling with climate change. These fictional accounts of possible futures play an important role in aiding their audiences’ imagination processes and offering opportunities to consider and evaluate these visions and their various dimensions of (un)desirability when considered as real-world trajectories.
The second relevant dimension of imagination – the link between memory and anticipation – serves as a constraint to emotionally coherent future-thinking. Imagining the future and remembering the past involve the same brain regions (Weiler et al., 2010a, 2010b; Viard et al., 2011), indicating an important link between these two forms of mental time travel. If Buckner and Carroll are correct when suggesting (2007, p. 49) that “past experiences are used adaptively to imagine perspectives and events beyond those that emerge from the immediate environment,” the past might serve to both enable and constrain the kinds of futures that humans can envision at a particular time (Mullally and Maguire, 2013; Schacter et al., 2012; Viard et al., 2011). This historical-contextual lens offers clues on the nature and boundaries of imagination. But it also means that the imagination can be expanded by creating novel experiences – adding to the storehouse of memory – even if such experiences are fictional, for example, based on reading a (climate) fiction novel or watching a movie.
2. Social-collective Imagination
Imagination is not only cognitive but also a social phenomenon, in two distinct senses. First, individual imagination occurs in a social (and natural) environment, and is shaped by communication with other people, symbolism, shared behaviors and institutions, and a diverse set of experiences and observations of nature. The brain does not work in isolation; it is an open system, receiving continual input from its surroundings and providing feedback to those surroundings through decisions and actions. This social environment includes all other people we interact with (family, social networks), but also institutions like the state, borders and markets, companies, artwork, technology, music or news media. Non-human environments – nature – can influence the imagination, too: our experience of or interactions with plants and animals, flooding rivers, disappearing lakes, and rising oceans, soil, mountains and glaciers, weather, climate and seasons, volcanic eruptions, a starry night sky. Those social and environmental contexts, to a large extent, determine the part of the world that is visible to us and therefore imposes certain ideas about reality, possibility and probability. Hence, individual future thinking as outlined above is highly contextual. Beyond the social environmental context there is also an ideational context. That includes history – dominant narratives of past events and how they are linked to the present that provide important guidelines and constraints for interpreting political events and conditions in the present. Scientific knowledge is another important contextual element, especially for climate change politics: What do we know about the state of nature (i.e., the climate system), how certain are we about that knowledge, what is it we don’t know, and what does this knowledge tell us about possible futures, risks and opportunities?
Second, social processes can generate, change or suppress, collective imaginations – shared ideas of the present or the future. The variety of social processes involved in collective imagination is huge, including all forms of communication, collective action and decision-making, partaking in professional activities or civic duties, attending an art exhibit, watching the news or going on a cruise. Consuming popular culture, including reading climate fiction, becomes a social, rather than individual-cognitive, process of imagination when the reader starts to talk about the book with their friends, when she reads a book review in the newspaper or when she comments on the story online. Once book-related ideas enter the communication process between multiple individuals, they can contribute to collective meaning-making processes with regard to possible futures. The story becomes an anchor point for conversations, questions of possibility, morality, risk tolerance, scientific uncertainty and so forth.
The products of these collective processes have been called imaginaries, As Kim and Jasanoff (Jasanoff and Kim, 2015) seek to demonstrate, these joint imaginations can generate both change and stability in social systems; they have the potential to (re-)direct collective behaviors, institutions and structures.
Scholarship on sustainable development has also recognized the importance of collective imagination for transformations in research on visioning processes. Constanza, for example, argued (2000, p. 5), “The most critical task facing humanity today is the creation of a shared vision of a sustainable and desirable society”. Similarly, Wiek and Iwaniec wrote (2013, p. 1) that “positive visions about our societies’ future are an influential, if not indispensable, stimulus for change. […] Visions direct planning, decisions, actions and behavior.” However, this work does not explore how such visioning or future-thinking takes place in larger societal contexts, outside of the constraints of participatory sustainability research projects, and how the imaginations produced in visioning-processes affect or contribute to processes of transformation.
While the existence of such shared ideational constructs – socio-climatic imaginaries, visions – is almost uncontested, they present a range of conceptual and definitional challenges. What is the nature of an imaginary and where in a social system does it ‘reside’? Many scholars have claimed to have identified imaginaries of various kinds, and observed their manifestations in written text, decisions, objects and institutions. But there is no single location of the imaginary in its entirety, and its existence, also its content, seem to depend on the perceptions of the individual observer. How do we know that an imaginary is shared, and who is part of the group that shares it? Futures scholars use workshops (e.g., scenario development or back-casting) to generate shared ideas about possible futures in small groups. But what exactly happens that allows participants to share new ideas, and how does this work in society?
These are questions about the nature of ideas that cognitive science can help answer. At the heart of these questions is the relationship between the individual and his cognitive processes on the one hand, and the social group, including what the group collectively believes, on the other. How do individual ideas become a shared, social reality? And how does a shared belief affect an individual group member?
In the previous section, I argued that the individual mind can be conceptualized as a network of mental representations of concepts, ideas, images etc. Meaning emerges from the absence and presence of links between network nodes, and the parallel activation of multiple nodes through these links. This network is subject to certain rules and principles. The most important principle is emotional coherence, which imposes certain constraints on the kinds of thoughts that occur in a certain situation and the kinds of belief systems that are possible. The ideas in a belief system are not a random collection, but interdependent – they make sense due to their relationship to each other. Figure 1 illustrates this conceptualization of individual cognition as coherent networks of mental representations in a highly-simplified fashion. The individual’s mental network, here consisting of only three nodes, is the same in two distinct situations: when thinking or reading, without interacting with other individuals.
Groups do not have a group brain that has collective mental representations. However, each individual belonging to a group can develop mental representations that he attributes to the group (including mental representations of the group itself, its characteristics, members, activities, norms, etc.) or that he believes – based on the information he receives from his social environment – are shared by many members of the group. As a group member, the individual is part of and contributes to a broad range of social and communication processes that allow each member to share and discuss ideas and values, to learn about reality, to contest, refine and agree on what is desirable and undesirable. These communication processes include dinner-table and water-cooler conversations, Facebook posts, reading newspapers, book club meetings, and protesting. Over time, these social processes can result in the convergence of mental representations of multiple individuals. Such convergence – the development of similar networks of mental representations across many minds – facilitates the emergence of shared or collective beliefs. Once a certain threshold has been reached, i.e., enough members of the group are perceived to hold a certain belief or value, it takes on the status of a shared belief or value (Milkoreit and Mock, 2014). The concept of collective cognition is illustrated in Figure 2, which shows multiple individuals interacting while having the same cognitive patterns – here, represented as a simple conceptual network containing three nodes. The figure shows two distinct interaction settings: a meeting and conversation between two individuals and a meeting or dinner-table conversation between three individuals. These are contexts where each individual receives information from others and can share ideas with others, contributing to the continuous process of mental convergence in a group.
Of course, a huge number of variables influences this process of idea convergence and competition, from neural firing to language (the availability of words or the use of them, such as framing or rhetoric), to social networks (i.e., who interacts with whom), the availability of knowledge (i.e., the state of science), technology as a tool for communication (i.e., what can be and is communicated and represented), institutions that structure social processes, including markets and elections, etc. Climate fiction books and movies are part of these processes and structures, e.g., providing language and terminology, containing lessons about science, being tweeted about, being sold online, etc.
Importantly, shared beliefs are subject to the same rules as individual beliefs: they exist in systems of emotionally coherent ideas that cannot be changed randomly (Milkoreit and Mock, 2014). At the same time, different groups will develop different sets of shared ideas that often compete in a political environment. The non-convergence of ideas between different group is a key driver for political conflict and contestation.
Applying these insights to the challenge of creating shared imaginations of the future among many members of a society, the socio-climatic imaginary is no longer a distributed phenomenon that depends on the subjective interpretation of an observer. The imaginary is a system of emotionally coherent ideas about the future that exist (as mental representations) in the minds of the members of a group, and can be studied as neural, cognitive and emotional processes as well as social and communication processes.
The socio-climate imaginary as a system of interdependent ideas can motivate behaviors and decisions, and becomes a material and institutional reality through various enactments. For example, imaginaries can motivate individuals to start engaging in new behaviors (e.g., to join the Transition Town movement) or learn new skills (e.g., growing food using hydroponic technology); they might motivate entrepreneurs to adapt technologies for novel purposes and start organizations; they might motivate governments to favor certain technologies over others.
Socio-climatic imaginaries are also dynamic cognitive-social phenomena – changing over time. Even more importantly, different groups can have different – conflicting – socio-climatic imaginaries, depending on their shared set of ideas and values concerning the present and the future. For example, in the United States, the conservative business-as-usual fossil-fuel powered imaginary of a future where climate change is a non-issue has so far been politically more successful than a liberal socio-climatic imaginary that relies on renewable energy, community-based adaptation and urban resilience. This inherently value-laden and hence political nature of the imaginary is what drives the politics of future-making.
3. Challenges and constraints
Defining imagination as multilevel cognitive-social processes implies a range of constraints on the substance of imagination. At the cognitive level, some things might simply not be imaginable, or at least not at this point in time. Borrowing from Stuart Kauffman (Kauffman, 2000), some ideas may lie beyond the ‘adjacent possible,’ making them inaccessible to the mind at this point in history. The bounds of imagination are hard to define – by definition every thought we have lies within them and our minds are not able to access ideas beyond them. The current reality is clearly not the boundary of the imaginable, otherwise we would not be able to think of alternative realities, develop utopias or dystopias, or create novel ideas. Yet, there might be limits to possibility thinking given existing patterns of knowledge, experience, power and patterns of social, economic, cultural, political and technological existence and the possibility space they create. For example, 50 years ago, it would not have been possible for anybody to imagine a Bitcoin trade or a Presidential tweet. These ideas entered the possibility space of imagination only with the emergence of new technologies and new social and economic activities. Similarly, 50 years from now, other things will be imaginable that my mind is simply not able to conjure today because the required social, material and corresponding cognitive resources are not yet available.
When it comes to socio-climatic imaginaries, we collectively attempt to create shared meaning about non-existent things: futures that have not yet come to pass. That often requires the use of scientific information as a source of ideas about future environmental change, theories of change to grapple with possible social change, and the interaction between these two (i.e., what kinds of societal change could be triggered by changing environmental conditions). Scientific knowledge and what is knowable play a major role in determining what the brain is capable of conceiving, constructing and designing. But science as an information source has important limitations. The literature on science communication and knowledge politics highlights some of these limitations, pointing, for example, to problems of access, synthesis, learning, cultural cognition and political manipulation (Grundmann, 2007; Kahan et al., 2011; Lindkvist and Norberg, 2014; Meyer, 2010; Milkoreit, 2015; Sarewitz, 2011).
Further, despite the existing work in futures research, the scientific and social processes for engaging with the future (e.g., scenario workshops, foresight and back-casting methods) tend to be available only to a very limited number of individuals, reducing the breadth and diversity of ideas developed, but also concentrating imagination capacity and power in the hands of a few. Individuals who have the opportunity to engage in future-thinking processes tend to be in privileged and often powerful positions: small groups of high-level managers with strategic responsibility in large corporations, policy-makers or elected officials and scientists. The imaginations of these individuals tend to be more influential in guiding the direction of a social system than the imaginations of citizens. Even in the exceptional case that researchers engage a diverse group of citizens in future-thinking processes (Felt et al., 2014; Macnaghten, 2010; Tompkins et al., 2008), these exercises are naturally limited to a few dozen, maybe a few hundred, participants.
Books and movies change the logic of imagination as an elite privilege linked to resource and time limitations. A climate fiction story or movie is accessible to large public audiences (Miller and Bennett, 2008, p. 597). Regardless of profession, position of authority, geography or political orientation, fiction offers the same imaginative opportunities to all individuals who share the work’s language.
The brain’s tendency to maximize cognitive-emotional coherence (Thagard 2006) within any given worldview (Kahan 2012; Homer-Dixon et al., 2014) might also limit the imagination – our minds might reject or not even allow into our consciousness ideas that clash with our current views of the world, how it is and how it ought to be, because they are a major source of incoherence. As long as they don’t fit into the ways we currently can conceive of the world, they are disturbing and unproductive. Making these disruptive ideas coherent with our current worldviews, including pathway ideas that explain how our society might reasonably transition from the current reality to the imagined one, will require meaning-making work, immense tolerance for sustained mental incoherence and a keen intention to explore all elements of such possible futures – not just possible technologies or adaptive behaviors, but different forms of social organization, governance, sets of values, possible identities, professions, family structures and ways of life.
Finally, it is important to recognize that reality itself – the way societies, economies and cultures are organized and experienced today as well as the ways in which technologies facilitate experience of the natural and social world – serves as a major constraint on the imagination of alternative future realities (Wright et al., 2013). We suffer from what could be called, “hardening of the categories” – the reification of understandings and practices (Wapner and Elver, 2016, chap. 1). Things that exist heavily shape what we understand to be possible, desirable, and ultimately, what is mentally conceivable (Milkoreit, 2016, p. 175). For example, the presence (and past success) of capitalism makes it seemingly impossible to conceive of a post-capitalistic or non-capitalistic world, especially when considering the failure of other models, such as the planned economy. Where are alternative models supposed to come from? Whose mind is capable of constructing them?
To sum up, social imagination refers to the multiple external influences on an individual’s mental processes but is also the arena in which a person intervenes in social processes (based on their mental processes) and contributes to the collective meaning-making processes with regard to the future. This multi-scale, cognitive-social conception of imagination offers a more refined understanding of the nature of the imaginary as a coherent and interdependent set of ideas about the future that is shared by a large number of people who have developed convergent mental representations over time through their social and environmental interactions.
IV. The politics of imagination
Jasanoff emphasizes (Jasanoff, 2015b) that the collective dynamics of imagining the future are inherently political. When generating and propagating an imaginary, actors lay claims to the future, seeking to create a future that suits their interests and represents their values. Hence, creating and contesting imaginaries is a political act of shaping the change trajectory of a social system. In order to understand this process of future-making, the relevant political actors and their respective interests need to be identified, as well as their sources of power and influence, and ultimately their strategies for creating and enacting an imaginary.
1. Political actors as imaginary makers
A diverse range of political actors and institutions co-produce and reify socio-climatic imaginaries in interaction with natural systems; for example, using extreme-weather events as signifiers of change to come. These actors can include elected officials, government agencies, corporations, scientists and scientific organizations, social movements, and artists. Each actor type relies on a specific set of power, resources and strategies, which are rooted in the current system. Depending on these political resources, strategies for influencing politics of future-making differs, ranging from the publication of visioning documents, lobbying for and against policies, sponsoring legislation, conducting science, to writing and publishing stories. These strategies condition the success of each imaginary in the competition among different constructions of the future.
At the global scale, socio-climatic imaginaries for humanity and the planet are created by international organizations, most importantly the UNFCCC, their representatives, diplomats, transnational networks, corporate actors and NGOs. Recently, some international organizations have begun to use unconventional ways to communicate climate change in their efforts to change the global imaginary. For example, the World Meteorological Organization has produced a series of short videos presenting fictional weather reports from different countries in the year 2050: “WMO Weather Reports 2050” (World Meteorological Organization, n.d.). This is an interesting strategy, combining scientific knowledge about likely climatic changes, video technology and the Internet, to shape the way people around the world imagine their climatic future or that of their children. The World Bank has collaborated with film director and producer James Cameron and used his climate change documentary “Years of Living Dangerously” to draw attention to climate change (Cameron, 2014). The UNFCCC has initiated projects like the Momentum for Change initiative: “By shining light on the most inspiring and transformational mitigation and adaptation activities, known as ‘Lighthouse Activities’, Momentum for Change aims to strengthen motivation, spur innovation and catalyze further change towards a low-emission, high-resilient future” (UNFCCC, n.d.).
At the national scale, important actors include presidents and other individual leaders (e.g. Jasanoff and Kim traced nuclear imaginaries to Presidential speeches), government departments and regulatory agencies, institutions like markets, schools and universities, companies and industry associations, interest groups, social movements, or people coming together for a protest. One actor group is often ignored in political analysis: artists, art producers and what one could call the “makers of culture.” While these individuals and groups hardly ever take a political stance, their work, e.g., books, music, movies, TV shows, can reach millions of minds, aided by technology and mass media. In 2016, Leonardo DiCaprio, named the United Nations Ambassador of Peace, in collaboration with the National Geographic Channel, released a documentary entitled “After the Flood”. Given the actor’s popularity and the international reach of the medium he chose to communicate about climate change, this documentary has the potential to influence the beliefs of millions of people around the world. Combing ‘star power’ and structural power – material wealth, networks in the centers of American cultural production, access to political and economic leaders – Leonardo DiCaprio exercised a unique form of power, flying under the radar of mainstream political science.
As the DiCaprio example and many others (e.g., James Cameron’s Years of Living Dangerously, Avatar, Wall-E) show, each actor type makes use of different kinds of power, using specific strategic and action options available to them. Presidents give speeches, courts issue rulings, agencies regulate, markets offer products and services, NGOs stage actions, authors publish books, actors and producers make movies. Often their interventions are tied to their resources and structural position, determining, along with other factors, how powerful both the actors and their actions are.
2. Power
Different forms of power can be distinguished. International relations scholars have built on Dahl’s behavioral-coercive definition of power (1957, p. 202) – “getting someone to do something they would not have done otherwise” – to explore ‘hard’ power differentials between state actors. The larger a state’s economy, military and natural resources, the more able it is to pursue its self-interest by forcing its will upon others. Coercion and behavior control are not the most useful approaches when it comes to generating a shared set of ideas about the future within a certain community. However, the idea that material-economic wealth can be translated into political influence is important in this context, and applies not only to states, but also non-state actors. For example, money can buy influence in a political system that permits the financial incentivization of political decision makers through campaign finance regulations.
This kind of system-enabled influence can also be called structural power, a concept introduced by Susan Strange, who asserts (1996, p. 53) that “Power… is to be gauged by influence over outcomes rather than mere possession of capabilities or control over institutions.” She explores the opportunities and constraints of influence embedded in a certain constellation of institutions and norms (Bachrach and Baratz, 1970, chap. 1). Both a Marxist and a Neo-Gramscian perspective emphasize that such structural power is often tied to material wealth: those who own and control the means of (knowledge) production, heavily influence to what purpose a system can be used, i.e., what kinds of imaginaries can be generated and popularized within it (Cox, 1996).
Borrowing from sociology, the constructivist turn in political science introduced the concept of constitutive (rather than regulative) rules and along with that the concept of ideational power. Social constructivists argue that intersubjectively shared ideas could be the source of social change. Control over the process of meaning-making is a form of ideational (also discursive) power (Bachrach and Baratz, 1970, chap. 3; Ruggie, 1998; Wendt, 1992). Wielding ideational power, for example, to reshape a group’s identity, moral norms or policy preferences does not always require material resources. Therefore, this form of power is available to a broader range of political actors, including transnational activist networks (Keck and Sikkink, 1998), epistemic communities (Haas, 1989), and fiction authors. Ideational power, understood as the ability to create new ideas and motivations in actors’ minds, might be the most relevant for the purpose of making and unmaking imaginaries.
Power is a key element of the political structure, but deserves being singled out as a possible constraint on collective imagination. The distribution of material (e.g., financial), structural and ideational power determines who is able to create and suppress certain kinds of thinking about the present, the possible, and the desirable. For example, alliances of conservative actors in the US have been able to leverage their financial resources to shape the American climate discourse, keeping it focused on the question whether climate change is a problem rather than how to address it (McCright and Dunlap, 2003; Oreskes and Conway, 2011). Further, these actors have created new forms of structural power by establishing think tanks and news outlets that constantly produce and distribute material on climate change (e.g., reports, books, news articles, commentary on TV), placing doubts on the reality of the problem or the ability of humans to do something about it (Jacques et al., 2008).
3. Structure and agency
The political structure serves as enabler and constraint of collective imagination in multiple ways. Within the given structure, political actors can shape collective imagination processes only to the extent their resources and structural power allow them to. For example, institutions and their processes can create or close down imagination opportunities by dedicating time and resources to exploring the future. Further, a particular distribution and mobilization of power in the political system can protect and advance certain ideas about the future, e.g., that the economy would collapse without fossil fuels.
In certain situations, the political context might be too constrained to allow the imagination to flourish. For example, if actors do not possess sufficient knowledge about climate change or do not face any challenges that incentivize them to address the problem, they are unlikely to engage in a collective process of imagining solutions.
A range social of factors, such as poverty and crisis, may also depress imagination. Economically disadvantaged people not only have fewer resources and less time to engage in future thinking (e.g., by buying and reading fiction or going to the movies), their imaginations will also have a different substantive focus. Apart from such context- and resource-driven constraints on the imagination, some actors might actively seek to suppress specific kinds of imaginaries or imagination in general.
Too much political context might strangle the imagination, leading all participants to similar, obvious conclusions. This process can be observed in the UNFCCC, where the only solutions discussed have to take the form of an international agreement – a body of text – distributing the burdens and benefits of climate action, arrived at through well-known processes and rules of international negotiations. Other forms of communicating, interacting, thinking and solving are not possible within the highly contextualized environment of the UNFCCC. Even conceiving of alternatives to the UNFCCC, e.g., a ‘minilateral’ (Eckersley, 2012) or club approach (Weischer et al., 2012), is anathema to many of its participants.
Institutional processes and their flexibility determine to a large extent where imagination can take place and what kind of imagination is permitted. Imagination requires time and space – literally, places where people can interact to think and talk about the future. Political, economic or scientific Institutions can create these conditions, and deploy “techniques of futurity” (Yusoff and Gabrys, 2011) in support of developing new ideas about possible and desirable futures. Different institutions can do so in different ways, leveraging their convening power (e.g., networks), their expertise (e.g., scientific knowledge), or their financial resources to design imagination processes. Most institutions do not consider this kind of activity a part of their mission, making institutional processes a major constraint for the development of socio-climatic imaginaries.
V. Case studies: Fiction and the politics of the future
Jasanoff (2015b, p. 337) refers to science fiction as a “repository of sociotechnical imaginaries, visions that integrate futures of growing knowledge and technological mastery with normative assessments of what such futures could and should mean for present-day societies.” Similarly, Miller and Bennett (Miller and Bennett, 2008) argue that the narrative-based stories of science fiction offer useful tools for long-term thinking about technology and constructing futures. This points to a potentially powerful and, so far, not well-understood source of novelty when it comes to the political imagination. Art and cultural phenomena can provide important inputs to or triggers for political imagination processes. Many books and movies in the past have had this effect, for example, Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World (Huxley, 1932), George Orwell’s 1984 (Orwell, 1949), or Neville Shute’s On the Beach (Shute, 1957).
Human geographers have long taken an interest in fiction writing too, exploring what they call literary geographies or geographical imaginations – in essence, the role of place in imagined worlds, and what it can tell us about the condition of modern society. Among the few authors in this field who are interested in the political implications of such place-based imagination of the future, Strauss studies the spatial relationship between climate fiction and collective imaginations of political transformations (Strauss, 2014). She usefully points out that all imagination of the future has to be situated in particular places, where both imagined environmental and social dynamics can play out – imagination requires geography. Yusoff and Gabrys are not interested in specific places, but also link imagination to the material world. They define (2011, p. 516) imagination “as a way of seeing, sensing, thinking, and dreaming that creates the conditions for material interventions in and political sensibilities of the world”.
These existing approaches to imagination do not engage with the cognitive and political theories I have begun to sketch above. The cognitive power of story and the ability of fiction to provide real-world learning and to facilitate cognitive change (i.e., belief revision in individual minds) are central mechanisms in the processes that Jasanoff, Strauss, and Yusoff and Gabrys describe. When political imagination triggered by a fictional storyline is conceived as a process of complex cognition, we can develop a number of hypotheses concerning the kinds of effects a story can have on which kind of reader and why. For example, given the complexities of a story and the complexity and diversity of readers’ belief systems, it is unlikely that any story will have the same effect on all its readers’ minds. The interaction between the story and a reader’s existing beliefs can produce a variety of cognitive processes, opening a range of interesting research questions concerning this response diversity and its explanations. For example, it is possible that politically conservative readers respond differently to a specific utopian climate fiction novel than liberal readers do. One can also hypothesize that the reader’s identity, for example, as a parent or a professional, including his or her place-based identity, will mediate the cognitive effects of a story. For example, readers living in the place of the fictional story (e.g., a coastal city) will respond differently than those who do not share place-based experiences with the fictional characters (e.g., readers living in a rural town in the Midwest).
In addition to these direct cognitive effects of a story on its individual reader, a novel can influence social-political processes in multiple ways. It can enter public, political discourse through reactions in print and social media, on radio and television, and in book reviews and commentaries. Book club discussions and dinner table conversations also contribute to collective processes of discussing, critiquing, adapting, rejecting or embracing the imaginaries presented in a speculative or climate fiction novel. All of these forms of communication, from a Tweet or a chat at the water cooler to a discussion on NPR’s Science Friday, are significant components according to Mansbridge’s theory of deliberative systems (Mansbridge, 1999; Parkinson and Mansbridge, 2012). Politics is not only a matter of legislative debates and presidential speeches; it is a part of everyday life. Some novels are able to enter this everyday sphere of political deliberation more easily than others. For example, Atwood’s MaddAddam trilogy is currently being adapted for an HBO TV series with the potential to reach millions of viewers in addition to the millions of readers of the books (Vineyard, 2014).
Not only books or stories, but also fiction authors can be conceived of as political agents of change, and not only because representing a possible future in the present is a political act that invites and challenges citizens and decision-makers to respond to these cues. Beyond writing and publishing a story that can serve as an ideational resource for the process of societal imaginary-making, authors can and do contribute to public and political discourse. They give public lectures, speeches, and interviews; they write commentaries in newspapers and magazines, and they use social media. These contributions are particularly powerful if the author has reached celebrity status with many thousand followers. Margaret Atwood and Kim Stanley Robinson are good examples for such authors with star power and an environmentally-oriented political agenda.
However, beyond these various strategies of using their ideational-discursive power, authors (and their stories) have limited resources and opportunities to influence politics. Importantly, their power is to a large extent constrained by other actors and economic structures that determine which stories are being published, and which ones remain unknown on hard drives and in desk drawers. As Bacigalupi notes in an interview on WIRED, “Novelists want to be published and need a publisher to decide to print 20,000 copies. So you need to entertain on some level” (Rogers, 2015). Publishers and editors are the gatekeepers of story power, although self-publishing is increasingly popular. Their policies and decisions are embedded in the global political economy of book markets – a powerful structural constraint on any author. Technology is another important variable that shapes the political power of fiction authors and their stories. For example, changing technologies for distributing and reading stories (e.g., the e-book, self-publishing etc.) can increase authors’ reach, circumventing the gate-keeping power of print publishers.
1. Two stories
Paolo Bacigalupi’s The Water Knife (2015) is a thriller set in the near future in the American Southwest, where dwindling water supplies have dramatically changed (transformed) the social, economic and political fabric of the country. With waning federal influence, the Western states have closed their borders to environmental migrants from the East and are increasingly governed by corporations and militias. The cities of Phoenix and Las Vegas are on very different development paths with the latter increasingly cutting off water from the former. One major difference between the two cities is that one has chosen to rely on long-term data and careful planning, while the other has not. However, the success of Las Vegas is not only based on data-smarts, but also on a culture of political corruption and violence. The city engages in intimidation, coercion and even violent activities to appropriate its water from surrounding cities and farmers. The use of force is an important instrument in the city-state’s efforts to preserve its future. While luxurious ‘arcologies’ spring up in Las Vegas, flaunting their technology-driven ability to produce food and recycle air and water, Phoenix is running dry. Citizens can buy water at Chinese pumps with erratic prices and drink water recycled from their own urine in ‘clearsacs’. Against the backdrop of widening class differences, growing poverty and ecological calamity, the lives of three protagonists intersect when rumors of a vast new water source emerge in Phoenix. Angel Velasquez – the “Water Knife” – is a hired assassin and spy working for Catherine Case, an executive of the Southern Nevada Water Authority. Lucy Monroe, a gritty East Coast journalist, cannot help but stay put in Phoenix and report on the fate of the city, its inhabitants and victims. Maria Villarosa is a young refugee from Texas, struggling to survive in a parched, hot and increasingly dangerous city.
Green Earth (2015) is the abridged version of Kim Stanley Robinson’s ‘The Science in the Capital Trilogy,’ published between 2004 and 2007. While The Water Knife offers a regional-scale narrative, Green Earth is national and even international in scope. Robinson’s book leads the reader through a process of sustainable civilization building, triggered by a set of abrupt climate catastrophes, including a major storm and flooding of Washington, D.C., a coastal deep freeze, and the stalling of the Gulf Stream. Except for the last example, all of these are reminiscent of events in the US over the last five years (e.g., Hurricane Sandy in 2012; Polar Vortex in 2013–14). This complicated and often frustrating process of developing solutions to climate change involves not only changing mindsets about climate change and related societal values, but a complicated set of often radical changes in political and scientific institutions, a reallocation of resources, the revamping of organizations and the development of new technologies (in particular a range of geo-engineering technologies), a new focus on equity and lots of international cooperation. In short, the protagonists are engaged in a process of deliberate transformation, restructuring the existing social, political, institutional and technological fabric. What fuels this utopian scenario is a marriage of science and politics. These two concepts are represented by the two main characters (Frank Vanderwal is a scientist from California temporarily seconded to the National Science Foundation (NSF) and Charlie Quibler is a climate policy advisor to a Democratic Senator running for President), and the story ends with a literal marriage between the Senator, who is elected as President of the United States, and the National Science Advisor he appoints.
2. Two imaginaries
The two books offer two very distinct visions of the future. Bacigalupi’s ‘broken future’ depicts a dark world of hardship, struggle and inequality that is the result of past mistakes, mismanagement and waste of water resources, and the negligent ignorance of previous warning signs. In a WIRED interview (Rogers, 2015) the author says: “I write extrapolations. I look at data points and ask what the world could look like”. Conceivably, the newly parched and harsh Western frontier he describes in The Water Knife is simply the result of the continuation of present trends – sprawling cities in the desert that exist and continue to grow, water consumption without regard for its increasingly limited supply, and climate change affecting the region’s hydrology, especially the flow of the Colorado River. On National Public Radio Bacigalupi explains that “this world is built on the assumption that people don’t plan, don’t think and don’t cooperate – which makes for a pretty bad future!” (NPR, 2015). The world of water knives, arcologies and climate refugees forced into prostitution serves as a warning of possible, but avoidable things to come. It demarcates a place in the future that Americans, especially Arizonans, would want to avoid. In Bacigalupi’s words (quoted in Rogers, 2015): “Almost every one of the futures I have is not one that any of the characters would have chosen for themselves. They’re always like, goddamn, if we’d just done something different a little further back”.
The key lessons to be found between the lines of The Water Knife are most relevant for US citizens living in the Southwest, but in particular for city officials, planners and water managers in the region. While he cannot control who reads his book, Bacigalupi wants his audience to consider the potential effects of not acting on climate change in the present and the massive future implications for human wellbeing. He shows them around their home city in the not-too-distant future, points to deteriorating class relations, vastly declined human health and happiness when compared with today, and to uncontrolled crime and violence. Most importantly, the author elevates the role of water in everyday life and draws his readers’ attention to visible signs of change today. As he explains in an interview with the Imagination and Climate Futures Initiative (ICF) at Arizona State University, he wants his readers to recognize that Lake Mead’s bathtub ring is not just picturesque but terrifying: “… once somebody closes the book and returns to this present moment, I hope they will look at the world differently. … the present moment will be recontextualized for them” (Imagination and Climate Futures Initiative, 2016a). He also implies that decision-making can make a big difference for the kind of futures we create: “When I was writing The Water Knife one of the things I wanted to do was model two different versions of a city. Las Vegas has said, the data doesn’t look good, let’s start planning. Phoenix says, maybe it won’t be as bad. And Phoenix is devastated.”
In Robinson’s world, the protagonists also struggle with climate change, but at a point in time when there is still a chance to prevent ‘a broken Phoenix’. Extreme events, such as a major flood of Washington D.C., offer warning signs of things to come – short glimpses into a possible future – but they take place at the beginning of a period of impending change, rather than at the end. If Bacigalupi’s Phoenix experienced warning signs, they happened long before the story takes place and were ignored. In Robinson’s Green Earth, Washington, D.C., and the United States still have options to shape the way they will live with the effects of climate change. The protagonists’ decisions will determine whether climate-driven changes might break the city (and the country), or whether they manage to change the trajectory climate change has put them on. In other words, their task is a deliberative transformation of the social-political system at a national, even international scale. Through their use of scientific knowledge and technology, their redirection of existing organizations, as well as their commitments to equity and cooperation, they succeed in coordinating what scholars would call a process of transformational change.
Green Earth is a story about human triumph, technological prowess, lots of cooperation and planning, but also reason and rationality. What is important is that solutions in Robinson’s future do not emerge magically from a well-functioning market; they have to be created through the strategic effort of a large set of actors that are not driven by a profit motive. Utterly optimistic about the ability of individuals and existing American institutions of science and politics to change the current direction, the author offers lessons about pathway thinking, complex systems, human-nature interactions and social change, all with the aim of showing the reader how the world could get from the present to a sustainable future. He mirrors a range of insights from the scholarship on deliberate social-ecological transformations.
3. Utopia vs. dystopia
In an interview with The Atlantic (Beauchamp, 2013), Kim Stanley Robinson outlines what he considers the social functions of science (or climate) fiction:
“Science fiction can be regarded as a kind of future-scenarios modeling, in which some course of history is pursued as a thought experiment, starting from now and moving some distance off into the future. … it is a way of thinking about what we’re doing now, also where we may be going, and, crucially, where we should try to go, or try to avoid going. Thus the famous utopian or dystopian aspects of science fiction.”
Bacigalupi’s dystopian Southwest and Robinson’s utopian Washington, D.C. are very different attempts at emotional engagement with their readers. The Water Knife, while thrilling and entertaining to read, subtly works with fear, disgust and concern. As the author describes it in an interview: “What I am aiming to provoke is a sense of anxiety” (Imagination and Climate Futures Initiative, 2016b). He hopes that this anxiety translates into an awareness and understanding of the warning signs of climate change in the readers’ present environment. Ultimately, Bacigalupi seeks to mobilize his readers for actions that avoid his broken future. He states:
“Without question, I have a certain agenda and a certain set of ideas that I want people to experience more deeply and viscerally because they’re highly abstract. I can play out a thought experiment through fiction, which is the only way we have to engage with people’s lives that aren’t our own. Here’s a version of our lives in the future. Theoretically you now have the opportunity to make different decisions and vote for different politicians. Climate change is a giant unforced error.” (Rogers, 2015)
Robinson’s emotional engagement strategy is very different. In contrast to Bacigalupi’s warning signs of current movements towards a broken future (“look for mistakes to avoid”), he offers pathway thinking that leads into a desirable future (“here’s one way to do it”). In a podcast on his most recent novel New York 2140 (Molinsky, n.d.), Robinson argues that dystopian fiction can induce complacency and paralysis among readers instead of alarm and activity. He contrasts his intentions with those of dystopian writers: “… to the extent that I am a science-fiction writer pushing for something, instead of showing the bad ways, the warning sign, I am showing some positive ways as encouragements, that we should try for this.” Speaking about emotions in another interview in 2015, he argues that “Dystopias express our fears and utopias express our hopes. Fear is a very intense and dramatic emotion. Hope is more fragile, but it’s very stubborn and persistent.” Working with the fragility of hope, he insists “that science fiction in general, and my work in particular, is about what could happen if we did things right” (Molinsky, n.d.).
While both authors invite the reader to “see” the present differently in order to start doing things differently, they leverage different messages and motivations: warning and fear contrast with encouragement and hope. Robinson believes that ultimately, both utopian and dystopian fiction have the same purpose:
“Science fiction … presents possibilities, which together make a range of potentiality. When we see the full range of potentials by reading a lot of science fiction, we can figure out better what we should be trying for as a society now. Thus I think all science fiction has a utopian underpinning, in that it’s a tool of human thought for deciding on current actions to make a better world for our descendants. Even the dystopias are part of that, by way of their warnings.” (Molinsky, n.d.)
4. Parallel strategies
While Bacigalupi and Robinson create very different futures in their books, their imaginary-making strategies beyond storytelling are rather similar. Both engage in public discourse on climate change using social and conventional media channels. Bacigalupi is particularly active on Twitter (@paolobacigalupi) and maintains a very dynamic website (www.windupstories.com). Robinson relies more on public speaking and publishing essays. Both have appeared on public radio to discuss their books; they have even had joint appearances to discuss their different approaches to future storytelling. Both accept public speaking engagements, and interact with researchers at American universities. Robinson has given multiple conference speeches, including on “Rethinking our Relationship to the Biosphere” (Bioneers, 2015) and on “Valuing the Earth and Future Generations: Imagining Post-Capitalism” (Center for Values in Medicine, Science, and Technology, 2012). Bacigalupi has given a public lecture at Arizona State University on “Deliberate Dystopias: Uncovering our Climate Futures” (2015). Through these various forms of public communication, they not only promote the sales of their books, but repeatedly create links between their stories and the present social and political conditions. They actively encourage their audience to make those connections and to rethink their decisions and behaviors in light of these linkages.
VI. Conclusion
Deliberative transformations require imagination. This paper has introduced a multiscale theory of imagination as interdependent cognitive-social processes that can synchronize individual beliefs about the future to create collective imaginaries. The diverse cognitive processes of imagination, i.e., the generation of mental representations of the non-perceivable or non-real, is subject to certain principles of cognitive functioning, most importantly, the tendency to maximize emotional coherence. Emotional coherence theories assert that cognitive processes including imagination integrate analytic (‘cold’) as well as evaluative and emotional (‘hot’) components. The paper highlighted two particularly important dimensions – opportunities and constraints –of individual-cognitive imagination: the ability to generate mental representations of possible futures, and the brain’s reliance on memories of the past to generate such not-yet realities in the mind. These abilities and limitations enable and constrain future-oriented goal setting and (strategic) goal pursuit, which are essential components of social change. The social processes of imagination involve a mutual influence between an individual and a group. Individual imagination always takes place in a social context, and is shaped by interactions with other people, institutions, and built, technological and natural environments. And then there are collective imagination processes through which collectives come to share beliefs, fears and desired with regard to the future. The result of these social processes of imagination – coherent sets of shared ideas about the future – are imaginaries. This cognitive-social understanding of imagination opens up the concept of the imaginary to empirical study with a broader set of approaches than is currently reflected in the literature.
Drawing on the well-established concept of the imaginary as the product of collective thinking about the future, and applying it to climate change, I have defined socio-climatic imaginaries as collectively held visions of the future, both desirable and undesirable, that are informed by science and can support deliberation and decision-making in the present. This definition builds on previous theorizing on the imaginary, but adds in multiple key dimensions in the context of climate change, including the representation of the natural environment, the dynamic interactions between social and natural systems and beliefs about patterns and pathways of change in couple social-natural systems.
Drawing attention to the political nature and function of imaginaries and imaginary-making, I explored the diversity of political actors involved in creating, maintaining or contesting imaginaries, ranging from Presidents and international organizations to scientists and fiction authors. Discussing the broad range of strategies and resources these actors deploy, I have argued that structural and ideational power are particularly important for creating, changing or suppressing certain visions of possible climate futures that can guide social change. Structural power is the system-enabled ability to influence political outcomes due to one’s unique structural position and corresponding control of resources or others’ behavior. Ideational power, understood here as the ability to create new ideas, identities, values and motivations in the minds of different actors, is arguably the most important form of power when it comes to the political making of – and competition between – socio-climatic imaginaries. Different political actors have different forms of ideational power, for example, scientist and scientific institutions largely control what counts as legitimate knowledge and facts about the nature of the world. Successful fiction authors have a unique ability to reach large numbers of people through their stories.
Two speculative fiction novels, one utopian and dystopian, served as illustrative case studies for the concepts of the socio-climatic imaginary and the structural-ideational power of fiction authors as political actors. The imaginaries created by Paolo Bacigalupi and Kim Stanley Robinson offer starkly contrasting visions of the future and climate change’s role in it. Each author deploys different cognitive and emotional tools to engage individual readers in future thinking, ultimately with the same goal of creating a different engagement with the present. At the same time, both authors’ social and political strategies for communicating and deliberating with their audiences about the stories and climate change in the real world are very similar.
Studying the political processes related to the creation of and competition between socio-climatic imaginaries is a research task for the future. Key questions concern the involvement of various actors, their different sources of power, their strategies and ultimately their success in present-day imaginary-making. For example, if US Presidents are powerful imaginary makers, how do the Obama and Trump administrations differ in their use of various forms of power regarding a socio-climatic imaginary for the United States? President Obama’s socio-climatic imaginary presented climate change as an urgent problem that could, and ought to be, addressed with government policies, technological innovation and job-creating economic change, i.e., the expansion of the renewable energy sector. Optimism and hope were infused in his vision of a clean-tech future. By contrast, President Trump does not emphasize the future or even mention any climate-related threats to the US when he discusses climate change. His imaginary is focused on the present, and his stated goal is to protect American industries and workers, especially coal miners, presumably from the negative effects of climate action. Trump’s imaginary emphasizes what he perceives to be an unfair international agreement, giving other countries undeserved economic advantages. Defensiveness and fear are the central emotional themes. Which imaginary will be more successful in the long run and why? What is the role of science, social movements, corporations or international organizations in this process of creating, undoing and changing shared visions of the future? For example, with a growing understanding of the role of science in international climate governance, how does and how should the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change fulfill its function as a contributor to global processes of imagining climate futures responsibly?
Finally, tracing the cognitive and social effects of climate fiction on minds and societies remains an intriguing empirical-methodological challenge. While this paper has offered a conceptual framework for approaching this task, the design of effective methodological approaches for studying such interdependent cognitive-social processes calls for innovative scholarship at the boundary of the social sciences and humanities.
Data Accessibility Statement
For this research article, no data sets were created or published.
Acknowledgments
I am grateful for deeply insightful conversations I have had with Michele-Lee Moore concerning the theories and processes of social-ecological transformations. I would also like to acknowledge the very helpful comments, suggestions and guidance provided by the Special Collection editors, especially Alastair Iles and D.G. Webster.
Competing interests
The author has no competing interests to declare.
Author contributions
This is a single-authored manuscript; all contributions were made by MM.
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https://online.ucpress.edu/elementa/article-split/doi/10.1525/elementa.249/112449/Imaginary-politics-Climate-change-and-making-the
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by Sam Peterson
While climate change consensus has been growing in the last two decades, response to the alarming effects of it has not kept pace. There are various explanations for this societal inertia, including misinformation, lack of trust in government, and knowledge gaps (Norgaard 2009). Alló et. al. (2014) examined, by way of meta-analysis, preferences regarding climate change action based on factors incorporating social norms and temporal restrictions in different countries. The study assessed data from completed analyses regarding climate change action preferences and measured several dependent variables, including whether the study proposed mitigation or adaptation strategies, households’ willingness to pay (WTP), and forms of monetary support proposed by the included studies. Alló concludes that mitigation actions are preferred over adaptation actions, countries with long-term outlooks have higher WTP, and preferable policies encourage the prevention of disasters, like heat waves, as opposed to creation of and investment in greener technologies.
Climate change could impact global gross domestic product by 5% to 20% in many countries (Hallegatte and Corfee-Morlot, 2011, cited by Alló 2014), but despite warning signs like an increased frequency of severe storms, very few countries have imposed restrictive emissions caps. Global emissions have grown by 50% since 1990, spurred by the rapid expansion of the Chinese and some South American economies. In order to assess preferences regarding climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies, the study used willingness to pay (WTP) as an indicator of social inclination toward policies. The rapidly expanding field of behavioral economics provides some insight into consumer decision-making regarding climate change. If one considers effective halting of climate change as a public good, the economic free-rider problem arises, where there is no restriction on who can partake in the benefits of said good (Brekke and Johansson-Stenman 2008a, 2008b, cited by Alló 2014). In theory, this would incentivize those who did not have to pay for climate change policies to support them. This factor was included in the meta-analysis, as traditional economic models would predict individuals to be extremely self-serving in decision-making.
The analysis included 58 studies from multiple continents, but found that over half of existing climate policy preference research is done in America (52.18%), followed by Europe (34.15%) and Asia (9.03%). On average, studies included 6.1 observations, and were separated by the way they were conducted (face to face, telephone, internet). In order to account for changes in WTP by currency value, a Purchasing Power Parity Index (PPP) was used ($USD 2012). The authors then analyzed the number of climactic disasters in each country where a study was conducted, in order to test whether being near effects of climate change would correlate with a higher WTP. The researchers also accounted for political orientation in each country, as it has been demonstrated that “people with left-wing tendencies have a higher WTP for environmental programs than those who have a more conservative view” (Carlsson et al., 2010; Solomon and Johnson, 2009; Wiser, 2007; Berrens et al., 2004, cited by Alló 2014). The final variable controlled for was temporal outlook, defined by Hofstede (2001). Societies with long term orientation are those that “show an ability to adapt traditions to changed conditions, a strong propensity to save and invest, thriftiness, and perseverance in achieving results.”
After running several regressions on the data set, including Ordinary Least Squares (OLS), Generalized Least Squares (GLS) and Random Effects Model (RE), the authors concluded people who have had more cumulative experience with climate change-caused weather conditions and those who were contacted for studies over the internet generally have a higher WTP than others. People are generally more likely to want to pay for preventative policies (mitigation) over adaptive policies or even a mix of both. This conclusion is useful for continued use in global climate policy growth, as societal preferences will generally determine whether legislation is effective and worthwhile, as well as providing a possible explanation for apathy regarding climate change action.
Alló, M. and M. L. Loureiro (2014). “The role of social norms on preferences towards climate change policies: A meta-analysis.” Energy Policy 73(0): 563-574.
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https://climatevulture.com/2015/09/01/social-norms-and-preferences-towards-climate-change-policies-a-meta-analysis/
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A Conceptual Model of Climate Change and Human Mobility Interactions
Key insights:
- Different pathways connect climate change, climate adaptation & migration. Some lead to more- and some lead to less mobility.
- In some cases, mobility is an effective strategy to adapt to climate change by leaving highly exposed areas, seeking less climate sensitive livelihoods & supporting their family & community with remittances.
- But in other cases climate shocks can undermine people’s ability to move and trap them in places where they are highly exposed.
- In yet other cases, people might decide to stay, even though they are facing dire prospects.
- The effects of climate change on mobility decisions will depend on a number of factors: First, individual characteristics like age, gender or disability influence people’s ability to adapt to climate change & to benefit from mobility opportunities.
- Second, people face very different conditions when it comes to accessing relevant information & different capitals (physical, human, social, etc.) that facilitate climate adaptation & mobility.
- Third, opportunities for both, adaptation & mobility are shaped by a number of conditions in people’s political, social, cultural, economic, legal & technological environment.
- For example, land ownership can increase people’s capacity and incentives to adapt in situ, while access to social networks & the presence of strong diaspora ties are crucial for adaptation strategies betting on mobility & remittances.
- Hence, context & people’s position in society matter a great deal when it comes to possible interactions between climate change & migration. The paper discusses important factors to consider here.
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https://climate-diplomacy.org/magazine/conflict/conceptual-model-climate-change-and-human-mobility-interactions
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Architect Kyle Gregory leads a virtual discussion on Mid-century architecture and design. Hosted by the Hilltop House and Studio.
Register for event HERE.
What does it mean to characterize something as mid-century modern? Is it a style? An era? A fad? The popularity of this movement endures on the strength of its clean, simple lines and honest use of materials. Encompassing everything from single family homes to public buildings, furnishings, art, and media, it continues to define much of the American cultural landscape.
This session will look at the cultural, technological, and economic factors that influenced the development of various architecture and design genres that characterize this era. We’ll also discuss how we continue to live with it today in both aesthetic and functional terms, including some of the material advancements that have facilitated our contemporary lifestyles. Further discussion will focus on the challenges these materials pose in terms of current concerns of both preservation and energy conservation.
Kyle Gregory is a senior architect with Ashley McGraw architects in Syracuse, NY. With 20 years of experience in a broad range of project types, his passion lies in preservation. He is an advocate for maximizing the potential of historic and cultural resources to participate in regeneration of communities and a positive and sustainable future. Kyle is a licensed architect and LEED Accredited Professional, and is a member of the advisory committee for the Hilltop House and Studio.
Additional Information:
There is no cost to attend this event, but we hope you consider making a donation to the organization. All donations support future programming at the Hilltop House and Studio.
Stone Quarry is committed to providing full access to all. Please send accessibility inquiries and requests two weeks in advance of the session to [email protected].
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https://www.madisontourism.com/event/mid-century-matters%3A-understanding-the-architecture-of-an-era/5844/
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Elizabeth Maslen reassesses fiction written via girls among the granting of common franchise and the arrival of new-wave feminism. via shut readings of a variety of novels, she analyzes the way in which writers decide to symbolize such matters as pacifism and the specter of fascism, warfare, race and sophistication, and gender.
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Download E-books Luigi Einaudi: Selected Political Essays: Volume III PDF
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By Jodi Campbell
In early glossy Spain, theater reached the peak of its reputation throughout the related a long time during which Spanish monarchs have been striving to consolidate their energy. Jodi Campbell makes use of the dramatic construction of seventeenth-century Madrid to appreciate how usual Spaniards perceived the political advancements of this era. via a examine of thirty-three performs via 4 of the preferred playwrights of Madrid (Pedro Caldern de l. a. Barca, Francisco de Rojas Zorrilla, Juan de Matos Fragoso, and Juan Bautista Diamante), Campbell analyzes portrayals of kingship in the course of what's regularly thought of to be the age of absolutism and highlights the variations among a twin of kingship cultivated via the monarchy and that awarded on Spanish levels. a stunning variety of performs played and released in Madrid within the 17th century, Campbell exhibits, featured topics approximately kingship: debates over the traits that make a superb king, checks of a king's skills, and tales in regards to the conflicts which could come up among the non-public pursuits of a king and the simplest curiosity of his topics. instead of helping the absolutist and centralizing regulations of the monarchy, well known theater is proven the following to want the assumption of reciprocal responsibilities among matters and monarch. This examine contributes new proof to the craze of contemporary scholarship that revises our perspectives of early smooth Spanish absolutism, arguing for the importance of the views of standard humans to the world of politics.
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By Raymond Aron
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Download E-books The Social Contract (Penguin Classics) PDF
By Jean-Jacques Rousseau
"Man was once born unfastened, and he's all over the place in chains"
These are the recognized beginning phrases of a treatise that has now not ceased to stir energetic debate when you consider that its first ebook in 1762. Rejecting the view that anybody has a typical correct to wield authority over others, Rousseau argues as a substitute for a pact, or 'social contract', that are meant to exist among the entire electorate of a country and that are supposed to be the resource of sovereign energy. From this basic premise, he is going directly to examine problems with liberty and legislations, freedom and justice, arriving at a view of society that has looked as if it would a few a blueprint for totalitarianism, to others a statement of democratic principles.
For greater than seventy years, Penguin has been the prime writer of vintage literature within the English-speaking international. With greater than 1,700 titles, Penguin Classics represents a world bookshelf of the simplest works all through background and throughout genres and disciplines. Readers belief the sequence to supply authoritative texts improved by means of introductions and notes via uncommon students and modern authors, in addition to up to date translations by way of award-winning translators.
Download E-books Subsidy Regulation and State Transformation in North America, the GATT and the EU (International Political Economy Series) PDF
Fresh foreign subsidy rules is contributing to a twin transformation of the nation. The country is more and more liberal as expenditure is channelled into specific actions and it really is much less sovereign as key decision-making authority is transferred to foreign associations. Subsidy conflicts grow to be the makes an attempt by means of states, corporations and social forces to conform to an more and more international financial system collide with adaptations of liberal improvement types. This examine examines the exact subsidy preparations in North the United States, the GATT and the ecu Union to spotlight this transformation in nation constitution and behavior.
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http://sirius1.jp/library/category/political/page/4
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Prerequisites mean those pre-conditions and factors which should be available for economic growth and development. After a deep study of economic growth and development, one thing is very clear that the process of economic growth and development is influenced by a number of factors. To make easy understanding, these factors are classified into two hands, known as Economic Factors and Non-economic Factors.
Economic Factors: such as Resources, Human Resources, Capital Technology, etc., and
Non-economic Factors: such as Social institutes, political setup administrative structure etc.
According to Prof. Walson:
Economic development is the expansion of production and consumption faster than population growth because of steadily higher productivity of resources and factors which should be available combination of resources.
A brief discussion on both economic and non-economic factors is given below.
Economic Factors:
The role of economic factors in the development process of a country values a lot. increase or decrease in the economic growth rate of the country mainly affected due change in these factors. The main economic factors are discussed below:
Natural Resources:
The primary factor that affects the development of a country is the availability of natural resources in the country such as; forestry, minerals, climate conditions, water resources etc. The abundance of these natural resources is considered necessary for the economic growth of any country.
Deficiency in these resources is a hurdle to development process of a country. In case of LDC’s natural resources are cither underutilized or mis utilized that is one of the main cause of their backwardness. But due to inadequate resources these are underutilized.
Presence of natural resources is not only condition for economic development, but proper utilization of the existing resources should be ensured to achieve targets of development. Most of the countries in the world with deficient in natural resources, yet they have made faster growth process by adopting improved techniques, modem research, higher knowledge. Japan, France, Germany are the most considerable examples.
Capital Accumulation:
Capital formation or accumulation is another primary factor of economic growth of a country. As computed capital accumulation means to increase the capital stock of a country. This stock of capital may use to enhance the growth and development of a country. The process of capital formation basically depends upon:
Sources of Capital Accumulation:
Sources of capital formation includes:
Internal resources
External resources
Internal resources:
- Volume of savings
- The financial institutions, which mobilize the savings
- Investment of these savings
External resources:
- Foreign Loans
- Foreign Aids
- Grants
- Technical Assistance
In case of LDC’s the process of capital formation is very slow due to number of reasons such as, low saving capacity, high consumption level, habitual to use imported goods etc. Therefore, involuntary savings are the ultimate solution for enhancing the capital formation in LDC’s.
Capital formation is especially important for economic growth of LDCS because of
- To meet the requirements of increasing population.
- Employment opportunities.
- Technical progress.
- Provision for social and economic overhead.
- Employing the natural resources.
Human Capital/ Human Resources:
By human resources we mean the body of human knowledge that contributes to productive activities. Labour is an important factor in development. Education and the health are the primary factor for the development of a country. The analysis of investment in health and education is unified in human capital approach.
The knowledge base of a nation is added by research and disseminated by teaching through general education and vocational training. Investment in human capital results in new, technically improved, products and production process which improve economic efficiency and it can be as significant as physical capital in economic growth.
LDCS are facing the shortage of skilled persons such as; scientists, managers, engineers, administrators etc. Investment should be made to setup research and training institutes to promote the human capabilities that will lead the progress of less developed countries.
Technological Progress:
Technology plays pivotal role in the process of economic development of a country. Technological progress regarded as one of the key factors of economic growth of developing countries. Productivity and efficiency of labour depends upon existing capital, technology and other factors of production.
In modem economic growth the five factors, mentioned by Kuznet,
- a scientific discovery
- an invention
- an innovation
- an improvement
- and the spread of invention, have helped in the development of technology.
Due to shortage of technology in developing countries, LDC’s must import it to accelerate their production capacity in the short run.
LDC’s must develop their technical skills while importing modern technology from developed countries. However, LDC’s should be very careful while adopting modern technology in his industrial and agricultural sector.
Social Overhead Capital (SOC):
Social overhead capital is also called infrastructure of a country. It may be defined as capital goods used directly or indirectly in the production of goods and services i.e. roads, railways, highways, communications, transports, electric power and research centers etc. Improved SOC increases economic growth. It provides incentives for the organization for investment.
Developed means of transportation and communication expand national and intonational trade. Agriculture and industrial sectors get specialization exchange of goods between rural and urban areas, mobility of labour, organization and extend market for agriculture and industry also stimulate balanced growth.
Non-Economic Factors:
Along with economic factors, non-economic factor also considered an important factor to economic growth.
In the words of Nurkse “economic development has much to do with human endowment, social attitudes, political conditions and historical accidents.”
Therefore, non-economic factors such as;
Social attitudes, political, administrative, cultural factors, are also having great importance in economic growth of a country.
A brief discussion of these factors is given bellow:
Social Factors:
Social values and attitude in society should be of helpful nature for rapid economic growth. Values like thrift, love of work, mobility etc., are needed to be promoted and reared.
In LDCS people are conservative and are influenced more by traditional custom and give preference to waste their time and money on non-economic ventures such a festivals and ceremonies etc. They are influenced by traditional customs and prefer leisure instead of hardworking.
In LDCS joint family system is very old and has now almost outlived its utility. This system has destroyed the habit of independent economic decisions and engrave dependency on others, which leads people to work shirking.
In LDCS factors like social attitudes, values and institutions which are not conductive to economic development. Religion gives less inducement to the virtues of thrift and hard work. People are fatalists and therefore are not hard working.
LDCS mostly suffering from lack of technical education and training, No one can eliminate of technical education from the process of development. The country that lacks in this regard cannot be hoped to miracles in the race of development.
Development rears new life-style that become challenge to the society in such circumstances.
To achieve the targets of economic growth and development, their social and cultural habits, values attitudes and institution should be changed. Social elements like the joint family system, caste and religious approach should be modified to make them favourable for economic development. This suggested solution is not an easy task to practice. This process should be practiced in different steps and stages.
Political Factors:
Political stability is very important factor of economic growth and development.
In the view of Professor Lewis
“the behaviour of government plays an important role in stimulating or discouraging economic activity”.
The encouragement of investors and to attract foreign investment in the country, peace and stability in political perspectives is mandatory.
In LDCS weak political structure is a big hurdle to economic development. All LDCS have mostly under the colonial rule. They have developed as independent nation from this rule, but their independence has not necessarily led to national consolidation. Rapid change in government as a political instability creates the bases for low capital formation and keeps process of economic growth and development very slow.
We can see this practice in LDC, that how rapid change in government and the policies of government authorities, adversely affected the growth of country. Every new government has made new policies in their own interest. Factors like marshal law are big hurdle to economic growth and development. It can be concluded that basic responsibility of slow economic growth and development goes to political instability in the country.
Administrative Factors:
Administrative factors also helped in modern economic growth. Honest, efficient, capable and hardworking administration can only give a big push to economic growth and development of a country.
Weak infrastructure of administration corrupt, dishonest, non-professional management are the characteristics of LDCS. Rapid growth in population creates the problems of mass consumption, unemployment, poverty and other economic and social problems.
To manage all issues, an effective, honest and professional administration is required which is not available in LDCS. That is why these countries are tailed to overcome their problems and to achieve the high level of output and growth as well.
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http://economicscity.com/determinants-or-requisites-of-economic-development/
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Human mobility and migration are considered a crucial contributor and enabler to sustainable development, which is partly why they are covered by several goals and targets of the 2030 Agenda on Sustainable Development. In particular, migration has a dedicated target on “facilitating orderly, safe, regular and responsible migration and mobility of people” within Goal 10 of reducing inequalities, given its cross-cutting nature. To highlight the importance of migration, the President of the UN General Assembly (UNGA) will hold a high-level debate on international migration and development on 27 February 2019, which will inform the High-level Political Forum’s review of migration-related goals and targets.
As per the cross-cutting nature of migration, the review and monitoring of the specific migration-related SDG targets and their impacts should aim to consider aspects such as gender, religion and culture in order to contribute to all aspects of economic and social development, leaving no one behind. Research, such as the UNU-EHS’ programmes and projects, is crucial to mainstream migration into sustainable development planning. UNU-EHS has a long tradition of conducting research on environment-induced migration. The institute’s research focuses on a variety of factors that affect migration, such as gender and cultural background. See a selection of key migration research projects below:
Gendered perspectives and approaches: migration and adaptation strategies
The International Organization for Migration identified that it is necessary to start recognizing not only the significance of migration itself, but the role of migrants in achieving inclusive growth and development, and in building resilience and support for adaptation and mitigation in the face of climate change. Considering that the “degree to which people are affected by climate change impacts is partly a function of their […] gender”, and since women and men experience migration differently, a gendered perspective offers important guidance for the formulation of policies related to migration, development and adaptation to climate change.
Gender norms impact adaptive behavior
Gender influences all aspects of the migration process. Women are active agents in migration processes, however gender norms have direct impact on vulnerability to climate change, as these can affect the adaptive behavior and compromise the economic gains from female migration.
Kathinka F. Evertsen and Kees van der Geest have developed a study in Bangladesh which builds on the idea that female environmental migration need to be brought to the attention of researchers, development agencies, donors and policy makers. There are potentially large social costs associated with female migration, and strong environmental and economic push factors are required to explain the relatively large share of female migrants. “Only when women are also acknowledged as agents in the migration process can their specific needs be addressed to better facilitate female migration in the future”. It is important to consider that in order for migration to be an effective and successful adaptation strategy, it should be pro-active and voluntary, rather than a forced, ‘last-resort’ survival strategy.
Understanding cultural factors and local discourses on climate-related mobility
Pacific Small Island Developing States (SIDS) are particularly vulnerable to climate change. Just in the period 2005-2015, more than 90% of households in Kiribati and Tuvalu and three-quarters of households in Nauru were affected by climate-related hazards such as floods, storms and irregular rain.
Culture, land and religion are key elements that influence decision-making and may promote or hinder mobility, especially in Pacific SIDS. As a response to the high levels of exposure to climate-related hazards and to the limited adaptive capacity to respond, people may be displaced, forced to migrate or choose to leave to escape risk and find more secure livelihoods.
Upcoming research by UNU-EHS expert Dr. Robert Oakes highlights how a range of cultural factors, such as religion and the way people related to island culture and land, seems to have an influence on subjective understandings and consequently the desirability and likelihood of migrating. Therefore, engaging with communities to recognize and validate their positions on climate change and human mobility would facilitate the planning and implementation of effective policies and strategies.
A call for normative innovations to trigger climate justice: Climate passports
With approximately 25 million people newly displaced every year, it is necessary to start thinking innovatively about what will happen with residents in SIDS and other countries that are severely threatened by climate change, who would like to migrate but are unable to move internationally because of financial or legal issues (visas).
An adaptive solution could be the introduction of a climate passport, “modelled on the basis of the Nansen passport for stateless persons, which enabled hundreds of thousands of people to find refuge in safe states after the First World War”.
As Prof Dirk Messner, Director of UNU-EHS and Co-chair of the German Advisory Council on Global Change, explained, “The climate passport should initially grant access and rights equivalent to citizens’ rights in safe countries to the populations of SIDS (small island developing states), whose territory is at risk of becoming uninhabitable as a result of climate change. The urgency of the situation for Pacific SIDS and the relatively small numbers of people affected means that granting affected peoples the right to move to new areas is a viable way to enable them to enjoy sustainable and dignified lives. Countries with considerable responsibility for climate change should open their doors as host countries to people with a climate passport”.
Further innovative research, such as UNU-EHS’ projects and studies which foreground vulnerable groups through the use of novel research methods, is crucial for mainstreaming migration into sustainable development planning.
Note: A research paper on the impacts of gender norms on adaptive behaviour has recently been accepted for publication in the journal “Climate and Development” and will be online soon.
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https://ehs.unu.edu/news/news/migration-research-and-development-hand-in-hand-to-achieve-the-sdgs.html
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What it is:
The genetic fallacy is related to appeal to authority in that information is judged as good or bad, or true or false, based purely on the source.
This avoids addressing the individual argument by shifting the focus onto where it came from. It’s also similar to ad hominem in that it leverages existing negative perceptions to degrade an argument without actually looking at the argument itself.
How to address it:
Ask the person to just look at the claim by itself independent of where it came from. Easier said than done, I know.
Examples:
"You can't trust anything you hear from Big Ag."
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http://moderationmaven.com/genetic-fallacy/
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A common ending to ancient Roman comedies, also claimed by Suetonius in Lives of the Twelve Caesars to have been Caesar Augustus' last words.
New Latin for "based on unsuitability", "from inconvenience" or "from hardship".
An argumentum ab inconvenienti is one based on the difficulties involved in pursuing a line of reasoning, and is thus a form of appeal to consequences; it refers to a rule in law that an argument from inconvenience has great weight. Incunabula is commonly used in English to refer to the earliest stage or origin of something, and especially to copies of books that predate the spread of the printing press around AD 1500."At the outset", referring to an inquiry or investigation.
It is not an honorary degree, but a recognition of the formal learning that earned the degree at another college. Typically used in argumentum ad hominem, a logical fallacy consisting of criticizing a person when the subject of debate is the person's ideas or argument, on the mistaken assumption that the validity of an argument is to some degree dependent on the qualities of the proponent.
Attributed by Suetonius in Lives of the Twelve Caesars to Caesar Augustus.
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https://dressirovkashchenkov.ru/dating-simulation-fames-2384.html
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The Latin loan phrase ad hominem, meaning, literally, to the person, is short for argumentatum ad hominem, a logical fallacy in which one ignores the merits of an opponent’s argument and instead attacks the opponent’s personality or character. Ad hominem would usually bear replacement with the English personal, but the phrase comes in handy in contexts relating to argumentation.
Because ad hominem has been in the language a long time, there’s no need to italicize it. And like other Latinisms, ad hominem needs no hyphen when used as a phrasal adjective.
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https://grammarist.com/usage/ad-hominem-usage/
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When criticizing government, society or whatever, people often retort, "If you don't like America, why don't you move somewhere else?"
What kind of fallacy would this qualify as?
At first glance, it doesn't appear to make an argument at all. However, there is an implied argument:
If one doesn't like (whatever), one should move (rather than trying to fix the problem).
Can anyone suggest what kind of fallacy this is?
P.S. For anyone looking for a clever rebuttal, this is mine:
Because I'm not the one with the problem; why don't YOU move?
There is scope here for the logical fallacy of assumed certainty in the event that they do like it... If the tone in which you say it is "you definitely don't like it, then move" – samerivertwice – 2018-11-23T07:50:36.133
I don't post an answer because I don't know which fallacy it is, but it's clearly one, unless the "it" in "if you don't like it" means every aspect of that country, which it probably doesn't. F.ex. if I moved to a country where I don't like the average person's attitude but I like the institutions, job market, fiscal system etc., when I mention that I don't like people's attitude and the natives go "then you are welcome to leave", I'd reply that I didn't move here for the niceness of the people, so why should the non-niceness be a reason to leave? The reasons why I moved still exist so I stay. – SantiBailors – 2018-11-23T12:12:11.383
Another answer to "if you don't like government/society/other then why don't you leave?", which shows how much that's predicated on the untenable assumption that a foreigner must like every single aspect of the country, is "I don't move for the same reason why the many natives who dislike X even more than me don't leave either". This fallacy doesn't stand any test of logic because it's just the expression of our basic tribal instincts, which are something extremely hard to tame. Imagine you being in your country, criticizing one aspect of it, and having a foreigner simply saying I agree – SantiBailors – 2018-11-23T12:24:01.983
@David Blomstrom. Re 'ad hominem', I have considered this charge in my amended answer. – Geoffrey Thomas – 2018-11-23T13:11:23.843
Probably the same logical fallacy as the belief that any position you disagree with must stem from some logical fallacy (even if you don't know which). – hobbs – 2018-11-23T15:13:42.713
@Geoffrey Thomas - Up voted and modified my post. – David Blomstrom – 2018-11-23T16:27:25.727
2Yeah.. absolutely false dilemma – Richard – 2018-11-23T20:06:28.057
It is not a fallacy on itself, but based on one. A fallacy is a bad reasoning and you can only reason on statements. "Move!" is not a statement, but an order. Orders are not subject to be reasoned on because, just to begin with, orders are not subject to be neither true or false. – Luis Masuelli – 2018-11-23T22:10:50.913
It is an example where opponent cherry picks the alternative that is less bad for them and presents it as the only viable one. – mathreadler – 2018-11-25T17:15:29.613
@DJClayworth Nah, that doesn't hold up. If the speaker's real intent was to communicate "I think changing things is a bad idea and would prefer it didn't happen" then they could say...precisely that. But when they couch their words in the form of "if you don't like it, leave", they're saying quite a bit beyond that. Like that they won't entertain debate on the subject at all, and that disagreement is so abhorrent that they'd rather see the other person disappear. None of which may be fallacious on its own, but all of which is exceedingly rude, arrogant, dismissive, and a non-argument. – aroth – 2018-11-27T02:08:43.833
Yes it's stronger than "my preference", but it's not a claim that a third option is a logical impossibility. – DJClayworth – 2018-11-27T03:02:23.597
9Informal fallacies are not required to derive from formal logic. They can be and often are, distractors intended to create confusion or sway emotion. This absolutely fits in that category. – barbecue – 2018-11-27T14:05:55.717
4My $0.02 is that this is a red herring, which is an informal fallacy or a bad faith rhetorical device. It consists of a distraction reframing towards a seemingly related but ultimately irrelevant topic. You begin at talking about a social issue that is an emergent trait of a system - which one can make a case is usually intractable through uncoordinated individual actions; and are shifted towards talking about a specific individual reaction to this issue, one that - even if we admitted individual actions can fix systemic issues - is actually a disengagement from the system. – millimoose – 2018-11-27T16:51:59.170
4It's a distressingly common form of demagoguery especially in the US / neoliberal / individualistic context to the point where it's a small berzerk button for me. Like how you can't talk about the rise of relative poverty in the first world - a thing that a) in my opinion is supported by a sound body of evidence; but more importantly for the sake of this discussion b) is thus supportable in the first place. Because if you try, the most common counter will be somebody drowning you in anecdotes of rags-to-riches self-made-men arguing that "well if they all really tried they could be not poor." – millimoose – 2018-11-27T16:54:57.823
2This sounds like the Inverse Barbara Streisand Fallacy: "I will move (to the place where there's even more white people) if Ronald Reagan is reelected!!" – RonJohn – 2018-11-27T17:46:06.070
How is referring to Haiti as a "crappy place" in your question different than "If you don't like America, why don't you move somewhere else?"? For example, you could replace the reference to "Haiti" with "Country 'A'". – guest271314 – 2018-11-27T20:19:56.937
1The question is protected for some bizzare reason, so I'll leave this as a comment. A form of this can be interpreted as the Bulverism fallacy. This is the formal fallacy where the attacker sidesteps your argument by assuming it's false by default, and rephrases the debate by attacking the motivation behind your argument; it is a formal fallacy because the assumption 'false by default' cannot reasonably be deducted, and motivation is a non sequitur in the absence of establishing the truth of the proposition. Specifically, here the assumption is your argument / criticism is wrong, (cont...) – Tasos Papastylianou – 2018-11-27T22:18:07.037
1(cont...) and stems from your motivation or characteristic or being 'against' or 'disliking' America. It is a bulverism fallacy because your criticism may be valid (at least as a form of argument), but is being sidestepped by assuming the opinion has only been expressed due to your motivation or dislike. A response of course is to say, "on the contrary, my criticism stems from my "love" for America, in that I want it to improve, and someone who prefers it remains corrupted must therefore be the one who doesn't love it, and ought to leave", yada yada. Which, obviously, won't go down well. :p – Tasos Papastylianou – 2018-11-27T22:21:07.793
1@Chloe. I think you can answer the question. There is an answer option after the last answer below and you have the 10+ reputation. – Geoffrey Thomas – 2018-11-28T08:14:05.007
@SantiBailors: I find it interesting that the answers you consider focus on further emphasizing the negative, i.e. the "tribal differences". I'd think that an answer focusing on the positive points may do a much better job at getting along with each other. And BTW, I think "it" means the specific point that is criticised. In your example, I'd even think it a legitimate serious question to ask If you don't like the attitiude of the people in <your new country>, why don't you move on? (considering that IMHO getting along with your neighbours/society, i.e. peace, is one of the most basic needs) – cbeleites unhappy with SX – 2018-11-28T23:24:30.867
@TasosPapastylianou: IMHO your argumentation hinges on the correctness of the inital criticism. But we neither know that the criticism is correct/warranted nor that it is wrong/unwarranted (we just have OP's opinion [of which we don't know how it was presented] that it is and OP's opponent's rudely expressed opinion that it isn't) - so I'd say even if there is a question where it can be known which side is right (as opposed to observing a political conflict where both opinions can be legitimate even though they don't agree with each other) - we don't have sufficient information to decide. – cbeleites unhappy with SX – 2018-11-28T23:35:41.690
@user34150: meanwhile I can and did. – cbeleites unhappy with SX – 2018-11-29T01:22:51.327
Comments are not for extended discussion; this conversation has been moved to chat.
Comments are not for extended discussion; this conversation has been moved to chat.– Geoffrey Thomas – 2018-11-29T10:08:34.113
@cbeleites I agree, but I haven't really argued that; I'm just pointing out this could be bulverism. Whether OP is 'correct' or not (which after all, is subjective) is irrelevant to the fallacy. The reason it's a formal fallacy is because regardless of OP's position, it cannot be assumed to be either True or False, and used as further evidence to establish a motivation. In logic terms, this is equivalent to P -> Q therefore P, which is not a valid argument. (however, note the 'defense' ¬Q does indeed disprove P, e.g. "but I do love America, so that's not the reason for my criticism"). – Tasos Papastylianou – 2018-11-29T11:10:15.433
The title to the question and the question itself are different. The first is a command to move - which is the false dilemma; the second is a question on why you don't move - which is a question, not a fallacy.
As a result you have 2 answers that are both correct and both wrong because it's a poorly worded question. This is why you have disagreements. I think you need to edit one to match what you actually want to ask – UKMonkey – 2018-11-29T15:32:54.517
@UKMonkey - The question we've all heard a thousand times is "If you don't like it, why don't you move to China (or some other country)?" I truncated the title to keep it reasonably short, but I added the detail in my post. – David Blomstrom – 2018-11-29T22:18:11.213
1"Because I'm not the one with the problem; why don't YOU move?". Except you are the one with the problem, you started off by acknowledging you have problems with the government, society, etc. The other person obviously doesn't have a problem with America so asking them to move is absurd. Of course, you can always choose to stay and be unhappy...but that's on you. – aaa90210 – 2018-12-02T03:31:59.640
@aaa90210 - You're misinterpreting the word "problem." Yes, I'm not happy with our political system, but I'm not the CAUSE of the problems I'm complaining about. Any person who "doesn't have a problem with America" is obviously either ignorant or in denial (or a liar) and is therefore part of the problem. – David Blomstrom – 2018-12-02T04:14:46.080
@DavidBlomstrom so instead of "why don't you move somewhere else?" would you more happy with "please stay and suffer so we can enjoy your pain". The latter not being an argument at all of course, but it does highlight the rather stark choice you are facing. – aaa90210 – 2018-12-02T07:16:57.717
@aaa90210 - LOL; that's even more stupid than "Why don't you move to China?". In fact, it's so stupid, I've never even heard it until now. What would make me happier is an intelligent discussion, rather than an episode of Dumb and Dumber. – David Blomstrom – 2018-12-02T07:59:49.260
The aim of this statement is to silence the source of the criticism by offering an idiotic alternative (leave). Not knowing whether the person can really leave (family, skills, ...) and completely ignoring the fact that the criticism could be constructive. In total such a statement is a hallmark of a retarded person, because all assumptions the person made are not necessarily true and (nearly always) hidden to them. – None – 2018-12-03T15:33:14.463
Wow, so much to think about. I will probably never be able to choose a correct answer. – David Blomstrom – 2018-12-06T01:01:53.167
I don't know about should move, but can is usually a legitimate option. It doesn't work as an argumentative device because the answer is always subjective "I don't want to move away from my home, family, etc." I'm not sure it's a fallacy as much as it's just something trite to say. – 10479 – 2018-12-06T06:22:37.340
Perhaps I'm being too dull, but I don't know why this hasn't been brought up. The title of the informal fallacy says "therefore leave", so it seems to be precisely what you're describing. According to Wikipedia, it's a subset of *ad hominem*, which is itself a subset of red herring fallacy, which would agree with some of the commenters/answerers, but the info seems spread out.
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https://library.kiwix.org/philosophy.stackexchange.com_en_all_2021-04/A/question/57335.html
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We all can benefit from thinking logically, but logical thinking is seldom taught in any school. Logic is all about the way you make and support an argument. An “argument” not necessarily an angry shouting match, although it can be. Think of it as a just point of view backed by evidence or reasoning.
For instance, consider the argument, “Smoking makes one die earlier than they otherwise would.” The argument that smoking is so unhealthy it limits one’s life expectancy is often met with all kinds of responses. Many have logical fallacies in them. Fallacies are errors in reasoning. You might win a swearing match or make someone look bad, but you can only truly win arguments, if you address the argument.
ARGUMENT 1: “Smoking makes one die earlier than they otherwise would.”
RESPONSE A: “Who are you to be talking? You are lazy, sick, overweight and very unhealthy yourself!!” or
RESPONSE B: “Oh sure, you are all “healthy” now that you quit smoking, Mister High and Mighty!!”
These are examples of the fallacy that attacks the opponent, and not the argument. This is known as “Ad Hominem” which is simply Latin for “against the man.” In the smoking example, an opponent being obese does not affect the truth of the matter asserted. In particular, this type of Ad Hominem is called “Tu Quoque,” Latin for “you too.” It is an appeal to hypocrisy, or, as Grandma Peel used to say, “It’s the pot calling the kettle black.” (But the kettle can still be black.) In Response B, someone being a recent non-smoker has nothing at all to do with whether the argument about smoking is true or false. In these fallacies, the fingers are pointing at each other, and not the arguments.
ARGUMENT 1: “But, Mom, you smoked when you were even younger than me, so you cannot warn me it’s dangerous and tell me not to!” (Tu Quoque Fallacy)
ARGUMENT 2: “You know, I smoked when I was a teen, it was dangerous then. And it’s dangerous now. That’s why I never want you to make my mistakes.” (No fallacy)
The hypocrisy claim becomes a fallacy only when the arguer uses some (apparent) hypocrisy to neutralize criticism and distract from the issue of his own problem.
Mr. Peel seeks justice for those injured in motorcycle, truck and car accidents, disability and medical malpractice. He often addresses churches, clubs and groups without charge. Mr. Peel may be reached through PeelLawFirm.com wherein other articles may be accessed.
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https://peellawfirm.com/how-to-argue-and-win-using-logic/
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Equal opportunities sums up the concept that everbody deserves equal opportunities to take part in society, specifically equal access to careers and professions. To achieve this, structural barriers need to be taken down and awareness needs to be raised.
Coaching is a recognized and established form of consulting, where teams or single persons in different professional situations are supported in assessing their situation, as well as defining and achieving their goals.
Diversity encompasses the manifold varieties of backgrounds and attributes of humans and groups. The law recognizes explicitly sex as well as gender, ethnic background, religion and world-view, physical or cognitive disability, age and sexual identity. Additional individual or group specific attributes such as educational background can be included in a wider concept of diversity.
Glass ceiling describes a barrier mostly faced by women in their careers. This invisible boundary is especially notable when women are barred from advancing to higher positions or in spite of equal or higher qualification are surpassed by men. This is mostly caused by lack of access to (informal) networks and stereotype, partly unconscious biases on the part of the decision-makers.
Men and women have equal rights by law, coded in the German constitution (Art. 3, Abs. 2 GG) as: “Men and women shall have equal rights. The state shall promote the actual implementation of equal rights for women and men and take steps to eliminate disadvantages that now exist.”
Research Training Groups are implemented by the universities to promote early career researchers, funded by the German Research Association (DFG). Their key emphasis is on the qualification of doctoral researchers within the framework of a focused research programme and a structured training strategy.
The model was part of the “Research-oriented Standards on Gender Equality” by the DFG. It helps calculating targets for proportions of female researchers for each career levels by evaluating the existing percentages on the previous level.
The proportion of women decreases with each career level in academia. This so called “leaky pipeline” is a significant drain of scientific potential and points to a persistent structural inequality of men and women.
Mentoring is a well-established instrument for human resource development in corporations, universities and other organizations. It is set up to transfer valuable expertise and informal knowledge from a person with experience (mentor) to a newcomer (mentee).
Raising awareness is aimed at recognizing structural inequalities and one’s own stereotypes or biases in order to establish a new approach within a field of work and research.
Collaborative Research Centres are long-term, DFG-funded and university-based research institutions, established for up to 12 years, in which researchers work together within a multidisciplinary research programme.
A CRC-TRR is a DFG-funded collaborative research centre (CRC) based in several universities.
Reconciling family life with a scientific career means to support researchers of all genders and in all levels of their career with different measures and opportunities for family care-work in order to facilitate the realization of their academic goals.
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https://www.tu-darmstadt.de/gleichstellungsbeauftragte/wissenschaft/chancengleichheit_in_forschungsverbuenden/glossar_1/glossar_6.en.jsp
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In recent years, there has been a big push for Science, Technology, Engineering and Math (STEM) initiatives in education. Reports and recommendations focusing on equity, diversity and inclusion (EDI) have also gained popularity during this same period. However, few concrete measures have been created to unite STEM with EDI so that women and historically marginalized people can gain equal access to STEM. Educators have a responsibility to interrupt and interrogate existing paradigms and to help students (and ourselves) gain a deep understanding of equity, bias and systemic barriers to their (and our own) achievement. Conversely, we must also recognize our own privilege and how we may be unwittingly reinforcing the status quo.
My journey toward taking concrete action to redress the gender imbalance in STEM started in my own classroom. As a secondary biology and chemistry teacher, I often begin lessons with a discussion of interesting new scientific discoveries or socially topical issues. Students are eager to engage and offer their thoughts. However, when the issues being discussed are gender based, there tends to be push back, especially from male students. Their most common refrain was that Canada does not have gender equity issues. I found this dumbfounding, and I still do. The confidence and comfort with which our students champion this falsehood is staggering.
As an immigrant from a country that considers the rights of women to be half that of a man, I have a visceral gratitude for the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. However, even in a progressive country like Canada, we still have a long way to go to achieve the ideals of EDI. We cannot forget that women were not considered “persons” under Canadian law until 90 years ago, and much more recently for aboriginal or racialized women. It is foolish to think that the legacy of that misogyny is not resonating to this day.
As a scientist, studies and the statistics they generate allow me to make rational decisions. I wanted to dissect the science of EDI data in STEM so that I could better articulate the problem to my students. I wanted to show them why there is a problem and, hopefully, how we can work together to fix it. With this in mind, I created STEMneutral, a program designed to empower students (and educators) to neutralize the STEM playing field. By examining the science of EDI, gender-role stereotyping and learning assertiveness strategies, participants can gain tools that will give them a better chance to navigate the “leaky pipeline” of their STEM careers. The STEMneutral workshop begins by looking at where the current numbers lay.
The UNESCO Science Report—Towards 2030 shows that across all STEM disciplines, globally, women have achieved parity right up to the Masters level. However, there is a leaky pipeline beyond the Masters level, with females accounting for only 28 per cent of researchers. (These numbers can be misleading since in specific STEM subjects such as math, physics, engineering, or computer science, the numbers for Bachelor’s graduates are much lower, hovering around the 20 per cent mark.) If the STEM playing field were truly “neutral,” would the numbers of women involved in STEM drop as drastically post-Masters?
Statistics show that having more advanced degrees is correlated with greater financial security. The higher the position—such as researcher, for example—the greater the voice and choice one has in determining the focus of one’s labour. Our society faces an array of challenging problems: global warming, food shortages, antibacterial-resistance. The list of significant concerns goes on and on. If we fail to have as many diverse perspectives identifying the key problems and simultaneously working to innovate unique solutions, we will all lose out.
The current focus has been on girls-only programs for robotics, coding and engineering to tackle the EDI problem in STEM. Underlying this approach is the theory that if we “engage” girls, they will rise up and balance the numbers. Although engagement is a relevant strategy, it merely perpetuates the notion that something is deficient in females, that the lack of parity is a direct result of a lack of interest from females. These band-aid solutions fail to address the true source of the imbalance. The EDI problem in STEM is due not to biological differences or a lack of interest from females, but rather to a system of socio-cultural practices that create biases against, and barriers to, women’s progress throughout their careers. Looking at the UNESCO leaky pipeline, we can see that women are already engaged, they are capable and they are pursuing STEM. However, barriers are clearly present which hinder their progress beyond the Masters level.
Society inculcates in us gender-role stereotypes from within the womb. Implicit biases are imprinted onto our psyches from day one, which then work to motivate and shape each of us in ways that limit female and marginalized peoples’ advancement. Think about the types of toys marketed to boys versus girls, the colouring of and messaging on girls versus boys clothing, the types of “role models” portrayed in pop culture. The influence of culture and media leaves an indelible thumbprint on our brains.
So, why is the STEM pipeline leaky?
The leaky STEM pipeline is a result of two broad categories of implicit bias converging to limit female progress: other people’s bias and our own bias.
In all of these studies, the gender of the faculty participants did not affect the response; i.e. female and male faculty are equally likely to exhibit bias against females. These implicit biases, which both women and men have, result in barriers for women and historically marginalized people in STEM. Therefore, both women and men need to be part of the solution. Acknowledgement of our privileges and allyship are key factors in bringing neutrality to STEM.
External forces are not the only factor at play in creating the leaky pipeline. We must consider internalized biases, as well. Female and historically marginalized people are affected by stereotype threat. A lifetime of exposure to society’s negative images of one’s own ability causes an individual to feel at risk of conforming to negative stereotypes. This reduces one’s performance in stressful situations because preoccupation with feeling of being at risk depletes one’s working memory. Studies show that when females and historically marginalized groups are administered high-stakes tests which are preceded by a pretest questionnaire asking them about their gender and race/ethnicity, their performance suffers in comparison to a second condition, where no such questionnaire appeared before the test.
These internalized biases against the self result in a significant confidence gap which is due not to authentic assessment of one’s ability, but rather to the fear of conforming to a negative stereotype. For example, an internal report from Hewlett Packard showed that women apply to jobs if they meet 100 per cent of the listing criteria, while men will apply even when they meet just 60 per cent of the qualifications. This confidence gap created by internalized bias can limit progress down the pipeline.
When the empirical evidence clearly illustrates and is showcased as to why the STEM pipeline is leaky, students (and teachers) have difficulty refuting the systemic socio-cultural barriers at the heart of the problem. On the other hand, an analysis of the science of EDI can be rather disheartening and immobilizing. There are a number of organizations and institutions pushing for systemic and cultural changes to improve EDI, but the result of their actions will necessarily be slow to materialize. Students need to understand that the biases and barriers in their path are not insurmountable, that they have some power over their circumstances. By offering some simple STEMneutrality tools that are easy to adopt, my intention is to foster their confidence so that they can better navigate their STEM career pathway.
When students are working in groups it is important for them to be aware of group dynamics which elevate some voices over others. Men interrupt more than women overall. Additionally men are almost three times as likely to interrupt women. By being mindful of their role in the group, they can either try to project their voice or check themselves and stop interrupting others. Another strategy focused on boosting voices that are usually suppressed comes from female staffers in the Obama administration. Because they wanted to change the unfair dynamics in meetings, they adopted a strategy they called “amplification”: when a woman makes a key point, other women repeat it, giving credit to its originator. This way men in the meeting are forced to acknowledge the source of the contribution and are unable to claim the idea as their own. When students are mindful of which voices need amplification, they can help bolster their own or check their own privilege.
I created STEMneutral to take concrete action that redresses the gender imbalance in STEM. Exposing the true source of the leaky STEM pipeline—a broad systemic socio-cultural problem and the subsequent need to equip students with simple confidence boosting tools—will allow students to understand the EDI problem in STEM and improve their chances of navigating the barriers they will invariably face. My hope is to share this information with other educators so that they too can have the challenging and sometimes uncomfortable conversations about EDI with their students (and colleagues). The more we expose the root causes of gender imbalance in STEM, the better we can neutralize the playing field for all students.
Azadeh Shirzadi is a biology and chemistry teacher in District 12, Toronto, and the founder of STEMneutral.
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http://education-forum.ca/2018/11/16/dissecting-the-science-of-equity-diversity-and-inclusion-in-stem/
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The following opinion piece is part of series to mark International Women’s Day, March 8.
HAMILTON, Ontario, Mar 7 2022 (IPS) - UN Women estimates 150 million women and girls are emerging from poverty by 2030, thanks largely to comprehensive education, labor, and social protection strategies and reforms implemented by governments around the world.
Celebration of this anticipated Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) progress is tempered, however, by the realization that a majority — roughly two-thirds — of the 435 million women and girls experiencing extreme poverty will likely be left behind.
The impact of gender inequality has severe costs and consequences for entire societies. Women and girls in 80% of households without on-premises drinking water access miss out on innumerable economic and educational opportunities due to daily water collection responsibilities.
Women also are underrepresented in leadership and decision-making roles despite making up nearly half of the world’s population. Moreover, lifetime earnings of women could increase by more than half – that is, US $24,586 per person or $170 trillion globally – if women earned as much as men.
This year’s International Women’s Day, celebrated since 1911, aims to further raise awareness of and break the bias that perpetuates gender inequality in the 21st century.
This bias continues despite gender mainstreaming and other public policy measures that unequivocally affirm the equal rights of women and men and officially integrate gendered perspectives in legislation, research, resource allocation, and project management and monitoring.
In the water sector, blind spots pose a particular barrier to progress.
Blind spots due to limited data, discriminatory structural and systemic violations such as stereotypes and norms, need to be urgently addressed.
Even within the SDGs there are blind spots: none of the 11 indicators for SDG 6 (clean water and sanitation) are related to gender, for example.
While “paying special attention to the needs of women and girls” is descriptively highlighted in Target 6.2 (adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene), all of SDG 6’s indicators are actually gender-blind as data such as the proportion of women and girls accessing safe services or involved in decision-making are not monitored.
The water sector needs to collect gender-disaggregated data measuring women’s ability to meet their water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) needs, access resources, and exercise agency if it is to develop evidence-based gender equality policies and interventions.
The water sector can draw from the SDG Agenda’s 53 gender-specific indicators, a recent review on gender-related WASH measures and quantitative measures of social change informed by a feminist perspective to build gender-specific monitoring system at programmatic, national and global scales.
Meanwhile, less than half of 109 countries reporting on gender mainstreaming in water laws and policies specifically mention women’s participation in resource management and rural sanitation.
And in places where women’s equality seems most advanced, some of the women that managed to get a seat at the table have complained of their participation being tokenistic in both community and government structures.
When women’s perspectives are not incorporated in policies and the construction and location of supposedly gender-neutral water infrastructure, resulting interventions can actually constrain women’s economic and educational opportunities.
Women also can feel insecure with having to use services that put their personal safety at risk, as well as not meet their basic menstrual hygiene disposal and personal cleansing needs.
Meaningful and substantial women’s empowerment efforts and representation are critical to ensure that current systems are transformed to tackle the harmful roots of inequality in the water sector. The causes of these violations need to be uprooted if everlasting change is to be achieved.
Outdated stereotypes and social norms – such as women being steered to traditional caregiving domestic and professional roles – are at the root of gender bias and barriers in the water sector.
Additionally, socio-institutional expectations and patriarchal practices limit many women’s ability to reconcile the time and energy committed to caregiving and work.
Consequently, women are overrepresented in unpaid work roles (including water carriage) and underrepresented in industrial leadership or decision-making roles.
While sectoral interventions have targeted gender imbalances in domestic roles and decision-making, gender mainstreaming in the workplace continues to be an uphill struggle.
Globally, less than one in five water sector workers are women, with underrepresentation in both technical and managerial positions.
To break this institutional barrier, the World Bank advises addressing salary inequities by assessing gender pay gaps for equivalent work, offering staff training opportunities informed by a gender lens, and adopting a four-pronged approach that attracts, recruits, retains and offers career advancement opportunities for the next generation of female water leaders.
The realization of gender equality is a key component of the global development agenda, and essential if the water sector is to contribute to the achievement of SDGs 1 (no poverty), 5 (gender equality), 6 (clean water and sanitation), and 10 (reduced inequalities).
Putting gender-disaggregated data measures, supportive legal and physical infrastructure, and inclusive social systems and institutions in place can help #breakthebias by overcoming gender blind spots that perpetuate harmful and inequitable divisions of control, power, and labor.
Lina Taing is the Water and Health research lead, and Grace Oluwasanya is a Water, Gender and Climate Change research lead at the UN University Institute for Water, Environment and Health (UNU-INWEH), a Canadian-based think tank supported by the Government of Canada and hosted at McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario.
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https://www.ipsnews.net/2022/03/international-womens-day-2022gender-blind-spots-water-sector/
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Swansea University is currently a Race Equality Charter member.
Run by the Equality Challenge Unit, the Race Equality Charter is committed to improving the representation, progression and success of minority ethnic staff and students within higher education. The charter aims to inspire a strategic approach to making cultural and systemic changes that will make a real different to minority ethnic staff and students.
The Charter provides a framework through which institutions work to identify and self-reflect on institutional and cultural barriers standing in the way of minority ethnic staff and students. Member institutions develop initiatives and solutions for action, and can apply for a Bronze or Silver REC award, depending on their level of progress. ECU began developing the charter in 2012 following the impact Athena SWAN has had in gender equality.
REC covers:
- professional and support staff
- academic staff
- student progression and attainment
- diversity of the curriculum
Swansea University's REC submission is led by Prof. Farah Bhatti, with support from the Equality Team and PVC Professor Iwan Davies.
Race Equality Charter Self-Assessment Team
The Self-Assessment Team (SAT) is chaired by senior pro-vice Chancellor Professor Iwan Davies. The SAT is responsible for writing the University submission and will monitor progress against the action plan. The group consists of members of Human Resources, the Equality team, and representatives from across the university.
If you would like to get involved, please email us
REC Principles
The Race Equality Charter is underpinned by five fundamental guiding principles:
- Racial inequalities are a significant issue within higher education. Racial inequalities are not necessarily overt, isolated incidents. Racism is an everyday facet of UK society and racial inequalities manifest themselves in everyday situations, processes and behaviours.
- UK higher education cannot reach its full potential unless it can benefit from the talents of the whole population and until individuals from all ethnic backgrounds can benefit equally from the opportunities it affords.
- In developing solutions to racial inequalities, it is important that they are aimed at achieving long-term institutional culture change, avoiding a deficit model where solutions are aimed at changing the individual.
- Minority ethnic staff and students are not a homogenous group. People from different ethnic backgrounds have different experiences of and outcomes from/within higher education, and that complexity needs to be considered in analysing data and developing actions.
- All individuals have multiple identities, and the intersection of those different identities should be considered wherever possible.
As a member of ECU’s Race Equality Charter, Swansea University is committed to following these principles in how we approach race equality and address our institutional culture.
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https://www.swansea.ac.uk/jobs-at-swansea/equality-and-diversity/raceequalitychartermark/
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Article by Sharon Peake, founder and CEO at Shape Talent.
In the world of business, one of the most devastating long-term impacts has been on gender equality – where we have seen recent momentum regress significantly. So much so in fact, it is now estimated that the time it will take to close the gender gap has widened from an already depressing 99 years in 2020 to an alarming 135 years this year (2021).
The frustrating truth is that Covid-19 has exacerbated the barriers that already existed to women’s progression in business. While we may all be desensitised to the issue of gender equality with all the communications around diversity, and now ESG, there is no denying that inclusion and gender balance continue to be major issues for business and society generally.
In addition to the moral and ethical imperative that should be felt by all progressive leaders, the benefits of gender equality for businesses are huge. Curtin Business School reports that an increase of 10 per cent or more in women’s representation in key executive roles directly leads to a 6.6 per cent increase in market value. Yet, despite the many benefits, it is currently going to take until the year 2156 to achieve equal representation of men and women in leadership.
Before we can solve any gender equality issue, we need to first understand the root causes. And we have done just that by analysing over 70 studies reporting the latest authoritative research for our white paper entitled; Three Barriers to Women’s Progression and What Organisations Can Do. The barriers can be broadly grouped into: Societal, Organisational and Personal.
These barriers result from the subtle and often unspoken cultural cues and messages that reinforce the ways that men and women ‘ought’ to think, behave and feel. More than ever before, mothers face the very real double burden of paid and unpaid work, and all women still face the weight of gender stereotypes, penalising us when we act in ways deemed to be ‘masculine’, such as taking leadership roles. Then there are women in the ‘sandwich generation’ who care for both aging parents and dependent children – perhaps while also battling menopause.
Though many dismiss this area, citing equal pay legislation and the fact that so many more women are in business, the reality is only around 20% of executive roles, and only around 8% of CEO roles are held by women across Europe. The huge hurdles encountered in the workplace are a combination of systemic obstacles, cultures and norms that disadvantage women. Women face everyday sexism, microaggressions and bias and many women also struggle to access the right networks or get sponsorship from powerful leaders that men are 25% more likely to receive. Others look at the ‘always on’ culture and think ‘I just can’t do that and still be a good mum/carer/friend’.
Some of the most unseen and insidious barriers are those on the inside. The reality is, sometimes women hold themselves back. Some women don’t feel able to put themselves forward for opportunities until they are “ready”, and thereby risk missing out on the visible, high-profile assignments that are often the building blocks for career progression. Others prefer not to engage with the inevitable politics of the workplace, don’t push to be heard in meetings, or try to replicate ‘male’ models of leadership which just aren’t authentic. Others struggle to negotiate an equitable division of household responsibilities with their spouses, with the resultant double burden limiting the time available for professional progression.
Some also have to contend with additional layers of bias and barriers. Women of colour. Women in the LGBTQI+ community. Women with a disability. Women with any combination of ‘minority’ characteristics. For these women the barriers are cumulative. And they are oppressive.
All these invisible pressures need to be acknowledged by organisations, and the leaders within them, as a prerequisite to being able to address them.
The barriers to women’s progression in leadership are not insurmountable, and organisations that are serious about gender equality can, and indeed are, making great strides. The more leading organisations that focus in on the real issues, create a climate for change and undertake programmes that deliver sustainable results, the more we will collectively breakdown the three barriers and accelerate gender equality.
Here are eight guiding principles organised into questions that company leaders can ask themselves to counteract these barriers, and ensure the step change needed for a more unified and engaged workforce:
As a leader, ask yourself: Are our equity, diversity and inclusion efforts inextricably linked to our business strategy? Is there a clear line of sight between our overall purpose and business priorities and what we are trying to achieve with our diversity programme? Think productivity, customer retention, time to market, risk management and other key business performance measures.
As a leader, ask yourself: Are my actions and behaviours signalling the importance I place on gender equality? If we look at the decisions and outputs of the leadership team recently, do they reflect our diversity messages? Are we individually and collectively walking the talk?
As a leader, ask yourself: Are our processes, systems and metrics geared towards gender equality, diversity and inclusion? And are our front-line leaders equipped with the skills and motivation to lead inclusively?
As a leader, ask yourself: Do we have a good handle on the barriers to women’s progression? Are there particular hurdles borne out of our industry, heritage, or culture? What is the data telling us? What are our women actually experiencing? Are we basing our approaches on what has been proven to work?
As a leader, ask yourself: Have we done enough to bring our male colleagues on the gender equality journey? Do they understand and appreciate the barriers? Have we helped them internalise the many positive roles they can play accelerating equality? Are our diversity efforts inclusive of all, and not alienating anyone?
As a leader, ask yourself: Are we attracting a gender balanced intake of graduates, or is our industry struggling to attract women? How might we take a long-term view and raise awareness of our industry at secondary and tertiary school level, to encourage more women graduates? Are our recruitment, career development, appraisal and reward practices designed to accelerate gender equality?
As a leader, ask yourself: What positive actions can we take to give under-represented groups an equal opportunity here? Are there acceleration programmes or targeted recruitment campaigns we could undertake?
As a leader, ask yourself: What are the two or three things we could do really well which would have the biggest impact on gender equity, diversity and inclusion? How might these priorities need to differ in the various geographies in which we operate?
As the corporate world continues to evolve from adding value for shareholders to playing an even more purposeful role in creating value for a broader range of stakeholders, we really believe that organisations can be a powerful force for equality. When we recognise and address the invisible barriers to women’s progress in business, our actions reverberate in our communities and in society generally. These actions accelerate gender equality and create a better world for our daughters and their daughters too.
Sharon Peake is founder and CEO at Shape Talent. Sharon is an experienced diversity and talent management leader with over 20 years’ experience in global businesses, leading teams of 100+ employees. She is also a registered psychologist and certified coach. Prior to founding Shape Talent in 2017, she held senior leadership roles in two FTSE20 business.
Born in Australia, Sharon has lived and worked in Australia and the UK, and her roles have given her experience working across 6 continents, delivering work in locations as diverse as Colombia, Romania, India, Uganda, New York, and Hong Kong. Her clients come from sectors as diverse as telecoms, consumer goods, manufacturing, publishing, medical devices, and financial services.
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https://wearethecity.com/135-years-before-we-reach-gender-equality-why-pre-existing-gender-inequality-in-business-has-been-exacerbated-by-the-pandemic/
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The Black North Initiative was started in the past year and is organized as a pledge that corporations across sectors can commit to.
The Pledge
I, as the leader of my company, along with all CEO signatories, commit to implementing the following pledge. Where companies have already implemented one or several of the commitments, the undersigned commit to support other companies in doing the same.
We acknowledge the existence of anti-Black systemic racism and its impact on Canada’s 1,198,540 Black citizens (or 3.5% of the population) and the need to create opportunities within our companies for Black people.
The persistent inequities across our country underscore our urgent, national need to address and alleviate racial, ethnic, and other tensions and to promote the elimination of anti-Black systemic racism wherever it exists. As leaders of some of Canada’s largest corporations, we manage hundreds of thousands of employees and play a critical role in ensuring that inclusion is core to our workplace culture and that our businesses are representative of the communities we serve. Moreover, we know that true diversity is good for the economy; it improves corporate performance, drives growth, and enhances employee engagement. Simply put, organizations with truly diverse teams perform better.
We recognize that diversity and inclusion are multi-faceted issues and that we need to tackle these subjects holistically to better engage and support all underrepresented groups within the business community. To do this, we believe we also need to address honestly and head-on the concerns and needs of our diverse employees and increase equity for all, including, but not limited to, Black, Asian and other racialized communities in Canada, Indigenous peoples, members of the LGBTQ+ community, persons with disabilities, and women. Collectively as business leaders we agree that we must do more. For us, this means committing to seven goals we believe will move Canada toward ending anti-Black systemic racism and creating opportunities for underrepresented groups.
- Working through the BlackNorth Initiative, we will increase our efforts to make our workplaces trusting places to have complex, and sometimes difficult conversations about anti-Black systemic racism and ensure that no barriers exist to prevent Black employees from advancing within the company. We will create and maintain an environment that fosters open dialogue, including listening forums where our people feel comfortable to gain greater awareness of each other’s experiences and perspectives. By encouraging an ongoing dialogue and not tolerating any incongruence with these values of openness, we are building trust, encouraging compassion and open-mindedness, and reinforcing our commitment to a culture of inclusivity.
- Working through the BlackNorth Initiative, we will implement or expand unconscious bias and anti-racism education. We all have unconscious biases—that is human nature. Unconscious bias education enables individuals to begin recognizing, acknowledging, and therefore minimizing any potential blind spots they might have. We will commit to rolling out and/or expanding education that addresses unconscious bias and anti-Black systemic racism within our companies and make non-proprietary unconscious bias education modules available to others free of charge.
- We will share best—and unsuccessful—practices. We know that many companies are still developing programs and initiatives around true diversity and inclusion. We commit to helping them evolve and enhance their current diversity strategies and encourage them, in turn, to share their successes and challenges with others.
- We will create and share strategic inclusion and diversity plans with our board of directors. We will establish at least one diversity leadership council and make efforts to ensure these groups include diverse representation, including senior Black leaders, within our organization. The diversity leadership council will work with the CEO who will be accountable to our board of directors (or equivalent governing bodies) through the development and evaluation of concrete, strategic action plans to prioritize and drive accountability around diversity and inclusion, including as it relates to Black employees. We recognize that boards and CEOs play an important role in driving action together to cultivate inclusive cultures and talent.
- We will use our resources to work with members of the Black community through the BlackNorth Initiative. Through the BlackNorth Initiative we will ensure that Black communities across Canada are aware of opportunities of employment within our organization and that employment opportunities are set aside for Black people including committing to specific hiring goals of at least 5% within our student workforce from the Black community. Through the BlackNorth Initiative we will invest at least 3% of corporate donations and sponsorships to promote investment and create economic opportunities in the Black community, both by 2025. We also recognize the economic power of the company and the ability to influence broader change by encouraging diversity and the representation of Black people amongst our suppliers and those we choose to do business with.
- We will engage Canada’s corporate governance framework. The aim of the BlackNorth Initiative is to include both board Chairs and CEOs to foster inclusiveness for Black leaders at the board level, as well as at senior management and executive levels. We are building a strong foundation of business leaders who are committed to meaningful, sustainable inclusion of Black people in business leadership. Our goal is to build a pipeline so there can be representation from the Black community on the Board of Directors and in our C-suite. In addition, as a numeric goal provides real impetus for change, we have made a goal of, at a minimum, 3.5% of executive and board roles based in Canada being held by Black leaders by 2025.
- We will create the conditions for success. As in all business ventures, ‘what gets measured gets managed’, so it’s essential that we collect data on race and ethnicity, including from Black employees, to understand where we have gaps and when we are making progress. We will work through the BlackNorth Initiative to attract and retain talent from the Black community, and in partnership with our organization’s governance committee, commit to developing and advancing Black people within our organizations to ensure a pipeline of talent as we build inclusive leadership teams that are representative of the communities we serve. We will set inclusive talent management goals and include them in senior executives’ annual performance scorecards.
We also pledge to create accountability systems within our companies, share our goals internally and externally, track our progress, and share regular updates with each other to catalog effective programs and measurement practices.
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https://www.hoteliermagazine.com/the-black-north-initiative-2/
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Diversity, equity & inclusion
Etex's culture is all about teaming up, motivating, inspiring and taking care of each other. We know that our success depends on our talented and diverse employee base. We are convinced that diversity of thinking helps us to deliver a strong and sustainable performance. It is also essential for us that everyone feels part of the team. In this spirit, we are committed to equal opportunities and zero tolerance for discrimination, which is stipulated in our code of conduct.
Facts & figures
Breakdown by gender
Our goals for 2025
Our goals are set to give equal opportunities to all Etex teammates and to remove systemic barriers to inclusion. At the same time, we will continue to assess our gender equality performance on a regular basis to assure progress towards a more equal gender representation throughout the different levels in the organisation and to identify potential barriers and opportunities to accelerate the pace of change.
Teammate Stories
We have collected inspiring stories from Etex teammates worldwide and are sharing them here with all. We are helping create a sense of pride across team and borders, enabling our team to inspire each of and the world.
In our latest Employee Engagement Survey, 76% of female and 77% of male teammates agreed that management supports diversity, equity & inclusion at Etex. This is a good result, but there is room for improvement.
Therefore we invited some teammates to share their thoughts and personal experiences about diversity, equity & inclusion. Their stories will help raise awareness about its importance and make Etex the best workplace for all.
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https://www.etexgroup.com/en/inspiring/sustainability/diversity-equity-inclusion/
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As champions of Diversity and Inclusion in the workplace, we believe that balanced and inclusive working environments create more dynamic, entrepreneurial and effective corporate cultures. At Stephens Rickard, we consider that the systemic lack of diverse representation, in particular gender representation, not just in Insurance but in the wider financial markets, is not only a moral issue but a commercial concern which must remain of paramount importance to leadership and market influencers.
As an Executive Search firm, we are in a unique position to leverage our experience and reputation to influence change at Board level in providing fair representation and opportunities for all.
Therefore, as an additional service, we can provide a Gender Diversity Synopses of your chosen market. The final report aims to highlight any inequalities in the representation of gender within a given market segment, specifically within defined seniority tiers.
Typically, this report is written retroactively on completion of the research phase of a search project. It can also be offered as a separate service and market study on request. Ultimately, the aim of the report is twofold in first investigating whether we have given proportionate representation in our shortlisting reports (for search projects, should you require) and secondly, in painting a picture of the gender diversity spread in a given market segment.
Read more about our commitment to Diversity and Inclusion.
Through our deep networks and strong technical understanding of the Global (Re)Insurance market, we can provide our clients with a full suite of services that go far beyond standard search practices.
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https://www.stephensrickard.com/market-segment-diversity-inclusion-synopsis
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As an immigrant-serving organization, we know that we all benefit from the huge contributions that all members of our community offer. For over 40 years, we have seen the tremendous contributions that immigrants bring to our province: a diversity of experience, skills, and perspectives that help us address the complex challenges and new opportunities we face in our communities and province. When we welcome and include everyone, we are living up to our commitments to human rights and social justice. ISANS is committed to creating an equitable, diverse, and inclusive community. Our vision, “A community where all can belong and grow,” guides us in our collective action with immigrants, staff colleagues, and community partners. Our values of Diversity, Inclusion, Respect, Collaboration, Innovation, and Accountability ground us and move us toward our vision. We are committed to championing a more welcoming and inclusive province, and we hope to encourage others to do the same.
Why Are Welcoming and Inclusive Communities Important?
Discrimination and racism limit immigrants from fully participating, contributing, and engaging in our communities, as they do for other members of society. Discrimination and racism exist in our local communities, our province, and our country; they have deep roots that are embedded in our laws, culture, social systems, institutions, and society as a whole. Immigrants are affected and impacted by racism, homophobia, ableism, sexism, economic status, etc. Through the Nova Scotia Human Rights Act, the Nova Scotia Human Rights Commission recognizes the diversity of our communities and works to address issues of discrimination that are experienced by many in our province (please visit their website to learn more), and it’s important that we all make similar efforts. Honouring and respecting these protected rights found within this legal document is imperative for the growth of our collective communities. As individuals and as organizations, we recognize that we have work to do to challenge and address the personal and systemic barriers that prevent everyone from fully participating in our communities. There is tremendous opportunity right now to support a provincial, government-wide approach to equity, diversity, and inclusion that – at a minimum – engages us in:
- Acting on our obligations as Treaty People and implementing the Truth and Reconciliation Commission Recommendations
- Confronting racism in all forms, and ensuring that Indigenous, African Nova Scotians, Black, and racialized persons are able to fully participate in our society
- Ensuring gender equity
- Protecting LGBTQIA+ rights
- Supporting the full integration of members of the disabled community
Examples of Specific Steps the Provincial Government Can Do to Support this Work
- Lead an approach across the entire government and all provincial departments to address equity, diversion, and inclusion (EDI)
- Support public education and training opportunities on EDI for individuals, community groups, non-profit organizations, and businesses to build skills to create and support welcoming environments across our province
- Initiate public awareness campaigns that engage our communities in dialogue about racism and systemic barriers
- Identify and take action to address systemic discrimination and barriers within all policies, programs, and initiatives
- Create opportunities to celebrate positive actions and contributions that promote equity, diversity, and inclusion
- Ensure equity-seeking groups are represented in decision and policy-making bodies, and ensure fairness in employment hiring processes
Overall Benefit to Our Province
An approach to equity, diversity, and inclusion that spans the entire government would contribute to strengthening a welcoming province where immigrants feel they belong and thus choose to stay to contribute their skills, experience, and perspectives. Overall, it would help strengthen our resiliency and our economic, social, and cultural development as local communities and as a province.
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https://isans.ca/resources/strengthening-welcoming-and-inclusive-communities/
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TVO is committed to diversity, equity, and inclusion, and recognizes the importance of using anti-oppression practices, both within our organization and in the communities we serve.
As a public agency, a media and digital learning organization, we have a responsibility to the people of Ontario to speak out against injustice. We recognize that discrimination and oppression are ongoing issues in the workplace, in media, and in education. We must continually interrogate our biases, assumptions, and privileges and will actively work to dismantle systemic and institutional discrimination in the workplace and the community at large.
1.0 Content
We strive to tell diverse stories, and to have all Ontarians see themselves in the stories we tell and in the content we produce. We recognize that educational and media organizations sometimes push forward biased narratives and stereotypes, including TVO. We are committed to being increasingly discerning about the images, content and learning resources we provide to the people of Ontario; and to ensuring they align with our belief in and commitment to dismantling unjust systems.
2.0 Workplace culture
TVO is committed to creating an equitable workplace with a culture of inclusion in which every employee feels welcome, valued, respected and included, with no barriers or limitations to where they can contribute and what they can achieve.
3.0 Workforce
At TVO, we believe in creating a workforce that reflects the diversity of the Ontarians we serve through equity in attracting, hiring, promoting and leadership opportunities for all employees and the full talent pool of Ontarians. We are continually reviewing our policies and our actions to identify discriminatory practices so that we can take immediate action to address them.
We recognize that our commitment to diversity, equity, and inclusion needs to be consistent and ongoing. We will continue to look inwards to identify our own shortcomings. We recognize that we may not always get it right; knowing this, we embrace the ongoing work of course correcting and moving forward. We must do everything in our power to both learn and unlearn.
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https://tvo.me/who-we-are/leadership/policies-and-standards/diversity-equity-inclusion-anti-oppressions-statement/
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Highlighting "The GEOSness" of Black Scientists: A Week to Remember
Samuel Cornelius Nyarko, Ph.D. and Munira Raji, Ph.D.
The solution to me is simple. If you really believe in representation and diversity and you think lack of Qualified Black Scholar is the cause, "shoot me your specs" and I will offer you a Qualified Black Scholar INSTANTLY. You have hidden agenda against us based on color, and this is VERY SHAMEFUL -Unknown
Have you heard the theory that "diversity in knowledge creation is the closest we can go to achieve accurate knowledge"? The experiences and knowledge of minority people have been the recent mantra in the geosciences for almost every education mission, goal, and community actions that seek to promote community practice and literacy. As educators and scientists, we should always strive to promote learning engagements that enhance diversity, equity, and inclusive practices. My engagement with several geoscience educators make me believe there are a lot of people within this spectrum because they believe [presumably] in constructivism and meaningful learning. Anyway, constructivism is "knowledge creation through meaningful experiences" and meaningful learning experiences "are those that facilitate the integration of related new knowledge into what is already meaningful to them [the learner]". Constructivists and cognitive scientists emphasize that the process of long-term memory makes it difficult for a single individual to hold accurate knowledge of concepts which makes a lot of sense in the realm of nature of science. Simply put, consider other or alternative sources of knowledge in your decision making either as a leader or follower. however, we still have less Black people in Geoscience departments, faculties, and awards, there is still just one Black Geoscience Professor/Faculty member in the whole of the UK, less Black students in our departments and faculties, and less than 4% of all geoscience research come from Africa and Black researchers.
The 2021 Black in Geoscience Week was held virtually on social media on 6-12th September. The themes and activities for the event were remarkable, dispelling the misconception that there are not just enough qualified "Black people" in Geosciences. We had an incredible number of participants for the #BlackInGeoscienceRollCall from Black Geoscientists from every aspect of the Geosciences that included Climate Sciences, Earth Sciences, Environmental Science, Space and Atmospheric Sciences, Geography and Education and from a Black Geoscientist that was getting ready to travel to space. Themes and panel discussions for the week centered around climate change, sustainability, geological hazards and resources, geothermal energy, and leadership because inequalities in society exacerbate the environmental impact of climate change on marginalized communities. The majority of our moderators, panelists were Black Women from diverse backgrounds, regions and geoscience disciplines who volunteered their time to passionately share their expertise during the panel discussions with the BlackInGeoscience community. Listening to the perspectives of these Black scientists and educators was so refreshing and you could see the diversity in the knowledge being shared even from the same racial group. Though these discussions were online, you could feel them directly in your face listening to the Black perspective. The knowledge and language were passionate, global, and accurate. The Black In Geoscience created a vibrant virtual space to connect, increase visibility and showcase the expertise of Black geoscientists. For two years now, we came together to organize the #BlackInGeoscienceWeek as a volunteer-led event, made a huge impact and demonstrated that intentional actions by individuals can achieve a greater goal.
As an ally committed to tackling racism, we encourage you to take steps that would ensure Black Geoscientists are treated fairly in your organizations and within the geoscience community. Recognize and address unconscious biases and invisible barriers and raise awareness of opportunities so that Black Geoscientists can have access to the same opportunities afforded to their White colleagues. Appreciate the work of the Black Geoscientists and give it equal attention and visibility you would give other Geoscientists. Black Geoscientists are less likely to be funded by major funding organizations because our expertise is usually underestimated, use your privilege to advocate for us. We are your colleagues, classmates, teammates, team leaders, collaborators, and we want you to acknowledge and engage with us as such and not as victims. Provide the same level of support and attentiveness to the Black students in your class and be intentional about equal representations. We look forward to organizing the next #BlackInGeoscienceWeek in 2022.
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https://nagt.org/nagt/dei/story/highlighting_geosness_black_sc.html
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Despite some progress in the workplace in the last few years, gender stereotypes are still entrenched in our societies and workplaces. Gender norms, stereotypes and socio-cultural practises can still be very restrictive for women’s participation in the workplace. Currently, women make up less than 10% of executive directorships in FTSE100 companies. Research shows that for women to aspire to rise to leadership positions, role models are vital.
Showing up for each other
Role models matter, particularly for women. due to the gender biases, institutional barriers and negative stereotypes they have had to contend with in their personal, social and professional lives.
Past research has shown that female role models, particularly in male-dominated professions and sectors such as STEM, assist in improving women’s recruitment, retention by creating a sense of belonging, providing a clear path of progression, and dispelling myths around women’s leadership and performance. They help create the space for others to enter the pipeline. Exposure to female role models has increased female students’ enrolment and completion of studies in specific subject areas, in particular in the math-intensive fields of ‘hard’ sciences, engineering, economics, arithmetic.
Seeing is believing
Female role models can signal to young women that it is possible to succeed in different domains of work, especially in leadership roles. Even today, there are deep-seated gender biases against women’s leadership. For instance, data from the Reykjavik Index for leadership, indicate that significantly fewer people believe that women are equally suited as men in leadership positions. Within the corporate sphere, the visible presence of women at senior levels challenge the stereotype that male managers are more suitable for leadership positions than female managers, therefore facilitating the advance of more women in organizations.
In short, seeing is believing.
Still – a glass ceiling
Despite the notable out-performance of female-led organizations, as noted by McKinsey, progress on gender equality and gender parity at a workplace has stalled or even regressed in many countries across the world. Less than half (47.3%) of all women participated in the labour force in 2019, a decrease from 51.0% in 1990. While most organizations speak of their commitment to gender diversity, equity and equality, that commitment has for most not yet translated into progress. A glass ceiling still hinders women’s advancement in the workplace. This hindrance has only been exacerbated by the COVID-19 crisis. While the pandemic has been the cause of a massive increase in unemployment globally, women in particular have been negatively impacted. Women—especially women of colour—are more likely to have been laid off, stalling their careers and jeopardizing their financial security.
Women aspiring to leadership roles
Nonetheless, the number of women sitting on boards of Fortune 500 companies in the US has more than doubled from 9.6 per cent in 1995 to 22.2% in 2017 ( Pew Research 2017).
We have also seen the gender parity gap in the workplace improve in some countries. A few underlying reasons contribute to these improvements. Firstly, women’s labour force participation can get a boost from government policies that promote educational enrolment of girls and specific family-friendly labour policies, such as state-subsidised childcare or job-protected leave entitlements. Across the world, women’s educational attainment levels have improved dramatically, so much so that a Pew Research Centre Survey finds that “today’s young women are starting their careers better educated than their male counterparts.” Similarly, many countries have instituted quotas for female representation on corporate boards. Corporate America scores much lower than France or Norway, where businesses average more than 40% female representation on a board of directors.
While these quotas have improved board diversity, they have not necessarily translated into greater women’s representation at senior management levels. To ensure a sustainable change in the presence of women in leadership, the organizational culture has to change towards women’s leadership being considered equal to that of men’s. Such change would also entail that there are active measures to challenge gender norms and stereotypes.
Organisational structures and cultures
As we have mentioned earlier, a lot more needs to be done to increase the number of women in leadership roles. Not only do we need family-friendly policies at the workplace that recognise that women bear a disproportionate share of care responsibilities at home, but organizations also need to put in place recruitment and promotion policies that target women’s underrepresentation and gender bias in hiring. Organizations need to ensure a sufficient pipeline of women who can rise up the ranks and reach the C-Suite levels.
More importantly, as research on organizational cultures has shown, patriarchal norms hinder women from accessing opportunities for career progression or being valued for their leadership. The slow pace of change in the number of women in leadership roles is related to issues of organizational culture, of deeply embedded patriarchal notions of leadership attributes that have become normalised.
Repeated studies have shown that women often feel invisible at work and their ideas and contributions get unrecognised. Organizations continue to reward, recognise achievement, provide incentives and promote employees using a leadership assessment framework based on a male-centric style of leadership. To shift the ‘deep structure’ of organizations through which gender discriminatory norms and power relations are reproduced, organizations have to look beyond superficial quick fixes such as mission statements, codes of conduct or diversity training and embrace the tougher work of change the organizational culture through acceptance and encouragement of women’s leadership attributes; promotion of values of equality within both formal policies and informal practices of the organization, acknowledgement of the care burden and creating an incentive structure that rewards initiatives on gender equality.
Atlas Portal is currently working as research and communications intern with Gender at Work and Aayushi Aggarwal is the communications manager at Gender at Work.
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https://genderatwork.org/news/feminists-leading-change-women-in-leadership-roles/
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A control method for controlling a biometric authentication system including a server that stores reference biometric data, and a client that acquires biometric authentication data of the user, has saving in the server a table in which identification information identifying the user and a previous authentication result of the user are associated with each other, transmitting the identification information to the server, referring to the identification information and acquiring a previous authentication result of the user corresponding to the identification information from the table, calculating, an authentication success rate of the user from the acquired previous authentication result, transmitting the reference biometric data to the client when the authentication success rate is less than or equal to a certain value, calculating, a degree of matching between the biometric authentication data and the reference biometric data, and determining, whether or not the authentication of the user has succeeded.
1. A control method for controlling a biometric authentication system including a server that stores reference biometric data used as a reference for authentication of a user, and a client that acquires biometric authentication data from the user, the control method comprising: saving in the server a table in which identification information identifying the user and a previous authentication result of the user are associated with each other; transmitting the identification information identifying the user to the server from the client; referring to, at the server, the identification information transmitted from the client and acquiring a previous authentication result of the user corresponding to the identification information from the table; calculating, at the server, an authentication success rate of the user from the acquired previous authentication result; transmitting the reference biometric data from the server to the client when the authentication success rate is less than or equal to a certain value and then calculating, at the client, a degree of matching between the biometric authentication data and the reference biometric data transmitted from the server; and determining, based on the degree of matching, whether or not the authentication of the user has succeeded.
2. The control method according to claim 1, further comprising, when the authentication success rate is greater than or equal to the certain value, calculating, at the server, a degree of matching between the biometric authentication data, which is transmitted from the client, and the reference biometric data, and determining whether or not the authentication of the user has succeeded.
3. The control method according to claim 1, further comprising storing, in the client, reference biometric data corresponding to a user for which the authentication success rate is less than or equal to the certain value, and, when an authentication process is performed on the user, verifying, at the client, biometric authentication data of the user against the stored reference biometric data.
4. The control method according to claim 1, further comprising recording, at the server, a history of authentication results corresponding to the client, and referring to, at the server, the history of authentication results to determine whether the authentication of the user is to be performed by the client or the server.
5. The control method according to claim 1, further comprising, when the authentication success rate is less than or equal to the certain value, transforming, at the server, the reference biometric data using specific information, transmitting the transformed reference biometric data from the server to the client, transforming, at the client, the biometric authentication data using the specific information, and performing, at the client, a verification process between the transformed reference biometric data and the transformed biometric authentication data.
6. A non-transitory, computer readable storage medium storing a program for controlling a biometric authentication system including a server that stores reference biometric data used as a reference for authentication of a user, and a client that acquires biometric authentication data from the user, according to a process comprising: saving in the server a table in which identification information identifying the user and a previous authentication result of the user are associated with each other; transmitting the identification information identifying the user to the server from the client; referring to, at the server, the identification information transmitted from the client and acquiring a previous authentication result of the user corresponding to the identification information from the table; calculating, at the server, an authentication success rate of the user from the acquired previous authentication result; transmitting the reference biometric data from the server to the client when the authentication success rate is less than or equal to a certain value; calculating, at the client, a degree of matching between the biometric authentication data and the reference biometric data transmitted from the server; and determining, based on the degree of matching, whether or not the authentication of the user has succeeded.
7. A biometric authentication system comprising a server that stores reference biometric data used as a reference for authentication of a user, and a client that acquires biometric authentication data from the user, the server including a storage unit for storing a table in which identification information identifying user and a previous authentication result of the user are associated with each other, a calculating unit for referring to the identification information and the table and calculating an authentication success rate of the user from a previous authentication result of the user corresponding to the identification information, and a transmitting unit for transmitting the reference biometric data to the client when the authentication success rate is less than or equal to a certain value, the client including a determining unit for calculating a degree of matching between the biometric authentication data and the reference biometric data, which is transmitted from the server, and determining, based on the degree of matching, whether or not the authentication of the user has succeeded.
8. The biometric authentication system according to claim 7, wherein the server further includes a determining unit for, when the authentication success rate is greater than or equal to the certain value, calculating a degree of matching between the biometric authentication data, which is transmitted from the client, and the reference biometric data, and for determining, based on the degree of matching, whether or not the authentication of the user has succeeded.
9. The biometric authentication system according to claim 7, wherein the client further includes a storage unit for storing reference biometric data corresponding to a user for which the authentication success rate is less than or equal to the certain value, and the determining unit of the client calculates a degree of matching between the reference biometric data stored in the storage unit of the client and biometric authentication data of the user, and determines, based on the degree of matching, whether or not the authentication of the user has succeeded.
10. The biometric authentication system according to claim 7, wherein the server further includes a transforming unit for, when the authentication success rate is less than or equal to the certain value, transforming, at the server, the reference biometric data using specific information, the client further includes a transforming unit for transforming the biometric authentication data using the specific information, and the determining unit of the client calculates a degree of matching between the transformed reference biometric data and the transformed biometric authentication data, and determines, based on the degree of matching, whether or not the authentication of the user has succeeded.
This is a continuation of Application PCT/JP2009/004775, filed on Sep. 18, 2009, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.
The present art relates to a biometric authentication system and a control method.
There is a client-server biometric authentication system. A client acquires biometric data of a user. A server holds a registered template used as a reference for the authentication of the user. Upon receipt of an authentication request from a client, a server performs a verification process between biometric data for verification, which has been transmitted from the client, and a registered template held in the server. If the degree of matching between the biometric data and the registered template, which has been calculated in the verification process, is greater than or equal to a threshold, the server authorizes the client to access the system. A client-server biometric authentication system can manage access to a server by allowing the server to manage authentication results as a log.
In biometric authentication, a server may use a plurality of algorithms when verifying the identity of an individual. For example, when verifying the identity of an individual, the server firstly performs verification based on minutiae points. If the degree of matching is greater than or equal to a threshold, the identity is verified and access to the system is authorized. If the degree of matching obtained in the verification based on minutiae points is less than or equal to the threshold, the server further performs a pattern matching process. When the degree of matching obtained in the pattern matching process is greater than or equal to a threshold, access to the system is authorized.
For users who are difficult to authenticate, the server needs to perform a pattern matching process in addition to a verification process based on minutiae points. Thus, the amount of computation to be performed by the server increases, and the authentication process time becomes long. In addition, because of the increase in the amount of computation in a fingerprint authentication process to be performed by the server on a user who is difficult to authenticate, a concentration of authentication requests from users who are difficult to authenticate to the server causes an increase in the load on the server (see, for example, Japanese Laid-open Patent Publication No. 09-288648 and Japanese Laid-open Patent Publication No. 2005-182641).
According to an aspect of an embodiment, a control method for controlling a biometric authentication system including a server that stores reference biometric data used as a reference for authentication of a user, and a client that acquires biometric authentication data from the user, the control method has saving in the server a table in which identification information identifying the user and a previous authentication result of the user are associated with each other, transmitting the identification information identifying the user to the server from the client, referring to, at the server, the identification information transmitted from the client and acquiring a previous authentication result of the user corresponding to the identification information from the table, calculating, at the server, an authentication success rate of the user from the acquired previous authentication result, transmitting the reference biometric data from the server to the client when the authentication success rate is less than or equal to a certain value, calculating, at the client, a degree of matching between the biometric authentication data and the reference biometric data transmitted from the server, and determining, based on the degree of matching, whether or not the authentication of the user has succeeded.
FIG. 1 is a diagram illustrating a biometric authentication system (part 1) according to this embodiment.
FIG. 2 is a diagram illustrating a user management table.
FIG. 3 is a diagram illustrating a log of verification results.
FIG. 4 is a diagram illustrating a client management table.
FIG. 5 is a diagram illustrating a biometric authentication system (part 2) according to this embodiment.
FIG. 6 is a diagram illustrating a client management table.
FIG. 7 is a diagram illustrating a client management table.
FIG. 8 is a diagram illustrating a biometric authentication system (part 3) according to this embodiment.
FIG. 9 is a diagram illustrating a biometric authentication system (part 4) according to this embodiment.
FIG. 10 is a diagram illustrating a user management table.
FIG. 11 is a diagram illustrating changes in authentication success rate.
FIG. 12 is a flowchart (part 1) depicting an authentication process according to this embodiment.
FIG. 13 is a flowchart (part 2) depicting an authentication process according to this embodiment.
FIG. 14 is a flowchart (part 3) depicting an authentication process according to this embodiment.
FIG. 1 illustrates a biometric authentication system 0 according to this embodiment. The operation during authentication is represented by broken line arrows in FIG. 1. The biometric authentication system 0 includes a client 100 and an authentication server 200. The client 100 includes a data acquisition unit 102, a verification processing unit 104, a verification result acquisition unit 106, and a log saving unit 108. The authentication server 200 includes a user management table 300, a verification processing unit 204, a verification result acquisition unit 206, a log saving unit 208, a tendency extraction unit 210, and an operating policy control unit 212.
The data acquisition unit 102 acquires a user ID and data for verification, which is used in biometric authentication, and transmits the user ID and the data for verification to the authentication server 200. The verification processing unit 104 calculates the degree of matching between the data for verification and a registered template transmitted from the authentication server 200, and for determining, based on the degree of matching, whether or not the associated user has succeeded in the authentication. The verification result acquisition unit 106 acquires the verification result for the user obtained by the verification processing unit 104, and saves the verification result in the log saving unit 108.
The verification processing unit 204 calculates the degree of matching between the data for verification, which is transmitted from the client 100, and a registered template, and for determining, based on the degree of matching, whether or not the user has succeeded in the authentication. The verification result acquisition unit 206 acquires the verification result for the user obtained by the verification processing unit 204, and saves the verification result in the log saving unit 208. The tendency extraction unit 210 calculates the authentication success rate of each user for a certain period from log information saved in the log saving unit 208 in order to determine a user who is difficult to authenticate. The operating policy control unit 212 instructs the tendency extraction unit 210 to periodically extract the tendency of authentication results for each user from the log information saved in the log saving unit 208 in order to identify a user who is difficult to authenticate.
FIG. 2 illustrates an example of the user management table 300. The user management table 300 has a user ID 302, a registered fingerprint template 304, a fingerprint data type 306, a registration quality 308, and a local-authenticated-user flag 310.
The user ID 302 is an ID of a user who performs biometric authentication. The registered fingerprint template 304 is data that is registered in advance by a user and that is used as a reference for biometric authentication. The fingerprint data type 306 is a type of data to be used in biometric authentication. The registration quality 308 is the quality of the registered fingerprint template 304. In this embodiment, when the registered fingerprint template 304 is registered, biometric data of the user is acquired in a plurality of number of times and the registered fingerprint template 304 is generated from the acquired data. For example, if the fingerprint of the user is in good condition, every acquired piece of biometric data has a high degree of matching. Accordingly, the quality is defined to be high when the degree of matching between the acquired pieces of biometric data is high. The local-authenticated-user flag 310 is a flag indicating which of server authentication and local authentication to apply for each user.
The authentication server 200 is capable of determining which of server authentication and local authentication to apply for each user by referring to the local-authenticated-user flag 310.
The data acquisition unit 102 of the client 100 acquires a user ID and data for verification, which is used in biometric authentication, and transmits the user ID and the data for verification to the authentication server 200. The authentication server 200 refers to the local-authenticated-user flag 310 included in the user management table 300 illustrated in FIG. 2, based on the user ID transmitted from the client 100. The authentication server 200 determines whether to perform server authentication or local authentication on the corresponding user. If server authentication is to be performed on the corresponding user, the verification processing unit 204 performs a verification process between a registered template and the data for verification. The verification result acquisition unit 206 acquires a verification result, and saves a log of the verification result in the log saving unit 208. On the other hand, if local authentication is to be performed on the corresponding user, the authentication server 200 transmits the user ID, the data for verification, and the registered template to the client 100. The verification processing unit 104 of the client 100 performs a verification process between the registered template and the data for verification. The verification result acquisition unit 106 acquires a verification result, and saves a log of the verification result in the log saving unit 108. When local authentication is performed, the client 100 transmits an authentication result to the log saving unit 208 of the authentication server 200 in a way synchronous or asynchronous to the authentication time.
Here, FIG. 3 illustrates an example of a log 400 of verification results. The log 400 of verification results is a table having a date and time 402, a user ID 404, a client name 406, an IP address 408, an authentication type 410, a biometric data type 412, an authentication program version level 414, a verification algorithm 416, a verification score 418, and an authentication result 420.
The date and time 402 indicates the date and time when biometric authentication was performed. The user ID 404 indicates the ID of a user who performed biometric authentication. The client name 406 indicates the name of a client that performed biometric authentication. The IP address 408 indicates the IP address of a client that performed biometric authentication. The authentication type 410 indicates a method of biometric authentication. The biometric data type 412 indicates a type of biometric information used in biometric authentication. The authentication program version level 414 indicates the version of a program under which authentication is performed. The verification algorithm 416 indicates a verification algorithm used in biometric authentication. In this embodiment, first, verification is performed using minutiae points of biometric data. Then, for a user whose identity has not been successfully verified only with the minutiae points, verification is performed using pattern matching of biometric data. The verification score 418 is a value indicating the score to be referred to for determining whether to perform automatic switching to local authentication, and is a value indicating the degree to which the registered template and the data for verification match. The authentication result 420 indicates authentication success or failure.
An exemplary implementation of operation when dynamically controlling an operating policy as to which of local authentication and server authentication to apply is indicated by solid line arrows in FIG. 1. The operating policy control unit 212 instructs the tendency extraction unit 210 to periodically extract the tendency of authentication results for each user from the log 400 of verification results in order to identify a user who is difficult to authenticate. In this embodiment, the operating policy control unit 212 instructs the tendency extraction unit 210 to calculate an authentication success rate of each user for a certain period from the log information in order to identify a user who is difficult to authenticate. The operating policy control unit 212 may identify a user who is difficult to authenticate by using the average value of verification scores obtained for a certain period or using information on an algorithm used for verification.
The tendency extraction unit 210 calculates an authentication success rate of each user for a certain period from previous authentication results of the user by referring to the log 400 of verification results. If the authentication success rate is greater than or equal to a threshold, the operating policy control unit 212 changes the local-authenticated-user flag 310 in the user management table 300 in order to perform server authentication. If the authentication success rate is less than or equal to the threshold, the operating policy control unit 212 changes the local-authenticated-user flag 310 in the user management table 300 in order to perform local authentication.
In the example illustrated in FIG. 2, furthermore, the operating policy control unit 212 can specify local authentication on a user-by-user basis. However, the operating policy control unit 212 may specify local authentication on a client-by-client basis. In order to specify local authentication on a client-by-client basis, the authentication server 200 may have a client management table 700 illustrated in FIG. 5. The client management table 700 has a client name 702, an IP address 704, and a local-authenticated-user flag 706.
In this embodiment, an example in which an authentication success rate is calculated for each user ID and the local-authenticated-user flag 310 included in the user management table 300 is updated has been illustrated. Additionally, the tendency extraction unit 210 may calculate an authentication success rate for each client, and the operating policy control unit 212 may set the local-authenticated-user flag 310 for each client. The operating policy control unit 212 periodically performs the above processes in batch processing, and dynamically controls an operating method by switching from server authentication to local authentication when the authentication success rate decreases and by switching from local authentication to server authentication when the authentication success rate increases.
In the biometric authentication system 0 illustrated in FIG. 1, the authentication server 200 has the user management table 300, and determines whether to switch to local authentication by referring to the local-authenticated-user flag 310 in the user management table 300. FIG. 5 illustrates a biometric authentication system 2 for speeding up this process. In the biometric authentication system 2 illustrated in FIG. 5, the client 100 also has the user management table 300. Elements corresponding to those described with reference to FIG. 1 are assigned the same numerals, and a description thereof is omitted.
At the time of authentication, the data acquisition unit 102 of the client 100 acquires a user ID and data for verification, which is used in biometric authentication. Then, the client 100 refers to the user management table 300 by using the user ID acquired by the data acquisition unit 102. The client 100 performs a verification process between the registered template owned by the client and the verification data if the corresponding user is to be authenticated using local authentication. The client 100 transmits the user ID and the data for verification to the authentication server 200 if the corresponding user is to be authenticated using server authentication. The process performed in the authentication server 200 is similar to the process of the biometric authentication system 0 illustrated in FIG. 1.
If the corresponding user ID is not found in the user management table 300 owned by the client 100, server authentication is performed. In the biometric authentication system 2 illustrated in FIG. 5, the client 100 is capable of determining which of server authentication and local authentication to perform. Therefore, quick switching to local authentication can be made at the time of authentication without using communication between the authentication server 200 and the client 100.
An exemplary implementation of operation when dynamically controlling the operating policy in a case where the client 100 has the user management table 300 is indicated by solid line arrows in FIG. 5. The operating policy control unit 212 instructs the tendency extraction unit 210 to periodically extract the tendency of authentication results for each user from the log information in order to identify a user who is difficult to authenticate. Subsequently, similarly to the biometric authentication system 0 illustrated in FIG. 1, the tendency extraction unit 210 calculates an authentication success rate of each user for a certain period, determines whether to perform local authentication or server authentication, and updates the user management table 300 owned by the authentication server 200.
The user management table 300 owned by the client 100 and the user management table 300 owned by the authentication server 200 need to be synchronized with each other. For this purpose, the authentication server 200 periodically transmits the user management table 300 to the client 100. However, it is not acceptable for security reasons that all the pieces of user data held in the authentication server 200 are transmitted to the data registered in the client 100. For this reason, there is a need to limit user information to be periodically transmitted to the client 100 from the authentication server 200. Consequently, the authentication server 200 has a client management table 500 illustrated in FIG. 6, and limits the user information to be transmitted to the client 100.
The client management table 500 has a client name 502, an IP address 504, a user ID 506, an authentication type 508, and an authentication program version level 510. The authentication server 200 refers to the IP address 504 corresponding to the client identified by the client name 502. Then, the authentication server 200 transmits user information to the client 100. The client management table 500 can be created manually by a system administrator or may be periodically created from the log 400 of verification results. In addition, in order to achieve synchronization between the data owned by the client 100 and the data owned by the authentication server 200, the client 100 periodically refers to the user management table 300 owned by the client 100, and periodically downloads a registered template for only a user for local authentication from the authentication server 200 to make an update.
In the biometric authentication system 0 illustrated in FIG. 1 and the biometric authentication system 2 illustrated in FIG. 5, first, the authentication server 200 calculates an authentication success rate of each user for a certain period in order to speed up the authentication process and reduce load. Then, a user who is difficult to authenticate, which will require a large amount of computation to authenticate, is identified, and a user to be authenticated with local authentication is set.
Further, an embodiment in which a user who is difficult to authenticate in biometric authentication is identified using the quality of a registered template and quality information about data for verification will be described. In a case where the quality of a registered template is used, in FIG. 1 and FIG. 5, the tendency extraction unit 210 extracts a user for which the registration quality is less than or equal to a threshold from the user management table 300 when dynamically changing the operating policy. If the registration quality is less than or equal to the threshold, the operating policy control unit 212 changes the local-authenticated-user flag 310 in the user management table 300 to local authentication. If the registration quality is greater than or equal to the threshold, the operating policy control unit 212 changes the local-authenticated-user flag 310 in the user management table 300 to server authentication.
The local-authenticated-user flag 310 in the user management table 300 can also be changed when a user registers a registered template. In the user management table 300, if one user ID has a plurality of registered templates, the average value of the registration qualities of the plurality of registered templates and the quality of registered data to be frequently used for verification from the log 400 of verification results may be calculated to determine whether to perform local authentication or server authentication. It is assumed that the threshold for the quality of registered data for determining whether to perform local authentication or server authentication is defined in the system.
Next, FIG. 8 illustrates a biometric authentication system 6 for determining whether to perform local authentication or server authentication by using quality information about data for verification. Elements corresponding to those described with reference to FIG. 1 and FIG. 5 are assigned the same numerals, and a description thereof is omitted. The verification-data quality extraction unit 201 extracts the quality of data for verification, which has been transmitted from the client 100.
At the time of authentication, the data acquisition unit 102 of the client 100 acquires a user ID and data for verification, which is used in biometric authentication, and transmits the user ID and the data for verification to the authentication server 200. The verification-data quality extraction unit 201 of the authentication server 200 extracts the quality of the data for verification, which has been transmitted from the client 100. If the quality of the data for verification is greater than or equal to a threshold, the verification processing unit 204 of the authentication server 200 performs a verification process between a registered template and the data for verification. The verification result acquisition unit 206 acquires a verification result, and saves a log of the verification result in the log saving unit 208. On the other hand, if the quality of the data for verification is less than or equal to the threshold, a registered template is acquired from a user management table 900 illustrated in FIG. 7, and the authentication server 200 transmits the data for verification, the user ID, and the registered template to the client 100.
Here, the quality of the data for verification will be described. For example, if a fingerprint of a user is in good condition, the ridge portions and the valley portions clearly appear in obtained data for verification. A binarization process is performed on the data for verification in which the ridge portions and the valley portions clearly appear to generate a density histogram representing the image density distribution, where peak values about the ridge portions and the valley portions also clearly appear. In this embodiment, data for verification in which peak values about the ridge portions and the valley portions clearly appear is defined as high-quality data.
If the local-authenticated-user flag 310 of the corresponding user represents local authentication, the authentication server 200 transmits the user ID, the data for verification, and the registered template to the client 100. The verification processing unit 104 of the client 100 performs a verification process between the registered template and the data for verification. The verification result acquisition unit 106 acquires a verification result, and saves a log of the verification result in the log saving unit 108. When local authentication is performed, the client 100 transmits the authentication result to the log saving unit 208 of the authentication server 200 in a way synchronous or asynchronous to the authentication time.
It is assumed that the threshold for determining whether to perform local authentication or server authentication is defined in the system. In addition, the client 100 may extract data for verification at the time of authentication and may transmit the quality of the data for verification together with the user ID and the data for verification to the authentication server 200.
In the biometric authentication system 6 described above, a registered template is downloaded into the client 100 from the authentication server 200 and the client 100 performs a verification process. Thus, the registered template for a user may leak from a communication path, and the leakage of the registered template would introduce a risk of a spoofing attack. Since biometric information is basically invariable during the lifetime of the user although it may change over time, there is a risk of unauthorized access during the lifetime of the user by someone spoofing the user once the registered data leaks.
Now, a description will be given of cancelable biometric authentication in which in order to realize local authentication with high security maintained even if a registered template leaks, the registered template is transformed using a transformation key during automatic switching to local authentication and data for verification is also transformed using the transformation key to allow verification between the transformed pieces of data.
In this embodiment, if a registered template leaks, the transformation key is changed and a registered template is re-registered. Therefore, unauthorized access can be prevented.
The operation of a biometric authentication system 8 based on cancelable biometric authentication during authentication is represented by broken line arrows in FIG. 9. Elements corresponding to those described with reference to FIG. 1, FIG. 5, and FIG. 8 are assigned the same numerals, and a description thereof is omitted. A transformation key creation unit 218 creates key information for transforming data. A verification data transformation unit 214 transforms data for verification using the key information created by the transformation key creation unit 218. A registered-data transformation unit 216 transforms a registered fingerprint template using the key information created by the transformation key creation unit 218.
The data acquisition unit 102 of the client 100 acquires a user ID and data for verification, which is used in biometric authentication, and transmits the user ID and the data for verification to the authentication server 200. The authentication server 200 refers to a local-authenticated-user flag included in a user management table 600 from the user ID transmitted from the client 100. If the corresponding user is to be authenticated using server authentication, the verification processing unit 204 performs a verification process between the registered template and the data for verification. The verification result acquisition unit 206 acquires a verification result, and saves a log of the verification result in the log saving unit 208.
On the other hand, if the local-authenticated-user flag of the corresponding user represents local authentication, the verification data transformation unit 214 transforms the data for verification using the transformation key included in the user management table 600. The authentication server 200 transmits the user ID, the transformed data for verification, and the transformed registered template to the client 100. The verification processing unit 104 of the client 100 performs a verification process between the transformed registered template and the transformed data for verification. The verification result acquisition unit 106 acquires a verification result, and saves a log of the verification result in the log saving unit 108. When local authentication is performed, the authentication result is transmitted to the log saving unit 208 of the authentication server 200 in a way synchronous or asynchronous to the authentication time.
FIG. 10 illustrates an example of the user management table 600. The user management table 600 has a user ID 602, a registered fingerprint template 604, a transformed registered fingerprint template 606, a transformation key 608, a fingerprint data type 610, a registration quality 612, and a local-authenticated-user flag 614. The transformation key 608 is key information for transforming the registered fingerprint template 604. The transformed registered fingerprint template 606 is a template produced by the registered-data transformation unit 216 transforming the registered fingerprint template by using the key information created by the transformation key creation unit 218. The user management table 600 has a transformed registered template that has been created by the registered-data transformation unit 216 by using the transformation key produced in advance by the transformation key creation unit, thereby quickly realizing cancelable authentication at the time of authentication. It is assumed that cancelable biometric authentication can also be applied in the biometric authentication system 2, the biometric authentication system 4, and the biometric authentication system 6 described above.
An exemplary implementation of operation when dynamically controlling an operating policy as to which of local authentication and server authentication to perform in case of applying cancelable biometric authentication is indicated by solid line arrows in FIG. 10. The operating policy control unit 212 instructs the tendency extraction unit 210 to periodically extract the tendency of authentication results for each user from the log information in order to identify a user who is difficult to authenticate.
Subsequently, similarly to the biometric authentication system 0 illustrated in FIG. 1, the tendency extraction unit 210 calculates an authentication success rate of each user for a certain period, and determines whether to perform local authentication or server authentication. Then, the tendency extraction unit 210 updates the user management table 600 owned by the authentication server 200.
In this embodiment, the transformation key creation unit 218 creates a transformation key only for a user to be authenticated with local authentication, and transforms the associated registered template. Then, the operating policy control unit 212 stores the transformed registered template and the transformation key in the user management table 600. If it is determined that server authentication is to be performed, the operating policy control unit 212 deletes the transformed registered template and the transformation key from the user management table 600. The operating policy control unit 212 periodically performs the above processes in batch processing, and dynamically controls an operating method.
This embodiment can also be applied to the biometric authentication system 2 in which the client 100 has the user management table 300 illustrated in FIG. 2.
Subsequently, the foregoing embodiment will be described specifically with reference to a diagram illustrated in FIG. 11 which illustrates changes in the authentication success rate of a user. FIG. 11 illustrates changes in the authentication success rate when User0001 performed fingerprint authentication. The horizontal axis represents the time when the User0001 performed fingerprint authentication. The vertical axis represents the authentication success rate of the User0001.
An embodiment will be described in which changing between local authentication and server authentication is based on the authentication success rate of each user. FIG. 11 illustrates changes in the authentication success rate when the User0001 performs fingerprint authentication. If it is assumed that the current month is January, the finger of the User0001 is dry and thus the authentication success rate in December is reduced to 30%. Upon receipt of an authentication request from the User0001, the authentication server 200 performs a pattern matching process in addition to verification based on only minutiae points to verify the identity of the User0001. Accordingly, if an authentication request is issued from the User0001, the amount of computation increases, leading to an increased load on the authentication server 200.
In this embodiment, the authentication server 200 periodically acquires an authentication success rate of the User0001 for the previous one month (December) from the authentication log, and finds that the authentication success rate is 30%. Since the authentication success rate is lower than an authentication success rate of 40%, which is a system defined threshold, the authentication server 200 changes the local-authenticated-user flag of the User0001 in the user management table to local authentication.
At the time of authentication, the User0001 inputs a user ID and fingerprint data from the client 100. The client 100 transmits the user ID and fingerprint data for verification to the authentication server 200. The authentication server 200 determines, based on the user ID transmitted from the client 100, whether to perform local authentication or server authentication on the User0001. The authentication server 200 refers to the local-authenticated-user flag 310 of the User0001 in the user management table 300, and determines that local authentication is to be performed. The authentication server 200 transmits the user ID, the biometric data for verification, and a registered template to the client 100. The client 100 performs a verification process.
In March, when the state of the finger of the User0001 returns to a normal state from a dry state and when the authentication success rate becomes high, the authentication server 200 acquires an authentication success rate for the previous one month (February) from the authentication log, and finds that the authentication success rate is 50%. Since the authentication success rate is over a system defined authentication success rate of 40%, the authentication server 200 changes the local-authenticated-user flag 310 of the User0001 in the user management table 300 to server authentication.
At the time of authentication, the User0001 inputs a user ID and fingerprint data from the client 100. The client 100 transmits the user ID and fingerprint data for verification to the authentication server 200. The authentication server 200 determines, based on the user ID transmitted from the client 100, whether to perform local authentication or server authentication on the User0001. The authentication server 200 refers to the local-authenticated-user flag 310 of the User0001 in the user management table 300, and determines that server authentication is to be performed. The authentication server 200 refers to the registered fingerprint template 304 in the user management table 300 held in the authentication server 200, and performs a verification process with the biometric data for verification, which has been transmitted from the client 100. The authentication server 200 transmits an authentication result to the client 100.
An embodiment in which the client 100 determines whether to perform local authentication or server authentication will be described. If it is assumed that the current month is January, the finger of the User0001 is dry, and the authentication success rate in December is reduced to 30%. Upon receipt of an authentication request from the User0001, the authentication server 200 performs a pattern matching process in addition to verification based on only minutiae points to verify the identity of the User0001. Accordingly, if an authentication request is issued from the User0001, the length of the authentication process time increases, leading to an increased load on the authentication server 200.
In this embodiment, the authentication server 200 periodically acquires the authentication success rate of the User0001 for the previous one month (December), i.e., "30%", from the authentication log. Since the authentication success rate is lower than an authentication success rate of 40%, which is a system defined threshold, the authentication server 200 changes the local-authenticated-user flag of the User0001 in the user management table 300 to local authentication.
The authentication server 200 periodically refers to the client management table 500, and finds that the client 100 (Client0002) is used by the User0001, User0002, and User0003. The authentication server 200 extracts user information about the User0001, the User0002, and the User0003 from the client management table 500, and transmits the user information to the Client0002, thereby allowing the client 100 (Client0002) to update the user management table 300 and hold the updated user management table 300.
At the time of authentication, the User0001 inputs a user ID and fingerprint data from the client 100 (Client0002). The client 100 determines, based on the user ID input from the client 100, whether to perform local authentication or server authentication on the User0001. The client 100 (Client0002) refers to the local-authenticated-user flag 310 of the User0001 in the user management table 300 owned by the client 100 (Client0002), and determines that local authentication is to be performed. The client 100 (Client0002) extracts a registered template for the User0001 from the user management table 300, and performs a verification process with the biometric data for verification.
In March, when the state of the finger of the User0001 returns to a normal state from a dry state and when the authentication success rate becomes high, the authentication server 200 acquires the authentication success rate for the previous one month (February), i.e., "50%", from the authentication log. Since the authentication success rate is over a system defined authentication success rate of 40%, the authentication server 200 changes the local-authenticated-user flag of the User0001 in the user management table 300 to server authentication. The authentication server 200 periodically refers to the client management table 500, and finds that the client 100 (Client0002) is used by the User0001, the User0002, and the User0003. The authentication server 200 extracts user information about the User0001, the User0002, and the User0003 from the client management table 500, and transmits the user information to the Client0002. This allows the client 100 (Client0002) to update the user management table 300 and hold the updated user management table 300. Here, the local-authenticated-user flag of the User0001, which is held in the client 100 (Client0002), is changed from local authentication to server authentication.
At the time of authentication, the User0001 inputs a user ID and fingerprint data from the client 100 (Client0002). The client 100 determines, based on the user ID input from the client 100, whether to perform local authentication or server authentication on the User0001. The client 100 (Client0002) refers to the local-authenticated-user flag of the User0001 in the user management table 300 held therein, and determines that server authentication is to be performed. The client 100 (Client0002) transmits the user ID and the biometric data for verification to the authentication server 200. The authentication server 200 refers to the registered template for the User0001 from the user management table, and performs a verification process with the data for verification. The authentication server 200 transmits an authentication result to the client 100 (Client0002), and also saves the authentication result in the authentication server 200 as a log.
An embodiment in which it is determined whether to perform local authentication or server authentication in accordance with the quality of the registered template will be described. It is assumed that the User0001 registers a registered fingerprint template in the authentication server 200 in December, when the finger is dry and is not suitable for fingerprint authentication, and that the registration quality is "4". The authentication server 200 periodically refers to the user management table 300, and changes the setting of a user for which the registration quality is less than or equal to a system defined threshold of "5" for registration quality to local authentication. The registered template for the User0001 as of January was registered in December, and the registration quality is "4". Thus, the authentication server 200 changes the local-authenticated-user flag of the User0001 in the user management table 300 to local authentication. It is assumed that the check of the registration quality and the changing of the local-authenticated-user flag can also be performed when a user registers fingerprint data. Subsequently, the process for local authentication is performed in a way similar to that of the process described above.
An embodiment for providing dynamic changing between server authentication and local authentication on a client-by-client basis will be described. The authentication server 200 periodically calculates the authentication success rate of each client from the log 400 of verification results, and determines that local authentication is to be performed if the authentication success rate is less than or equal to a system defined threshold, and that server authentication is to be performed if the authentication success rate is greater than or equal to the threshold. The client management table 700 manages local authentication flags on a client-by-client basis. The Client0002 is assigned local authentication.
At the time of authentication, a user inputs a user ID and fingerprint data from the client 100. The client 100 transmits the user ID, fingerprint data for verification, and the client name (Client0002) to the authentication server 200. The authentication server 200 determines, based on the client name (Client0002) transmitted from the client 100, whether to perform local authentication or server authentication on the User0001. The authentication server 200 refers to the local-authenticated-user flag of the Client0002 in the client management table 700, and determines that local authentication is to be performed. Subsequently, local authentication is performed using a method similar to the method described above.
Additionally, for example, the IP address of the client 100 may also be used if it is information capable of uniquely identifying the client. In addition, the authentication server 200 may transmit information about the client management table 700 to the client 100 in advance, and, at the time of authentication, the client 100 may determine whether to perform local authentication or server authentication by using the client 100 information.
An embodiment in which it is determined whether to perform local authentication or server authentication in accordance with the quality of data for verification will be described. The User0001 inputs a user ID and fingerprint data from the client 100. The client 100 creates data for verification, and transmits the data for verification together with the user ID to the authentication server 200. It is assumed that, as a result of the authentication server 200 having acquired the quality value of the data for verification from the data for verification of the User0001 transmitted from the client 100, the quality value is "4". If the system defines that the quality value is less than or equal to a threshold of "5" for data for verification as a condition where the setting is changed to local authentication, the authentication server 200 determines that local authentication is to be performed, and transmits the user ID, the biometric data for verification, and the registered template to the client 100. The client 100 performs a fingerprint verification process.
An embodiment in which the client 100 performs user data management will be described. It is assumed that the client 100 periodically receives the user management table 300 from the authentication server 200 and holds the user management table 300. After that, the client 100 periodically refers to the local-authenticated-user flag in the user management table 300 owned by the client 100. Since the User0001 is a user to be authenticated with local authentication, the registered fingerprint template, fingerprint data type, and registration quality about the User0001 are downloaded from the authentication server 200. Then, the client 100 updates the user management table 300 held in the client 100.
An embodiment in which local authentication is performed using transformed registered data will be described. At the time of authentication, the User0001 inputs a user ID and fingerprint data from the client 100. The client 100 transmits the user ID and fingerprint data for verification to the authentication server 200. The authentication server 200 determines, based on the user ID transmitted from the client 100, whether to perform local authentication or server authentication on the User0001. The authentication server 200 refers to the local-authenticated-user flag 614 of the User0001 in the user management table 600, and determines that local authentication is to be performed. The authentication server 200 transforms the data for verification using a transformation key (AhAoAfA14) for the User0001 in the user management table 600.
Then, the authentication server 200 transmits the user ID, the transformed biometric data for verification, and the transformed registered template to the client 100. The client 100 performs a verification process between the transformed biometric data for verification and the transformed registered template. Meanwhile, at the time of authentication, the User0002 inputs a user ID and fingerprint data from the client 100, and transmits the user ID and fingerprint data for verification from the client 100 to the authentication server 200.
The authentication server 200 determines, based on the user ID transmitted from the client 100, whether to perform local authentication or server authentication on the User0002. Thus, the authentication server 200 refers to the local-authenticated-user flag of the User0002 in the user management table 600, and determines that server authentication is to be performed. After that, the authentication server 200 performs a verification process between the data for verification, which has been transmitted from the client, and the registered template for the User0002 in the user management table 600.
An embodiment in which user data is managed when local authentication is performed using transformed registered data will be described. The authentication server 200 calculates an authentication success rate of the User0001 for the previous one month (December), that is, "30%". Since the authentication success rate is lower than an authentication success rate of "40%", which is a system defined threshold, the authentication server 200 changes the local-authenticated-user flag of the User0001 in the user management table 600 to local authentication. In this case, the transformation key creation unit creates a transformation key for the User0001, transforms the registered template in the user management table 600, and stores the resulting registered template in the user management table 600.
In March, when the state of the finger of the User0001 returns to a normal state from a dry state and when the authentication success rate becomes high, the authentication server 200 acquires the authentication success rate of the User0001 for the previous one month (February), i.e., "50%", from the authentication log. Since the authentication success rate is over an authentication success rate of "40%", which is a system defined threshold, the authentication server 200 changes the local-authenticated-user flag of the User0001 in the user management table 600 to server authentication. In this case, the authentication server 200 deletes the transformation key for the User0001 and the transformed registered template from the user management table 600.
An embodiment in which the client 100 manages user data when performing local authentication using transformed registered data will be described. It is assumed that the client 100 periodically receives the user management table 600 from the authentication server 200 and owns the user management table 600. Then, the client 100 periodically refers to the user management table 600 owned by the client 100, and refers to the local-authenticated-user flag. Since the User0001 is a user to be authenticated with local authentication, the client 100 downloads the transformed registered fingerprint template, fingerprint data type, registration quality, and transformation key about the User0001 from the authentication server 200. The client 100 updates the user management table 600 owned by the client 100.
In March, when the state of the finger of the User0001 returns to a normal state from a dry state and when the authentication success rate becomes high, the authentication server 200 acquires the authentication success rate of the User0001 for the previous one month (February), i.e., "50%", from the authentication log. Since the authentication success rate is over a system defined authentication success rate of 40%, the authentication server 200 changes the local-authenticated-user flag of the User0001 in the user management table 600 to server authentication. Then, the client 100 periodically refers to the user management table 600 held therein, refers to the local-authenticated-user flag, and detects that the User0001 has been changed from a user to be authenticated with local authentication to that with server authentication. The client 100 deletes the transformation key and the transformed registered template from the user management table 600 owned by the client 100.
FIG. 12 illustrates a flowchart of an authentication process according to this embodiment. In S101, at the time of authentication, a user inputs a user ID and biometric data from the client 100. It is assumed that the biometric data is input from a biometric sensor connected to the client 100. The process proceeds to S102.
In S102, the client 100 generates biometric data for verification from the input biometric data. The process proceeds to S103.
In S103, the client 100 transmits the user ID and the generated biometric data for verification to the authentication server 200. The process proceeds to S104.
In S104, the authentication server 200 refers to the user management table 300 on the basis of the user ID transmitted from the client 100. The process proceeds to S105.
In S105, the authentication server 200 determines whether to perform local authentication or server authentication. If it is determined that local authentication is to be performed, the process proceeds to S106. On the other hand, if it is determined that server authentication is to be performed, the process proceeds to S108.
In S106, the authentication server 200 performs a verification process between the biometric data for verification and a registered template. Then, the authentication server 200 determines whether or not the degree of matching between the biometric data for verification and the registered template, which has been calculated in the verification process, is greater than or equal to a predetermined value. If the degree of matching is greater than or equal to the predetermined value, the authentication server 200 determines that authentication has succeeded. On the other hand, if the degree of matching is not greater than or equal to the predetermined value, the authentication server 200 determines that authentication has failed. The authentication server 200 transmits an authentication result to the client 100. The process proceeds to S107.
In S107, the authentication server 200 saves the authentication result as a log. The process ends.
In S108, the authentication server 200 transmits the user ID, the biometric data for verification, and the registered template to the client 100. The process proceeds to S109.
In S109, the client 100 performs a verification process between the biometric data for verification and the registered template. Then, the client 100 determines whether or not the degree of matching between the biometric data for verification and the registered template, which has been calculated in the verification process, is greater than or equal to a predetermined value. If the degree of matching is greater than or equal to the predetermined value, the client 100 determines that authentication has succeeded. On the other hand, if the degree of matching is not greater than or equal to the predetermined value, the client 100 determines that authentication has failed. The process proceeds to S110.
In S110, the client 100 transmits an authentication result to the authentication server 200 in a way synchronous or asynchronous to the authentication time. The process proceeds to S107, in which the authentication server 200 saves the authentication result obtained when local authentication is performed as a log. The process ends.
FIG. 13 illustrates a flowchart of an authentication process according to this embodiment. In S201, at the time of authentication, a user inputs a user ID and biometric data from the client 100. It is assumed that the biometric data is input from a biometric sensor connected to the client 100. The process proceeds to S202.
In S202, the client 100 generates biometric data for verification from the input biometric data. The process proceeds to S203.
In S203, the client 100 refers to the user management table 300 held in the client 100 on the basis of the input user ID. The process proceeds to S204.
In S204, as a result of the reference to the user management table 300, the client 100 determines whether or not the corresponding user is found. If the corresponding user is found, the process proceeds to S205. On the other hand, if the corresponding user is not found, the process proceeds to S206.
In S205, if the corresponding user information is in the client 100, the client 100 refers to the local-authenticated-user flag 310 the user management table 300, and determines whether to perform local authentication or server authentication. If local authentication is to be performed, the process proceeds to S208. On the other hand, if server authentication is to be performed, the process proceeds to S206.
In S208, the client 100 performs a verification process. The verification process of the client 100 is similar to the process described above, and a description thereof is thus omitted. The process proceeds to S209.
In S209, the client 100 transmits an authentication result to the authentication server 200. The process proceeds to S210.
In S210, the authentication server 200 saves the authentication result transmitted from the client 100. The process ends.
In S206, the client 100 transmits the user ID and the data for verification to the authentication server 200. The process proceeds to S207.
In S207, the authentication server 200 performs a verification process. The verification process of the authentication server 200 is similar to the process described above, and a description thereof is thus omitted. The process proceeds to S210.
FIG. 14 illustrates a flowchart of an authentication process when cancelable biometric authentication is applied during local authentication. In S301, at the time of authentication, a user inputs a user ID and biometric data from the client 100. The process proceeds to S302.
In S302, the client 100 generates biometric data for verification from the input biometric data. The process proceeds to S303.
In S303, the client 100 transmits the user ID and the biometric data for verification to the authentication server 200. The process proceeds to S304.
In S304, the authentication server 200 refers to the user management table 600 on the basis of the user ID transmitted from the client 100. The process proceeds to S305.
In S305, the authentication server 200 determines whether to perform local authentication or server authentication. If it is determined that local authentication is to be performed, the process proceeds to S308. On the other hand, if it is determined that server authentication is to be performed, the process proceeds to S308.
In S306, the authentication server 200 performs a verification process. The verification process of the authentication server 200 is similar to the process described above, and a description thereof is thus omitted. The process proceeds to S307.
In S307, the authentication server 200 saves an authentication result. The process ends.
In S308, the authentication server 200 transforms the data for verification using the transformation key 608 in the user management table 600. The process proceeds to S309.
In S309, the authentication server 200 transmits the user ID, the transformed biometric data for verification, and the transformed registered template to the client 100. The process proceeds to S310.
In S310, the client 100 performs a verification process. The verification process of the client 100 is similar to the process described above, and a description thereof is thus omitted. The process proceeds to S311.
In S311, the client 100 transmits an authentication result to the authentication server 200 in a way synchronous or asynchronous to the authentication time. The process proceeds to S307.
Cancelable biometric authentication can also be applied to an authentication process in which the client 100 holds the user management data 600.
According to this embodiment, the following advantageous effects are achievable. A user for which a long verification process time is required because of the difficulty to verify their fingerprint is authenticated using local authentication, thereby speeding up the authentication process time. A user for which a large amount of computation is required for a fingerprint verification process is authenticated using local authentication, thereby enabling a reduction of the load on the authentication server. The switching between local authentication and server authentication is automatic, thus reducing time and effort required for the system administrator to perform operation management activities. Since authentication is performed using transformed fingerprint template data when switching to local authentication is made, the transformation key is altered and the fingerprint template data is re-registered when the fingerprint data leaks, and unauthorized access can be prevented.
In addition, a plurality of distributed servers connected to an authentication server may perform a verification process on a user for which the authentication success rate is less than or equal to a certain value.
According to an aspect of this embodiment, in a client-server biometric authentication system, the load on a server can be reduced when user processing with a low authentication success rate is performed.
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http://www.patentsencyclopedia.com/app/20120159600
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Steps to register a complaint for Misuse of PAN
There have been instances in the past where someone has obtained GST registration using the documentation of another individual. The imposter then uses the GST registration to conduct illicit activities, collect GST from fictitious transactions, and then disappears, putting the individual whose documents were exploited in jeopardy. The authorities then initiate legal action against the person whose documents were used, such as issuing notices, provisional attachments, and so on.
The GSTN (Goods and Services Tax Network) has included a new feature called “Functionality To Check Misuse Of PAN” to answer issues about people using their PAN to get GST registration. Once a complaint is filed, it will be forwarded to the jurisdictional body where the registration was allegedly obtained fraudulently for further investigation and action. The processes to file a complaint against PAN misuse in GST registration are briefly explained in this article.
To alert the taxpayers from getting into such a situation, GSTN has a feature wherein one can search for the number of registrations under his PAN and if he/ she finds that there is a registration which has not been taken by him/ her but is appearing in the list, one can make a complaint to GSTN immediately. The process for the same is as follows:
Step 1: Click “Search by PAN” under the “Search Taxpayer” page on https://www.gst.gov.in/.
Step 2: Insert the PAN, and all registrations under the PAN will be displayed. The page shows a list of GSTINs, together with their status (active/inactive) and registration state. “Kindly select GSTIN which you want to report on the GST Portal,” the page says.
Step 3: Check the list of GSTINs on the right hand side of the page to see if they all belong to you or if there are any that you haven’t taken but appear in the list. These could be false registrations or registrations obtained without your permission by an impostor. These registrations may be used to carry out fictitious transactions.
Step 4: Check the “Report” box, then click the “Report” button to go to the next step. Please be aware that any GSTIN that has not been correctly transferred from old legislation to GST will not be permitted to be reported, which I believe is fine.
Step 5: GSTN will request information such as your name, date of birth, and residence. In order to provide OTP for verification, the user’s e-mail address and mobile number will be required.
Step 6: Complete the first step of verification by entering the OTP received via email and your mobile number..
Step 7: After the first stage of verification is completed, e-KYC via Aadhar verification must be completed. “I, the bearer of Aadhaar number/VID to be indicated below, hereby give my consent to Goods and Service Tax Network (GSTN) to get my Aadhaar Number and Name for authentication with UIDAI,” one asserts. GSTN will utilise my identity information to fill reports against fraudulent GSTINs based on my PAN, and my details will not be disclosed until it is required, and will only be given to the Central Identities Data Repository (CIDR) for the purpose of submitting reports.”
Step 8: When you enter your Aadhar number, you will receive an OTP on your phone. Complete the second stage of authentication by entering the OTP.
Step 9: The Aadhar information are displayed on the site after the second step of authentication is completed. The Aadhar details should be double-checked before proceeding with the declaration, which is as follows: “Declaration – I hereby declare that the following GST registration(s) against this PAN, as mentioned below, are improperly taken without the authorization of the competent authority.” I hereby request that the competent authority conduct a thorough inquiry into this incident and take appropriate action.”
Step 10: After selecting the Declaration check box, select either the ACCEPT or REJECT option. When the ACCEPT button is pressed, the application is sent to the appropriate authority for review. In this scenario, a complaint has been filed. If a person does not choose to proceed with the complaint application, they can select REJECT to exit the procedure. In this situation, the complaint will not be filed.
This is a highly innovative initiative by the Department and GSTN, where you can keep track of who has registered using bogus documents that do not belong to you. At the very least, such details should be checked quarterly, and if anything is found to be incorrect, quick action should be done. The taxpayer should also send a copy of this application to the jurisdictional officer, informing him of the incorrect registration and the GSTN complaint you made. This will confirm one’s genuineness, and these documents will go a long way toward proving one’s innocence in the event of a demand or investigation.
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https://facelesscompliance.com/tag/steps-to-register-a-complaint-for-misuse-of-pan
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Recorded on: December 1, 2021
Presenters:
- Joni Brennan, Executive Director, Digital Identity and Authentication Council of Canada
- Jeremy Grant, Managing Director, Technology Business Strategy, Venable, LLP & Coordinator, Better Identity Coalition
- Michael Magrath, VP Global Regulations and Standards, OneSpan
The substantial growth of digital channels and tools as a result of the pandemic provided important insight. It revealed holes pertaining to digital identity, data protection and cybersecurity that expose individuals, businesses and government agencies to online fraud. As such, helping financial institutions and other organizations protect their customers’ digital identity and secure their digital transactions has become more important than ever.
The effective protection of customer information while responding to demands for more digital experiences requires thorough understanding of the regulatory landscape and policies that affect them.
In this panel discussion, experts from the Digital Identity and Authentication Council of Canada (DIACC), the Better Identity Coalition, and OneSpan provide an update on policies and regulations pertaining to protecting digital identities, progress on the Pan-Canadian Trust Framework and how banks and other financial institutions operating in Canada and the U.S. will be impacted.
Key topics include:
- The requirements and regulations related to identity verification for FIs in Canada and the U.S.
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https://www.onespan.com/resources/digital-identity-challenges-and-progress-impacting-north-american-fis
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CionSystems Multi-Factor Authentication :
Multi -factor authentication is a method of authentication that requires more than one verification method and adds a critical second layer of security to user sign-ins and transactions. It works by requiring any two or more of the following verification methods:
1.Something you know (typically a password)
CionSystems Multi-Factor Authentication helps safeguard access to data and applications while meeting user demand for a simple sign-in process. It delivers strong authentication via a range of verification methods, including phone call, text message, or mobile app verification
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How does it Works !
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https://www.cionsystems.com/mfascreens.html
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