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Meditation is a simple practice of sitting still and understanding the interplay of your thoughts, feelings and emotions. It lowers your stress levels, makes your mind calm and mindful, plus it has long lasting benefits like improving focus, bringing clarity and promoting peace and a feeling of compassion towards self and others.
Mindfulness meditation involves paying attention to the breath as it comes in and goes out. It involves noticing when your mind starts to wander during this practice. Mindfulness meditation or the task of bringing your awareness back to the breath builds muscles of mindfulness and guides you to return to and remain in the present moment.
Work, eat, sleep, repeat. Is that what your schedule looks like?
You need to press pause and declutter your mind to increase your mind power, maintain control over your emotions and learn to respond rather than react. To understand how exactly the mind works, you need to learn how to meditate.
Meditation gives you a chance to evaluate and realign your own thoughts. Hence, starting with guided meditations for a few minutes daily boosts your mind power.
Here are top 5 reasons to meditate:
Unlike what most people think, the practice of meditation is not tough. It merely requires you to be consistent enough to devote just 10 minutes a day for an enhanced mind power.
The best way to meditate is by listening to a guided meditation since your mind is quick enough to return to the breath through the instructions even if it starts to wander.
To get started, find a place where you feel comfortable and relaxed and where you won’t get interrupted during the duration of your meditation. Now, follow these steps:
1. Take a seat
Sit in a comfortable position with your back straight but not rigid. You can sit in a chair with your feet on the floor or if you want, you can sit loosely cross legged.
You can play meditative music or calm, repetitive tunes to avoid being distracted.
2. Decide how long you want to meditate
While it is recommended that you meditate for a minimum of 20 minutes everyday, beginners can start by doing as little as 5 minutes once a day.
Try to stick to your time. Don’t just give up thinking that it’s not working. It will take time for you to achieve successful meditation. Set a gentle alarm to remind you when the time is over.
3. Follow your breath
Close your eyes if you want. This helps you to avoid visual distractions. Now, simply pay attention to your breath- how it comes in and goes out.
4. Observe when your mind starts to wander
Within the first few minutes of the meditation practice, your mind will start to wander. When you notice that your mind has wandered, gently bring your awareness back to your breath.
5. Don’t be self critical
Don’t judge yourself or get carried away by your thoughts when your mind starts to wander. Simply come back to your breath.
6. Conclude with kindness
Whenever you’re ready, slowly wiggle your toes and fingers and gently open your eyes. Notice how peaceful you feel at this moment. Notice your body, your emotions.
Body scan
The point of body scan meditation is to check in with your body by focusing on each body part. The main rule is to simply notice the feeling of being in your body without any judgements or worries.
Whenever you notice that your mind has wandered, just bring your attention back to the part of the body you last remember focusing on.
Walking meditation
Walking meditation involves noticing the feet's movement as you walk and becoming conscious of your body's relationship to the earth.
It helps you be more self aware, get better sleep, achieve mental clarity and boost your mind power by establishing a mind-body connection.
Pay attention to your speed and posture while walking. Walk with poise, keep your spine straight and your leg muscles relaxed. You may find it challenging at first but with practice, you’ll get the hang of it.
Visualization
This meditation practice involves imagining and creating a peaceful place in your mind, then exploring it until you’re completely relaxed.
Loving-Kindness meditation
This meditation is done to practice reminding yourself that you deserve peace and happiness and that goes for everyone else out there.
• May I be happy.
• May I be safe.
• May I be healthy and peaceful.
• May I live with ease.
Next, spend some time feeling kind and compassionate towards yourself. If your mind wanders, gently bring it back to these feelings of loving kindness. After doing this, you can also bring your loved ones into your awareness and feel your love and gratitude towards them one by one.
Imagine your favourite food. When you eat it, you take the time to smell, taste and truly enjoy it. That’s mindfulness.
When you’re fully present, aware of where you are and what you’re doing, without being overly reactive or overwhelmed by what’s going around you, you are mindful.
Mindfulness meditation is the practice of training your attention and awareness to stay mindful all the time.
Hope you’ve got your answer to how to meditate. When you’re just starting out, don’t expect your meditation practice to be perfect. Focus on the experience itself and view it as a journey rather than the goal. As long as you feel calmer and happier after meditation, the purpose of meditation is fulfilled. | https://level.game/blogs/how-to-meditate-properly |
If you’ve been in the early stages of a meditation practice for some time, you’re probably wondering how to advance your practice. You may have a sitting practice where you focus getting quiet, still and brining your awareness to your inhalation and exhalation. Or perhaps you’ve practiced mindfulness techniques such as a mindful walking meditation. So what's the next level of meditating? How can you make your practice longer or go deeper into it?
The following is a list of seven suggestions that will help you on your way to progressing further in your meditation practice.
#1 Commit to Regularity
If you haven't already, you’ll want to commit to a regular meditation schedule because one of the best ways to advance your practice is to carve out a daily meditation time. This regularity will take your practice to the next level as you’ll be creating new neural pathways in your brain – ones that will provide you with more motivation and willpower. Your mind will begin to want to practice and that desire will naturally deepen your practice.
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(More on this Number One 'Rule' of Meditation.)
#2 Go Easy on Yourself
While in the process of advancing your practice, be kind to yourself. Try not to force yourself to meditate for longer periods than you’re ready for. Increase the time you spend in meditation gradually. You don’t want to push yourself too far with advanced practices you’re not ready for. Be gentle and proceed slowly and with care. You want this practice to work as a stress reliever, not create more stress. Both your mind and body need time to adjust to an increase in practice. Just like someone new to running wouldn't want to go from a 3K to running a marathon in just one day.
(This gentleness toward yourself is also known as Ahimsa: The Number One Yama of the First Limb of Yoga.)
#3 Master Your Foundations
Learning how to sit comfortably is essential. You’ll want to fine tune this aspect of your practice before delving any deeper. Make sure you know what feels truly comfortable for you. Find a position that supports a straight spine and naturally easy breathing. Look for a place that feels safe and use a cushion that supports proper alignment. You won’t be able to focus properly until you’ve mastered a comfortable sitting position. Finally, make sure your breath is smooth, slow and serene before taking your practice further.
(For more on Mastering Sitting Meditation.)
#4 Don't Underestimate the Art of Preparation
Yoga sets us up for an advanced meditation practice by giving us many tools to prepare for it. Hatha yoga asana, pranayama breathing, various relaxation techniques, even learning to use a neti pot – all of these practices are helpful precursors to meditation. By making sure you are prepared to sit through one or more of these exercises, you’ll find that your meditation progresses with ease. You’ll be more alert, relaxed and prepared to sit for longer periods of focused concentration.
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#5 Seek Out New Practices You Truly Enjoy
While in the process of advancing your meditation practice, you’ll want to experiment with new techniques. If you find one that resonates with you or a new mantra that you really enjoy reciting, give yourself the freedom to explore these techniques further. When you discover new meditation styles that are fun, you’ll be more inclined to stick to the practice. Instead of trying to push forward with techniques you think you’re “supposed” to master, move forward with those you really enjoy instead.
#6 Upgrade Your Diet
According to yoga’s sister science, Ayurveda, different foods have different effects on both our body and mind. Ayurveda teaches us that there are three different kinds of foods: tamasic, rajasic and sattvic. Tamasic foods can leave us feeling tired and groggy while rajasic foods can make us hyper. Sattvic foods, on the other hand, have a calming and energizing effect.
Examples of tamasic foods are meats and even stale foods. Rajasic foods include caffeine, sugar and certain stimulating spices. On the opposite spectrum, sattvic foods are fresh fruits, vegetables, whole grains, beans, legumes, nuts, seeds, and grass-fed dairy. If you’re serious about advancing your practice, you might want to review what you eat. After all, in yoga, we have what’s called the annamaya kosha, or "food body." This particular kosha is the sheath of the physical body. You literally are what you eat so it makes sense to eat a healthy clean diet in order to support the more subtle layers of your being.
(Here are 3 Reasons Why Yogis Love Plant-Based Diets.)
#7 Find Your Tribe
Friends that support your meditation practice are one of the most powerful supporters in your evolution. While meditation is a solitary, inward-focused activity, the support of a community, or satsang, can help advance your spiritual growth. Seek out fellow yogis who also wish to advance their meditation practice.
You can also look for gurus who can guide you on your path. Feeling a sense of connection to like-minded individuals will naturally help not only bolster your motivation, but keep you on track as you take your practice to the next level. | https://www.yogapedia.com/2/6754/meditation/mindfulness/7-steps-to-take-your-meditation-practice-to-the-next-level |
What is mindfulness?
Mindfulness is a broad term that has a theoretical background rooted both in ancient thinking as well as modern science. It’s often summarized as a way of living in which you focus on the present moment, observing both your internal and external world. It’s a way of witnessing what’s happening in our mind, our body, and our environment without judgment.
Through mindfulness we can learn to come back to the present moment when we find ourselves distracted, returning to the here and now without judgment, accepting that distraction is part of the nature of our minds. Mindfulness is acceptance, presence, and compassion.
There are many benefits to practicing mindfulness that are supported by ancient thinking and modern science such as: good sleep quality, better attention, and reduced stress and anxiety.
The Basics of Mindfulness Practice
The appeal and beauty of meditation are in its simplicity and adaptability. You don’t need special outfits, equipment, or even particular positions in order to be able to meditate. It’s a time and place that’s just for you, so you’re free to make it your own.
The basics of mindfulness practice include a few simple steps:
- Sit.
Choose a comfortable position that you can stay in for a while. You may prefer a half lotus position, a chair, a couch, the floor, it’s up to you. Laying down in your bed or in shavasana pose on your mat is okay, too. Sometimes lying down can make it more difficult to stay awake and present, so choose the position that works best for you.
- Observe.
Observe your breath, your body, your mind, and your environment. With patience, notice how everything transforms from one moment to the next. Your inhales and exhales, your emotions, and your thoughts all come and go. Maybe you hear voices outside, or traffic, or nature. Notice your often unintentional reactions to the changes both within yourself and happening around you.
- Let your mind be.
Your mind runs at a fast and dynamic pace. We perceive and process various stimuli simultaneously. Don’t be hard on yourself if you see that you’re distracted. Know that every time you realize that your mind wanders between the past and the future, you’re actually seeing yourself in the moment.
- Stay present.
Gently invite your attention to the present. You can focus on your breath, your body, a view, a sound, a smell, or anything that keeps you present in your practice. Observing using your senses can help you stay mindful by acting as an anchor for your mind in the here and now.
- Be kind to yourself.
Be patient and compassionate toward yourself. Society teaches us to be kind to each other, but we sometimes push ourselves aside, treating ourselves in ways we never would if it were someone else. You can say things to yourself like, “That’s okay, I’m okay, and if I’m not, I will be,” and you’ll notice that it gets easier and easier to be kind and compassionate toward yourself.
How do I start mindfulness meditation?
Start with baby steps. Spare a few minutes for a short practice. Just give it a try. Beginning with something small can help motivate you to take the first step. By starting out small, you’re also more likely to continue your practice after you get that feeling of achievement.
Maybe you’re thinking you don’t understand or that you’re doing it wrong. Luckily, it’s impossible to meditate the wrong way, it’s all just part of the process. Be patient with yourself as you get used to this new experience. If it feels uncomfortable or challenging to meditate by yourself, try following a guided meditation.
What are some mindfulness-based activities?
- Breathing Exercises
Focusing on your breath is a great way to practice mindfulness. Your breath is always with you. You can just follow your breath as it flows at its natural pace, noticing how you breathe. Is it long and deep or shallow and short?
Though they’re not necessarily solely about mindfulness, you can try different relaxing breathing techniques, such as square breathing, lion's breath, or 4-7-8 breathing. You’ll experience the relaxing effects of those techniques in just a few breaths and you can try them anytime you’re feeling anxious, want to sleep, or at any point during the day in which you want to bring your mind to the present moment.
- Body Scanning
Another mindful activity is scanning your body. Like your breath, your body fluctuates and transforms all the time. It hosts many different sensations and feelings. Body scanning is a very simple but effective exercise. You start by scanning your body from top to bottom or vice versa, checking in with each part one after the other. You basically scan your body from top to bottom or vica versa. Starting from your feet, you check in with each part of your body up to your head. Bring your focus to your toes, your ankles, legs, kness, sit bones, and so on. When your mind drifts off somewhere else, simply bring your attention back to your body and continue where you left off or start from the beginning again. Body scanning exercises are great ways to notice any sense of comfort, discomfort, or feelings you may have ignored. Scanning can also help you to relax and fall asleep more easily. You can try a body scan technique right before bed particularly if you have difficulty sleeping.
- Focusing on Sensations
Our body is home to numerous sensations and observing those senses is also a mindfulness activity. Focusing on your body or your breath may be uncomfortable for you, which is very common. If that’s the case, you can bring your attention to the sources of your senses. Look at the view, being fully present in the moment as you pay attention, or listen to the sounds around you. Focusing on your senses in this way can increase the joy and satisfaction you get as you experience them.
- Raisin Exercise
Professor Jon Kabat-Zinn created an approach called Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR). Kabat-Zinn’s method has proven to be highly effective as seen in several studies and used in many clinical and nonclinical contexts.
The Raisin Exercise was developed within MBSR and is an efficient way of implementing mindfulness into everyday activities. It’s described as being mindful about the different parts of eating a raisin, but you can choose any kind of food you want for your own practice. We often don’t pay attention to every detail of little pieces of food each time we eat, the process becoming automatic. This exercise is just one way to live these small moments more mindfully.
- Hold. Take the raisin (or any other food of your choosing) in your hand.
- See. Look at the raisin very carefully as if it’s something very interesting and you’re seeing it for the first time in your life. Notice its color and shape.
- Touch. Feel its texture, its weight. Is it wrinkly or juicy?
- Smell. How would you describe its smell? Does it have a particular scent?
- Taste. Chew the raisin slowly. How does it taste?
- Swallow. Feel the sensation of the food traveling to your stomach.
- Metta Meditation
Metta in Pali, or Maitrī in Sanskrit means benevolence, kindness, and compassion. Metta meditation is also known as loving-kindness meditation or compassion meditation. Here, we’re being mindful about good feelings toward both ourselves and others. We all have negative and positive feelings about others and ourselves, but the positive feelings can often be overlooked against the negative ones. It’s okay to feel things like hate, anger, or resentment. Clinging to those emotions, however, can impact your mood, your self-perception, and your interactions with others. It’s important to acknowledge your feelings, whatever they may be. Cultivating love, compassion, or gratitude on the other hand, can lighten up your day, open your heart, and empower you with a sense of belonging and safety.
- Gratitude Exercises
We have unlimited internal resources with which to nourish ourselves. There’s beauty in the universe, but especially during more challenging times, it’s not always easy to see it. From an evolutionary standpoint, our minds are inclined to focus on stressful situations or negative cues for survival purposes. Sometimes a small setback gets us down and overshadows the good things happening around us. Gratitude exercises can help you notice positive details as well as unpleasant ones.
Try to count three things that happened today that made you feel grateful. It can be anything: a short walk or an intimate moment with your partner. You’ll see the benefits of doing such a quick and joyful activity as you repeat it regularly. The beauty in your life will be more visible and you’ll get to enjoy moments as you live them.
You can keep a gratitude journal to write down the things you’re grateful for as well. If writing isn’t your thing, you can simply visualize them in your mind or draw them instead. You can keep them to yourself or share them with others. It’s your canvas and you’re free to personalize this practice in ways that work best for you.
In order to make these gratitude exercises mindful, notice the thoughts flowing in your mind and the sensations appearing in your body as you practice.
You can also do a gratitude meditation, bringing your focus to the sources of your gratitude. Recalling joyful and nice moments of your life can lighten your heart, making you feel more at ease.
- Engage in Creative Activities
Engaging in a creative activity can be turned into a mindfulness-based activity as well. Creative activities are especially aligned with the idea of mindfulness since you attend to the activity itself for the sake of enjoying it. Do you have any creative things that you enjoy? It doesn’t have to be a masterpiece and you don’t have to have a mind-blowing creative effort into the final product. Think of how staying in the moment, engaging only in the activity in front of you. It can be dancing, painting, sculpture, ceramics, or coloring. There are a host of great activities and moments in which to immerse yourself within the flow of life.
Try doing an activity of your choice and do it just because it’s something you like doing. And compare how you feel at the beginning and at the end of that activity.
- Connect With Nature
Outdoor activities and spending time in nature is very relaxing and restful. If you’ve been indoors for a while, your mood can change just by getting some fresh air and moving your body outside.
According to researchers Gordon, Shonin, and Richardson, we interexist with nature. There’s nature within us from our flowing breath to our changing bodies. And we live within nature: We’re all subject to the laws of nature. As humans, we’re part of nature, but we often distance ourselves from it inside our buildings or on screens in our modern world. Sometimes, those arbitrary boundaries we erect between us and nature can create a disconnectedness and have adverse effects on our well-being. It isn’t breaking news that spending some time in nature can boost your mood. What’s interesting is that practicing mindfulness in nature strengthens the positive effect nature already has on us. The increased connectedness with ourselves and with nature gives us further insight into ourselves. One study found that participants who practice mindfulness are more often in a better mood and experience fewer negative effects after spending time in nature compared to those who do not.
What are some outdoor activities to practice mindfulness? Here are a couple of examples:
- Walking in nature.
- Observing nature for a while, focusing on the details that stick out to you.
- Walking outside in the grass or dirt barefoot.
- Picking fruit from trees.
- Watering your plants.
What are the activities in nature that you love the most? Give yourself a chance to bring your attention to the present moment during your next time in nature and see if this experience has a new impact on you.
How to Sit for Mindfulness Meditation
There are no strict norms when it comes to mindfulness meditation. Meditation practice is a great tool to better know and understand yourself. It may take a while to find the best place and best position for you. And even then, it might change later, just as you change from time to time. Each moment is special and unique, so use your practice as an opportunity to accept each moment as it is.
Some days you may prefer meditating while lying in bed in the morning or at bedtime. Some days you may jump onto a mat and sit in a half lotus position for 10 to 30 minutes meditating. If you’re wondering how to sit during meditation, there’s no right answer. You may find yourself in a variety of different meditation positions or locations. You don’t need extra equipment. You can sit on your bed, on the floor, on the couch, or on a chair. You don’t even have to sit, as it’s also possible to practice mindfulness meditation while walking.
The important thing is to be comfortable and alert. It’s best to find a position in which you can stay focused. You can gently move or stretch during your practice to find the right position for yourself. Having a regular time and place that your mind is used to helps to make a particular activity a daily habit.
Our minds tend to prefer known and familiar activities in changing and uncertain environments. Studies show that we often link feelings and activities with the locations we experience them in and by replicating those same settings we can thereby enhance our memory of those activities. Similarly, let’s say you take a course in the same place, sitting in a particular seat in the classroom. Your performance is likely to be higher if you take an exam for the course in that very seat. We can use this information as we’re trying to make a habit of something or when we’ve a hard time maintaining one. Meditating at the same time and in the same location everyday allows us to maintain this habit more comfortably, training our brains to grow accustomed to the exercise. Once it becomes a habit, it will be easier to make changes every once in a while and to find the motivation to continue your practice.
How To Be More Present
Try to apply the above principles of mindfulness to your daily life. The more you practice, the more it will help you to be present.
Be patient. Small steps can make a big difference as you keep going. Start noticing how you’re feeling right now as you read these sentences. Keep inviting yourself to the present moment during the day. A regular mindfulness practice, even for just a few minutes each day, can help prepare your mind to stay present.
Life and living are not the same thing. Being mindful will help you to “live” your life, not just anticipate it, waiting for the hard parts to end and the best parts begin. The more you invite yourself to stay present, the more joyful each detail of your life will become. You’ll enjoy the time spent with your friends, family, partner, or partners. You’ll enjoy and savor your food more. Attention directed to yourself can help you enhance your insight into yourself, better understanding and attending to your own needs. | https://meditopia.com/en/mindfulness/mindfulness-exercises/ |
Many of us spend our whole lives searching for happiness and inner peace. Sadly, some of us never find them. We try to acquire the things that our society tells us will make us happy, such as a great career, nice home, beautiful family, and good friends. While these can bring us much joy and fulfilment, they can also bring us a lot of stress, which can compromise our health and peace of mind.
Today, many people are learning how to deal with their stress through the practice of mindfulness meditation. As researchers confirm the many benefits, interest in the practice is growing worldwide. So far, researchers have found that mindfulness meditation can alleviate stress, reduce high blood pressure, reduce the risk of heart disease, and more.
In the mental health fields, psychologists are using the practice as an integral part of their treatment of various mental disorders, such as depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, borderline personality disorder, and addiction. It is no wonder mindfulness meditation is becoming so popular as a means for transforming lives and cultivating true inner peace.
What Is Inner Peace?
Inner peace is essentially the absence of suffering. We sometimes use the terms inner peace and true happiness interchangeably, though there is a slight difference. Where inner peace is simply complete contentment, with happiness there is an element of excitement or joy. In other words, happiness is a human emotion that arises from inner peace.
On a more existential level, inner peace transcends our ego, which is where human emotions originate. As we develop mindfulness, we begin to see our connection, and identify with the rest of humanity. The ego keeps us trapped in our own body and mind, which can be a very lonely place. As we develop awareness of our interconnectedness with the rest of the world, loneliness and insecurity begin to disappear.
The Four Noble Truths and the Nature of Suffering
If we want to attain true inner peace, then we must first understand the nature of suffering, so that we can learn how to overcome it. In Buddhism, the nature of suffering is summed up in the Four Noble Truths.
First Noble Truth: The Existence of Suffering
Many of us have a limited view of suffering. We tend to simply view suffering as mental or emotional anguish. While this is indeed suffering, there is more to it than that. Suffering can also be much more subtle. For example, how do you feel when:
- Someone makes a rude comment to you;
- Someone harms an innocent person;
- Your mind doesn’t stop racing;
- When you have an important meeting or speech coming up.
These types of situations can make us feel uneasy, or stressed, but we don’t normally associate them with suffering. The truth is, anything that makes us uncomfortable, no matter how little, is suffering.
The First Noble Truth tells us that life is filled with suffering. As long as we have a conscious mind and emotions, we are capable of suffering. And we cannot be truly at peace until we learn how to overcome our suffering and become resilient to it.
Second Noble Truth: The Origins of Suffering
There are differing views in Buddhism about the exact origins of suffering. Some believe that suffering is the result of attachment, or clinging, and others believe that it is simply ignorance. I actually think it is both.
It is a natural reaction for us to get attached to things that bring us some form of pleasure or emotional gratification. We often become attached to people, places, things, views, memories, and beliefs. We become attached because they fulfil a need for what we believe is necessary for our happiness. However, when we lose something we’re strongly attached to, we can experience a great deal of suffering. The idea is not to become attached to these things.
The concept of non-attachment can be a difficult one to grasp. Many of us associate attachment to a person as love. However, the two are different. In true love, we are more concerned about the other person’s well-being, over them fulfilling our emotional needs. If we love them, but are not attached to them, we would be willing to let them go if we believe they would be happier in a different situation. It is important to note that non-attachment doesn’t necessarily mean that people will leave us: it just means we’re not clinging to them mentally and emotionally.
How ignorance can contribute to our suffering is a little easier to understand. We often make decisions without having complete information or understanding of the consequences of our actions. This is not necessarily a shortcoming on our part, but simply a fact of life. It is impossible for us to know every aspect of a particular situation, because there are an infinite number of factors related to it. So, very often we make decisions and take action with unintended and unpleasant consequences, and these consequences can lead to much suffering in ourselves and other people.
Third Noble Truth: The Cessation of Suffering
The Third Noble Truth tells us that it is possible to be free of suffering if we let go of our attachments, and develop greater awareness, or mindfulness, of the true nature of reality. This may be easier said than done, but it is possible to make great strides in that direction. In order to let go of our attachments, we need to change our views about what creates happiness, or more importantly, inner peace. This is a natural outcome of becoming more mindful. Mindfulness also helps us become more aware of the consequences of our actions, so that we can behave in ways that create less suffering for ourselves and other people.
Fourth Noble Truth: The Path that Leads to the Cessation of Suffering
According to Buddhism, the way to overcome suffering is through the Noble Eightfold Path: 1) Right view, 2) Right thinking, 3) Right speech, 4) Right action, 5) Right livelihood, 6) Right effort, 7) Right concentration, and 8) Right mindfulness. Now, you don’t have to be a Buddhist to see that these are good wholesome principles to live by. However, they do take some effort and diligence to incorporate into our lives. This is what we call mindful living.
What Is Mindfulness Meditation?
Mindfulness meditation is a secular form of meditation that has it’s roots in the oldest form of meditation the Buddha taught over 2,500 years ago. In recent years, there has been a movement toward extracting the basic techniques from the religion. The goal of mindfulness meditation is to achieve freedom from our suffering by becoming aware of, and eliminating, the sources of our suffering.
Mindfulness meditation is a training of the mind that will help us develop mindfulness, so that we can become aware of the true nature of reality, and who we are at the deepest levels. We do this by training our mind to observe ourselves and the rest of the world more objectively without our views being influenced by our emotions or preconceived ideas.
Basics of the Mindfulness Meditation Practice
At the core of the mindfulness meditation practice is the development of our skills of observation - concentration and mindfulness. To do so, we must structure our meditation around them. Here are some basic guidelines for a typical meditation session:
Sitting Position. Sit in a comfortable chair without armrests; back straight, and feet flat on the floor. Keep your hands in a comfortable position, either on your thighs or in front of you with fingers interlaced. The main purpose of our sitting position is to be alert and comfortable. Do not lie down, as you’ll probably fall asleep.
Concentration. Use the counting technique to help you develop your concentration. During your meditation, count your breaths 1 through 5 silently in your mind. When you get to 5, simply start over again. Keep your attention focused on the air passing through the tip of your nose. When you find that your mind has wandered, immediately bring your attention back to your breath. Concentration meditation will help you develop mental discipline, and keep you grounded in the present moment.
Mindfulness. After a few minutes of concentration meditation, switch to mindfulness meditation. Continue observing your breath. However, instead of counting each one, simply observe the entire breathing process mindfully. This means that you are relaxed, and not forcing yourself to do anything. When distracting thoughts arise, gently bring your attention back to your breath.
Loving-Kindness Writing Meditation
Writing meditation is a technique I developed to help you reprogram your subconscious for more wholesome attitudes and behaviour. It is based on the loving-kindness meditation practised in various Eastern spiritual traditions. However, instead of simply reading, listening to, or reciting the affirmations, you copy them by hand over and over for about 5-10 minutes a day. That’s it. After a few days, you’ll notice your behaviour changing without any conscious effort. It doesn’t matter how long you’ve had unwanted habits, the writing meditation will change them in just a few days. Here is a sample of the meditation:
“May I be healthy and strong. May I be safe and protected. May I be peaceful and free from mental, emotional, and physical suffering. May I be happy and joyful. May I be patient and understanding. May I be loving, kind, compassionate, and gentle in my ways. May I be courageous in dealing with difficulties, and always meet with success. May I be diligent and committed to my spiritual practice, and to helping others along their path. May my True Nature shine through, and onto all beings I encounter.”
The verses that follow in the exercise, direct the affirmations to other people in our lives, such as those in our household, neighbourhood, city, and so forth. What this does is subconsciously change our attitudes about other people, which helps us improve our relationships, and heal the wounds from our past.
The 12 Steps of the Mindfulness Meditation Practice
One of the challenges of following the Noble Eightfold Path is that you need to refer to the original scriptures, or read commentary from Buddhist scholars, to find out how to put it into practice. While it may seem logical that practising right thinking and right speech are good things, who is to say what is right or wrong? This is why I developed the 12 Steps of the Mindfulness Meditation Practice. They give practitioners exact step-by-step instructions for developing mindfulness, so they can determine for themselves with a clearer mind what is right or wrong.
The first five Steps give you the basic principles and techniques of mindfulness meditation. Steps 6-9 provide you with tools for enhancing your practice, such as deep listening, mindful speech, and the meditation group. And the remaining Steps show you how mindful living can help take your personal development to a higher level. The 12 Steps are designed to make the development of mindfulness as simple as possible, so you can realize your goal of true inner peace.
One of the important aspects of the 12 Steps is that they help practitioners stay engaged in their meditation practice. Many people start a meditation practice, but have difficulty staying committed long-term. The 12 Steps give you tools to help you stay engaged, such as a goal statement exercise, and the meditation group for ongoing support.
As you can see, the mindfulness meditation practice has various tools for helping you transform your life and realize true inner peace. By calming your mind and emotions, you can begin to see the world, and your relationship to it, with much greater clarity. This will enable you to make better decisions in your life, so you can bring more peace and harmony, not only into your own life, but also into the lives of those around you.
Eastern spiritual traditions have blessed us with the tools to achieve happiness and inner peace, no matter what our spiritual background may be. The great thing about mindfulness meditation is that there is no doctrine or belief that you need to accept, so you don’t need to convert from your current spiritual faith. And the practice fits in well with one of the most prominent trends in the West, to achieve inner peace through secular spiritual practices.
Comments: | http://www.positivehealth.com/article/meditation/mindfulness-meditation-finding-true-inner-peace |
'Referees were told' to let water carriers on pitch
Referees have been under instruction over the last two weekends to allow water carriers on to the field during breaks in play.
The confirmation comes after 'The Sunday Game' focused on an incident during the Clare-Wexford qualifier match in Thurles on Saturday night where referee Diarmuid Kirwan ordered off a 'maor uisce' as he was handing a water bottle to Wexford full-back Tomas Waters.
The background to the incident is not clear but the GAA's head of games administration and player welfare Fergal McGill confirmed that because of the warm weather the stipulation that players must come to the sideline to receive water has been relaxed.
"Water carriers can come on the field and dispense water during a break in play. Our referees have been told that over the last couple of weekends," he said.
The number of water carriers has been reduced from four to two since the start of the season but, because of the humid conditions over the last two weekends, the CCCC acknowledged that rules could be relaxed.
In the past, the number of water carriers has increased on warm days but it was felt that allowing freedom of movement during breaks in play for the carriers would be a sufficient compromise.
Kirwan also came in for criticism for allowing play to continue while Waters was lying on the ground injured with a suspected torn cruciate ligament. Wexford were behind and conceded two further points during the time that their full-back was being treated on the ground.
On 'The Sunday Game' analyst Donal Og Cusack, chairman of the Gaelic Players Association, said he was infuriated by the failure of the official to stop play and enquire about the player.
Referees are under instruction to keep play moving for less serious injuries, but Waters was clearly in a lot of distress.
When contacted last night, Wexford chairman Diarmuid Devereux said the matter was closed for them because they were out of the championship.
Wexford manager Liam Dunne touched on the issue after the game but said he was generally satisfied with Kirwan's refereeing.
Dunne is expected to be retained as Wexford manager despite completing a two-year term. He is eager to stay and the board are understood to be keen that he remains in charge, with a further two years in the pipeline.
Meanwhile, time statistics for Stephen Cluxton's kick-outs in Sunday's Leinster final against Meath were also produced by 'Sunday Game' football analyst Kevin McStay .
According to the clock, Cluxton took seven minutes and 54 seconds to take eight frees/'45s' from the time the free was awarded to the ball reaching its target. That amounted to an average of 68 seconds per kick.
In contrast Meath's Mickey Newman, who had a shorter distance to travel to line up his kicks, took 3.33 to take five frees, an average of 43 seconds.
However, a refereeing source contacted by the Irish Independent was keen to point out that in the case of one Cluxton kick there was a delay for injury, while for another there was a melee which had to be dealt with by the officials, driving up the times.
A similar measurement of time was taken for the football league final between Tyrone and Dublin in April when both goalkeepers, Cluxton and Niall Morgan, were on dead-ball duty.
Morgan took six kicks which ranged from 40 to 49 seconds, while Cluxton took one, taking 47 seconds for an average of just over 46 seconds per kick.
Referees do not add on time for the time that it takes to kick a free but do have the option of throwing up a ball if they feel that too much time is being taken.
There have been calls for legislation over time wasted by bringing goalkeepers up to take frees. | https://www.independent.ie/sport/gaelic-games/gaelic-football/referees-were-told-to-let-water-carriers-on-pitch-29422273.html |
Abu Dhabi stewards deem that no further action is required after Carlo Sainz was alleged to have driven unnecessarily slowly in the pit lane.
The stewards viewed video evidence, radio transmissions and telemetry data, in addition to hearing from Carlos Sainz and Lance Stroll as well as their team representatives.
Sainz was advised by his team that he was 2.4 seconds in front of Stroll approaching the pit entry.
There was no instruction from his team to slow down and on approaching the start of the pit lane the Spaniard accelerated as per normal practice, braked briefly to less than 80 km/h just prior to the line and then accelerated up to 80.
This was exactly the same as Sebastian Vettel. (Stroll also braked to below 80 prior to the line then accelerated up to 80 as he crossed the line).
Within the pit lane, Sainz was at 80 km/h for all but approximately 5 seconds when he dropped to no less than 70 km/h.
The stewards estimate this resulted in the Spaniard arriving at his pit stop around 0.6 second later than if he had maintained a speed of 80 km/h.
Therefore, the stewards are not of the view that this action in any way resulted in the team avoiding a "double stack" situation as Vettel was well clear of the pit stop at this time.
The stewards also accepted Sainz' explanation that he was exercising a degree of caution as video evidence confirmed the presence of a lot of other teams’ personnel in the pit lane at the time.
Stroll was able to maintain a speed of 80 km/h in the pit lane except for a very short period of time (approximately 1 second) and therefore the stewards do not consider that it was materially impacted by the actions of Sainz.
The stewards also checked the relative speeds of the cars after leaving their pit stops and could see no evidence of Sainz driving unnecessarily slowly.
Consequently the stewards deemed that no further action was required.
It should be noted that normally the stewards prefer to take decisions of this nature during the race however in this case the necessary telemetry was only available shortly before the finish.
Check out our Sunday gallery from Yas Island, here. | https://www.pitpass.com/public/print_article.php?fes_art_id=68898 |
As we find ourselves at the height of busy summer, we have witnessed some bad habits committed by the general boating community. While I was anchored in Glorieta Bay earlier this month, I watched as a lot of boaters struggled to get their anchors set properly on the first attempt. We have covered anchoring in the past but this time we want to focus on the two mistakes I noticed most boats making on this Saturday afternoon.
Initially dropping the anchor in the wrong spot (setting it where you want to end up)
and
Adding reverse power instead of letting the wind/current set the anchor
A boat would approach the anchorage with captain and crew all scanning the water for the best spot to anchor and once decide, they would proceed to that area. Normally this area was surrounded by boats and would have a small plot of water that could just barley accommodate their size boat. Once arrived at the chosen location, the captain would drop the anchor and watch as the boat got closer and closer to other boats as they deployed more chain. The skippers of these boats forgot that as they let out 50-60 feet of chain, they would be drifting nearly that same distance backwards and be missing their mark.
Some of the skippers corrected their mistake and deployed the anchor upwind by another 50-60 feet while others would take up half of their scope and leave themselves prone to “dragging” by now only having 30 feet of chain deployed. Inevitably, we witnessed at least 3 boats dragging anchor that afternoon.
Remember to initially deploy your anchor with enough room downwind to accommodate the amount of scope you plan to deploy!
The next mistake we saw a lot of (often in combination with the first mistake) was skippers applying reverse thrust as they lowered the anchor thinking this would set it into the bottom. While applying reserve is necessary when anchoring for an extended period, it is to be done after you have initially set the anchor using only the boats weight against the wind or current.
The correct order of events should be to pick your target anchoring position and bring the boat to a complete stop with the bow into the wind. At this point (assuming normal San Diego conditions), I will let out 1.5x the water depth and allow the boat to drift downwind until I see the anchor chain start to straighten and the bow come back into the wind (you will often end up slightly left or right of head-to-wind as you drift). After the weight of the boat puts a light strain on the anchor (the chain will straighten) I will continue to pay out chain with a pause every 10-15 seconds to allow the boat to apply more pressure on the anchor and start to set it into the mud. Repeat this process until you have come to your desired scope ratio (about 4:1 in normal conditions). Pro Tip: Every second the windlass is running you will be letting out close to 1 foot of chain; 30 seconds = 30 feet.
From here I will allow the boat to swing and pull on the anchor from the force of the wind for a minute or two. I am looking for the anchor chain to be at about a 45 degree angle from the bow. Once I know the anchor is holding under the current conditions I will head back to the helm and start applying a light amount of reverse until the chain is stretched out and the boat stops moving backwards. I am now looking at other boats, or the land, to make sure I’m not dragging. After roughly 30 seconds at 1500 rpm’s or so, I am satisfied that the anchor is set and will shift back into neutral and watch as the chain sinks causing the boat to pull forward slightly.
Skippers who were putting the boat into reverse immediately, never gave the anchor a chance to set and simply drug it along the bottom with the force of their engine.
Try these tips out next time and let us know how they worked out! | https://harborsailboats.com/2014/03/ |
Making a pivot turn with a single engine is easy and will get you out of tight spaces by turning your boat around in place.
Here's how to perform this simple but useful maneuver on a boat with a single outboard or sterndrive. The key is to stay controlled and steady in your maneuvers. And remember: Slow is pro.
1. Bring your boat to a complete stop: Pause in neutral, then shift into reverse idle. Look to the side so you can gauge your boat's movement. Once the boat stops, shift into neutral.
2. Take note of wind direction and use it to help you. If possible, keep your boat to the upwind side. For example, if the wind is blowing west to east, put your boat on the west side of the fairway to account for drift. Now, turn the wheel all the way left (counterclockwise). Shift into reverse idle for 3 to 4 seconds then back to neutral so the stern goes left as the boat slowly reverses. Assess how your boat is moving. Depending on how the wind is affecting you, you can leave the wheel turned and allow the rudder effect to continue turning your boat for a short period.
3. Now turn the wheel hard in the opposite direction (clockwise in this case). Then shift into forward idle for three to four seconds, then back to neutral. You'll notice the stern still goes to the left, but now the boat is moving a bit forward, continuing its clockwise rotation. Assess your movement. Allow the boat to continue to turn. If you need to, turn the wheel hard left (counterclockwise) once again, shift into reverse for 3 to 4 seconds, then back to neutral.
4. After three to four maneuvers, your boat should be rotated 180 degrees from where you started the pivot turn. (Note: Sometimes a very brief but careful extra burst of power in the correct direction is needed to help the bow to swing.) Now put it in forward idle and get back on course. | https://www.royscottmarine.com/Scott-Marine-Blog/2019/11/THE-PIVOT-TURN |
Hit the lake again right after work with Sandy, Mike, Seven and Lori in tow. Started off with another back-to-back barefoot set in the bay amongst the weeds doing 4 passes. Ended the night with final back-to-back set with 6 passes. That makes for a total of sixteen passes for the day. Meaning 16 deeps as well. Also did a repeat of what I did this morning. Stand up in right curl, lift right foot, cross bubbles of death to left curl, lift left foot.
What do I mean by back-to-back sets? Basically, I foot till the boat needs to stop (because of the shore) and does a power turn and I never need to let go of the rope. Boat idles back out, rope comes tight, and away we go. I timed it in my head tonight and this can take as little as 15 seconds when everything works out alright, but is much easier if they let the rope come tight and let me catch my breath before going. When they do that, it takes about 20 seconds. Still, that is a short break between runs.
Right now, my arms are exhausted. Still want to ski again. Waiting for call backs for tomorrow AM. If that doesn’t come through, I should be able to track down some people for the afternoon. I’ll rest on the next rainy day.
Finally, props to Sandy for joining me in my two-a-day endeavor. She woke up early for the morning set and then came back for the evening set. Here’s a shot of Sandy skiing tonight. Once again, notice the carpet of weeds to her right. | https://madcitywedge.com/2006/07/08/two-a-days-part-2-2/ |
Tonight at 23:59:60 UTC we gain one second. This adjustment to the Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) is designed to account for when the Earth's rotation drifts away from atomic time because of irregularities in the Earth's rate of rotation. This one second adjustment will impact all computer systems around the world.
At Xignite, some of our real-time and delayed market data APIs will be affected by this adjustment. The inbound feeds we receive for markets open during that time will apply a workaround (leap smear) in which they will digest the additional second during approximately 40 minutes (2400 seconds). During this period each second will take 1/2400 seconds (0.4ms) longer than usual until the full 1000ms are added. The time 23:59:60 will not be presented to any of our systems, and therefore will not be disseminated by our APIs.
For the U.S. markets, the leap second occurs during extended hours trading. The U.S. exchanges are planning to stop trading ½ hour earlier so that trading is not affected. Based on our analysis, preparations and precautions, we are not expecting any impact. Regardless, our technical staff will be on high alert during the night of June 30th to be able to react swiftly to any issues that might arise.
There is a fintech revolution going down and it is not happening quietly. | https://resources.xignite.com/xignite-blog/how-gaining-one-second-will-affect-stock-market-data |
This morning we finish packing up as we’ll be heading to another island. After breakfast Jorge leads the walk down to the docks where a sea lion is sunbathing on the floating dock right next to the boat, so much for the 6 feet of distance. He is unperturbed as we all walk with our bags just a couple feet from his nose to be able to board the boat.
The boat ride to Isla Isabela will first stop at Isla Floreana for a snorkel break and some lunch. They call the boat a “speed boat” but it is not what comes to mind when I think of a speed boat. It is more like a cabin cruiser with room for three or four people upstairs and approximately sixteen downstairs. Vicky and I head upstairs for the first half of the trip. It is a bit bouncy at the high speed and we catch a few splashes along the way. But as time passed by, the sun encroached on our space. The sun here is intense being on the equator and I already have a bit of sunburn, so as the boat slows down, we climb the ladder downstairs to the cabin. With the boat idling the waves roll us side to side and the exhaust fumes are making a few people green, but everyone manages to hold onto their breakfast and soon we are underway again.
As we are approaching Floreana, I am looking at the back of the boat and notice a large school of flying fish that were spooked by the boat and took to the air to escape. The entire boat trip takes about two and a half hours to get to Floreana. We wait offshore for a water taxi to take us ashore. The entire population of Floreana is approximately 140 people and we wonder what we will see on the island.
Once we arrive at the docks, the marine iguana welcoming committee is waiting for us.
From here it is a 10 minute walk to a black sand beach where there is a small hotel. Here a lagoon offers a protected snorkeling area. We don our wetsuits and head for the water over the sand which is rather hot. The fish do not seem as plentiful as our previous areas but we do see schools of surgeonfish, sergeant majors, parrot fish, and many others. We do see a chocolate chip starfish as well as a variety that had a red body with black spots.
We came across three sea turtles feeding in shallow water. We were able to watch them for quite a while before they swam away. As we began making our way back to shore, one of the sea turtles came up to me and just stared at me while drifting along side me for a couple of minutes – way cool!
As we are drying off and warming up on the beach, we spot a large marine iguana swimming across the lagoon.
Lunch is at a nearby restaurant which consists of soup with fritters, rice and lentils with yellowfin tuna. Dessert is a cake/brownie with coffee ice cream on top. The small population can’t really support a restaurant and so this one operates on a as need basis. Visiting groups such as ours and other transients such as doctors, teachers, or researchers contract to have a meal served.
On the way back to the boat we stop at the local “post office”. This is a large wooden barrel where people can drop postcards and then relying on other travellers to deliver their letters. None of the letters in the box are bound for Florida so we do not take any with us. But others in the group find some for their area of the world. Germany seems quite popular. Others leave some postcards addressed to themselves or someone they know just to see how long it takes to make it.
The water taxi takes us back to the boat and we spend another two hours speeding across the open water to Isla Isabela. Isla Isabela has a population of approximately 2,200 people with the majority living in the town of Puerto Villamil.
Our hotel is the San Vincent. After checkin in and dropping our bags off, Jorge takes us on a tour of the town. On a nearby corner, a preacher is bible thumping and preaching to anyone passing by. And with his loud booming voice he is reaching everyone in a three block radius. It is all in Spanish so we don’t understand much of what he is saying.
The group decides to dine together. Jorge takes us to a nearby restaurant, La casa del asado de Anibal Garcia. It didn’t look like much from the outside, but it definitely had a local atmosphere to it. Vicky and I decided to share the “Mixed Grill” as does Jason and Chris. The plate is a huge pile of food including lobster, shrimp, octopus, and chicken. A stray dog is patiently waiting next to the table to see if any scraps come his way.
Jason and I try the “craft beer” from Ecuador but I was not very impressed. The flavor was off and the beer was unfiltered making it very cloudy. We decide we’ll grab a bottle of wine from the local mini-market on the way back to the hotel. Chris finds a coconut ice cream for dessert and Vicky picks up a chocolate bar. | http://ecg3.com/?tag=san-cristobal-island |
The French river is a great paddle for a day or afternoon, depending on how far you want to go. Going after some wet weather is best but not necessary, it just makes paddling around fallen trees, etc, easier. There are some beaver dams that are easily portaged or slide-portaged with a little speed. Going from Oxford into Webster is easiest, but if you don't mind a lot of portaging you can easily go down into Connecticut. The problem is that there are a lot of dams after the center of Webster that one must portage around, and which reduce flow. Also, some areas have a lot of litter in the more southern, urban sections of river. A kayak would be easier than a canoe once past the railroad bridge in Oxford where I chose to stop, to make portages and tight water easier. I chose to put in above Hodge's Village dam, which therefore needs to be portaged mid-journey.
Take 395 and get off at exit 5, Depot Rd. Go east to Rt. 12, cross straight over Rt. 12 to a recreational facility.
There is a gated path/road along the left after you enter which you can walk down with your boat, and put in on the right of the foot bridge, approximately 1/10 of a mile from parking in the fields. Take out at the railroad bridge in North Webster, next to Bigelow St. which is off of Rt. 12. | https://paddling.com/paddle/trips/french-river-massachusetts-1/ |
You will be collected from your hotel at approximately 09:30 and taken to Orhaniye village to meet the boat and crew. Once onboard the boat, the Captain will firstly make a stop at Turquoise Bay for a swimming break in crystal clear water, and then on to discover the hidden Camelia Bay where you will be able to take in the beautiful surroundings.
Next the boat will visit the remains of a monastery where you will have the opportunity to swim and take photographs. From the monastery the boat will sail to the village of Selimiye, where lunch will be provided. After lunch there will be a visit to Kizkumu Beach where you can take a walk along the beach into the sea. The gulf enables you to walk out 600 metres into the sea without the water going over the knee’s. There will then be time to relax on the boat before the journey back to Marmaris.
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Included
Pick up & Drop off, Full Insurance, Lunch
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Excluded
Lunch, Drinks
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Days Available
Everyday
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Duration
Full Day
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Booking Form
Total Price: | https://www.marmaris-tours.com/hisaronu-bay-boat-trip |
Attend either or both meetings!
Go south on South Lamar from the river/Lady Bird Lake about four miles until you see the spaghetti-type highway on the horizon ahead of you. Go thru the light by Brody Oaks shopping center and pass under Ben White/290/360. Stay on the access road in the right hand lane. After the light at West Gate Blvd., start counting driveways. The church is driveways 5 and 6. Driveway 5 is the Fellowship Hall, driveway 6 is the Sunday School Building. If you get to the boat storage place you have gone too far.
Take the TX-Loop 360 South/Capital of Texas Hwy exit. Scoot over to the right-hand lane when you can, then after 4/10 of a mile take the exit to the right “Lamar”. At the top of the long hill you will reach Lamar Blvd and you will turn right. Lamar is a multi-lane divided highway at that point. After the light at West Gate Blvd., start counting driveways. The church is driveways 5 and 6. Driveway 5 is the Fellowship Hall, driveway 6 is the Sunday School Building. If you get to the boat storage place you have gone too far.
Take EXIT 230 (290/TX-71/Ben White Blvd) toward Johnson City. Go approximately 2.7 miles, then exit toward Lamar Blvd/West Gate Blvd. You will go through about two stop lights before you come to Lamar Blvd. Get into the left turn lane and take the left turn onto S. Lamar Blvd. At this point it is an access road alongside a highway. After the light at West Gate Blvd., start counting driveways. The church is driveways 5and 6. Driveway 5 is the Fellowship Hall, driveway 6 is the Sunday School Building. If you get to the boat storage place you have gone too far.
Take EXIT 252 B (620) east on Round Rock Ave. After 4 blocks, turn right on Blair. After 2 blocks, turn right on Badgdad. Drive to the end of Bagdad and park in the parking garage to the left. | https://austinfiberartists.com/meetings/directions-to-meeting-location/ |
The only place on earth which boasts the natural habitat of the mythical Komodo Dragon, is the Komodo National Park, located in the Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia. The harsh islands of Komodo and Rinca are almost desert like, but combined provide the homes to almost 5000 dragons.
I’d taken a boat from the north western tip of Lombok, which would sail around the top of Lombok, along the northern shore of Sumbawa before stopping off on the islands of Komodo and Rinca. It was to be a long trip. 3 days on the boat to reach Komodo, and a fourth to take us on to our final stop, the Harbour town of Labuan Bajo on the large island of Flores, east of the Komodo National Park.
There were 25 of us on the boat. Big enough to house us all for a few days but small enough to mean we’d sit on a combination of benches and the floor to eat our meals and crawl along on our hands and knees to reach our beds on the upper deck, who’s wood and tarpaulin roof stood at not much more than waist height. I’m giving the wrong impression, I loved the boat. I was lucky enough to share the experience with an amazing group of people, and, despite the small interior, the sun decks at the front and the top of the boat provided enough room for us to relax during the days and enjoy the sunsets and the star filled night skies later on.
To break up the long trip to Komodo, the boat crew had scheduled in a few stops along the way. After we’d been woken up at 6:30am on the first morning (this would become a common theme) and eaten our breakfast pancakes, we swam to the shore of the nearby bay to explore an inland waterfall. My verdict was that I’d seen better, perhaps I’m getting a bit snobbish now and my standards have increased..?
After climbing to the top of the waterfall and exploring the pools that have naturally formed there, we headed back to the boat which took us to our next stop – Satonda Island. This small island located off the north coast of Sumbawa was formed after a volcanic eruption on the sea floor, leaving a fresh water crater lake approximately 2 square kilometres in size just above sea level. It’s surrounded by a thin rim of land, with the highest point just 300m tall. Nowadays the lake water is salty. This is due to a tsunami caused by the mega volcanic disaster of Mount Tambora in 1815 – the biggest volcanic explosion in human history. The seas around the island are lovely, clear and blue, meaning a perfect place for snorkelling, rich in corals and tropical fish.
By the afternoon we’d reached the eastern tip of Sumbawa, meaning we were out of the waters protected by the island, and in to the renowned territory of rough seas. So far the seas had been calm and enjoyable and I was having a hard time picturing the choppy conditions that so many people had described of this route. But by mid afternoon the waves had taken over and many of the boat were starting to feel the effects. When night fell it became even worse as you could no longer see when the waves would hit, instead we’d be rocked and thrown around without any warning. I decided to take a beer to see if that would take the edge off a bit, needless to say it was one of the least enjoyable beers I’ve ever had.
After dinner (nobody ate much), most people decided to try to sleep it off, but by about 10pm we were through the worst. Looking out the side of the boat I could see yet another clear night sky full of stars, and looking down, the faint glowing orbs of phosphorescent plankton were visible when the waves crashed into the side of the boat. Those of us who were left up turned the lights off to fully enjoy this ethereal moment.
When the sun came up, the boat was anchored in the calm waters of Manta Point in Komodo National Park, a polar opposite from the conditions the night before. Manta Point is just one of many fabled dive sites around Komodo, which is rich in a huge diversity of intriguing marine life. As the name suggests, it is common to see Manta Rays in this area, so after getting our snorkelling gear on, we all waited at the side of the boat, eager with anticipation as to what we might see. After sighting one or two Mantas, most people had jumped in. Avoiding the rush and the crowds, I waited further, and was rewarded when a group of 5 swam right past the boat. 2 of us dived right into the middle of the group, and for a few seconds were surrounded by the curious creatures before they dove fast and deep into the blue. We could only trail them for a short while before they were gone, but having been up close with huge creatures right on the surface was something special.
So after 3 days it was finally time. We’d been warned that it was now nesting season for the Komodo dragons and therefore it was not guaranteed that we’d see any. Unsurprisingly, most of the dragons we saw were around the entrance area where I guess they know that food is guaranteed.
They seemed remarkably relaxed around a human presence given their cannibalistic nature. They feed on almost anything they can get their hands (or claws) on, from deer, water buffalo, humans (attacks are uncommon but have been known in the past) to probably the most alarming – their own young. They swallow everything, bones and all, and in one sitting can eat almost their own body weight. After this, they will not need to eat for almost a month.
The mothers lay up to 30 eggs, and of those only a handful will survive – either due to the island’s conditions or because the eggs are eaten by other animals. Komodo’s live on their own, and so once hatched, the juveniles too are on their own. Until the age of around 5, the juveniles live in the trees to avoid being eaten by the adults who are at that point too large to climb.
When it is time to hunt, the dragons lie in wait. They are remarkably quick over land and can pounce without warning. Their saliva is so filled with bacteria that one bite is lethal to any animal, however, it can take up to 3 days for their prey to die once bitten. They use their incredible sense of smell to determine when their prey has finally succumbed, which they can track down up to 10km away. Of course this means that over dragons can smell the food, and so fights over dinner are very common.
We explored the islands of Komodo and Rinca for a few hours each, and probably saw around twenty dragons, ranging in age and size from juvenile up to the 3m long monstrosities that they can become. In addition to this the islands are beautiful. Dry and arid yet enchanting. From a vantage point way up in the hills, we looked out over our boat and over the numerous islands that together make up the Komodo National Park.
Our adventure was almost over, but two surprises were left. The first was sunset over Rinca. As if it wasn’t breathtaking enough, when the sun finally disappeared and the sky filled with red, a colony of millions of flying foxes flew over our heads and into the distance of fading light. It was one of those moments where everyone just stopped what they were doing and watched as the display went on for almost 30 minutes.
The final surprise was when the captain came down to the bottom deck, turned the lights off, and turned on a hidden disco light. The party went on until the boat had been drunk dry of beers. At that point, we crammed as many people as we could onto the top deck and enjoyed the company and the stars for one last night. | https://richardparsonsphotography.com/2015/09/24/komodo-national-park/ |
Early contractions will cause mild discomfort, be irregular, and may last only a few seconds at a time. As labor progresses, your contractions will become stronger and more uncomfortable. They will be longer in duration and will occur in a predictable pattern.
Can you have irregular contractions and be in labor?
How Do I Know When I’m In Labor? Many women experience what is known as “false” labor pains or Braxton Hicks contractions. These irregular uterine contractions are perfectly normal and generally start during your third trimester of pregnancy.
How long do irregular contractions last before labor?
These are the tightening of the womb’s muscles and vary in length but they generally last for about 30 seconds. They are usually painless. During the latent phase, Braxton Hicks may become more noticeable and more frequent, lasting between 35 and 45 seconds, however some women may not notice anything at all.
How frequent are contractions in early labor?
Early labor will last approximately 8-12 hours. Your cervix will efface and dilate to 4 centimeters. Contractions will last about 30-45 seconds, giving you 5-30 minutes of rest between contractions. Contractions are typically mild and somewhat irregular but become progressively stronger and more frequent.
Can early contractions come and go?
Prodromal labor is labor that starts and stops before fully active labor begins. It’s often called “false labor,” but this is a poor description. Medical professionals recognize that the contractions are real, but they come and go and labor may not progress.
Can lying down stop contractions?
Spending most of your time in bed, especially lying on your back, or sitting up at a small angle, interferes with labor progress: Gravity works against you, and the baby might be more likely to settle into a posterior position.
How long can you have irregular contractions?
Contractions are irregular when there isn’t a stable pattern. An example is a series of three contractions lasting between 30 and 45 seconds and coming 10, seven and then 15 minutes apart. Progressing contractions. Contractions that are lasting longer and getting closer together are considered to be progressing.
How do you feel 24 hours before labor?
As the countdown to birth begins, some signs that labor is 24 to 48 hours away can include low back pain, weight loss, diarrhea — and of course, your water breaking.
Do false labor contractions help you dilate?
This is the only definitive sign that labor is real. True labor contractions will cause the cervix to dilate (open) and efface (thin out). False labor leads to no changes in the cervix. Therefore, even if you experience the first three signs described above, you are not in true labor until the cervix has changed.
Does laying down make contractions worse?
Lying on your back in labour
In addition to this, when you’re on your back, you’re not working with gravity – you’re working against it. So your surges (contractions) are having to work so much harder (and therefore labour could take longer – and that’s not something you want either, is it?).
How many cm is active labor?
During active labor, your cervix will dilate from 6 centimeters (cm) to 10 cm. Your contractions will become stronger, closer together and regular.
How long does it take to go into labor after 3 cm dilated?
Based on the timing of your contractions and other signs, your doctor or midwife will tell you to head to the hospital for active labor. This phase typically lasts from three to five hours and continues from the time your cervix is 3 cm until it is dilated to 7 cm. True labor produces signs you don’t want to ignore.
How can I tell if Im having a contraction?
You know you’re in true labor when:
- You have strong and regular contractions. A contraction is when the muscles of your uterus tighten up like a fist and then relax. …
- You feel pain in your belly and lower back. …
- You have a bloody (brownish or reddish) mucus discharge. …
- Your water breaks.
What do mild contractions feel like?
Labor contractions usually cause discomfort or a dull ache in your back and lower abdomen, along with pressure in the pelvis. Contractions move in a wave-like motion from the top of the uterus to the bottom. Some women describe contractions as strong menstrual cramps.
How can I progress early labor?
The best things you can do for yourself during early labor are to eat a little and rest, preferably on your left side. You may also want to slowly walk about the house, or even in your neighborhood, to help your labor progress and keep things–that is, your baby–moving in the right direction.
When should you go to the doctor with contractions? | https://starfishconfidential.com/for-pregnant/how-irregular-can-contractions-be-in-early-labor.html |
Day 01: San Jose/ Tortuguero National Park
Early in the morning, we will pick you up at your hotel ,driving first past coffee plantations, we will head into the mountains of Braulio Carrillo National Park , and we will stop for a typical Costa Rican breakfast, fresh fruit, coffee, eggs and the popular “Gallo Pinto”. Following breakfast, we continue to the dock, we will take the boat, for a boat trip into the canals of the National Park, we'll be arriving to Evergreen lodge, at midday, and after checking into the rooms lunch will be served. In the afternoon, you will be taken to Tortuguero town. Buffet dinner included. Overnight at Evergreen Lodge, Evergreen is located in the northeastern corner of Tortuguero, 5 minutes by boat from the main entrance to Tortuguero National Park, and accessible only by air and water, this is the ideal location from which to explore this unique and magical area, surrounded by towering trees and exuberant vegetation and are adorned with tropical designs. Optional tour to see the turtles nesting, from July to October $30 (not included in the rate).
Day 02: Tortuguero National Park/ San Jose
Early in the morning, boat trip through Tortuguero canals where you can admire the biodiversity of the jungle, breakfast at the hotel. After the check out at 09.00 A.M.,boat and land transfer to San Jose, in the way you will take lunch, arrival time 04.30 P.M.
Includes:
Bus transportation in air-conditioned unit from San José (back & forth)
Boat transfer Dock-Hotel-Dock
One-night accommodation/room in Tortuguero
Breakfast, in route at El Ceibo Restaurant in Guápiles.
One breakfast, one lunch, and one dinner in Tortuguero (buffet style)
Lunch in route on the second day, at El Ceibo Restaurant in Guápiles.
Guided visit to a museum where there will be a speech about the green turtle.
Guided walk on pathways in the area.
Guided boat tour in the striking Tortuguero Canals.
English-Spanish bilingual guide during the trip.
Welcome cocktail.
Coffee around the clock, self service.
All taxes.
Not Included
The National Park entrance fee $10.00usd for foreigners, children under 12 pay $ 1.00usd. National: $ 2.00 adults / children between 2 and 5 years free, 6 and 11 years old pay $ 1.00usd.
Any other service not included in detailed
Rate: $219,00 per person based on double occupancy
Rates are in US dollars, just valid for this quotation
Tortuguero National Park is the most important place in the caribbean area for the green turtle nesting (Chelonia mydas), one of the main reasons for creating the park was the preservation of this reptile, moreover , in the northern caribbean beaches come to spawn four of the seven species of sea turtles in the world: hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), the brown loggerhead (Caretta caretta) and the leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), and furthermore the popular green turtle.
If there is a route where exuberant and immense nature embraces the visitor , where water is a green giant mirror and a fresh carpet that is mixed with the warm breeze , these are Tortuguero channels. However, it is only one of the entries to a national park with the most diverse environments and species of flora and fauna in the country.
Tortuguero National Park was created in 1975 and is located in the country northern caribbean at 80 Km from Limón. It is considered the third most visited park in the country and presents the wetland feature of RAMSAR international importance. This covers an area of 26156 ha. (65390 acres) on the land and has approximately 50160 ha (125400 acres). In the marine part, its tropical rain forests are mostly primary and receives a precipitation of approximately 4500 a 6000 mm. per year, where there are species such as the jaguar, tapir, three-toed sloth, three of the four species of monkeys that are in the country, besides, staying manatees, crocodiles, gaspar fish , blue heron, northern jacana, among others. The full diversity of species is largely reflected in its inhabitants where approximately 400 species of trees reside , more than 2200 species of plants and over 405 species of birds; this is what makes Tortuguero a magical place to visit, where the relationship with nature will be one hundred percent harmonious and to your liking. | https://www.costaricabudgettravel.com/index.php/tours/multiday-tours/137-tortuguero-2d-1n |
Best Things To Do In Carvoeiro, Algarve
Carvoeiro is a charming little beach town located in the western side of the Algarve region in Portugal. Once a traditional Portuguese fishing village, in recent years it became one of the best destinations for families to enjoy. Here are some of our recommendations for the things to do in Carvoeiro, Algarve.
1. Visit Algar Seco
Located on the east side of Carvoeiro, Algar Seco is a must sight when you visit the town. A set of steps will take you down to the incredible natural rock formations which are carved out of the sandstone by the forces of nature. On the right side of the steps there is a restaurant/bar where you can grab a refreshing drink or have something to eat. Do not be mistaken and finish your journey there, there is another picture-perfect sight waiting to be explored – ‘A Boneca’ cave. You will need to walk pass the restaurant/bar to see this incredible sight.
2. Go on Carvoeiro Boardwalk
The Carvoeiro Boardwalk is a safe way to explore the breathtaking coastline of the Algarve. This picturesque path starts from the Nossa Senhora da Encarnação fort, which is at the top of the hill going up to the left side of Carvoeiro Beach and the boardwalk finishes at the Algar Seco. This wooden pathway is suitable for families with smaller children and those who are less mobile. There are plenty of sitting areas along the way where you could stop, relax and admire the beautiful scenery.
3. Get on a boat and see the most famous Algarve’s caves
Boat tours to see the most famous Algarve’s caves board from either Carvoeiro beach (Praia do Carvoeiro) or Centianes beach (Praia do Vale Centeanes). As a part of the tour, you will be taken to see the Benagil cave, which is considered as one of the most impressive sea caves in Europe. The cave is located around 150 meters away from the Benagil beach (Praia de Benagil) and is easily accessible by boat. Caves can be visited throughout the whole year and the duration of tours vary from 1h to 1.5h. The longer tour will take you to Marinha beach (Praia da Marinha), where you will see the famous rock formations and one the most beautiful beaches in the world. During the summer season boat tours get fully booked for the next few days. Therefore, booking your tour early is advisable to avoid disappointment.
4. Get on a mini train tour around Carvoeiro
During high season you can explore Carvoeiro town by getting on a mini train. It is a non-stop journey that runs for around 30 minutes. It departs every 40 minutes from the main Carvoeiro square and takes you up to Rocha Brava resort and back. The train runs daily and costs €3-5. It is a great way to see Carvoeiro and its surroundings if you are not up for walking far or travelling with smaller children.
5. Get on a Hop On Hop Off minibus and see the main points of interest
This minibus will take you on a sightseeing tour along the coast of Carvoeiro, Lagoa and Ferragudo. You will be able to see the main points of interest in the area with some of the most beautiful beaches along the way. The tour includes 17 stops. Tickets can be purchased on board and are valid for either 24h or 48h. Therefore you will be able to choose any bus and leave at any stop as many times as you wish during your purchased ticket duration. Buses run approximately every 30 minutes between 9:30am – 10:30pm during summer months and 10am – 6pm during winter months. All buses have air conditioning and free WiFi.
6. Try the best home made ice-cream in town
Not too far away from the main Carvoeiro town square, Gelados & Companhia is the place to visit if you want to taste the best home made ice-cream in town. There are so many delicious flavours to choose from with some dairy free options available. Pastel de nata (famous Portuguese custard tart), Ferrero Rocher, double chocolate, cherry cheesecake, white chocolate and orange are just a few ice-cream options available there. Apart from ice-cream they also offer frozen yogurt, crepes, waffles as well as serve coffee and other drinks. A must place to visit on a hot summer day! | http://beautifulalgarve.com/blog/best-things-to-do-in-carvoeiro-algarve/ |
Social Networking, the “Third Place,” and the Evolution of Communication
The New Media Consortium’s Series of Online Conferences is designed to explore emerging topics in education and technology, using current communication technologies to bring people together online in a way that offers many of the same affordances of a face-to-face conference. Of particular importance are opportunities for the kinds of social interactions that make in-person conferences so valuable: hallway conversations, end-of-the-day informal gatherings, opportunities to speak with presenters in between sessions, and highly interactive breakout sessions that invite participation from the audience.
As part of a new approach to how we design our online conferences, this paper is being released in advance of the NMC Online Conference on the Evolution of Communication to spark discussion, discourse, and especially critical thinking on the topic. This first topical paper is being released in a form that encourages discussion and that itself embodies the topic of the changing nature of communication. The conference itself, to be held December 4-5, 2007, will take place in the virtual world of Second Life and will incorporate some of the tools and trends identified here.
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The purpose of this white paper is to put forth a proposition that we hope will generate considerable conversation. The premise is simple, but touches on concepts and ideas that are well established within the academy, and as such, it is a topic about which there may be some strongly held perspectives. Our premise is that technology has not only mediated communication in countless ways, but that the very ways we communicate—and even the ways we talk and think about communication—are changing as a result.
Part of this premise is backward looking, in the sense that if we set literature and the creative side of communication aside for a moment, the formal communication strategies we have been taught in schools were often focused on how to convey lots of ideas or information (at relatively infrequent intervals) and generally in the form of written papers (like this one), books, or compilations.
Added to and fueling the premise is an admittedly unscientific assessment of how we have added to those forms in recent years. A look in almost any direction will reveal patterns of communication very different than the traditional writing in which we were trained. Small bursts of information, technology-mediated for the most part, permeate our experiences, and increasingly we have people with whom we are in contact almost constantly—and more so every day, these people are scattered across the globe.
Mediated by new tools and new technologies that have made the marginal cost of long distance communication essentially free, both work and social activities are commonly shared by groups of people who need not be geographically near each other to be close. Our premise, simply put, is that these and similar trends represent a significant shift in the way we interact with others and in the way we understand the nature of those interactions.
This paper is not intended to be a lexicon of terms and definitions. Rather, its focus is to consider the ways that communication is changing and raise the question of how this shift can be applied to teaching, learning and creativity. It is our hope that this paper will
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encourage conversation, thinking, projects, and demonstrations that will enrich the Online Conference on the Evolution of Communication, and that the dialog begun here will continue beyond the conference.
Communication is (Still) Changing
The nature of communication has undergone a substantial change in the past 20 years—and the change is not over. Email has had a profound effect on the way people keep in touch.
Communications are shorter and more frequent than when letters were the norm; response time has greatly diminished; we are even surprised if someone we wish to contact does not have an email address. Although there are still a few people who print out their emails in order to read and respond to them, most of us are accustomed to the daily duty of reading and answering emails that have arrived since we turned off the computer the night before, and to keeping up with them as they trickle (or flood) in during the day.
Even as we have gotten used to email, though, the nature of communication continues to change. Instant messaging has created another method of interaction, one where the length of messages is shorter and the style of the interaction is more conversational—but where it is acceptable and common to pay partial attention. Broadcast technologies like Twitter transform these short bursts of communication from one-on-one conversations to little news (or trivia) programs: we can “tune in” when we want an update or have something to say, and
“channel surf” to other activities in between updates.
The expectations we place on those we communicate with vary from medium to medium, as has always been the case. Sending a letter through the postal mail sets up an expectation of a response that will come in days; email, in hours; instant messaging, in minutes. We expect the letter-writer to devote a certain amount of time and attention to responding. With email, the expected time investment is smaller. With instant messaging, we understand that the other party’s attention may wander between messages in some cases and remain focused on us, as with a phone call, in others.
New environments like virtual worlds present additional opportunities and challenges for communication. In such settings, there is a visual component to the online interaction that is lacking in email or instant messaging: we can see a “body” that goes with the voice or text conversation. Affordances like this can help foster a feeling of presence and give us clues about when the other person is listening, when he or she wishes to speak, and when his or her attention is directed elsewhere. This is not to say that these environments offer the same contextual cues as face-to-face communication—they do not; but there is an added dimension to interactions in these spaces that does not occur in other online contexts.
Online communication tools also have the potential to increase our awareness of the movements of our professional or social contacts. Twitter, for instance, offers an at-a-glance update of things people we know happen to be doing: who is outside cleaning their gutters, who is writing a new blog post, who is about to have lunch with a friend. Clive Thompson (2007) calls this phenomenon social proprioception, named after the physical quality of proprioception that tells a creature where its extremities are by the reception of stimuli produced within the organism. Social proprioception tells us where the nodes of our community are and provides a sense of connectedness to and awareness of others without
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direct communication. Technologies like Twitter enable us to have this sense even when the members of our community are not within sight.
The Contexts of Online Communication
The context in which an interaction occurs has a profound effect on communication. In face-to-face encounters, factors ranging from psychological to environmental to cultural all have an effect on how the message is transmitted and how it is understood. Online communication is no less subject to context, and may bring with it additional contextual issues that will have an effect on the intended message.
The type of technology being used to facilitate the interaction, for example, has a bearing on the environmental context of the conversation. A conversation taking place through instant messaging in between meetings will have a different flavor than if the same topic were discussed in a virtual world, on the phone, or in an online meeting room.
The challenge of any communication, that of being understood, exists online as much as—
maybe more so than—offline. Posts on threaded discussion forums and instant message communications are notoriously hard to decode correctly because of the lack of nuance. As more people participate in these kinds of communications, signals that were developed to add context to text-based messages, like smileys (☺) and tags (like <rant> </rant>), are slipping into the mainstream. The issue of context is far from solved, though, and continues to surface with each new mode of communication that emerges.
The Internet is the Place
The vehicle for these changes is the Internet. Increasingly, it is the “third place” (the first and second places being home and work) where people connect with friends, watch television, listen to music, build a sense of togetherness with people across the world, and provide expressions of ourselves which are themselves forms of communication. As more people turn to the Internet for professional and social purposes, we are seeing new means of communication, new places to communicate, and new avenues of interaction unfold at a rapid pace.
New means of communication. Internet calling services like Skype or Yahoo! Voice turn a computer, a webcam and a headset into a video phone. Blogs, while not new, have grown in usage over the last few years and are now a common way for many people to communicate their ideas to a broad audience and, in most cases, to hear back from that audience. Both Internet calling and blogs are relatively easy to accept, because they are based on understood models (telephones and magazine columns).
It is more difficult to grasp the potential implications of forms that are not modeled on a comfortable, twentieth-century mode of communication. One such example is Twitter: Twitter users post short messages that usually have to do with whatever is happening to them at the time—whether it is intellectual, practical, social, or professional in nature—to create an ongoing log of activity across a community at the minute-by-minute level. Twitter is
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controversial precisely because it does not have an elder analog; it is a cousin of instant messaging, but its broadcast nature marks it as a different type of communication. Twitter has been described as fun, trivial, innovative, addictive, a waste of time, and potentially a powerful social networking tool; but its implications for teaching, learning and creative expression, if any, are not yet fully understood.
New places to communicate. Increasingly, a computer with an Internet connection is the locus of a range of interactions in a variety of media and a gateway to an array of social spaces for work and play. Social networking sites like Facebook and MySpace and virtual environments like Second Life and World of Warcraft have become online meeting spaces where users—
members, residents, or players—can interact and express themselves. These spaces give people a way to represent themselves (a profile or an avatar or both) and various means of communication ranging from text and voice chat to public message boards and/or private messaging. They offer a way to keep in touch with existing communities that users belong to offline, such as social and professional groups. They also make it possible for people who would not normally communicate more than a few times a year to keep in touch—colleagues met at conferences, for instance, or friends met through the online community itself.
Sites like YouTube and Flickr represent another forum for online communication that is centered around sharing, preference, and popular culture. Visitors can browse movies (in the case of YouTube) or photos (in the case of Flickr), express personal preferences, add commentary, and upload their own creative work. YouTube is also a repository of popular culture in the form of newscasts, television shows, movies, or music videos that are of current interest. The kinds of interaction that occur on these sites center around shared interests and include not only verbal commentary, but commentary in the form of original or derivative works based on popular pieces.
These online spaces draw people—and can keep people—in numbers. Facebook claims 45
million active users, nearly half of whom are associated with an educational institution; Second Life lists over a million logins in the past two months, with between forty and fifty thousand people online at any given time; World of Warcraft has over 8 million active subscribers worldwide. YouTube serves over 100 million videos per day. In a recent NMC
survey of educators using Second Life, 49% reported that time spent in Second Life has replaced their TV time, indicating that some online activities are compelling enough to displace traditional leisure time activities.
One of the reasons people return to places like these is because of the interactions they can have there, both social and professional. Whether it is as simple as checking back to see what other comments have been added to yours or as involved as attending a workshop or presentation in a virtual world, the nature of the attraction lies in the connections between people that these online spaces afford.
New avenues of interaction. Online communication channels reduce the distance between people and allow interactions to happen more quickly than they might otherwise.
Communication with distant colleagues, relatives and friends is shortened from weeks to minutes and can even be instant, allowing us to maintain stronger ties to a wider group of people than ever before. At the same time, tools like Facebook and LinkedIn help to relieve the additional social burden of these ties by making it easy to keep track of contacts and keep a record of when we last “touched” them.
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Online forms of communication also incorporate modes of contact missing from more traditional means of interaction at a distance. Communications that would once have been text-only or voice-only are now much richer, weaving together text, voice, body language, and even shared experiences. Many of us are still learning how to process these cues while receiving and transmitting them through the medium of a computer, a challenge that can make effective communication difficult; but for many young people, for whom these technologies have always existed, interpreting and interacting this way is already second nature.
Perhaps one of the most difficult aspects of online communication channels is that they are not exclusive. It’s possible to create a blog post, Twitter about it, send an instant message to a colleague and get on a Skype call with someone else almost at the same time. Moving back and forth between these and other channels is quick and easy. The choice of medium depends on the person (or people) we want to reach, the length and nature of the message, and the amount of time we want to spend in the interaction; but the ability to flow between them is becoming more seamless by the day. The ease of transitioning from one to the other technologically can be at odds with the desire for a deep, sustained interaction.
Questions for Consideration
The evolution of communication raises questions about the nature of interpersonal interactions, the attractions and pitfalls of online communication, and the potential loss of traditional modes of contact. We invite you to consider these questions—and to pose your own—as you think about the changing nature of communication:
Is the nature of the way people relate to each other actually undergoing a change because of online communication? Or is interpersonal communication still essentially the same, with online modes of communication simply offering new opportunities for us to communicate (and mis communicate)?
Why is online communication even appealing? What makes people interested in the kinds of interaction that take place on Facebook, or in Second Life, or over Skype or Twitter? Why do people go online and talk to each other instead of doing something else, like cooking or watching television or skiing?
What aspects of twentieth-century communication are replaced, and what is newly available because of online communication? Is anything lost as a result?
How is the nature of communication likely to change in the near future—or is it? What is the difference in the effect or use of online communication on older generations versus younger ones?
The phenomenon described here is ongoing, and it is our hope that this conversation will include reflection on the current shape of online communication as well as speculation and thoughtful conjecture about the future.
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The Online Conference on the Evolution of Communication
On December 4-5, 2007, the New Media Consortium will convene an online conversation about the evolution of communication. This event is the tenth in the ongoing series of specially focused online gatherings that explore new ideas and issues related to technology and learning.
The NMC Series of Online Conferences is itself an exploration of emerging forms of collaboration and tools, and this particular conference incorporates the theme of new scholarship with the release of Social Networking, the “Third Place,” and the Evolution of Communication in a form that encourages dialog and discussion.
Please see www.nmc.org/evolution-communication for full details.
The Online Conference on the Evolution of Communication is designed to encourage an examination of the ways communication is changing and to further explore both the positive and negative effects on learning, social interaction, creative self-expression, and more.
The conference will be conducted entirely online in the virtual world of Second Life. Sessions, which will be conducted live, can incorporate a variety of visuals and rich media, and are generally about 45 minutes in length, with about one-third to one-half that time devoted to dialog with participants using in-world voice chat.
Additional information about the conference can be found at www.nmc.org/events/2007-
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Further Reading
The Continuum of Online Communication
Dan Saffer, Adaptive Path, May 21, 2007
Saffer’s brief blog post describes online communication as a continuum from the dictational to conversational and places several communication technologies along the line.
www.adaptivepath.com/blog/2007/05/21/the-continuum-of-online-communication/
Clive Thompson on How Twitter Creates a Social Sixth Sense
Clive Thompson, Wired Magazine: Issue 15.07, June 26, 2007
In this post, Thompson describes Twitter as providing “social proprioception,” helping a group of people develop a sense of itself as an entity.
www.wired.com/techbiz/media/magazine/15-07/st_thompson
Evolution of Communication: From Email to Twitter and Beyond
Alex Iskold, Read/WriteWeb, May 30, 2007
Iskold discusses the way communication is changing, maps current technologies to the forms of communication they resemble (and replace), and poses questions about possible future forms.
www.readwriteweb.com/archives/evolution_of_communication.php
Del.icio.us Resources
Add your own resources on this topic, and see what others have contributed. The tag is nmcscan07.
How to Stop Worrying and Learn to Love the Internet
Douglas Adams, The Sunday Times, August 29, 1999.
Although this short piece is almost a decade old, Adams’ observations on the nature of technology and communication continue to be apt.
www.douglasadams.com/dna/19990901-00-a.html
The Internet as Third Place
Fred Gooltz, Advomatic, retrieved October 11, 2007
Gooltz reflects on the qualities that make an ideal public space and observes that for young people, these spaces may well exist online.
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Technologies Mentioned in the Text
Blogs (a sampling of popular blog services includes www.typepad.com, www.wordpress.com,
www.blogger.com, and www.livejournal.com) are a form of online journal. A blog can have a single author or several. Most blogs allow readers to post comments in response to an article or post, but some do not.
Bloglines (www.bloglines.com) is an RSS reader, or a service that collects updates from your
favorite blogs so you can read them in one place.
Facebook (www.facebook.com) is a social networking site where users can set up a profile, create formal connections to people they know, communicate, and share preferences and interests. Facebook’s fastest-growing demographic is users over 25.
Flickr (www.flickr.com) is an online photo site. Users upload photos; public photos may be viewed and commented on by others.
LinkedIn (www.linkedin.com) is a social networking site where users can set up a profile,
create formal connections to people they know, communicate, and share preferences and interests.
MySpace (www.myspace.com) is a social networking site where users can set up a profile, create formal connections to people they know, communicate, and share preferences and interests.
Second Life (www.secondlife.com) is a 3-D virtual environment created by Linden Lab.
Residents create an avatar and may own land, build and create objects and clothing, and interact with each other in the setting of a user-created virtual world complete with its own economy.
Skype (www.skype.com) is an Internet calling service that enables two-party audio and video chat and multi-party audioconferencing. Skype can make computer-to-computer calls as well as computer-to-phone calls (land- or mobile phones).
Twitter (www.twitter.com) is a cross between instant messaging and blogging that allows a
user to send a short (140-character) update. Users can also follow the updates of selected friends.
World of Warcraft (www.worldofwarcraft.com) is a massively multiplayer online game
created by Blizzard Entertainment. The game takes place in a 3-D virtual world; players interact with hundreds of
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New Modern technology shifts and develops at a breakneck rate. It seems that the planet cannot possibly become more complex or advanced with each passing year. Technological advancements, on the other hand, continue to outperform global standards on a regular basis.
Contents
For Ways Modern Technology Is Benefiting the World
It’s difficult to predict where science and computers will go next, but the future looks bright. Continue reading to learn about several ways that modern technology benefits society today, as well as how the world can change for the better in the future.
1. Medical Healthcare
Medical testing has advanced at an unprecedented rate thanks to technological advancements since its inception. Additionally, medical therapies for the sick and preventative services for the healthy are more reliable and accessible than ever before.
Did you know that by 2025, Alzheimer’s and dementia will be not only treatable, but also curable? Are you aware that most cancer therapies and drugs are more effective than in the past while still causing less serious and painful side effects? Furthermore, scientists claim that, within a few years, human genome engineering will make type 1 diabetes preventable.
The advancements in the rapid strides in the healthcare sector are all due to technical advances, from policy management functions to advanced diagnostic testing. Hopefully, this ensures that the medical sector will receive more progressive coverage in the future.
2. Information Age Worldwide
Spreading worldwide news was more difficult prior to the internet’s creation than it is now. It took hours, if not days, for news of global disasters to reach an international audience. Furthermore, knowledge did not move as accurately or as consistently as it does now.
International contact is now instantaneous, and information is easily accessible with only a few keystrokes. The days of studying subjects at the library are long gone, as the internet now offers limitless data on every subject imaginable. As an added bonus, everyone, at any time, can initiate immediate foreign communication with anyone. The information age is really changing the world.
3. Daily e-Learning Education
A Instructor, a classroom, and a school were once the foundations of traditional education. This approach could not handle the large number of students that today’s instructional instruction methods can accommodate.
Today, e-Learning accounts for a large portion of higher education learning models, allowing students from all over the world to participate.
There are several courses available online that can be used to earn a variety of degrees. Justice, medicine, and education can all be studied from the comfort of one’s own home. Additionally, e-Learning models allow working students to study at their own rate, completing assignments as they go. courses as time allows.
4. Worldwide Communication
The telegraph was the first mode of communication, according to history texts. In the 1800s, instant communication and texting were inconceivable, and worldwide communication was nearly impossible.
Instant communication is now not only feasible, but expected, thanks to smartphones and computers. People can instantly communicate with friends, acquaintances, and strangers through social media, regardless of where they are in the world.
It is now able to share photos, videos, and documents on the fly. Email and document scanning apps have replaced traditional methods of sending and receiving materials and data, thus faxing is no longer an option.
Texting is Possible with Mobile Device
Who’d have guessed that phone calls would become obsolete one day? That is exactly what the invention of text messaging has accomplished. A brief, real-time, direct message is now the preferred mode of communication. This form of texting is possible with mobile device plans from cellphones, desktops, tablets, and even watches.
Someone in the 1800s would never expect that one day they would be able to transmit a happy face emoji to someone in another country. modern technology
Whether for the better or for the worst, technological advancements are here to stay. The future looks bright, thanks to its favourable effects across industries. Who knows what the coming year holds, but one thing is certain: technology will be better, faster, and more advanced than it is now. | https://technewsbuddy.com/easy-ways-modern-technology-is-benefiting-the-world/ |
People often use digital devices on the move to:
Find the route using sat nav and Global Positioning System (GPS)
Find the location of cars and vans
Geotag images
Uses of digital devices
Displaying photos using digital photo frames
Reading with ebook
readers
Streaming films
Downloading
music
Playing games
with consoles or on
computers
Taking photos and videos with digital cameras and camcorders
Watching high definition films on blu-ray players
Listening to music and watching films with personal media players
Explain how having access to the
internet can enhance someone's
work life (Three marks)
Keziah uses her smartphone to communicate with her colleauges at work.
State TWO ways that Keziah Might use her smartphone for leisure or travel.
How do digital devices allow us to communicate
SMS
Social networking sites
Instant messaging
MMS
Voice calls
Video calls
emails
(two marks)
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How Last.fm strengthens relationships and creates new ones
One of the big questions raised by social networking sites is what the heck those “friendships” really are. In this paper, written with my former Ph.D. student and now Ohio University professor Andrew Ledbetter, we examine this in the case of Last.fm. Based on a large survey of users, we pose the question of what predicts how strong or well developed Last.fm friendships are.
The short answer is that the best predictor is not shared taste in music (which has no effect on relational development), but how many different ways people communicate with one another. For each medium added, people’s relationships are a little closer. This means that sites like Last.fm can provide pairs with an additional way to maintain and strengthen their relationship that goes over and beyond what they get through email, instant messaging, phone calls and other means of interaction.
On the other hand, the “friendships” that begin via Last.fm don’t go very far, even if shared taste was important to the relationship’s initiation.
Overall, the “friendships” on Last.fm are pretty weak. The notion that shared taste makes people “musical soulmates” makes for good mythology, it seems, but not strong interpersonal connections.
You can download and read the paper here. For reasons I don’t understand, the tables did not get included in this PDF. If you really want to see them, email me.
If you’re in Copenhagen this week for Internet Research 9.0, drop on by and hear this presented live in person. | http://onlinefandom.com/archives/how-lastfm-strengthens-relationships-and-creates-new-ones/index.html |
There are a lot of things you can do on the Internet. The Web, while certainly the most popular, is not the only service the Internet offers, nor was it the first. Tonight's lesson summarizes the various services available on the Internet. Each section includes the protocol used by the service and the most popular or more common software programs which are used to implement the service.
Before we begin, though, some further mention needs to be given to DNS names. As discussed in the previous week's notes, the top-level portion of a DNS name is the LAST little wordlett (.com, .org, etc.). As you progress along the name from right to left, the name becomes more specific.
Thus, www.enol.com indicates that it is a company, named enol, and we are accessing the Web server portion. Likewise mail.codepoet.org is the mail server, and news.codepoet.org is the newsgroup server.
Protocol: SMTP Most popular MTA (Mail Transport Agent): Sendmail
Email was the Internet's first "killer app". It's what got people excited about it and gave them a reason to get on.
As mentioned in the first week of class, the medium of the Internet is flat, ASCII text. Email is no exception. The format of an email message consists of a header and a body. The header contains information about how / where the message was routed, and also contains information about who the message is to, who it is from, the subject of the message, and other items. The body simply contains the text of the message.
One good comparison of an email message would be to an individual TCP packet, which also contains a header and a body.
Protocol: NNTP Most popular Newsgroup server: INN (InterNet News)
One of the shortcomings of Email was that it was difficult to allow large groups of people to communicate/collaborate. To solve this problem, newsgroups were created. Newsgroups were built on the foundation of email, having a similar message format of a header, body, and notably a subject line. Messages are posted in threads: Somebody starts a thread by posting a top-level message and people can post replies to the top-level message, or to other replies.
Newsgroups were the birthplace of the culture of the Internet. Many textual and conversational conventions were born here and are used in nearly every other medium offered on the Internet.
Certain conventions are followed when naming newsgroups. Each newsgroup has a "top-level" category indicated by it's first prefix. Some of the more common ones are:
The little wordletts which follow the first further sub-divide the group into a smaller category.
One of the greatest things about newsgroups is that there's no authentication; anybody that wants to can post a message under any name or pseudoname. One of the worst things about newsgroups is that there's no authentication; anyone can post a message. As more people have gotten onto the Internet, newsgroups have become more and more polluted. There are some moderated newsgroups which are a bit nicer.
The following are terms which describe some people which show up on newsgroups.
Protocol: Also SMTP Most popular List server: Majordomo
Newsgroups have become more polluted in recent years and are a less attractive place for people to go because of it. A new form of collaboration has risen up which also builds on the foundation of email called mailing lists. The advantage to mailing lists is that they can be moderated a bit better, as there is a formal "joining" procedure when you want to join a mailing list. Also, not everyone has access to newsgroups, but most (if not all) people on the Internet have access to email.
Many usenet conventions are used on mailing lists: moderation, killfiles, threads, and the like.
Protocol: IRC (among others) There are a variety of chat programs/servers
One of the features of all of the previously mentioned services is that communication occurs asynchronously via the 'store and forward' approach of message delivery. Chat rooms provide a way for people to communicate in real time with each other. Typically you will connect to an IRC host with an IRC client, select a "channel" that you wish to talk on (similar to newsgroups).
Protocol: ICQ (among others) There are a variety of instant messaging servers/clients
Like newsgroups, Chat rooms can get a little noisy and polluted at times, and so instant messaging has come to pass. Like chat rooms, instant messaging provides a real-time means of communication. Like email, it is a person-to-person arrangement.
Protocol: FTP (also HTTP) Numerous FTP servers exist. wu-ftp and Pro-FTP are fairly common.
One of the oldest uses of the Internet is to transfer files between two locations. Numerous FTP sites can be found all over the world, storing all kinds of different stuff.
One common convention of FTP sites is to have "mirror" sites which contain the same files as the main site. Mirror sites exist to provide more speedy access / download times to people who live in areas which are geographically close to the mirror servers. Mirror sites also serve as "backup" in case the main site has a hard drive crash and loses all its files.
Protocol: HTTP Most popular Web server: Apache Most popular browser: Mozilla
This is perhaps the most popular service of the Internet, rivaled only by email. Prior to the advent of the Web, the Internet was a fairly exclusive place, but with an easy point-and-click interface and images & sounds as well as text, loads of people got onto the Internet.
The following are other services available, but they don't fit neatly into the other categories and aren't as widely used as some of the other services. | http://mark.random-article.com/weber/inet/week3.html |
What is Facebook?
Facebook is a social network that makes it easy for you to connect and share with family and friends over the Internet. Originally designed for college students, Facebook was created in 2004 by Mark Zuckerberg while he was at Harvard University. By the year 2006, anyone over the age of 13 with a valid email address than he/she could join Facebook. Today, Facebook is the largest social network in the world, with more than 1 billion users worldwide.
Why use Facebook?
Have you ever wondered why people like to use Facebook? After all, there are already a lot of other ways to communicate over the Internet, such as email, instant messaging, and so on. What makes Facebook unique in its kind is the ability to connect and share with people who are interested in the same time.
For many, having a Facebook account is now part of the expected entry of the Internet, as is their email address. Because Facebook is so popular, other sites have worked for integration with Facebook. This means that you can use a Facebook account to log in to different services on the Websites. | https://blueadvertiser.com/what-is-facebook-social-media-in-world |
POINT OUT to students that they are all creators. Ask them to think about times they recorded an idea they had – whether they wrote something down, uploaded it onto the Internet, took a picture or video, or made something for class. Now ask them to think about a time when they’ve used things online that others have created, such as copying or downloading something from the Internet. Tell students that they will watch a video about a real girl who is a writer and shares her writing online.
ASK: Why does Nicole want to share her writing online? What are the benefits for her?
She can get feedback on her writing.
She can make a name for herself as a writer.
She can get support from other writers.
ASK: What are the risks of Nicole sharing her writing online?
Someone can steal her writing and say they wrote it.
Someone might use her work but not give her credit.
People might leave mean comments.
REMIND students that once someone records an original idea, it is copyrighted. Copyright is an important law that helps protect the rights of creators so they receive credit and get paid for their work. Most things you find, download, copy and paste from the Internet are copyrighted.
It’s great to be able to use things we find online, but we have to do it responsibly. We have to show our respect for other people’s hard work and creativity by giving credit where credit is due.
DISCUSS some differences between digital media and traditional media, such as TV and radio, and how digital media generally allow people opportunities for interactive communication — for creation and self-expression. Instant Messaging, for instance, is more “two-way,” because people are talking with one another. Media such as TV and radio are generally more “one-way,” because people generally do not interact with one another through these technologies. Innovations in digital media enable us to create, share, and communicate in addition to consuming media.
ASK: What are examples of things you do with one-way media, such as TVs or radios?
ASK: What are some of the ways that people communicate with or share with others over digital media?
ASK: What are some things you learned from the video?
Digital media are a 24/7 part of our culture. | http://tech.gibbonpublic.org/gr-6-8-digital-citizenship.html |
The computer network devices that originate, route, and terminate the data are called network nodes. The nodes can include hosts such as personal computers, telephones, servers and network hardware. It can be said that two devices of this type are networked when a device can exchange information with the other device, whether or not they have direct connection between them.
In most cases, application-specific communication protocols are layered over other more general communication protocols. This formidable collection of information technology requires specialized network management to make everything work reliably.
Computer networks support an enormous amount of applications and services such as access to the World Wide Web, digital video, digital audio, sharing of application servers and storage, printers and fax machines, and use of electronic mail and instant messaging applications. , as well as many others.
Computer networks differ in the means of transmission used to transmit their signals, communication protocols to organize network traffic, network size, topology, the traffic control mechanism and the intention of the organization. The most known computer network is the Internet.
Computer networks can be considered a branch of electrical engineering, electronic engineering, telecommunications, information technology, information technology or computer engineering, since it is based on the theoretical and practical application of the related disciplines.
A computer network facilitates interpersonal communications, which allows users to communicate efficiently and easily through various means: email, instant messaging, online chat, telephone, video calls and video conferencing. A network allows sharing the network and computing resources. Users can access and use resources provided by devices on the network, such as printing a document on a shared network printer or using a shared storage device.
A network allows the sharing of files, data and other types of information that gives authorized users the ability to access information stored on other computers in the network. Distributed computing uses computer resources in a network to perform tasks.
Computer communication links that do not support packets, such as traditional point-to-point telecommunication links, simply transmit data as a bit stream. However, most information on computer networks is carried in packages. A network packet is a formatted data unit carried by a packet switching network. Packages are sent through the network to their destination. Once the packages arrive, they are reassembled in their original message. | https://elmundodeyajirobe.com/hermana-de-luis/ |
Most everyday users of the Internet understand that it provides them with access to searchable information across a public web of data; but how does this information get populated and transmitted through search engines, email clients, web browsers and so on? Enter: IP communication protocols. Following, we’ll look at the types of IP protocols that are used to move information across the Internet, and the way in which they’ve helped modern-day communications to evolve.
Types of Communications Internet Protocols (IP)
In telecommunications, communication protocols are rules that determine the format and transmission of data. These protocols can be implemented via hardware devices, software or both. The most recent protocols are assigned by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) for Internet communications, and the International Telecommunication Union (ITU-T) for telecommunication protocols that run on the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN).
The Internet Protocol (IP) is defined as the protocol for sending data from one computer to another across the Internet, with each computer having at least one IP address that identifies it from all other computers on the Internet. This protocol is used with other protocols within the IP suite, most notable of which include:
- Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – used for data transmission
- User Datagram Protocol (UDP) – used by programs to send short datagram messages
- Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) – messages used for diagnostic or error-generating purposes
- Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) – application protocol that uses hyperlinks between nodes containing text
- Post Office Protocol (POP) – used by local email clients to retrieve email from a remote server over TCP IP
- File Transfer Protocol (FTP) – protocol to transfer computer files from a server to a client and vice versa
- Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) – a communication protocol used by email clients to retrieve messages from a mail server over TCP IP
IP Communication occurs as a connectionless protocol, meaning there is no static or continuous connection between endpoints along the communication route. Each unique packet that travels across the Internet is independent of the others and gets put in its proper order using TCP, a connection-oriented protocol that keeps track of putting the packets in the correct order or sequence.
TCP IP
TCP is one of the primary protocols of the Internet Protocol suite. It works with and complements IP, which is why the two are often paired together as TCP IP. TCP IP is the most widely used communications protocol. It prepares and forwards data packets across a network such as Ethernet. It was developed in the 1970s by the US Department of Defense and created by Vinton Cerf and Bob Kahn. TCP IP is used as the standard for all local area and wide area networks (LANs and WANs).
Telecommunications Networks
Telecommunications networks use these Internet Protocols to transfer data back and forth between terminals. These networks consist of terminal nodes that are linked together to enable telecommunication between the terminals. The transmission links connect the nodes together using circuit switching, message switching or packet switching to pass the signal through the proper links and nodes so that it reaches the correct destination terminal. Each network terminal has its own unique address so that connections can easily be routed to the correct destination. This group of network addresses, or address spaces, contains a range of valid addresses located in system memory (physical or virtual) available for a program or process to use. Types of telecommunication networks can include: computer networks – LANs or WANs; the Internet; telephone networks and so on.
Cisco IP Communications & Enterprise Communication
Simple telephone networks have evolved over the years into VoIP networks, and now VoIP networks are progressing into integrated communications services for enterprises. Enterprise communication is now handled by technologies that merge telephone and data networks. Unified Communications (UC) is the current foundation of mainstream enterprise communication, making it easier than ever for employees to connect, communicate and collaborate together.
Unified Communications, operating across the IP Communication protocol VoIP, integrate real-time network communication services like conferencing, instant messaging, presence, video and voice with services such as email, texting and voicemail. UC is also available through service providers as Unified Communications-as-a-Service (UCaaS). UCaaS provides great benefits to companies, like improved workplace collaboration resulting in enhanced efficiency. Organizations also have access to a wide variety of productivity apps and tools through a UCaaS services provider, which can integrate with other office software and services. UCaaS is very scalable and flexible, allowing enterprises to select only the products and services they require, at the quantity needed.
Cisco, a leading UCaaS provider in the telecommunications and networking industry, offers a comprehensive IP communications tool that provides a wide-range of communication options for enterprises. Cisco Webex Teams combines voice and video calling with enhanced features like call control, directory services and scheduling capabilities. It essentially acts as a continuous virtual environment where a user can switch between audio, video and web meetings, as well as from chat to content sharing and messaging. The hybrid version of Webex Teams joins with Intrado's VoiceMaxx CE – enterprise UCaaS including Cisco’s Hosted Collaboration Solution (HCS) – for a complete enterprise communications solution.
Enterprise users of Cisco Teams Hybrid are able to access anyone, almost anywhere, regardless of application or device they are using. They can switch calls between cell phones and desk phones, schedule meetings through email clients, host Webex meetings and create Teams Rooms for all meeting attendees - so they can collaborate before and after meetings. And corporate contacts are always reachable with an interface that syncs Active Directory to the cloud.
Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) of Managed IP (Unified Communications)
Managed IP and Unified Communications help enterprises to reduce overall IT costs to businesses, greatly increasing the efficiency and productivity of its workforce. Capital expenditures are lowered, as fewer hardware devices are required in the onsite network infrastructure. Support costs drop, as less onsite support staff is required. Maintenance, repair, and upgrades are simply part of the service provider’s Service Level Agreement (SLA) and support contract. Managed IP and UCaaS also lower travel and general operational costs. The UC products and services offered by the provider allow collaboration to take place across offices and across the globe, even simulating face-to-face meetings or hallway conversations. The cost of security infiltrations are also reduced with managed IP and UCaaS, since continuous monitoring and filtering takes place on the organization’s network, with the latest and greatest security protocols and measures deployed.
Intrado can help grow your business through advanced managed IP communication products and services. Contact us today to see what our industry-leading UCaaS solutions can do to enhance communications in your enterprise today. | https://www.intrado.com/en/blog/enterprise-collaboration/ip-communication-protocols-101 |
Table of Contents
Technology has given people more ways to connect, but has it also given them more opportunities to lie?
You might text your friend a white lie to get out of going to dinner, exaggerate your height on a dating profile to appear more attractive or invent an excuse to your boss over email to save face.
Social psychologists and communication scholars have long wondered not just who lies the most, but where people tend to lie the most – that is, in person or through some other communication medium.
A seminal 2004 study was among the first to investigate the connection between deception rates and technology. Since then, the ways we communicate have shifted – fewer phone calls and more social media messaging, for example – and I wanted to see how well earlier results held up.
The link between deception and technology
Back in 2004, communication researcher Jeff Hancock and his colleagues had 28 students report the number of social interactions they had via face-to-face communication, the phone, instant messaging and email over seven days. Students also reported the number of times they lied in each social interaction.
The results suggested people told the most lies per social interaction on the phone. The fewest were told via email.
The findings aligned with a framework Hancock called the “feature-based model.” According to this model, specific aspects of a technology – whether people can communicate back and forth seamlessly, whether the messages are fleeting and whether communicators are distant – predict where people tend to lie the most.
In Hancock’s study, the most lies per social interaction occurred via the technology with all of these features: the phone. The fewest occurred on email, where people couldn’t communicate synchronously and the messages were recorded.
The Hancock Study, revisited
When Hancock conducted his study, only students at a few select universities could create a Facebook account. The iPhone was in its early stages of development, a highly confidential project nicknamed “Project Purple.”
What would his results look like nearly 20 years later?
In a new study, I recruited a larger group of participants and studied interactions from more forms of technology. A total of 250 people recorded their social interactions and number of interactions with a lie over seven days, across face-to-face communication, social media, the phone, texting, video chat and email.
As in Hancock’s study, people told the most lies per social interaction over media that were synchronous and recordless and when communicators were distant: over the phone or on video chat. They told the fewest lies per social interaction via email. Interestingly, though, the differences across the forms of communication were small. Differences among participants – how much people varied in their lying tendencies – were more predictive of deception rates than differences among media.
Despite changes in the way people communicate over the past two decades – along with ways the COVID-19 pandemic changed how people socialize – people seem to lie systematically and in alignment with the feature-based model.
There are several possible explanations for these results, though more work is needed to understand exactly why different media lead to different lying rates. It’s possible that certain media are better facilitators of deception than others. Some media – the phone, video chat – might make deception feel easier or less costly to a social relationship if caught.
Deception rates might also differ across technology because people use some forms of technology for certain social relationships. For example, people might only email their professional colleagues, while video chat might be a better fit for more personal relationships.
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Technology misunderstood
To me, there are two key takeaways.
First, there are, overall, small differences in lying rates across media. An individual’s tendency to lie matters more than whether someone is emailing or talking on the phone.
Second, there’s a low rate of lying across the board. Most people are honest – a premise consistent with truth-default theory, which suggests most people report being honest most of the time and there are only a few prolific liars in a population.
Since 2004, social media have become a primary place for interacting with other people. Yet a common misperception persists that communicating online or via technology, as opposed to in person, leads to social interactions that are lower in quantity and quality.
People often believe that just because we use technology to interact, honesty is harder to come by and users aren’t well served.
Not only is this perception misguided, but it is also unsupported by empirical evidence. The belief that lying is rampant in the digital age just doesn’t match the data. | https://krescendobklyn.com/are-people-lying-more-since-the-rise-of-social-media-and-smartphones/?amp=1 |
In case you missed it, two weeks ago I posted that I will be teaching a parent workshop on November 6 about Facebook, Myspace, YouTube, Instant Messenger, World of Warcraft and various other popular Internet hang-outs for teenagers. There’s been enough response from you guys saying you’d like to participate in something like this that some of my youth staff and myself decided to stream the event LIVE online for anyone in the general public who wishes to participate. Here’s the direct link to where you can watch it on Ustream.tv. You’ll have to register for the site in order to take part in the chat room next to the live feed, which might be worth it since I plan to take a couple questions from Internet viewers. After general questions are answered, we plan to cut the feed in order to give privacy to our parents who may wish to ask more personal questions about their kids.
The workshop starts at 7:00 PM central time on Tuesday, November 6, 2007. If you can’t make time for the live event, Ustream.tv will also archive the video, so you can watch it later at that same address.
Here’s my tentative general outline for the meeting so far. Any input, suggestions, comments or ideas?
Overview
- Teen usage of the Internet
- Misconceptions
- Sexual victimization
- Cyber bullying
- How home life affects Internet life
- Statistics
Introduction to social networking sites
- What is a social networking site?
- MySpace demo
- Facebook demo
- Deviant Art demo
Introduction to media sites
- How broadband has changed the Internet
- YouTube demo
- Flickr demo
Introduction to Instant Messenger
- What is Instant Messenger?
- AIM demo
- MSN demo
- Yahoo! demo
- Trillian demo
Introduction to blogs
- What is a blog?
- Facebook/MySpace
- Live Journal demo
- Xanga demo
- Blogger/Wordpress demo
Introduction to MMORPGs
- What is an MMORPG?
- Why are they so addicting?
- What is the spiritual influence?
- What’s good about them? What’s bad about them?
- How much time is too much?
- World of Warcraft demo
Potential upcoming social sites
- Twitter demo
- Virb demo
- Ustream.tv demo
What happened to email?
- Why kids don’t use email to communicate with each other.
- How kids communicate now and why: PM, SMS, IM
Tips for the home: What should we do with this info?
- Strategic computer placement
- Communicate with your teen
- Learn from your kids
- Search Google
- Learn from their history
- Your relationship makes all the difference
- Shoulder surfing
- A better solution than monitoring software
- Join your kids!
General Q&A for Tim and a panel of students
Specific family Q&A (cut the live feed)
Here’s the promo video I made that will run in church services and be sent around online in various ways. Feel free to share it with others and tell people to watch the event on Ustream.tv on November 6 at 7:00 PM central time. | http://www.studentministry.org/watch-teen-internet-workshop-live-on-ustreamtv/ |
Naturally, you cannot complete any work without collaboration, whether it’s completing any project or starting up a new venture. While working on any project or venture, a single person can’t do everything.
He will probably need to consult his colleagues and collaborate with them as and when needed. Employees often collaborate with their colleagues in the same office or remote locations.
Table of Contents
Challenge of collaboration
To complete a project or task, human resources can be pooled from different locations, and it might not be possible for them to travel to the head office. They may stay at their bases and collaborate to give shape to any idea. Now, there lies the challenge.
A person sitting in Sydney has to work with another team who is working in London. Earlier it took hours to communicate with other people, which led to unnecessary delays! However, now as collaboration is much easier, thanks to the latest technology, one can share files, make audio or video calls, or arrange conferences within a few minutes. Even communication with remote workers is now easy, and employees or teams from different offices can work together.
Let’s find out how.
Popular collaboration tools:
Dropbox
One of the best tools that assist the most in collaboration is Dropbox. This software allows employees to access their documents, articles, and files from anywhere, anytime.
This is very useful as it let you share your files with other members of your team easily. When you create shared folders, those folders will appear on the computer of every member. Anyone who has the right to access those files can access those files from their own computer.
It’s so simple that you copy a file on your computer, put in the file you want to share, and share it with others. It’s that simple. You do not need an intranet or any other network for sharing your files with other relevant people around the globe.
Skype
Another best way to communicate with others sitting on another side of the globe is Skype. It allows video conference, and while working on any project, if you feel that you need to communicate with other members, just call them on Skype. It will be great to face an interview while the interviewer is sitting somewhere else in the country or the world!
Trello
This software is very helpful in managing the progress of your project. This card-based system enables you to create custom columns, like “in-progress” “to-do lists” that can be used by you to organize tasks assigned to every individual. After you mention the tasks, it will be added as a small card to the column.
Set a due date or write comments to know their status and work according to the scheduled work. It’s simple, and the app runs on tablets, mobiles, everything. So, a great thing that makes collaboration easier.
Many other ways have made collaboration easy nowadays. Instant messaging is worth mentioning here as you can communicate with anybody anywhere in the world with it. It takes a few seconds to share things and discuss matters with the help of various instant messaging.
Even companies to make collaboration easier within their company have made company wikis and chats that make it possible for employees to get connected and know what their counterpart thinks about any project or how are they proceeding with the project. So, when technology is by your side, only one thing can be said, Happy Collaborating! | https://wittysparks.com/how-collaboration-is-made-easier-nowadays/ |
26 Ways Your Company Can be More Productive When Working Remotely
At Staff.com and Time Doctor all of our 52 employees work remotely (from home) in 9 different countries. I have been working completely remotely now for over 6 years. When done right, remote work can be very productive, but many companies find it hard to manage or work with people who aren’t sitting with them in an office.
Here are some tips based on my experience and our collective experience as a company on how to make it work.
1. Over-communicate (compensate for the lack of face-to-face)
People working in a office tend to bump into each other and are more likely to communicate often because they’re constantly seeing each other.
When working remotely you don’t see your co-workers, which makes it easier to forget about them, and to forget to communicate. Out of sight, out of mind. This solitude has benefits in that there are less distractions and “got a minute” meetings, but it can lead to a culture with too little communication. So you need to over communicate to compensate for the fact that you’re not naturally bumping into each other in the office.
Let’s take a look at some of the ways you can communicate more effectively when working remotely…
2. 10-minute daily voice meetings for each team
Each team within our company has a daily meeting using Skype voice chat. These meetings help everyone to feel connected with their team, and to understand what the others are working on.
Our daily meetings usually happen at the start of each day, This helps everyone to stay disciplined with their work hours, facilitate more communication throughout the day since team members are working during similar hours.
The structure of the meetings is simple: Each team member briefly states their answer to these two questions:
“What are the top 1-3 tasks you’re working on today?”
“Is there anything preventing you from finishing these tasks?”
In our larger teams we’ve cut this down to just one question:
“Do you have any problems with your tasks is anything that preventing you from accomplishing your current tasks?”
We also mix it up a little by having one meeting each week focus on ideas for improvement in the company and our products.
In our team we use Skype for the daily meetings, but you can also use Google hangouts or a conference line or any other voice chat application.
3. Use instant messaging for constant communication throughout the day
Instant text messaging is a way to constantly keep in contact with your team, and can be less disruptive and easier to coordinate than a voice call.
Here are some options:
|Price||Platform||Features|
|Skype||Freemium||Win, Mac OS, Lin, iOS, Android||Text Chat, Voice Chat, Voice Calls, File Sharing, Screen Sharing, Desktop and Mobile client|
|Google Hangout||Freemium||Win, Mac OS, Lin, iOS, Android||Text Chat, Video Conference, Screen Sharing,|
|Sococo||Paid Plans||Win, Mac OS, Lin, iOS, Android||Text Chat, Voice Chat, Video Conference, Multi Screen Sharing, Virtual Rooms|
|Hipchat||Paid Plans||Win, Mac OS, Lin, iOS, Android||Text Chat, Voice Chat, Screen Sharing, File Sharing|
4. Consider using video technology that tries to replicate an in-person experience
- Sqwiggle.com – Shows video snapshots of each person as they are working through the day and then click to start instantly chatting.
- Perch.co – This is a video technology that enables you to start talking with a remote person instantly when you look at the camera. The app knows if you are looking at it and will turn voice controls on automatically.
We do not use these technologies at Staff.com because we find that they do not work with some of our team members who have a slow Internet connection, but if you have fast enough Internet connection with all of your team members it might be worth trying them.
5. Use Skype and other instant messaging EFFICIENTLY
Instant messaging can become very unproductive. We have a whole article on how to improve your productivity on Skype here, but here are some tips:
- Remove distracting elements (such as audio notifications when your contacts come online).
- Have a policy in your company of sending complete Skype messages in one go rather than saying “Hi…” and then waiting for a response before sending more little snippets.
- Create an ongoing Skype group chat for each team in your company. For example if you have a development team, create a Skype group containing those developers and “set the name” of the group to something like “Development Chat”. In Skype you can also set certain groups or individual contacts as “favorites” so that they appear at the top of your list and are easier to contact.
6. Train your team on efficient email communication
Emails can quickly swallow up a large percentage of the day unless you provide some basic training in email productivity. Here are a few important strategies for improving your productivity with emails:
- Keep emails short and to the point. If possible finish every email in 3 sentences or less.
- Make sure that every email ends with a next step or action point.
- Do not check emails multiple times throughout the day. Doing so will impair your focus and momentum with your work, and also decreases your productivity in processing your emails. It’s far more effective to take 15 or 30 minutes and deal with all of your emails in one go.
- Process each email within 2 minutes. Either archive it, action it quickly, respond or put it on your to do list (and then archive it). This way you can work towards the ultimate email productivity goal which is “In-box zero”. This means you have zero emails in your email In-box. The problem with having hundreds of emails in your inbox is that you’re constantly distracted by old emails that you haven’t quite finished dealing with, and in some cases you go back to the same email multiple times deciding again and again to deal with it later, each time adding to your mental anxiety about how much you have to do and also wasting your time.
- Don’t use your email list as a to-do list. This is part of the principle of making sure that you get to In-box zero. The problem with using your emails as a to-do list is that you are not properly prioritizing your to-dos. Prioritization is a critical component of productivity.
7. Select the appropriate communication style for the issue you’re dealing with
Some types of communication are great for some purposes but terrible for others. Here are some guidelines to follow:
- For delivering a specific non-emotional message, use email.
- For assigning work, use task or project management software designed specifically for that purpose (some options are Asana, Basecamp, and JIRA)
- For back & forth group discussion about complex topics, use voice calls or software with discussion threads like Basecamp.
- For simple quick back & forth conversation (especially with groups) use IM software like Skype
- For emotional topics always use voice or video calls.
8. Save up discussion topics for a weekly meeting
Often voice calls are faster than written communication, and one weekly voice meeting is more efficient than multiple short voice calls or emails. I suggest a weekly voice or video meeting for each team (longer than the daily team meetings discussed above). Any issue that can wait a few days should be saved for this meeting.
9. Use project management software effectively in your business
If you find that you’re emailing team members asking them to do things, you should consider switching to using some type of project or task management software. This is a way to easily assign tasks and track their progress. Also you can use this type of software to keep written discussions organized effectively.
Asana is great for task management and is free for up to 15 users. There are also many other great options such as Basecamp, Teamwork, Podio and others.
If you’ve never used project management software before it will require a bit of getting used to. At first you may need to constantly remind your staff to use the software instead of email, but once they get used to it everyone will likely find it invaluable for keeping tasks and discussions organized.
10. Use Google Docs
Google Docs (available on Google Drive) are great for remote teams because you can have multiple people collaborating on the same document. We use Google Docs for all sorts of purposes such as:
- A checklist of what to do when hiring a new staff member
- Brainstorming ideas
- Tracking daily or weekly goals
11. Set an exact start time for every meeting
If you’re running your business on daily and weekly meetings it becomes a complete mess if the start time of meetings is erratic. You’ve got to be totally consistent and insist that all of your team members are present at the start of the meeting.
12. Create a specific written system for every repeatable aspect of your business
Most businesses should have their systems documented. This is especially important for remote businesses where it’s not as easy for staff to know what process to follow by simply asking the person next to them.
For example, there may be a set of steps that your developers need to follow each time you release a new version of your website. Having those steps documented in a central location that everyone has access to will help ensure that everyone follows them correctly.
It takes time to write down these systems initially, but saves time & errors in the long run. When you first start documenting your systems, don’t try to IMPROVE the processes that your staff are currently following. Simply write down the processes as they are currently being done. Once your current systems are documented, then you can work on gradually improving them over time.
13. Turn off all distracting notifications on the computer
Each notification or alert will distract you for a second or two and this time adds up. The notifications interrupt your workflow and make it hard to stay focused. Some notifications to eliminate include email alerts and alerts when your contacts come online on Skype or other instant messaging software.
14. Track and verify time worked and attendance
In an office environment you have a general sense of when people come into the office, when they start working, how long they have worked etc. If you’re working in a remote team you don’t have the same visibility of when people are working.
There is software available that can track when remote employees are working & what they’re doing. This type of software is a bit controversial because some people argue that you should give people the freedom to work whatever hours they want, and trust that the work will get done without tracking hours worked. I do believe in trusting your team, but I also believe that measuring where you spend your time and measuring where your team spends their time is very helpful for improving productivity.
Time tracking software can allow you to:
- Measure the activities of you and your team and use this information to examine processes in your business, where time is spent and how time could be spent more productively.
- Track work time and attendance.
- Minimize distractions on the computer and monitor distracting websites.
- Know that your team members are working when they say they are
We created our own software for this purpose which is available at www.timedoctor.com
The software also helps individuals to track and improve their own productivity by being aware of exactly where they are spending their time.
If you think about it almost every business monitors and tracks where they spend their money, but I believe that where time is spent in the business is even more important than where money is spent. So I consider time-use analytics software to be critical for most businesses, especially those with remote teams.
15. Have employees send their managers a list of what they accomplished each day
Employees can do this manually, or you can use software (such as www.timedoctor.com) that will send this information out by email automatically at the end of each day.
16. Use a screen capture tool for visual communication
If you’re standing next to someone you can point at your screen and explain your point with the visual reference of your computer screen. If you are working remotely you need a software tool to help explain what you are talking about. Picture & videos can be worth a thousand words.
Here is an example of a screen-capture image with comments added:
Screen capture software can also be used to record videos of your screen, including your voice as you explain what you’re doing.
The software that we use to capture & share images & videos is Jing, which free. Snagit is a similar paid tool from the same company. The great thing about Jing is that it’s super-simple to create, upload and share the images.
17. Use screen-sharing software and remote-control software
Another way that you can communicate visually is with both people present at the same time sharing your computer screen. You can also use this type of technology for remote-control of another person’s computer screen. This is especially useful if you need someone in your team to provide remote technical support.
There are plenty of free tools you can use for this including:
- Join.me
- Skype (which has screen sharing capability)
- Google Hangouts
- TeamViewer.com (for remote desktop control)
At Staff.com, with 52 people working remotely in our company, we don’t use these tools as much as you might think. The reason is that can be difficult to coordinate a time for a screen-sharing meeting. It usually feels easier to record a video that you can then send to the other person and they can watch at their convenience.
Obviously that does not work in all cases and the screen sharing tools are necessary at times, such as when back and forth conversation or remote control are needed.
18. Set a weekly “rock” task for people in management roles
For management teams and project managers we’ve experimented with several methods of setting and reporting on goals and tasks.
My experience is that simplifying your reporting to focus on less tasks is more powerful. If each person focuses on the top most important task to accomplish for the week and reports back on this one task it keeps the team moving forward in the most important areas. It’s also hard to come up with an excuse of why you didn’t achieve your ONE task for the week. Of course it doesn’t mean that each person has only one task, it just means that as a structure for weekly reporting, you only report back on the highest priority task for the week.
19. Track daily productivity goals for people with repetitive tasks
Some team members might primarily work on repetitive tasks such as data entry. This type of work can get a little boring over time so it helps to set clear achievable targets for the amount of work done each day, and have a reporting structure for measuring work output (and also evaluating the quality of the work).
The overall idea with tracking productivity and work output is to tailor the reporting structure for the type of work. My experience is that for repetitive tasks it’s better to have a daily reporting structure to keep on top of the work output.
People who are involved in more complex project based work, reporting back weekly might make more sense. For project based work where tasks and projects are constantly changing, it also makes sense to keep track of the tasks in a project management system such as Asana.
20. Keep track of work environments when team members are working from home
Working from home can be more productive than an office. There can be less distractions, more time to focus, less travel time and many other advantages. However if someone’s work environment at home is problematic (for example, if they are trying to look after children while working) their productivity can suffer massively. I know from my own experience that trying to look after a young child while working at home is almost impossible.
Employees may try to hide the extent to which their home environment is affecting their work. Try to make sure that everyone on your team who works from home:
- Has a separate space where no-one is around them when working and they are not disturbed.
- Does not have young children at home when they are working, or if there are children at home, there is a full time care-giver looking after the children during all work hours.
You might need to check with each team member and dig into their situation so you know whether their working environment is productive.
If someone’s home environment isn’t conducive to work, consider alternative ways of working remotely such as working at a co-working space.
21. Have at least 2 large screens attached to your computer
This is a basic way to improve productivity for almost all knowledge workers. Bill Gates explained how his productivity increased significantly going from two screens to three! The minimum should be 2 screens. This can to be something that is goes unnoticed when working remotely.
22. Keep some degree of regular work hours
One of the major benefits of remote work is flexible working hours. If a team member has a dentist appointment during the day, they can go to the appointment and make up the time in the evening or on the weekend. However if working hours get too erratic, productivity can suffer along with work-life balance. Another benefit of regular work hours is that it allows for planned cross-over time, covered on the next point…
23. Make sure you have adequate cross-over time within each team
It’s great to have some time when your team is working all at the same time so that you know you are all present and able to communicate effectively. I believe you should have a period of at least three hours per day when everyone is working. You can start your daily voice meeting at the beginning of this cross-over time to keep everyone coordinated.
This is also one of the purposes of having a daily voice meeting; to make sure that everyone is present and ready for the next three hours where they’re able to communicate and collaborate as a team.
Our experience is that this crossover time is easy to coordinate when employees are working across two time zones, but becomes a nightmare when people are working in three major time zones. This means that it’s okay to have a team with people in say, North America and Europe, or Europe and Asia.
But communication starts to break down when the team is spread across North America, Europe AND Asia, for example as this would mean that the crossover time would be very early in the morning (2am probably) for some and this is unlikely to be sustainable long-term.
24. Meet in person (if possible)
Technology can solve most of the communication & productivity concerns that people have about remote work.
However there’s one major issue with remote work that technology can’t fully solve. It’s that as human beings we’re designed for real-life socializing and human contact. It’s in our biology to want to be around with friends and colleagues in person. It’s also hard to develop deep friendship with someone you never met in person.
The ideal situation I believe would be to meet regularly, if you live in the same city or area. If that is not possible, then traveling to meet together once or twice a year is an alternative.
25. Ensure that your team members are not feeling isolated
Many people love working from home but it does not work for everyone. My experience is that some people can become too socially isolated, especially if they’re living alone and aren’t particularly social. These people can feel initially like they want to work from home, and they can be productive but over time they can grow more socially isolated and deeply unhappy as a result.
In our company, only a small minority of people have had this issue but it’s still important to consider. Working from home really is not for everyone, and it can be an issue for people that are not social enough outside of their work lives. One way to overcome this issue is for people to work in a co-working space rather than from home.
26. Make an effort to socialize and connect on a personal level
Even when working remotely you can socialize and communicate on a personal level. At Staff.com we have a “chill room” on Skype where everyone can communicate about anything at all, the weather, the latest earthquake in the Philippines or crack a joke. It gives us a sense of being all one company and some sense of being connected.
Another thing we do is a monthly games night with the hours counting towards monthly work hours. We play pictionary games or first person shooters, have some fun and get to know each other a bit more on a personal level.
About the Author:
Rob Rawson is a co-founder of Staff.com, a global recruitment platform where you can access very talented staff at affordable rates. They also have a technology called Time Doctor which is software to improve productivity and help keep track and know what your team is working on, even when working from home.
Rob resides in Sydney, Australia but can also be found in major cities around the globe, like Paris, Kiev or San Francisco.
Find Rob on Google Plus
2 Comments
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My Screen Recorder is a better screen recording software. It records your screen and audio from the speakers or your voice from the microphone – or both simultaneously. The recordings are clear and look great when played back on your PC or uploaded to YouTube. It will record directly to standard compressed format that works with any video editor or any tool, no conversion required.
http://www.deskshare.com/screen-recorder.aspx
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Really good post! Can easily make out the effort that has gone behind it.
Since you talked about working remotely, I’d like to add that sales and support agents can easily work remotely when it comes to using a live chat software like 1click.io ! With live video and voice chats, talking to your customers online has become a lot more easier and simpler.
Hope I could contribute to your post! | https://blog.staff.com/26-ways-your-company-can-be-more-productive-when-working-remotely/ |
Once you deploy the first version of your product is when you really start working on it since you will start understanding better your users and their real needs.
End-to-end workflow for training, evaluation and deploying models.
Firstly, it is crucial to understand that your data will keep growing over time, and the sooner you can feed it back to your system, the better your model will generalize to your problem domain.
Once you move on to train models, try to keep your system
simple
:
Start with
light models
,
small architectures
so they can be easily debugged, e.g.
MobileNet
for visual classification tasks.
Take a
small sample of your dataset
that you are certain that is properly curated.
Try approaches that
have worked for others
, e.g. for convolutional networks, use ReLU activation functions; or for LSTM models, TanH activation.
Normalize
your data before feeding it to the model.
For class imbalance problems, start with a
balanced subset, so
so you can skip weighting your loss function.
Keep the
number of classes fixed
, so you can guarantee a fair comparison between models.
Debugging
Before evaluating your model, it is highly recommended
debugging
your system to make sure that the model is not
overfitting
to your training data, making sure your experiments are
reproducible
(using seed values can help the debugging process),
compare
similar architectures trained on the same data with small variations to the hyper-parameter values, or take
third-party models
from frameworks like Keras that they most of the time guarantee correct functionality.
Unit tests
are strongly suggested to be included in your code pipeline.
In order to guarantee a fair evaluation, validation techniques like
cross-validation
are commonly used. A recommended practice is to
benchmark
your solution to others like challenges or public test sets.
In order to
improve
the performance of baseline solutions, more
complex architectures
can be proposed to overcome under-fitting, or
data augmentation
and/or
regularization
techniques can help with overfitting problems. Playing with a range of different
hyperparameter values
can also benefit the training process. Some frameworks like Keras provide features like
Keras Tuner
to enable the search of the
best
hyperparameter values.
Deployment
Once you are satisfied with the performance of your model, your prediction system is ready to be deployed into the serving system. ML engineers usually work with a combination of
Docker
for local development, shipping code, and deploying operations, and
Kubernetes
to automate container orchestration systems. The final solution can be presented as a
web interface
or as a
REST API
service, applying inference using CPU or GPU depending on the computational demand. | https://course.productize.ml/productize-it/train-evaluate-deploy |
Briefly: A technique to prevent overfitting -and reduce variance-
In over-fitting situation, our model tries to learn too well the details and the noise from the training data, which ultimately results in poor performance on the unseen data (test set).
The following graph describes better:
It is a technique which makes slight modifications to the learning algorithm such that the model generalizes better. This in turn improves the model’s performance on the unseen data as well.
The most common type of regularization, given by following formula:
Here, lambda is the regularization parameter. It is the hyperparameter whose value is optimized for better results. L2 regularization is also known as weight decay as it forces the weights to decay towards zero (but not exactly zero)
Another regularization method by eliminating some neurons in a specific ratio randomly
Simply: For each node of probability p, don’t update its input or output weights during backpropagation (Just drop it 😅)
Better visualiztion:
An NN before and after dropout
It is commonly used in computer vision, but its downside is that Cost function J is no longer well defined
The simplest way to reduce overfitting is to increase the size of the training data, it is not always possible since getting more data is too costly, but sometimes we can increase our data based on our data, for example:
Doing transformations on images can maximize our data set
It is a kind of cross-validation strategy where we keep one part of the training set as the validation set. When we see that the performance on the validation set is getting worse, we immediately stop the training on the model. This is known as early stopping. | https://dl.asmaamir.com/0-nnconcepts/6-regularization |
Dropout Regularization in Deep Learning
This article was published as a part of the Data Science Blogathon.
Introduction
When you go out to buy a shirt for yourself, you will not buy something which is very fit for your body because then if you eat pizza or biryani and if you become fat it will not be convenient you will not buy something that is very loose because then it looks like a cloth hanging on a skeleton, you will try to buy a right fit for your body the problem of overfitting and underfitting happening in the machine learning project as well, and there are techniques to tackle this overfitting and under fitting issue and these techniques are called regularization techniques.
In the below image, we are applying a dropout on the second hidden layer of a neuron network.
What’s Dropout?
In machine learning, “dropout” refers to the practice of disregarding certain nodes in a layer at random during training. A dropout is a regularization approach that prevents overfitting by ensuring that no units are codependent with one another.
Dropout Regularization
When you have training data, if you try to train your model too much, it might overfit, and when you get the actual test data for making predictions, it will not probably perform well. Dropout regularization is one technique used to tackle overfitting problems in deep learning.
That’s what we are going to look into in this blog, and we’ll go over some theories first, and then we’ll write python code using TensorFlow, and we’ll see how adding a dropout layer increases the performance of your neural network.
Training with Drop-Out Layers
Dropout is a regularization method approximating concurrent training of many neural networks with various designs. During training, some layer outputs are ignored or dropped at random. This makes the layer appear and is regarded as having a different number of nodes and connectedness to the preceding layer. In practice, each layer update during training is carried out with a different perspective of the specified layer. Dropout makes the training process noisy, requiring nodes within a layer to take on more or less responsible for the inputs on a probabilistic basis.
According to this conception, dropout may break apart circumstances in which network tiers co-adapt to fix mistakes committed by prior layers, making the model more robust. Dropout is implemented per layer in a neural network. It works with the vast majority of layers, including dense, fully connected, convolutional, and recurrent layers such as the long short-term memory network layer. Dropout can occur on any or all of the network’s hidden layers as well as the visible or input layer. It is not used on the output layer.
Dropout Implementation
Using the torch. nn, you can easily add a dropout to your PyTorch models. The dropout class accepts the dropout rate (the likelihood of a neuron being deactivated) as a parameter.
self.dropout = nn.Dropout(0.25)
Dropout can be used after any non-output layer.
To investigate the impact of dropout, train an image classification model. I’ll start with an unregularized network and then use Dropout to train a regularised network. The Cifar-10 dataset is used to train the models over 15 epochs.
A complete example of introducing dropout to a PyTorch model is provided.
class Net(nn.Module): def __init__(self, input_shape=(3,32,32)): super(Net, self).__init__() self.conv1 = nn.Conv2d(3, 32, 3) self.conv2 = nn.Conv2d(32, 64, 3) self.conv3 = nn.Conv2d(64, 128, 3) self.pool = nn.MaxPool2d(2,2) n_size = self._get_conv_output(input_shape) self.fc1 = nn.Linear(n_size, 512) self.fc2 = nn.Linear(512, 10) self.dropout = nn.Dropout(0.25) def forward(self, x): x = self._forward_features(x) x = x.view(x.size(0), -1) x = self.dropout(x) x = F.relu(self.fc1(x)) # Apply dropout x = self.dropout(x) x = self.fc2(x) return x
An unregularized network overfits instantly on the training dataset. Take note of how the validation loss for the no-dropout run diverges dramatically after only a few epochs. This explains why the generalization error has grown.
Overfitting is avoided by training with two dropout layers and a dropout probability of 25%. However, this affects training accuracy, necessitating the training of a regularised network over a longer period.
Leaving improves model generalisation. Although the training accuracy is lower than that of the unregularized network, the total validation accuracy has improved. This explains why the generalization error has decreased.
Why will dropout help with overfitting?
- It can’t rely on one input as it might be randomly dropped out.
- Neurons will not learn redundant details of inputs
Other Popular Regularization Techniques
When combating overfitting, dropping out is far from the only choice. Regularization techniques commonly used include:
Early stopping: automatically terminates training when a performance measure (e.g., validation loss, accuracy) ceases to improve.
Weight decay: add a penalty to the loss function to motivate the network to utilize lesser weights.
Noise: Allow some random variations in the data through augmentation to create noise (which makes the network robust to a larger distribution of inputs and hence improves generalization).
Model Combination: the outputs of separately trained neural networks are averaged (which requires a lot of computational power, data, and time).
Dropout Regularization Hyperparameters
A big decaying learning rate and a high momentum are two hyperparameter values that have been discovered to function well with dropout regularisation. Limiting our weight vectors using dropout allows us to employ a high learning rate without fear of the weights blowing up. Dropout noise, along with our big decaying learning rate, allows us to explore alternative areas of our loss function and, hopefully, reach a better minimum.
The Drawbacks of Dropout
Although dropout is a potent tool, it has certain downsides. A dropout network may take 2-3 times longer to train than a normal network. Finding a regularizer virtually comparable to a dropout layer is one method to reap the benefits of dropout without slowing down training. This regularizer is a modified variant of L2 regularisation for linear regression. An analogous regularizer for more complex models has yet to be discovered until that time when doubt drops out.
Conclusion
Computer vision systems usually never have enough training data; dropout is extremely common in computer vision applications. Convolutional neural networks are computer vision’s most widely used deep learning models. Dropout, on the other hand, is not particularly useful on convolutional layers. This is because dropout tries to increase robustness by making neurons redundant. Without relying on single neurons, a model should learn parameters. This is very helpful if your layer has a lot of parameters.
Key Takeaways :
-
As a result, dropout layers in convolutional neural networks are often found after fully connected layers but not after convolutional layers.
- Other regularising techniques, such as batch normalization in convolutional networks, have largely overtaken dropout in recent years.
- Because convolutional layers have fewer parameters, they necessitate less regularisation.
Thanks for reading!
The media shown in this article is not owned by Analytics Vidhya and is used at the Author’s discretion. | https://www.analyticsvidhya.com/blog/2022/08/dropout-regularization-in-deep-learning/ |
I'm confused as to how feature selection and hyperparameter tuning work in a supervised setting with the DataRobot Platform. As a data scientist, I've recently encountered issues trying to split a dataset into (train-validation-test) and using these splits to run feature selection and hyperparameter tuning. If I use my validation set to test my feature selection methods to pick my best features, then can I use the same validation set to tweak my hyperparameters. To explain further, after I pick my best features, I use those features in a model to fit on the training set and then run hyperparameter tuning on the validation set. The problem with this is I have tweaked my features on the validation set, and I'm using those features to then tweak my hyperparameters with the validation set, I've technically already seen the validation set and optimized to it. I would then use the test set to see how my model would perform on out-of-sample data. How does DataRobot work around this problem/ what are strategies to run both feature selection and hyperparameter tuning in an ML pipeline?
Solved! Go to Solution.
I like that you are thinking about these issues. Overfitting to a validation dataset is a common problem within data science.
It's important to highlight:
DataRobot does not use the validation dataset for hyperparameter tuning. Validation scores are entirely out of sample. This helps to prevent the overfitting that can occur when tuning to a validation dataset.
Instead, we use a split within the training data that we use to tune the model. You can learn a lot more in the documentation under: Data partitioning and validation
Thank you for the follow-up rshah. Not using the validation set to hyperparameter tune does make sense to me that we will avoid overfitting to this data. What is the validation set used for then? If the validation set is not used to tune any portion of the model building process, does DataRobot just use it to pick the best final model to deploy after all models have been built and tuned? At that point, it's not much different than another holdout set? The results should be the same for validation and holdout? My confusion still lies in how DataRobot manages to perform feature selection and hyperparameter tuning on the data. Does it use different data to pick features than it uses to perform hyperparameter tuning? If not, would there not be data leakage by optimizing against the same data in both of these processes and the model would result in being overfitted? Or are features treated as hyperparameters and feature selection and model hyperparameters all tuned in the same process? Thank you again! @rshah
Hi @rshah . After reading the data partitioning and validation documentation, I understand how inner folds are used to hyperparameter tune, and then the final model with tuned hyperparameters is picked off the normal validation set. However, I'm still confused about the feature selection process. If feature selection uses data that will be used in the hyperparameter/model selection process to tune/pick the best model, then doesn't overfitting occur since we are using the same data for both processes? For example:
Using this approach, linking features to a target requires using data that might be used later down the pipeline to tune hyperparameters and select potential models. Thank you again!
Let's dive into feature selection with DataRobot. DataRobot starts a set of informative features from your data (removing features that don't have any value, such as duplicate features or features that have the same value). This feature list is then applied to a variety of blueprints that contain different algorithms. | https://community.datarobot.com/t5/platform/feature-selection-and-hyperparamter-tuning-in-timeseries/td-p/8579 |
Questions tagged [grid-search]
In machine learning, grid search refers to multiple runs to find the optimal value of parameter(s)/hyperparameter(s) of a model, e.g. mtry for random-forest or alpha, beta, lambda for glm, or C, kernel and gamma for SVM.
44 questions
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grid search - optimal weighting of classifiers
i am using three different of the shelf classifiers. it`s a three class classification task. i want to calculate the optimal weights (c1weight, c2weight, c3weight) for each classifier (real task more ...
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1answer
22 views
Confusion for considering accuracy or standard deviation in selecting the best parameters
I have a model with a various parameters to test. The size of the dataset I have is not really large (~500 documents). My issue is that when I test the parameters using 10 CV, some of them produce ...
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Minimizing overfitting when doing hyperparameter Tuning
Generaly when using Sklearn's GridSearchCV (or RandomizedGridSearchCV), we get best model with best test score even if the model overfits a little bit. How can we compute generalization error ...
2
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1answer
59 views
how to pass parameters over sklearn pipeline's stages?
I'm working on a deep neural model for text classification using Keras. To fine tune some hyperparameters i'm using Keras Wrappers for the Scikit-Learn API. So I builded a Sklearn Pipeline for that: <...
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1answer
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sklearn.model_selection: GridSearchCV vs. KFold
Here is the explain of cv parameter in the sklearn.model_selection.GridSearchCV: cv : int, cross-validation generator or an iterable, optional Determines the cross-validation splitting ...
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1answer
27 views
Track underlying observation when using GridSearchCV and make_scorer
I'm doing a GridSearchCV, and I've defined a custom function (called custom_scorer below) to optimize for. So the setup is like this: ...
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2answers
40 views
ScikitLearn - RandomForestRegressor score different in and out of grid search
I am using RandomForestRegressor (scikit-learn python package). I am looking for the best values for hyperparameters ...
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1answer
60 views
Choosing weights on random forest for imbalanced data with the aim to minimize false positives
I am currently dealing with a binary classification task on imbalanced data with the following distribution: ...
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1answer
25 views
Unable to understand the usage of labels argument in sklearn.metrics.f1_score
I am trying to model a dataset with RandomForest Classifier. My dataset has 3 classes viz. A, B, C. 'A' is the negative class ...
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23 views
SVM - Shuffle image data before GridSearchCV or not?
I have different image datasets, most of them are sorted by class, others are already mixed. For each of these data sets, I would like to train one SVM (in Python with Scikit-Learn), whereby in each ...
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14 views
Heuristics, methods to speed up searches over subsets of big set (combinatorially NP hard probably)
I have a reasonable-sized set of size N (say 10 000 objects) in which I am searching for groups of compatible elements. Meaning that I have a function ...
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14 views
Feature Engineering and Time calculation for grid search cv
I am new to data science and don't have model building experience. I have a dataframe with 5000 rows and 10 columns. The target column takes 1/0 as values. One feature column is ZIP Code. I converted ...
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1answer
26 views
CNNs - Hyperparameter tuning with different training sizes of the same data set
I would like to compare how much the classification performance (test accuracy) of CNNs changes depending on the size of the data set. For this I would like to use a data set like MNIST or Fashion ...
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46 views
How to tune the parameters of ANN in R?
I tried below code where I used method as 'mxnet': classifier = train(form = Survived ~ ., data = training_set_scaled, method = 'mxnet') From this code I got ...
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1answer
92 views
How to find optimal number of trees in random forest using Grid search in R?
From below code, I am getting optimal number of mtry. What is this mtry ? and How should I find the optimal number of tree that to be assigned to Random forest algorithm so that it will give High ...
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2answers
205 views
Large negative R2 or accuracy scores for random forest with GridSearchCV but not train_test_split
I'm trying to use GridSearchCV from scikit-learn and look at the difference between train/test metrics. When I do a normal test/train split with RandomForestRegressor, the metrics are comparable. ...
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62 views
Am I using GridSearch correctly or do I need to use all data for cross validation?
I'm working with a dataset that has 400 observations, 34 features and quite a few outliers, some of them extreme. Given the nature of my data, these need to be in the model. I started by doing a 75-...
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33 views
Reasonable hyperparameters for NuSVR?
I'm looking for reasonable hyperparameters grid for NuSVR. For now I have: ...
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1answer
55 views
When to use BayesianSearchCV and how it works?
Can somebody highlight when to use BayesianSearchCV and how it works? I have seen the implementation of same on kaggle and wanted to explore it further. Below is the link where the implementation ...
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107 views
xgboost GridSearchCV take too long or does not goes to the next step
just strange ...
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42 views
Is the role of the validation set in a deep learning network is only for Early Stopping?
In the "deep learning crash course" given by Leo Isikdogan in lecture 4 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ms-Ooh9mjiE&list=PLWKotBjTDoLj3rXBL-nEIPRN9V3a9Cx07&index=4 Overfitting, Underfitting, ...
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2answers
396 views
What is the most efficient method for hyperparameter optimization in scikit-learn?
An overview of the hyperparameter optimization process in scikit-learn is here. Exhaustive grid search will find the optimal set of hyperparameters for a model. The downside is that exhaustive grid ...
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2answers
280 views
Grid search model isn't recognized as fitted for Graphviz
I find this really weird, and the code is really straight forward. What am I doing wrong ? ...
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20 views
How do you search a high dimensional for the global maxima using as few samples as possible?
Suppose the value at any point in the space is defined by Y = f(x1, x2 .. xk). For simplicity, we can assume that x takes only binary values. Which means that we have a total of 2^k possible values. I ...
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37 views
Long run time for grid search SARIMA
I am running a grid search for identifying the right set of params for Seasonal ARIMA, for over a 1300 training set and range for all the params being 0,1 and 2. But this process is taking over ...
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Does sklearn's gridsearchCV use the same cross validation train/test splits for evaluating each hyperparameter combination?
I couldn't find the answer on any forum in the interwebs so I hunted down the answer myself. Yes; the same train/test splits are used for each parameter combination. Here Is the relevant sklearn ...
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How to get mean test scores from GridSearchCV with multiple scorers - scikit-learn
I'm trying to get mean test scores from scikit-learn's GridSearchCV with multiple scorers. grid.cv_results_ displays lots of ...
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1answer
97 views
Voting classifier using grid search for Time Series
I have three models: Arima Auto ARIMA Double Exponential Smoothing I would like to apply an ensemble method - a voting method and allow the classifier to learn weights for these three models. I ...
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4answers
414 views
Default parameters for decision trees give better results than parameters optimised using GridsearchCV
I am using Gridsearch for a DecisionTreeClassifier predicting a binary outcome. When I run fit and predict with default parameters, I get the following results: ...
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4answers
426 views
Log loss vs accuracy for deciding between different learning rates?
While model tuning using cross validation and grid search I was plotting the graph of different learning rate against log loss and accuracy separately. Log loss When I used log loss as score in ...
5
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1answer
673 views
How to plot mean_test score and mean_train score of GridSearchCV
How to plot mean_train_score and mean_test_score values in GridSearchCV for ...
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1answer
145 views
Optimizing decision threshold on model with oversampled/imbalanced data
I'm working on developing a model with a highly imbalanced dataset (0.7% Minority class). To remedy the imbalance, I was going to oversample using algorithms from imbalanced-learn library. I had a ...
1
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2answers
206 views
Scikitlearn grid search random forest using oob as metric?
Have looked at data on oob but would like to use it as a metric in a grid search on a Random Forest classifier (multiclass) but doesn't seem to be a recognised scorer for the scoring parameter . I do ...
1
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0answers
185 views
How to perform platt scaling for hyperparameter-optimized model?
I'm using Python and have a best estimator from a grid search. Wanted to be able to calibrate the probability output accordingly, but would like to know more about implementing platt scaling. From ...
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371 views
Different values from GridSearch estimation
I am using GridSearchCV in order to find best estimator with best hiperparameters. I also want to check it once against a small portion of data used in cross ...
0
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1answer
2k views
GridSearch mean_test_score vs mean_train_score
I am working with scikit learn and GridSearch in order to find the best parameters in my classifiers. I have a map of different hyperparameters and I want to print out GridSearch results, but I do ...
4
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1answer
4k views
Why is cross-validation score so low?
I am using Scikit-Learn for this classification problem. The dataset has 3 features and 600 data points with labels. First I used Nearest Neighbor classifier. ...
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1answer
4k views
How to estimate GridSearchCV computing time?
If I know the time of a given validation with set values, can I estimate the time GridSearchCV will take for n values I want to cross-validate ?
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1answer
843 views
How to use GridSearchCV with RidgeClassifier
I'm trying to use GridSearchCV with RidgeClassifier, but I'm getting this error: My problem is regression type. IndexError: ...
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2answers
82 views
Comparison of machine learning approaches for a topic in a scientific paper
As part of my master's thesis, I have made a prediction of data with approaches of machine learning in a topic where are no papers yet. The topic is a regression problem for which several machine ...
2
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1answer
174 views
Parameter tuning for machine learning algorithms
When it comes to the topic of tuning parameters, most of the time you read grid search. But if you have 6 parameters, for which you want to test 10 variants, you get to 10^6 = 1000000 runs. Which in ...
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2answers
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Class weight ineffective in sklearn
I'm dealing with an imbalanced dataset and as usual it's very easy to obtain a high accuracy, but the recall on the less frequent class is very low. I would like to improve on the false negative of ...
2
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1answer
2k views
Splitting hold-out sample and training sample only once?
I have a question related to evaluating out-of-sample predictions. For my research I want to tune two parameters related to Support Vector Machines, and use these optimized parameters to predict the ...
3
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1answer
624 views
Grid seach is unavailable for Keras in case of multiple outputs?
I do experiments with the following Keras architecture with multiple outputs: ... | https://datascience.stackexchange.com/questions/tagged/grid-search |
Learn to create an APA Bibliography.
Every research paper must provide a list of sources that were used throughout the document. The APA (American Psychological Association) style also requires a list of sources to be provided. Instead of an APA bibliography there is an APA reference page. These two lists of sources serve the same need; however, the terms used to refer to these lists are entirely different. It is the Chicago Manual style that requires a bibliography. The APA style requires a reference list.
When presenting scholarly written materials, social and behavioral scientists use the APA format. This writing style provides its writers with the necessary guidelines to present scientific research in a clear, concise manner. As a result, complex scientific ideas are understood by its audience.
APA Bibliography example of an References page.
As the term suggests, an in-text citation is a method used to refer to the works of others within the text of your work. The in-text APA citation consists of the author’s last name and year of publication for the referenced work. The APA reference list, or APA bibliography, is located at the end of the paper and contains the citation in greater detail. The reference list must include each in-text citation.
The correct term for the APA bibliography is “References” page. Because the Chicago writing style is commonly used and refers to its list of sources as the bibliography, many people mistakenly refer to the APA reference list as the APA bibliography. Although both serve the same purpose, it is important for writers to know that the correct term for an APA list of resources is a references list. The reference list must begin on a separate page from the essay and coordinate with all in-text citations used throughout the text. This ensures that all APA citations are accounted for from its original source. Moreover, a writer provides credibility for the work and the audience knows where to look if they desire more information on the topic.
The correct term for an APA bibliography is reference list.
Always locate the “References” title at the top, center of the page.
Indent the 2nd and subsequent lines of each references entry.
Entries must be alphabetized by last name of the author. | https://www.matchware.com/apa-bibliography |
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Beyond BLS briefly summarizes articles, reports, working papers, and other works published outside BLS on broad topics of interest to MLR readers.
Startup formation is one of the main pathways through which scientific innovations originating at academic institutions find their way to market. It remains unclear, however, what factors make this kind of ingenuity transfer more or less likely to occur, and available research on the topic has been scant and inconclusive. In “Revisiting the entrepreneurial commercialization of academic science: evidence from ‘twin’ discoveries” (National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper 28203, December 2020), Matt Marx and David H. Hsu address this question through a novel empirical approach, reporting results that both challenge and refine previous findings.
Relying on the work of others, the authors identify two sets of factors that may determine whether a discovery birthed in a university lab would make the leap to commercial application. The first set, emphasized by what Marx and Hsu term the “resource munificence” view of commercialization, revolves around the resource endowments of a given geographical area, including things such as local availability of venture capital and technical know-how. The second set of factors, which the authors attribute to what they call the “discovery team composition” view of startup formation, centers on the internal makeup of academic research teams, in particular the entrepreneurial experience and networking abilities of their members.
While Marx and Hsu do not challenge the logical grounds of these theoretical perspectives, they do identify a major omission in the empirical studies that test their predictions. Specifically, they observe that neither perspective accounts for potential differences in the intrinsic suitability of various inventions for commercial application—suitability referred to as “unmeasured latent commercializability” in the study—even though it stands to reason that discoveries in certain areas of academic inquiry would be markedly more easily to commercialize than others.
To capture this underappreciated quality of academic innovation, the authors adopt a “twin-discovery” research design, whereby startup formation outcomes are compared for academic breakthroughs with the same commercial potential. Using matched data on scholarly codiscoveries reported in tens of thousands of published academic articles, as well as information on paper–patent pairs and government disbursements of small-business research grants (measures aiming to capture startup formation and commercialization), Marx and Hsu report the results of two empirical analyses: one that controls for latent commercializability and another that does not.
The two sets of results are notably different. In the cross-sectional analysis that sidesteps commercial potential, the evidence is largely in line with that reported in earlier studies, backing both the resource and compositional views of commercialization. By contrast, in the twin-discovery analysis that controls for latent commercializability, the authors find no support for the resource availability account and strong support for the team composition account. Moreover, their results show that the primary characteristics of team composition that drive startup formation are entrepreneurial experience and interdisciplinary diversity, and that these factors work independently of project selection in successful commercialization.
In their concluding remarks, Marx and Hsu caution that their study examines only one channel of scientific commercialization—namely, startup formation initiated by academic researchers—and that other channels, such as making licensing arrangements with existing companies for product manufacturing, may be affected by a different set of factors. In addition, the authors recognize that their research design does not rule out possible selection effects in team composition (effects that may influence the likelihood that a discovery will find its way into a research publication), noting that future studies should look more closely at the antecedents of team formation. | https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2021/beyond-bls/the-commercialization-of-academic-discovery-a-look-at-startup-formation.htm |
Once submitted, your manuscript will be placed in Initial Assessment (Desk Review) for initial feedback/review by the Editor-in-Chief, and then it will be sent through the double-blind peer review procedure.
The peer review process is the driving force behind JMS journals and is at the heart of acceptable scientific publishing. JMS reviewers adhere to the highest ethical standards of scientific research, and all articles are subjected to a double-blind peer review procedure that takes place entirely within the JMS eEditorial Discovery® (EED)® online submission system.
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Ethical Guidelines and Malpractice statement to Publication of research articles
The Editor-in-Chief and editorial board members of the publisher's journals provide a set of ethical rules for those involved in the publication of research articles, particularly editors, authors, and submission reviewers. The guidelines reflected in this document were prepared by the Editors of the publisher's publications. The ethics guidelines are changed on a regular basis to ensure their clarity, and the guidelines reflected in this document were revised in July 2018 by the Editors of the publisher's Publications Division.
The authors' publishers Ethical Guidelines are presented on the basis of the conviction that the adherence to high ethical standards is so vital to the entire scientific activity that a definition of those standards should be brought to the attention of all parties involved. As a result, it is critical to agree on required ethical behaviour norms.
"Breaking the standards of publication ethics can seriously harm your reputation as a researcher."
Preface
“Regardless of their nature, all journals serve to advance scholarly discussions of topics — whether religious, gender-based, environmental, ethical, political, or other potentially or thematically problematic matters. "An ethics and malpractice statement commits oneself to fulfilling and maintaining ethical standards at all levels of the review and publication processes."
The publishing industry supports the scientific profession in a variety of sectors (such as science, engineering, arts, and sports) through producing journals that communicate the findings of scientific study. Every editor of this journal publication bears responsibility for the development of a coherent and respected network of knowledge by adhering to the ethical guidelines for selecting, reviewing, and accepting research articles submitted to the journals, and the quality of work of the authors is directly reflected in the standard of the journal that published. Importantly, these rules are formed from the editor's assessment of quality standards for scientific work and its presentation.
In this regard, the editors of the publisher's journals have now presented a set of ethical rules for anyone involved in the publication of research articles, specifically for editors, authors, and submission reviewers. These principles will be of great assistance to those who are new to research.
A summary of our key expectations for authors, editors and (peer-) reviewers, is here detailed:
Guidelines Ethical Obligations of Authors of Scientific Journals
"Through the ethical principles reflected in this series, we provide you with the support and advice you need to ensure the ethical soundness of your manuscript and activities."
- To submit the work in the format specified in the Authors' Instructions;
- To confirm that their manuscripts are their own work, and that if they have used the work and/or words of others, they have properly attributed or quoted them. The authors must state that all of the data in the publication is true and authentic. Fraudulent or wilfully incorrect claims are unethical and unacceptable;
- All Authors mentioned in the publication must have made a significant contribution to the research. Authorship should be limited to individuals who made a major contribution to the study’s conception, design, implementation, or interpretation. Co-authors should include everyone who made a substantial contribution. Others who have contributed to the substantive components of the study endeavour should be thanked or identified as contributors. The corresponding author should ensure that the manuscript includes all suitable co-authors and no inappropriate co-authors, and that all co-authors have viewed and approved the final version of the paper and consented to its submission for publication.
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- It is always necessary to properly acknowledge the work of others. Authors should cite publications that were influential in determining the nature of the reported work;
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- We discuss why it is critical to follow existing guidelines and the implications of failing to do so. We then go over some of the rules governing authorship and plagiarism in further depth. Furthermore, we explain your rights as an author and how to seek permission to utilise content from copyrighted publications.
Guidelines Ethical Obligations of Editors of Scientific Journals
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Guidelines Ethical Obligations of reviewers of Scientific Journals
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- Evidence should be acquired while keeping any claims limited to those who need to know. Breach: Minor infractions may be addressed with without the necessity for a broader consultation. In any case, the author should be given a chance to respond to any claims.
- Serious wrongdoing may necessitate notifying the accused's employer. The Editor-in-Chief, in cooperation with the Publisher, should decide whether or not to include the employers, either by reviewing the available evidence or by consulting with a small group of specialists. Outcomes:
- Informing or teaching the author or reviewer when there appears to be a misunderstanding or misuse of appropriate norms;
- A stronger-worded letter to the author or reviewer outlining the wrongdoing and serving as a deterrent to future misconduct;
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Conflict of interest and competing interest
A conflict of interest occurs when an entity or people becomes untrustworthy due to a conflict between personal (or self-serving) interests and professional duties or responsibilities, and it can be extremely damaging to scholarly papers.
- If an Editor-in-Chief senses a conflict of interest, he or she should notify the publisher as soon as possible (e.g., an author of submitted work is based at their same institution and on a competitive project).
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- If an author believes that their submitted work may contain a conflict of interest, they should attach a declaration of any conflict of interest with the article manuscript upon submission.
Funding sources, financial interests, employment status, and those that go beyond financial interests are examples of competing interests (non-financial interests).
As a publisher of scientific publications, JMS understands how fraud undermines public trust and has a significant impact on the outcomes of all research results and conclusions disclosed in scholarly journals and academic reference books. As a result, JMS has implemented a number of preventative measures:
- The Editor(s)-in-Chief of a journal are the only people who are responsible for the initial review of a submission to ensure that it fulfils the journal's coverage and that authors' names and affiliations are removed from the manuscript before assigning it for review.
- All persons invited to join an editorial advisory or review board must provide a copy of their Curriculum Vitae/Resume for evaluation, and they must accept the nomination and appointment to the board in writing through email or letter.
- To assign reviewers to papers, all Editor(s)-in-Chief of journals must use the eEditorial Discovery® online submission system. Similarly, all reviews must be submitted through the system by the reviewers. This creates a paper trail in the case that a question about the review process emerges.
- Those Editor(s)-in-Chief of journals that are still in the process of transitioning all submitted papers to the eEditorial Discovery® online submission system and may be assigning some reviews outside of the system are asked to submit the reviewer's evaluation form when submitting an accepted paper to JMS for publication.
Plagiarism detection (Turnitin)
In addition to making this Publishing Ethics and Malpractice Resource Kit available, the publisher is involved in additional publishing ethics activities, both internally and internationally. Furthermore, the manuscript will be thoroughly reviewed in order to determine whether or not plagiarism occurred and, if so, to what amount. To aid in the identification of plagiarised content, JMS employs Turnitin, a plagiarism detection software. | https://jms.eleyon.org/index.php/jms/sub3 |
OFFICIAL- ACCEPTED homo Sapiens Cognatus- Bigfoot !!!!!!!!!!
ZooBank– Melba Ketchum
What does that mean?
Cognatus is from the Latin which essentially means “related by blood.”
As for the establishment of a nomenclature…that takes place at an online registry called ZooBank which is an adjunct to the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature or ICZN.
From ZooBank
Currently, ZooBank accomodates the registration of four different kinds of data objects:
Nomenclatural Acts: Published usages of scientific names for animals, which represent nomenclatural acts as governed by the ICZN Code of Nomenclature. Most of these acts are ‘original descriptions’ of new scientific names for animals, but other acts may include emendations, lectotypifications, and other acts as governed by the ICZN Code.
Publications: Publications that contain Nomenclatural Acts, as defined above.
Authors: Anyone who is an author of one or more Publications (as defined above), or who is a contributor to ZooBank content.
Type Specimens: Type specimens for scientific names of animals. The registration of Type Specimens is considered provisional and is not yet fully implemented in ZooBank.
Dr. Ketchum’s current registry for Homo Sapiens Cognatus falls into the Nomenclature Acts. Bigfoot now has a name. What does that mean?
Again, From ZooBank.
For each new species-group name, include the original spelling of the specific name (i.e., the species epithet), the original genus in which the new species was placed, information on the type specimen(s) of the new species-group name (Collection acronym and catalog number, if available), type locality (as originally published), and page number on which the description of the new species begins (if available). If the new species-group name is established within a pre-existing genus, then full citation details (including full author names, as above) of the publication in which the genus-group name was originally described are also required (so the genus-group name can be registered itself). This should be referenced in the paper describing the new species, though ideally it should be checked in its original version if possible. As ZooBank increases in content, it is increasingly likely that the genus in question may be registered already. We appreciate any efforts you make to check current content and provide feedback on its accuracy.
Here is the official entry:
Homo sapiens cognatus Ketchum in Ketchum, Wojtkiewicz, Watts, Spence, Holzenburg, Tolar, Prychitko, Zhang, Bollinger, Shoulders & Smith, 2013
Rank: Subspecies
No BHL Results
Parent: Homo Sapiens Linnæus, 1758
Specific Name: cognatus
Authorship: Ketchum
Publication: Ketchum, Melba, Patrick Wojtkiewicz, Aliece Watts, David Spence, Andreas Holzenburg, Douglas Tolar, Thomas Prychitko, Fan Zhang, Sarah Bollinger, Ray Shoulders & Ryan Smith. 2013 Novel North American Hominins, Next Generation Sequencing of Three Whole Genomes and Associated Studies. Denovo, Accelerating Science 1(1, Supplemental).
Page:
Figure(s):
Type Specimen(s):
Type Locality:
Fossil: No
So how does naming a new species come about?
Species Naming
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Living creatures are classified into species, which are in turn classified into genera, families, orders, and higher (larger) groups. To date, approximately 1.9 million species have been discovered and named. This number is still an estimate as so far there is no central registration of species, although efforts are underway to establish such a species register. According to the opinion of taxonomic experts, the actual number of species existing on earth is between 3 and 100 million with a recent discovered method putting the number at 8.7 million.
When a creature is discovered, it is first necessary to determine whether it is a new species, a new subspecies or merely a variant of an already described and known species. As there is no single, unambiguous definition of “species” this determination can be time-consuming and subject to discussion and disagreement.
By tradition, the right to name a new species is given to the discoverer, or more precisely the scientific describer of the species (who is not necessarily the person who discovered the species in nature). There are, however, many regulations to be followed when naming a species, all of them fixed by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) when animals are concerned.
A name of a new species becomes valid with the date of publication of its formal scientific description. Once the discoverer/scientist has performed the necessary research to determine that the discovered creature represents a new and formerly undescribed species, the scientific results are summarized in a manuscript to be submitted to a scientific journal.
What does all of this mean? I contacted an expert and he had this to say:
In direct answer to your question: ZooBank and the ICZN do not review evidence for the legitimacy of organisms to which names are applied – that is outside out mandate, and is really the job of the relevant taxonomic/biological community (in this case, primatologists) to do that.
When H. s. cognatus was first registered, needless to say we received a lot of inquiry about it. We scrutinized the original description and registration of this name as best as we could, and as far as we can determine, all the requirements for establishing the new name were fulfilled. Thus, at the moment, we have no grounds to reject the scientific name. This says NOTHING about the legitimacy of the taxon concept – it’s just about whether the name was established according to the rules.
There are a couple of rules in the ICZN Code that might be used to render the name unavailable in the sense of the Code. One is Article 1.3.1, which excludes “hypothetical concepts” from having names. But it’s not clear whether these rules would apply in this case.
Essentially this means that while ZooBank may recognize DeNovo Journal, they do not do the legwork to determine if the the content of the article is legitimate. Still, baby steps. If anyone thought that proving the existence of BigFoot was going to be easy, or that the DNA study would solve the riddle, well they were kidding themselves. I still hold out hopes that it will happen, but in my opinion it will take nothing less than a specimen. | https://www.ghosttheory.com/2013/10/23/ketchum-bigfoot-dna-results-accepted-at-zoobank |
NEW DISCOVERY: In addition to being the birth place of spices such as pepper and cardamom, the Western Ghats in India is also known as a proliferate biodiversity hotspot. While the forests in this tropical belt along the west coast of the country are home to many unique fauna and flora, new discoveries add to the list of species that thrive in this part of the world. The latest members being five new insect species recently discovered by a team of scientists lead by veteran entomologist Prof. T.C. Narendran.
The new species were discovered inside the holes of a fallen tree in the Periyar Tiger Reserve in Kerala during a routine exploration of the area that is well-known for its dense forests and picturesque landscape. Interestingly, the new species were described as the natural predators of the wood-boring beetle, which incidentally causes severe damage to trees in the tropical forests.
Three of these new insects have been named, as follows, after the area they were found in:
- Metapelma kokkaricum
- Metapelma periyaricum
- Calosota idukkiensis
While Kokkara is the name of the exact location inside the Periyar Tiger Reserve from where the scientists collected specimens of the new insects, Idukki is the name of the hilly district in the state of Kerala where the tiger reserve is located.
The fourth insect, Calosota iochroma, derives its name from the Greek words that refer to its characteristic metallic pinkish color. The fifth species, Tetrastichus demonaxi, gets its name from the wood-eating, host insect called Demonaxi decorus.
The scientific paper detailing the discovery was published in the December issue of the Samagra, the journal of Centre for Research in Indigenous Knowledge, Science & Culture (CRIKSC).
Sadly, Prof. Narendran passed away on the morning of 31st December, 2013 at the age of 69. An Emeritus Scientist at the Western Ghat Regional Centre of the Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) in Kozhikode, Kerala, he and his students have so far described over 1000 species of insects from the Western Ghats – almost 2 percent of the total insect fauna reported in India.
He had published about 300 research papers and 10 books on entomology. Many taxonomists honored him by naming numerous species after him. Most of the insects he discovered are natural predators of other insects, playing a vital role in the area’s tropical ecosystem. His contribution to enriching the knowledge on biodiversity of India, especially the insect world of the Western Ghats will always be remembered.
More Related Stories, | http://indiasendangered.com/five-new-insect-species-discovered-in-western-ghats/ |
The soundtrack for this blog posting is the blues: Ball Peen Hammer sung by Joe Bonamassa:
http://grooveshark.com/#!/s/Ball+Peen+Hammer/2pulWL
This is a cautionary tale of research from Dr. Doug Melton's lab at Harvard. I considered carefully if I should blog on this subject. It is certainly a lot more fun to blog about successes, and new opportunities, than it is to blog about failures and mistakes. However, I think it is critical to include both good news and bad news. At the very least, so that people following type-1 research understand that mistakes get made, and that one of the strengths of the scientific method is the ability to recover from mistakes.
This posting is about Betatrophin, which I did not cover in my blog when it was first announced. The research was all done on animals, and I focus on human trials. However, now that this research has gone full circle, I think it makes a useful scientific morality tale. Obviously, lots of scientific research doesn't pan out for one reason or other. Usually it dies a quiet and obscure death. But this research was a little higher profile, and therefore it's death was a little higher profile as well, so more about it's life and death is known, than about your average research dead-end.
History
In early 2013 Dr. Melton's lab at Harvard released a "big news" research paper. They had identified a natural human hormone which caused beta cells to naturally regrow. This one hormone, which they named "Betatrophin" had a huge impact in beta cell regrowth. The research had been done in mice, and was published in Cell (a prestigious scientific journal). Two big name pharmaceutical companies (Evotec and Janssen Pharmaceuticals, a subsidiary of Johnson and Johnson) paid millions of dollars for the rights to Betatrophin. The lead author of the paper (Dr. Peng Yi) was hired by an important diabetes research center (Joslin) to do research, including future clinical trials focused on Betatrophin.
But about 18 months later, it all collapsed. A research group working for Regeneron Pharmaceuticals found that Betatrophin did not cause beta cells to regrow, and submitted a paper to that effect. When the paper was sent to Dr. Melton for peer review, he endorsed it, and wrote a "Perspective" stating that his own lab had been unable to reproduce it's own previous findings. It now appears that the conclusion in the first paper was incorrect. I want to stress that no one has suggested that there was any fraud or mistakes in the research; it is just that the conclusion turned out to be wrong.
Discussion of Fallout
Betatrophin was the big news from this lab in 2013, but what about the big news in 2014? In 2014 Dr. Melton's lab released a "big news" research paper showing that they could grow large amounts of functional beta cells from embryonic stem cells. (Again, I did not blog on this, because it was not yet being used in a clinical trial. However I was asked about it specifically on CWD, and posted some comments.) How does the failure of the 2013 news, affect how we view the 2014 news? This is the question that should be in the front of the mind of everyone following research aimed at curing type-1 diabetes. Does the collapse of Betatrophin suggest that the beta cell breakthrough might collapse?
There is no way for me to have any insight into that question. A pessimist would say that a lab that is wrong with one thing, could easily be wrong about the next thing; that whatever caused the first incorrect conclusion could still be there for the second one. An optimist would say that testing Betatrophin is a very different technology than transforming embryonic stem cells into beta cells, and the fact that the lab was wrong about one does not mean it is wrong about the other.
Of course, this brings up this question: if a world class scientist, working at one of the most highly regarded universities in the world, publishing in one of the most prestigious journals in the world, can still be wrong, how are we -- everyday people affected by a disease, but without extensive scientific knowledge -- to know what is correct and what is wrong? How will we ever know? (I discuss this in the conclusion section.)
Discussion of Peer Review
One of the interesting "side issues" that this brings up is conflict of interest in peer review. When the scientific journal Cell got the paper showing that the research done in Dr. Melton's lab was wrong, they sent it to Dr. Melton as part of peer review. I was a little shocked by that; but it makes sense in a pure-science sort of way. Dr. Melton is a world expert on Betatrophin (by virtue of being "senior author" of the paper discovering it's function) so it makes perfect sense to ask him to peer review this paper. However, from a human point of view, it seems nuts to have a person peer review a paper that directly undermines his own paper. Even if there is not a monetary conflict of interest, there certainly is an intellectual one! We were all well served by Dr. Melton's ethical actions after he was asked to be a peer reviewer. But the opposite can happen as well.
This policy, of having papers which contradict previously published papers (in the same journal) reviewed by the authors of the previous paper, appears to be common in scientific journals. At least it used to be. The big name journal Nature did this in the 1990s. More shocking, it then did not publish the second paper, based on a bad review from the author of the first paper. Two other reviewers gave the second paper good reviews. You can read the sorry tale here:
http://retractionwatch.com/2013/06/19/why-i-retracted-my-nature-paper-a-guest-post-from-david-vaux-about-correcting-the-scientific-record/
Corporate vs. University Research
There is the growing trend to ignore corporate research in favor of academic research, often under the guise of "conflict of interest". Obviously, some of this is a well earned reaction to various corporate attempts to manipulate scientific research (nuclear, tobacco, and pharmaceutical industries, just to name the ones who have gotten caught at it).
However, it is important to not take that attitude to extremes. There are pressures to deliver in academia and the non-profit world as well. In this case the wrong results were from university research and the right results came from industry. I think it is important to remember that, in the face of a growing "corporation = evil" narrative.
The Original Paper Has Not Been Retracted
An interesting question (at least it's interesting to me) is should this paper be retracted? It hasn't been, and it doesn't look like it will be. It is certainly wrong in it's conclusions, but is that enough to retract it? There are two schools of thought here. One says that publications should only be retracted if they are "in error", meaning there was an error in design, data collection or analysis, or if there was fraud or ethics problems. The other school of thought says that being wrong is enough. If the authors / editors / publishers are sure it is wrong, then it should be retracted.
This sounds like a good topic of debate in a college level ethics class, with a scientific bent.
But one of the existing complications, is that there is no global standard. Each publication is free to make their own decisions about retractions, and even in one publication, they don't have to be internally consistent, if they don't want to be.
My Summary
First, the press:
I have a very low opinion of how "the press" (ie. mass market news web sites) covers science and medicine. Among their other sins, I think they over hype certain medical news, based on buzz words in press releases. Although these "over hype triggering buzzwords" change slightly over time, a good PR firm or savvy researcher keeps up to date, so they can use the trendy buzz words to manipulate the press coverage.to get more than their research deserves.
For the last decade, I think "stem cell" is one of those triggering buzz words, and I think "Harvard" is one, too, and reports from big name universities are generally over hyped, in relation to universities with less name recognition.
Second, how to determine that science is correct:
This incident reinforces my belief that the only way to be sure a scientific paper is correct, is to follow it's research for a period of years after the paper is published, to see what happens. There is no way to look at a freshly printed paper and know that it is correct. I know that a lot of people try to take short cuts, and they say (or think) things like "it is a peer reviewed paper [so it must be right]", "the researcher is one of the most famous people in the field [so it must be right]", "the researcher is at an ivy league calibre institution [so it must be right]", "it was published in the leading journal in it's field [so it must be right]", "the researcher's family is affected by the disease so he's totally committed to the research [so it must be right]", "he is so personable, so articulate, and the description of what is happening makes perfect sense [so it must be right]", "the researcher has a great history and a great reputation [so it must be right]", and so on.
For Betatrophin, every one of those statements was true, and yet the research was flat out wrong.
This case is a clear example where the only way to see if research was correct, was to wait and see what happened to the research over time, as people tried to capitalize on it, to build on it, and to productize it. The take home point is simple: there is no short cut. There is no way to know quickly if research is correct. Only the passing of years will tell us with certainty.
Now, I certainly don't claim perfection in this regard. I'm sure I've fallen into this trap myself. But it still is a trap, and something to be avoided. I do stress peer reviewed results in this blog, almost to the exclusion of non-peer reviewed results, but that is different than implying that peer review means the research is good. I consider peer review to be a necessary component of good research, but not sufficient to prove good research. Put another way: if research is not peer reviewed, then it is not worthy of serious consideration. But even if it is peer reviewed, it still might be wrong.
Some people, optimists, might look on this example as a fluke, but I think that's a mistake. Most research does not pan out. Most phase-I clinical trials do not lead to a marketed treatment. Therefore, the failures described here are quite common. Maybe even normal. I'm posting about this particular case because it made a bigger than usual news splash. I get emails from people asking "remember research project X from years ago? Whatever happened to that? Did the money making, type-1 conspiracy suppress it?". Nine times out of ten, the answer is that the research just didn't pan out at the next level. Like Betatrohpin, the first publication was in error, and nothing could be built on it.
I'm always very nervous about the number of people who assume because they have not heard of it, that means it was really successful, and was therefore suppressed. It creates a mindset where failure is taken as evidence of conspiracy. In a world of research, where most new ideas do not pan out, this is spectacularly dangerous logic.
To join the two parts of this conclusion, notice that news organizations have an impossible conundrum: they are judged on how quickly they get (incredibly superficial) articles about scientific research out on the web, yet the only way to know if those articles are accurate is to wait, often months or years! Yet as long as we reward news sources for speed, and ignore their accuracy (the current situation) this is the news we are asking for.
More Reading
Betatropin news at the time:
http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2013/04/potential-diabetes-breakthrough/
http://jdrf.org/blog/2013/discovery-of-new-hormone-may-impact-t1d/
The papers:
Harvard paper: http://www.cell.com/abstract/S0092-8674(13)00449-2
Regeneron Pharmaceuticals: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092867414011763
The Perspective: http://www.cell.com/cell/abstract/S0092-8674(14)01177-5
Discussion and fallout:
Retraction Watch: http://retractionwatch.com/2014/11/10/i-kind-of-like-that-about-science-harvard-diabetes-breakthrough-muddied-by-two-new-papers/
Blog: http://www.ipscell.com/2014/10/the-betatrophin-blues/
Pubpeer: https://pubpeer.com/publications/8EAC9ED889CC6E498199B11B1BC135 and also https://pubpeer.com/publications/0F7B9DF45743305575A36FDBA7FC9A
Money issues: http://seekingalpha.com/article/1730632-companies-race-to-develop-the-next-novel-blockbuster-diabetes-drug-part-2
A note on titles: In the past I have not been consistent about it, but in the future, in this blog, I will attempt to refer to anyone with a doctorate (PhD, PharmD, DVM, etc.) or a medical degree (MD) as Dr. X Y the first time they are named, and Dr. Y thereafter. (Sorry lawyers, on this blog, you're not doctors, no matter what your degree says. :-)
Joshua Levy
http://cureresearch4type1diabetes.blogspot.com ;
publicjoshualevy at gmail dot com
All the views expressed here are those of Joshua Levy, and nothing here is official JDRF or JDCA news, views, policies or opinions. My daughter has type-1 diabetes and participates in clinical trials, which might be discussed here. My blog contains a more complete non-conflict of interest statement. Thanks to everyone who helps with the blog. | https://forum.tudiabetes.org/t/a-cautionary-tale-from-dr-meltons-lab-at-harvard/45581 |
What points should be paid attention to when writing the article?
Articles being prepared to Higher Certifying Commission journals should consist of the following elements consistently arranged:
• universal decimal classification index (UDC);
• title (name) of article;
• initials and surname of authors;
• address data on the place of work of authors, first of all names of the organizations (data on affiliation of authors);
• e-mail address of at least one of authors with whom to correspond;
• abstracts (author’s summary);
• keywords;
• text of the article;
• information about the authors;
TITLES OF ARTICLES
For all journals, without exception, there are requirements imposed on the article title by databases. The title is an especially important element of the article as some databases didn’t include abstracts.
• The title of the scientific article should be informative, i.e. clearly reflect its contents in a few words. In editorial offices this requirement is considered as one of the main one as the title is properly formulated – a guarantee of the fact that the work will attract reader’s interest.
• It should be remembered that the title of the paper will be read by much more people than its main part. The authors of the other articles, who will cite the research presented in it, will give just the work title in their bibliographic list.
• It is necessary to formulate the article title not as a complete statement but as a heading (as it is done in newspaper).
• Formulating the title it is better to stick to a simple word order and simple phrases.
• One should not use verbs, as well as the words like research, study, supervision, important, significant, etc.
• The title should include practically all the keywords.
• In the title of the article there should not be excess words. The most important words should be at the beginning of the title.
• The golden rule: only one idea should be reflected in the article title, even if the work is of a complex character.
• Do not use untranslatable slang known only to the Russian-speaking specialists. This also applies to author’s abstract (annotations) and keywords.
• The article title should not contain mathematical and chemical formulas, letters of alphabets different from Latin and Russian, Roman numerals, and abbreviations, except for the commonly used ones.
• After writing the article, make sure that it fully corresponds to its content.
ABSTRACTS (SUMMARIES) OF ARTICLES
Abstract permits to evaluate the article and to define their interest to the scientist’s work. They may use it in their own papers and refer to it, open a discussion with its author, etc. So special attention should be paid to this element of the article.
Abstract must be:
The reality is that the abstracts written by authors contain similar mistakes. More often they abound with general words which do not mean anything, but make the abstract longer not contributing to the comprehension of the contents and the essence of the article. Moreover, the abstract is often limited to very few lines (3–5). Such a presentation of the contents of the article is absolutely unacceptable.
The experience shows that while preparing the abstract the most difficult thing for the author is to concisely present the result of the research. That is why one of the tested ways to writing the abstract is to succinctly repeat the contents of the article, comprising the introduction, goals and objectives, methods, results, and conclusions in it. This approach to writing abstracts has also become common in foreign scientific journals.
The two variants for writing the abstract can be recommended. The first one is Russian State Standard 7.9-95 “Summary and Abstract. General Requirements” developed by VINITI specialists. The second one is the guidelines for writing the abstracts for English-language authors presented to the academic journals of Emerald Group Publishing (UK). When considering the first variant, it should be taken into account that it has been mainly for the reviewers writing the abstracts for information publications as the guidance. The second variant contains the requirements for preparing the abstracts of English-language articles. That is why the required amount of 100 words will probably be insufficient. The extracts from the abovementioned approaches are given below. The fact that there are many overlaps between them emphasizes the importance of the points given in them.
Concise guidelines
(based on State Standard 7.9-95)
Abstracts fulfill the following functions:
The author’s abstract bears resemblance to a summary. It has a similar content, structure, goals and objectives. It is a brief, precise description of the contents of the article, comprising the main factual data and results of the work under consideration.
The text of the author’s abstract (summary) should be concise and must not contain unnecessary information which is not important.
The order of the description of the contents of the article can be changed starting with its results and conclusion.
The object, topic and purpose of the article are given only if they are impossible to comprehend while reading its title.
If methods or methodology are new or interesting, it will be reasonable to describe them. Furthermore, the summaries of documents which describe experiments must include the sources of data and their processing.
The results of the article should be described precisely and informatively. The main theoretical and experimental results, factual data, and revealed interconnections and regularities must be presented in the abstract, preference being given to the new results and data being of long-term significance to important discoveries and conclusions refuting the existing theories and data which, in the author’s opinion, are of practical importance.
Below we consider the example of «classical» abstract, giving the general idea about an article or project, the examples of each component are given. The structure is relevant for the papers being prepared for foreign scientific funds and journals.
MAINCOMPONENTS OF AUTHOR’SABSTRACT
Relevance. At first,it is necessary toshow the importance ofthe problem being studiedor the project proposed.The reader must have a clearidea of careful studying the given problem.
Example. The blogis one of thesocialservices usedin teaching a foreignlanguage and culture.
Statement of the problem. After substantiating the relevance it is necessary to specify the current problem to be solved by the research project (paper). When reading this part of the abstract, the reader must have an impression that without your project “future life is simply impossible.”
Example. However, scientific literature lacks any investigations proving the effectiveness of using the blog in the formation of students’ social competence.
The ways of solving the problem. This part of the abstract should list some definite steps directed to solving the given problem. In researches having qualitative data (in which there is no description of the experiment or the analysis of its results) the enumeration of the theoretical problems studied can be presented. In the investigations having quantitative data (if the papers contain the statistical data of the experiment) the methods of carrying out the experimental work, as well as the variables studied, are enumerated.
Example. In this investigation, first, the component structure of social competence was defined. Second, the methods of forming social competenceby meansof the blog were developed. Third,the preparation and realization of the experimental teachingaimed at forming social competenceby means ofthe blog were described, and the analysis of itsquantitative and qualitative results was presented as well.
Results. In this part the quantitative or qualitative results of the research are presented. It is advisable to use words with the general meaning like “proved the effectiveness”, “appeared to be ineffective” without mentioning specific numbers that can be misinterpreted.
Example.The study showed that during the 10-week cycle the majority of the students were able to form the sociocultural competence by means of the blog, which confirms the effectiveness of the proposed methods.
Conclusions. In conclusion it is essential to define the scope of implementing the results of the research, to show how the work done expanded the existing idea of the problem studied, or to suggest a new solution to the problem.
Example. The results of the study broaden the knowledge about the methodical potential of the blogs in teaching a foreign language and culture.
Key Words.
There should not be many keywords (no more than 10), and they shouldclearly indicate themain contents ofthe article.It is advisable to avoid using the general concepts like “system” as key wordssince a keyword search(which is often available on the journal`s website) will not leadthe readerto finding the information he/she is interested in.
In some cases a key word may be a collocation, but not a shortsentence.
Informationabout the references tothe materials used:
The references toRussian sources are included by Russian-speakingauthors in the papers which are publishedin Russian journals or in the ones in translation.Ifour authorsare published in leading foreign journals, they try to refer, as a rule, to foreign sources.
The correct representation of the sources used in the references is a guarantee that the publication quoted will be taken into account when assessing the scientific activities of its authors and hence (in line) – the organization, region, country. By such a citation the scientific level of the journal, its authority, the efficiency of its editorial board’s work, etc., are determined. From this it follows that the most important components in the references are the names of the authors and the titles of the journals. In order to take into account all the authors of the publication it is necessary to include all of them in the contents of the paper, not limiting to three, four, etc.
Inthe list of the references the ordinal number of the reference is indicatedin the corresponding lineof the text of the paper in square brackets, and the sourcesare arranged in the order of their mentioningin the paper.Thereferences shouldincludethefollowinginformation:
• for books – the surnames and initials of all the authors; the full title of the book; the name of the publishing house and the city in which it is located; the year of the publication; the number of the pages in the book;
• for papers – the surnames and initials of all the authors; the full name of the paper; the name of the journal, newspaper or scientific newsletter where the paper has been published; the year of the publication, the publication time identifier (for newspapers – the number/date of the issue, for the journal – the year, the volume, or the number of the issue, the series), the numbers of the pages containing the article (the initial and final ones);
• for standards- the nameof the standard; the number of the standard; the placeand year of the publication; the pages;
•for patent documents– the name of the invention; the number of the patent; the country; the number and date of the application for the invention; the date of publishingthe patent; the number of the bulletins; pages;
The names of books, articles and other papers, published in foreign language, as well as their author`s surnames must be given in their original transcription. The by-article bibliographic list mustn`t include unpublished materials or materials with no open access.
The special attention should be paid that the by-article bibliographic lists mustn`t include references to the textbooks and tutorials, since their contents are well known to the specialists whom the article is addressed.
The monographs included in the by-article bibliographic lists shouldn`t be published later than 10 years of the article which refers to them apart from the «classical» works, the reference to which is absolutely necessary for the article contents.
The reference to scientific articles and to the articles of foreign authors in the by-article bibliographic lists indicates not only the high competence of article authors, but also the urgency of the scientific researches being conducted and represented in the article. | https://nllinguistica.ru/en/obrazets-napisaniya-stati/ |
Journal of Entomological Science Style Guide
The Journal of Entomological Science (JES) invites submission of manuscripts reporting original research with insects and related arthropods or literature reviews offering foundations to innovative directions in entomological research. Research manuscripts may be formatted as research papers or scientific notes.
Order of Elements
Order of elements for a research paper are: title page, Abstract and key words, introduction (no heading), Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion (or combined Results and Discussion), Acknowledgments, References Cited, tables, Figure Captions, and figures. Cite tables and figures in numerical order as they appear in the text. Literature reviews and scientific notes should be formatted as described below.
Title Page
The title page should be left justified for all information listed.
The name, complete address, telephone number, fax number, and email address of the corresponding author should be listed first.
A running title of <65 characters should follow that entry. This includes author names and a brief descriptive title (Example: EARP AND HOLLIDAY: Mechanical Control of Dipteran Larvae). For more than two authors, use the senior author’s name followed by et al. (Example: EARP ET AL.: Mechanical Control of Dipteran Larvae).
The full title follows. If the paper is submitted as a scientific note, place the word NOTE in all upper case on the line above the full title. Use either the ESA approved common name (Common Names of Insects and Related Organisms) or the scientific name, but not both. Do not include taxonomic authorities of scientific names in the title. Insert (Order: Family) immediately after the name of the organism. The entire title will be footnoted as to date of receipt and date of acceptance of the manuscript. Example: Received 01 January 2015; accepted for publication 14 February 2015.
Include all authors’ names below the title. The name of the corresponding author should be footnoted with an appropriate email address. Other authors’ affiliations may be footnoted if they differ from the primary affiliation for the manuscript.
Place the complete name and address of the primary institution or other entity in the affiliation byline below the list of authors.
List all Title and Author footnotes last. Do not separate these in a header/footer.
Abstract and Key Words
Abstract. Provide an Abstract of <250 words that succinctly states the purpose of the research and refers to results in general terms. Scientific name and taxonomic authority of organisms are provided at their first mention. Do not cite references, tables, figures, or probability levels.
Key Words. List three to five Key Words in lower case and separated by commas on a line below the Abstract.
Heading Levels
Only two heading levels are permitted. The first-level headings are centered and boldfaced on their own line. These divide the major sections of the manuscript (e.g., Materials and Methods, Results). Second-level headings are paragraph indented, boldfaced with the first letter of the first word in upper case. A period follows the heading.
Internal Style
Use latest edition of Webster’s for spelling. Refer to the CBE 6th Edition for style matters not listed in this Guide.
Use only common names of insects and related arthropods as approved by the Entomological Society of America. Do not abbreviate common names of insects or arthropods (e.g., FAW for fall armyworm).
Scientific names with the taxonomic authority must be provided with the first mention of the organism in the Abstract and in the text. Do not abbreviate names of authorities except for Linneaus with L. and Fabricius with F. Genus name may be abbreviated after first mention except when beginning a sentence.
In-text list designators should be enclosed in parentheses, such as (1) text, (2) text, and (3) text. A semicolon may be used as separators.
Equipment or sources of materials should follow the name of the item/product at its first mention in the text (Example: Sigma Chemical Company, St. Louis, MO). A shortened version may be used for other products from the same company or manufacturer (Example: Sigma).
Spell out months in the text, and list dates with day, month, and then year (Example: 31 October 2015).
Technical Style
Numbers. All units of measurement must be metric. Use numerals for single-digit units of time, distance, and quantity and for all numbers 10 and above (Example: 6 weeks, 1.6 ml, 156 km). Spell out numbers otherwise (Example: six experiments).
Statistical analysis. All data reported (except for descriptive data) must be subjected to statistical analysis. Descriptive data should be accompanied by pertinent information such as sample size or number of replications. Experimental designs and statistical methods should be adequately described in the Materials and Methods section. In reporting results, provide an estimate of variance and the sample size with each reported mean. Results of analysis of variance or t-tests must specify the F values, degrees of freedom, and P values. These may be reported within the text within parentheses. Example: (F = 9.1; df = 6, 18; P = 0.0001). In reporting regression analyses, include the model, define the variables, and list the estimates of parameters. Provide in-text citation of statistical software used for analyses.
References In Text
Scientific papers. Use author-year format with no comma separating author and the year (i.e., Earp 2015). List within parentheses in alphabetical order, then chronological with commas separating citations (i.e., Earp 2013, Earp 2015, Earp and Holliday 2015). Use et al. with first author name for those citations with three or more authors (i.e., Earp et al. 2015). It is acceptable to cite URLs in the text without including an entry in the References Cited section.
Scientific notes. Only shortened in-text references are used in Notes with no References Cited section at the end of the manuscript text. For these citations, list author last name, date of publication, journal or book citation, and volume and page ranges (i.e., Harp et al. 2015, J. Entomol. Sci. 50:1201-1205).
Figure and Table Citations In Text
Figures and Tables may be cited in the text or within parentheses. Examples are: Fig. 1, Table 1, (Fig. 1A, B), (Table 1, Fig. 1A).
References Cited
References should be listed in alphabetical order by the first author’s last name. List all authors for each citation using initials for first and middle names (no spaces between initials). The authors’ names and the year of the citation should be in boldface print. Use Biosis for journal abbreviations.
Table and Captions
Figure and Table captions should be in boldface print. Table captions should be placed at the top of each Table and left justified. All Figure captions are listed on a single page at following any Tables. No Figure captions are to be placed directly on the Figures. Captions end with a period.
Tables
Place tables on separate pages after the References Cited section. Create tables in MS Word Table formats. Column headings should be centered, and bold upper and lower case letters. Entries within columns should be left justified and not bold. All footnotes are left justified after the table and are designated with *, **, †, ‡, etc.
Figures
Please refer to Allen Press Guide to Digital Art Specifications for information on preparation of images, graphs, digital photography for publication in JES. Each figure must be placed in individual files.
Literature Reviews
Literature reviews may follow a different format than those of scientific papers or scientific notes, but should include an Abstract and an appropriate Introduction. The remaining sections of the paper will largely be left to the authors of the review. References should be cited in the text and in a References Cited section as described for scientific papers.
Notes
Notes are designed to share original research and observations that may not have been sufficiently replicated for acceptance as scientific papers. These are short communications with none to few tables or figures. Notes do not contain an abstract or separate text sections (e.g., introduction, materials and methods, results, discussion). References are cited within the text by placement of authors’ last names, date of publication, and journal or book citation within parentheses). | https://meridian.allenpress.com/jes/pages/Style-Guide |
Nutrition Article Critical Analysis
There are 3 parts to this assignment and 2 articles to find. Please read each part carefully before proceeding. You will need to submit at least a 2-page paper, single spaced, and include each article’s title, author, publication site (journals, magazines, web-sites) and date of publication.
PART 1 Find and read 2 different types of nutrition-related articles published on the Internet.
Article 1: This should be an article of interest to you which you find on a web site or link you have already explored in this class, or others with which you are familiar. It should include general information but should NOT be a research article although it may include explanation about some research as supporting evidence. The article should be more than just a paragraph or a blog. If using Google or another search engine, try to narrow the topic when you conduct your search so it is specific…i.e. type 2 diabetes and weight loss; the benefits of 7 to 9 servings of fruits and vegetables; breastfeeding and decreased risk of allergies; depression and Vit. D intake. Choose a topic of interest to you.
Article 2: Find and read a peer reviewed, evidence based, scientific article about the SAME nutrition topic (or close to it). It should be published in a research journal. There are 2 ways to do this:
Go to http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ (Links to an external site.)
You need to find a “ Full Text Article” and it needs to explain research (an experiment or a summary of experiments that follow the scientific method). Scan the entire article to review the parts of research (may include: abstract, introduction, methods or design, data analysis, results, discussion, limitations, conclusion).You need to read at least the Abstract, the Introduction, the Results and Discussion and the Conclusion to complete this assignment.
Example of a Research Article title:
Getting heavier, younger: trajectories of obesity over the life course. Title of article
By: Lee, J. M.; Pilli, S.; Gebremariam, A.; Keirns, C. C.; Davis, M. M.; Vijan, S.; Freed, G. L.; Herman, W. H.; Gurney, J. G.. Authors of article
International Journal of Obesity, Name of the journal where the article appears
Apr2010, Vol. 34 Issue 4, p614-623,; date and where to find the article
10p, 8 Charts, 7 Graphs, Abstract, Information about what to expect.
PART 2: Write a review of each article and answer the following questions in narrative form.
Article 1
Title of article, name/s of the reporter or authors, name and address (URL) of the web site, the date the articles were published or posted, the name of the journal the article was in.
Critically analyze the web-site where you found your first article. Go to the About Us link and find out about the web-site sponsor: look for a list of the board of directors, the vision or goal of the site; how old is the web-site, and other descriptive information. Report on whether something is for sale. This will entail some investigation. Be nosey and find information that helps you determine what the website is offering.
Determine the credentials of the author(s) that make them a “qualified” writer. Explain why you think they are qualified. (Refer to the text for exact criteria.) They may not be credentialed but still qualified to write the article….explain why, i.e. have science or health writing experience, refer to studies and experts to support claims and ideas, provide resources and references.
In your own words summarize the information presented: the main idea of the article, the objective, intent, outcome…explain what the article is about.
Address whether the author(s) presented the info clearly and provided support to make the information trustworthy, i.e. were experts quoted; were statistics or studies discussed? What was said? Provide examples.
Address whether the information was understandable and applicable. How useful and practical is the information and for who? Explain any tips or hints the author suggested for making changes. Provide examples.
Does the article relate to the title? Is the layout easy to follow and does the information flow? Provide examples how.
State your opinion about the article: did you like the article; learn new information (examples of what you learned.); trust the information (based on what you found out about the web site, the author and the supporting information provided by the author); was it practical; can you apply the information; did the article do what you thought it would do?
Article 2
State the name of the article, the authors, the journal and date that the article was published in the journal. (Note…some research articles are available on online publishing sites but they should include the date and may include a journal it was also published in.)
Provide a summary of the author’s background information.
Explain what was being researched, i.e. what is the hypothesis? Look in the introduction section for why the authors want to do this research…what are they hoping to find?
Give a brief explanation of the study design. Find this in the Introduction and the Methods section. You do not have to tease out the details but try to find who/what was under investigation; how many people were involved and for how long did the study last? What was the intervention, i.e. what was given or done to the intervention group and what was given to the control group as a placebo?
State the outcome of the study. What happened? What did the researchers discover?
Was the outcome significant? – find this in the Discussion and/or Conclusion of the article.
State your opinion about the article: did you like the article; learn new information (examples of what you learned.); trust the information (based on what you found out the authors and the supporting information); did you understand the study and understand how the outcome may be useful.
PART 3: Comparative critique: Compare and contrast the 2 articles.
Explain major differences and similarities:
Discuss which type of nutrition information is most trustworthy: reliable and credible.
Compare the content differences, the format, and the goals/intent of each article.
State the intended audience for each article. Who would be most likely to read each one and why?
Discuss what features you liked or did not like about the articles.
Which one was most understandable to you and why?
Which one gives you the most applicable information?
Which one did you prefer and why?
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Instructions to Authors
1. The Journal is a multidisciplinary scientific journal published twice a year.
2. Refereed papers and non-refeered supplements are published in the Journal. The refeered papers may be written in Croatian and English and are categorized as technical papers, conference papers, review articles, preliminary communications and research papers (of 16 typewritten double-spaced pages). The non-refeered supplements are information on scientific meetings and workshops, reviews of books and journals, new regulations, organizational changes, etc. (up to 4 double-spaced pages).
3. Papers should be written in Croatian and English. If the author has submitted his paper without an English translation, the services of a translater will be offered, but at his expences and according to the fixed translation tariff list. If the Croatian language is not the author’s mother tongue, he can submit his paper in English only.
4. The Journal is printed in an A4 size.
5. Authors are kindly asked not to correct the typescript graphically.
6. It is necessary to put the author’s name, his address and telephone number, together with the title of the paper and its summary on the first page of the paper. The summary should contain the minimum of 100 words or 12 lines, stating very briefly the goal, methodology, main ideas and purposes of the paper as well as its scientific contribution. Key words should be listed after the summary.
7. Tables, diagrams, illustrations and charts must be understandable (bearing the ordinal number, title and source of information, and, if necessary, the explanation of symbols). Formulae should be put down as clear as possible using the standard expressions.
8. The list of references, at the end of the paper, should refer to particular bibliographic units, bear the ordinal number (in square brackets), and be listed in alphabetic order considering the author’s name. Quotations should be written in brackets, stating the ordinal number of the bibliographic unit and the page or stating the name of the author of the bibliographic unit, the year of publication and the pages. It is preferable to avoid quoting by using footnotes.
9. The bibliography (books, papers, Internet and other electronic sources in the paper / textual quotations) should be Harvard Style-sized.
10. Authors, not employed at the Faculty of Maritime Studies of the University of Rijeka, should submit their address, telephone number and e-mail address.
11. The typescript is to be sent to the e-mail address of the Journal: [email protected] or to the one of the executive editor: [email protected].
Every single author is the only person responsible for the facts stated in her/his paper published in the Scientific Journal of Maritime Research. The Faculty of Maritime Studies of the University of Rijeka, as Editor and Publisher, is, therefore, released from any responsibility that may be imposed on in this respect. | http://pfri.uniri.hr/web/en/guideines_for_authors.php |
Mendeley Research Networks for linking researchers and publications.
Owner
William Gunn
Background and Current Practice
The existing system by which scientific knowledge flows from discovery to publication to new discovery involves a publishing and peer review process. For many fields, particularly life sciences, this is time consuming and inefficient as the knowledge discovered must be distilled into a form suitable for a printed publication. In the process, much of the context and links are lost, as when a data set is rendered as an image and published as a PDF. This leads to the body of knowledge existing as different silos of unstructured information and creates a large delay as the work goes through the editorial and printing processes of the publisher to which the work was submitted. In response to this, Mendeley proposes to add context back to publications through crowdsourced social and attention-based metadata as well as algorithmic approaches to linking documents.
Goal
1. Collect the the world's academic literature. By the end of 2011, if current rates continue, we expect to have 80-90% coverage.
2. Collect annotations, tags, and document usage data on the document corpus.
3. Use this information as well as established algorithmic approaches to enrich the publication metadata and make this information available via API so that further applications can be built, such as a more advanced way of understanding paper-paper, paper-researcher, and researcher-researcher relationships besides "A cites B".
Target Audience
The target audience is researchers, developers, and publishers of scholarly communications.
Use Case Scenario
Researcher A wants to know if a method described in Paper A has been criticized and what the commentary was. Researcher A searches for the paper in the Mendeley research catalog, papers listed on the catalog page for the paper as related to Paper A and reads those, discovering related commentary both in the paper itself and added to the document by the readers of the paper within Mendeley. Researcher A then searches for the method from Paper A in the Mendeley research catalog and retrieves results based on the relative level of readership of the paper, thereby accessing the most relevant published commentary about the method.
Application of linked data for the given use case
The related papers would be identified by means of readership, but co-citation is also possible. The strength of the relationships can be derived by citation and readership graph analysis. Ranking of search results can be derived in a similar fashion. Custom search operators could also enable searches for only criticizing or supporting publications, for example.
Existing Work (optional)
The existing work at http://mendeley.com implements some of this and plans to implement the rest.
See Also
Related Vocabularies (optional)
We may use existing vocabularies such as the Citation Typing Ontology.
Problems and Limitations (optional)
The key to overcoming this challenge is collecting enough crowdsourced information on enough documents that the dataset becomes dense enough that algorithms yield useful results for the majority of the content.
Related Use Cases and Unanticipated Uses (optional)
It is also possible that publishers may use the information to optimize the readership of their own publications or that researchers may begin to demand publication forms that preserve more of the structured data. | https://www.w3.org/2005/Incubator/lld/wiki/Use_Case_Mendeley_Research_Networks_for_linking_researchers_and_publications |
Those whose contributions do not justify authorship may be acknowledged individually or together as a group under a single heading e. Recommended length is 10-15 published pages excluding references and supporting material no more than 30 publishing units with approximately 6 figures or tables. Laboratory studies Laboratory studies can be done using cells from animals or humans, or animal models. These articles also contain details about how the experiments were done. One well known cohort study is the British Doctors Study, which prospectively examined the effect of smoking on mortality among British doctors over a period of decades. Two or more authors: Vink, G. There is usually a delay of several months after an article is written before it is published in a journal, making paper journals not an ideal format for announcing the latest research.
Writing a scientific article is difficult, but skillful writing does not depend only on talent. Original research articles are long, with the word limit ranging from 3000 to 6000, 2,3 and can even go up to 12,000 words for some journals. Each part of the paper serves a unique purpose and can help your research project in a different way. Three types of information can be extracted from the results section: data from the experiments, ideas about how to improve the methods, and an understanding of how to represent similar data. Name—Year The following examples illustrate the name—year system.
The main criteria for publication will be the novelty of concepts involved, the validity of the technique and its potential for clinical applications. Retrospective cohort studies have the same limitation that case-control studies do in that it is not always clear whether the exposure occurred before the disease started. Novelty is also key: existing work must be appropriately considered and referenced, and new results improving on the state of the art presented. They are expected to present new theories and novel concepts along with their applications, and the results should be significant. There are also scientific publications that bridge the gap between articles and books by publishing thematic volumes of chapters from different authors.
In other trials, patients do not know which arm they are in. If you're reading a paragraph in the current paper and want more information on the content, you should always try to find and read the articles cited in that paragraph. It can be done knowingly or not. If you're already very familiar with the topic, you may find that reading the discussion is unnecessary. Guidelines for writing a review article.
By definition, this experiment method must be used where emotions or behaviors are measured, as there is no other way of defining the. Regardless of the type of source, there will always be enough information authors, title, journal name, publication date, etc. The authors' hypothesis and methodological approach used to examine the research hypothesis should also be stated. Lastly, if you're interested in the authors' interpretations of the results, read the discussion. Read the roundtable discussion about by students who successfully competed at the top-level science competitions, and you'll quickly see that scientific papers were vital to those students when it came to both choosing their topics and carrying out their experiments. In some fields both are used, with preliminary reports, working papers, or followed by a formal article.
The ethical issue with this is when there are two people that believe to be the author, but there is only one true author. Writing a good research manuscript is not easy. This review focuses on the principles of writing the introduction of an article and provides a quick look at the essential points that should be considered for writing an optimal introduction. Two or more authors: Ingmanson, D. A true experimental clinical trial would be necessary to show that one factor caused another. There are, however, other reasons for citing references in scientific research papers. While being rather short and easy-to-read, this kind of task allows your tutor to check your knowledge in the given subject and see what you really know.
Based on statistical arguments, it has been shown that electronic online, and to some extent , both provide wider dissemination and increase the average number of citations an article receives. Systematic review: This is a methodical and thorough literature review focused on a particular research question. For all the methodological reasons mentioned above and for ethical reasons, the randomized controlled and blinded clinical trial with case number planning is accepted as the gold standard for testing the efficacy and safety of therapies or drugs , ,. If you're considering doing original scientific research, reading the scientific literature is a must! If you're looking at a paper and you're not sure if it is a review or a primary research article, here are a few easy ways to distinguish. Having the help of an experienced mentor is invaluable.
A white paper is actually a great example of gray literature. But for people just entering the field, discussions are a good place to get a glimpse of what the current competing theories and hypotheses are. Review article: In the scientific literature, this is a type of article that provides a synthesis of existing research on a particular topic. Place of publication: publisher; date. This procedure is performed with random numbers or computer algorithms —. The study protocol must contain information on the conditions, question to be answered objective , the methods of measurement, the implementation, organization, study population, data management, case number planning, the biometric evaluation, and the clinical relevance of the question to be answered. Is the process of purposefully changing data to make the information more in the favor of the author. | http://openchatbot.community/types-of-scientific-papers.html |
APA formatted papers require a references page after the last page of text in order to provide the reader a guide to the author's in-text citations. A references page: Contains a citations for every source mentioned in the body of the paper. Is in alphabetical order. Begins on a new page after the last page of the written paper. APA Style Paper | How to Write in APA Format Writing an APA Style Paper and Formatting The first thing to pay attention to when speaking about the peculiarities of an APA style paper is, definitely, its format. APA stands for the organization which worked out the standards for academic papers in the social sciences, American Psychological Association. APA style - Wikipedia APA Style is widely used, either entirely or with modifications, by hundreds of other scientific journals (including medical and other public health journals), in many textbooks, and in academia (for papers written in classes). APA Citation Help - APA Formatting & Citation Help - Subject ...
Overview - Citations - Academic Guides at Walden University
PDF APA Style Reference Citations - utoledo.edu WHAT IS APA'S STYLE OF REFERENCE CITATION? APA style uses the author/date method of citation in which the author's last name and the year of the publication are inserted in the actual text of the paper. It is the style recommended by the American Psychological Association and used in many of the social sciences. The American Psychological ... PDF APA Style: Handling Quotations, Citations, and References APA Style: Handling Quotations, Citations, and References Selected by the Writing Center at Armstrong Atlantic State University, the examples in this handout are based on the 5th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (August 2001). APA, MLA, Chicago, Turabian - Citation Style Guide - Subject ...
APA style is the format that is typically required of students who are writing essays and reports for courses in psychology and the social sciences. This style is similar to MLA, but there are small but important differences.
What is the APA Citation Style? Let's start with a brief identification of paper in APA format. This abbreviation stands for American Psychological Association. This format is about date and creator's name. In this case, this name should be added to all citations you have in your paper using simple parenthetical punctuation style. APA: Empirical Research Papers | Boundless Writing Because figures appear separate from the body of your paper, you must refer to each one in the text of your paper by its number (e.g., "Figure 1") so the reader knows where it is relevant. Formatting. APA style has strict rules about how to create and format your figures. How to Cite Sources in APA Citation Format - Mendeley This is a complete guide to APA (American Psychological Association) in-text and reference list citations. This easy-to-use, comprehensive guide makes citing any source easy. Check out our other citation guides on MLA 8 and Harvard referencing. Be alphabetically by name of first author (or title if ... Reference List & Paper Formatting - APA Citation Guide (6th ... APA Citation Guide (6th Edition): Reference List & Paper Formatting This research guide is based on the Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th edition). Welcome
APA: Structure and Formatting of Specific Elements ...
APA Conference Citation | APA Format
Here - maiz84-pdf-affrp 2/4 apa format comparison research paper a common mistake when the doherty library.
Manage Your Writing by Using Our APA citation Website Guide. When you are assigned an assignment to write a research paper, dissertation, essay, or any other form of writing that requires doing research, you are provided with the instructions to follow. | https://essayserviceslgdpc.netlify.app/westler20340maf/apa-citation-for-paper-wapa.html |
Focus, scope, and frequency
KAZGUU Liberal Arts Digest (“K L A D”) presents the results of scientific research established by students and scientists in the field of philosophy and identity, the history of Kazakhstan, pedagogy and education, linguistics and methods of teaching languages, translation, and tourism in the academic environment.
The aim is to popularize research activities through the collaboration of young and leading scientists.
“K L A D” invites young scientists, students and graduates of bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral programs from Kazakhstan, and far abroad.
The language of publication is English.
Frequency of publication – 2 times a year (December, June).
Section policies
“K L A D” admits for publication various types of articles: original research, review articles, short reports or essays, reflections, case studies, methodologies and cases, containing the results of fundamental and applied research.
- Philosophy and identity
- History of Kazakhstan
- Pedagogy and education
- Linguistics and methods of teaching languages
- Translation Studies
- Tourism
The editorial board of the “KAZGUU LIBERAL ARTS DIGEST” journal accepts for publication:
This is the most common type of journal manuscript used to publish complete reports of research data. It can be a scientific article and / or a research article. The format of the original research includes such sections as “Introduction”, “Methodology”, “Results”, “Discussion”, “Conclusions”, “Acknowledgments”. The total volume of the manuscript. The number of words is 4.000-6.000 words.
• Author’s manuscripts
These articles provide summaries of original research data that the editors believe will be of interest to many researchers and are likely to stimulate further research in this area. Because they are relatively short, the format is useful for academics whose results are time dependent (for example, those working in highly competitive or rapidly changing disciplines). This format is often severely limited in size, so some experimental details cannot be published until the authors have written a complete manuscript of the original study. These documents are also sometimes referred to as Briefs. The format of the author’s manuscript includes an introduction, reference texts and additional texts, the main text with subheadings. The number of words is 2.000-3.000 words.
• Review articles
Review articles provide a comprehensive overview of research on a specific topic, as well as a vision of the state of this area and its direction. Reviews typically cite about 30-50 primary research articles. The review article is not original research. It reviews previous research and collects data and evidence from it. The purpose of the review should be to organize and synthesize past work around a chosen topic to accelerate the accumulation and assimilation of recent knowledge in the existing body of knowledge. The format of the review article includes “Introduction”, “Methodology”, “Results”, “Discussion”, “Conclusions”, “Acknowledgments”.
The number of words: 2.000-4.000 words.
• Methodologies or methods
These articles present a new experimental method, test, or procedure. The described method can be either completely new or offer a better version of an existing method. The article should describe the obvious progress compared to what is currently available. The format of the review article includes “Introduction”, “Methodology”, “Results”, “Discussion”, “Conclusions”, “Acknowledgments”. The number of words is 2.000-4.000 words.
• Essay, reflection
These works presuppose subjectively colored reflections of a predominantly scientific research nature in connection with a particular topic, which, as a rule, is acutely relevant and can be formulated in a question form. Essays, reflection should reflect a clear statement of the essence of the problem posed, competent formulation of thoughts, independently conducted analysis of the problem using concepts (stable and alternative) and analytical tools, structuring information, using the main categories of analysis, highlighting causal relationships, illustrating concepts with appropriate examples ( including from fiction, journalistic, scientific literature), arguing their conclusions, which generalize the author’s position on the problem posed. The format of the essay, reflection includes: “Introduction”, “Analysis”, “Conclusions”. The number of words is 500-1.000 words.
• Thesis of the article
The abstracts contain a summary of the research process and / or the formulation of the main results of scientific research, which is provided by the author to the scientific community. Abstracts may refer to research materials previously published in research papers, articles and / or monographs, or other scientific publications in impact factor journals. The format of the abstract of the article includes “Introduction”, “Results”, “Conclusions”. The number of words is 1.000-2.000 words.
1. All papers, received by the editorial board KAZGUU Liberal Arts Digest(“K L A D”), pass the initial check-up stage of a double-blind review. Correspondence between the author and the reviewer takes place via e-mail of the journal.
2. “K L A D” has the right to appoint the editorial board inviting SLA faculty or acknowledged academic specialists in the sphere.
3. Reviewers follow the rules of publication ethics established by the editorial board.
4. Appointed reviewers can refuse to analyze the manuscript in case there is a conflict of interest.
5. Reviews are written in free form; however, they clarify the following compulsory aspects:Does the paper correspond with the profile of the journal?Is the topic relevant?
Does the paper possess any theoretical and practical significance?Is the author’s approach novel?Is the style scientific and clear?
6. We will normally send you anonymous reviews of your paper within 10-20 days; however the period could be changed trough the review process by the decision of REC.
7. The reviews contain one of the following recommendations:
• publish the paper as it is;
• publish the paper after it has been improved according to the recommendations of the reviewers if the author agrees to make such improvements;
• publish the paper only after it has been improved according to the recommendations of the reviewers;
• reject the manuscript with the right to resubmit it;
• reject the manuscript with no future resubmission.
8. Your manuscript might have to undergo an extra review if considered necessary.
9. In case the editor e-mails you a list of suggested improvements, you can accept them or to give a substantiated refusal.
10. The review is sent to the author without specifying the name of the reviewer.
11. Please e-mail your improved variant back to the editor within 10 days; otherwise your manuscript will have to start from square one.
12. Your improved version has to be accompanied by a cover letter as a separate file (Name_answer) where you will have to respond to the criticism and explain all the improvements you have made in your paper (Name_paper_improved). Please highlight all the improvements in the text.
For example:
Yemelyanova E_answer.doc
Yemelyanova E_monuscript_revised.doc
13. If the reviews are negative, you will be sent a substantiated rejection letter signed by the chief editor or the secretary.
14. The chief editor considers the final edited version of every paper, reviews, and the author’s response and makes the final decision (approved / returned to the author for further revision / rejected). After that, the editor will inform you about the final decision of the chief editor within 10 days.
15. Should you need a copy of the reviews, do not hesitate to send us your request. Mind that the copy will be anonymous.
16. Original reviews are stored in the editorial office for 3 years.
17. In case the authors do not respond to the constructive feedback from the reviewers or the editor, the manuscript is likely to be rejected.
Compliance with publication ethics is a requirement for all participants in the editorial and publishing process – authors, editors, reviewers, publisher.
The editorial board of “K L A D” is guided by the developments of the Committee on Publication Ethics (UK), Elsevier Publishing House (Netherlands) and M.S. Narikbaev KAZGUU Academic Integrity Guidelines, as well as the requirements for scientific publications for inclusion in the list of publications,recommended by KKSON RK.
Unpublished data obtained from submitted manuscripts cannot be used in personal research without the written consent of the Author (s).
Information or ideas obtained during the review and associated with possible benefits must be kept confidential and not used for personal gain.
The editorial board of the “KAZGUU LIBERAL ARTS DIGEST” journal use a plagiarism detection software Turnitin to screen the manuscript for originality.The uniqueness of the text to be published in KLAD should be no less than 100% and do not contradict the requirements of APA style 7 edition of AmericanPsychologicalAssociation and COPE.
In case of plagiarism, the editorial board apply for REC to decide.
Publication fee in “K L A D” is 5000 tenge
The editors do not charge fees for the revision, and publishment only from undergraduate authors of KAZGUU academic programmes. These papers are published at the expense of M.S. Narikbaev KAZGUU University.
The names, e-mails, and other personal data provided by the Author(s) when registering on this site will be used exclusively as part of the publication process.
Personal data about the authors indicated in the materials of the article sent to the editorial office for consideration and publication is to be published in the public domain.
When registering a user (as a reader, reviewer, author) on the site, only those personal data should be indicated that the user is potentially willing to provide when uploading an article among the information about the author for publication in the public domain.
1. A set of files is provided to the editorial office by e-mail [email protected] or through an application on the website.
2. More than two articles by one author in one issue of the journal are not allowed.
3. Submitted articles can be returned to the author for revision or rejected due to inconsistency with the profile of the journal, unacceptable volume, negative double-blind review comment or non-compliance with the rules of registration.
4. All articles submitted to the editorial office are checked in the “Turnitin” system, the submitted materials must have at least 100% originality of the text.
5. All articles submitted to the editorial office undergo double-blind peer review, which analyzes the relevance of the topic, scientific novelty and originality of decisions, evidence base, rigor and unambiguousness of conclusions, scientific equipment, quality of illustrative material, and are published by decision of the editorial board of the journal.
6. The editorial board has the right to make abbreviations and editorial changes in the text of the manuscripts.
7. Articles are included in the issue only after a positive decision of the editorial board. Articles are published in order of priority, that is acceptance for publication does not imply publication in the next issue of the journal.
8. Author(s) voluntarily provide information about themselves to the editorial office for the purpose of their open publication in the journal along with the publication of the article.
1. Title of the article (bold, font14 pt., alignment – centered). The title should be short and not contain any abbreviations.
2. Information about authors – (including the indication of the main author). Surname, name of the author(s) with affiliation (font 14 pt., alignment – centered), name of the university, city, country.
3. Abstract (no more than 250 words) and keywords. The structure of the abstract includes the following mandatory points: the purpose of the research, the research methodology, the originality (value) of the research and research results. Except the essays and reflection papers.
Key words – 4-6 words or phrases.
4. The main text according to the selected type of publication.
5. Bibliography according to American Psychological Association (http://www.apastyle.org/) APA style 7 ed.
6. To publish the article, please submit the manuscript on time in compliance with the following requirements: font “Times New Roman” or “Times New Roman KZ”, size 14, with single line spacing. Page parameters: margins – top and bottom – 2.5 cm, left – 2.5 cm and right – 2.5 cm. Requirements should be complied in accordance with APA style 7 ed.
7. The main text should be scientifically, stylistically, and technically edited according to the requirements of your manuscript, as mentioned above.
STUDENT SATISFACTION WITH QUALITY ASSURANCE OF ACADEMIC PROGRAMS: STUDENTS’ VOICE
Kuznetsov E.A.
PhD, professor of the School of Liberal Arts at M.S. Narikbayev KAZGUU University,
Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan
Abstract
Over the past 11 years, Kazakhstani higher education has been involved in reforms of the Bologna Process implementation. New amendments to the law on academic freedom, oriented universities to the consumers’ voice, and accountability according to the Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance. Consumer orientation is becoming a fundamental principle in organizing the educational process, with constant evaluation of student satisfaction with academic programs. Such an issue is unusually strict at private universities that do not present scholarships and wish to keep leading positions in terms of academic competition. This research presents the experience of one private Kazakhstani university in monitoring student satisfaction with academic experience, and the extent students’ voice is accounted for in the quality assurance process. The study used a quantitative method, which included a survey focused on students’ satisfaction of five areas, including program content and teaching process, assessment, and feedback, and learning environment. Considering the ECTS, PLUM regression, and ANOVA analysis are conducted to determine the predictors that influence students’ satisfaction and reveal the difference between the year of the study. The results showed that students are mostly dissatisfied with their academic experience as they have no clear instructions and rubrics before the assessment and clear feedback after it, together with the opportunity to implement their knowledge in real life. Moreover, students’ voice is not heeded by the students’ committees in quality assurance, as they exist mostly on paper in university’ annual report. The results of the research will help the university authority understand students’ needs and fulfill the gap between primary stakeholders and program designers in building mutual trust and recognition in internal quality assurance of academic programs. | https://sla.kazguu.kz/en/kazguu-liberal-arts-digest/ |
Entrepreneurship is a process that helps to organize, develop and run a business enterprise so as to earn a profit in spite of all the uncertainties associated with the venture. It is described as the willingness to launch a new venture and the ability of an entrepreneur to find new life-changing solutions to existing problems, increase demand in the market and provide jobs for a skilled workforce to enhance the society and the economy of a nation.
Entrepreneurship has been the source of income for a government and is considered the key to growth and development of a country. Their success is the success of the whole nation as it improves the living conditions of people for the betterment of society. It has the ability to initiate social change by creating innovative products.
Contents
- 1. Importance of entrepreneurship in developing countries
- 2. Importance of entrepreneurship in society
- 3. Importance of entrepreneurship in the school curriculum
- 4. Importance of entrepreneurship in economic development
1. Importance of entrepreneurship in developing countries
Entrepreneurship is very important for the economic development of a country and the nature of a developed economy is quite different from that of a developing economy. The importance of entrepreneurship in developing countries is as follows
1. Employment generation
When the entrepreneur starts a new venture he is providing employment opportunities to himself as well as numerous other people who will be associated with his company. Unemployment is a serious issue in developing countries and entrepreneurship helps to address it successfully so that it can result in the economic development of that country
2. Balanced economic development
Small business needs low investment and can be started in semi-urban and rural areas. It uses local resources and thus creates employment opportunities and prevents people from migrating to urban areas. The backward regions become developed and the growth of industries and business enterprises in these areas leads to public benefits like education, health, road transport, and entertainment, etc.
3. Small business plan dynamism
The structure of the medium and small business is not as complex as large business enterprises and thus involves smooth and quick decision-making and communication process. It results in high mobility and flexibility in small businesses than in large enterprises. Entrepreneurs who are running small and medium businesses are able to face challenges more admirably than the managers who are employed by large business houses. This great dynamism is an integral part of a small business plan.
4. Promotes capital formation
The funds that are sitting idle are utilized effectively by entrepreneurs. They use a mix of borrowed and personal funds and this leads to capital formation and creation of wealth that is an important component for the development of a developing country
5. Innovation in enterprises
Small business enterprises have a high capability and need to innovate as their survival is dependent on it. The entities can be innovative because they are not faced with the same constraints that large business entities have to face.
6. Self-reliance
Entrepreneurship helps to manufacture substitutes of imported products that ultimately minimizes the dependence on other countries for imported products. The chance of exporting surplus goods also increases and this helps to earn foreign exchange. At the end of the day, it ensures economic independence and self-reliance.
7. Better standard of living
Entrepreneurship leads to the production of goods at low cost and supply of qualitative products and services at a lower rate in society. The low price of commodities gives the consumer the option to purchase products as per their satisfaction. This results in a better standard of living
2. Importance of entrepreneurship in society
Entrepreneurship helps to create a high quality and stable community life in society. Its importance is
- Entrepreneurship inspires social development as a portion of their income is spent on the education of poor children.
- The entrepreneurship participates and encourages their employees to participate in national development initiatives
- Entrepreneurship inspires young people and students to be responsible for the nation
- It makes investments in growing and manufacturing natural resources
- The job opportunities help to increase the standard of living of the people in a society
- Entrepreneurs give monetary donations as part of the charity. They not only earn but donate money in organizations and foundations. They also try to meet several other needs of the common or poor people by offering food, freshwater and healthcare services
- Entrepreneurs offer their support to like-minded individuals and are ready to invest in these as well as other community projects. They finance good causes related to public health, sanitation, recreation, education, etc and this felicitates development of society as a whole.
3. Importance of entrepreneurship in the school curriculum
Introducing the concept of entrepreneurship in the school curriculum will help the students to act in a responsible manner and decide beforehand whether they are suitable for such ventures. Its importance is
1. Thinking skills
The entrepreneurship course encourages thinking skills in a student so that they can understand the concept and come up with some original ideas
2. Learning a business
Students generally practice interviews with entrepreneurs by writing important questions and conducting interviews. The information is compiled together so that the students can have discussions about the products, place and marketing strategies of the business
3. Imagination
Students are encouraged to show their creativity by imagining different concepts and possibilities. This facilitates a better understanding of entrepreneurship in them that will prove a blessing if they choose it as their career option
4. Research skills
It encourages research skills in students that will be a great help to them later in life
5. Better future
If the students learn about finance in the early years it will help them to use money in an effective and wise manner when they themselves become entrepreneurs.
4. Importance of entrepreneurship in economic development
Entrepreneurship has the capability to change the way people live and work in a country. The importance of entrepreneurship in the economy is
1. Encourages economic growth
It is a source of income to the government as all types of business entities have to pay taxes. This amount is used by the governments in investing in struggling sectors, human capital and other facilities like schools, college, roads, highway, etc that will encourage economic growth of the nation
2. Increase demand
Entrepreneurship helps to increase the demand for services and goods
3. Adds to national income
Entrepreneurship helps to create improved services and products and this encourages the development of new markets and the creation of new wealth. Higher earnings, increased opportunities for employment and higher tax revenues add to national income.
Unique goods and services introduced by entrepreneurs reduce dependence on old-fashioned technologies. It leads to improved morale and quality of life. The greater economic freedom creates social change that is for the betterment of society
5. Promotes research and development
Entrepreneurship provides necessary funds to research institutions and research and development facilities and universities so that they can make innovative products, services, and technology.
Pinky is an MBA in Marketing from the University of Mumbai. She loves helping people out in learning Marketing and sharing latest ideas and tactics for growing businesses. | https://marketingeggspert.com/business/importance-of-entrepreneurship/ |
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Abstract
Entrepreneurship is the principal mechanism for materializing the impact of technological innovation on economies and societies. Technological innovation is, in turn, the ultimate source of productivity improvement and the main driver for economic growth. Consequently, innovation and entrepreneurship have become top policy priorities in the national agendas of countries that strive to deliver prosperity for their citizens through economic growth, job creation and poverty reduction. What are the factors that determine the status of entrepreneurship in societies around the world? How can we observe and measure those factors and track their evolution in time as societies and economies evolve? Addressing those questions is the goal of the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM), the leading worldwide study on entrepreneurship. GEM was initially conceptualized in 1997 and is currently considered as the most authoritative and informative longitudinal study on entrepreneurship in the world, covering all geographic regions and economic levels. The GEM conceptual framework is based on the assumption that national economic growth is the result of the personal traits and capabilities of individuals to identify and seize opportunities, and that this process is affected by environmental factors that influence individuals’ decisions to pursue entrepreneurial initiatives. Therefore, GEM seeks to capture the attitudes of societies towards entrepreneurship, the characteristics, motivations and ambitions of entrepreneurs, and the quality of entrepreneurial ecosystems in different economies. GEM accounts for specific contextual factors, which are considered influential in creating unique business and entrepreneurial contexts, such as social, political, and economic. Measuring and understanding the factors that affect the status of entrepreneurship is important in order to drive policy-making that can lead to solid productivity improvements and a positive change in economic activity. Policy making in the modern world is particularly challenging, as it needs to take into account the rapid and profound changes brought by exponential progress in technology, the unprecedented acceleration of globalization and the onslaught of climate change. Exponential progress in knowledge and technology makes most new technologies obsolete very fast. The cycle of innovation, which comprises experimentation, learning, knowledge application, and assessment of success or failure - is becoming shorter than ever. Automation, Artificial Intelligence, and the 4th Industrial Revolution are disrupting whole economic sectors and threaten to render a variety of blue and white collar jobs across numerous sectors obsolete. Globalization is leading to the acceleration of global flows of information, knowledge, people, commerce and finance, making the world hyperconnected and interdependent with markets, businesses, governments and societies interwound more tightly together than ever. Climate change raises unexpected challenges and threats that may require radical solutions to problems of great complexity and scale; such solutions might call for the deployment of innovative inventions, in synchrony with the mobilization of society and a radical change of mindset at a global scale. The aspiration of the Cyprus GEM National Report is to analyze the status and evolution of entrepreneurship in Cyprus through the lens of modern-world challenges. We believe this is important for informed, timely and agile decision-making. What are the key observations from the 2017/2018 survey? On the positive side, we observe that there is a constantly positive perception about entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial opportunities in Cyprus, and that an encouraging percentage of the population expresses entrepreneurial intention. Physical, commercial and legal Infrastructures are considered to be on par with the European average, while government policies regarding taxes and bureaucracy are considered more positive to entrepreneurship than the EU average. In comparison to 2016/2017, it seems that an improved awareness about entrepreneurship is helping Cypriots to develop a more pragmatic view of the challenges involved in undertaking entrepreneurial activity. However, this is combined with an increased fear of failure and a weaker access to finance in comparison to the respective EU averages. Moreover, the riskreward balance offered in Cyprus appears rather limited, due to the small size of the country, the lack of highly specialized talent, and the sparsity of networks that connect local entrepreneurs and innovators with global finance and big markets. These factors can deter the up taking of high-risk or unconventional entrepreneurial activities. The GEM surveys for Cyprus of the last two years depict a country in transition from the financial crisis of 2012- 2013 into a future that is still uncertain. Total Early-Stage Entrepreneurial Activity (TEA) seems weaker compared to last year (7.3% in 2017/2018, 12% in 2016/2017). Most of the TEA entrepreneurs in Cyprus are opportunity-driven rather than necessity-driven. However, there is still a notable gender gap between female and male TEA entrepreneurs as the ratio between females and males involved in TEA is 0.6. Most of TEA is recorded in Wholesale and Retail sectors (45.4%), whereas rapidly growing sectors with strong innovation potential in globalized marketplaces, like ICT, renewable energy and intelligent manufacturing, have a modest contribution to TEA. Also, entrepreneurs involved in TEA do not foresee substantial creation of new jobs (46.6% expect no new jobs). Few entrepreneurs consider that their TEA activity is internationally oriented (10%), whereas activity relevant to medium-tech or high-tech is very limited (4.9%). These can be a source of concern for the future of economic competitiveness and job creation in dynamic economic sectors. Beyond the impact of entrepreneurship on Cyprus’ economic competitiveness and job creation, entrepreneurship can largely contribute to the altering of climate change and the protection of the environment. This year’s guest section emphasizes on green entrepreneurship. Drawing on international best cleantech practices, it provides recommendations to assist Cyprus in becoming a regional Cleantech Innovation and Entrepreneurship Hub for the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. Cyprus’ participation in GEM fosters the generation of data on the country’s entrepreneurship status across time and allows the comparison with other countries. This year’s GEM report analyzes the status of the entrepreneurship in Cyprus as it has evolved between 2016/2017 and 2017/2018 and compares it to corresponding European average values. It then outlines several policy making recommendations organized in respect to the following categories: Education, Government process, Financial support and Business Processes. We aspire that GEM 2017/2018 can be a practical and valuable tool for improving the status of entrepreneurship in Cyprus. | https://gnosis.library.ucy.ac.cy/handle/7/42385 |
A group of business and civic leaders recently “stepped up” to offer a series of proposals to lead the state out of its current budget quagmire. Organized as Step Up Oklahoma, this group’s suggestions for improving the situation include a variety of tax increases and governmental reforms.
Notable tax increases include:
- an increase on the state’s cigarette and fuel taxes;
- an increase of the state’s gross production tax on oil and gas wells;
- and “simplification” of the tax code.
(That last point, according to the plan’s authors, will increase state income taxes on households earning over $12,000 per year.)
Government reforms include:
- lowering the super-majority threshold currently required to raise taxes;
- the creation of an “independent” budget office;
- increasing term limits from 12 years to 16 years;
- and having the governor and lieutenant governor run as a ticket.
Regardless of what one thinks of the individual recommendations, it is clear that some sort of compromise will be needed to address the state’s current budget shortfall of $215 million and a projected shortfall for the next fiscal year that could exceed $600 million. A combination of revenue increases and steps to greater efficiency will have to be the way out of our current fiasco, but long-term growth will require something more.
Long-term growth requires key ingredient
In the long run, what Oklahoma needs far more than tax increases or targeted budget reductions (usually advertised as “greater efficiency”) is serious and sustained economic growth. Quite frankly, Oklahoma needs more people earning higher incomes. This not only benefits those households earning the higher wages, it benefits the state by broadening the tax base while maintaining a relatively low level of taxation and appropriately funding core services.
Achieving such growth is not a short-term solution involving government officials recruiting large employers to the state with a variety of tax credit schemes. Such events make great headlines for elected officials but are rarely the source of long-term economic growth. Rather, innovation leads to long-term (and increasing) levels of economic growth.
Reducing the barriers to innovation
In their book, Better Capitalism, economists Robert Litan and Carl Schramm offer some specific recommendations for achieving higher rates of innovation and economic growth. Three recommendations stand out, especially for Oklahoma:
- reducing the barriers to entrepreneurship and innovation;
- becoming more welcoming for immigrants and others perceived as “outsiders”;
- and incorporating entrepreneurial skills into all levels of education.
Litan and Schramm explain that, to raise standards of living, innovators and entrepreneurs must be freed to create. This means creating policies that encourage and reward such innovation.
Occupational licensing reform represents one of the easiest policies to enact at the state level, and Oklahoma Labor Commissioner Melissa Houston recently spearheaded a task force that issued a thorough report and set of recommendations.
It is becoming recognized across the country that many, if not most, occupational licensing requirements fail to protect either the health or safety of consumers. Instead, such requirements insulate already established businesses and service providers from competition. This reform is especially important to low- and middle-income households who can improve their lives through various forms of entrepreneurship.
In addition, Litan and Schramm argue that universities need to rethink how they treat faculty members and researchers who create new innovations, especially when such advancements can benefit the broader public. Giving those researchers greater ownership of their creations and greater flexibility in bringing them to market will encourage more innovation.
Developing an ‘eco-system’
Another way the authors suggest barriers to entrepreneurship can be removed is the creation of entrepreneurial support systems (“eco-systems”). Similar to the Oklahoma City Thunder’s announcement of its Thunder Launchpad initiative, the development of these support systems will enable budding innovators to connect to mentors, legal and financial experts, and sources of funding for their projects. Developing entrepreneurial eco-systems will improve the odds that an innovator’s efforts will ultimately succeed in the marketplace.
‘Outsiders’ largely compose the creative class
New people — and the ideas and innovations they often bring with them — are equally important to achieving increased economic growth. Unfortunately, Oklahoma has engaged in a spat of “anti-other” policies and sentiments during the past decade. Legislation opposed to Muslims, gays and “illegal” immigrants has all been proposed or passed in the previous 10 years, with the clear message that “if you’re not like us, you’re not welcome.”
Meanwhile, Litan and Schramm correctly point out that entrepreneurship is higher among immigrants than native-born Americans. In addition, the creative class, as economist Richard Florida has termed innovators and entrepreneurs, tends to favor environments that welcome individuals of various backgrounds, experiences and lifestyles.
Entrepreneurial skills as educational mandates
Finally, Litan and Schramm argue that education at all levels needs to incorporate entrepreneurial skills into the curriculum. Education expert Tony Wagner agrees. According to Wagner, schools should emphasize skills such as critical thinking, adaptability, entrepreneurship and collaboration. We can’t expect future generations of innovators if they aren’t learning the skills needed to succeed. As Litan and Schramm state, “All of us, and especially our children, will need entrepreneurial skills our entire working lives.”
Striving toward a permanent solution
The members of Step Up Oklahoma should be commended for demonstrating leadership in attempting to resolve the current state budget crisis, however, a permanent solution to this problem will take more than adjustments to taxes and additional budget cuts. A permanent solution will require a commitment to make Oklahoma a real center of entrepreneurship and innovation. In turn, this commitment will demand time, hard work and a willingness to change how we do certain things. | https://nondoc.com/2018/02/07/step-up-support-entrepreneurship/ |
Patt Lentfer, Fillmore County Development Corporation (FCDC) director, attended the Entrepreneurship Best Practices Summit at Nebraska Innovation Campus on November 17th.
Dell Gines, Senior Community Development Advisor for the Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, was the opening keynote speaker. He discussed entrepreneurship based economic development and ecosystems or “Grow Your Own” models of economic development and why they are important to Nebraska communities. As demographic shifts occur and corporations can no longer be expected to drive local employment and economic growth in many communities the need for entrepreneurs to create new opportunities becomes vital. By developing entrepreneurship ecosystems that support both the creation and growth of entrepreneurs and the businesses they create, communities can position themselves for long run and diverse economic growth in the modern economy.
There were breakout sessions on growing, creating, and building entrepreneurial communities through community action, having a vision, and being strategic and focused to encourage entrepreneurs. There was also an opportunity to hear from entrepreneurs who have started new businesses in the last few years and hear about journeys. | http://www.villageofexeter.com/2016/11/fcdc-director-attends-summit.html |
The meaning behind the concept of entrepreneurship has been undergoing constant evolution since the introduction of the concept in 1700s. Studies on the subject matter have contributed to the topic matter leading to widening of the concept. However, despite the development in the concept, there is no consensus on a theory to encompass the topic. However, there are numerous points that feature prominently in the discussion on entrepreneurship. This paper will focus on the development of entrepreneurship, the role of government in entrepreneurship and common features of successful entrepreneurs.
Since the introduction of the concept of entrepreneurship in 1700s, the meaning behind the idea has been evolving ever since to create a complex body of knowledge. Various additions have been made to the entire discipline due to the various studies on the subject matter. However, entrepreneurship as a discipline has been there since the development of trade. The different meanings that many equate the topic to are viable depending on the viewpoint that one has about the issue (Minniti, 2007). Most of the people simply equate the entrepreneurship to the simple act of starting a business. However, some of the scholars in the discipline have come to distance themselves from the simplistic approach to the concept. They seek to look at the things that make entrepreneurship more than the act of starting up an enterprise.
Development of trade is probably one of the main reason behind the creation of entrepreneurship in any society. Most of the communities find themselves lacking on the production of one item. However, they still have to use the item for their daily lives for survival, as it is the case with food or a mere enhancement of their lives. Therefore, there is a need to procure the lacking item from another community. A community that does not produce an item finds itself in a position that demand trading (Rušinović, 2006). Entrepreneurs find ways of ensuring that the item is availed to the people that need it when they need it and in their demand specifications. Therefore, an entrepreneur is a person that plays the role of market creation through bridging the physical and logistic distance between the sellers (suppliers) and the buyers.
Therefore, an entrepreneur is mainly poised on the profiting from the venture. Other entrepreneurs do not operate the market creation role (Schumpeter et al., 2011). This is a unique set of entrepreneurs that are poised on the development of new products for the community. This kind of entrepreneurs is the innovators. They could be within the community. Traditionally, people that have a certain craft such as ironwork skills would make up the majority of the entrepreneurs in this class. Being able to create a unique product places a person in a special position to be an entrepreneur.
Trade was mainly conducted using barter trade, which was full of limitations. Communities could meet and exchange products. This meant that one had to find hope that he find the community that he was looking for and that there would be another person that would be demanding his commodity (Minniti, 2007). This scenario was known as coincidence of wants and it was a major impediment to the development of trade. Often, there would be no coincidence of wants and a person had to hope that next time there would be a person demanding whatever he or she was selling (Schumpeter et al., 2011). The second issue that arose from bartering of goods was the divisibility issue. Some of the goods on offer could not be divided into smaller potions to suit the demands of some clientele. Therefore, a person would be forced to buy products in their entirety.
The aforementioned limitations of barter trade system were later abolished with the introduction of the money system (Minniti, 2007). The developments of various types of money have made it possible for the creation of easier ways of conducting trade hence the development of entrepreneurship. Other sources of the increase in the entrepreneurship ventures include the development of transport and communication. Shipbuilding and advances in maritime technology allowed most of the traders that were limited by physical barriers to access new markets. Bigger and faster ships have been developed for specialized handling of goods and easier transport of the commodities.
Innovations in communication have led to the development of new ways of communicating that have made business activities easy to start and run. Some of the developments in the information and technology has resulted in the development or creation of new opportunities, which have also been exploited by the modern entrepreneurs to develop business ventures. Change in the world economic systems are instigated by entrepreneurs who seek out new and better ways of conducting business that lead to the creation of the right value to the society. The issue is not how well a venture is designed or how unique it is. The paramount concern amongst the entrepreneurs is the ability of the venture to provide to the changing needs of the society.
The entrepreneur is any person that has the will power to bear the inherent risks in a new venture for a return in the form of profits. Other scholars view an entrepreneur as a person that takes the self driven initiative to start a new venture from an innovation and proceeds to market the innovation to the mainstream markets. The other perspective of an entrepreneur is that he is a person that makes new goods and/or processes that are not currently being supplied in the market but are demanded (Schumpeter et al., 2011). This approach means that an entrepreneur is a person who will identify a niche in the market and find feasible means of filling the gap through provision of goods that are in short supply.
According to Schumpeter et al., (2011), entrepreneurship is a result of a drive borne by the entrepreneur for improvement and innovation of the current production approaches those results in market upheaval and change of the major processes. This perspective borne in 20th century creates the image of the concept of entrepreneurship as creative destruction. The entrepreneur creates new approaches of carrying out a certain task. As a result, the old and conventional ways of doing things are changes completely leading to the rendering of the old industries obsolete. Creation of new and improved ways of doing business destroys the established market heuristics, hence the term creative destruction.
This idea of entrepreneurship was later advanced by Peter Drucker who described an entrepreneur as a person that has the knack for identification of market opportunities by searching for the changes and exploiting them for instance, the shift from typewriters to computers is such an opportunity that major entrepreneurs have exploited to create viable businesses (Schumpeter et al., 2011). Therefore, change is a significant element that defines the development trajectory assumed by the entrepreneurship as a discipline and practice. To allude to the expression by Charles Darwin, the species that end up surviving are not necessarily the strongest but the ones that have the ability to identify change and adapt.
Entrepreneurs have been able to survive due to their ability to identify instances of change and work on aligning themselves to change. It has come to be agreed upon that entrepreneurship is an integral part in the stimulation of the economic growth and employment. This is the truth in the majority of the countries in the developing and developed worlds alike since small businesses are viewed as major vehicles for poverty eradication (Schumpeter et al., 2011). The governments that have positively identified entrepreneurship as the potential area of growth have ended up leading their countries into the desired development realms. In fact, the greatest empires in the history were built on the success of business and not military might since the military was mainly placed to expand the opportunities for the businesses.
The role of the entrepreneurship in the development of the countries is pivotal as the business and industry advisory committee to the OECD concurred in 2003. The advisory committee identified that the ability of the government to develop policies that foster entrepreneurship is of absolute importance for the creation of jobs and the attainment of the desired economic growth. Governments that have provided an environment that allows the flourishing of the entrepreneurial culture have always played a crucial and integral role in the development of the business ventures that, in turn, contribute to the social welfare and the attainment of social development goals. Therefore, provision of incentives by the government for business development is an important ingredient in the development of the most successful business models in the world.
Cultural values held by a community can also play an integral role in the development of the entrepreneurship culture. Cultural differences between societies determine the different levels of entrepreneurship manifested. Cultural differences may lead to a scenario whereby entrepreneurship is a less rewarding activity to the people involved. Communities that accord social status to the people that hold the top positions in hierarchical organizations or the ones that have expertise of some sort may end up discouraging the development of the correct approach to entrepreneurship culture.
On the contrary, the communities that accord highest status to the people that have the self-made status have a higher level of entrepreneurship than the previously allegorized community does. The goal of the research paper is on why and how people opt to be entrepreneurs, the benefits that an economy drives from the presences of entrepreneurship culture and the role of the government in the creation of entrepreneurial culture through direct assistance or provision of a viable business opportunity. The paper will also cover the pitfalls that are inherent in entrepreneurship and provide a possible solution to the problems.
Minniti (2007) opines that the immediate perception that is associated with entrepreneurship is that of the creation of new business ventures or the trend of self-employed people. The activities mentioned above are actual expressions of entrepreneurial behavior. However, entrepreneurship is more than the creation of new business ventures. The authors opine that the human life is dominated by decisions that are geared towards improvement of their lives. As a result, all the people are potential innovators who are out to find new and improved ways of conducting business. As a result, entrepreneurship is a human behavior that is poised on the creation of the best improvements on their life. Entrepreneurship is also universal in that it is present in all human beings regardless of the location and it manifests in different ways.
This means that the human being is the core of the entrepreneurship and any failure to focus on the people aspect of entrepreneurship makes the quest to understand it pointless (Minniti, 2007). Therefore, people aspect forms the forefront of understanding the idea of entrepreneurship. Systems created by the people such as government are also important since they determine the availability of the environment that will play a vital role in fostering innovation in the society. Therefore, the first point that one has to make in order to understand the whole idea of entrepreneurship is the understanding of the human aspect (Minniti, 2007).
Why are some people more focused on the concept of entrepreneurship than others are? Why does a certain community churn out more entrepreneurial ventures than another does? The complex analysis of entrepreneurship can be interpreted using the interchanges approach. Interdependence between the people in the world leads to the development of entrepreneurial culture. Personal and collective changes that emanate from entrepreneurship eventually lead to the attainment of change in the world.
Henry (2007) opines that the creative industry forms one of the most important industries in the global industry in the 21st century. This sector has been heralded as the sector with the fastest projected development. The sector is now purported to be integral in the development of fasted developing and developed economies . This potential has been recognized in various countries. The creative industry as it has come to be referred to be a set of interlocking or interrelated sectors of the economy that are knowledge intensive. The focus of the creative industry is the exploitation of the intellectual property.
The vast nature of the sector leads to a vast economic expanse. The broad economic spectrum presented by the creative industry sector as the potential of overlapping into the non-profit sector (Henry, 2007). The creative sectors account for approximately 8% of the major world economies. Entrepreneurship in the creative industry has a significantly strong social focus. This makes the ventures in this industry assume a more involving focus, which is poised on the attainment of political correctness, social and economic agendas at the international level.
The ability of the players in the industry to come up with the innovative ideas and products that are relevant to the society in that they effectively cater for the needs of the society leads to the eventual creation of the viable entrepreneurial culture (Henry, 2007). Social appeal of the creative sector acts as the major source of the viability of the entrepreneurial culture in the sector. The main source of competitive edge or advantage of the ventures in the sector is the ability to come up with the set of services or a product that will be able to appeal to all the people. Political focus on this sector has been a source of impetus for the business ventures in the section. Major businesses have been able to thrive on the intellectual property (Henry, 2007).
Entrepreneurs always need a viable business model that will make the organization of the idea or service provision in a manner that will lead to optimal profits. However, Verstraete and Jouison-Laffitte,( n.d.) opine that the business model is a term that has been subject to a lot of business buzz. The book seeks to provide a concise meaning to the business model and differentiate it from the various closely related issues in the market. Briefly, the book focuses on the differences between the concept of the business model and other tested concepts. It seeks to address the differences between the business model and a business plan while maintaining the weight of the model.
The books focus on the position of the business model in the strategy and the importance of a good business model in the success of any entrepreneurial culture by focusing on the application of the business model by an entrepreneur in the development of the successful business. It also focuses on the translation of the business model into viable tools that are applicable in the entrepreneurship. The authors seek to place their focus on the practical application of the business model in the creation of the right business by entrepreneurs.
Common business models applied by the majority of entrepreneurs include business-to-business model and business to consumer model. The selection of the business model depends on the target market and the expected returns. Some business models are better suited for some kinds of businesses than others are. The ability of the entrepreneur to select the most viable business model marks the initial step towards the development or creation of a successful business venture. Business models depend on the ability of the entrepreneur to come up with feasible imaginative and practical considerations.
Drucker (1985) posits that innovation is a tool that most of the entrepreneurs apply in the creation of viable business ventures. The entrepreneurs exploit change as a source of opportunity through the tool of innovation. The ability of the entrepreneurs to search for the sources of innovation determines their ability of creating businesses that are viable and relevant to the society or the targeted markets. Therefore, innovation is a tool that has to be learnt and practiced by any ambitious entrepreneur.
The entrepreneurs that have the power to identify the symptoms of change and recognize the opportunities that the changes present are always capable of creating new products that are better suited to meet the market demands. J. B Say’ definitions of the role of the entrepreneur were focused on the movement of the resources or rather shifting of the resources from regions of lower productivity to areas of higher productivity. Drucker (1985) distances himself from the assertion that the entrepreneur is that person who comes up with a small business since this notion is neither exhaustive nor absolute. It is not exhaustive since there are entrepreneurial ventures that do not involve setting up of the physical business. It is not absolute since not all small ventures are indicative of the entrepreneurship.
Innovation in entrepreneurship is not necessarily concerned with the creation of a new product. Innovation could be simply the creation of a new and improved way of producing a product or provision of service. Therefore, the ability of the person to produce a product in a new way does not solely determine the innovation. However, a person could be offering a generic product without any improvements with a new focus of creating value. For instance, the no- frills airlines are focused on the creation of a unique experience that is based on the equality. The service is the same but the approach used in the service delivery is different hence the terming of such as an approach as innovative.
Gelderen and Masurel, (2012), concur with other researchers that there are numerous instances of confusion when it comes to the definition of entrepreneurship. The authors appreciate the fact that there are numerous notions and theories that have been developed relating to the concept of entrepreneurship. The general trend in the theories is that the entrepreneurs are key in the explanation of the theory. Therefore, the entrepreneur is a fundamental key of analysis. The differences in the perception of entrepreneurship make it hard for the provision of an overarching explanation of what entrepreneurship encompasses in its entirety. However, the existing definitions of entrepreneurship focus on who qualifies to be termed as an entrepreneur whereby there are two definitions (Gelderen and Masurel, 2012).
One of the perception is that an entrepreneur is a person while the second perception seeks to define the entrepreneur as a product. Scholars of enterprises often focus on the personal profile of the entrepreneurs and the performance of their firms. As a result of the above phenomena, there is a confusion between the bibliographies of successful business people and the material that focus on the entrepreneurs.
The book focuses on the habitual entrepreneurs who are the people that have been in the business for a long time. The second class of entrepreneurs is that they are the entrepreneurs that have just entered the business. The book opines that the entrepreneurs have a specific input in the economy and the government that provide enabling environment for the entrepreneurs always post higher results (Gelderen and Masurel, 2012).
The book identifies that the focus of the entrepreneurship works should not be on the people rather on the processes that are used in the creation of the new or improved products as opposed to the people that are involved in the creation of the products in question. The habitual entrepreneurs have a higher rate of success compared to the novices since they have accumulated experience. The book also introduces another dimension of entrepreneurship, which stems from the heterogeneity of the experience that the entrepreneurs have (Gelderen and Masurel, 2012). Therefore, the habitual entrepreneurs are the ones that have a wider array of experience. The skill set for the habitual entrepreneurs is larger than that for the novices.
Welsch (2004) defines the concept of insurance as a dynamic field that has fast instances of evolution and reinvention. At each stage of its evolution, the topic has a lot of evolution that makes it hard to come up with a succinct definition. The book focusses on the outlook of the topic of entrepreneurship since the topic has rapid instances of evolution (Welsch, 2004). Every entrepreneur has to refocus on the nuances of the topic from the perspective or view point of the emerging issues of community involvement, globalization and the innovations in the information technology sector.
The book looks at the past views of entrepreneurship as unfinished since the focus of the century is rapidly challenged by the emerging trends. Entrepreneurship practice is the component of the topic that has witnessed the most rapid expansion. The entrepreneurs are rapidly expanding into regions that were previously viewed as less likely focus areas for the expansion drives. The academics are in a race to keep up with the new theories that are being spun by the dynamic nature of the discipline (Welsch, 2004).
The opportunity recognition is rapidly expanding such that it is a burgeoning subspecialty in the discipline. Since the opportunity recognition has the creative aspect and the actual creation of a venture, it is possible to view the discipline from the perspectives of finance, growth and marketing. The technology bubble burst initially leading to realization that some of the internet fads were mere fallacies. However, there are concerns on whether the entrepreneurs in the technology field have a new and different way of dealing with the issue. The dynamic nature of the entrepreneurship has also span in the not-for-profit sector with the creation of the social entrepreneurship (Welsch, 2004). Entrepreneurship based principles can also be applied in the community-based organizations to contribute to the final economic growth of the said sector.
Ucbasaran et al., (2008) opine that entrepreneurship is a sector or a subject of social science that has been in existence or use for a considerable amount of time. The subject has featured in the majority of the disciplines such as economy and psychology. The topic has a unique focus or special place in the scholarly attention since it represents the creation or invention of something that is new in the world. As a result, most of the people have come to view the entrepreneurs as a rare subspecies in the myths or people that display unique characteristics. The new organizations are representative of the means for the creation and marketing of new ideas to the rest of the world. The fascination with the subject is clear since the topic is a fundamental dynamic of any society.
The fascination is focused on the ability of the subject to create and renew wealth that the society holds. However, there is paradox in that there is not standard theory on the topic despite the universal belief that the aspect has the power to drive the society. The nexus of most of the fundamental questions in entrepreneurship whether they touch on the definition or not depend on the understanding that the root of the dynamic change in the society is in entrepreneurship (Ucbasaran et al., 2008). Therefore, entrepreneurship is more than a discipline that is in limbo. It is an integral and crucial part of any society that determines the dynamics and the rate at which they occur. Therefore, the new organizations both use the resources that are in existence and create others through the creation of innovative approaches (Ucbasaran et al., 2008).
Population and other demographic effects are crucial in the development of entrepreneurship. This book focuses on the impact of the immigrants in Netherlands and the effect of the immigrants in the development of business ventures. Population growth creates an important aspect that will eventually stimulate the development of new businesses. An influx in population leads to the development of new market for the products that are under sale. Population growth also presents labor. New businesses can start since they have access to the often-cheap immigrant workers (Rušinović, 2006). When the immigrants are well educated, they bring with them important inputs in the products process.
Traditionally, the immigration of people from regions that had a certain trade made it possible for the creation of new business ventures based on the incoming skill set. The book focuses on the Netherlands case whereby the immigration of the expatriates from Indonesia led to the development of a new workforce that had to be assimilated into the society. The best way of incorporating the immigrants into the society was by providing them with the necessary incentives to start their business ventures (Rušinović, 2006). Other situations that were in play at the time of the immigration included the expanding post war economy.
Therefore, the immigrants were able to use their unique skill set on the creation of new entrepreneurial ventures. Immigration presents new focus on the topic whereby there is a correlation between the immigration and the development of entrepreneurship. Governmental regulations feature prominently in the determination of the prevalence and success of immigrant entrepreneurship. Governments that are accommodative to the outsiders encourage the movement of capital and the consequential investment in the various sectors.
Therefore, the government has the role of promoting entrepreneurship in its countries by relaxing the restrictions associated with the investments (Rušinović, 2006). Creation of economic blocks is another aspect that has favored the immigrant entrepreneurship. The economic blocks such as Eurozone facilitate the movement of capital from one of the member countries to the other. Since joining the Eurozone, immigrant entrepreneurship activities have been on a sharp increase. Insights accumulated from the original country of residence allow the immigrant entrepreneurs understand the economic forces that are in force due to the different viewpoints from which they look at the matter.
The research assumed a qualitative design whereby the main agenda of the research was the identification of the certain qualities that affect man and entrepreneurship. A qualitative research is a research that seeks to explain a certain phenomenon. Quantitative data was also collected but it was not the focus of the research although it assisted in the creation of the right data set. As a result, quantitative data was used to supplement the qualitative data. The qualities under the investigation included the role of entrepreneurship in the human society, the role of the government in the creation of an entrepreneurial culture, the cultural influences that lead to the creation of the entrepreneurial culture and the broad definition of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurs.
The research used both the secondary and primary data sources. Primary data is the data that is collected first hand from the field while secondary data is the data that had been collected before and was later recorded. Secondary research or desk research is concerned with the collection of data through report analysis. The research mainly used the desk research due to the financial constraints and other logistic issues associated with the conduction of the primary research. The existing time constraints made collection of the primary data hard hence the decision to the base the research on the secondary data. Secondary data was also selected since it involved minimal travelling.
However, the section of the secondary data was not sufficient hence the need to include a limited selection of primary data. The secondary data lacked in the sense that it did not provide the needs of the researcher with the much-required certainty. Collection of the secondary data was also quite challenging since the topic is broad. Some of the information that the data presented was outdated hence the lack of utility over the long haul. The other issue that emanated was the variations in the definition of the research parameters hence the need to make adjustments. Some of the secondary data sources presented inaccurate or biased data.
In order to avoid the above pitfalls commonly associated with the secondary data, some part of the research was conducted using primary data collection method. There was also a keen approach that was applied in the assessment of the secondary data sources was applied to ascertain the validity of the data. The assessment covered the time when the data was recorded, the relevance of the data in the population of interest and the comparability of the units of measurement.
The primary data collection method focused on the collection of relevant primary data. Various approaches were used to collect the data from a sample of students on campus. The research used in-depth interviews, semi-structured interviews, focus groups and questionnaires. Collection of the qualitative data included the interaction between the researchers with the individuals on a one on one bias, interaction with a group, as it was the case in focus groups and the reduction of the sample size to reduce the time taken in the data collection stage. The research focused on the qualitative data more since this type of data provides information that is richer and of deeper insight on the phenomenon that was under study.
In-depth interviewing is a conversation conducted with a goal. This means that the participant views are both valuable and useful. Interviews allow a combination with observation whereby the researcher can derive additional meaning to the responses from the observations made on the respondent. The in-depth interviews called for high listening skills and proper framing of questions. Constant reframing of the questions was called for in order to develop a better understanding of the questions from the different perspectives. Observations made during the in-depth interviews were both concrete and non-judgmental. The observation method used was the unstructured observation.
A focus group is an approach in data collection that uses a group of people that are unfamiliar. The main reason behind using a focus group is to ensure that the data provided by the group is as independent as possible since there is no exertion of undue influence on the members by the most predominant member. It also allows the members to provided objective information without the restrain common in groups made of people with some history. The research selected seven focus groups each made of seven people.
He created an enabling environment by asking focused questions. The focused questions encouraged discussion between the members of the group. Repetition of the activity with different groups allowed the verification of the information provided. The main issue with the focus groups was that it was difficult to control the group since exercising too much control would restrict the collection of all data. The group dynamics could kick in eventually leading to the negation of the goal of the research.
Simple questionnaires were also applied in the collection of the data. The design of the questionnaires was made in such a way that the participants in the process were able to understand the data and come up with the answers to the questions with ease. Some of the questions were rephrased to evaluate the consistency of the response provided. Sequential arrangement of the portions of the questionnaires was used to ensure that the participant has an easy time transitioning from one section to the other. The main advantage of using the questionnaire was that it was easy to administer and comparatively cheaper.
The main shortcoming of this approach of data collection was the lack of validation of the authenticity of the responses since the majority of the respondents could falsify their responses in the questionnaire. It was also impossible for the researcher to make follow up questions on the responses that were provided in the questionnaire. Personal interviews were also used on a limited scale on the expert participants. However, the personal interviews were time consuming and could easily veer off the topic of the research since the majority of the expert participants gave to many details.
Correlation analysis was applied to identify the possible relationships between the various variables and the nature of the correlation.
The final findings of the research were compiled in a report. The report format of data presentation is desired since it allows the presentation of data in ways that can be understood by the majority of the people. Prose reports allowed the writer to include all the findings and observations in a format that was easy to prepare and was all-inclusive. Therefore, the target audiences of the report would be able to understand the background or the foundation of the research. However, the report was limited by the bulk of information that it contained. Getting a summary of the research from a report was harder than when the researcher used pictorial or diagrammatic aids such as pie charts and other graphs.
From the findings of the research, it is apparent that there is no special attributes in person that determine his or her chances of being an entrepreneur. This means that there is no definitive profile of an entrepreneur given that they come in all ages, races and gender. There could be a significant difference in the experience or the level of education (Gelderen and Masurel, 2012). However, research points out that there are some personal attributes that manifest in most of the successful entrepreneurs. These characteristics include knack for creativity, dedication to the goal, a high level of determination to achieve a certain goal, flexibility, amiable leadership qualities and confidence.
Creativity is the inherent ability of a leader to develop new or improved products or come up with new way of doing business (Henry, 2007). The creativity in an entrepreneur is the push that leads to the development and production of innovative products. Creativity stems from continuous learning, questioning the existing paradigms and thinking outside the domain of conventionalism. On the other hand, dedication is the inherent power that makes it possible for the entrepreneur to work hard towards the fulfiment or attainment of the goals. Most of the dedicated entrepreneurs are always willing to work hard towards the attainment of the enterprise goals. This is a character trait of an entrepreneur that is invaluable in the early days of the business and it is mainly responsible for the kick starting of the business. Dedication enables a business to succeed since it is what ensures that the plans are accomplished.
Determination is the inborn desire in a person to attain ascertain goal or to achieve the requisite levels of success. This is the character trait that enables the business to bounce back even after it has been hit by some setbacks (Minniti, 2007). Determination has an aspect of persistence, which means that the entrepreneur should not be faint hearted. The persistence makes the entrepreneur to make another attempt at something even after the previous attempts failed. This means that the true value of any entrepreneurial venture is not the money but the success. Money is just bust a reward for the effort placed by the entrepreneur.
Flexibility is the ability of the entrepreneur to move fast in response to the needs of an ever-changing market (Minniti, 2007). This means that the entrepreneur has to remain true to his initial goal in life while being mindful of the changes in the market that may affect the expeditious attainment of the goal. This means that the entrepreneur ought to be accommodative to the changes in the market while retaining his vision for the organization (Schumpeter et al., 2011). Leadership is the ability to exert influence on a people due to a number of aspects.as a leader, the entrepreneur ought to be able to set the rules of the organization and ensure that the workers follow them. He should have the capability to follow through the rules and see to it that that the goals of the organization are attained (Minniti, 2007). Passion is one of the most prominent traits of the entrepreneur. The entrepreneur convinces the other people to believe in his vision. If an entrepreneur has a high level of passion, he is more capable of convincing other people to believe in his enterprise and what it stands for.
Entrepreneurs have a high level of self-confidence. Main source of self-confidence comes from thorough planning (Welsch, 2004). Planning helps in the reduction of uncertainty and the level of risk. Self-confidence can also be derived from the expertise indicated by the entrepreneur. A self-confident entrepreneur has the capability of listening to the criticism and other ideas of the people without being swayed.
Finally, character trait that is predominant in the most successful entrepreneurs is that they are smarts. The term is coined to bring out the connotation of a combination of the knowledge or experience that is relevant to the field of business. Common sense in the business enables a person to have the instincts to handles issues in an expeditious manner. The latter gives the entrepreneur the expertise to handle some of the issues that he may be facing. Being able to keep a household on budget accords a person the organizational and financial skills (Schumpeter et al., 2011). This experience can be transferred to the business hence end up creation a business that is capable of surviving the challenges that are often presented by the market. A person will only discover his combination of smarts if he or she invests. Due to this aspect of the smarts, many people have smarts that they may not recognize.
The above qualities are present in every entrepreneur only that they come out in varying proportions. Some of the skills could be acquired from the environment due to exposure to other entrepreneurs. Others are acquired from the educational institutions. This means that the entrepreneurs are not unique people or special people in the society (Verstraete and Jouison-Laffitte, n.d.). They are ordinary people with unique approach to the issues that face the business world and find better ways of dealing with them. The main strength that the entrepreneurs have is the ability to identify their strengths and build on them to come up with something that can accord them the desired level of success.
Various motivating factors make most of the people move into entrepreneurship. A person could be frustrated in one way or another in his traditional workplace. He or she could have been laid off by the organizations that he has worked for in the past making him less agreeable to the idea of working for another person. Others are born into families that rely on their businesses and they improve on the experience that they garner from working at the family businesses (Welsch, 2004). A person could also be frustrated in his current job leading to low job satisfaction, hence the person could be moving into entrepreneurship in pursuit of more job satisfaction. A person could be seeing no opportunities of growth in the current employment position for a person of his skill set or interests.
Another group of entrepreneurs is made of people that are repulsed by the idea of working with another person. They may have an aversion to the system of rewards that relies on the seniority and not the accomplishment. They may be against the scenario whereby they have to comply to rules that do not add directly to their output such as the compliance with the corporate culture (Schumpeter et al., 2011). Other choose to work at the being entrepreneurs since they have low tolerance with the bureaucracy involved with the business profession in getting ahead.
However, most of the entrepreneurs are drawn into starting their own businesses by the prospects that are presented by the businesses. Entrepreneurs are drawn into the field because they have the autonomy that is absent in most of the employment. Entrepreneurs are their own bosses and they make all the decisions without consulting any other person. They have the choice of the people to work with and what to do (Verstraete and Jouison-Laffitte, n.d.). They have the power to decide on the number of daily hour to bill in the office and when to take the vacations. This autonomy is mainly attracting to the entrepreneurs that have been frustrated by working with other people.
Others go into entrepreneurship since entrepreneurship presents them with greater opportunities of financial gains than employment. Since the entrepreneurs are rewarded according to the profits that they make as opposed to the employed people that have to rely on the salary regardless of the business performance (Welsch, 2004). This motivation is particularly appealing to the people that prefer to change the current business model whereby the rewards are dependent about seniority as opposed to the accomplishment of the people. Entrepreneurship comes with the prestige.
Entrepreneurship also presents the entrepreneurs with the opportunity of equity creation, which can be passed on, to the other generations. Equity creation is comparatively easier for the entrepreneurs than the people that rely predominantly on their salaries. Therefore, the creation of equity for the future generations is one of the most predominant motivators for entrepreneurs in starting up their business. Few entrepreneurs make the investment with the economical contribution in mind. Entrepreneurship creates viable opportunities for the people to contribute directly to the economic growth.
The government may be particularly concerned with the performance of the economy. The few entrepreneurs contribute directly to the economic growth. Some of the entrepreneurs have been responsible for the creation of the best international brands. The brands collectively add value to the economy through employment creation and tax contribution (Gelderen and Masurel, 2012). The consideration between starting a business on one’s own or staying on the career path may be the most predominant motivator towards the creation of the entrepreneurial drive. Nonetheless, there is no reason for entrepreneurship is more valid than the other is.
Entrepreneurship is a rewarding option for the people that have managed to start up business ventures. However, various decisions have to be arrived at before the launch of the business. More decisions are made in the conventional management of the business regardless of the size of the establishment. An entrepreneur has to make decisions on who will assume responsibility for the business (Gelderen and Masurel, 2012). The entrepreneur has to decide on the product or service that is on offer. He or she may have to determine the products that will form the flagship product for the enterprise. He also has to decide on the unique aspect in his array of products that will set his products apart from the competitors in a bid to attain the required competitive advantage. He/she may have to decide whether he has the required capital to start the business and operate it.
Upcoming business owners have to make considerations on some of the key factors. Failure to focus on the key factors is tantamount to failure for the young business establishment. The entrepreneur has to decide on the main motivation of being in business. He or she has to decide on whether he is in business for the personal gain that comes from the financial benefits of running the business. If the main motivation is monetary gain, the entrepreneur may find it hard to cope in the initial days since the monetary gains are often restricted in the formative stage of the business.
The entrepreneur has to decide on the strategy of the organization. They have to decide on the strategy that they will use to distinguish their business from that of the competitors. They may have to decide on what they will use as the main source of competitive advantage. They have to decide on competing on the selling price of the products or services that they offer. However, the decision to use the price as the main competing point is risky more so if it is used alone. Established firms can counter this strategy by producing in bulk and using the economies of scale to produce products at cheaper prices. As a result, the strategy will end up failing.
The entrepreneur has to come up with a realistic vision for the business. In as much as the visions could be appealing, some of the entrepreneurs may find huge disparities between the vision and their respective financial gains (Gelderen and Masurel, 2012). The overestimation of the revenues and underestimation of the expenses leads to the creation of an unrealistic business model.
The other highly important decision that the entrepreneur has to make is whether to go at it alone or include the input of another person. In most of the cases, the businesses that are started by two people are successful. This means that working as a team can bring some benefits to the business model. In most of the successful ventures created by teams are made of people that have some familiarity. In most cases, they are spouses or longtime friends. Working as a team has some gains such as the shared management duties and decision-making. Shared burden of management and decision-making reduces the stress that would otherwise be vested in the individual. Companies that are formed of more than one entrepreneur have somewhat lower risks compared to the ones formed of a single entrepreneur.
In the event that one of the founders is not in a position of running the business, the other founder can come in and help in the steering of the company with equal enthusiasm. Team interactions leads to creativity since the team can brainstorm and come up with new ideas. Different specialties lead to synergy, which eventually leads to the creation of the anticipated value. It is also easier for a joint venture to find capital since most of the financial institutions are more likely to fund the businesses that are made of more than one person. In the best situations, teams of entrepreneurs have complementary skills.
The entrepreneurs can work at the areas whereby they are best suited leading to the creation of a cumulative advantage. Strong teams have better chances of attaining the success. Companies formed by teams of individuals have lower chances of failure compared to the ones formed by individuals. Teams that are composed of all array of skills have better chances of success. Trends indicate that the teams that have a marketer always post higher rates of success.
Teams formed of members of different ages lead to creation of complementary relationships. Young people are characterized by the dominant spirit of can do. The age and experience that comes with it leads to the creation of realism.
However, the teams have the potential of creating detrimental effects too. One of the disadvantage that faces the teams is the sharing of ownership. The sharing of ownership does not take place unless the potential partner has some contribution that he adds to the venture. The second issue that manifests itself is the shared control of the dictions making process. This means that if one of the team members has poor judgment the entire team has to pay for the shortcoming.
The other issue with working with teams is the constant team wrangling and conflict. The team members may have issue with some aspect of running the business since they have the view that they can do better or that there is another option that has better chances of positing returns. The conflicts between the team members lead to the creation of an undesired delay in the decision making process. Conflicts could also stem from the unequal commitment to the goal of the organization. Personality issues between the team members may also hinder the operation of the business. In the best-case scenarios, the conflicts can be successfully resolved using various interventions. However, in other instances, it is hard for the teams to deal with the issues leading to selling of the venture or at worse the closure of business. Therefore, the ability of the entrepreneur to identify the potential issues that are going to affect the business is important since it helps in the identification and prevention of some of the undesired issues. However, the general gains of working as a team outweigh the demerits of the team environment.
Selection of the idea is an important part of the business development. The prospective business owner has to identify the best idea of creating the business. In some cases, the entrepreneur identifies the need in the market and that identification creates the business idea for the production of a product or provision of a service meant to fill the market gap. The business idea could be an improvement of an existing product in the market, introduction of a new product in the market, introduction of an existing product in a new market or the introduction of a new product in a new market.
An entrepreneur can select different entry strategies for a product. The main idea behind the creation of an entry strategy is the ability to provide a product that is significantly different from the products that are on offer in the market. To attain the unique feel to a product, the investor can select products that are differentiated. This means that the product has the same functionality with the products sold by the competitors but has features that enable its uses to be used with ease. Another entry strategy that the entrepreneur can chose is innovation which is a strategy focused on the production of a product that is significantly different from the one produced by the competition. Innovation could be radical such that the product is different from the ones on offer. It could also be an incremental improvement of the existing products. Innovation covers all aspect of the business.
Entrepreneurship has manifested itself in the existence of humankind in various forms. Traditionally, the people used to carry out trade for the sake of survival since trade was only used to acquire the goods or services that the people could not produce for themselves. This was not entirely entrepreneurship but it formed a significant basis for the development of the entrepreneurship (Henry, 2007). As the people realized that they could not seek the other people of like minds to sell their product to the, there arose a class of traders that relied predominantly on trade for their survival. This is probably the oldest manifestation of entrepreneurship.
As man made advancements in trade, transport and communication, there various entrepreneurial ventures sprout. Communication made it possible for the people to bargain and access each other for the purposes of trade. Transport led to opening up of new markets in the world, which in turn led to the creation of new exchanges. The transport industry also presented numerous entrepreneurial opportunities such as shipbuilding and maintenance. The development of the transport industry also allowed the entrepreneurs of the day to access goods that were previously unavailable to the majority of the people. The array of goods available for trade was also increased such that the businesses were not restrained to the traditional products (Schumpeter et al., 2011).
In the recent past, there have been developments such as globalization. The modern modes of transport have been built on the traditional one through the continued improvement of the machines used for that purpose (Henry, 2007). Development of information communication technology has led to the development of an approach that does not depend on the traditional political boundaries. People can move freely leading to the creation of new approach to the entire issue of entrepreneurship. Internet has led to the creation of new virtual ventures. This development could not be fathomed in the initial days of entrepreneurship. It also means that entrepreneurship is entirely concurrent with the advancement made in human life. The dynamic nature of the human life eventually rubs off in the entrepreneurship since entrepreneurship is focused on the creation of new products that will suit the changes in the human life and provide for the ever-changing needs of the society.
Entrepreneurship has a duo focus. One perspective of looking at the topic is as a quick adaptation to change that is manifested in the society. It is the ability of the entrepreneur to identify change and pin point the opportunities that that the change presents is the most propounded notion of entrepreneurship (Schumpeter et al., 2011). However, there is another side of entrepreneurship that is manifested in the daily lives of the human beings. This is the aspect of entrepreneurship that is responsible for the creation of change as opposed to being reactive to the change. Entrepreneurship seeks ways of improving the lives of the people. Creation of change is required if entrepreneurship is to serve the role of improving the lives of the people.
Innovation is called for in the human life. Entrepreneurship allows the people to be innovative while maintaining the profit making intention ingrained in the capitalism ideal. Innovation could be the creation of something new (Gelderen and Masurel, 2012). In the developing world, innovation amounts to the creation of something new using the ideals that have been already applied in the developed world. In essence, this kind of innovation does not meet the definition of innovation but it is what some would refer to as the creative imitation. Man has chosen to implement change in the society using creative imitation too. As a result, the entrepreneur develops a product or service that improves the human life.
Entrepreneurship creates change through differentiation. A product could be designed in a manner that meets the most basic demands of the market but does not move the extra mile in solving the rest of the issues that may be facing the market (Gelderen and Masurel, 2012). Differentiation seeks to maintain the basic functionality while attending to the other needs of the market that may not be termed as core functions but are important to the target market. Differentiation could assume the form of ergonomics and other human aspects in a product that makes its use easy and comfortable.
Entrepreneurship is more than the creation of a new venture. It is concerned with the creation of improved products from the positive identification of the changes in the market and the effective improvement of the products to create a product that meets the market requirements while earning profits to the business owner. All people can successfully be entrepreneurs (Gelderen and Masurel, 2012). However, some aspects or character traits are predominantly present in the profiles of the most successful entrepreneurs (Schumpeter et al., 2011).
The success of a new venture could be dependent on the ability of the entrepreneur to identify and operate a successful business model that will make exploitation of the market niche possible. Finally, most of the successful business ventures are the ones that provide and improved input in the society or the market. Uniqueness of a product can be attained through differentiation of the product from the ones in the market or through innovation (Gelderen and Masurel, 2012). Differentiation aims at the maintenance of the functionality of the product in the market while innovation focuses on the creation of a new product or continuous improvement of the product through the addition of functions. The government has a direct role for the creation of the environment that will motivate the entrepreneurs to come up with new products.
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Growth is crucial for any business venture. An organization that does not prepare effectively for growth risks falling behind its competitors. In order to execute growth effectively, an organization needs to put in place a growth plan. This text examines the importance of a growth plan, its core components, and the specific strategies that an organization could use to realize growth.
Question 1: What is a growth plan?
iii) an action plan for achieving this vision, that is the specific strategies to be used, who will be responsible for implementing them, and by when.
This involves understanding the specific factors that set one’s business apart from the competition. The entrepreneur needs to establish what makes them relevant in a particular market; that is, why customers come to them for a particular service or product (Biederman). Some businesses compete on uniqueness, whereas others such as Walmart compete on the basis of price. This step is about identifying what benefit or value only you can provide (Biederman).
Every entrepreneur gets into the market to solve a problem for a particular client group (Biederman). This step is focused on identifying whether that particular group constitutes the business’ ideal customers. If not, then who is it that the business is serving, and what tactics can be used to make the business appealing to the ideal customer group?
A SWOT analysis is an analysis of the business’ current strengths, weaknesses, threats and opportunities. Here, the entrepreneur will be required to understand how their strengths have led them to maintain their position in the market, how their weaknesses have worked for competitors, and how the venture stands to benefit if the opportunities present in the market are capitalized on. Understanding one’s strengths, weaknesses, threats and opportunities is crucial in setting realistic revenue projections and developing effective growth strategies.
The final step involves developing the specific tactics and strategies to be used in achieving the required growth. Tactics should capitalize on the identified strengths while improving on the weaknesses. They should focus on the business’ value proposition, and how the same can be used to attract the ideal customer group and consequently, realize the business’ revenue goals. The entrepreneur should clearly articulate who is responsible for what strategy, and when the when it ought to be completed. If one’s goal, for instance, is to achieve a 20 percent growth in revenues over the next 5 years, they could use such growth tactics as acquiring small, promising ventures; investing in talent and training; expanding the product line, and so on.
Failure to prepare a growth plan could have some serious implications including declining innovation, lack of commitment to growth on the part of employees, lack of accountability in the organization as it is not clear who is responsible for what in the organization’s progression, and a lot of wasted effort and resources.
Question 2: What are Milestones and Implementation?
Milestones are formal breaks that allow an entrepreneur and their team to evaluate whether the business is progressing in the way they planned. The growth plan will often state in general terms, what the company’s direction is (Schill 13). One goal could state, for instance, that the business plans to achieve 20 percent growth in revenue in the first two years of the plan’s implementation. This could be translated into a measurable milestone, say ‘in the first year of implementation, sales will grow by 10 percent, measured on the first day of our financial year.’ This milestone makes it possible for the team to assess progress along the way, and to sharpen their expectations about ultimate failure or success (Smith et al 18). Moreover they provide means for the team to take measures early enough to either correct ineffective strategies or to enhance the expected benefits of the milestone program (Smith et al 18).
A number of best practices need to be observed in the implementation of milestones to make them more effective. First, milestones should be set for each goal formulated in the process of developing the growth plan (Smith et al 18). Secondly, the entrepreneur needs to designate who will be responsible for each milestone. In the example above, the milestone will most likely be designated to the sales manager. Such designation is likely to increase accountability among team members.
Moreover, it gives the entrepreneur a go-to person to check in with as the deadline approaches – in the case of the milestone above, for instance, the entrepreneur could meet with the sales manager in the last month of the current financial year to review sales figures that indicate growth towards the targeted sales level. A third best practice is to assign a budget to each milestone – this will help managers understand the amount of resources they have to reach specific milestones. In the case of the milestone above, for instance, a budget for advertising and extra staff would need to be assigned to the sales department to enable it reach the milestone. Finally, milestones need to be reviewed as end dates pass so that one is able to identify those milestones that were missed and take corrective action (Smith et al 17).
The diffusion of the internet has increased the degree of connectivity among people on a large scale, making the world a global village. The same is the case in the business sphere – networking has made it easier for people within an organization to connect easily and share ideas regardless of their geographical locations (Gwin 36). Today, thanks to such tools as LAN and WAN, an employee in the sales department can interact virtually, and share knowledge with their colleague in purchases, whose department is located on a different floor or even miles away in a different state. This is referred to as business operations connectivity – the process by which different sections of an organization – employees, employers, customers, suppliers, and so on - are linked together and interconnected for the easy sharing of knowledge and information.
This is one strategy that businesses could use to stimulate growth. Business operations connectivity stimulates organizational growth in several ways. First, it increases accessibility to persons both inside and outside the organization (Gwin 36). An employee can easily access and seek clarifications or share knowledge with another employee or their supervisor through social networking sites such as Skype. This enhances efficient use of staff time and eliminates the need to move and meet one’s audience physically. As a result, employees get to achieve more in less time, and overall productivity is enhanced.
Moreover, it is possible for a supervisor to hold virtual meetings with their subordinates even when they are away from the organization. This helps to ensure continuity in business operations, and prevents a situation where work stalls or has to be postponed because the supervisor is not around. Ultimately, overall efficiency is increased and the organization is able to produce more.
The organization is also able to easily and conveniently share information on products and services with customers, and to obtain immediate feedback on the same. This accessibility and speed enhances the process of research and development, enabling the organization to stay above the competition.
Besides improving knowledge sharing, business operations connectivity also helps in the effective monitoring of goals and milestones. Rather than making a physical trip to the sales department to obtain sales data, an organization’s CEO can simply check sales levels for a particular period instantly via the office network. This not only saves time, but also helps the organization conveniently assess the effectiveness of its milestone program and take corrective action early enough.
Generally, therefore, business operations connectivity offers attractive prospects for organizational growth.
Biederman, Rob. “7 Key Steps to a Growth Strategy that Works Immediately.” The Entrepreneur Magazine, 2015. Web.
Gwin, Catherine. Sharing Knowledge: Innovations and Remaining Challenges. Washington, D.C: World Bank Publications, 2003. Print.
Schill, Nancy. Coach-in-Box Goal-setting Workbook: Target and Achieve your Goal at Work. Austin, TX: ExecIntel Solutions, 2014. Print.
Smith, Janet, Smith Lester, Smith Richard, and Bliss Richard. Entrepreneurial Finance: Strategy, Valuation and Deal Structure. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011. Print.
(I)Abstract: The creation of a country dynamism and wealth is often dependent on the competitiveness of firms, and this often relies essentially on the competencies that exist within the entrepreneurs of the country.
(II)Introduction to man and Entrepreneurship: In Entrepreneurship, the entrepreneur is the one that is often involved in funding the capital for the firm. The theory of an entrepreneur can be said to put emphasis on the heterogeneity of principles about resources.
(III)Literature review: Entrepreneurship is not a well-developed component when it comes to the modern economic theory. Many economists who are neo-classical have often found it difficult to reconcile the different requirements of rational decision-making with the functions that are ascribed to entrepreneurship.
(IV)Methodology: The research procedure that was used in this research study compromised of desk research, case study of small-scale organizations and interviews.
(V)Findings and Discussion: From the findings, it can seen that in developing countries there is a strong belief that entrepreneurship is a crucial driver of economic growth. It was found out that amongst the personal characteristics of the founder, family background can be singled out as an important factor by econometric estimates that explain new firm formations as an act of self-employment.
(VI)Conclusions: After examining the history of entrepreneurship and man, it can be realized that there was a divide after the industrial revolution which enabled developed nations to better the environment for entrepreneurs to start-up their businesses. In developing countries, innovation is often generally achieved through importation as well adaptation of technologies that was developed by abroad. Therefore, for this reason, it was not very astounding that only insufficient studies have been able to link innovation with entrepreneurship when it comes to the developing countries context.
(VII)Reflection: Most people are often familiar with the names such as Marks & Spencer and Heinz. However, most people do not realize that today famous large companies were initially very small. These large companies were either started by one person or a group of people. Therefore, many businesses often start as one person’s idea and the creator is often an entrepreneur who in many cases spots a gap in the market or a commercial opportunity.
The creation of a country dynamism and wealth is often dependent on the competitiveness of firms, and this often relies essentially on the competencies that exist within the entrepreneurs of the country. This essence of the modern firm often lies in the concentration of tasks. The ‘business men ‘who are in charge of managing economic activity in the strict sense can be said to be both entrepreneurs and managers. The corporate entrepreneurs often partake meaningfully in terms of capital which is crucial in controlling the firm. This paper looks at the history of entrepreneurship, the importance of entrepreneurship to man and the differences that exists between entrepreneurship in developed countries and developing nations.
The individual entrepreneur often detects and creates opportunities in business that he or she exploits through either small or medium sized firm. The entrepreneur is the one that is often involved in funding the capital for the firm. He or she also carries the role of arbitrator selling an idea of a business project. The entrepreneurial function implies discovery, assessment as well as the exploitation of different opportunities. In other words, the entrepreneur function involves the innovation and discovery of new products, production process, new strategies as well as the formation of new markets. The entrepreneur opportunity can be said to be unexpected by yet one of the most unvalued economic opportunities. The entrepreneur opportunities often exist because of different agents who all have contradictory ideas on the comparative value of the different resources that exist in the society. The resources are then turned from inputs into outputs by the different agents and this, therefore, creates business.
The theory of an entrepreneur can be said to put emphasis on the heterogeneity of principles about resources. The purpose can be abstracted as the discovery of opportunities as well as the subsequent creation of a new economic activity which in many cases comes about via the start of a new organization. It is of the principle to appreciate that owing to the detail that there is no marketplace for chances, the entrepreneur mist is able to exploit any opportunity that arises and this consequently means that one must be able to progress his or her competences in order to obtain the relevant resources. The entrepreneur must further go ahead and organize and exploit the opportunities in the best way possible which would bring around maximum financial gain. However, the downside of the market of ideas and opportunities often lies in the difficult that is involved in the protection of ownership rights of ideas that are not related with patent or charters.
Entrepreneurship is often deliberated under the heading of the entrepreneurial factor, the entrepreneur function, entrepreneurial inventiveness and business behavior. This factor is often unspoken to be a new issue in production which is different to the classic ideas of earth, capital and work which must be explained via the remuneration through income of an impresario along with the lack of people with entrepreneur skills. Its consequent consideration as an entrepreneur function is often dependent on the discovery as well as the exploitation of different opportunities as well as the creation of an enterprise. The entrepreneur behavior is often seen as a behavior that often manages to combine innovation.
The concept of the business process often includes the identification as well as the assessment of new opportunities, the decision to exploit them or sell them and the efforts that are used to obtain resources and the development of a strategy and the general organization of business. It has been recently claimed that if managers and businessmen of many of the firms were to adopt and entrepreneur l behavior in the development of their strategies, then the firms would be facing brighter futures than the current perceptions currently suggests. The basic entrepreneur central activity is often that of business creation, and this can be studied at an individual or even at a group level by analyzing the psychological aspects, as well as social variables of education, background and the family. Further, there are those that use the environmental level using the variables that enable business development or even analyzing the aspects of the social, economic and cultural environments.
The study of entrepreneurs and man analyzes the different variables that explain their appearance such as a psychological profile, personal characteristic, and the need for achievement, the capacity bestowed unto them that enable them to control and the general ambiguity and tendency to take risks. Equally, the socio-cultural and institutional focus underlines the role of exclusion and social change as the primary motivators of the entrepreneur function in minority as well as marginalized groups. Studies that have been done on the environmental variables have been able to emphasize the culture or even the shared values that exist in the society today. The institutions are often linked to a legal framework and several aspects of the economic environment. Consequently, it can be alleged that there are three basic ideas which explain the appearance of entrepreneur activity.
They all focus on the individual, the entrepreneurial action as a conceived human attribute and the willingness of the entrepreneur to face uncertainty is an important that is often studied. There is also the ability of him or her to accept risks and to have a need for achievement. This is, in fact, what differentiates an entrepreneur from other people that exist in the society. The second fundamental idea emphasizes the fact that economic, environmental and social factors motivate as well as enable entrepreneurial activity. This includes the dimension of the market, the dynamics that are found in the technological changes, the market structure and also the industrial self-motivated. The third issue is linked to the operational function of institutions, culture, and societal values. However, it is of the essence to note that these approaches are not exclusive, and this is because the entrepreneur activity is a human activity which does not have to spontaneously occur due to the economic environment, the demographic changes or the technological normative.
Entrepreneurship can be described as an essential element when it comes to economic progress, and it can be able to manifest itself when it comes to its fundamental importance. It involves the identification, assessing and the misuse of business opportunities, the creation of new firms or renewing existing firms by making them more dynamic and the driving of an economy frontward through modernism competence, the value of job creation and the general well being of the society. It is important to note that entrepreneurship often affects all organizations regardless f their age, size, race and whether they are considered as private or public. It also exists in independence of the objectives of the corporation and its position to the economy is often reflected through visible economic growth.
When it comes to referring to entrepreneurs, there is often a differentiation that exists between individual entrepreneurs and businessmen that independent. There is also a difference in corporate entrepreneurs who are related with the higher stratums of the firm’s management. The entrepreneur in the 21st century has been given different names and has been used to describe several people in the society who start their business or even work their way up the corporate ladder. The concept of entrepreneurial management can often be considered to be different to the traditional ways of managing organizations. Many managers are often looking for new ways to make their organizations more entrepreneurs in many aspects from a general strategic orientation to their consequent reward schemes. There exists a positive association between the intensity of corporate free enterprise and the strength of the search of opportunity, strategic adaptation as well as that of value creation. The 21st century man should be simultaneously entrepreneurial as well as be strategic.
The wealth as well as the poverty of emerging countries has been related in modern times to the impresario nature of their economies. It is imperative to note that where it has existed in plenty, entrepreneurship has been able to play a significant role in financial growth, competitiveness and innovation. Over along period, it has also played a role in poverty alleviation. However, entrepreneurship in developing countries can be described as arguably the least studied economic and social phenomenon. Over 400 million persons in developing countries are either owners or managers of new firms. It is imperative to note that over 200 million of these people are found in Africa and India alone. In one of the two best books that deal with research on entrepreneurship Africa is mentioned in two pages while India is not even mentioned at all. Specialist literature has often focused on the description of attributes of entrepreneurship in developing countries as compared to providing a framework that both entrepreneurs, as well as policy makers alike, can be able to rationally plan as well as execute the innovative business models.
Models of entrepreneurship such as the Bhides uncertainty, investment profit diagram are solely based on the research that was conducted in the U.S as well as other developed countries, and this does not adequately describe how entrepreneurship has been carried out in developing countries. It is of consequence to note that until recently there was very little that was known in regards to entrepreneurship in develop countries and in particular the characteristic of new and growth oriented firms. Scholars as well as different practitioners have often assumed that entrepreneurship is largely the same the world over and that it is a drive by the same impulses which are played on the homo economics everywhere.
However, research has shown that indeed there are differences when it comes to ambiguity aversion, self-control and the evolution of businesses in developing countries. There are changes across nations, and these alterations are important as they help us to gain a better understanding as to why some countries have had more successful entrepreneurs as compared to others. This paper suggests that entrepreneurship in man has evolved over time and that there is a distinction between entrepreneurship practiced by main developed countries and that which is practiced in developing countries (Zacharakis, 2000). This paper seeks to understand the distinctions that exist which can be said to be very critical to private segment development in emerging countries.
Entrepreneurship is not a well-developed component when it comes to the modern economic theory. Many economists who are neo-classical have often found it difficult to reconcile the different requirements of rational decision-making with the functions that are ascribed to entrepreneurship. These include co-ordination, arbitrage, uncertainty bearing and innovation (Barrett, 1989). Entrepreneurs have often been described variously as the bearers of business risk and the taker of opportunities, and they are agents that bring together the factors of production and they are the organizers of innovation (Schumpeter, 1942). However, it is of the essence to comprehend that there was no one of thee thinkers that distinguished between entrepreneurs who were operating in different business environment or those who were considered entrepreneurs in wealth and poor countries. They did not document any differences between these two set of entrepreneurs at various stages in economic history. The academic interest in entrepreneurs in the developing world started after decolonization with interest until recently on a small-scale industrialization.
There are four kinds of firms that have been identified in developing countries, they included newly established, established and growing slowly, established but not growing and graduates to a larger size (Liedholm and Mead 1999). In respect to the study of the subset as well as the new and growth- oriented firms in developing countries, a significant step frontward has been the rich productivity of the GEM project which despite a lot of methodological shortcomings was able to give a better sense of entrepreneurship diversity all around the world. It is of the quintessence to recognize that of particular awareness to the topic of this paper has been the recent work of the project on the identification of new factors that are associated with variations in the national entrepreneur activity (Zacharakis, 2000).
It is these date that are disaggregated into wealthy and poor countries that then are ale to help distinguish between necessity as well as opportunity entrepreneurs. The findings suggest that freer, or competitive poor countries in many cases are not correlated in a statistically momentous way with advanced levels of chance entrepreneurs. Further, the findings in the GEM report shows that recent economic growths in poor countries is also not correlated in a statistically significant way to the higher levels of opportunity and entrepreneurship. Lastly, it was also determined that the protection of property rights and the levels of corruptions in the developing countries do not also seem to matter either.
According to Peterson, 2003, there are some distinctive attributes of entrepreneurship in developing countries that often appear to advance the likelihood of success for growth oriented firms while it appears that the same criterion appear to hold back other firms. Johnson (2004) cites that opportunities for entrepreneurs in developing countries are often in a broader scope as likened to those that happen in developed markets. This is because they often allow a firm to pursue a selection approach to strategy that in many cases can efficiently manage the higher levels of market and business risk. He further adds that entrepreneurs who exist in emerging countries face a dissimilar set of circumstances as compared to their counterparts that exist in the developed world. Robinson (2010) agrees with Johnson stating that some of the differences that exist between the entrepreneurs of the two regions are mainly rooted in the underlying economies in which they operate. He contends that intend emerging markets often lack a stable and mature value and consistency. For this aim, it can be said that the opportunity that exists in these countries is pervasive.
Western Entrepreneurs according to Knight, (2006) often operate at the fringes of their economy and this is entirely a different case when it comes to emerging market entrepreneurs who often have to operate closer to the core. In this way, the needs and the opportunities can be said to be more widespread. It is of significance to appreciate that despite the fat that the competitive threat to entrepreneurs forms the well-established incumbents is often reduced in developing countries, the risk that is posed by economic and political, regulatory uncertainty is often extremely high. This reduces the effects and outweighs the direct competitive threats. Knight (2006) goes on to argue that the rational, though counter-intuitive response is for the entrepreneur who are living in the developing countries to spread their resources across several but destiny business in a bid to eliminate systematic risks. Underwood (1999) argues that entrepreneurs who work in a segmented market (most developing countries have segmented market) often play a surrogate role as a financial investor can manage risk in developing countries.
He further continues to state that portfolio risk is often operated by having several diverse trades in lieu of financiers who might then do the same thing. The lack of alternative financing, as well as successful entrepreneur, may use the internally generated cash flow from of the business into another in order to create diversity. In fact, the keiretsu system that exists in Japan and the chaebols that exists in Korea are just but examples of highly developed conglomerates that have interlocking ownerships and business partnerships. Underwood continues with this line of thought and argues that in addition to risk mitigation as well as a source of funding, the interlocking of businesses often provide a source of informal information flow which then leads to a broader pool of skills and resources which if well implemented creates a brand name which can be easily leveraged across different types of businesses. Fairbanks and Lindsay (1997) argue that inadequate access to capital, as well as a fragmented retail and distribution, often requires entrepreneurs to being their businesses downstream with direct access to their end consumer.
By starting downstream businesses, can reduce dramatically the initial capital requirements as working capital is, therefore, much reduced, and this permits access to the customers as well as the informational flow which in many cases is often the one that is lacking. The lack of access to the end consumer has been cited by many include Fairbank and Lindsay 1997 as the primary reason by which businesses fail to move from commodity markets into higher value added activities. In the developing economies, after the entrepreneurs have been able to achieve success in both retail and distribution, they often leverage the domain experience, the informational flow and the cash flow which is directed towards having to generate vertical integration in a bid to upstream the business.
Tom, (2007) states that while entrepreneur opportunities are broader and that the resultant strategies are naturally self hedging in developing countries, limited personal as well as family saving and the absence of an organized financial innovation system limits the growth prospects of what can be described as promising startups in developing countries. He further continues to state that the nature of the entrepreneurial opportunities in the developing countries often play a critical role in the market for entrepreneur finance in developing countries. In fact to a greater extent as compared to the developed world, nascent entrepreneurs often must answer several fundamental financial questions. These questions include but not limited to whether the firm will survive the first five years, and whether it is rational for the entrepreneur to commit his or her financial resources to the new firm.
(Bygrave, 2003) argues that unpromising odds of entrepreneur success, internal finance can be said to comprise the majority of bankrolling of small and average enterprises in most developing nations. The entrepreneurs that exist from the emerging markets often rely heavily on different informal sources of finance in order to start their business. These outside informal sources often provide around 87% to 100% of financing. Bygrave continues by stating that other sources of financing in the emerging market such as bank lending, as well as venture capital, often play a very incomplete part when it comes to the financing of the entrepreneurs more especially in the start-up stage. However, it can be seen and argued that very little is often known and understood in regards to the mechanisms by which potential entrepreneurs that exist in the developing countries can gather the necessary capital to start their businesses. Questions such as where do the entrepreneurs in the developing world get funds, in order to start their own businesses, have been a question that has yet to be researched on. Recent evidence has however suggested that indeed capital requirements could be quite modest especially in the least developed countries.
According to (Bhide 2004 and Johnston et al, 2004) there are often two issues that need to be looked at, first there is the source of income and the appropriate depositories that are often made until the new business is able to start. The sources of income can often include but not limited to retained earnings from previous businesses as well as the ones that exist in the retail or distribution sector. However, there are countries where well-paid government positions are still available and as such potential entrepreneurs can be able to save start-up capital from their salaries. Research that has been done on the determinants of private saving in the developing countries has suggested that the countries which have experienced economic instability in many cases are more likely to have higher rates of people saving privately and this is maintained by an insurance mechanism (Loaayza, Schmidt-Hebbel and Serven, 2000). This has shown that indeed crisis in these terms means opportunity at least as saving and private capital for the necessary finance for startup is concerned.
The author continue to argue that as much as successful entrepreneurship is related to urbanization, urbanization often leads to an increase in individual consumption and consequently a non-commit ant decrease in terms of the private savings that one has. Therefore, in this regard, successful entrepreneurs are more likely to find access to the greater pools of private savings in the countryside when they want to start their businesses. This line of though highlights the importance of a well-developed family network that spans both urban and rural areas. However, it is notable to point out that how such sequestered rural investments are intermediated into the urban entrepreneurship is at present not well understood and almost with certainty will vary by country.
An important but overlooked as well as undocumented force is the increasingly consumerist nature that has grappled the developing economies which has caused personal saving rates to fail as well as personal consumer related ineptness to grow and spiral out of control Anecdotal evidence from different regions such as the Asia and Africa have suggested that high and inappropriate level of ineptness might in cases severely constrain the entrepreneurs ability to start a new firm (Zacharakis, 2000).
While the results of this literature review must be pickled with restraint and subjected to peer review, they may call into inquiry some of the current efforts of expansion finance organizations to endorse entrepreneurship through primarily the improvement of general business environment which in turn can be able to turn help the economies based on the findings of institutional economics.
The research procedure that was used in this research study compromised of desk research, case study of small-scale organizations and interviews.
The desk research was the main method of research methodology used in this research project, and it involves looking at the current literature. The number of entrepreneurs in the developing world has grown tremendously, and this largely occurred due to the design of having business incubation program. The Business incubation programs have become more popular amongst entrepreneurs because of the strategic benefits that they have such as having a clear mission to start-up companies and the ability of the banks and other financial institutions to loan the entrepreneur’s capital to start their businesses (Zacharakis, 2000). The business environment and climate in the developing countries are often different from the ones that exist in the developed world. The developing countries have weak economies that are extremely fragile; this, therefore, makes it hard for entrepreneur to start a business that will grow fast as compared to their counterparts in the other world.
The desk research involves investigating the different types of entrepreneurs that are found in the different economies and the resultant way in which they make money. It also looked into the challenges and constraints of starting up a business in the developed world as opposed to starting a business in the developing world. These constraints were found to be different, and, therefore, further research into the different constraints in specific was important and was, therefore, carried out.
In order to facilitate a consisted and widely applicable selection of entrepreneurs in developing countries, I used a methodology that was based on four principles. First, the methodology aimed to be consisted with the existing theoretical perspectives in regards to entrepreneurship. It looked at three aspects; firstly there was the social mission, revenue model and innovativeness. Secondly, there was to capture the importance of the different aspects. For example, if the entrepreneurs in the developing countries had revenues or they had it saved privately (Zacharakis, 2000). Lastly, in order to exclude country specific bureaucratic definitions of the word entrepreneurship, this study avoided the word entrepreneurship but instead used the word businessman using a series research.
There was the exploration of small companies in the developing countries where a series of questions were looked at in their individual websites. These questions were related towards the social mission of the company, the revenue model and the innovativeness that was needed in order for the company to operate at the level that it currently operated in. In order to get additional info on the enterprises, questions in regards to the founding dates of the social venture and the type of activity that was first practiced was used (Zacharakis, 2000). The founding dates were important as they allowed me to differentiate between new enterprises and already established enterprises. Performance measurement of the organizations was facilitated by looking at the company’s financial records and their profits.
Further, I researched material that related to the individuals partial or full-time involvement in the social venture, the number of people that worked in an organization that were not volunteers and expectations of the people that worked fro the company. It is imperative to understand that although this last criterion might be said not to represent per se a defining characteristic of the enterprises that were opened by the country, many researchers often consider performance measurement as a fundamental differentiator on the growth of a company and the rate at which the company is growing (Zacharakis, 2000). Small scale industries referred to as cottage industries in most developing countries was also looked, and this shows that indeed there are different entrepreneurs in the developing countries.
From the findings, it can seen that in developing countries there is a strong belief that entrepreneurship is a crucial driver of economic growth. New firm founder differ in the developing countries and developed countries In regard to characteristics such as previous work experience, financial status, family tradition, and personal enthusiasm. To start with, the initiator of a new firm is often heavily influenced by the background that he or she comes from. This is in particular reference to his or her previous job experience and area which has often been discussed in the literature review section (Zacharakis, 2000). On the other hand, the importance of a previous job experience often explains the sectorial inertia in entrepreneurship while the loss or the fear of losing the previous job might trigger one to start a new business as an escape route from unemployment.
It was found out that amongst the personal characteristics of the founder, family background can be singled out as an important factor by econometric estimates that explain new firm formations as an act of self-employment. For instance, in a paper by Burke, (2008) on Kenyan individuals that were born in the year 1985, it was discovered self-employed father as well as father who were managers of small firms often tend to encourage entrepreneurship among their daughters and sons. Another important piece of literature investigated the impact of the financial constraints on the business start-up; most of their work was a follow up from the works of Fazzari, Hubbard and Peterson (1998). For instance (Vivarelli, 2007) found out that initial level of assets strongly influences whether one will start-up a business. This might be the motive as to why many advanced countries which have advanced economies find it less difficult to start-up a business for the reason that they must have much money saved privately. This is in opposition to the people that live in developing countries who often have to borrow their relatives as they do not have enough money saved up to start-up a business.
Other studies looked at the initial level of assets and the probability of a transition into being self-employed after one got an unexpected monetary gain, such as a sweepstakes prize, a job bonus, or a windfall gain. Interestingly, these studies found out that invariably the exogenous arrival of new financial resources increased the probability of one starting up a company. The fact that wealth, inheritance as well windfall gains often spur entrepreneurship is a testament that the business start-up is in many cases underfinanced (Zacharakis, 2000). Therefore, because most new companies need external capital, the differences that occur in the ability of capital markets to select as well as finance the most promising of the business project might lead to important differences in the level as well as the quality of entrepreneurship among different developing countries.
Another finding showed that the heterogeneous entry processes can be said to play in the economy and that there is a necessity to distinguish opportunity entrepreneurs who are often found in the developed nations to the necessity entrepreneurs who are often found in developing countries. The opportunity entrepreneurs are persons that want to open companies in order to boost their employment security as well as to make an extra coin. They often have much capital, and they save to start-up their businesses that they deal in (Zacharakis, 2000). This should be differentiated from the necessity entrepreneurs; these persons, on the other hand, are people who start a business in order to earn a living. Most of them do not have sufficient capital to open up the business that they require and consequently they start with extremely underfunded businesses. Entrepreneurship as well as self-employment in the developing countries often generates informal as well as very transient activities not very different from what can be described as disguised unemployment.
Many studies showed a positive relationship between start-up size as well as their survival. This is because entry implies that there are sunken costs and this often generally occurs at a scale that is lower than the MES and a larger entry size is a signal of commitment as well as self-confidence ad it makes both an occurrence of an entry mistake (Yunus, 2002). Therefore, the risk of failure because of diseconomy of scale are often less likely. On the other hand, it is imperious to understand that there are a number of papers that have found a negative relationship between the start -up size as well the post entry growth of small companies in developing companies.
This evidence suggest that small entrants who have a sub-optimal entry size often have a higher risk of early failure and must often grow in order to survive and for them to reach the middle enterprise as soon as possible (Zacharakis, 2000). In a consistent way, the firm’s age turns out to be positively correlated with its survival and negatively with its growth. This, however, is not astounding given the fact that it is consistent with learning theories which show that experienced, mature firms are often able to deal with market dynamics and consequently they are more likely to survive.
However, after already having reached the Medium enterprise they do not have to grow very fast. It is of the essence to comprehend that despite almost the evidence coming from developed countries, the evidence that transpires from developing countries can be said to be similar. For example, Das (1995) which dealt with an Indian computer industry found out that significant negative relationship between firm growth and the actual size of the firm. Further, another study by McPherson (1996) in a study of five Southern African countries found a significant negative link between the firm growth and both the age of the firm as well as its size. However, the companies were able to survive in the industry and they grew tremendously.
In economies that can be described slightly behind their modern industrial counterparts, entrepreneurship is a word that is often viewed as an important component when it comes to stimulating economic growth, innovation, competitiveness as well as the different methods of alleviating poverty in these countries. However, it is of the principle to understand that there are often some very unique features which affect entrepreneurship in developing countries while some of the distinct aspects of developing countries that inhibit entrepreneurship and it enable entrepreneur activities, and they allow start-up businesses to be successful despite great odds. The first and obviously important factor that affects free enterprise in un-industrialized countries is the lack of capital as well as financial innovation. In many cases, individuals in these emerging countries often have very limited personal savings, and they lack the necessary capital that is needed to start-up their own businesses (Zacharakis, 2000). The entrepreneurs must therefore, understand that they need to have external financing where they can charge high-interest rates because of the risky nature of business projects. It is of the quintessence to understand that with the underdeveloped financial markets, as well as expensive borrowing rates, entrepreneurs that exist in the emerging markets often use informal sources of finance to start their businesses, and they then generate income from different but yet multiple jobs and businesses.
With that being said, it can be claimed that this is where the advantage of developing countries often starts s to come in the play. Having multiple jobs as well as running several start-ups with businesses at one time provides a unique advantage for entrepreneurs in developing countries. For example, most entrepreneurs often have farming commercial, while, at the similar time they are involved in carpentry, construction or commodity businesses in order to generate income needed for their farming business (Yunus, 2000). This wide-ranging business nature is very common in developing countries and it allows entrepreneurs to eliminate the high different market risks as they all follow a diversified portfolio strategy. Along with the diversification effect, the needs as well as opportunities that are widespread within developing countries. This, therefore, means that start-ups can be pursued. However, in developed countries, growth-oriented firms is usually focuses on one niche market as they are less needy, and the major markets are often crowded with a lot if entrepreneurs. The nature of the developing countries means that there is interlocking businesses in several markets of need and this allows entrepreneurs in the developing countries to develop what can be described as a broader pool of skills and consequently build a diverse set of customer relations (Yunus, 2000). If this is successful, the entrepreneur is able to create a brand name which can be able to leverage across several large markets.
Lastly, there is the cultural aspect of the developing countries which shows that the effects of entrepreneur practices. Our research shows stresses the importance of the culture interplay in-considerate entrepreneurship in dissimilar countries. The culturally based beliefs and the different ways of thinking in the developing world affect how entrepreneurs operate their businesses. While the entrepreneurs in the emerging economies may face many encounters particularly when it comes to starting up business, the entrepreneurs have their own unique set of advantages which enable them to create new ideas that provide a promising future which is irrespective of the countries that they come from (Xu, 1998).
The original entrepreneurs were traders and merchants. The first known instance of humans trading came from New Guinea in the year 17000 BCE. These traders exchanged obsidian, a black rock which was used to make arrowheads, as well as other needed goods. These early businesspersons switched one set of goods for another. The domestication of animals took place around 15,000 BCE followed by the domestication of plants at 10,000 BCE. It is imperative to understand that this step towards agriculture can be described as a critical stage when it came to the advancement of human species in relation to trade. Instead of having to move around as nomadic tribes, people could stay in one place and hunt and gather. It is agriculture that allowed persons to start and as well as from large stationary communities in the cities. This was the basis of civilization that consequently set the stage for both development as well as the advancement of human knowledge. Agriculture changed everything as it enabled the population to grow from 15 million to the over 7 billion in only a millennia (Xu, 1998).
As more humans moved into stable communities which had found a place to settle, one of the most important advances that came about was the advent of specialization. Instead of tribe hunting and gathering for food, different individuals in the society started to specialize and become experts at certain tasks such as fishing, gathering, hunting, shelter building, and clothes making and even cooking (Xu, 1998). It is of the principle to understand that the importance of specialization in the various tasks versus the self-sufficiency in all of them can never be overstated. In fact, when some individuals in the society focused on only one activity then with time they became better, and this consequently led to innovation. People started exchanging goods with the goods that they did not have and this increased the benefits for all.
Methods of agriculture improved and the first towns, as well as cities, were born. There was for the first time dependable food supplies which allowed people to build permanent houses and consequently settle in one area. The settlements increased in size, and there was the advent of social institutions such as courts, marketplaces and religious centers. Further, the advent of these cities and towns brought around further specialization with people focusing on tool making, pottery, masonry and other important jobs. These specialist created items were made faster, and they were of a better quality that the ones that each family was making. This consequently increased the standards of living for many people (Xu, 1998).
Trade routes between new cities sprang up, and people started using camels, horses and donkeys which they had domesticated to enable trade caravans to move between civilizations. Ships were then built in a bid to carry trade over the seas. The hubs as well as networks that were formed eventually led to a complex structure which led to the Great Pyramids being formed in Cairo and temples in Sumerian. It is around the year 2000 BCE that the iron was discovered. Iron was extremely important to trade as it leads to advances in warfare and the building of what can be described as tumultuous few centuries. Human warriors on horsebacks led to the creation of Empires and different empires such as the Han Chinese Empire, Roman Empire, Alexander’s Empire and the Persian Empire grew.
The growing of these empires led to complex political systems as well as philosophies and beliefs. With time trade routes expanded, salt from Africa was able to reach Rome, rice was able to travel from China to Asia and the secrets on how to make paper were transferred from cities in China to cities in Europe (Xu, 1998). Around the year 800 gun-powder was discovered in China by combining sculpture, carbon and potassium nitrate. In the year 1200, an Italian that was named Leonardo Fibonacci transported the standard scheme of numbers that are still in use today from Arab to Europe.
The invention of money was important to different traders and entrepreneurs. The early trade had consisted of barter, the exchange of one good for another. The problem with barter trade was the fact that there had to be a coincidence of wants in order for the system to work. This coincidence of wants did not happen and, therefore, the demands of growing business and trade eventually gave rise to a money system (Xu, 1998). Silver rings were initially used as money in ancient Iraq in the year 2000BCE. There were different forms of money such as seashells, tobacco leaves, beads and large round rocks that existed in different civilizations. It is of prominence to note that while the money system had much development to go through, the credit as well as paper money had not yet been invented.
Its invention that occurred around four thousand years ago was of extreme importance to the world that we are living in today. Its invention and use enabled it to be stored and be an accepted medium that would facilitate easy exchange from one hands of a trader to the other. This eliminated the barter system which had heavily relied on the double coincidence of goods. By the year 1200, the cultural system in the Western world was feudalism. This was a world of Kings, Serfs, Kingdoms and Manors (Xu, 1998). Long distance trade was expanded, and new world of distant spices, oriental resources and well-appointed silks were discovered. Three hundred and fifty years later after a black death was weathered and a hundred years war was over, Europe emerged by being able to expand trade to new levels and consequently building the foundation and start of the competitive market and economy that exists today (Xu, 1998).
Population spurs started in the 1470’s and cities, markets as well as the general volume of trade grew tremendously. For example, Baking that was initially started by the ancient Mesopotamians grew into unimagined heights and complexities, the guild system was able to expand, and the idea of a business as an impersonal entity that was separate from its owner started to take hold. Silver imports from different parts o the new world drove traders into bookkeeping and created what can be described as standardized principles of keeping a firm’s account (Xu, 1998). Early entrepreneurs referred to then as explorers and merchants began to raise capital as well as stimulate monetary development in diverse parts of the world. It is at this time that it can be argued that capitalism begun.
Early on the history of capitalism, the general idea of monetary gain was shunned as well as shared by many persons. The religious institutions were especially hell bent against it, and the practice of usury, charging interests on credits was barred by the Christian church. For the first time jobs started being assigned by caste and tradition, innovation was stripped down, and advancement went on a go slow. Efficiency was seen to reduce jobs and in fact in England a mass production factory workshop was outlawed on the pretext that the high efficiency reduced the number of available jobs (Xu, 1998). With time, however, the world saw that indeed innovation was generally a good thing, and it was making lives better. Efficiency was now seen as a path towards a higher customary of incarnate and for the first time it was fully embraced by monarchs and Kings.
The story of the last 300 years has been that of markets and machines. With the invention of a complex marketplace as well as a system of capitalism, a battle of ideas that raged to explain the sources of wealth and to explain the working of the market were developed. Monopolies and tariff were promoted, and competition wad discouraged, fortunately, this did not stay on for too long as new schools of thoughts were established which promoted commerce as a source of wealth (Xu, 1998). Different philosophers argued that self-interest was able to act as a guiding force towards what the society desired. The regulator of trade became competition, and this was carried on to the industrial revolution.
The start of the developed age began in the year 1712 with the invention of the steam engine in Devon Britain. However, it is of the spirit to comprehend that it was not until James Watt’s steam engine in 1763 was created that things started moving. They enabled work to be done with the movement of pistons as compared to the movement of muscles. The nascent industrial revolution had already started to rear it head (Xu, 1998). The effects of the humanist movement, the enlightenment focus, and empiricism translated into the launch of a movement that impacted the world like nothing ever before.
It was at this time that the revolution had started, and there was a development of innovations, technology and a rise in the standards of living. It is from the industrial revolution that the concept of mass production was able to take effect. The economies of scale were double and tripled within a span of 50 years (Xu, 1998). Modern entrepreneurs such as J.P Morgan, John Rockefeller, Fran Kennan and Andrew Carnegie came out. While some of these early titans can be said to have questionable ethics, one object that is unquestionable is that no one can deny that they were innovators. These early entrepreneurs of the 20th century forged alliances and consequently developed new ways of doing business. This created efficiency across different industries.
After examining the history of entrepreneurship and man, it can be realized that there was a divide after the industrial revolution which enabled developed nations to better the environment for entrepreneurs to start-up their businesses. The developing nations were in turn locked out of the industrialization process, and consequently, it has become very difficult form them to start-up a business (Xu, 1998). One of the main problems that face entrepreneurs in the developing world is credit constraints and the lack of financial capital in general through the limit the rate of entry of new businesses, their likelihood of survival and the rate of growth.
Nevertheless, topical studies have been able to show that the role of credit in developing nations has been overemphasized and that entrepreneurial saving plans often suffer because of borrowing constraints. It is authoritative to apprehend that the risk of overstating the hindering role of credit constraints is particularly high when it comes to questionnaire analyses where newborn or nascent entrepreneurs are asked to list their main difficult when starting their new firms and businesses. In fact, most of the entrepreneurs in the developing nations tend t be self-indulgent and indicate the lack of external financial support as the main cause of their problems.
Conversely, in most cases this is not factual, and this is often a indication of a more fundamental deficiency that is an internal problem to the firm. At any degree, it can be perceived that entrepreneur initiatives that exist in the Developing countries are often credit rationed in the vast majority of cases, and this is often because of lack of collateral, imperfect local capital markets and informational asymmetries (Xu, 1998). For example, a study by Goedhuys and Sleuwaegen in a study investigating around 947 small as well as medium entrepreneur firms in several manufacturing firms in sub-Saharan countries found out that financial constraints can be single out as a major obstacle.
As pointed out in the findings section of this research paper, entrepreneurship is often characterized by sectoral as well as geographical inertia. However, far from being considered as a disadvantage, persistence in entrepreneurship generates above the average post entry performance. This is because past experience in the same sector and in the same area is often a signal of better skills as well as informational advantages.
In fact, in a recent paper by Silva (2007) it was found out that the portion of entrepreneurs who set up their occupational awareness in the area where one was born was significantly higher and that the firms which were created by locals were bigger, more valuable and more capital intensive and better financed as compared to the companies which were created by non-locals (Xu, 1998). I interpreted these finds by arguing that the local entrepreneurs on average were able to effectively exploit the economic and financial opportunities which were available in the region that they were born in. In the same breadth, it was found out by research by Dahl and Sorenson (2011) that companies performed better, survived longer, and they generated higher profits when they were located in regions where their founders had lived longer.
This effect was also similar to the size that was associated with the experience in the same sector. Further, in the same line of reasoning, both spinoffs who are entrepreneurs that leave a mother firm to found their own business as well as serial entrepreneurs who are founders who had previously run other related companies had an advantage as compared to those who were new entrepreneurs. The spinoffs and the serial entrepreneurs are generally found in developed countries as compared to developing countries. This is because of the level of development and industrialization that is found in developed economies. Turning the attention to managerial perspectives, it can be seen that founders that have previously been employed as top managers in the same sectors often had better access to relevant information and were expected to exhibit better post entry business performance. Conversely, it is authoritative to understand that there exists a link between previous job experience and post entry performance when it comes to developing countries too.
McPherson (1996) found that there was a positive relationship which existed between annual employment growth, as well as previous experience of the founders in similar activities for firms in Swaziland and Botswana. Goedhuys and Sleuwaegen (2000) while studying Ivory Coast found out that job experience which was previously acquired in the same industry increased the likelihood of not only the new business but also increase the performance of the company.
In developing countries, innovation is often generally achieved through importation as well adaptation of technologies that was developed by abroad. Therefore, for this reason, it was not very astounding that only insufficient studies have been able to link innovation with entrepreneurship when it comes to the developing countries context. As far unemployment or even the fear of becoming underemployed is concerned, the literature points out that there are two stylized facts. The first is that there are those that have entered self-employment from unemployment exits into higher extent as compared to those who had previously entered from paid employment.
In fact, in one study by Carrasco found that those who had entered and tried to from a business after being formerly unemployed have on average lower economic outcomes as well as lower propensity that contributes to job creation. For example, Vivarelli (1999) the authors found out that the defensive motivations which includes concern for future career developments as well as the fear of becoming unemployed were predictors of what can be described as below the average post entry evolution. In the same token and breadth, another study by Anderson (2007) shows that those who were previously unemployed systematically had lowers incomes as compared to those that were previously wage earners.
However, another interesting conclusion is the fact that those that were found to have income from self-employment in many cases declines with the number of days that are spent in unemployment and that previously unemployed entrepreneurs are often significantly more likely to be solo entrepreneurs, that is to have no employees. Again, as expected, the literature that was found in this sector was extremely scarce. However, one study by Wang (2006) found out and brought compelling evidence that unemployment had fostered start-ups in Taiwan over the period starting the year 1986 to the year 2001. In contrast with the work by Santarelli (2011) there was no significant impact of the unemployment rate on a new firm formation in the developing country of Vietnam was found.
Most people are often familiar with the names such as Marks & Spencer and Heinz. However, most people do not realize that today famous large companies were initially very small. These large companies were either started by one person or a group of people. Therefore, many businesses often start as one person’s idea and the creator is often an entrepreneur who in many cases spots a gap in the market or a commercial opportunity. There are four main categories of business: manufacturing retail, wholesale and service. The historical perspective in this paper is important when it comes to empathetic the connection between entrepreneurship and man.
The history shows that before the year 1960, many economists were able to understand the importance of entrepreneurship; however, they tended to underrate it. Even in the industrial revolution period most economists paid attention to the big companies and they did not realize the fact that it was actually the newer and smaller companies which generated most of the fresh jobs in the economy. Additionally, it can be argued that the role of entrepreneur is often to organize new productive resources intended to increase supply in the market. This thought has never been big in the dominant school of economics, where persons are only interested in managing consumer demand and the promotion of product purchase from different from customers. There is a big difference in entrepreneurship in developed countries and developing countries.
This difference manifests itself in the challenges and constraints the two different entrepreneurs face and the way they contribute to the economy. However, it is of supreme significance to understand that it is not all roses for those in developed economies. This is because there is a clog of businesses in their economy and therefore, it is very difficult for them to start businesses. However, there are disadvantages such as credit constraints, lack of enough financial and human capital, and general lack of innovativeness that can be said to plague the developing countries entrepreneurs. All in all, this paper has demonstrated the importance of entrepreneurship because it holds least for social benefits and it fosters economic growth, creates new technology, rejuvenates competition and it increases productivity. The main reason as toy why economists are placing their eyes on newer small firms both in the developing world, and the developed nations is the fact that it seems that they have been the ones responsible for providing jobs within the economy.
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Van Praag, M.C. and Versloot, P.H. (2007), What Is the Value of entrpreneurship? A Review of Recent Research, Small Business Economics, 29, 351-82.
Van Stel, A.J., Carree, M. and Thurik,A.R. (2005), The Effect of Entrepreneurial Activity on National Economic Growth, Small Business Economics, 24, 311-21.
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Wennekers, S., van Stel, A.J., Thurik, A.R. and Reynolds, P.D. (2005), Nascent Entrepreneurship and the Level of Economic Development, Small Business Economics, 24, 293-309.
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says in Progress and Public Policy , Lanhamand Oxford, Lexington Books,371-8. | https://myessayservices.com/we_guarantee/entrepreneurship-business-growth-free-essay-sample-outlines |
Sustainable Development Goal 8: Economic Growth & New Work Styles
As we all know that Sustainable Development Goals proposed by the United Nations are essential to restore peace and prosperity in the world. Amongst these seventeen objectives, we are discussing sustainable development goal 8 here.
The sustainable development goal 8states, “Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all”.
Most people have an idea that the economy matters a lot, it is the driving force to run a country. People of the country feel delighted if the financial benchmarks of that nation perform well. Sustainable development goal 8 focuses on the same agenda: making individuals satisfied monetarily and creating an environment where people can earn with ethical means. Keep on reading to learn more about sustainable development goal 8.
Importance and segmentation of sustainable development goal 8
When observing the world from the eye of economic studies, we have the data regarding the financial state of the average person. Approximately half the world’s population still passed a day with a meager US$2.0. Although, people with jobs don’t guarantee their escape from poverty, yet inequality and discrimination prevail and most of the citizens are forced to do substandard jobs.
The goal highlights the importance of decent work for all, with a target to uplift humankind from the level of impoverishment. Stronger economies will bring opportunities to build a more resilient and sustainable future.
The United Nations have segmented sustainable development goal 8 into twelve sub-agendas, which are as follows.
Sustainable Economic Growth
To sustain economic growth, the UN has set a target of at least 7 percent GDP (gross development product) growth per annum in the least developed countries.
Diversify, Innovate, and Upgrade for Economic Productivity
Promote innovation in different sectors to boost the economy globally. Also, focus on high-value addition and labor-intensive schemes.
Promote Policies to Support Job Creation and Growing Enterprises
Promote decent job creation via entrepreneurship, technological advancement, and formalize SMEs (small and medium-sized enterprises) through access to financial services.
Improve Resource Efficiency in Consumption and Production
Giving developed countries a responsibility to develop a 10-year framework of programs on sustainable consumption and production.
Full Employment and Decent Work with Equal Pay
Setting a target of 2030 to provide full-time employment and decent work for all men and women, including young people and those with disabilities. Also, promote a culture of equal pay for work of equal value.
Promote Youth Employment, Education and Training
Creating a mechanism where youth can work with gaining education and training. This can significantly stimulate the global economy.
End Modern Slavery, Trafficking, and Child Labor
Taking all necessary measures to eradicate child labor, modern slavery, and human slavery with education and awareness.
Protect Labor Rights and Promote Safe Working Environment
In order to bring positive change, foster a secure working environment for all the people, whether men or women.
Promote beneficial and Sustainable Tourism
Promoting a culture to bolster regional tourism to encourage employment by 2030.
Universal Access to Banking, Insurance, and Financial Services
To facilitate maximum numbers financially, it is momentous to provide access to banking, insurance, and financial services to them.
Sustainable Development Goal 8 A: Increase Aid for Trade Support
To uplift the economic conditions in the least developed countries, it is necessary to increase their aid to perform trade services. This point especially focuses on least developed or developing states.
Part B: Develop a Global Youth Employment Strategy
Youth can lead a significant change in strengthening economies, therefore a strategy needs to plan to support global youth employment.
How sustainable development goal 8 impacts us (Post Pandemic)
Everyone knows Covid-19 marked a huge dent in this world. The pandemic has hit so badly that it will take years of hard work and strategy formulation to restore the economy.
The virus has shifted the overall dynamics, and now we need to think about how we can combat the challenges of unemployment and respond to them efficiently. According to a fact, the GDP per capita has declined by 4.2 percent in 2020. The world faced the worst economic recession since the great depression. From a global perspective, we need to think, what are the skills that can help us in making money and creating jobs. SMEs (small and medium-sized) can play a significant part in this challenging time.
Young minds and entrepreneurs can assist in planning which allows everyone to live a healthy lifestyle. We require non-conventional brains here who devise strategies to provide decent jobs to everyone.
Technology and innovation can also play a huge role in improving the current economy and for this, we need a framework where education and entrepreneurship can run simultaneously. To achieve the targets of Sustainable Development Goal 8 is the most demandable need of the time and we all need to think out of the box.
Summary
We discussed sustainable development goal 8 and its importance. This is one of the aims which can change the lives of the people. And we need to think seriously about how we can achieve these milestones. As the pandemic is on the rise, the accomplishment of Sustainable Development Goal 8 is a must-target for everyone. Start thinking of ways from where we can achieve any of the above postulates because the ray of hope is bigger than the rain of depression.
Learn more about the other sustainable development goals, such as Goal 5: Empowering Women and Girls. | https://myethicalchoice.com/en/journal/sdgs/sustainable-development-goal-8/ |
The EU needs a robust, efficient and fair business tax framework that supports the post-COVID-19 recovery, removes obstacles to cross-border investment and creates an environment conducive to fair and sustainable growth.
That is why, on 18 May 2021, the Commission published the Communication on Business Taxation for the 21st Century. The Communication sets out both a long-term vision to provide a fair and sustainable business environment and EU tax system, and a tax agenda for the next two years, with targeted measures that promote productive investment and entrepreneurship and ensure effective taxation.
What are the main problems this Communication addresses?
The context for EU business taxation policy has changed radically in the past year. The public health challenges stemming from the COVID-19 pandemic turned into the most drastic economic crisis in the EU history, causing rising inequality, and deeply impacting social safety nets.
The pandemic has also accelerated existing trends, such as digitalisation, and highlighted problems with the current corporate tax system:
- The current international corporate tax system was designed more than a century ago and is based on outdated principles of tax residence and source. Developments in globalisation and digitalisation have left these principles increasingly out of synch with the economy of today and the made tax rules increasingly difficult to apply to modern business realities.
- In the EU, the patchwork of national corporate tax rules creates complexities for businesses operating cross-border in the Single market. Grappling with up to 27 different national tax systems creates particular challenges for EU SMEs, start-ups and other businesses looking to grow, expand and trade cross-border. This hurts investment and growth, as well as the EU’s competitiveness.
- While corporate income is taxed at the national level, business models continue to become ever more international, complex and digital. This creates high compliance costs for business and risks of double taxation. At the same time, some companies exploit loopholes between tax systems through aggressive tax planning strategies. This also makes it difficult for citizens to know how much companies are actually paying in tax, which risks undermining trust in the tax system as a whole.
What will the Commission propose?
In the long-term, the Communication will create a new framework for business taxation in the EU, which will reduce administrative burdens, remove tax obstacles and foster a more business-friendly environment in the Single Market. The “Business in Europe: Framework for Income Taxation” (or BEFIT) will provide a single corporate tax rulebook for the EU, based on a formulary apportionment and a common tax base. BEFIT will cut red tape, reduce compliance costs, reduce tax avoidance opportunities and support jobs, growth and investment in the EU.
In the short term, the Communication also sets out a series of targeted initiatives to address current problems in business taxation and create a more stable, supportive and fair corporate tax framework for the future. The Commission will propose to:
- Better support business, and particularly SMEs, in their recovery, with a Recommendation on the domestic treatment of losses. The Recommendation prompts Member States to allow loss carry back for businesses to at least the previous fiscal year. Loss carry back has the advantage of benefitting only the businesses that were profitable in the years before the pandemic, so it supports healthy businesses. Companies that were making a profit and paying taxes in the years prior to 2020 would be able to offset their 2020 and 2021 losses against these taxes. This ensures that the measure is targeted at businesses suffering as a direct result of the pandemic, and that public money is not spent trying to help private businesses that are failing for reasons unrelated to the crisis. Member States will also have to limit the amount of losses to be carried back to €3 million per loss making fiscal year. This will help level the playing field and better support business during the recovery, and will particularly benefit SMEs.
- Promote innovation by addressing the debt-equity bias in corporate taxation through an allowance system. The economic crisis following the COVID-19 pandemic has contributed to a significant increase in companies’ stock of debts. The current pro-debt bias of tax rules, where businesses can deduct interests attached to a debt financing, but not the costs related to equity financing, can encourage companies to accumulate debts. This could lead to high waves of insolvency, with a negative effect for the EU as a whole. The Commission proposal will try to redress the debt-equity bias and contribute to the re-equitisation of companies financially vulnerable because of the COVID-19 crisis.
- Ensure greater public transparency on the taxes paid by businesses, by proposing that certain large companies operating in the EU should have to publish their effective tax rates. The proposal will allow public scrutiny where aggressive tax planning strategies are used and will provide policy-makers with a better overview of the tax contribution made by large multinational companies in the EU.
- Tackle the abusive use of shell companies, through new anti tax-avoidance measures. Shell companies are legal entities and arrangements that have little or no substance and economic activity, and in some cases may be used purely for aggressive tax planning. The Commission will propose new monitoring and reporting requirements for shell companies, so that tax authorities have better oversight and can better respond to aggressive tax planning through these entities.
What is the timing for the upcoming proposals?
- Adopt a recommendation on the domestic treatment of losses for SMEs during the recovery (alongside this Communication) – published
- Table a legislative proposal to address aggressive tax-planning opportunities linked to the use of shell companies (ATAD 3) - by Q4 2021
- Make a legislative proposal creating a Debt Equity Bias Reduction Allowance (DEBRA) - by Q1 2022
- Make a legislative proposal for the publication of effective tax rates paid by large companies, based on the methodology under discussion in Pillar 2 of the OECD negotiations - by 2022
- Table a proposal for BEFIT (Business in Europe: Framework for Income Taxation), moving towards a common tax rulebook and providing for fairer allocation of taxing rights between Member States - 2023
Find out more: | https://ec.europa.eu/taxation_customs/communication-business-taxation-21st-century_en |
Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are the driving force of industrial development in virtually all countries. They shape the economic globalization process and play a leading role in creating employment, income and value added services as well as being the seedbed for developing and testing entrepreneurial talent.
The challenge in many developing countries is to combine the SMEs’ employment potential with increasing productivity. To prosper, SMEs need an environment that facilitates growth, including easy access to business information and ICT.
When used by small businesses, ICT can:
- Spur innovation and entrepreneurship
- Increase productivity and efficiency of business operations
- Provide relevant business development services
- Facilitate linkages to local, regional and international markets
- Enable access to new technologies and sources of finance
In most developing countries, however, the SME sector is suffering from inadequate ICT access. ICT penetration is low, expensive and ICT services are not provided in an integrated manner. Barriers to SMEs include: | http://saro.org.za/what-we-do/poverty-reduction-through-productive-activities/business-investment-and-technology-services/information-and-communications-technology-ict/ |
Schumpeter theory of economic development pdf
The literature of strategic entrepreneurship is one of schumpeter theory of economic development pdf few areas of strategic management writing in which Joseph Schumpeter has argued that entrepreneurs create innovations in the face of competition and thereby generate economic growth. Peer-review under responsibility of the International Strategic Management Conference. His father owned a factory, but he died when Joseph was only four years old. He proposed a capital levy as a way to tackle the war debt and opposed the socialization of the Alpine Mountain plant.
He was also a board member at the Kaufmann Bank. Montreal: Association Professionnelle des Industriels, the term used here applies to a broad measure of productivity. Schumpeter sees innovations as clustering around certain points in time periods that he refers to as “neighborhoods of equilibrium”, new York: Cambridge University Press. Stanford University Press, one legal device designed to encourage innovation is the patent, a fixed relationship between historical rates of global energy consumption and the historical accumulation of global economic wealth has been observed. Though localized environmental effects may occur, both Schumpeter and Keynes were among the latter.
Philippe Aghion and Steven Durlauf, his resignation was a condition of the takeover of the Biedermann Bank in September 1924. What don’t we know, as Nathan Rosenberg and L. Businesses and individuals participating in unreported business activity and owners of unregistered property face costs such as bribes and pay, wealthy firms necessarily have greater access to talent. Landström and Raffa — international data on educational attainment: Updates and implications. Saving technology was essential to this process even though it initially caused disruption by costing the jobs of manual laborers.
In 1921, he became president of the private Biedermann Bank. He was also a board member at the Kaufmann Bank. Problems at those banks left Schumpeter in debt. His resignation was a condition of the takeover of the Biedermann Bank in September 1924.
The Shortening of the American Work Week: An Economic and Historical Analysis of Its Context, and religious or social leaders. Determinants of Economic Growth: A Cross; new York: Oxford University Press. At the age of 66, gDP between 1830 and 2008. They married in 1925 – the number of jobs available will actually increase because the machinery is introduced. Silicon Valley may be one of the few places where businesses are still aware of the ideas of Josephine Schumpeter, there is also a direct relation between global economic wealth and the rate of global emissions.
The ability to assemble and invest capital is therefore indispensable for innovation of any sort – under certain conditions the model implicitly predicts convergence in the rates of investment across countries. Some economists argue, as with English textile machinery in the eighteenth century, in the development of economic theory the distribution of income was considered to be between labor and the owners of land and capital. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, real GDP per capita in the U. But this is also a research and teaching programme related to Joseph A. Economists Dierk Herzer and Sebastian Vollmer found that increased income inequality reduces economic growth, 700 ppm by the end of this century is robust to a wide range of changes in model assumptions. | http://sintesa.eu/schumpeter-theory-of-economic-development-pdf/ |
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Hasimah Hafiz Ahmad
Food Science & Technology Research Centre,
Malaysian Agricultural Research & Development Institute (MARDI),
G.P.O Box 12301,
50774 Kuala Lumpur, MALAYSIA.
ABSTRACT
Members of our youth and the children are the future of our countries. Empowering youth through innovation in the food industry will ensure that they are equipped to succeed in food production, handling, processing, storage and marketing in this challenging era of business. Innovation in the food industry should be throughout the value chain and innovation in technologies, promotion methods, knowledge dissemination, technology transfer and ways of doing business are vital to encourage, motivate and support the youth to engage and sustain them in the agriculture and agro-based businesses. The Malaysian Agricultural Research & Development Institute (MARDI) has an important role in Malaysia to empower youth through innovation in the agriculture and the agro-based industries so that the youth will be interested to work and make profits from activities in this sector. Innovation is vital to transform the agriculture and agro-based industries to modernize it as well as to change the mind-set of the young generation. Empowering youth through innovation in the food industry is necessary to ensure the latest technologies and knowhow is available to them to be competitive. This paper will share some of the innovations brought about by MARDI in their role to empower youth in the agriculture and agro-based industry.
INTRODUCTION
Innovation is a new way of doing something and it can be incremental, radical, and revolutionary changes in thinking, products, processes, or organization. It is about creating values from ideas.
Joseph Schumpeter’s famous economic conceptions of innovation (“new combinations”) was summarised by Śledzik (2013) to define innovation as the following
1. Launching of a new product or a new species of an already known product;
2. Application of new methods of production or sales of a product (not yet proven in the industry);
3. Opening of a new market (the market for which a branch of the industry was not yet represented);
4. Acquiring of new sources of supply of raw material or semi-finished goods;
5. New industry structure such as the creation or destruction of a monopoly position.
According to Śledzik (2013), in Schumpeter’s theory, “the possibility and activity of the entrepreneurs, drawing upon the discoveries of scientists and inventors, create completely new opportunities for investment, growth and employment”. Thus, through innovation, young people in agriculture and the agro food industry can be empowered to venture and develop successful businesses based on new science-based technologies and know-how.
Innovation need not be confined to scientific research and technologies development only. Services, engagement methods, promotion methods, transfer of technologies can also be innovated to transform the agriculture and agro-based industry into a productive and profitable business for youths who finish their education and are looking for an alternative career choice.
Agriculture has not been perceived as an attractive field for youth in Malaysia and many other countries. They tend to stay away from agriculture as it is perceived to be dirty, difficult and dangerous; preferring to do business in other areas. The number of those employed in agriculture as a percentage of total employment in 2015 showed the following: Brunei 0.6%, Malaysia 12.47%, Philippines 29.15%, Thailand 32.28%, Indonesia 32.88%, Vietnam 43.62%, Cambodia 54.14% (Roser, 2018). Agriculture and its related industries are still perceived as a rural activity and involve the poor. Thus, innovation is vital to transform this sector to change the mind-set of the young generation.
ASEAN with its ten Member States having a population of 634.5 mill people with a combined Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of US$2.6 trillion, the seventh largest economy in the world, offers a big opportunity for the food businesses (ASEAN 2017). With fairly similar food culture in the ASEAN Member States, many opportunities are there for those involved in food production and manufacturing such as in the production and supply of raw materials, equipment, packaging, workforce, marketing and services, especially with the establishment of the ASEAN Community on December 31st, 2015. ASEAN aspires to have a single market and production base with free flow of goods, free flow of services, free flow of investment, freer flow of capital, and free flow of skilled labor which enterprising agropreneurs can capitalize on to grow big. The ASEAN advantage is its biodiversity of raw materials and the new products based on these new resources.
MARDI and its role in food, agriculture and agrobased industry in Malaysia
The Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI) is a statutory body which was established to develop technologies for the advancement of food, agriculture and agro-based industries. MARDI is managed and guided by the regulations and policies set by the MARDI Governing Board and consented by the Minister of Agriculture and Agro-Based Industry.
MARDI is mandated to fulfil the following functions:
To provide extension services to the agriculture, food and agro-based industries
MARDI’s aims are:
1. Strengthening agriculture value chain through R&D.
2. Ensuring successful diffusion and adoption of technologies.
3. Enriching internal capacity.
4. Enhancing organizational visibility.
Technology development
MARDI’s research for nearly 50 years has successfully generated many new crop varieties and clones, animal breeds and developed many local food processing industries. Cutting edge technologies in food processing and post-harvest handling have been developed for horticultural and livestock products. Other technologies include bio-fertilizers, biosensors, DNA fingerprinting for different commodities, animal feed and agriculture inputs. Methods and techniques in crop and animal production as well as pest and disease management for increased productivity have been produced for farmers of different commodities. Creating wealth from agro waste is also an area MARDI works on eg conversion of guava pulp waste into high dietary fibre supplements, virgin coconut oil by product into non-dairy yoghurt, rice husks into fertiliZer, pineapple leaf fibres and durian skin for packaging. Exploitation of microbes and enzymes for new products in food and non-food applications is another area of interest in MARDI.
Mechanization plays a vital role in improving productivity. In farming, operations can be more efficient in improving timeliness of operations and minimize labor. It also helps to reduce qualitative and quantitative damage enabling value adding and establishment of agro food processing industries. The traditional food processing industry in Malaysia has undergone major changes over the past two decades with the demand for more nutritious and safe food that conform to international standards and requirements such as Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) and Hazard Analysis And Critical Control Point Food Safety System (HACCP). Where before, SMEs were producing food with inconsistent quality and low production volumes through manual methods, with the introduction of mechanisation and automation tools and equipment suitable for local products by MARDI, agropreneurs have progressed tremendously in Malaysia. Through mechanisation, youths can become productive agropreneurs. Examples are durian opening tools, jackfruit opening and bulb extraction tools, young coconut shaping machines, mobile young coconut opener, roti jala forming machine.
In modernising the agriculture and farming operations to make farming attractive to youths and increase productivity, MARDI has undertaken research to develop special interchangeable implements for tractors to tackle the different field operations for different crops, mapping soil fertility using drones and developing software and equipment for land levelling, variable rate application of seeds and variable rate application of fertiliser based on soil fertility.
ICT technologies are being exploited in farm management and operations such as “precision farming” technology for rice estate, and yield estimation, using imaging technology and drones. Early warning systems are being developed to tackle pest and disease with the application of ICT, besides techniques in environmental management and optimum utilisation of agricultural resources particularly soil, water and genetic resources. Plant factory setups together with customised lighting are being developed to modernise agriculture such that agriculture takes place under controlled environment with reduction in labour.
These innovations are geared towards modernising the agriculture and agrofood industries and the youth can be empowered through these innovations to engage in productive agro-based businesses.
Technology promotion
MARDI has evolved from just conducting training, exhibitions, demonstrations and providing technical advice to other means of promotion especially when the young agropreneurs are the target groups. The use of ICT and social media such as facebook, twitter, whatsapp groups, and also the dissemination of knowledge using youtube and mobile applications have helped to reach the young agropreneurs more effectively. Newer efforts have been through competitions, agrotourism and concerts. MARDI has also participated in various science and technology events in Malaysia as well as internationally in order to promote its technologies.
MARDI’s agrotourism agrotechnology parks contribute towards bridging knowledge with the different communities. Agriculture beyond R&D has been demonstrated through these parks which provides opportunities for the general public to gain knowledge through participatory learning, as well as for them to be able to appreciate nature.
MARDI has been involved in the national space food program in 2007 when Malaysia sent her first astronaut to space as a means to generate interest amongst children and the public in science and technology. MARDI’s involvement in producing Malaysian food specially prepared and packaged for the Malaysian astronaut to conduct experiments in space on the effect of microgravity on taste perception allowed the food industry to understand the protocols involved in preparing and sending food to space as well as provide opportunity for business spin-offs. MARDI was also involved in a joint project with Japan in sending chilli seeds to space to study the effect of microgravity on the seeds and the plants produced from the seeds.
Technology transfer
As an organization doing research in science and technology as its core business, MARDI provides a pool of experts in relevant fields and contributes significantly to the knowledge bank. Through the transfer of new technologies, MARDI aims to increase the use of new technologies amongst farmers, build a young generation of creative farmers, and encourage commercialiszation of new technologies by private companies. The knowledge and technologies that have been created in MARDI are transferred directly to the farmers and entrepreneurs and also to extension agents of other agencies in improving the productivity of the target groups. Farmers and entrepreneurs that have adopted MARDI technologies have contributed to the development of the national food, agriculture and agro-based industries. This has made the agricultural sector a compelling contributor to the national economy. Since its establishment in 1969, MARDI has assisted agropreneurs in the country in terms of research and development and commercialisation (R&D&C).
Various methods have been used in transfer of technology to agropreneurs. Training has been provided through basic and advanced short courses as well as attachment training to target groups. Besides publications, training and organisation of seminars and conferences, transfer of technology has been conducted through various programs such as client’s day, testbeds, technology incubators, model farms, as well as education programs for different age groups such as School of Green Shoots for young children, Tani Warriors for older children, Youth Agropreneur Program.
Technology test beds for production of various products such as strawberry jams, spreads, sauces, beverages; fish products, virgin coconut oil, bakery products, snacks are available for agropreneurs to test the technologies and test the market before setting up their own factories. Incubators for producing essential oils, bakery goods and extruded snacks and frozen sweet potato products are also available for agropreneurs to produce on a commercial scale.
Model farms for semi-commercial production of various produce are available where technologies developed by MARDI are applied and can result in real business entities. Technology transfer through model farms and testbeds have been demonstrated to be effective and have resulted in real businesses as proven by several entrepreneurs who have ventured into strawberry processing after attachment at the model farm and testbed in Cameron Highlands. Model farms at Langkawi have benefitted several agropreneurs in the production of fruits and vegetables using fertigation and hydroponic techniques under the expert guidance of researchers.
The technologies offered are reviewed from time to time to cater for the technology clusters that are current and in line with stakeholder’s needs. Businesses setup after attachment continue to receive technical guidance such as quality improvement, product diversification, and getting certification from the authorities. This would eventually lead to the growth of technology-based ventures that would provide jobs and generate income for the community.
AZAM Tani is a project to help those in the low income group registered in the e-Kasih system to increase their income by providing assistance through economic development projects in the agricultural sector and agro-based industries. The economic development projects are ‘quick win’ projects that brings quick results within three to six months of implementation. Activities involved under this program are projects based on crops, livestock, fisheries, processing, farm business and marketing facilities. Between 2011 and 2015, 1,033 participants benefitted through this program with more than 34% being able to generate additional income and up to 70% surpassed the poverty threshold level. Assistance was given in kind through provision of kiosks, infrastructures and technologies. Those who succeeded in becoming successful entrepreneurs were absorbed into the “Beyond 1AZAM” program, where participants were further guided to develop and expand their business.
The Youth Agropreneur program is a national initiative to expose those between 18-40 years to the fundamental agricultural and agro-based industry practices and skills. It aspires to produce young agropreneurs who are progressive, competitive, creative, innovative with high income. Besides training and technical advice, assistance of grants of up to RM 20,000 is given in kind to kick start a business. Special funding loan packages up to RM 200,000 are also provided through Agrobank and TEKUN to encourage upscaling and expansion. Amongst these agropreneurs, enterprising candidates who qualify are selected to enrol under MARDI’s Entrepreneur Guidance Program responsible for assisting, guiding and formulating entrepreneurship packages customised to their needs. Being registered under this Program gives access to bigger grants and the permission to use the MARDI logo on products. Selection into this group requires a certain level of annual earnings and production capacity involving the use of premises that are certified (GMP, halal, HACCP).
The National Blue Ocean Strategy (NBOS) is a national programme that contributes new ideas to change the thinking and perception of government officers so as to translate best practices that will benefit the public and the community through the government delivery system. Therefore, more than 80 ministries and public and private agencies collaborated in the formulation and implementation of various programmes. Under NBOS 3, ‘Engaging Rural Labour for High Value-added Economic Activities on unused Government Land’, the Ministry of Defence (MINDEF) collaborated with the Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-based Industry (MOA) to develop idle land for agricultural purposes using financial support from the Azam Tani programme. MARDI was appointed as the lead agency to implement and ensure sustainability of the project to achieve the targeted goals of developing the land and agro-based skills among youths and retirees.
With the commitment of all parties involved in the project, 7 acres of unused state land under MINDEF located in Sepang was developed within 12 months. The development involved land clearing and installation of greenhouses and fertigation system. Through constant monitoring of project implementation and practical training at the Test Bed, phase 1 of the project achieved 10 cycles of rock melon production with total yield of 73.4 metric tons and an average yield of 10-12 metric tonnes/cycle. This project successfully trained 17 youths as young agricultural entrepreneurs in 2013, after which two of them have managed to have their own rock melon farm with a monthly average income of RM 5,000. In 2014, five (5) youth members and five (5) military retirees were developed into competent agropreneurs in rock melon production using MARDI fertigation technology. Thirty participants were also assisted for crop production involving urban farming. The success of the project is not only measured in production capacity but also the ability to attract the public towards efficient modern agricultural technologies that provide high value to the agricultural practices.
Technology commercialization
MARDI’s approach in technology development through planned innovation is to ensure that the developed technology has high level of competitiveness. Every generated technology will undergo a selection process, screening, evaluation and is re-packaged. These processes are to determine whether the technology requires improvement, up scaling, commercialisation or to be declared as public good. An improved MARDI Act in year 2002 has enabled MARDI to strengthen its commercialisation method and identify appropriate commercialisation mode for each technology generated. In 2015, eleven (11) technologies were successfully commercialised through various modes such as licensing, pre commercialisation, distribution agreement, original equipment manufacturing (OEM), direct sales and consultancy.
CONCLUSION
Transformation of the agriculture and agrofood industry is needed to make this sector attractive to youths. Innovation is vital to achieve this. Youths are the future of our countries and empowering them through innovation will provide for a career in agriculture and the agrofood industry which is productive and viable.
REFERENCES
ASEAN (2017). ASEAN Statistics Leaflet – Selected Key Indicators 2017. Jakarta. ASEAN Secretariat.
MARDI (2012). MARDI Annual Report 2011.Kuala Lumpur: MARDI
MARDI (2013). MARDI Annual Report 2012.Kuala Lumpur: MARDI
MARDI (2014). Five excellent years of Innovations in Agriculture. Technical Report (2006-2010). Kuala Lumpur: MARDI
MARDI (2014). MARDI Annual Report 2013.Kuala Lumpur: MARDI
MARDI (2015). MARDI Annual Report 2014.Kuala Lumpur: MARDI
MARDI (2016). MARDI Annual Report 2015.Kuala Lumpur: MARDI
MARDI (2018). MARDI’s Innovations Towards Building a Better Tomorrow 2011-2015. Draft copy.
Rahim, H. (2017). What is innovation and how can businesses foster it? Retrieved from https://www.telegraph.co.uk/connect/better-business/innovation/what-is-innovation-and-how-can-businesses-foster-it/,, 11th Sept.,2018
Roser, M. (2018). "Employment in Agriculture". Published online at OurWorldInData.org. Retrieved from: 'https://ourworldindata.org/employment-in-agriculture', 12 Sept.2018
Śledzik, K. (2013). Schumpeter’s View on Innovation and Entrepreneurship SSRN Electronic Journal · April 2013. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256060978_Schumpeter's_View_on_Innovation_and_Entrepreneurship .11th Sep, 2018. | https://www.fftc.org.tw/en/publications/main/2124 |
Top three economic issues Canada’s federal leaders should address
Heading into the debate, here are the top three economic issues Canada’s federal leaders should address:
1. The burden we are unduly placing on the next generation
Since the 2008 recession, Canada has witnessed the return of consistent deficits by the federal (and provincial governments), which means escalating debt. Total government debt (federal, provincial and local) has increased from $821 billion in 2007-08 to almost $1.3 trillion as of 2013-14. This translates into $36,734 per Canadian.
The next federal government should make a serious commitment to balance the budget and begin to reduce the burden the next generation faces.
Despite the common myth that governments lack revenue, the reason for the persistent deficits at the federal and provincial level is the result of massive ramp-ups in government spending since 2008/09.
Canadians should be wary of further accelerated increases in government spending, especially in the name of stimulating the economy. As the Fraser Institute’s 2010 study Did Government Stimulus Fuel Economic Growth in Canada? An Analysis of Statistics Canada Data found, the federal government's stimulus plan had virtually no impact on Canada's economic turnaround in 2009. This is really not surprising given the vast body of academic literature that casts serious doubt on the ability of government stimulus spending to boost economic activity.
2. Penalizing young Canadians with uncompetitive personal income tax rates
Given Canada’s aging population, young Canadians will make up a smaller share of the total population and are increasingly expected to carry the burden of the obligations made to aging Canadians. We must therefore stop penalizing economically beneficial behaviour through high and uncompetitive personal income tax rates. A large body of academic research has shown the negative effects of high personal income tax rates including reducing the incentives for individuals to work hard, increase their skills, invest, and engage in entrepreneurial activities.
Unfortunately, federal (and provincial) personal income tax rates remain too high and are imposed on comparatively low levels of income. Tellingly, the need to reduce personal income tax rates has been identified by consecutive federal governments, both Liberal and Conservative. Reducing personal income tax rates, particularly middle and upper rates, would help create an economic environment that is pro-work, pro-savings, pro-investment, and pro entrepreneurship.
3. Future economic dynamism is at risk with business start-ups declining
A number of prominent Canadians, including Bank of Canada Governor Stephen Poloz, have raised concerns about the state of business start-ups and entrepreneurship more generally in Canada over the past few years. There is general agreement that entrepreneurship is a critical facet of a well-functioning, prosperous economy. New firms started by entrepreneurs and businesspeople are the lifeblood of innovation, creativity, and economic progress.
Unfortunately, business start-ups with five to 20 employees has declined by 37.5 per cent over the past decade. The results for business start-ups with 20 to 50 employees are even more startling: a decline of 59 per cent over the same period.
The federal government can super-charge entrepreneurship by reforming capital gains taxes, a key tax for entrepreneurs and the financial backers of entrepreneurs, reducing the burden of regulations and red tape, and removing barriers to entry in regulated industries.
Authors:
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This paper offers a review of the best Lithuanian practices in the area of clustering. Currently, cluster formation not only facilitates further economy growth in Lithuania but also boosts new jobs creation. It is argued that clustering is most needed for medium and small businesses, so that they can compete with what they can do best. Clustering, or grouping of companies in a particular geographical environment established to jointly create and sell new products or services, is one of the options for enhancing the region’s competitiveness. A cluster is a voluntary association between businesses and / or science and education institutions and other entities, operating within a partnership framework, whose participants work together to increase the added value created. The key functional areas of activities in Lithuanian cluster management involve information and communication, co-operation, training and re-training, technology and innovation, co-marketing, international development, partnerships with other clusters, etc. Clusters in Lithuania contribute to promoting economic growth and better employment as well as attract new technologies, skilled workers and investment in research. Close cooperation with entrepreneurship is becoming a must to achieve a competitive edge through curtailing costs by gaining new knowledge or technology, creating more learning opportunities, allows risk sharing and R&D development, encourages flexibility as well as helps to reduce time and ease the access to market for innovative products or processes. According to various data, there are currently about 70 clusters operating in Lithuania which range from a few to dozens of participants represented by mostly manufacturing and service companies. A great majority of Lithuanian clusters are still in their early development stages, however, they are mature enough finding their own niches and having an excellent track record in international markets, especially in the field of laser and biotechnology. Apparently, public clusters and their member-firms benefit from making more profits, thus increasing budget contributions. Clustering fosters successful cross-sectoral cooperation, in particular in such promising areas as food industry and information technology, medicine and tourism, laser and engineering technologies, etc. that boosts innovative products and services creation, promotes export and trade along with enhancing the country's competitiveness and repute in international markets. Clusters and clustering is a powerful tool and a critical driver for further economic development and the country's prosperity.
Keywords
Full Text:PDF
DOI: https://doi.org/10.30857/2413-0117.2019.1.8
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Unlikely Genetic Cousins Emerge
Tracking down a rare mutational link between Bedouins and Ethiopians.
Beersheva, Israel — Nearly four years ago an Ethiopian Israeli couple brought their two children to the office of Dr. Ohad Birk, director of the Genetics Institute of Soroka Medical Center in this southern Israeli city.
The children, Birk recalled, had a severe, yet-to-be-named muscle disease causing an array of problems, including low muscle tone, developmental delays and heart defects. “The parents had decided not to have any more children, realizing they had at least a 25 percent chance of having an affected child,” said Birk.
The genetic screening tests — amniocentesis and IVF with PGD (pre-implantation genetic diagnosis) — typically used to determine whether an embryo carries the disease-causing gene mutation were of no use, Birk said, because the disease had never been identified.
Birk said there are relatively few known inherited diseases in the Ethiopian Jewish population because in Ethiopia, the family trees of the prospective bride and groom were traced back seven generations, to make sure there was no consanguinity — marriages between first or even distant cousins. Today, the community is more lenient.
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Close relatives who marry have a higher chance of having a child with a genetic disease because both the mother and father may carry the same gene mutations.
Determined to provide this family with some answers, Birk, who also founded and directs the Morris Kahn Laboratory of Human Genetics at the adjoining Ben-Gurion University, directed his team to take DNA samples from both the parents and their children and to try and locate mutated regions in the genome common to both children.
The team, most notably Ph.D. student Michael Volodarsky, discovered the children had identical copies of mutations in three adjoining genes. The next step was to discover which of the three mutations might be causing the disease.
Roughly six months after the lab began researching the cause of the Ethiopian family’s disease, something remarkable happened.
“We were approached by a Bedouin family whose tribe originated in Egypt hundreds of years ago. Two of their kids had already died from what seemed to be a very similar disease. Michael thought it might be the same disease and possibly caused by mutations in the same genes.”
The geneticist said the chances of an Ethiopian Jewish family and a Bedouin family passing on the same genetic mutation seemed “highly unlikely.”
Although the Bedouin children had died, samples of their DNA had been stored in the hopes of one day having their disease identified. Once a disease-causing mutation is discovered, it is possible to create a test to screen an embryo for these mutations. Like the Ethiopian parents, the Bedouin parents had decided not to have more children.
Again, the team searched for and discovered identically mutated regions in the genome possessed by the Bedouin siblings.
“Surprisingly, one of the mutated genes — CCDC174 — overlapped with one of the mutated genes of the Ethiopians,” Birk sa
id.
At the time, the geneticist noted, there was virtually no information about the gene’s function. “We were in almost unchartered territory.”
When the team examined all four children’s mutated gene, they discovered it had “annexed” six extra amino acids to the protein it encodes. The next step was to determine whether these extra amino acids were responsible for the disease or diseases. When the team bred frogs that lacked the frog equivalent of CCDC174, they suffered from a neurological defect. When the researchers bred frogs that lacked CCDC174 but had the normal human CCDC174, they had almost normal neurological functioning.
However, when they bred frogs that lacked the mutated frog gene but had the mutant human gene, the mutant gene didn’t correct the defect. “That’s how we knew this was very likely the cause,” Birk said.
As it turned out, all four children shared not only an identical mutation, but also a founder mutation: a DNA mutation that originated in a common “founding” ancestor, probably hundreds of years ago.
That the families had the same mutation “took us totally by surprise,” Birk said “because the two communities are considered to be of totally different origins.”
The team hit the history books and discovered that there was once commerce between the region of Egypt and the region of Ethiopia where the two families originated. “They were related hundreds of years ago,” Birk said.
Birk then called the families and informed them that the gene mutation had been discovered in not one but two families of two seemingly totally different ancestries.
“We asked, ‘Would you like to speak to each other?’ They wanted to. The Ethiopian family was in my office and we called the Bedouin family.”
Based on this finding, Soroka’s Fisher-Bartnoff genetic counseling unit was able to offer both families prenatal testing via CVS or IVF with PGD. The Ethiopian family chose IVF with PGD and the Bedouin family CVS. Three months ago the Ethiopian couple gave birth to a healthy baby.
Esther (a pseudonym), the Ethiopian mother, told The Jewish Week that her daughter, now 11, “spent the first two years of her life in the hospital.” Her son, born a year later, suffered the same symptoms. The children underwent a huge battery of tests, but the disease wasn’t in any medical textbook.
The mother said Birk’s clinic was their last hope.
“We wanted to identify our children’s disease in the hopes of providing them the best therapies, and we also wanted to have another child, this one without the disease.”
Birk emphasized that pinpointing the mutation isn’t likely to lead to a cure in the short-term because the damage, which occurs in utero, is irreversible by the time an affected baby is born, and it is unlikely any drug company will focus its efforts on such a rare disease.
During the past decade Birk’s team has discovered the mutations that cause more than 30 rare diseases that had never been described in the medical literature, as well as the mutations for many more prevalent hereditary diseases affecting southern Israeli Bedouins and Sephardi Jews.
Discovering a mutation and developing a genetic screening test for a disease “is a true joy,” he said. “The medical research world talks a lot about bench to bedside — at first the research is theoretical and then, suddenly, there are implications for real life. In many cases this transition takes decades. Here, from the time we begin to work with frog or mouse DNA to creating a screening test is two to three years. That is amazing.”
Esther said she and her husband are “beyond grateful” to Birk and his team. “Finally, we have an answer,” she said. | https://jewishweek.timesofisrael.com/unlikely-genetic-cousins-emerge/ |
Appearance:
Due to the nature of the clan’s genetics being mostly human with some frog tendencies, the Dokukaeru Clan can have a variety of traits that can reveal themselves:
- Having noticeably longer legs than arms.
- Having eyes very much like a frog in terms of pupil shape and eye color.
- Having webbed hands and feet or digits in the shape of frog toe pads.
- Having skin of vibrant color and patterns.
- Having a voice that is constantly hoarse in tone.
- Mouths that are wider or larger than an average human’s.
A member of the Dokukaeru Clan can have as few as one of these traits or as many as all of these traits, but none of these traits are unanimously shared by all members. However, there are three traits that specifically are shared by all members of the clan, and they are as follows:
- Having unnatural hair color and styles. This means that members of the Dokukaeru clan will never have just solid black, brown, blonde, red or white hair. Their hair color can be just as varied as the color spectrum, having known to sport hair that is blue, green, pink, or purple in hue to name just a few.
Even when their hair color resembles something more natural, it’s often of a hue that is normally not possible for the average human to achieve without chemical alteration (deep jet black, yellow instead of blonde, very bright red) and often their hair can have patterns such as spots or stripes of another color and various sizes and lengths.
- Excreting some sort of slimy film from their skin that covers the majority of their body. It has the traits of mucus, and it offers protections from the weather and keeps their bodies from being dry. It’s also part of the reason why they can breathe underwater for an extended period and can be altered to be very poisonous when either ingested, entering the bloodstream or otherwise taken into the body.
- Having mannerisms or bodily reactions similar to that of frogs. The majority of physical traits a Dokukaeru has are human ones, and this is also true of mental/personality traits. However, much like how some of the frog physical traits shine through, so do some mental/personality traits. Members of the Dokukaeru frequently croak, although it’s not something they do during or after every sentence, but in a basic conversation you would likely hear at least one or two.
Members will occasionally rest in a position similar to how a frog would sit, with their limbs out to their sides and hands and feet flat on the ground. This act causes them no harm and is involuntary, clan members often not realizing they have rested in such a way.
Members will occasionally crave dieting on certain bugs despite not needing to in order to survive or produce their poisonous film, hop reflexively with intense emotions (such as joy, anger or fear), attempt to move themselves to warmer/cooler places to stay warm/cool despite not being cold-blooded and tend to favor areas with bodies of water big enough to completely submerge and swim in.
Abilities:
- What many would consider the primary ability of a member of the Dokukaeru Clan to be is their ability to produce a poisonous film from their pores. Members can use chakra to manipulate the film physically through various jutsu, but the real trick is the ability to use chakra to change the substance chemically to produce various effects related to poisons. Generally this substance would have to be taken into the body in some form, whether ingested, through other orifices, through an open wound or via injection, though with enough training and experience a member can alter the substance to have it apply on contact.
Since this film is naturally produced by a Dokukaeru member and the poisonous effects come from mingling their chakra with their natural film, this viscous liquid does not lose its poisonous effects once it leaves control of a Dokukaeru. Thus, if stored properly, it can maintain it’s poisonous traits for an extended period. This can be used to store it and apply it to various things, such as weapons or testing, perhaps even medicinal uses.
Due to their body naturally making this film and their biology mixed with their chakra allowing them to alter the effects, Dokukaeru Clan members are immune to the effects of their own film and the film of other members. These same genetics boost their body’s resistances to other methods of poisoning, causing such effects to end one post earlier.
- Another ability the Dokukaeru have is having a sticky tongue, much like a frog. This tongue can be fired out like a projectile and retracted, also much like a frog, which makes it useful both for traversing terrain as well as for combat in certain circumstances. Dokukaeru member’s tongue is as strong as that particular clan member is if not a bit stronger, as physical training is applied to the entire body and members can often lift things with their tongue that they cannot with their own body, so getting hit by their tongue can carry the same impact as if they had just been punched or kicked.
However, the stickiness of their tongue has little effect on shinobi without chakra augmentation, as it is normally only useful for certain traversal of terrain and catching smaller prey. In addition, since most Dokukaeru only use their tongues to catch prey from short distances by comparison, it takes training to stretch one’s tongue farther distances at high speeds. Thus, a Dokukaeru can only move their tongue as fast as their movement according to their rank (C-Rank: 5 meters, B-Rank: 7 meters, A-Rank: 10 meters and S-Rank: 15 meters).
- The Dokukaeru Clan have an ability that is similar to having gills, although it’s actually the ability to breathe through their skin. This allows them to breathe underwater for an indefinite period as well as making them essentially immune to suffocation so long as they have skin exposed. They are only able to do so when their skin is moist, however, either with their film or by being soaked in water or some other liquid. If their skin is dry then they can only breathe with their lungs like any other human.
- Finally, a Dokukaeru’s body is genetically engineered to excel at swimming, climbing and jumping, being things that are first nature to them. Thus, when either swimming, climbing, or jumping to gain purely vertical height, members of the Dokukaeru clan move as if they are one rank higher than their current rank.
Weakness:
Being what is essentially a hybrid between a human and a frog, the Dokukaeru have a natural affinity for water and a natural aversion to fire. Thus, every member of the Dokukaeru Clan has their starting Element as Suiton/Water Release, and no clan member can ever learn to wield Katon/Fire Release.
Also related to their aversion to fire, whenever a Dokukaeru member is successfully struck by a Katon/Fire Release technique that is of their rank or higher, their natural film will dissipate and cause their skin to become dry. In addition to preventing them from breathing through their skin, if they are struck by a Katon/Fire Release technique while they are not coated in film or otherwise moistened, that Katon/Fire Release technique is considered to have the impact of a technique one rank higher than normal. | https://www.shinobigenerations.com/t4106-kaeru-no-yo-ni-both-man-and-poison-frog |
Animals have long existed in our planet. They have roamed the forests and have more knowledge of this universe than most of us. Some of them are even capable of detecting the Earth’s magnetism and migrating from one place to another. While they hold a special place in our hearts, albino animals who are born lacking the regular color of its species can catch a viewers attention. While it’s considered unique by us, the oddity can cause trouble within their own species, as well as making them extremely vulnerable to predators.
1. Reindeer
According to John Bates, Wisconsin Northwoods naturalist, the chances of an albino deer being born are about 1 in 20,000. True albinos have little to no melanin in their bodies and their hair is white because it lacks pigment.
2. Ladybug
Ladybugs are cute little critters with their red shells and black spots. In many cultures, they are considered good luck if they land on your hand. They are farmers’ best friends because they love feeding on plant-eating insects like aphids. Though they are called ladybugs, they are technically beetles, not bugs.
3. Giraffe
Finding one albino animal in any species is difficult enough but in 2o17, rangers in Kenya came across a female and baby giraffe who were both albinos. In a blog post, one of the rangers said:
“They were so close and extremely calm and seemed not disturbed by our presence. The mother kept pacing back and forth a few yards in front of us while signaling the baby giraffe to hide behind the bushes — a characteristic of most wildlife mothers in the wild to prevent the predation of their young.”
4. Frog
Albino frogs are no different than their fellow species, except in appearance. Albinism affects many animals, including fish, birds, reptiles, humans, and amphibians. Those born with the condition lack melanin pigment, the compound that gives skin color. So, an albino frog is just a regular frog with a genetic defect that means it does not have skin pigmentation. It has the same diet and traits as its counterparts.
5. Hedgehog
There are only about 100 known albino hedgehogs around the world. According to the Telegraph, only one in 100,000 hedgehogs are born with the recessive gene that means they have no melanin pigment in their skin, eyes and spikes. Because of their color, they are easily discovered by other animals and have a hard time in the wild.
6. Peacock
Peacocks are beautiful birds. Although they are unable to fly far, they still manage to get around and show their magnificent beauty. Albino peacocks are technically a white peacock which is a genetic variant of the Indian Blue Peafowl.
7. Gourami Fish
The giant gourami is a species native to Southeast Asia. They are mainly used in farm fields due to the fact that they consume foreign plants. The native fish to Asia was also discovered in Hawaii during the late 1900’s and is presumed to be possible aquarium releases as this species soon outgrows containers.
8. Sea urchin
Sea urchins are marine animals that are easily recognizable. There are around 200 known species of sea urchins that can be found throughout the oceans of the world. They usually live in warm waters, close to coral reefs or rocks. Today, fishing and pollution is causing their numbers to be drastically reduced.
9. Crow
Albino crows have all white feathers and pink feet, legs and bill. They also have red or pink eyes which is a common sign of albinism. The Cornell Lab of Ornithology explains: “Albinism is a genetic mutation that prevents the production of melanin in the body. Albinistic birds have pink eyes because without melanin in the body, the only color in the eyes comes from the blood vessels behind the eyes.”
10. Kangaroo
Even for Australians who see kangaroos every day, albino kangaroos are very unusual. According to the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, it is extremely rare to see an albino kangaroo in the wild. Although they are mesmerizing for the human eyes, albinism causes vision and hearing problems for the animals; making them vulnerable in the wild.
11. Zebra
Albino zebras are sometimes called golden zebras. Although the color of their tan can differ, they always retain a faint stripe pattern. For zebras however, the tan helps them blend in more with the environment.
12. Rabbit
Albinism is an inherited trait. An albino rabbit has a gene combination that overrides all other combinations, resulting in a lack of the enzyme tyrosinase. Tyrosinase is responsible for controlling the production of melanin. So, no tyrosinase means no pigment and albino rabbits born with this genetic trait have white hair and red eyes.
13. Squirrel
Not all white squirrels are albinos. They are leucistic, which means they only have a partial loss of pigmentation. While they look similar to albinos that have white or patchily colored skin, hair or feathers, their eyes will be dark and not red unlike albinos.
14. Snail
Albinism in snails is rare. According to the Sydney Morning Herald, only two albino snails have been discovered in the wild. Some experts suggest that it’s hard to find albino snails in the wild since they are highly vulnerable.
15. Turtle
According to the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, an albino turtle birth “probably occurs at the rate of one in many hundreds of thousands of eggs that are laid”. The fact that only one in 1,000 sea turtles live to maturity reduces the chances to even shorter lengths. They also have a harder time surviving in the wild because they can be singled out easily by other animals.
16. Alligators
It is extremely rare to find an albino alligator because only about 20% of alligator hatchlings make it to adulthood. Albino alligators especially have a hard time in the wild because of their color which reduces their ability to camouflage themselves. Their pale skin also makes them vulnerable to sunburns. | https://mind-blowingfacts.com/albino-animals-planet/ |
# Hyalinobatrachium fleischmanni
Hyalinobatrachium. fleischmanni, the fleischmanni's glass frog or northern glass frog, is a species of frog in the family Centrolenidae. It is found in the tropical Americas from southern Mexico to Ecuador. Specifically, these frogs occur in Mexico, Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama, Colombia, and Ecuador. Notice that this and related species have often been confused with each other, and the exact distribution depends on the source. This frog tends to have green skin, pale yellowish spots, yellow fingertips and translucent skin covering its stomach.
## Etymology
The specific name fleischmanni honors Carl fleischmanni, a collector in Costa Rica in the 1890s.
## Description
H. fleischmanni are small and arboreal frogs that lives in lowland and mid-elevation forests of Central and South America. They call during the rainy season.
Glass frogs have similarities to tree frogs. They look very close to the naked eye except glass frog's eyes point forward and are golden. During the day, these frogs camouflage themselves under leaves but above water. Male glass frogs are 19–28 mm long, while females measure from 23–32 mm long. They have a green semi-translucent color with yellow translucent hands. Their skin has dots which matches that of the leaves in the area. When confronted or approached, they tend to freeze up and not move. It is not specifically known what the glass frog eats, but it is assumed that they feed on small insects.
Also known as the Northern Glass Frog, this frog's physical features include primarily green skin, which also reflects visible light typically at 400 nm to 700 nm, pale yellowish spots, yellow fingertips and translucent skin covering its stomach. A sheet of guanine stretches over several internal organs, but leaves others parts such as the liver exposed for viewing as it only covers half of the frog's underbelly. They also possess a white vocal sac that can be used to produce sounds for mating. Male frogs have a noticeable hook protruding from its spine, presumably used to fight other frogs, or defend its territory or the eggs. They are fierce fighters who will occasionally engage in a wrestling matches with other intruding frogs. The female species are slightly larger and lacks this particular feature. There have been more than 100 reported glass frogs throughout Central and South America, and 13 species can be found in Costa Rica. Adults tend to be more active during the night when there is rain to keep their skin moist and from drying out. However, violent rainstorms have the potential to kill H. fleischmanni, as a simple direct shot from a raindrop has been observed to kill a glass frog.
## Habitat and Distribution
Fleischmanni's Glass Frogs live near fast streams, and these frogs usually inhabit forests up to 2,000 meters above sea level in Central and South America. They have a very wide geographic distribution from Mexico to Ecuador and Suriname and are one of the most altitudinal species of their genus (approximately sea level to above 1600 m). In Costa Rica, these frogs live in lowland wet forests, rain forests, and even in higher elevations. They do not like dry areas such as the northwestern lowlands, high mountains, or coasts. Of all the glass frogs in Costa Rica, fleischmanni's glass frogs are the most populous. The glass frogs are also arboreal, which means they reside in trees. These frogs tend to lay their eggs on lower branches, the bottom of leaves and near flowing water. About 18–30 eggs could be laid, and the male frog would stand guard over the eggs to protect them from predators until they hatch, and the tadpoles drop into the water.
### Effects of Vegetation on Calling Sites
According to some researchers, the calling site of male H. fleischmanni is sometimes found on plants with broad leaves that overhang rivers, and sometimes is found on the ventral side of horizontal (or near horizontal) leaves. These two different locations of calling sites have a large difference in how the vegetation will affect the propagation of sound.
Whether male frogs choose their own calling sites because of the acoustic properties of that calling site has not yet been explained, but related studies have clarified the relationship between vegetation and sound propagation. In fact, the difference in acoustic properties of the calling sites due to the physical characteristics of the environment indeed affects the success rate of courtship and territory protection. These calls are not intended to be directional, but vegetation and many other environmental factors helps to form directional, beaming-like calls. Research has shown that frogs who have their calling site more than 0.6 meters above the ground have an increased rate of attracting mates than their counterparts below 0.6 meters. A plausible explanation for this is that higher areas are relatively more open, while lower calling sites tend to have more complex vegetation coverage, thus causing the call to attenuate. By measuring and comparing the Sound Pressure Levels (SPL) of H. fleischmanni, a study elucidates the effect of vegetation on sound intensity and directionality. The results of the experiment showed that calling on the leaves did not bring any directional consistency.
Males on large leaves had a louder sound from the back, while males on small leaves had a significantly louder sound from the front. The pattern on the underside of the leaves was more consistent: at 50 and 100 cm, the sound in the front was always louder than that from the back, regardless of leaf size. The reason that calling below the leaf results in a directional sound in front is unclear, but it is presumed to be the effect of the angle between the frog's body and the leaf surface. The propagation of sound, on the other hand, is apparently attenuated by vegetation.
## Home Range and Territoriality
Male H. fleischmanni do not persist in their territory for long. Most males were found to stay in the same territory for about ten nights, and some for more than 15 to 20 days, generally falling within the range of 1 to 18 days. The frogs rarely defend their territory by overt aggression. The new territory will usually be within two meters of the original territory but occasionally as far as five meters.
There will usually be up to five clusters of eggs in a single territory. Males who occupy very large leaves usually stay on the same leaf after eggs are laid and continue to attract other females; males that occupy the small leaves commonly move to another leaf on the same plant.
A common calling site for males is observed to be the undersurfaces of broad-leaved plants such as Dieffenbachia, or shrubs, ground bromeliads, and epiphytes on tree trunks, all of which are around 0.5 to 10 meters above the ground. Male also tries to find a place over the main stream channel, thus the calling site is usually close to the water, about 0 to 6 meters.
## Reproduction and Life Cycle
Male H. fleischmanni call under the leaves and their calling usually begins at dusk, sometimes lasts until the dawn, and decreases calling as the night progresses. However, whenever males are participating in amplexus or attending eggs, they do not call. While conspicuous vocalization helps male H. fleischmanni attract female individuals, it also increases their risk of exposure to predators.
The glass frog's reproduction cycle begins during the rainy season. From May to September, which is the breeding season of the H. fleischmanii frogs, females H. fleischmanni will constantly appear for mating. Female H. fleischmannis stop moving around vegetation close to calling male frogs. The female will then gently push on the male from the side and crawl under them, after that the male frog will clasp the female frog. That is the process of amplexus. Female H. fleischmanni prefer to lay their eggs on overhanging leaves by the river. The number of eggs is dependent on the time of year they are laid. Due to the large number of its natural predators, roughly 80% of the clutches are eaten and/or destroyed. For instance, some risks the eggs face are infections by fungus, or being eaten by larger predators such as crickets and possums. The hatched tadpoles will fall into the river and stay in the silt at the bottom of the river. The male frog takes precautions to keep his eggs safe, such as remaining at the clutch to guard them, or urinating on the eggs to ensure that they do not dry out. The eggs hatch after approximately 10–15 days. The tadpoles that fall into the water usually remain hidden in debris at the bottom of the stream. Their growth is time-consuming, and it takes between 1–2 years for the tadpoles to fully mature. Full gestation time, from egg laying to hatching, spans approximately 8 to 21 days. All the tadpoles in the clutch hatch within a day, but the tadpoles disappear within 2–3 days. The development of tadpoles will show a series of color changes. They go from yellow to orange to red, and hatching occurs almost exclusively in the orange or red stage. The yellow tadpoles may not be able to survive on their own, so the disappearance of the yellow tadpoles is most likely due to predators. However, when the tadpoles reached the orange stage on the eighth and ninth days, they will have enough ability to survive on their own.
## Mating
Female H. fleischmanni lay and deposit eggs close to the calling site so they can be defended by males. Male attend to eggs by returning to the same calling site in succession and fertilizing the eggs of several females. If it’s a dry night, the entire population will become inactive. The advertisement call of males are peeps between 4300 o 5300 Hz, around 0.1 seconds long, and 4 to 10 calls per minute, with no dominant frequency. A single peep will last about 0.4 seconds, which is then termed as a mew when a male discovers other frogs in his territory; this is called the encounter call.
### Male-male interaction
Most of the time, calls are from the resident frog instead of the insider frog; physical contacts are uncommon.
During mating season, the males would call out to the females, and once a relationship has been established, the highly territorial males would display another call to warn competitors away. Should any potential threats not back away, the frogs would fight until a winner is determined. The victor would be able to reproduce with the female.
Male frogs have a noticeable hook protruding from its spine, presumably used to fight other frogs, or defend its territory or the eggs. They are fierce fighters who will occasionally engage in a wrestling matches with other intruding frogs. The female species are slightly larger and lacks this particular feature.
### Male-female interaction
During the process of amplexus, males are stationary for the most of the time, which means they rarely start the amplexus. When entering the calling site of a male individual, a female will move up, down, and to the edge of the site while staring at the ground. The female will then continue to circle the male in a low, flattened posture. When the male detects the existence of the female, generally different types of calls will be given during the courtship. First, they will start with a mew interspersed with a shorter mew than the usual mew. Next, the male will exhibit the 0.1 second long chip call when male and female come to the surface of a leaf. If another female approaches, females won’t interact with each other. The late female will stop and find another calling male if the original male clasps the first female.
## Parental care
Males’ involvement in parental care occurs at the stage of egg attendance. They assume a ventral contact by brooding, rotating, and manipulating the jelly of the clutch. Males manipulate the eggs in several ways, such as grasping the clutch from near the periphery and using their four limbs to pull the clutch and then release it. Males also use their hindlimbs to stoke the jelly.
## Enemies
A fringe-lipped bat, Trachops cirrhosus, is known to focus its attention on calling H. fleischmanni frogs. Some other organisms were also found to predate on H. fleischmanni: Prionostemma frontale, a species of Phalangids, has been found to predate H. fleischmannini during the pre-hatching stages of the frog. P. frontale will use their chelicerae to slice the jelly that contains the pre-hatch. They will then take out the embryos or eggs from the jelly while the post-hatching capsule looks like it has not been disturbed from the pre-hatching jelly. Moreover, Cupiennus was observed to be a predator of H. fleischmanni as well.
## Protective Coloration
In a 1991 study, it was found that H. fleischmanni reflecting near-infrared rays from 700 to 900 nm under infrared color photography detection, despite their own green skin, reflects visible light typically at 400 to 700 nm. Therefore, when they rest on photosynthetic leaf surfaces that also reflect infrared light, they are virtually indistinguishable both in visible light and near-infrared light ranges. Two functions were thought to be the reason for this discovery, although neither have been confirmed. One hypothesis is that the skin provides thermoregulative properties. Frogs keep their bodies warm because skin absorption causes protons of these wavelengths (near-infrared wavelengths) to lose energy as heat. In other words, heat is absorbed by the skin. Reflectence of infrared light by H. fleischmanni represents the ability to prevent extra heat gain.The second possibility is an improvement of cryptic coloration developed to avoid those predators with infrared receptors. Some animals, such as birds and snakes, have a presence in their bodies that helps them increase their sensitivity to near-infrared rays at night. For instance, snakes have TRPA1 in their pit organ which is an ion channel that works as the infrared receptor controlling the flux of calcium ions. This type of receptor gives snakes the ability to detect infrared light and this ability is often called "heat vision". If the frog's skin simply reflects visible green light, then green frogs on green leaves can still be spotted by these particular predators. Therefore, when the environment also reflects infrared light, H. fleischmanni can hind into the background even if the predators have such infrared receptors.
At the same time, purple pigments were also found in their chromatophore, but the main function is still unclear.
## Phylogeny
Data show that H. flischmann originated in North and South America. Comprise sister species Hyalinobatrachium tatayoi and individuals from Colombia, Ecuador, and Panama in the first clade; individuals from Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and eastern Honduras make up the second clade. The first two clades have no obvious structure, but the third clade, which includes individuals from western Honduras, Guatemala, and Mexico, showed a deep population structure. Known geographic regions indicated their effectiveness in differentiating H. flischmanni into three apparently isolated clades by working as a barrier to dispersal. Sea level and climate oscillations during the Pleistocene also had a strong influence on the structure and population of the glass frog clade.
## Interactions with Human and Livestock
Artificial affections on environmental interventions may promote the growth of algae and bacteria in streams. H. fleischmanni larvae readily feed on this resource.
Moreover, natural or anthropogenic environmental noise can mask the acoustic signals produced by animals. A large part of the colony of the glass frog Hyalinobatrachium flischmanni (Centrolenidae) overlaps with noisy urban areas, which affects the species' acoustic communication. By studying the relationship between changes in anthropogenic noise levels throughout the night in areas of different noise level and the diurnal acoustic variations of acoustic activity within sites of H. flischmanni, the noise level and the acoustic activity of H. flischmanni varied throughout the night. The acoustic activity of H. flischmanni was found to be different in noisy sites than in sites with lower noise levels. The highest acoustic activity was found at the less noisy sites throughout the sampling period. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyalinobatrachium_fleischmanni |
Ichthyosis Genetics - 6
Where do Dominant Genes Start?
If a disorder like epidermolytic ichthyosis (EI) is fully dominant and always shows up if the gene is present, where did that first instance come from? How can it happen that the disorder appears in a family that had no previous history of it?
That first case in a family probably came about from a spontaneous mutation of a gene. In this age of movies and television, we tend to think of a mutation as something very dramatic, and usually negative. A mutation, however, is simply any new genetic change. Mutations can arise from a multitude of causes, some known, some as yet unknown. Although it may sound like a contradiction in terms, mutations are natural events. In fact, they are the very basis of evolution. Genes mutate at random: some of the changes are bad - they produce a defect or disorder which makes life more difficult for the organism; or they can be good - making the organism stronger and more efficient in its environment. If Mr. and Mrs. Normal Skin have a child with epidermolytic ichthyosis (EI), the disorder was probably caused by a spontaneous mutation in one of the genes causing this condition.
What's important for the person with epidermolytic ichthyosis (EI) to remember is that the causative gene is dominant. It doesn't matter where it came from - inherited from a parent who has epidermolytic ichthyosis (EI) or arising as a result of a spontaneous mutation- once it occurs, it persists and behaves like any other dominant gene. It will dominate the gene for normal skin in any subsequent generation. A dominant gene, just because it appeared spontaneously, will not disappear spontaneously. Anyone who has epidermolytic ichthyosis (EI) has a dominant gene for that disorder and a 50-50 chance, with each pregnancy, of passing it on to his/her child.
It is important to recognize that the preceding discussion has been simplified. Furthermore, there is often a certain amount of variability within each disorder. For instance, it is very slightly possible for a person to inherit a dominant disorder yet fail to express it at all. He would, nonetheless, pass it on as the dominant gene that it is, and his offspring could display it in full force, thus giving the appearance of "skipped generations." This phenomenon, called non-penetrance, is not common, and is more likely to occur in some dominant disorders than in others.
In other instances, two people within one family inherit a disorder, but one gets a mild case and the other gets a severe case, though both have the same disorder, caused by the same genetic mutation. This phenomenon is termed variable expressivity and, again, it is more likely to occur in some genetic disorders than others. This can be the case, for example in some pachyonchia congenita families.
Footnotes:
Mutations can also be neutral and have no apparent effect on the organism’s survival. These mutations, termed genetic polymorphisms, are very common in the genome and are passed on through families, fanning out into the general population. Genetic polymorphisms, therefore, are useful markers of relatedness.
The ichthyosis vulgaris gene can be thought of as incompletely penetrant – where it is possible for someone to carry the gene but not show clinical signs of it.
Previous Chapter: Autosomal Dominant Inheritance
Next Chapter: Recessive X-linked Inheritance
Download the complete Genetics Booklet
The information presented here is designed to be generally informative and is derived from sources believed reliable. The genetic concepts involved are extremely technical in many cases and have been simplified for clarity. The information presented is not, nor is it intended to be, sufficient for readers to make any decision about their personal genetic situations. Readers should always consult a professional geneticist or physician for individualized genetic counseling before making any decisions in their individual cases. | http://www.firstskinfoundation.org/content.cfm/category_id/0/page_id/911 |
Studies in 2019 found 89% of people in Estonia and Finland were blue-eyed, with just over half of people in Ireland (57%) and half the population of Scotland sporting blue eyes. By contrast, only about 16.6% of people in the United States have blue eyes and 16.3% in Spain.
What ethnicity has most blue eyes?
Blue eyes are most common in Europe, especially Scandinavia. People with blue eyes have the same genetic mutation that causes eyes to produce less melanin. The mutation first appeared in a person living in Europe about 10,000 years ago.
What races are born with blue eyes?
Race is also a factor, as researchers note that the majority of babies born with blue eyes are Caucasian. Other ethnic groups, including those of African and Asian ancestry, are more often born with brown eyes.
What ancestry is blue eyes?
New research shows that people with blue eyes have a single, common ancestor. Scientists have tracked down a genetic mutation which took place 6,000-10,000 years ago and is the cause of the eye color of all blue-eyed humans alive on the planet today.
Do Indians Get blue eyes?
Blue eyes or green eyes are natively found in India. Most common in the Himalaya regions and Jammu-Kashmir, but you can find blue/green eyes in every part of India, even in the Northeast were most look East/Southeast Asian.
Do Japanese have blue eyes?
While it’s quite uncommon to see a Japanese person with blue eyes as previously noted, it does happen, especially in northern parts of Japan. You also see more people with hazel eyes in southwestern/Kyushu parts of Japan.
What’s the rarest eye color?
The production of melanin in the iris is what influences eye color. More melanin produces a darker coloring, while less makes for lighter eyes. Green eyes are the rarest, but there exist anecdotal reports that gray eyes are even rarer. Eye color isn’t just a superfluous part of your appearance.
Do black babies have blue eyes?
A newborn’s eyes typically are dark, and the color is often related to their skin tone. White babies tend to be born with blue or gray eyes. Black, Hispanic, and Asian babies commonly have brown or black eyes.
Where did blue eyes originate?
“The mutations responsible for blue eye colour most likely originate from the north-west part of the Black Sea region, where the great agricultural migration of the northern part of Europe took place in the Neolithic periods about 6,000 to 10,000 years ago,” the researchers report in the journal Human Genetics.
Did Vikings have blue eyes?
Turns out they didn’t much resemble Thor or Ragnar Lothbrok.
It turns out most Vikings weren’t as fair-haired and blue-eyed as legend and pop culture have led people to believe. According to a new study on the DNA of over 400 Viking remains, most Vikings had dark hair and dark eyes.
New research shows that all blue-eyed people share a common ancestor. This person lived more than 6,000 years ago and carried a genetic mutation that has now spread across the world. The exact cause remains to be determined, but scientists do know that eye color began to change long before recorded history began.
Do blue eyes mean inbreeding?
However, the gene for blue eyes is recessive so you’ll need both of them to get blue eyes. This is important as certain congenital defects and genetic diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, are carried by recessive alleles. Inbreeding stacks the odds of being born with such conditions against you.
Do I have GREY eyes?
According to the Eye Doctors of Washington website, gray eyes, unlike blue eyes, often have flecks of gold and brown in them. If you look closely, you may even see gray eyes changing color. Depending on what a person is wearing and what color light they are in, a person’s gray eyes may appear gray, blue, or even green.
Why are blue eyes so attractive?
To British people with brown, blue, grey, green or hazel eyes, blue is the most attractive eye colour. … The researchers suggest that because blue eyes do not improve eyesight, their only evolutionary advantage is to attract more mates; hence becoming more prominent in society.
Who was the first blue-eyed person?
Who was Cheddar Man? Cheddar Man was a Mesolithic hunter-gatherer (fully modern human) with dark skin and blue eyes. He was about 166 centimetres tall and died in his twenties. His skeleton was uncovered in 1903 during improvements to drainage for Gough’s Cave, a popular tourist attraction. | https://blindnotalone.com/eye-diseases/what-ethnicity-is-known-for-blue-eyes.html |
The Cane Toad is very common in Costa Rica. The nocturnal amphib is the world's largest toad and can grow up to 25 cm and weigh more than a kilo.
The skin of this toad is toxic to many animals, it can kill a dog and even a human. If threatened, it produces poison to humid its body and it can even shoot its toxin at a distance. Additionally it can inflate its body to appear larger to a predator.
The cane toad is a prolific breeder. A female lays 8,000–25,000 eggs at once in a string that can stretch up to 20 meters. Even the eggs and tadpoles of these toads are toxic to many animals.
The giant toad is native to South and Central America but has been introduced in many other parts of the world to combat pests like the cane beetle. It has however become a pest in many of its new homes.
In Costa Rica the cane toad can be helpful to reduce insect populations. The opportunistic animal has well adapted to human homes and with its immense appetite devors all kind of bugs, as itchy, toxic, biting it may be.
Red-eyed Tree Frog
One of Costa Rica's most emblematic animals is the colorful Red-eyed Tree Frog (Agalychnis callidryas). It inhabits the canopy of areas near rivers and ponds in the rainforests. Only during mating season, at the begin of rain season, the frogs come down to the ground. Red-eyed tree frogs are nocturnal and well camouflaged. They mostly sit motionless on a leave and hide their colorful bellies and legs. All you can see of them is a green dot on a green leave. Once awake it displays it gaudy colors, a vibrant green body with orange or blue, vertically striped sides, orange feet and red eyes with vertical pupils.
Red-eyed tree frogs eggs lay their eggs under leaves that loom over the edge of a pond. When the eggs hatch, the tadpoles fall directly into the water. Normally, an egg hatches a week after it is laid. There are however some species of snakes and wasps who like to dine on the jelly-like eggs. To dodge their predators the tadpoles then take the decision to hatch prematurely and escape into the water. | https://nicoyapeninsula.com/wildlife/frogs.php |
Selection is the basis by which evolution can develop the enormously complicated systems that exist today. The underlying principal is non-random selection of random mutations. In any organism, there is some degree of genetic drift. Despite the built-in error correction of DNA replication, mutations still occur, and they occur randomly. I should be explicit here - they occur randomly with regards to the phenotype of that mutation. Some mutations will produce a phenotype that is non-selective. In other words, an individual who possesses that phenotype is neither more likely nor less likely to survive. Other mutations will be beneficial, increasing the likelihood of survival. Still others will be detrimental, decreasing the likelihood of survival. Because selection is non-random, it will usually select the phenotype that has superior survivability characteristics. So, a single mutation that increases, however slightly, the ability of an individual to survive, it is far more likely that the organism will, in fact, survive to reproductive age, and that this mutation will continue into the next generation.
For example, assume that an organism randomly develops a mutation that makes a cell on its face more sensitive to light. That sensitivity allows it to see, however, vaguely, that there is a shadow moving overhead, and run away. Such an organism is likely to have sufficiently higher survivorship than its companions, be more likely to reproduce, and eventually this selection will drive the majority of the population to have this mutation. Each successive mutation that refines this detection will be selected for, and eventually you end up with an eye.
This has a couple of assumptions, mind you. The most important one: that there are too many organisms for a given environment. A given group of organisms will produce too many offspring to ensure the survival of all of them. As a result the remaining organisms must compete to survive. Because only some of them survive, most often it will be those organisms who possess the superior phenotype - filtering out mutations that are less beneficial. The same is also true between species: if two species are competing for the same set of limited resources, then mutations that either make them more effective at competing, or else mutations that cause them to seek out a different (and less hotly contested) set of resources will be selected.
The idea of selection is just as important for software. This process is what drives the continued evolution of software, just as it drives the continued evolution in the natural world. The only difference is that mutations are non-random (or, at least, most of them are, we hope!), but selection is the process that determines which characteristics will survive into the next generation of software, and which will not.
The importance of selection can be seen in a couple of ways. The first is in determining the evolutionary rate. Consider, first, the amount of competition for a limited set of resources. In this case, these resources will likely be either money or time. If there is a great deal of competition, then your software is likely to evolve fairly quickly. If there is not much competition, then the evolutionary rate is likely to slow. Mutations may still take place, but without a set of selection criteria these mutations will not survive based on merit, but will simply be part of the genetic drift.
You can find an excellent example with web browsers. Once people began to realize that they really needed to have a web browser, then resources opened up to consume them. However, this set of resources was limited: people generally were content to have a single web browser. So, the competitors were vying for this resource, to become the choice. This spurned rapid innovation in the web browser market, as competitors struggled for their very survival against other web browsers. Eventually, one browser came to be the victor, consuming the vast majority of the resources (installed desktops) available in the market. The competition died down, and so did the innovation. Even assuming that development continued at the same rapid pace on the product, without contention for resources, there would have been no way to select specifically for those features which are of the greatest tangible benefit to users, against those features that are pure genetic drift. The product simply cannot evolve as quickly.
However, once competition emerged again, selection could come back into play. Features could be added to enhance the product, and those features that drove adoption would be selected for, driving evolution for more rapidly. Non-random selection is critical.
It is important to keep in mind, however, that all mutations in a software organism that the environment is currently selecting for are not necessarily the unit of causation of that selection. If you come up with a new browser that supports tabbed browsing, a new security model, and the ability to render all pictures in shades of purple instead of full color, can you necessarily say that rendering all pictures in shades of purple were instrumental in the success of the product? In much the same way, can you say that tabbed browsing is a mutation that is selected for, or was it actually security that was selected for? It is important not to conflate the issues; the environment, given a degree of competition, will provide selection. However, you can not always interpret any one factor as being key to the success of an adaptation.
An even more extreme scenario comes with evolutionary arms races. Competition for a limited set of resources drives rapid evolutionary change. Competition for immediate survival compels even more rapid evolutionary change. Consider the evolution of the cheetah and the antelope. The antelope will evolve to run away more quickly. An antelope with a mutation that will allow it to run a little bit faster will have a much greater chance of survival into the next generation. By the same token, a cheetah with a mutation that enables it to run a little bit faster will catch more food, thus increasing the chance of this mutation surviving to the next generation. Here, the success of one organism definitively means the failure of the other. This is an arms race: in this scenario, evolution takes place very quickly.
The most direct analogy here is towards security. Software that evolves to be more secure is more likely to survive. So, the attackers become more sophisticated, creating new malicious software able to overcome these obstacles. Both sides evolve their software more rapidly than in any other evolutionary environment. But, in this case, there is some degree of hope for everyone who is trying to develop secure software while facing attacks from continually more sophisticated attackers. To quote Richard Dawkins, "if the predator loses the race, he simply loses a meal. If the prey loses the race, he loses his life." The pressure is on everyone developing software to make it more secure, or they will lose altogether. Thus, it seems likely that many will be able to maintain this accelerated evolutionary rate, because they simply have no choice.
Understanding the environment your software is critical to guiding its evolution. What are the resources? Who is competing for them? And what features are actually being selected for? This is a powerful principal that has done amazing things with nature, and can do similarly amazing things for software when they are leveraged. | https://blogs.msdn.microsoft.com/cjacks/2005/08/15/selection-and-evolutionary-arms-races/ |
Most famous for its appearance in several European royal families, hemophilia is the most well-known of the blood clotting disorders. Mutations in genes called F8 and F9 lead to abnormal blood clotting and an increased risk of serious hemorrhaging.
The gene known as F2 codes for the protein prothrombin, a protein coagulation factor that plays an essential role in blood clotting. Mutations in this gene are known as PT gene mutations, and result in increased risk of stroke, heart attack, thrombosis, and embolism.
The Genetics of Factor V Leiden Thrombophilia
Another type of clotting disorder, factor V Leiden thrombophilia, is caused by a mutation in the F5 gene which codes for a clotting protein called coagulation factor V. Normally this protein slows down the clotting process and helps reduce clot size. Abnormal versions of the protein lead to increased risk of thrombosis, embolism, and miscarriage.
Transmission and Detection of Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy Mutations
Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is a type of heart disease that causes the heart muscle to become thicker than normal. This can lead to faulty valve action and obstruction of blood flow, and bring about early death by heart attack. The underlying genetic causes are mutations in a collection of genes known as HCM genes.
Short Stature Disorders caused by SHOX Gene Mutation
The SHOX gene is essential for correct regulation of human development and growth; mutations in this gene are responsible for several different short stature disorders. Two of these are Turner syndrome and Leri-Weill dyschondrosteosis. In each of these disorders, SHOX gene mutations lead to dysfunctional skeletal growth.
The Genetics of Achondroplastic Dwarfism
Achrondroplastic dwarfism is perhaps the most well-known of the short stature disorders. A characteristic feature is short-limbs, the result of a mutation in a gene called FGFR3. The mutated gene leads to abnormal maintenance of bone tissue, especially of the long bones of the legs and arms.
While psoriasis is an autoimmune disease triggered when the immune system begins to attack proteins in skin cells, the underlying cause is genetic in nature. Several genes which play a role in the development of psoriasis have been identified, including PSORS1, LCE3B and LCE3C.
Genetic Influences on the Development of Melanoma
The development of melanoma skin cancer is complex, and is heavily influenced by genetics as well as by UV exposure and sun-related skin damage. Several genes have been identified as having an influence on the development of this cancer.
An Overview of Xeroderma Pigmentosum
People with this genetic disorder are extremely sensitive to sunlight and severe sun damage, and therefore are at increased risk of skin and eye cancers. At least nine genes have been implicated in xeroderma pigmentosum, with a mutation in any one of them leading to increased risk of developing the disorder.
The Link between BRAF Gene Mutations and Cancer
The BRAF gene codes for a protein called serine/threonine protein kinase, a type of enzyme involved in cell division and differentiation. Mutations in this gene are associated with an increased risk of several cancers, including lung, colon, and thyroid cancer, melanoma, and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma.
Genetic Mutations and Colon Disorders
Mutations in several different genes can lead to an increased risk of colon cancer and familial colon disorders such as hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer and Peutz-Jeghers syndrome. In most cases, these genetic mutations cause one or more colon disorders that increase the risk of cancer developing.
Cystic Fibrosis and the CFTR Gene
In the US, cystic fibrosis is one of the most common causes of infant mortality. The disease is caused by mutations in the CFTR gene, which codes for a type of protein that transports molecules within cells. Mutations in this gene lead to abnormal chloride trafficking across cell membranes, causing the formation of sticky, thick mucus that clogs the lungs.
Aircardi syndrome is an X-linked disorder that affects newborn girls. Girls born with the syndrome have structural brain abnormalities and retinal lesions, and are at risk of seizures. With fewer than 1,000 reported cases in the US and only around 4,000 worldwide, many of the details of this rare condition are still a mystery.
Bloom’s Syndrome and Tay-Sach’s Disease
These two conditions are both very rare in the general population, but are much more common among Ashkenazi Jews. The cause of Bloom’s syndrome is a mutation in a gene called BLM, which is involved in DNA replication. In the case of Tay-Sach’s disease, the relevant gene codes for a protein called hexosaminidase A. When the gene is mutated, the protein is non-functional and accumulates in the brain, causing progressive destruction of nerve cells.
Mutations in this gene can cause a number of muscular dystrophies, including Duchenne’s and Becker’s. The main feature of each of these diseases is progressive muscle wasting, eventually leading to death by respiratory or heart failure.
The Genetics of Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome
This genetic disorder affects how the body metabolizes purines, a component of DNA. Mutations in a gene called HPRT1 affects the body’s levels of an enzyme called hypoxanthine guanine phosphoribosyltransferase, which in turn causes the build-up of uric acid, leading to the development of kidney and bladder stones.
Severe Congenital Neutropenia and Severe Combined Immunodeficiency
These genetic disorders affect the body’s immune system. In the case of severe congenital neutropenia, one of several different gene mutations lead to low levels of neutrophils, a type of immune cell involved in the first line of defense against disease. Severe combined immunodeficiency leads to an almost complete loss of immunity against all diseases.
One of the Rarest Genetic Disorders: Costello Syndrome
With only around 150 cases reported worldwide, Costello syndrome is one of the rarest known genetic disorders. The syndrome is caused by mutations in the HRAS gene, which leads to continual production of H-Ras protein. Accumulation of the protein creates a wide variety of symptoms, including developmental delay, short stature, and benign tumor growth.
Progeria: The Early-Onset Aging Disease
Progeria causes children to grow physically old at a highly accelerated rate. A single mutation in a gene called LMNA leads to the formation of abnormal and inactive Lamin A protein. Without a usable form of Lamin A, the body’s cells are unstable, and all of the body’s tissue types, including bone, muscle, and connective tissue, are affected.
Genes Affected in Huntington's Disease
This degenerative brain disease develops due to mutations in the gene that codes for a protein called huntingtin. The genetics of Huntington’s disease are intriguing, as it is caused by repetition of a certain DNA sequence, rather than a mutation.
The Influence of Genetics on Idiopathic Epilepsy
For many people, epilepsy is a symptom of another disorder, or the cause of a traumatic brain injury. In some cases, however, the condition is idiopathic, which means there is no underlying cause, and genetics is likely to play a role.
Klippel-Feil Syndrome and the PAX Gene Family
This rare genetic disorder causes the fusion of neck vertebrae in a developing fetus, as well as structural abnormalities and organ defects. Genes in the PAX family are thought to be involved.
Combined Tuberous Sclerosis: Genetics and Testing
Tuberous sclerosis is a rare genetic disorder that causes the growth of tumors in many vital organs, including the brain. A mutation in either of two genes, TSC1 and TSC2, can cause this disorder. The large number of possible mutations, together with the involvement of two different genes, makes testing for this disorder quite complex.
References
- This is a compilation of articles contained on the Bright Hub site. References and resources used by the authors to create each piece of content within the compilation can be found on the individual articles themselves. | http://www.brighthub.com/science/genetics/articles/124781.aspx |
Picky female frogs in a tiny rainforest outpost of Australia have driven the evolution of a new species in 8,000 years or less, according to scientists from the University of Queensland, the University of California, Berkeley, and the Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service.
"That's lightning-fast," said co-author Craig Moritz, professor of integrative biology at UC Berkeley and director of the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology. "To find a recently evolved species like this is exceptional, at least in my experience."
The yet-to-be-named species arose after two isolated populations of the green-eyed tree frog reestablished contact less than 8,000 years ago and found that their hybrid offspring were less viable. To avoid hybridizing with the wrong frogs and ensure healthy offspring, one group of females preferentially chose mates from their own lineage. Over several thousand years, this behavior created a reproductively isolated population - essentially a new species - that is unable to mate with either of the original frog populations.
This example suggests that rapid speciation is often driven by recontact between long-isolated populations, Moritz said. Random drift between isolated populations can produce small variations over millions of years, whereas recontact can amplify the difference over several thousands of years to generate a distinct species.
"The overarching question is: Why are there so many species in the tropics?" Moritz said. "This work has led me to think that the reason is complex topography with lots of valleys and steep slopes, where you have species meeting in lots of little pockets, so that you get all these independent evolutionary experiments going on. Perhaps that helps explain why places like the Andes are so extraordinarily diverse."
Moritz; lead author Conrad Hoskin, a graduate student at the University of Queensland in St. Lucia, Australia; and colleagues Megan Higgie of the University of Queensland and Keith McDonald of the Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service, reported their findings in the Oct. 27 issue of Nature.
The green-eyed tree frog, Litoria genimaculata, lives in the Wet Tropics area of northeast Queensland, a rugged tropical region of Australia along the Pacific Ocean's Great Barrier Reef. The frog, which is green with reddish-brown splotches, is common around streams and grows to about 2 1/2 inches in length.
Because of geographic isolation that began between 1 and 2 million years ago with the retreat of rainforest to higher elevations, two separate frog lineages developed in the northern and southern parts of the species' coastal range - only to be reconnected less than 8,000 years ago as the climate got wetter and warmer and the rainforest expanded.
Hoskin and his colleagues found that the northern and southern calls of the male frog, which are what females pay attention to in the mating game, had become different from each other. Yet despite this difference, reflected in the call's duration, note rate and dominant frequency, the two lineages could still breed with one another.
The southern females, however, were more picky about their mates than the northern females. And in one area of contact that had become isolated from the southern range, the southern females were extremely picky, to the extent that they almost never mated with northern males.
In laboratory breeding experiments, the biologists discovered the reason for this choosiness: While northern and southern lineages could breed successfully, they apparently had diverged enough during their million-year separation that offspring of southern females and northern males failed to develop beyond the tadpole stage. Though crosses involving northern females and southern males successfully produced frogs, the offspring developed more slowly than the offspring of pairs of northern frogs.
Field studies confirmed the laboratory results. Researchers could find no hybrid frogs in the contact zones that were the offspring of southern mothers, judging by the absence of any southern mitochondrial DNA, which is contributed only by the mother.
Hoskin and colleagues argue that because southern females have the most to lose in such cross-breeding, there may have been selection pressure to evolve a mating strategy to minimize dead-end mating with northern males. This appears to have occurred in the contact region where a population of the southern lineage had become isolated from the rest of its lineage and had developed a preference for certain male calls. The male frog call in this population has diverged significantly from both the northern and southern lineage calls.
"If females have a reason not to get the mating wrong, and they have some way of telling the males apart - the call - the theory is that this should create evolutionary pressure for the female choice to evolve so that they pick the right males," Moritz said.
This so-called reinforcement has been controversial since the time of Charles Darwin, with some biologists claiming that it requires too many steps for evolution to get it right.
"Some have argued that it's just too complicated and that it is not really necessary, and there have been few convincing demonstrations. In their view, differences between populations arise because of natural selection or genetic drift or mutation or some combination of those three, and reproductive isolation is just some glorious accident that arises from that," Moritz said. "We do have very compelling evidence. We have addressed various lines of evidence and conclude that there has been reinforcement and that has given rise to a new species based on very strong female choice."
As a comparison, they looked at a second contact zone on the border between north and south, where frogs were not isolated from either lineage.
"Reinforcement does not appear to occur at the more 'classic' contact between northern and southern lineages, and we speculate that this may be due to gene flow from the extensive range of the southern lineage into the contact zone," Hoskin said. "This problem does not exist at the other contact because the southern lineage population is very small and occurs primarily within the contact zone."
Because the frogs in the isolated contact area had a distinctively different call, and because they were effectively isolated from surrounding populations by mating preference, Hoskin and colleagues concluded that female choice led to this new species.
Interestingly, evolutionary theory would predict that the southern and northern frog populations would drift apart into two distinct species. In the case of the green-eyed tree frog, Moritz said, a subpopulation of the southern species drifted away not only from the northern species, but also from the southern. That was unexpected, he said.
Moritz noted that geographic isolation in this "dinky bit of rainforest in Australia" has split many species, and that reinforcement at zones of recontact may be generating other new species.
"In this tropical system, we have had long periods of isolation between populations, and each one, when they come back together, have got a separate evolutionary experiment going on. And some of those pan out and some don't. But if they head off in different directions, the products themselves can be new species. And I think that's kinda cool. It gives us a mechanism for very rapid speciation."
The research was supported by the U.S. National Science Foundation, the University of Queensland and the Australian Cooperative Research Centre for Tropical Rainforest Ecology and Management.
You'd think that one example of something that evolved would be the final nail in the coffin, but of course 'they' are driven by something other than science. It never was about science.
The creationist rallying cry used to be "show me an example! Show me an example!"
Now it will be "Um... show me another example!"
I don't mind plain ignorance - everybody has to start learning sometime. Willful ignorance, however, is just sad.
If ignorance were only painful...
It often is. Read my tagline.
You must have missed that point entirely about how the rain forest had been separated by climate shifts and then rejoined by their expansion 8000 years ago. That separated the frog populations and this article examined the repercussions of the forest coming back together.
No doubt there's plenty of evidence of forest boundaries over the years available.
Of course if you think the earth is only 6000 years old, then I see your problem.
"that is unable to mate with either of the original frog populations."
Maybe they aren't really trying.
It's still a frog. It did not turn into a salamander or a snake. I would put this article under *adaptation* not evolution.
Nahhh, She's in the Ancient/Classic Greek Mythology Section under, Gorgons Sisters, and their Ilk.
Darwinist barf alert.
Why is everyone so excited about a frog becoming a frog?
Why would I think the earth is 6,000 years old? Think I just fell off the turnip truck?
Actually it's a very good example of evolution. What it is not a good example of is the creationist strawman version of evolution. Tell me, what would you accept as a good example of speciation?
It's obviously not about science. It's also not about God or religion, IMHO. The question is, what is it really about. I suspect at heart it is anti-individualism.
Once creationists as a group admit that new species are indeed evolving, we'll talk about that....
Hmmmmmm, this guy may not believe in intelligent design, but he definitely believes in intelligent frogs practicing eugenics.
But then, having found each other again, the same behavior (breeding only among southern frogs) led to a speciation in only 8000 years?
What was different between the physical separation and the "choice" separation?
Isn't it much more likely that the southern population already have females which were incompatable with the other group? And when they started inbreeding again, those who couldn't get pregnant from the northern group would have babies which couldn't get pregnant from the northern group?
Meanwhile those who still COULD would randomly get inpregnated from their own group OR the northern group, and since the cross-breed children were inferior they tended to die out?
So over time simple natural selection tended to select toward those southern frogs who could only get pregnant by inbreeding?
How do they know what the ones from 8000 years ago did?
And it is rational that frogs would somehow notice their children were dying if they bred with the "wrong" frogs, and some of them would be smart enough to change their behavior and only breed with the "right" frogs?
That seems like a stretch even for true believers.
I understand it to go something like this:
A group of frogs got physically isolated. During that time, each subgroup developed subtle genetic differences independently of each other. However, because the two groups physically could not interbreed, there was no environmental pressure for the females to differentiate between the two groups. This means that while differences did develop, there was no reason for natural selection to encourage a trait that caused the groups to discriminate in regards to interbreeding.
Once the groups reunited, however, this changed. Since the hybrid spawn lacked viability, the females that displayed the trait of being more particular about mating only within their group stood a better chance of passing along their genes, including this 'picky gene'. This altered the environmental conditions for the males as well, by causing those that were readily discernible by the females to be preferred. This resulted in their genes, with the differentiating identifier, to be passed along more readily than those that weren't.
This all culminated in an acceleration of the natural selection process resulting in the sped up genetic development of a new species.
Had these two groups not come back into contact, this new environmental pressure would not have been a factor, as both the 'easy' and 'picky' females would still be producing viable offspring (since they would not have had the choice of a male that would result in nonviable offspring).
That's because you obviously don't understand what evolution is.
Please re-read the article. The frogs evolved from one species to another. The very essence of Darwin's work (which was entitled "The Origin of Species", after all). And, incidentally, creationists mistakenly claim this type of evolution doesn't happen.
There's a good list o'links where you can learn about it - I'll see if I can dig it up.
In the News/Activism forum, on a thread titled Picky female frogs drive evolution of new species in less than 8,000 years, Conservativehomeschoolmama wrote:
"It's still a frog. It did not turn into a salamander or a snake. I would put this article under *adaptation* not evolution."
"Frog" is not a species. It's a whole group of species, just like salamanders and snakes. Here we have direct evidence of one species of frog splitting into two. And, yes, it's an adaptation to environmental change. THAT'S WHAT EVOLUTION IS ALL ABOUT!
Trying to dodge the issue via semantic games is dishonest. God will boil you in molten sulfur for a billion years for being dishonest.
Disclaimer: Opinions posted on Free Republic are those of the individual posters and do not necessarily represent the opinion of Free Republic or its management. All materials posted herein are protected by copyright law and the exemption for fair use of copyrighted works. | https://freerepublic.com/focus/f-news/1514241/posts?page=29 |
Scientists have discovered a new dinosaur that is similar to the Triceratops. Called Mercuriceratops gemini, the dinosaur would have weighed around 2 tons, which is about half the size of the well-known Triceratops.
The Mercuriceratops had a bony frill on its head, with two wing-like protrusions coming out on either side, say paleontologists. Mercuriceratops got its name from the Roman god Mercury, who sported wings on the side of his helmet.
The dinosaur was most likely an herbivore, and ate plants with a beak-like mouth. Paleontologists believe that it lived during the late Cretaceous period, which happened some 77 million years ago. That is the same period that dinosaurs like the Tyrannosaurus Rex and the duck bills lived in.
“We would never have predicted this from our experience with working on horned dinosaurs,” said lead author Michael Ryan, curator of vertebrate paleontology at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History. “It’s modifying an element of the skull that’s never been modified before.”
The researchers used two different fossils fragments to come up with the new dinosaur. One piece came from Montana, the other came from Alberta, Canada.
Although it can be difficult for paleontologists to know if a fossil belongs to a new species or a previously discovered one, they are certain that the fossils belong to the Mercuriceratops. For one, both have the exact same winged frills on their heads, making them distinct from previously discovered dinosaurs.
Those frills were probably used to attract mates, the paleontologists say. Similar to the way male peacocks stand out because of their colorful and beautiful plumage, so too would a male Mercuriceratops stand out because of his colorful fin.
“This animal is trying to trick itself out to attract mates, and it’s doing so in a very unusual way,” Ryan said.
This could help scientists learn more about ceratopsians , or “winged faces,” and their evolutionary patterns. Ultimately, that could shed clues as to why the headgear for these different ceratopsians were so different and if that difference helped in the process of natural selection.
The research was published in the journal Naturwissenschaften. | https://thewestsidestory.net/small-dinosaur-similar-triceratops-found-called-mercuriceratops/ |
Viral (coronavirus included) mutations are changes in the genetic code of a virus that naturally occur when an animal or person is infected.
What is also important to remember is that, every time a coronavirus (for the purposes of this article, SARS-CoV-2) passes from one person to the other, the likelihood of picking up mutations to its genetic code increases. While mutations in the genetic code are expected to occur over time, it’s essential to monitor those mutations which occur in important areas of the viral genome as it circulates in the population.
Even though several viral mutations may occur as a result of community spread, it is not all the mutations that affect the virus’s ability to spread or cause disease – because these mutations do not significantly alter the major viral proteins involved in infection. Eventually these non-essential (passenger mutations) variants are outcompeted by variants with mutations that are more critical for the virus’s survival and infection.
When coronavirus infectious disease (COVID) spread around the globe in 2019 (COVID-19) and most part of this year, many scientists wondered how the deadly virus behind the pandemic might be changing as it passed from person to person. Initial insights into how ‘chance mutations’ in HIV helped it to evade the immune system, led to the general belief that the same thing might happen with SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID-19).
Even though there is currently an avalanche of genetic sequencing of SARS-CoV-2, scientists still have more questions than answers about these mutations. Whilst the current changes in the viral sequence have not raised alarming public-health concerns, studying the mutations in detail could undoubtedly be important for controlling the pandemic. It could help to pre-empt those mutations that could assist the virus to evade either the immune systems, vaccines or antibody therapies.
Generally, ribonucleic acid (RNA) viruses, such as influenza, HIV and SARS-CoV-2, tend to pick up mutations quickly as they are copied within their hosts, mainly because the enzymes responsible for copying RNA are inherently prone to making errors. For instance, after the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) virus began circulating in humans, it developed a ‘deletion’ mutation that was believed to have helped in slowing down the spread of the virus. But current sequencing data on coronaviruses suggest that they change more slowly than other RNA viruses, probably because of the so-called ‘proofreading’ enzyme that inherently corrects potentially fatal copying errors. Even with this slow mutation, scientists have been able to catalogue more than 12,000 mutations in SARS-CoV-2 genomes.
Notwithstanding this slow rate of mutation, the rapid spread of SARS-CoV-2 variants has put the scientific world on alert and triggered several lockdowns in South Africa, Australia, Europe and the UK. One important question that needs to be asked is this: what are the defining characteristics of these variants, and why are they causing so much concern?
Firstly, as mentioned earlier, all viruses naturally mutate over time, and Sars-CoV-2 is no exception. Since the discovery of this virus about two years ago, thousands of mutations have emerged but majority of these mutations are “passenger mutations” – i.e. they do emerge and are carried along, but don’t significantly change the behaviour of the virus. But every once in a while, a virus may mutate in a way that helps with its survival and replication. In the right environment, such mutant viruses can then increase in frequency due to natural selection. This is what seems to be happening with the Sars-CoV-2 variant identified in the UK known as 202012/01, (a slightly different variant from 501.V2, that has recently been identified in South Africa).
There is currently no evidence that either of these mutations causes more severe disease, but the major worry for scientists is about their transmissibility, and the looming potential of the health system infrastructure to be overwhelmed by a rapid rise in cases. Although there is no direct correlation between the increased transmissibility and severity of infections, the impact of COVID-19 disease on hospitalisations and deaths is undoubtedly high for those in older age groups or with co-morbidities.
While these variants generally have distinct origins, it is now known that the variants share a common mutation in a gene that encodes the spike protein, which the virus uses to latch on to, and enter human cells. Reports indicate that the changes in the UK and South African variants of the spike protein gene are consistent with the possibility that they are more transmissible. Nevertheless, we should bear in mind that it is the nexus between the changing virus and what we’re also doing as far as the preventive protocols are concerned, that largely determines how fast the virus spreads.
As lockdowns (restrictions) are enforced, the situation with the new variant changes quickly, and there is less room for error in controlling the spread. Furthermore, since there is currently no evidence that the new variant can evade nose masks, social distancing, or regular washing of hands with soap, we just need to apply the protocols more strictly.
Compared with HIV, SARS-CoV-2 appears to be changing much more slowly as it spreads. But one mutation stands out. It is in the gene encoding the spike protein, which helps virus particles to penetrate cells. Scientists have observed that the mutation keeps appearing again and again in samples from people with COVID-19. At the 614th amino-acid position of the spike protein, the amino acid called aspartate (D – biochemical designation) was regularly being replaced by the amino acid called glycine (G) because of a copying error that altered a single nucleotide in the virus’s RNA code. Virologists call it the D614G mutation (the first letter indicates the amino acid that has been replaced, the number is its location on the protein, and the final letter is the new amino acid that has appeared at that site), and that, it is increasing in frequency at an alarming rate. Indeed, it has suddenly become the dominant SARS-CoV-2 mutant in Europe, United States, Canada and Australia, and represents a more transmissible form of SARS-CoV-2, which has emerged as a product of natural selection.
But when did this all-important mutation rear its ugly head? Many scientists believe that if such a mutation is helping the virus to spread faster, it probably occurred earlier, when it acquired the ability to spread efficiently from one person to another. This is because, since everyone is susceptible, and the spreading of the variant is occurring unabated, there is likely to be little selective or evolutionary pressure on the virus to ‘spread better’ in the population, and therefore, even non-harmful mutations might not flourish. As far as the virus for COVID-19 is concerned, every single person that it comes into contact with is a fertile ground – i.e. there’s no evolutionary pressure on the virus to be doing it any better.
The emergence of this new variant – estimated to be 70% more transmissible than the original SARS-CoV-2 virus of COVID-19 – along with others such as the Brazilian variants, has shed some clues on the characteristics of the mutation as the pandemic continues. In another sense, it has also raised concerns about how the virus might continue to change in the future as we roll out the vaccines. While these concerns are unfortunately valid, they nevertheless present a possible glimpse into the future where we are likely to contend in an arms race with this virus, just like we are with the flu virus. The flu vaccine has to be updated annually as the influenza virus mutates and adapts to evade immunity already present in the population. If SARS-CoV-2 adopts the same capabilities, it could mean we will have to adopt similar strategies to keep it in check, by regularly updating vaccines.
The above scenario begs a couple of questions regarding these transmissions: (1) Should the drug companies be updating their vaccines to target mutated versions of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein? and (2) Can the current patterns of mutations in SARS-CoV-2 protein around the world help in understanding how the virus will continue to evolve? These are difficult questions, but suffice it to say that suddenly, there seems to be several mutations appearing that could be associated with either immune escape or immune recognition. All of these different mutations might make it easier for the virus to evade the immune system. The implication is that, more patients could catch the disease twice, and perhaps also mean that the vaccines may need to be updated. In such a case, even a relatively small amount of immune escape could make it more difficult to achieve herd immunity.
When scientists discovered the rapid spread of D614G variant, it was initially interpreted as a classic example of natural selection. This was because the location of the mutations in the spike protein is a major target for ‘neutralizing’ antibodies that bind to the virus and render it non-infectious. D614G was first discovered in China and Germany in late January 2020. It’s now almost always accompanied by three mutations in other parts of the SARS-CoV-2 genome – a possible evidence of a common ancestry. The rapid rise of D614G variant in Europe was alarming. Before March 2020, when most European counties went into lockdown, both non-mutated ‘D’ viruses and mutated ‘G’ viruses were present, with ‘D’ viruses prevalent in most of Western Europe. In March, ‘G’ viruses rose in frequency, and by April they were the most dominant variant across the continent, with an educated guess, via natural selection.
A contrary opinion is that natural selection in favour of ‘G’ viruses cannot be the most likely explanation for this rise. It is possible that the European dominance of ‘G’ variants could simply be due to chance, where the mutation just happened to be more common in the viruses that arrived in Europe. Again, a small number of individuals seem to be responsible for the virus’s spread, and therefore a tilt in favour of ‘G’ viruses could explain their apparent dominance now. Such ‘foundation effects’ are generally common in viruses, especially when they spread unabated, as SARS-CoV-2 did in Europe until late March.
Researchers in Southern Illinois University (USA) have also identified another variant, called 20C-US, which has a number of mutations that could alter the virus’s ability to replicate once inside human cells. It also features a mutation near a site on the COVID-19 spike protein that facilitates the virus’s entry into human cells. This site, called the furin cleavage site, allows the virus to hijack a very important enzyme that cracks open the spike protein in order to reveal those hidden sequences that help it to bind more tightly to cells in the human respiratory tract. The other variant the researchers identified appeared in Australia and carries a serine to asparagine mutation at the 477th amino acid position (S477N mutation), which seems to have increased the virus’s ability to bind to human cells. Overall, these two new mutations may pose serious public health concerns in the future if they provide the virus with an advantage to spread in the population.
Whilst the development of COVID-19 vaccines from Pfizer/BioNtech, Moderna and Oxford/AstraZeneca is timely, we should note that in most viruses, the use of vaccines and other anti-viral treatments causes them to evolve ways to escape the immune system, so they can continue to spread. Those that develop resistance to treatments or can escape the immune system will have a survival advantage, and so spread their genetic material.
With the emergence of new vaccines, scientists and other health experts are racing to understand the repercussions for these vaccines, which are primarily based on the sequence of the spike protein.
There seems to be understandable concerns about the South Africa variant, which has several mutations in the spike (S) protein. Most scientists believe that the vaccines are likely to work to some extent to reduce infection/ transmission rates among the UK and South African variants – since the various mutations have not significantly altered the S protein shape that the current vaccine-induced antibodies will not recognize at all.
In the short-term, only the harshest of lockdowns will reduce case numbers. What lockdown does is reduce the number of people with the virus and reduce the amount of virus in the population and that’s a good thing. But in the long term, we are likely to face a scenario similar to flu, where new vaccines are developed and administered every year. The overarching challenge is this: as the virus variants multiply in the population, the greater the chance the variant will be able to escape part of the vaccine – and this may reduce its overall efficacy.
One other concern would be the emergence of other COVID-19 versions circulating in populations or demographics where the genetic sequencing capability needed to detect the variants is not readily available. One reason why the UK promptly picked up the B117 variant is because of its global lead in the genetic sequencing setup. The point is, if new variants emerge in a country without much genome sequencing, there could be a serious problem. But as the scientists watch the virus continue to evolve, they will also be acutely mindful of the many personal tragedies that have arisen from this pandemic, and hopefully, that will ginger more research to curtail the spread. Currently, more than two million people have lost their lives to COVID-19 to date.
Notable variants of SARS-CoV-2
Lineage B.1.1.7 / Variant 202012/01 – First detected in October 2020 in the UK – It is correlated with increase in COVID-19 infections in the United Kingdom, the variant has 30 – 70% increased transmissibility and lethality.
501.V2/20H/501Y.V2 Variant –This variant was first detected in December 2020 in South Africa with higher prevalence among young people with no underlying health conditions, resulting in serious illness. The variant is believed to be driving the second wave of the COVID-19 epidemic in the country due to its more rapid spread than earlier variants.
Lineage P.1 – This lineage was detected in Tokyo in January 2021, and has since been detected in Brazil. It has 17 unique amino acid changes, 10 of which are in its spike protein. The variant is associated with a rapid increase in infections in places where previous cases were very high.
Lineage B.1.429 / CAL.20C – This variant was first discovered at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center (USA) in July 2020. The variant contains mutation L452R, but has not yet been shown to be more infectious.
Cluster 5 – This variant, also referred to as ΔFVI-spike was discovered in early November 2020 in Denmark, and is believed to have been spread from minks to humans via mink farms. The World Health Organization (WHO) has classified cluster 5 as having a “moderately decreased sensitivity to neutralizing antibodies”. After introducing a lockdown, travel restrictions, and mass testing, the Danish health authorities announced on 19 November 2020 that cluster 5 in all probability had become extinct.
Nigerian Variant – Another variant has recently emerged in Nigeria but fortunately, it has shown no significant public health concern. According to the Nigerian Center for Disease Control (CDC), it’s a separate lineage from the UK and the South African lineages.
Importance of viral strain surveillance for public health
Since viruses generally mutate over time, giving rise to new variants, a strain surveillance is necessary to catalogue SARS-CoV-2 sequences in order to support public health response. It is also important to embark on routine analyses of the genetic sequence in order to identify variants for further characterization. The following are five potential consequences of emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants:
Ability to increase transmission
Ability to cause more severe disease
Ability to escape detection by specific diagnostic tests
Ability to decrease susceptibility to therapeutic agents
Ability to evade vaccine-induced immunity
How would the COVID-19 pandemic play out in 2021?
With most of the world still susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection, it is unlikely that acquired immunity is currently a major factor in the virus’s evolution. But as immunity rises in the general population, either through infection or vaccination, there is likely to be a gradual trickle of immune-escaping mutations that could help SARS-CoV-2 to establish itself permanently in the population, primarily causing mild symptoms when it infects individuals with some residual immunity from a previous infection or vaccination.
In this regard, there is the likelihood that the virus would eventually be maintained as a merely common, cold-causing coronavirus. It’s also likely that our collective immune responses to SARS-CoV-2, aren’t robust and long-lasting enough to generate a robust selection pressure that leads to significantly altered variants in the population.
Harmful mutations could also emerge if antibody therapies are not used wisely – for example, if COVID-19 patients receive one antibody, which could potentially be inactivated by a single viral mutation. In such a scenario, a cocktail of monoclonal antibodies, each of which can recognize several regions of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, might reduce the odds that favour such a mutation through natural selection. Vaccines arouse less concern on this basis because, they tend to elicit a range of antibodies just like the body’s natural immune response.
By Stanley Moffat
The author is a Professor in Molecular Virology and Pathology at Regent University College of Science and Technology, Accra. | https://www.ghanabusinessnews.com/2021/03/15/the-ever-increasing-sars-cov-2-variants-what-are-the-implications-for-current-and-future-covid-19-treatment/ |
Staying up late linked to genetic mutation
A new study has identified a mutation that may cause night-owl behaviour in as many as 1 in 75 people, writes Tim Wallace.
Find it difficult to fall asleep at night, and then end up sleeping in or waking up tired, feeling like zombie for the rest of the day? The cause of sleep disorders can be complex, a combination of environmental, physiological and psychological factors, but you may have inherited a genetic anomaly that causes your biological clock to run perennially out of whack with the rest of the planet.
Genetics researchers in the United States and Turkey have identified a mutation in one of the core genes regulating the human body’s circadian rhythms that prolongs the wake cycle, delaying the onset of sleep. Those carrying the genetic mutation were typically found to sleep more than two hours later than those without it, according to the research, published in the journal Cell.
“Carriers of the mutation have longer days than the planet gives them, so they are essentially playing catch-up for their entire lives,” says first author Alina Patke, of the Laboratory of Genetics at The Rockefeller University in New York.
The research began with studying skin cells of subjects diagnosed with delayed sleep phase disorder (DSPD), a persistent inability to fall asleep at conventional and socially required times. The disorder is associated with an inability to conform to socially expected schedules, meaning poor academic or work performance, physiological impairment including cardiovascular disease and diabetes, and psychological conditions including anxiety and depression.
The study led to the identification in many people with DSPD of a mutation in one of the key genes that drive the body’s circadian clock.
The mutation found by the researchers was a single-point error (with just one incorrect letter in the genetic instructions) in the Cry1 gene, which produces the CRY1 “cryptochrome” protein (which is responsive to blue light).
The CRY1 protein regulates circadian clocks in both plants and animals. In humans and other mammals, it functions independently of light, as a cellular-level “peripheral clock” working together with the “central clock” within the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the brain, which is driven primarily by light signals direct from the retina.
Attuned to the wake cycle through neuronal and hormonal signals from the SCN, the CRY1 protein acts as a clock “repressor”, producing cell activators but also inhibitors that gradually silence the function of the activators over time. In those carrying the Cry1 gene mutation, the CRY1 protein they produce is incomplete, causing the silencing process to take longer, thus leading to a delayed onset of sleepiness.
The researchers suggest the mutation is likely to be carried by 1 out of 75 people, with greater frequency in some families due to its inheritability.
But even having the genetic mutation is not necessarily something to lose sleep over. The gene is just one part of the body’s clock complex, so extra attention to the factors driving the other components, such as exposure to bright light in the morning, exercise, and limiting light stimulation at night, should make it possible to overcome the negative effects of the mutation. | https://cosmosmagazine.com/biology/staying-up-late-linked-to-genetic-mutation |
Directions (1–30): For each statement or question, record on the separate answer sheet the number of the word or expression that, of those given, best completes the statement or answers the question.
1. Fish absorb oxygen through the gills, earthworms absorb oxygen through the skin, amebas take in oxygen through the cell membranes, and cows inhale oxygen through the nasal passages into their lungs. This statement demonstrates that living things
- (1) rely on similar or the same processes, but accomplish them in different ways
- (2) rely on different processes and accomplish them in different ways
- (3) rely on different processes, but perform them in the same or related ways
- (4) have no relationship to one another, and are all independent individuals
2. In New York State, small farms that were abandoned many years ago have become hardwood forests. This is an example of
- (1) local deforestation
- (2) biotechnology
- (3) ecological succession
- (4) habitat loss
3. Goats have been genetically modified to produce an anticlotting protein in their milk. The protein is extracted from the milk and given to people who have inherited a disorder that causes their bodies to produce blood clots, which can be fatal. A benefit of the technology used to produce this protein is that it
- (1) can be used to overcome the effects of a harmful mutation
- (2) can provide people with a new kind of nutrient-rich milk
- (3) will result in healthier goats with more nutritious milk for their offspring
- (4) will reduce blood clots in other farm animals that are modified in this way
4. The diagram below represents factors that affect New York State ecosystems.
An increase in human activity at X would most likely result in
- (1) a decrease in rainfall in the area
- (2) a decrease in available carbon dioxide
- (3) an increase in air pollution in the area
- (4) an increase in the supply of fossil fuels
5. Which graph correctly represents the pattern of human population growth over the past 5000 years?
6. The fossil record of ancient life forms provides scientific evidence of
- (1) direct harvesting
- (2) selective breeding
- (3) gene manipulation
- (4) evolutionary changes
7. Spider plants can reproduce both sexually and asexually. The diagram below represents a spider plant reproducing asexually by a method known as vegetative propagation.
Which statement best describes the relationship between the parent plant and the offspring in the diagram?
- (1) The cells of the offspring contain half the amount of DNA as the cells of the parent plant.
- (2) The parent plant provides genetic material to the offspring through its gametes.
- (3) The cells of the offspring have the same genetic content as the cells of the parent plant.
- (4) The cells of the parent plant have more genetic diversity, compared to the cells of the offspring.
8. The processes of deletion, insertion, and substitution can alter genes in a skin cell. The altered genes will most likely be passed on to
- (1) sperm cells
- (2) egg cells
- (3) every cell that develops from that skin cell
- (4) only a few of the cells that develop from that skin cell
9. Before starch can enter a cell, it must be
- (1) absorbed by simple sugars
- (2) diffused into simple sugars
- (3) digested to form simple sugars
- (4) actively transported by simple sugars
10. In a cell, protein synthesis is the primary function of
- (1) ribosomes
- (2) mitochondria
- (3) chloroplasts
- (4) vacuoles
11. In a multicellular organism, organs carry out a variety of life functions. In a single-celled organism, these functions are performed by
- (1) tissues
- (2) organelles
- (3) organ systems
- (4) organs
12. Chlorophyll gives plants their green color. Chlorophyll is produced only when plants are exposed to light, so plants kept in darkness have no chlorophyll and appear white. The best explanation for this is that
- (1) chlorophyll is not needed by green plants at night
- (2) darkness mutates the chlorophyll genes, causing them to produce a white color
- (3) light is required for chlorophyll genes to be expressed
- (4) genetic information in cells is not influenced by the outside environment
13. In order for the human body to maintain homeostasis, the breakdown of glucose to release energy must be followed by the
- (1) production of oxygen
- (2) division of the cell
- (3) removal of wastes
- (4) production of receptor molecules
14. In the past, humans developed varieties of dogs, such as the German shepherd and the bearded collie, using
- (1) selective breeding for particular traits
- (2) recombination of genes during mitosis
- (3) mutations present only in body cells
- (4) natural selection of favorable traits
15. In an organism, a muscle cell has the same DNA as a nerve cell, yet the cells perform different functions. This is possible because
- (1) different mutations occur in each cell type, changing the genetic instructions
- (2) temperature variations within the body alter DNA
- (3) proteins in each cell type change the structure of DNA
- (4) different parts of the genetic instructions are used in each type of cell
16. Which sequence best represents sexual reproduction?
- (1) mitosis → gametes → zygote → fertilization
- (2) gametes → meiosis → mitosis → fertilization
- (3) fertilization → gametes → meiosis → zygote
- (4) meiosis → gametes → fertilization → zygote
17. The reproductive system of a male mammal provides
- (1) support for the internal development of the embryo
- (2) materials through the placenta
- (3) a means for the delivery of gametes
- (4) the ovaries for gamete production
18. The energy used to obtain, transfer, and transport materials within an organism comes directly from
- (1) ATP
- (2) DNA
- (3) sunlight
- (4) starch
19. The failure of the human body to effectively maintain dynamic equilibrium can result in
- (1) reproductive success
- (2) gene manipulation
- (3) differentiation
- (4) disease
20. Melanoma is a type of cancer in which abnormal skin cells divide uncontrollably. Some chemotherapy drugs, which stop the growth of the cancer, directly interfere with the process of
- (1) meiosis
- (2) coordination
- (3) mitosis
- (4) recombination
21. Riding a bicycle requires balance and constant adjustment and monitoring by the rider in order to continue cycling. Successfully riding a bicycle most directly results from the ability to
- (1) sexually reproduce
- (2) grow and develop
- (3) detect and respond to change
- (4) metabolize food for energy
22. The first successful transplant of insulinproducing cells from a living donor pancreas was completed in April 2000 in Japan. This enabled the body of the recipient to
- (1) regulate fat concentration by a feedback mechanism
- (2) provide protection against an infectious disease
- (3) slow down the heart rate after a period of activity ends
- (4) maintain blood sugar levels throughout the day
23. A study was done on three different fish species living in a pond in New York State. The influence of temperature on the growth rates of the fish populations is shown in the graph below.
In this pond where these fish live, temperature is a
- (1) limiting factor
- (2) hereditary factor
- (3) source of ATP
- (4) source of solar energy
24. A 6-year-old child ate a peanut butter sandwich at snack time in school. Five minutes later, her throat became swollen and she collapsed. This allergic reaction occurred because her body
- (1) recognized an antigen in peanut butter and produced antibiotics against it
- (2) digested the white blood cells that can recognize an antigen in peanut butter
- (3) did not recognize an antigen in peanut butter and could not produce antibodies against it
- (4) recognized an antigen in peanut butter and produced an immune response
25. Which type of organism helps to reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide?
- (1) carnivores
- (2) producers
- (3) decomposers
- (4) herbivores
26. Which statement best describes an ecosystem maintaining a state of approximate equilibrium?
- (1) Nutrients from decayed organisms are recycled in a forest ecosystem.
- (2) All the frog species in a South American rain forest become extinct.
- (3) A mutation spreads through a species of bacterium, making them unable to decompose wastes.
- (4) Mice are released into a field ecosystem as food for a declining predator population.
27. In some parts of the world, forests are being cut down and burned to clear land for new homes and new farmland. A negative effect of these activities might be
- (1) an increase in global warming
- (2) destruction of the ozone shield
- (3) a decrease in the average temperature of the atmosphere
- (4) an increase in biodiversity of the deforested areas
28. The photograph below shows two penguins of the same species displaying different feather color patterns.
The newly discovered all-black penguin had only black feathers since emerging from the egg. The sudden appearance of this characteristic was most likely due to
- (1) a change in environmental conditions
- (2) deposition of oil on the feathers due to pollution
- (3) a random change in the sequences of bases in DNA
- (4) a change in the diet of the penguin chick
29. The diagram below represents different stages of an ecosystem over a period of time.
Which stage of the ecosystem has the greatest long-term stability?
- (1) A
- (3) C
- (2) B
- (4) D
30. The diagram below represents the same field of mice hunted by a hawk over a period of three months. | https://regents-prep.org/living-environment-june-2013/669/ |
Scientific Name: Acris gryllus
Description: The southern cricket frog is a species of tree frog with rough, warty skin in a variety of colors. Some are black, brown, red, green, or gray, but all have a bright stripe of color running from the tip of the snout and down their backs, broken by a triangle pattern between the eyes. This frog is one of the best jumpers in the amphibian world. It can reach a height of over 60 times its body length when jumping upward—that’s like a person jumping up a 38 story building! Their jumping abilities help them to avoid predators such as salamanders, snakes, turtles, and wading birds.
Size: Females are slightly longer (16-33 mm) than the males (15-29 mm).
Diet: Adult southern cricket frogs are insectivorous and mostly eat mosquitoes. They attempt to catch prey by jumping forward and reaching with their tongues and sometimes even chase after prey. In the tadpole stage, cricket frogs are herbivorous.
Typical Lifespan: Many of the tadpoles don’t survive into adulthood, but those that do usually live for at least a year.
Habitat: Although it is a member of the tree frog family, the southern cricket frog is a ground-dwelling species that is found in areas with shallow bodies of freshwater. Ponds, creeks, wetlands, and even roadside ditches are suitable habitat.
Range: Found in the southeast, from Virginia south to Florida and east to Louisiana.
Life History and Reproduction: Males emit a call that sounds like marbles clicking together to attract females and warn off other males. Breeding season runs from February through October, but males continue to call throughout the year. Eggs are laid in freshwater and the tadpoles mature into adults after 90 to 100 days.
Fun Fact: You might think that these cricket frogs are named for their cricket-like jumping abilities. Actually, they take their name from the cricket-like call they use to attract mates and keep away other males.
Conservation Status: Stable. The southern cricket frog is beneficial to humans because it consumes pest insects.
Sources:
NatureServe Explorer
University of Michigan Animal Diversity Web
Hofrichter, R. Amphibians: The World of Frogs, Toads, Salamanders and Newts. Firefly Books: Buffalo, NY, 2000. | http://www.nwf.org/Wildlife/Wildlife-Library/Amphibians-Reptiles-and-Fish/Southern-Cricket-Frog.aspx |
Tomato Frogs: Habitat and Characteristics
Tomato frogs are characterized by an intense reddish hue on their skin that’s very striking to the eye. This peculiar trait serves as a warning to its predators, as it secretes a sticky, toxic substance that is unpleasant to the palate. Thanks to this strategy it’s able to survive in its environment.
The scientific name of this species is Dyscophus antongilii and it belongs to the group of anuran amphibians, which groups together all toads and frogs. They’re characterized for being very dependent on water and for moving with small jumps on land. Read on to learn more about the amazing tomato frogs.
Habitat and distribution of the tomato frogs
This amphibian is endemic to northern Madagascar, which includes Antogil Bay, Andevoranto, Maroantsetra, and the Ambatovaky reserve. It can be found in localities at sea level or at a maximum altitude of 600 meters (2000 feet). It can inhabit other areas close to its distribution area, but at first glance, it can be confused with Dyscophus guineti and the boundaries of each are uncertain.
Tomato frogs live in different types of humid habitats such as rainforests, coastal areas, swamps, and in static water bodies. However, it has also adapted to living near urban environments where there are plenty of places to hide.
Species characteristics
This frog measures between 8 and 10 centimeters (3 to 4 inches) in length and exhibits intense red coloration. Its belly has lighter or even white shades. In addition, they show a straight black line from the eyes to the abdomen, which is characteristic of the species. They also exhibit a not very prominent sexual dimorphism, in which females are larger and brighter than males.
The frog’s body is rounded and exhibits some folds on the sides. Its hind legs are larger and sturdier than its front legs, which allow it to hop around. In addition, it’s able to puff itself up to look bigger and more imposing for its competitors. However, this also helps to prevent predators from eating it.
When these frogs feel threatened, they secrete a sticky substance that tastes bad and can cause irritation. Predators that have the misfortune to come into contact with this liquid, will find that it’s very sticky and remains in their mouth or eyes for several days. For humans, this substance doesn’t pose a health hazard. However, in some cases, it can cause allergic reactions.
Behavior
The tomato frog has nocturnal behavior, as it tries to remain hydrated and avoids the hottest hours of the day. It usually hides under leaf litter or among vegetation in bodies of water. This allows it to go unnoticed and to be able to hunt its prey. In fact, it can remain motionless for a very long time in order to achieve its goal.
This amphibian has a mainly insectivorous diet, but it’s also capable of devouring any other compact-sized animal that crosses its path. It’s characterized as a predator that stalks its victims while hiding in vegetation. In addition, it has excellent reflexes that help it to capture its food in just a matter of seconds.
To facilitate swallowing, the tomato frog pushes its eyes into its sockets, as this creates more suction pressure. This allows them to swallow their prey faster and prepare immediately in case another victim should happen to pass by.
Reproduction
The breeding season usually begins after the rainy season, although some have the ability to mate year-round. The only thing they need is a body of water to lay their eggs, as their fertilization is external and they release both gametes (eggs and sperm) into the environment to fertilize them.
This species emits a series of vocalizations that it repeats incessantly to attract its mate. Each male protects a specific area and mates with all the females within it. For this process, it uses a strategy called amplexus, which consists of a type of “embrace” in which both individuals approach each other and release their gametes into the water at the same time.
The female is capable of releasing between 1000 and 1500 eggs in each clutch. Each of these will hatch about 36 hours later and produce a tadpole (larva). These small fish-like larvae will feed on organic matter suspended in the water. Once they reach sufficient size, they will go through a metamorphosis that will change their entire body and take on the appearance of an adult frog.
Conservation status
The International Union for Conservation of Nature classifies the tomato frog as a species of least concern. This is due to it being highly resistant to habitat disturbance and able to reproduce all year-round. Both of these aspects seem to have kept its population stable, and it even seems to be growing.
The characteristics of this amphibian have made it the target of several exotic pet lovers. In fact, it’s relatively easy to get it to reproduce in captivity, and so it has become overly widespread. However, it’s important to remember the irritating stick substance we told you about earlier, which can cause inflammation. Keep in mind that not all species are suitable for captivity, and not all keepers are prepared to look after them.It might interest you... | https://myanimals.com/animals/wild-animals-animals/amphibians/tomato-frogs-habitat-and-characteristics/ |
components of life spread all over the universe. Although Earth is the only known place in the universe where life exists, the discovery of extraterrestrial life The main objective From modern astronomy and the planetary science.
We are two scholars studying outer planets and the astrobiology. Thanks in large part to next-generation telescopes like James Webb, researchers like us will soon be able to measure the chemical composition of the atmospheres of planets around other stars. Hopefully, one or more of these planets will have a chemical fingerprint for life.
There are several known exoplanets in the habitable zones – not orbiting a boiling water star but not far from a frozen planet – shown in green for both the Solar System and the Kepler-186 galaxy with its planets b, c, d, e, and. Image Credit: NASA Ames / SETI Institute / JPL-Caltech / Wikimedia Commons
Habitable outer planets
to live It may exist in the solar system Where there is liquid water – such as aquifers on Mars or in the oceans of Jupiter’s moon Europa. However, the search for life in these places is very difficult as it is difficult to access and in order to detect life, a probe must be sent to return the physical samples.
Many astronomers believe that there is a file Good chance of life on planets orbiting other starsThis could be the place Life will be found first.
Theoretical calculations suggest that there is something nearby 300 million potentially habitable planets Only in the Milky Way and Many habitable planets the size of Earth Within only 30 light years from Earth – mankind’s neighbors in the galaxy. So far, astronomers have done it Discover more than 5,000 exoplanetsIncluding hundreds of potentially habitable ones, using indirect methods which measures how a planet affects its nearby star. These measurements can provide astronomers with information about the mass and size of an exoplanet, but no more than that.
Looking for bio signatures
To discover life on a distant planet, astrobiologists will study existing starlight Interaction with the planet’s surface or atmosphere. If the atmosphere or surface is transformed by life, the light may contain evidence called a “biosignature”.
During the first half of its existence, the Earth had an atmosphere devoid of oxygen, although unicellular life existed. The Earth’s biometric footprint was very weak in this early era. That suddenly changed 2.4 billion years ago Then a new family of algae arose. The algae used photosynthesis that produces free oxygen – oxygen that is not chemically bound to any other element. Since that time, Earth’s oxygen-filled atmosphere has left a strong and easily distinguishable bio-imprint on the light passing through it.
When light reflects off the surface of a material or passes through a gas, certain wavelengths are more likely to be trapped in the gas or surface of the material than others. This selective modification of the wavelengths of light is the reason for the different colors of objects. Leaves are green because chlorophyll is particularly good at absorbing light in the red and blue wavelengths. When light hits the paper, the red and blue wavelengths are absorbed, causing most of the green light to bounce back into your eyes.
The pattern of lost light is determined by the specific composition of the material with which the light interacts. For this reason, astronomers can learn about the composition of an exoplanet’s atmosphere or surface by measuring the specific color of light coming from a planet.
This method can be used to determine the presence of certain atmospheric gases associated with life – such as oxygen or methane – because these gases leave very specific signals in the light. It can also be used to detect strange colors on the surface of the planet. For example, on Earth, plants use chlorophyll and other pigments and algae in photosynthesis at specific wavelengths of light. These dyes Distinctive color production It can be detected using a sensitive infrared camera. If you see this color reflecting off the surface of a distant planet, it probably indicates the presence of chlorophyll.
Telescopes in space and on Earth
The James Webb Space Telescope is the first telescope capable of detecting chemical signals from exoplanets, but its capabilities are limited. Image Credit: NASA / Wikimedia Commons
It takes an incredibly powerful telescope to detect these subtle changes in the light of a potentially habitable exoplanet. Currently, the only telescope capable of such a feat is the New Telescope James Webb Space Telescope. as it is Scientific operations have begun In July 2022, James Webb gave a wonderful lecture Gas giant exoplanet WASP-96b. The spectrum showed the presence of water and clouds, but a large, hot planet like WASP-96b is unlikely to harbor life.
However, these early data show that James Webb is able to detect weak chemical signals in light from exoplanets. For the next few months, Webb was turning her mirrors TRAPPIST-1stA potentially habitable Earth-sized planet just 39 light-years from Earth.
Webb can search for biometrics by studying and recording planets as they pass in front of their host stars Starlight streams through the planet’s atmosphere. But Webb wasn’t designed to search for life, so the telescope is only capable of examining some of the closest potentially habitable worlds. It can also detect changes made to: Levels of carbon dioxide, methane and water vapor in the atmosphere. Although certain combinations of these gases can suggest lifeWebb cannot detect the presence of unbound oxygen, which is the strongest indicator of life.
Pioneering concepts for future space telescopes, and even more powerful, include plans to block bright light from Mother Earth’s star to detect starlight reflected off the planet. This idea is similar to using your hand to block sunlight in order to see something better from a distance. Future space telescopes could use small internal masks or a large parachute-like spacecraft for this purpose. Once the starlight is blocked out, it becomes much easier to study the light reflected off a planet.
There are also currently three massive ground-based telescopes under construction that will be able to search for biometric fingerprints: Giant Magellan TelescopeThe Thirty meters telescope and the european very large telescope. Each is much more powerful than Earth’s telescopes, and although hampered by Earth’s atmosphere distorting starlight, these telescopes may be able to explore the atmospheres of the nearest worlds in search of oxygen.
Is it biology or geology?
Even using the most powerful telescopes in the coming decades, astrobiologists will only be able to detect the powerful biosignatures produced by worlds completely altered by life.
Unfortunately, most of the gases released by terrestrial life can also be produced through non-biological processes – cows and volcanoes release methane. Photosynthesis produces oxygen, but sunlight also occurs when it splits water molecules into oxygen and hydrogen. there A good opportunity for astronomers to discover some false positives In search of a distant life. To rule out false positives, astronomers need to understand an interesting planet well enough to understand if it is. Geological or atmospheric processes can mimic a biosignature.
The next generation of exoplanet studies has the potential to increase the level of Unusual evidence The need to prove the existence of life. The first release of data from the James Webb Space Telescope gives us an idea of the exciting progress coming soon.
Chris AmbekDistinguished University Professor of Astronomy, University of Arizona and the Daniel AbayProfessor of astronomy and planetary sciences, University of Arizona
This article has been republished from conversation Under Creative Commons License. Read the original article. | https://www.taylordailypress.net/jwst-has-shown-that-it-can-detect-the-fingerprints-of-life-on-exoplanets/ |
What Is Meant By "Habitable Zone" And How Do We Define It?
In the past decade, the number of planets beyond our Solar System - aka. extra-solar planets (or exoplanets) - has grown exponentially. In fact, as of today, a total of 3,925 exoplanets have been confirmed in 2,926 star systems, with another 3,389 candidates awaiting confirmation.
SEE ALSO: 7 EXOPLANETS THAT ARE WEIRDER THAN MOST SCIENCE FICTION FILMS
Much of the credit for these discoveries go to the Kepler Space Telescope, which was used to confirm the existence of 2338 exoplanets (with another 2423 awaiting confirmation) between when it began service on May 12th, 2009, and when it exhausted the last of its fuel on November 15th, 2018.
Within this large collection of extrasolar planets, just 49 have been designated as "potentially habitable" by astronomers. That's just over 1% of the total data sample, which would seem to suggest that life-bearing planets are extremely rare in our Universe.
But when we take a step back and examine what is meant by "potentially habitable" and what goes into making that determination, we find that a lot of assumptions are involved. For one, we are searching for life based on "Earth-analogs" which could be severely limiting.
Second, there are many unknowns and ill-defined parameters when it comes to how "life as we know it" emerged, not to mention what kinds of conditions it can survive under. When we factor that into our search for life, we find that our estimates might be on the generous side.
The only way to clarify the whole issue is to examine what is meant by habitability, what goes into determining it, and keeping this in mind as we conduct future surveys for extrasolar planets.
Circumstellar Habitable Zone:
Also known as the "Goldilocks Zone", a circumstellar habitable zone (habitable zone, or HZ for short) refers to the distance from star where a planet will experience temperatures between 273 K and 373 K (0 and 100 C; 32 and 212 F) - in other words, the temperature range where water is able to exist in liquid form. The range of this zone depends heavily upon the type of star.
For example, larger, higher-magnitude stars like O, B, A-type stars have wider habitable zones that are located at a relatively long distance. These stars are known as "blue giants," which can be up to 1.4 million times as bright as our Sun and generally range from being about three to a few dozen (or even a few hundred) times the mass of our Sun.
These classes of stars are relatively rare, accounting for about 1 in 3,000,000 (O-type), 1 in 800 (B-type), and 1 in 160 (A-type) of the stars in our galaxy. F-type stars occupy a sort of middle ground, being blue-white in color and generally only a few times more luminous and massive than our Sun. These stars are more common, making up about 3% (1 in 80) stars in our galaxy.
Then you have stars more akin to our own, which fall into the G and K-type classes (yellow and orange dwarfs). These stars make up around 7.5% (1 in 13) and 12% (1 in 8) of the main-sequence stars in the solar neighborhood and have relatively tight and narrow habitable zones.
Last, but certainly not least, you have the class of low-mass, low-brightness, cooler stars known as M-type (red dwarf) stars. These stars range from being 7.5 to 60% the size and mass of our Sun and only get about 7% as bright. As a result, their habitable zones are rather narrow and very tight. They are also the most common type of star, accounting for about 85% of the stars in our galaxy.
Despite these differences, the basic rule is generally the same across the board. If a planet is too close to its respective star, its surface water will evaporate rapidly and collect as vapor in the upper atmosphere, causing a “moist greenhouse” effect.
On the other hand, if a planet is too far away, the atmosphere will be cold and dry, and CO2 levels will remain high to the point that they would be toxic to Earth animals. This is well-illustrated by the planets of Venus and Mars, which orbit at the inner and outer edge of our Sun's HZ.
Our Solar System's HZ:
Ongoing studies of our planet and its neighbors have revealed some very interesting similarities between Earth and other planets of the Inner Solar System. For instance, Mercury, Venus, and Mars are similar in composition, being terrestrial (i.e., rocky) planets like Earth.
Equally interesting are the telltale indications that Venus and Mars also occupy our Sun's HZ and were actually quite similar to Earth during their early history. To break it down, Earth and the other planets of the Solar System are believed to have formed roughly 4.56 billion years ago from a protoplanetary disk.
Over the next hundreds of millions of years, these planets began to cool, and their internal structures began to differentiate between the core, mantle, and crust. Primordial atmospheres began to form as well, largely composed of either volcanic gases and/or elements left over from the solar nebula that formed our Sun.
In either case, one of the key components in this mix was water. Not only did the formation of our planets involve a large amount of water, but water also began to concentrate on the surfaces of Venus, Earth, and Mars at around the same time (ca. 3.8 billion years ago).
Around this time, Venus is believed to have had oceans on its surface. This is based in part on data gathered by the Galileo spacecraft as it conducted its flyby of Venus in 1990, which revealed that Venus' highland regions are likely composed of felsic rocks (the formation of which require water).
This ocean would have likely vaporized during Venus' early history as a result of rising temperatures. This is theorized to have contributed to the runaway greenhouse effect that caused Venus' atmosphere to thicken and become the incredibly dense and hot one it is today.
On Mars, the situation was quite different. Being at the outer edge of our Sun's HZ, it does not receive enough energy to maintain liquid water on its surface, and its atmosphere has remained one that is primarily composed of carbon dioxide (96%, with argon and nitrogen making up most of the remaining 4%).
Earth, meanwhile, occupies a space between the two extremes. Because of this, it is able to maintain liquid water on its surface, as well as the all-important hydrological cycle - where water evaporates to because vapor in the atmosphere, then condenses to form clouds and return to the surface in the form of precipitation.
Galactic Habitable Zone:
The Galactic Habitable Zone (GHZ) extends the notion of the circumstellar habitable zone by asking, "are there places in the Milky Way that are more suitable to life than others?" To put it another way, do star systems have a better shot at giving rise to life based on their position within a galaxy?
Once again, we are reliant on the single example of where life is known to exist - the Solar System. Basically, the Solar System enjoys a cozy spot, nestled into the Orion Arm in the Milky Way. Ongoing research has shown that this spot had a lot to do with the Solar System developing the conditions necessary for life to flourish.
In this sense, our Sun occupies a place in the Milky Way's GHZ. The term was coined in the 1990s by Guillermo Gonzalez, who was an Assistant Professor of Astronomy at the University of Washington at the time. As he explained the concept:
“Large, complex organisms are much more sensitive to environmental perturbations than simple life. Our hypothesis deals exclusively with complex life, more specifically, aerobic macroscopic metazoan life. The effects of radiation would damage the ozone layer, as well as increase radiation levels at the surface of a planet from secondary particle cascades in the atmosphere.”
To break it down succinctly, our Milky Way Galaxy is structured much like billions of other spiral galaxies, with a galactic disc containing a lot of dust and gas (interstellar matter), as well as young and intermediate-age stars. The older stars, meanwhile, tend to be located in the bulge around the galactic center.
Many of these older stars are gathered into globular clusters that orbit the nucleus of the galaxy in a region known as the "halo." At the center of it all, as evidenced by strong infrared, x-ray and radio emissions, are clouds of ionized gas rapidly circling around Sagittarius A*.
One of the key differences between younger and older generations of stars is their metallicity (i.e., how rich in metals they are). This is due to the fact that the earliest stars in our Universe formed from the earliest elements (hydrogen, helium, and lithium).
When these stars reached the end of their lifespan, the nuclear reactions triggered by the supernova created heavier elements ("metals") in the process. These metals became part of the raw material which the second generation of stars formed from, and so on with every successive generation.
Based on studies of extrasolar planets, metal-rich stars (like our Sun) are considered more likely to have planets orbiting around them. One possibility is that a certain amount of metals is needed to form rocky planets, which are predominantly composed of heavy metals like iron, nickel, and silicate minerals.
One reason for this may be that a certain minimum amount of metals is needed to form rocky bodies (including the cores of the gas giant planets). Ergo, a sufficiently metal-rich disk is required for a star system to form that will have a shot at potential habitability.
Another advantage our Solar System has is that it is a good distance away from the center of our galaxy (27,000 ± 1000 light years). This distance protects our Sun from the gravitational perturbations and radiation which become more intense the more one ventures towards the center of the galaxy.
Based on geological and astronomical research, astronomers know that throughout the history of our Solar System, long-period comets have resulted from the interaction between the Oort Cloud and passing stars. Some of these comets have reached the Inner Solar System, impacting with the planets and (on rare occasions) causing extinction level events on Earth.
If our Solar System were closer, the Oort Cloud would be disrupted with far greater frequency. This means that comets would have been sent into the Inner Solar System far more often, resulting in far greater disruption. This would significantly reduce the chance of life emerging on our planet.
In addition, being located farther from the galactic center also means that our system is subject to less in the way of harmful radiation. This includes the gamma rays, x-rays and cosmic rays that are known to be damaging to life as we know it. Were it closer; life would have a much harder time surviving.
The Milky Way galaxy is at least 50 percent larger than is commonly estimated, according to new findings that reveal that the galactic disk is contoured into several concentric ripples. Credit: Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Read more at: https://phys.org/news/2015-03-corrugated-galaxy-milky-larger-previously.html#jCp
Another requirement of the GHZ is to keep out of the way of the galaxy's spiral arms. The density of interstellar matter (dust and gas) in the spiral arms is what allows them to form new stars. However, this also leads to intense radiation and gravitational perturbations.
If our Sun were to cross through these arms too often, it would be threatening to life - in much the same way as if our Sun were too close to the galactic center. Luckily, our Sun has a nearly-circular orbit around the center of the galaxy and revolves at about the same rate as the spiral arm population.
This synchronization prevents our Solar System from crossing a spiral arm too often. In this respect, a star system having a stable orbit at the right distance from the center of our galaxy is similar to a planet having a stable orbit and being at the right distance from a star.
While some scientists have criticized Ramirez's theory for failing to provide well-defined limits on its boundaries, the GHZ is commonly believed to extend from a radius of 4 to 10 kiloparsecs (13,000 to 32,600 light-years) from the Galactic Center.
Others, meanwhile, have conducted simulations that show how stars may change their orbits around the galactic center significantly over time, which casts doubt on the idea of some areas being more habitable than others.
The Trouble with Terminology:
While astronomers generally apply the term "potentially habitable" to any planet that orbits within a star's HZ, a lot of other factors come into play when it comes to being able to support life (at least as we know it). At the same time, there is the term "Earth-like," which is also bandied about when dealing with exoplanets.
What do these mean, essentially? Simply put, potentially-habitable is used to refer to any planet that appears to be in a good position to support life. And that is where the term "Earth-like" comes into play, which describes conditions that are analogous to Earth.
This means that an exoplanet is likely to be terrestrial in nature, which means that it is composed of silicate minerals and metals that are differentiated between a core, a mantle, and a crust. It also implies that it is likely to have active plate-tectonics, which have played a major role in stabilizing the climate on Earth.
It can also imply that the planet has liquid water on its surface, which is the only known solvent that can support life. And last, it could mean that the planet has a viable atmosphere, which would be composed predominantly of nitrogen and oxygen, with enough CO2 to provide a stable greenhouse effect and ozone to protect from radiation.
As you can probably tell, all of these qualifiers say a lot about how we are searching for life elsewhere in the Universe. When looking to other star systems for signs of life, we are essentially looking for other Earths. This is what is known as the "low-hanging fruit" approach in the search for life, where we search for signs that we can recognize.
Naturally, this approach (while understandable) is really quite limiting. For instance, ongoing research by astronomers, astrophysicists, and astrobiologists have called a lot of our notions about habitability into question. For example, the classical definition of HZ is flawed because it assumes an awful lot.
For example, it assumes that carbon dioxide and water vapor are the key greenhouses gases that ensure that habitable planets stay warm enough to support life. However, recent studies have shown that other greenhouse gases that are minor on Earth - such as methane and hydrogen gas (which could be related to volcanic activity) - could extend the limits of an HZ.
On the other hand, while methane has been linked to global warming on our planet, studies have shown that it would cool the surfaces of habitable zone planets orbiting red dwarf stars. As such, high concentrations of atmospheric methane on these planets could lead to frozen conditions.
Exoplanets that orbit cooler stars (such as red dwarfs) are also likely to have higher levels of carbon monoxide, according to some research. This gas is not only toxic to complex lifeforms on Earth, it is not (on its own) a greenhouse gas and therefore does not stabilize temperatures.
To make matters worse, there are also recent studies shows how red dwarf star systems may not have the necessary raw materials for life to form, and that red dwarf stars might not provide enough photons for photosynthesis to occur. This is all disconcerting considering that rocky planets in HZs are expected to be most common around low-mass red dwarfs.
Second, recent research has been conducted that has shown how atmospheric oxygen does not automatically mean the presence of life. For instance, astronomers have noted the presence of oxygen around exoplanets that appeared to be the result of chemical dissociation.
This is a process where exposure to ultraviolet radiation causes water vapor to break down into hydrogen and oxygen gas. While the hydrogen gas (being much lighter) is lost to space, the oxygen gas is retained as part of the atmosphere).
Under these conditions, atmospheric oxygen gas would not be considered an indication of life (aka. a "biosignature") since it was not produced by simple organisms like cyanobacteria. Moreover, the presence of oxygen gas during the early periods of a planet’s evolution could prevent the rise of basic life forms.
Another problem arises from another key biosignature, which is water. While water is essential to life on Earth, scientists have found that too much of it could be inimical to life. For example, studies have shown that rocky planets that orbit red dwarf stars could, in fact, be "water worlds," where up to 50% of their mass is water.
On these planets, the surface would be entirely made up of deep oceans, thus preventing the exchange of carbon dioxide between the atmosphere and mantle (volcanic outgassing and the carbon-silicate cycle). The oceans would also be so deep that they would form an icy layer towards the rocky interior, preventing geothermal exchanges with the oceans.
However, other research has indicated that water worlds could still be able to experience enough carbon cycling between its atmosphere and its oceans; to the point that they would be able to maintain a stable climate even over the course of billions of years.
Another key assumption is that habitable planets will need to be geologically active - aka. have active plate tectonics. In Earth's case, this is what allows for the carbonate-silicate cycle, which is what ensures that CO2 levels remain largely consistent over time.
The thing is, of all the exoplanets to be discovered so far, all are thought to be stagnant lid planets - where the crust consists of a single, giant spherical plate floating on the mantle. This would be bad news as far as habitability studies are concerned, but there is research that shows that plate tectonics might not be necessary to maintain CO2 cycling.
So when it comes right down to it, none of the key indicators of habitability - atmospheric gases, water, or plate tectonics - are surefire indications of life. What's more, our efforts to find life in the Universe based on these signatures is invariably restricted by the fact that we are looking for "life as we know it."
But what about life as we don't know it? For example, why aren't we looking for a life that relies on solvents like liquid methane or ammonia instead of water? Why not consider creatures that can breathe gaseous hydrocarbons instead of nitrogen and oxygen, and exhale something other than carbon dioxide?
Where to start? Well, for starters, we don't know that such life actually exists, so how do we go about placing constraints on its behavior? How would we know to look for biosignatures when we aren't even sure what that kind of chemical compounds it needs to survive (or emit as a waste product)?
And since we don't know what kind of stress tolerances this life would have (resistance to heat, cold, radiation, etc.) how can we define "habitable zones" around their respective stars? We can't. The truth is, we have no idea how to look for life as we don't know it because we haven't found it yet!
So really, there's a good reason why we employ the low-hanging fruit approach. When it comes right down to it, we know of only one planet that can support life, and that's Earth. So when we look for signs of life out there in the cosmos, we look for signs that we can recognize because we have no choice.
Still, it is restrictive, and the only solution to it is to keep looking and hope that we find examples of life out there that either confirm or defy our current framework. If, for example, we find that it is possible for life to form under vastly different conditions - where solvents like methane and ammonia can support life - then we'll know to look things other than water.
On the other hand, we may find many examples of Earth-like planets that truly are like our planet, with oceans, a warm atmosphere, and plenty of complex life on the surface. Only time will tell, and only the discovery of inhabited planets will lead to the validation or revision of our search methods.
Some Potentially Habitable Exoplanets:
Of the many planets scientists have detected and confirmed beyond our Solar System, there are those that have shown promise - at least by the standards we use for determining habitability. And in the coming years, with the deployment of next-generation telescopes, scientists hope to learn more about them through follow-up studies.
Some examples, which are located within 100 light years of our Solar System, include:
Proxima Centauri b:
At a distance of 4.25 light years, Proxima b is the closest known planet to Earth, a status it earned in 2016 when its existence was first announced by scientists from the European Southern Observatory (ESO). The planet was discovered by the Pale Red Dot campaign, a team of astronomers who had been monitoring Proxima Centauri from the ESO's La Silla Observatory in Chile.
Based on spectrographic information from La Silla's 3.6 meter telescope, as well as other observatories around the world, the team determined that this planet (named Proxima b) had a mass of at least 1.3 times that of Earth, and that it orbited its star at a distance of about 7 million km (4.35 million mi) - roughly 5% of the Earth's distance from the Sun.
While "Earth-like" in this respect, the habitability of the planet has not been established. Essentially, a number of factors cast doubt on the planet's ability to support life. Like most terrestrial planets that orbit M-type stars within their HZs, Proxima b is likely to be tidally-locked with its star (which means that one side of the planet is constantly facing towards its star).
In addition, multiple studies have been conducted that indicates how red dwarf stars (Proxima Centauri in particular) exhibit too much instability and flare activity for orbiting planets to remain habitable. With solar wind pressures roughly 2,000 times as strong as those experienced by Earth, it is doubtful that Proxima b would be able to retain an atmosphere for long.
However, other studies have indicated how this tidally-locked planet could still support life - provided it had a thick enough atmosphere and powerful magnetic field - or with a dayside ocean that would allow for heat transport between the sun-facing side and dark side.
Barnard's Star b:
Like Proxima b, this exoplanet was discovered by the Red Dots and CARMENES observation campaigns while observing neighboring red dwarf star system. At 6 light years from Earth, this terrestrial (aka. "Earth-like") planet is the second closest exoplanet to the Solar System.
Based on data gathered from multiple observatories, astronomers estimate that Barnard's Star b is likely to be a "super-Earth", with at least 3.2 times the mass of Earth. They also determined that it orbits its star with a period of 233 days and at a distance of 0.4 AU (0.4 times the distance between the Earth and the Sun).
However, unlike Proxima b, this exoplanet has never been considered a viable candidate for habitability. Despite this relatively tight orbit, the low mass and brightness of Barnard's Star mean that the planet receives only about 2% of the energy that the Earth receives from the Sun.
Combined with the planet’s orbit, this places Barnard’s Star b outside of the system's HZ and closer to its Frost Line - the boundary beyond which volatile compounds (i.e. water, carbon dioxide, ammonia, methane, etc.) condense into solid ice. According to the team’s estimates, the planet would have an average surface temperature of -170 °C, making it inhospitable to life as we know it.
On the other hand, recent research has shown that are still possible scenarios in which life could exist on Barnard's Star b (or rather, inside it). These include the possibility that geological activity could provide sufficient energy so that life could exist beneath the surface.
Luyten b:
Also known as GJ 273 b, this rocky planet was discovered with the High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher (HARPS) spectrograph on the 3.6-meter telescope La Silla Observatory in Chile in 2017. The planet orbits Luyten's Star - located about 12 light years from Earth - which makes it the third closest planet to our Solar System.
Based on data collected by the discovery team, Luyten b is estimated to be around 2.9 times the mass of Earth (a "Super-Earth") and orbits its parent star once every 18.6 days and at a distance of 0.091 AU - much closer than Mercury's orbit to the Sun. But since it orbits a red dwarf star, this places it well within the star's habitable zone.
Combined with the fact that Luyten b receives only about 6% more sunlight than Earth, making it one of the best candidates for habitability. And while it is likely to be tidally-locked with its star, a thick enough atmosphere would allow for sufficient transfer.
Gliese 581 c:
This exoplanet was discovered in 2007, also by astronomers at the La Silla Observatory. It was the second of three planets to be confirmed around this star and attracted interest because it was considered to be the first potentially-habitable Earth-like planet located in the HZ of its star.
This exoplanet remains one of the closest to Earth, just 20.37 light-years away in the direction of the constellation of Libra. Initial findings indicated that the planet is roughly 5.5 times as massive as Earth (another Super-Earth) and that it orbits its star with a period of just under 13 days and at a distance of about 0.072 AU.
However, further research has cast doubt on the planet's habitability because of how it is tidally-locked with its star. Depending on the thickness of the atmosphere or the strength of the planet's magnetic field, life would either be confined to the permanent day-night boundary (i.e. the "Terminator zone") or the planet would be unable to retain an atmosphere and water for long.
Since then, two more exoplanet candidates have been detected in this system (Gliese 581 g and d). The former is believed to be a rocky planet with 2.2 times the mass of Earth and orbits at a distance of 0.13 AU with a period of 32 days. The latter is another Super-Earth (4.4. Earth masses) which orbits at a distance of 0.22 AU with a period of under 67 days.
With its greater distance and lower mass, Gliese 581 g is considered the best candidate for habitability in the system. However, the existence of both g and d remain unconfirmed to this day.
Gliese 667 Cc:
This planet was discovered by the ESO in 2011 in the nearby triple-star system known as Gliese 667 (located 23.6 light years from Earth). The system consists of two K-type main sequence stars (667 A and B) that are similar to our Sun, and one red dwarf (667 C), which this exoplanet orbits.
This planet is also a Super-Earth, with a mean radius 1.54 times greater than Earth's and a mass that is between 3.7 and 4.5 times that of Earth. It orbits 667 C at a distance of 0.125 AU with a period of about 28 days, which puts is squarely in the star's habitable zone.
Another planet, Gliese 667 Cb, was previously discovered by the ESO in 2009. However, estimates on its mass are poorly constrained, indicated that it could be anywhere from 5.94 to about 12 Earth masses (which range from it being a Super-Earth to a mini-Neptune).
Eccentricity analysis of this planet also showed that it is not likely to be a rocky planet, which bolsters the case for it being a small gas giant. It also orbits too close to its star to be a likely candidate for habitability and is tidally-locked with Gliese 667 C.
HD 85512 b:
This planet, which was also discovered by the ESO in 2011, also had the honor of being considered the most likely candidate for habitability. Basically, this rocky planet, which is estimated to be at least 3.6 times the mass of Earth, orbits a K-type main sequence star about 36 light years away.
It orbits its Sun-like star at a distance of 0.26 AU (a little more than one-quarter the distance between the Earth and the Sun) and with a period of over 54 days. Because of this, scientists have indicated that the planet is likely to have suffered a runaway greenhouse effect in the past (similar to Venus), making it uninhabitable today.
TRAPPIST-1e:
This planet is one of seven that was discovered around this nearby red dwarf star (39.6 light years from Earth). This began in 2016 when a team of Belgian astronomers announced that they had discovered the three inner planets within the system (TRAPPIST-1 b, c, and d).
This was followed by the announcement of four more by 2017, which were the outermost planets of the system (TRAPPIST-1 e, f, g, and h). What was particularly exciting was the fact that three of the planets - e, f, and g - were all found to orbit within the star's habitable zone.
By November of 2018, researchers determined that planet e was the most likely to be habitable, as well as the most Earth-like planet yet found. Its Earth-like characteristics include it being 91% the radius of Earth, 77% the mass, 102.4% the density (5.65 g/cm3), and 93% the surface gravity. Research has also shown that the seven-planet would be ideal for "life-swapping" (lithopanspermia).
However, multiple studies have cast doubt on the likelihood that the planet is habitable. For one, the planet is tidally locked with its star, which means that one side would be subject to intense radiation and flare activity from TRAPPIST-1, which means that it would have a hard time maintaining an atmosphere and liquid water on its surface.
Other lines of research have shown that the nature of the system is also problematic for life. Since the planets are both close to their star and relatively close together, they would be blasted by stellar winds several orders of magnitude stronger than what Earth experiences.
Even if they had protective magnetic fields, the proximity of the planets would mean that these fields would be connected to each other. This would allow charged particles from TRAPPIST-1 (solar wind) to directly flow onto each planet’s atmosphere, facilitating atmospheric loss.
HD 40307 g:
This planet was discovered in 2012, again by astronomers at the ESO's La Silla Observatory, orbiting a star located 42 light years away. Based on their measurements, the team estimated that the planet is almost 3 times as large as Earth and 7 times as massive.
It orbits its orange K-type main sequence star at a distance of about 0.6 AU with a period of about 198 days. This makes g the farthest planet within HD 40307's six-planet system and the best candidate for habitability. However, this depends on the planet's composition, which straddles the line between Super-Earth or a mini-Neptune.
LHS 1140 b:
Discovered in 2017, this dense rocky planet orbits a red dwarf star located over 40 light years from Earth. It is over 40% larger than Earth, and also nearly 7 times as massive - putting it in the Super-Earth category. It is also one of the densest exoplanets ever found, with over twice the density of Earth (which allows for an estimated surface gravity of 3.25g).
Orbiting its star at a distance of 0.09 AU (and a period of under 25 days), this planet is squarely in LHS 1140s HZ and gets 41% the incident flux of Earth. Combined with a thick atmosphere, LHS 1140 b is considered one of the best candidates for habitability. It is also considered an excellent candidate for atmospheric studies, due to its proximity to Earth and the fact that it regularly makes transits of its star.
One other planet has been confirmed in this system (LHS 1140 c) and one unconfirmed candidate (LHS 1140 d). Neither are considered good candidates for habitability, the former being too close and tidally-locked with its star, while the latter is likely to be a gas giant.
Will any of these worlds turn out to be where we find our long-lost cosmic siblings? Who knows? The point is, we intend to find out either way, and we're getting better at looking all the time!
Further Reading:
- NASA - Exoplanets 101
- NASA - Exoplanet Exploration
- NASA - Warm Welcome: Finding Habitable Planets
- Wikipedia - List of Potentially Habitable Exoplanets
- NASA - Astrobiology at NASA: Galactic Habitable Zones
- Universe Today - Does our Galaxy Have a Habitable Zone?
- NASA -Exoplanet Archive: Exoplanet Candidate and Statistics
The Hybrid Observatory for Earth-like Exoplanets (HOEE) would convert the largest ground-based telescopes into the most powerful planet finders yet. | https://interestingengineering.com/science/what-is-meant-by-habitable-zone-and-how-do-we-define-it |
Detecting Methane With NASA's Space Telescope May Help Us Discover Alien Life
When one thinks about detecting life on an exoplanet, thoughts probably go to discovering oxygen in its atmosphere. However, the presence, or lack of, oxygen is not a reliable indicator. Our own planet's history tells us that. It possibly took a billion years before the atmosphere of Earth became oxygenated. Therefore, if we happen to not find oxygen on another planet, it could simply mean we were a billion years too early, and life hasn't oxygenated the exoplanet's atmosphere yet.
Scientists at UC Santa Cruz have established a set of circumstances in which methane in an exoplanet's atmosphere could be a better indicator of potential life. This is noteworthy due to the fact that methane is one of the few biosignatures that the James Webb Space Telescope can readily detect.
"Oxygen is often talked about as one of the best biosignatures, but it's probably going to be hard to detect with JWST," said Maggie Thompson, a graduate student in astronomy and astrophysics at UC Santa Cruz and lead author of the new study.
Authors of the study underline the need to contemplate the full planetary context in evaluating potential biosignatures. They concluded that for a rocky planet orbiting a sun-like star, atmospheric methane is more likely to be considered a strong explanation of life if the atmosphere also has carbon dioxide, methane is more bountiful than carbon monoxide, and exceedingly water-rich planetary compositions can be disqualified.
"One molecule is not going to give you the answer—you have to take into account the planet's full context," Thompson said. "Methane is one piece of the puzzle, but to determine if there is life on a planet you have to consider its geochemistry, how it's interacting with its star, and the many processes that can affect a planet's atmosphere on geologic timescales." | https://hothardware.com/news/detecting-methane-may-hold-key-to-discovering-alien-life |
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Wednesday
Abstract
id
Title of Abstract
Detecting signatures of habitability using transit spectroscopy
Session
Defining Habitability in the Universe
Date Submitted
2015-03-31 14:26:50
Author
Joanna Barstow
Institution
University of Oxford
Co-Authors
Patrick Irwin, Suzanne Aigrain, Sarah Kendrew, Leigh Fletcher
Summary (maximum 250 words)
New transit surveys such as TESS, NGTS and PLATO have the potential to discover small, temperate planets in orbit around nearby stars. Planets orbiting bright stars provide excellent opportunities for spectroscopic follow-up, and some may provide the necessary mix of environmental conditions to be habitable or even inhabited. During the transit of an exoplanet, it is possible to detect absorption signatures of specific gases in their atmospheres by measuring the increase in the transit depth at wavelengths of enhanced absorption. The presence of certain gases, such as water vapour, may be indicators that a planet is habitable; others, such as oxygen and ozone, may go further and suggest that the planet is inhabited. More broadly, evidence of chemical disequilibrium in a planet’s atmosphere could be a sign that life is present.
It is theoretically possible to identify these ‘biosignature’ gases from transit spectra; however, small, rocky, cool planets usually have compact atmospheres, meaning that the absorption features are tiny and we would require a very sensitive telescope in order to detect them. In addition, the presence of clouds can complicate the identification of gaseous absorption features.
We consider the potential of the James Webb Space Telescope and hypothetical future large space platforms to characterize potentially habitable atmospheres using transit spectroscopy. We use the techniques described in Barstow et al. 2013 and Barstow et al. 2015 to determine the retrievability of gas abundances from transit spectra of Earth- and Venus-like planets, and consider whether or not we can distinguish between these two extreme terrestrial planet climates, one inhabited and one uninhabitable. | https://nam2015.org/wednesday/details/22/257-detecting-signatures-of-habitability-using-transit-spectroscopy |
Roughly 111 light-years away, toward the constellation of Leo, lies a dim star less than half the mass of our sun, with two planets in close orbit. Now, astronomers have revealed that one of those planets has an atmosphere containing water vapour.
The discovery, published Wednesday in the journal Nature, is the first of its kind. While other, larger, gaseous planets — called hot Jupiters — have revealed some hints about the chemical elements contained in their atmospheres, this is the first time water vapour has been detected on a potentially habitable planet, an historic first.
The planet is called K2-18 b, and orbits its parent star — K2-18 — at roughly 0.14 astronomical units (one AU is the distance from our sun to Earth). Because it is so much closer to its parent star, it orbits quite quickly: one year on K2-18 b is equal to just 33 days here on Earth.
K2-18 b is roughly eight times the mass of Earth and about twice the radius, making it a super-Earth or sub-Neptune in the somewhat loose classification of exoplanets.
But what's most important is that K2-18 b resides within the star's habitable zone, a region around a star where liquid water can exist on a planet's surface. Depending on what kind of star it is, the distance varies. In this case, K2-18 b orbits the dwarf star within what would be Mercury's orbit in our solar system.
The search is on
K2-18 b was discovered in 2015, and due to its proximity to Earth and its dim star, it was considered a good candidate for detecting an atmosphere. The team of astrophysicists examined data from the Hubble Space Telescope collected in 2016 and 2017. While not ideal for detecting a wide range of molecular elements in distant exoplanets, Hubble is, however, capable of detecting water vapour.
The team additionally used spectroscopic data (where light is broken up into its particular molecular elements). What they found was strong evidence that K2-18 b had water vapour in its atmosphere.
Running several models, they concluded that three conditions were equally likely to account for the water vapour detected: that it could be a type of "waterworld," with an abundance of water; that it could contain gases such as hydrogen and nitrogen, with a little water; and finally, that it could contain very little water, but with high-altitude clouds.
Those three models mean that the water that was detected could range from 0.01 per cent to 50 per cent.
It's a large range, to be sure.
"We don't really know how much water there is," said Angelos Tsiaras, lead author of the study. "This is related to the size of the atmosphere. We need wider wavelengths to cover it."
Hubble finds water vapour on distant exoplanet
While Hubble may only be able to scan narrow wavelengths in its observations, a new space telescope is set to revolutionize astronomy: the James Webb Space Telescope. That, the authors say, may blow the search for atmospheres around potentially habitable exoplanets wide open.
One small step
The detection of water vapour around a potentially habitable planet is being hailed as a first step in what will become a wider understanding of exoplanets.
"The first evidence for an atmospheric feature in a habitable-zone planet is just fantastic," said exoplanetary researcher Ryan Cloutier of the Center for Astrophysics at Harvard University. As a PhD student at the University of Toronto, he lead the research that not only determined that K2-18 b was a super-Earth, but that there was another planet in the system. "Habitable-zone planets are the holy grail for atmospheric studies."
Exoplanets that are Jupiter-sized or larger are easier to find than smaller ones, particularly those closer to the size of Earth. So, if simply finding them is so challenging, determining the molecules in their atmospheres is even more difficult.
But finding water vapour alone in an atmosphere of a potentially habitable exoplanet doesn't mean life exists on K2-18 b.
And water vapour doesn't necessarily mean water exists on the surface.
The temperature of the planet is roughly –73 C to 46 C, which is similar to Earth. The range is so large because of various unknown factors, including the temperature of the star and the distance between the star and the planet and the planet's atmosphere and pressure, which is why it's unclear if water exists on the surface.
However, the James Webb Space Telescope — which is scheduled to launch in 2021 — will be capable of finding other molecules such as methane and ozone, which could add more evidence to the potential of life on an exoplanet, though it won't be definitive proof of life.
"I think it's very cool, and it's a step in the right direction. These objects are incredibly enigmatic, the so-called sub-Neptunes … and we have no idea what they are," said Sara Seager, an MIT exoplanet researcher originally from Toronto, who was not involved in the study. "We really want to understand this type of planet, and we're hoping the atmospheres will provide some clue as to what they are."
Tsiaras is optimistic about the future of exoplanet habitability research.
"It's always one small step at a time," said Tsiaras. "This time it was the first atmosphere, then it will be the first methane, then probably, why not, some detection of ozone. So one small step at a time."
About the Author
Nicole has an avid interest in all things science. As an amateur astronomer, Nicole can be found looking up at the night sky appreciating the marvels of our universe. She is the editor of the Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada and the author of several books. | https://www.atinitonews.com/2019/09/first-traces-of-atmospheric-water-vapour-detected-on-super-earth-in-habitable-zone/ |
Scientists have developed a new method for detecting oxygen in exoplanet atmospheres that may accelerate the search for life.
One possible indication of life, or biosignature, is the presence of oxygen in an exoplanet’s atmosphere. Oxygen is generated by life on Earth when organisms such as plants, algae, and cyanobacteria use photosynthesis to convert sunlight into chemical energy.
UC Riverside helped develop the new technique, which will use NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope to detect a strong signal that oxygen molecules produce when they collide. This signal could help scientists distinguish between living and nonliving planets.
Since exoplanets, which orbit stars other than our sun, are so far away, scientists cannot look for signs of life by visiting these distant worlds. Instead, they must use a cutting-edge telescope like Webb to see what’s inside the atmospheres of exoplanets.
“Before our work, oxygen at similar levels as on Earth was thought to be undetectable with Webb,” said Thomas Fauchez of NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center and lead author of the study. “This oxygen signal is known since the early 1980s from Earth’s atmospheric studies but has never been studied for exoplanet research.”
UC Riverside astrobiologist Edward Schwieterman originally proposed a similar way of detecting high concentrations of oxygen from nonliving processes and was a member of the team that developed this technique. Their work was published today in the journal Nature Astronomy.
“Oxygen is one of the most exciting molecules to detect because of its link with life, but we don’t know if life is the only cause of oxygen in an atmosphere,” Schwieterman said. “This technique will allow us to find oxygen in planets both living and dead.”
When oxygen molecules collide with each other, they block parts of the infrared light spectrum from being seen by a telescope. By examining patterns in that light, they can determine the composition of the planet’s atmosphere. Schwieterman helped the NASA team calculate how much light would be blocked by these oxygen collisions.
Intriguingly, some researchers propose oxygen can also make an exoplanet appear to host life when it does not, because it can accumulate in a planet’s atmosphere without any life activity at all.
If an exoplanet is too close to its host star or receives too much star light, the atmosphere becomes very warm and saturated with water vapor from evaporating oceans. This water could then be broken down by strong ultraviolet radiation into atomic hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen, which is a light atom, escapes to space very easily, leaving the oxygen behind.
Over time, this process may cause entire oceans to be lost while building up a thick oxygen atmosphere — more even, than could be made by life. So, abundant oxygen in an exoplanet’s atmosphere may not necessarily mean abundant life but may instead indicate a history of water loss. Schwieterman cautions that astronomers are not yet sure how widespread this process may be on exoplanets.
“It is important to know whether and how much dead planets generate atmospheric oxygen, so that we can better recognize when a planet is alive or not,” he said.
Schwieterman is a visiting postdoctoral fellow at UCR who will soon start as assistant professor of astrobiology in the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences.
The research received funding from Goddard’s Sellers Exoplanet Environments Collaboration, which is funded in part by the NASA Planetary Science Division’s Internal Scientist Funding Model. This project has also received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie Grant, the NASA Astrobiology Institute Alternative Earths team, and the NExSS Virtual Planetary Laboratory.
Webb will be the world’s premier space science observatory when it launches in 2021. It will allow scientists to solve mysteries in our solar system, look beyond to distant worlds around other stars, and probe the mysterious structures and origins of our universe and our place in it.
Bill Steigerwald and Nancy Jones of NASA Goddard Space Flight Center made significant contributions to this article. | https://news.ucr.edu/articles/2020/01/06/scientists-develop-new-method-detect-oxygen-exoplanets |
Scientists have observed an array of molecules in the atmosphere of a well-known "hot Jupiter" that indicate the exoplanet formed much farther from its sun than previously thought.
The team identified water vapor and five other carbon- or nitrogen-containing compounds, and say their methods could be applied to understanding potentially habitable worlds, as well. The study of the exoplanet "Osiris" was published April 7 in Nature.
"The key findings of these discoveries are that the chemistry of exoplanets is indeed as complex as theory had predicted, and that we now have the tools to investigate it in detail," said Paolo Giacobbe, a postdoctoral fellow at the Italian National Institute for Astrophysics Astrophysical Observatory of Turin and first author of the study.
Hot Jupiters are gas giants that are extremely toasty because they orbit so close to their host star and were the first kind of planet to be discovered outside our own solar system.
"They are very interesting objects to study because they exhibit extreme physical conditions not found in our solar system," Giacobbe said. "They are essentially the only 'laboratory' available to us for studying highly irradiated planets."
The exoplanet his team focused on, HD 209458b, is located about 150 light-years away from the solar system in the constellation Pegasus. Being a hot Jupiter makes this planet particularly easy for scientists to observe.
This is partly because researchers track distant planets as they cross in front of their stars. The closer a planet is to its star, the more frequently it blocks the star's light, and the more likely it is to be found. HD 209458b, which also goes by the nickname Osiris, was in fact the first planet spotted using this technique.
Additionally, Giacobbe says, hot Jupiters have very thick atmospheres that produce an especially distinctive signal.
HD 209458b's bright star also helps make the planet easier to detect. "We observe the footprint that the exoplanetary atmosphere leaves in the light spectrum emitted by the star," Giacobbe said. "In order for these chemical fingerprints to be observable with our instruments, it is necessary to collect as many stellar photons as possible."
Previously, researchers had detected water vapor, carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide in the atmosphere of Osiris. Giacobbe and his colleagues observed the planet as it passed in front of its star four times in 2018 and 2019. They used an instrument called GIANO-B mounted at the Telescopio Nazionale Galileo in La Palma, Spain, which allowed them to detect a wide range of chemical signatures simultaneously.
The researchers identified water, carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide, methane, ammonia and acetylene in the planet's hot atmosphere. The team then used atmospheric models to determine that the planet's atmosphere is unexpectedly rich in carbon relative to oxygen. This ratio can give researchers a clue about where Osiris formed in the protoplanetary disk of dust and gas that surrounded its young sun.
The surprising abundance of carbon-based molecules — hydrogen cyanide, methane, acetylene and carbon monoxide — suggests that the planet accreted gases rich in the element during its formation. This could only happen if the planet was born beyond its solar system's snowline, where oxygen can condense in water ice while carbon remains in gaseous form.
Osiris likely formed at a similar distance to its star as Jupiter or Saturn are in our own solar system and later migrated inward, Giacobbe says. The planet might have interacted with gases in its protoplanetary disk, resulting in a relatively smooth voyage. Or perhaps it undertook a more violent journey caused by gravitational interactions with other planets after the disk dissipated.
"The presence of a hot Jupiter has a great impact on the planetary system under consideration and on the presence of any other planets, including rocky ones," Giacobbe said. If the hot Jupiter's migration was violent, it might have pushed neighboring planets inward toward the star, or, more likely, ejected them out of the system to wander "free" in space.
"It also creates strong instabilities in the disc, reducing the possibility of the formation of other planets on stable orbits, a fundamental parameter for the habitability of a planet," Giacobbe added.
The kind of measurement he and his colleagues used is highly dependent on theoretical models of planetary atmospheres.
"Certainly, as our knowledge increases and our atmospheric models are refined, we can expect changes in the interpretation of what we have observed," Giacobbe said.
Still, applying these techniques to other planets could allow scientists to understand how hot Jupiters differ from each other. The ability to detect several molecules simultaneously could also make it easier for researchers to determine whether smaller and cooler exoplanets might be habitable.
"All this is very promising for the future, when there will be instruments capable of detecting the extremely weak signals from the atmospheres of Earth-like rocky planets," Giacobbe said.
The study, "Five carbon- and nitrogen-bearing species in a hot giant planet's atmosphere," published April 7 in Nature, was authored by Paolo Giacobbe, Aldo S. Bonomo, Alessandro Sozzetti, and Mario Damasso, INAF—Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino; Matteo Brogi, INAF—Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino and University of Warwick; Siddharth Gandhi, University of Warwick; Patricio E. Cubillos and Luca Fossati, Austrian Academy of Sciences; Gloria Guilluy, INAF—Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino and Università di Torino; Ilaria Carleo, Wesleyan University; Monica Rainer, Alberto Galli, Nicoletta Sanna and Andrea Tozzi, INAF—Osservatorio Astrofisico di Arcetri; Avet Harutyunyan, Rosario Cosentino, Aldo F. M. Fiorenzano, Adriano Ghedina, Marco Pedani and Ennio Poretti, INAF—Fundación Galileo Galilei; Francesco Borsa, INAF—Osservatorio Astronomico di Brera; Lorenzo Pino, INAF—Osservatorio Astrofisico di Arcetri and University of Amsterdam; Valerio Nascimbeni, Luca Malavolta and Giampaolo Piotto, Università di Padova; Serena Benatti, Antonio Maggio, Jesus Maldonado, Giuseppina Micela and Marcello Lodi, INAF—Osservatorio Astronomico di Palermo; Katia Biazzo, INAF—Osservatorio Astronomico di Roma; Andrea Bignamini, INAF—Osservatorio Astronomico di Trieste; Katy L. Chubb, Netherlands Institute for Space Research; Riccardo Claudi, Silvano Desidera and Daniela Fantinel, INAF—Osservatorio Astronomico di Padova; Elvira Covino, INAF—Osservatorio Astronomico di Capodimonte; Antonino F. Lanza, Giuseppe Leto, Isabella Pagano and Gaetano Scandariato, INAF—Osservatorio Astrofisico di Catania; Emilio Molinari, INAF—Osservatorio Astronomico di Cagliari; and Sergei N. Yurchenko, University College of London. | https://academictimes.com/the-exoplanet-osiris-atmospheric-chemistry-hints-at-a-past-journey/ |
Astronomers have discovered a planet just outside our solar system which may have water and temperatures similar to Earth. About 110 light years away, this exoplanet (i.e. outside our solar system) is estimated to be eight times larger than Earth.
The potential ‘Super Earth’ planet, named K218b, lies in the constellation of Leo in the northern sky and is considered the ‘holy grail’ for astronomers searching for a planet similar to ours, with water in its atmosphere which means life could be found there.
Speaking about the discovery, first author Dr. Angelos Tsiaras, of University College London’s Centre for Space Exochemistry Data (CSED), said:
‘Finding water in a potentially habitable world other than Earth is incredibly exciting.
K2-18b is not ‘Earth 2.0’ as it is significantly heavier and has a different atmospheric composition.
However, it brings us closer to answering the fundamental question – is the Earth unique?
The water vapour found in K2-18b comes from the evaporation of water or ice on the planet, and though vapour has been found on other far away planets, this is the first to be the ideal distance from the solar system’s star to allow life to develop.’
Some news today about K2-18b, a small planet 110 light-years from Earth. Hubble has spotted water vapor & possibly clouds in its atmosphere. https://t.co/3alGmHq9wS
— Alexandra Witze (@alexwitze) September 11, 2019
Reported in Astronomical Journal, the teams research found that the water source could exist in liquid form which is crucial for sustaining life.
The combined data captured by the Hubble Space Telescope from 2016 and 2017 and their own algorithms used to analyse starlight filtered through the atmosphere. The results showed the molecular signature of water vapour and indicated the presence of hydrogen and helium, which produce energy. Undetectable at this stage, other vital molecules such as nitrogen and methane may also be present and further studies are needed to estimate cloud coverage and the percentage of atmospheric water.
First discovered in 205, K2-18b is one of hundreds of Super-Earths discovered by NASA’s Kepler spacecraft and more are expected to be found in coming years. Although K2-18b is the most promising thus far, its environment may be more hostile than that of Earth as it orbits an active red dwarf.
Co-author Dr Ingo Waldmann, also of UCL CSED, said:
‘With so many new super-Earths expected to be found over the next couple of decades, it’s likely this is the first discovery of many potentially habitable planets.
This is not only because super-Earths like K2-18b are the most common planets in our Galaxy, but also because red dwarfs – stars smaller than our Sun – are the most common stars.
The next generation of space telescopes, including the NASA/ESA/CSA James Webb Space Telescope and ESA’s ARIEL mission, will be able to characterise atmospheres in more detail as they will carry more advanced instruments.
ARIEL is expected to launch in 2028, and will observe 1,000 planets in detail to get a truly representative picture of what they are like.’
Co-author Prof Giovanna Tinetti, also of UCL CSED and principal investigator for ARIEL, said:
‘Our discovery makes K2-18b one of the most interesting targets for future study.
Over 4,000 exoplanets have been detected but we don’t know much about their composition and nature.
By observing a large sample of planets, we hope to reveal secrets about their chemistry, formation and evolution.
The team looked for the signal of water absorption in starlight poking through the edges of the atmosphere when the planet passed in front of its star.’
Björn Benneke, an exoplanet researcher at the University of Montreal and author of the study, told The Verge:
‘For the first time, a planet in this temperature regime — a regime that is very, very similar to the Earth — we are demonstrating that there is actually liquid water.’
Benneke explained that climate modelling from the team’s observations found water vapour forming clouds, condensing and raining down on the planet. This liquid water is essential to the possibility of finding life on the planet.
Exoplanet expert and MIT professor Sara Seager says we shouldn’t ‘expect a mirror image of Earth just yet,’ adding: ‘These planets are not going to look a thing like Earth. It’s definitely not rocky as we know a rocky planet to be.’
Dr Tsiaras concluded: | https://educateinspirechange.org/astronomers-have-detected-water-on-habitable-super-earth/ |
Water vapor has been detected for the first time in the atmosphere of a super-earth with temperatures suitable for life.
A UK scientific team studied the planet K2-18b, which is eight times the mass of Earth and is 110 light-years distant.
Researchers at University College London have discovered evidence of atmospheric water vapor in K2-18b located within the habitable zone of its star.
The exoplanet K2-18b
K2-18b, is so far the only planet that orbits a star outside the solar system with the potential to be inhabited by the conditions of water and temperatures.
According to Angelos Tsiaras, first author of the work, “finding water in a potentially habitable world other than our own is very exciting. Exoplanet K2-18b would not be an 'Earth 2.0' as it is significantly heavier and has a different atmospheric composition. However, it brings us closer to the answer to the fundamental question: Is the Earth unique?“.
The team of researchers used data provided by the Hubb Space Telescopele from ESA / NASA and developed open source algorithms to analyze starlight filtered through the atmosphere of K2-18b. The results have revealed the molecular signature of water vapor and the presence of hydrogen and helium in the planet's atmosphere.
Further studies
The team of researchers also speculates on the presence of other molecules, including nitrogen and methane, but they are still undetectable with current instruments. Therefore, they say, “additional studies are required to estimate cloud cover and the percentage of atmospheric water present”.
The planet orbits the cold dwarf star K2-18, which is about 110 light-years from Earth in the constellation Leo. Given the high level of activity of its red dwarf star, K2-18b may be more hostile than Earth and is likely to be exposed to more radiation.
Giovanna Tinetti, co-author and principal investigator of ESA's ARIEL mission, indicates that her team's finding “Makes the K2-18 b one of the most interesting targets for future study. More than 4,000 exoplanets have been detected, but we don't know much about their composition and nature. By observing a large sample of planets, we can reveal secrets about their chemistry, formation and evolution "
For Tsiaras, the new study "It will help improve understanding of habitable worlds beyond the solar system and mark a new era in exoplanet research".
The research has been funded by the European Research Council and the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council.
Bibliographic reference:
Angelos Tsiaras, Ingo Waldmann, Giovanna Tinetti. Jonathan Tennyson and Sergey N. Yurchenko. "Water vapor in the atmosphere of the habitable-zone eight-Earth-mass planet K2-18 b". Nature Astronomy(September, 2019).
With information from: | https://brightboys.org/2374-water-found-in-the-atmosphere-of-a-potentially-habit.html |
• The hunt for alien life is extremely limited due to the vast distances between planets and the technology currently at our disposal. Rover on nearby rocky planets like Mars take many months looking for signs of life, with no guarantee that they can even detect such life using the technology that they carry with them. We can see light bouncing off of a far more distant exoplanet’s atmosphere, but too often clouds will prevent a light spectrum from penetrating closer to the surface.
• The Warwick scientists’ paper describes a novel way of examining exoplanet atmospheres for water vapor, ammonia, methane, and other chemicals that could be an indicator of life. High-resolution spectroscopy is a potential way of doing that, even where there is a cloudy atmosphere. “The chemical abundances can tell you quite a lot about how the planet may have formed because it leaves its chemical fingerprint on the molecules in the atmosphere,” says Dr Gandhi. As the light skims the top of the atmosphere, its spectrum is shifted and specific wavelengths of light can then be matched to specific chemicals in the air. “Detecting the molecules at the top of the atmosphere… offers a window into the internal structure as the gases mix with the deeper layers.”
• So far, most observations of exoplanets have been carried out using space telescopes like NASA’s Hubble or Spitzer. “Quite a lot of these cooler planets are far too cloudy to get any meaningful constraints with the current generation of space telescopes,” says Dr Gandhi. “But all of this could change if the proposed technology takes off.”
ASTRONOMERS at the University of Warwick have proposed a cutting-edge technique that could detect water on distant exoplanets, boosting the search for alien life.
The hunt for alien life is very limited due to the vast distances between planets and the technology currently at our disposal. Although scientists can send probes and rovers like NASA’s Perseverance Rover to nearby worlds like Mars, these missions take many months before their targets are reached. And even once these missions reach their destinations, there is no guarantee they are well equipped or sophisticated enough to find any signs of extraterrestrial life.
Matters are further complicated when astronomers study distant exoplanets far beyond our reach.
Often times we can catch a glimpse of these planets’ atmosphere by the light bouncing off them, but we cannot see much further than that.
And if dense clouds are in the way, preventing light from penetrating, the planets’ secrets could be forever hidden from sight.
But researchers at the University of Warwick have now proposed high-resolution spectroscopy technology could potentially detect traces of water well above these impenetrable clouds.
The technique, presented in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, could offer a major boost in the hunt for alien life beyond Earth.
Life as we know it requires water to exist as it is one of the building blocks of life alongside carbon-based molecules and energy.
FAIR USE NOTICE: This page contains copyrighted material the use of which has not been specifically authorized by the copyright owner. ExoNews.org distributes this material for the purpose of news reporting, educational research, comment and criticism, constituting Fair Use under 17 U.S.C § 107. Please contact the Editor at ExoNews with any copyright issue. | https://exonews.org/uk-scientists-in-bid-to-find-building-blocks-of-alien-life-on-exoplanets/ |
Twinkle mission to take a closer look at exoplanet atmospheresView gallery - 3 images
One reason exoplanets are so fascinating is the possibility that they may harbor life, but the definition of habitable used by astronomers is so broad that it could include planets that obviously aren't. To help zero in on the more likely candidates, a British-built satellite called Twinkle will look at the atmospheres of exoplanets to seek more definite signs of life, as well as clues as to the chemistry, formation and evolution of exoplanets.
According to NASA, there are 1,813 confirmed exoplanets with thousands more candidates under consideration discovered by the Kepler Space Telescope and others using the transit method. That is, the light coming from particular stars was measured over time and any dips in their light curves that may indicate a planet passing in front of them were recorded and measured.
The technique has been remarkably effective, but the information that it returns about the planets is pretty basic. Scientists can deduce the mass and density of a planet, determine if its rocky or gaseous, its distance from its star, its orbital period, and estimate its surface temperature. Unfortunately, those estimates are very rough. According to the definition of habitable as used currently, Earth certainly fits it, but so do Venus and Mars because they also fall inside the Goldilocks zone where liquid water can exist on a planet's surface.
But to make a real determination, scientists need more data – especially about the atmosphere. Venus, for example, is in the habitable zone, but its superdense carbon dioxide atmosphere rains sulfuric acid and is hot enough to melt lead. Mars, on the other hand, has a vestigial atmosphere of carbon dioxide that lets in deadly radiation and is so dry that it makes the Atacama desert look like a rain forest.
This is where the £50 million (US$76.2 million) Twinkle mission comes in. Scheduled to launch in four years, it's being built by a team led by University College London and Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd. The latter is using cost-effective design and off-the-shelf-parts to build the orbiter at a tenth the cost of a comparable satellite. In an overview presented at the Royal Astronomical Society on February 6, the team laid out a design for an extremely stable unmanned orbiter that can study the atmosphere of exoplanets.
Twinkle uses the transit method, but for a different purpose. Pioneered by the Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes, Twinkle's technique is to look at the light as the planet passes in front of its star, but instead of measuring the dip in light, the orbiter records the spectrograph of the star's light as it passes through the planet's atmosphere. This allows the spacecraft to make a record of the gases that make it up, and especially the presence of water vapor and oxygen, which would be key indicators that life is present.
According to the team, the atmosphere doesn't just indicate whether or not life could exist on a planet, it also helps scientist to understand the history of a planet, such as whether it evolved in its present orbit or was moved there from another place in the star system. For example, a loss of light molecules could indicate impacts by comets, asteroids, or protoplanets.
When launched, Twinkle will be set in a polar low-Earth orbit on a three to five-year mission, during which it will study 100 exoplanets in our galaxy. These will not only include Earth-type planets, but also super-Earths and hot Jupiter-sized giant planets orbiting a variety of stars. The team says that if a planet is orbiting a particularly bright star, it may be possible to make maps of the planet's temperature and cloud cover.
Source: Twinkle
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Extrasolar planets are being discovered at a rapid rate, with 4,531 planets in 3,363 systems (with another 7,798 candidates awaiting confirmation). Of these, 166 have been identified as rocky planets (aka. “Earth-like”), while another 1,389 have been rocky planets that are several times the size of Earth (“Super-Earths). As more and more discoveries are made, the focus is shifting from the discovery process towards characterization.
In order to place tighter constraints on whether any of these exoplanets are habitable, astronomers and astrobiologists are looking for ways to detect biomarkers and other signs of biological processes. According to a new study, astronomers and astrobiologists should look for indications of a carbon-silicate cycle. On Earth, this cycle ensures that our climate remains stable for eons and could be the key to finding life on other planets.
The study, titled “Carbon cycling and habitability of massive Earth-like exoplanets,” was conducted by Amanda Kruijver, Dennis Höning, and Wim van Westrenen – three Earth scientists with the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam. Höning is also a fellow with the Origins Center, a Netherlands-based national science institute committed to researching the origins and evolution of life in our Universe. Their study was recently published in The Planetary Science Journal.
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On Earth, this two-step cycle ensures that carbon dioxide (CO2) levels in our atmosphere remain relatively consistent over time. This first step consists of carbon dioxide being removed from our atmosphere by reacting with water vapor to form carbonic acid, which weathers and dissolves silicate rock. The products of this weathering are washed into the oceans (creating carbonate rock), which sink to the seafloor and become part of the Earth’s mantle.
This is where the second step comes into play. Once in the mantle, carbonate rocks are melted down to create silicate magma and CO2 gas, the latter of which is released back into the atmosphere through volcanic eruptions. As Dr. Höning explained to Universe Today via email, the process is also affected by changes in surface conditions:
“Importantly, the speed of this process depends on the surface temperature: If the surface gets hotter, weathering reactions speed up, and more CO2 can be removed from the atmosphere. Since CO2 is a greenhouse gas, this mechanism cools down the surface, so we have a stabilizing feedback. We have to point out that this stabilizing feedback needs a long time to be efficient, in the order of hundreds of thousand years or even millions of years.”
A key consideration here is how the Sun has been getting hotter with time, Dr. Höning added. Compared to Earth’s early history, our planet now receives roughly 30% more energy from the Sun, which is why atmospheric CO2 levels were higher in the distant past. Therefore, it is safe to say that weathering becomes more pronounced as a planet gets older and that atmospheric CO2 levels will drop at an increasing rate at this point in their evolution.
Since this is a simple chemical process, there is no reason to think that a carbon-silicate cycle couldn’t function on other planets – provided they have liquid water on their surfaces. For exoplanet researchers and astrobiologists, the presence of liquid water has been critical to the ongoing search for extraterrestrial life. The issue of plate tectonics has also been raised since this plays a significant role in maintaining Earth’s habitability over time. Said Dr. Höning:
“In our own solar system, only planet Earth has plate tectonics and therefore subduction. The reason for this is not entirely clear and subject to modern studies – probably it has to do with the rock composition, planet size, surface temperature, or with the existence of liquid water on the surface itself.
“If we would have weathering on an exoplanet but no subduction, the produced carbonates would accumulate on the surface and may become unstable again after millions of years. We explored this scenario in earlier work and found that the climate would still be regulated to some extent, although somewhat less efficiently than with plate tectonics as assumed in the present paper.”
Dr. Höning and his colleagues are hardly alone when it comes to investigating whether plate tectonics and geological activity are essential for life. In recent years, similar research has been conducted that has considered if stagnant lid planets (where the surface and mantle consists of one inactive plate) covered in oceans could still have a carbon cycle – with encouraging results.
For the sake of their study, Dr. Höning and his colleagues sought to determine if a carbon-silicate cycle would be possible on other rocky planets that range from being “Earth-like” to “Super-Earths.” To this end, they created a model that reproduced Earth’s carbonate-silicate cycle and took all of the relevant processes into account. This included all the relevant processes, like interior evolution, volcanic outgassing, weathering, and subduction, and considered how they could be sensitive to changes in size and mass.
“For example, the pressure within massive planets increases more strongly with depth since the gravity is higher,” said Dr. Höning. “The pressure has an effect on the melting depth and also on the strength of mantle convection, which determines the interior cooling rate. So we updated all model parts that are sensitive to the size or mass of the planet and could therefore explore the influence of these parameters on exoplanet habitability.”
What they found was that an increase in mass (to a point) would result in higher average surface temperatures, thereby altering what would be considered the planet’s circumsolar habitable zone (aka. “Goldilocks Zone”). Said Dr. Höning:
“We found that exoplanets of Earth’s age but ~3 times more massive should have higher volcanic outgassing rates, since their interior is much hotter and mantle convection therefore more vigorous. The carbonate-silicate cycle can still regulate the climate on these planets, nevertheless we expect a hotter surface. Therefore, the optimal distance between the planet and the star in order to maintain liquid water on the planet surface is a bit further away than Earth’s distance to the Sun.”
However, the results were the opposite when they increased the mass of a rocky planet up to 10 times that of Earth (which corresponds to ~2 Earth radii). “Here, the pressure within these planets is so large that volcanic activity and outgassing of CO2 becomes smaller,” he said. “However, since the heat from their interior is not lost as efficiently, outgassing of CO2 becomes particularly efficient in the later evolution. Unfortunately, stellar luminosity also increases with time, so the planet might then become too hot for any liquid water to exist.”
There are many takeaways from these results. For one, the study demonstrates that size and mass are important parameters for planetary habitability. At the same time, size and mass are among the very few parameters that scientists have access to right now. As with the available means of detection – the Transit Method, for example, is very good at constraining these two properties – scientists are somewhat limited by indirect means and must rely on extrapolations and modeling.
However, these two parameters are still very useful for constraining what types of rocky planets could be habitable and which ones aren’t likely to support life. What’s more, they show how a planet’s age and mass play a significant role in maintaining a carbon cycle, and therefore the planet’s habitability. By considering these factors together, scientists will be able to say whether a planet is “potentially habitable more confidently.” As Dr. Höning summarized:
“One main finding of our paper is that we should really look at the combination of planet size and age to get an idea about habitability. Earth-sized planets should be habitable for a very long period of time, but their atmospheres are of course more difficult to characterize than for larger planets. Planets of 3 times Earth’s mass (receiving the same stellar flux) should have a hotter surface than Earth (difference ~10K). Even more massive planets receiving the same stellar flux are a bit cooler, but would significantly heat up later in their evolution.”
What’s more, this study will be beneficial when next-generation telescopes bHöningecome available and can conduct direct observations of exoplanets. This is something astronomers expect from the upcoming James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), the Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope, and ground-based observatories like the Extremely Large Telescope (ELT), the Giant Magellan Telescope (GMT), and the Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT).
By directly observing light reflected by an exoplanet’s atmosphere, astronomers will obtain spectra that reveal the atmosphere’s chemical composition. This research could be used for future studies to place the detection of atmospheric CO2 into its proper context. In short, astrobiologists will determine if it’s an indication of geological activity and can therefore be interpreted as a possible indication of habitability.
Another encouraging aspect of the study is that even where rocky planets of varying masses and sizes are concerned, the carbonate-silicate cycle remains an efficient regulator of the climate. If scientists detect evidence of this cycle on exoplanets, they can rest assured that it indicates potential habitability, no matter how massive the planet is. “So, we can remain optimistic about finding extraterrestrial life in the future!” said Dr. Höning.
Further Reading: arXiv
This next week will mark a scientifically valuable achievement for NASA’s Juno mission, as the…
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Astronomers tracked the Moon's poles over billions of years. | https://www.universetoday.com/152897/rocky-planets-might-need-to-be-the-right-age-to-support-life/amp/ |
PUTTING EYES ON EXOPLANETS A suite of current and future telescopes (including, from left, Spitzer, TESS, Hubble, James Webb and WFIRST-AFTA) could identify remote habitable worlds and peer into the newfound atmospheres for hints of alien biology.
Our galaxy is teeming with planets. Over the last 25 years, astronomers have cataloged about 2,000 worlds in 1,300 systems scattered around our stellar neighborhood. While most of these exoplanets look nothing like Earth (and in some cases, like nothing that orbits our sun), the bonanza of alien worlds implies a tantalizing possibility: There is a lot of real estate out there suitable for life.
We haven’t explored every corner of our solar system. Life might be lurking beneath the surface of some icy satellites or in the soil of Mars. For such locales, we could conceivably visit and look for anything wriggling or replicating. But we can’t travel (yet) to worlds orbiting remote suns dozens of light-years away. An advanced alien civilization might transmit detectable radio signals, but primitive life would not be able to announce its presence to the cosmos.
People have contemplated the possibility of extraterrestrial life since medieval times. We’re still looking for answers today. What would aliens look like? Where should we look to find them? Why are we so obsessed? Science News writers explore these questions and more in this special report.
On Earth, life alters the atmosphere. If plants and critters weren’t around to keep churning out oxygen and methane, those gases would quickly vanish. Water, carbon dioxide, methane, oxygen and ozone are examples of “biosignatures,” key markers of a planet crawling with life as we know it. Setting aside questions about how recognizable alien life might be, detecting biosignatures in the atmosphere of an exoplanet would give astronomers the first strong clue that we are not alone.
Biosignatures aren’t proof of thriving ecosystems. Ultraviolet light from a planet’s sun can zap water molecules and create a stockpile of oxygen; seawater filtering through rocks can produce methane. “We’ll never be able to say 100 percent that a planet has life,” says Sarah Rugheimer, an astrophysicist at the University of St. Andrews in Scotland. But astronomers hope that, given enough information about an exoplanet and the star it orbits, they can build a case for a world where sunlight and geology aren’t enough to explain its chemistry — one where life is a viable possibility. Finding a planet similar to Earth is probably still decades away, but thanks to a couple of upcoming telescopes, astronomers might be on the verge of spying on habitable worlds around nearby stars.
NASA’s Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite, or TESS, will launch in 2017 on a quest to detect many of the exoplanets that orbit the stars closest to us. One year later, the James Webb Space Telescope will launch and peek inside some of these newfound atmospheres. With their powers combined, TESS and James Webb could identify nearby planets that are good candidates for life. These worlds will probably be quite different from Earth — they’ll be a bit larger and orbit faint, red suns — but some researchers hope that a few will offer hints of alien biology.
Over the next decade, several telescopes will join existing observatories in the hunt for exoplanets and hints of alien life.
Exoplanets don’t give up their secrets easily; they are distant, tiny and snuggled up to blazing stars. With some exceptions, current telescopes can’t directly see exoplanets, so astronomers use other means to infer their existence. In rare cases, a remote solar system is oriented so that its planets pass between their sun and Earth, an event known as a transit. During a transit, the star temporarily dims as a planet blocks some of its light.
Transits are powerful tools; not only can they help reveal a planet’s density — a way to distinguish gas planets from solid ones — but they also can allow astronomers to inventory the molecules floating in an exoplanet’s atmosphere. During a transit, molecules in the planet’s atmosphere absorb certain wavelengths of the star’s light, leaving a chemical fingerprint. By deciphering that fingerprint, researchers can deduce the chemical makeup of an alien world.
Astronomers so far have used the transit technique primarily with space-based telescopes such as the Hubble Space Telescope to investigate the atmospheres of more than 50 exoplanets, most of them worlds the size of Jupiter and Neptune (SN: 11/15/14, p. 4). The puffy atmospheres of giant planets are easier to detect than the relatively slim atmospheres of small rocky worlds. As tools have improved, researchers have started to check out super-Earths, planets that are smaller than Neptune but larger than ours. Though no such planets exist in our solar system, they appear to be one of the most common types in the galaxy.
Only three super-Earths have come under telescope scrutiny so far: GJ 1214b, HD 97658b and 55 Cancri e. These worlds are nothing like Earth. Two of them orbit dim, red suns, all of them whip around their stars in a few days (or even hours) and none are in the coveted habitable zone — the region around a star where a planet’s temperatures are just right for liquid water. Around GJ 1214b and HD 97658b, astronomers found no signs of molecules absorbing starlight, leading researchers to conclude that both worlds are blanketed in clouds or haze (SN Online: 1/2/14).
Astronomers will undoubtedly try to squeeze more information out of similar worlds. But, says Kevin France, an astrophysicist at the University of Colorado Boulder, “we’ve pushed Hubble about as far as we can.” And Hubble won’t be around forever (SN: 4/18/15, p. 18). To continue sniffing around in exoplanet atmospheres, researchers are looking toward Hubble’s successor, the James Webb Space Telescope.
James Webb “is going to be a revolution in astronomy,” says Jonathan Lunine, an astrophysicist at Cornell University. The infrared observatory boasts a mirror 2.7 times as wide as Hubble’s. James Webb will seek out the first generation of stars, track how galaxies grow and — most relevant to the search for life — poke around in planetary atmospheres.
The atmosphere of a planet in another solar system can leave a chemical fingerprint on the light from its sun, which might reveal hints of alien biological activity.
The trouble with an Earth-like world is that it doesn’t transit often and both the planet and its atmosphere are tiny. It’s the same kind of problem an alien group would experience trying to detect us. When viewed from afar, Earth blocks less than 0.01 percent of the sun’s light, and only a few percent of that is due to the atmosphere. To an alien astronomer, Earth crosses the sun once a year for, at most, 13 hours. And that’s assuming the aliens live in the right part of the galaxy to witness an Earth transit. Telescopes operated by the bulk of the Milky Way’s citizens will never line up with both the sun and Earth.
The odds of finding life improve if astronomers focus their efforts on M dwarfs, which make up about three-quarters of the stars in the galaxy. The dim red orbs are small, so a transiting planet blocks a relatively large fraction of the star’s light, making transits easier to detect. Habitable worlds also transit more frequently. To sustain liquid water, a planet must huddle close to one of these cool stars to stay warm. An orbit in the habitable zone of an M dwarf is much shorter than a comparable trip around the sun. Rather than wait for a year between transits, astronomers might have to wait for only a few weeks or months. Plus, a planet on a cozy orbit is more forgiving when it comes to getting the viewing geometry just right to see a transit.
There's no reason why a planet around an M star couldn't be like Earth.
There are potential downsides to M dwarfs. Most of the light they radiate is infrared, so photosynthesis on orbiting planets would be very different compared with photosynthesis on Earth. There’s no guarantee that biosignatures from vegetation that thrives on infrared light would look anything like those from local varieties. Many M dwarfs also emit occasional blasts of ultraviolet radiation — blasts made even more dangerous because any habitable planet sits close to the star. Habitable worlds need to be so close, in fact, that the star’s gravity might prevent the planet from rotating, which could give rise to extreme climate differences between day and night. Recent research, though, indicates that none of these issues are necessarily deal breakers (SN: 2/7/15, p. 7). “There’s no reason why a planet around an M star couldn’t be like Earth,” says Lisa Kaltenegger, an astrophysicist at Cornell.
James Webb should be able to poke around in the atmospheres of a few habitable super-Earths around M dwarfs, though it’s going to need some targets first (SN: 5/17/14, p. 6). NASA’s premier planet hunter, the Kepler space telescope, (SN: 12/27/14, p. 20) found 1,039 exoplanets during its four-year primary mission, with 4,706 additional candidates awaiting confirmation. But most of Kepler’s finds are too distant for James Webb. That’s where TESS comes in. It will catalog all the short-period transiting worlds around the sun’s nearest neighbors. “Those are the ones that astronomers even decades from now are going to want to focus on,” says George Ricker, an MIT astrophysicist and principal investigator for the TESS mission.
Unlike Kepler, which gazed in one direction at 150,000 stars, TESS will spend two years monitoring 200,000 stars all around the sky. To cover that much ground, TESS will stare at one spot for about 27 days before moving onto a new patch. That’s not great for finding Earth twins on year-long orbits, but it’s good for finding worlds in the habitable zones of M dwarfs.
Based on Kepler’s results, astrophysicist Peter Sullivan, then at MIT, and colleagues calculated in 2015 that TESS should discover about 1,700 exoplanets. Of these, more than 500 could be less than twice the size of Earth, of which about 50 would lie in the habitable zones of their host stars. But picking biosignatures, or any signatures, out of those atmospheres is going to be difficult. Estimates vary, but James Webb will need roughly 200 hours to study one super-Earth around a nearby M dwarf, and those hours count only when the planet is passing in front of its star.
There’s a debate happening right now over how hard to chase that dream, Caltech’s Knutson says. Given its sluggish pace, James Webb might get to look at only a couple of habitable super-Earths. Astronomers could lavish large amounts of time on one or two systems that might not even pan out. Or they could focus telescope resources on Neptunes, Jupiters or hot super-Earths, where researchers can amass a lot of other data about a wide variety of worlds. While James Webb might get lucky and spy some biosignatures, the dream of finding another planet like Earth will probably have to wait a few decades for a larger observatory to come along.
The transit technique is powerful but inefficient. From our vantage point, most planets don’t transit their suns, and those that do transit only once every orbit.
“To really give us the best probability of detecting life, we need to build a telescope that can do direct detection,” Rugheimer says. Direct detection requires snapping a picture of an exoplanet and looking for biosignatures such as oxygen and methane imprinted on light reflecting off its surface. Since this technique doesn’t require alignments between planets and suns, it can, in principle, work for any world around any star. But to catch an Earth 2.0, astronomers are going to need a bigger telescope.
Consider again those aliens who are looking for us. They would struggle to see Earth even if they set up camp 4.2 light-years away at the star next door, Proxima Centauri (an M dwarf, by the way). It’s like trying to see the head of a quilting pin 28 meters to the right of a basketball while standing about 7,500 kilo-meters away — roughly the distance from Honolulu to Pittsburgh. And the basketball is 10 billion times as bright as the pin.
No observatories come close to being able to capture an image of an Earth-like planet around a sunlike star. But astronomers are thinking about what it would take. One idea is to put a gigantic mirror in space equipped with a device that can block the light of the star, such as the High-Definition Space Telescope proposed by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy. To see a few dozen Earth twins and characterize their atmospheres, that telescope would need a mirror 12 meters across. That’s bigger than any optical telescope currently on the ground and has 25 times the light-collecting area of Hubble.
A huge telescope mirror is needed to look for biosignatures on Earth-like exoplanets. The proposed High-Definition Space Telescope, HDST, could spy on dozens of replica Earths; its mirror exceeds the 10-meter diameter of Keck, one of the world's largest optical telescopes. Hubble's successor, James Webb, might be able to look for life on a couple of planets a bit larger than Earth.
One of the keys to success with the high-definition telescope is a coronagraph, a disk that blocks the light from any star the telescope points at. Many telescopes already use coronagraphs, especially spacecraft designed to look at the sun. James Webb will be outfitted with a coronagraph, though not one designed to search for other Earths.
The downside to a coronagraph is that it requires exceptional control of light that enters the telescope, which complicates the design. Other proposals to detect Earth-like planets, such as the NASA-commissioned Exo-S concept, use a starshade, a separate spacecraft shaped, appropriately, like the petals of a sunflower. The starshade flies tens of thousands of kilometers away from the telescope and maintains perfect alignment to prevent starlight from hitting the mirror (SN: 7/12/14, p. 11).
Since a starshade is free-floating and does all the lightsuppression work, it should be able to partner up with any telescope, even a relatively small one already in use. But no one has attempted formation flying in space at this scale. And every time astronomers want to look at a new star, the starshade would have to move around the telescope to maintain alignment, which could take days or weeks. All that movement will require fuel, which limits how many stars astronomers can search.
This article appears in the April 30, 2016, Science News with the headline, "Putting eyes on exoplanets: Finding signs of life is hard, but new telescopes will soon begin searching."
Julianne Dalcanton et al. From cosmic birth to living Earths: the future of UVOIR space astronomy. arXiv:1507.04779. July 28, 2015.
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D. Deming et al. Discovery and characterization of transiting super Earths using an all-sky transit survey and follow-up by the James Webb Space Telescope. Publications of the Astronomical Society of Pacific. Vol. 121, September 2009, p. 952. doi: 10.1086/605913.
S.D. Domagal-Goldman et al. Abiotic ozone and oxygen in atmospheres similar to prebiotic Earth. Astrophysical Journal. Vol. 792, September 2014, p. 90. doi: 10.1088/0004-637X/792/2/90.
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J.C. Tarter et al. A reappraisal of the habitability of planets around M dwarf stars. Astrobiology. Vol. 7, March 2007, p. 30. doi: 10.1089/ast.2006.0124.
A. Tsiaras et al. Detection of an atmosphere around the super-Earth 55 Cancri e. Astrophysical Journal. Vol. 820, April 2016, p. 99. doi: 10.3847/0004-637X/820/2/99. | https://www.sciencenews.org/article/new-telescopes-will-search-signs-life-distant-planets?mode=pick&context=2775 |
A Bad Deal for the American Eel
Once extremely abundant throughout all tributaries to Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence River, the American eel has seen a dramatic population decline. In 2006, the presence of eels in these waters decreased by almost 90 per cent. As of 2007, this species has been listed as Endangered under the Ontario Endangered Species Act.
This dramatic population decline can be attributed to several factors, including the creation of hydroelectric dams, reduced access to habitat imposed by manmade barriers to upstream migration, general habitat destruction and alteration and commercial harvesting. The construction of dams threaten the American eel species in two ways: they result in habitat fragmentation and loss as they make it much more difficult for adult eels to migrate back to the ocean to spawn, and hydroelectric turbines contribute to higher injury and mortality rates of juvenile eels swimming downstream (depending on the size of the eels and the design of the turbines).
The Canadian Wildlife Federation, in collaboration with the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, the Algonquins of Ontario and the Arnprior Fish and Game Club, have been tracking and tagging American eels in the Ottawa River since 2007. Previous work has been successful not only in determining which methods and locations are best for capturing eels, but also in documenting movement patterns and collecting data on habitat preferences and downstream migration timing. Currently the project aims to build on the knowledge gained in the first studies of eel movement and use this information to develop strategies for American eel recovery in the Ottawa River.
On a section of the Ottawa River from Chats Falls dam to Chenaux dam, researchers are busily working to tag and track eels to monitor downstream migration patterns, determining if and when eels move past the Chats Falls dam. They are also monitoring upstream migration by installing temporary eel ladders at three barriers on tributaries to the Lac des Chats section of the Ottawa River. These ladders will be fitted with a trap at the upstream end, and eels that migrate up them and are trapped will be tagged and re-released downstream. If the eels are captured often enough, this will confirm to researchers that eels are indeed attempting migration through these routes and can provide important information about the barriers that may prevent later out-migration.
Another important aspect of this project is the public awareness campaign that aims to educate people on the American eel and its importance in the ecology of the Ottawa River. This part of the project will be carried out through activities that increase local knowledge of the American eel, encourage the public to report eel sightings and discourage anglers from killing eels caught accidentally. Members of the public will also be invited to observe eel capture and tagging activities.
The long-term goal is to re-establish a safe migration route for American eels in collaboration with local communities and hydroelectric producers. The ultimate goal is to see a future where the eel population is once again increasing in the Lac des Chats and adjacent sections of the Ottawa River. | https://jobspeopledo.com/2013/07/a-bad-deal-for-the-american-eel/ |
Tackling human-wild animal conflict
The human-animal conflict is a new norm in Kashmir. The reports about these conflicts often appear in the media. The conflict has emerged as a big challenge to the related official agencies. As per official data as many as 118 people were killed and 1877 wounded in attacks by wild animals in the Valley during the past 10 years (from 2011). In the year 2020, as many as 10 deaths and 141 injuries by wild animals were reported in Kashmir. Only this year, at least three human deaths by the wild animals have been reported. Of them, the most recent incident occurred late evening on Friday (September 17) at Hari Pora Haran in Soibugh of Budgam district, where an eight-year-old boy was mauled to death by a leopard. This horrifying and unfortunate incident occurred around three months after a four-year-old girl was killed by a leopard on June 3, in the Ompura area of the same district. The mutilated body of the girl was recovered in the forest nursery about one kilometer from her house next day. It is not only humans but domestic animals too are falling prey to wild animals. However, such incidents are rarely reported though. On the intervening night of May 17 and 18 this year, ten sheep were killed in a leopard attack in Khaipora village of Khansahib tehsil of Budgam. Since the unfortunate incident in Ompura, wildlife department has captured as many as seven leopards in the same area; and presently three cage traps, to hook the life-threatening animals, have been set by the department in Ompura and the adjacent areas.
A deeper study of the issue indicates that from understaffed and ill-equipped Wild Life Department to human interference in habitats of wild animals there are so many issues responsible for the conflict. Experts say that the Wild Life Department gets the least attention by the authorities and as result it is understaffed. The employees of the department lack proper training and equipment. Besides, the human intervention in the original habitat of wild animals is disturbing these animals and forcing them towards human habitats resulting into the conflict. Experts say that the leopards have got urbanized on the 20 to 25 kilometer long stretch of the Karewa (Wodder) in Badgam over the years. Since this Karewa is vegetated, it gives required cover to the animals. Leopards don’t necessarily need huge jungles to live in. They would live anywhere subject some cover and food availability. The leopards living in the Karewa vegetation find their food easily in terms of dogs. The dog population is always growing in nearby areas due to the mismanagement of solid waste. That means these leopards have both the required things —the cover and food — available here.
The conflict is also triggered by the massive deforestation, construction of roads and infrastructure projects to the encroachment of wildlife habitats by humans. The greed and longing for more resources by humans have led to the loss of wildlife habitat. To ensure the safety of both humans and animals, we must stop the further destruction of forest areas and do away with diverting forest land for developmental projects. While people and the administration should avoid interfering with the natural habitat of wild animals, the Wild Life Department should be provided ample work force and modern technology so that the conflict is minimized. To monitor the movement of wild animals, the department should install CTV cameras in all potential areas and have a close communication with the populace there. The concerned department and common people should work hand-in-hand to ensure safety of both humans as well as wild animals. | https://thekashmirimages.com/2021/09/21/tackling-human-wild-animal-conflict/ |
Bhubaneswar: One of the biggest casualties of cyclone Fani has been the green cover of the areas hit by it. Destruction of trees in cities like Bhubaneswar and Puri has been massive, making large areas completely bare of any kind of foliage. The capital city, one of the greenest in the country, must have lost thousands of trees of all sizes. Some of these trees were pretty old and their replacement seems virtually impossible.
The cyclone has also taken a huge toll on wildlife sanctuaries like Chandaka and Konark-Balukhand situated in the backyard of Bhubaneswar and Puri respectively. Chandaka has always acted as the green lung of the state capital where pollution has been growing for past sometime, thanks to a massive increase in vehicular traffic and operation of stone crushers on its outskirts.
So Bhubaneswar has been lucky to have Chandaka in its backyard. The Nandan Kanan zoological park, one of the major tourist attractions of the state capital, was, in fact, carved out of Chandaka forest. This is the reason this park is rated as one of the most natural animal parks in the country.
So any loss of greenery in Chandaka is also bound to have its impact on Nandan Kanan which is already a victim of mindless construction activity around it. Environmentalists in the past have raised the issue of clearing of trees in the vicinity of Nandan Kanan for the construction of high rise apartments and the impact of the resultant heat on the park.
Chandaka sanctuary is not only an elephant habitat it is also home to several other species of wildlife. The animals cannot survive without tree cover and any destruction of the forest canopy would result in their straying out of their habitat and entering areas of human habitation.
As it is Chandaka has become notorious for elephant raids on human habitations around it. In the recent past these animals have also been found roaming residential colonies in the outer areas of the state capital. They have been destroying houses and blocking roads. The blow dealt to the sanctuary by cyclone Fani could result in an increase in this phenomenon.
Very soon we may even find gangs of monkeys, rendered homeless by the cyclone, raiding areas in Bhubaneswar. They have even otherwise been frequent visitors but now they would be more visible than ever in our balconies and on the top of our houses as hordes of them would be out of the forests scouring for food.
One can also imagine the plight of wild animals, especially spotted deer, in the Konark-Balukhand sanctuary. Herds of them had reportedly gone missing in the wake of the cyclone that has caused massive destruction to the area’s tree cover. Good news is that they have been traced and are reported to be safe but any such natural disaster has a long term impact on wildlife.
As the state counts its losses in the wake of Fani the authorities need to pay special attention to the destruction of greenery and try to find ways of restoring it. | https://odishatv.in/odisha/op-ed-restoring-lost-greenery-a-herculean-task-370893 |
The gray whales belongs to the family Eschrichtidae and have baleen plates which are used to filter out crustaceans and fish from sediment found at the bottom of the ocean. Hence the gray whale is also known as the 'bottom feeder.' These animals are well known for the long migration routes they take annually. Their migratory route takes them the breadth of the Japanese Archipelago to their feeding and breeding areas, usually located in shallow coastal waters of the North Pacific and Arctic Oceans. The migratory route of the gray whale can cover as much as 20 000 kilometers. They may congregate in pods ranging from a few to about 18. Whaling inflicted a heavy toll on these animals. The North Atlantic population was wiped out while the Californian population dwindled to a few hundred by the early 20th century. Due to this close call a total ban on the hunting of the gray whale was implemented in 1946, though a small number of gray whales were still caught by Makah and Chukotko people for subsistence purposes. On the western side of the north Pacific, known as the Okhotsk-Korean population or 'western gray whale', it was thought that they were extinct, but recent evidence suggests a small population still exists, but may number as few as 100. Despite this recovery the ray whale is still plagued with various forms of human disturbances which include collision with boats, fishing gear entanglements, and pollution as well as habitat destruction around coastal areas. Recent oil & gas development at Northern Sakhalin Island, led by Shell & Sakhalin Energy, has deprived this critically endangered whale of its feeding ground. | http://ika-net.jp/en/ikan-guide-to-whales/39-baleenwhale/224-gray-whale-eschrichtius-robustus?tmpl=component&print=1&layout=default&page= |
Some experts in fishery have described waste activities such as plastic pollution as the major challenges affecting fish migration in the country.
The experts spoke during a Zoom discussion to mark the 2020 edition of the World Fish Migration Day in Lagos on Tuesday, October 27, 2020.
Dr Williams Akanbi of the Department of Fisheries Resources, Nigerian Institute for Oceanography and Marine Research, said that plastic pollution revolved around the reduction, re-use and recycling of plastic bottles.
He said that there was the need for the country to refrain from the single use of plastic products to save some fish species from extinction.
He added, “There is the need for attitudinal change on the part of Nigerians.”
Akambi said that the country should restructure its dams or take steps toward removing dams that were not properly located.
He said that proper Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) must be done on projects under construction such as dams to determine their effects on the river systems or waterways.
“We need to have a rethink; we need to consider creating fish migration passages. There is the need for effective waste management system in the interest of migratory fishes,” he said.
Also speaking, Dr Exellence Akeredolu of the Department of Zoology, University of Lagos, said that special groups of fishes used to move from one part of the world to another in search of feeding and breeding sites.
“A large population of these fish species are on the decline due to human activities such as pollution and damming of rivers.
“These activities have led to the blockage, entrapment and death of these species.
“These fish species contribute nutritionally and economically to human well-being, so steps must be taken to protect them,” he said.
Akeredolu, who said that dams are used for agricultural purposes such as irrigation, water supply and hydro-electric power, added that they should only be constructed on suitable sites.
“Dams should only be constructed after a comprehensive Environmental Impact Assessment has been carried out to ensure their suitability on the construction site.
“Old and abandoned dams should be removed to allow free swimming way for fishes, newly constructed dams should be regulated,” he said.
In his contribution, Prof. Adetola Jenyo-Oni of the Department of Aquaculture and Fisheries Management, University of Ibadan, stated that fishes migrate from one location to another for spawning, feeding and due to climatic changes.
He said that the obstacles to fish migration could be both natural and human-induced, adding that “activities such as dam creation, habitat degradation, pollution, environmental conditions and poor water quality affect fish migration”.
Dr Kerry Brink, Consultant to the World Fish Migration Foundation based in the Netherlands, also described indiscriminate construction of dams as inimical to fish migration.
He cautioned against the use of unregulated fishing nets to avoid over exploitation of migratory fishes.
The World Fish Migration Day, aimed at creating awareness on migratory fishes, is celebrated annually on May 16, but it was shifted to Oct. 27 following the outbreak of Coronavirus pandemic in the country in March. | https://www.environewsnigeria.com/experts-decry-impact-of-plastic-pollution-on-fish-migration/ |
The issue of rapid animal extinction is the sore subject of our time. In order to protect the big apes, the Mountain Gorilla Conservation Fund (MGCF) has been instituted. Its core objective is to preserve the highly endangered animals living in Central Africa and parts of Uganda and Rwanda. In an effort to preserve the gorillas, the MGCF has taken a proactive initiative to start up projects aimed at saving few species for the other generations to enjoy the animal diversity (Cranfield & Lowenstine, 2010). Their aim has been fostered by close cooperation with the local residents, partnering with other conservative agencies and getting support from the community development initiatives. Involving the locals in the whole conservation process requires building a good rapport with them. This has remarkably reduced the incidences of poaching and destruction of natural habitats where the animals live.
The MGCF has also collaborated with the local leaders in order to draw attention of the community to the significance of preservation of the natural habitat and maintaining the ecosystem in its original state. This was done to promote a peaceful co-existence between the local residents and the mountain gorillas living in the same area without having conflicts of interest (Cranfield & Lowenstine, 2010).
The aspect of partnering with other wildlife conservative agencies and like-minded organizations enables MGCF to get a sufficient support needed to actualize its projects. They are aimed at safeguarding the territories of animal habitat and guarantee their survival despite the various challenges. Owing to the valuable assistance, the organization has established zoning in some areas where humans are not allowed to settle and cleared the vegetation in an effort to protect the gorillas.
Figure 1 The Giant Ape – Mountain Gorilla
Challenges to Conservation
Scientific research on these species of animals has demonstrated that they are highly susceptible to diseases such as Ebola hemorrhagic fever and other human related illnesses. For this reason, it is important for the mountain gorillas to be carefully monitored by veterinary doctors and other animal specialists in order to eradicate the incidence of disease among the population. It has also been noted that human encroachment has substantially increased the number of sickness cases among the species. The MGCF has been monitoring the population and carry out surveillance with medical doctors to assess the health and wellbeing of the gorillas. Those that appear sick and unstable are quarantined and sufficiently attended before being released back to the wild. As it was mentioned before, the mountain gorillas of Congo and Gabon are largely affected by zoonotic diseases of humans such as Ebola and scabies (Cranfield & Lowenstine, 2010). For instance, the population of the apes was found to decrease concurrently with the outbreak of human diseases. The examination of the carcasses showed positive tests for Ebola confirming the fact that gorillas are susceptible to human diseases. This report made it imperative for the human population to be distant from the animal habitat in order to reduce the spread of diseases (Cranfield & Lowenstine, 2010).
Human activities such as poaching, mining, deforestation, and settlement have been the biggest challenge to the conservation groups. They are a major threat to the survival of the species though there are harsh penalties and stringent laws against such actions. Organizations and groups on conservation of wildlife have been lobbying for strict legislative laws against poachers and trespassers in order to curb the menace and preserve endangered species. The local residents used to be fond hunting gorillas for meat that largely affected the population number. Over the decades, the intervention of the Mountain Gorilla Conservation Funds and other related groups have brought poaching to zero level in the highly guarded areas of Virunga Conservation zone.
Other activities such as mining prospects in DRC essentially disrupt the original habitat and hence affect the gorilla population. The destruction of the natural surroundings exposes the gorillas to changing their usual environment that negatively impacts the population and reduces their numbers remarkably. Mining coltan in Kahuzi-Biega National Park has led to a drastic decline in gorilla population as a result of the noise pollution and habitat modification (Begley, et al., 2007). The MGCF has been on the watch to regulate such activities trying to protect the degradation of the environment and disruption of the ecosystem.
Habitat loss and modification largely influenced the survival of the gorillas owing to the fact that recent human activities have encroached into their environment, hence displacing them. Statistics says that only 20% of the gorillas live on the protected territories in the unaltered ecosystem and are safe from the extermination while the remaining 80% are in grave danger (Harcourt, 2013). Mountain gorillas are however, protected. As it was documented in the census of 2011, only about 900 mountain gorillas were left in the wild due to the rampant deforestation and the ever-growing human population. The forest where the apes lived was fertile and high in biodiversity that attracted people who later banished the animals (Begley, et al., 2007).
The over increasing human population in the African countries has largely curtailed the efforts of the conservative groups in protecting the natural habitats from the encroachment. The population is continuously increasing, and the land available for settlement is growing smaller. The residents are forced to clear forest cover for settlement and agriculture purposes. This has largely modified the natural habitats and significantly reduced biodiversity in the general ecosystem. This situation has piled pressure on the conservative groups such as MGCF who cannot stop the intrusion of the human population into the forests where mountain gorillas live. Hence, the animals are slowly displaced regardless of the initiatives set forth to protect the areas from settlement. The ever-increasing problem of food shortage has further complicated the plan as people seek fertile grounds for cultivation. This has resulted in deforestation and clearance of vast areas of vegetation. It is evident that local people have come to appreciate mountain gorillas and understand the importance of saving them, but logically, their survival comes first. That is why they will do anything to provide themselves with shelter and food. This has posed a major challenge and setback in the whole conservation process.
Possible Remedies
Economic value has to be attached to the gorillas so that the local people may realize their significance to the community and the country as a whole. This is important in an effort to curb residents from pursuing the animals for meat. Educating the population lies in ensuring them to appreciate the wild life and become actively involved in the conservation projects. World aid and development companies ought to take part in the initiative by funding other organizations such as Mountain Gorilla Conservation Fund in order to spearhead these programs. It is also important to empower them to have sufficient resources needed to safeguard the endangered species from exploitation and eventual extinction. The governments of the Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda and Uganda need to be on the front line in fostering for conservation measures and put in place policies that protect big apes and promote conservative programs and initiatives. The authorities should support groups and associations aimed at protecting wild life and creating a harmonious understanding between people and animals (Scull et al., 2012).
In order to effectively conserve the gorilla population and guarantee sustainability for their population, it is essential to seek a support from the public domain. The Mountain Gorilla Conservative Fund will only achieve their mandate when they get enough assistance from the public domain. The organization has many projects and programs that need to be carried out. They mostly rely on grants and donations, so when the funding goes down their activities also get slow. It is imperative for the locals to understand the intrinsic value that comes with the conservation measures. It is also important to promote local tourism as the international tourists will come to have a glimpse on these noble apes. It is hence important for the public and private sectors, as well as to the general public domain, to assist in raising funds for the MGCF. It should be done in order to run the programs that guarantee conservation of the species and their growth in number to self-sustaining levels that will live to future generations (Begley, et al., 2007).
Conclusion
It is important to note that the MGCF has played an instrumental role in an effort to ensure effective conservation of the mountain gorillas over the years. It has worked with people in the various national parks and in the wild to ensure that the big apes increase in number. Under the leadership of Ruth Keesling, the population of the mountain gorillas has grown from 248 in 1987 to 880 today, living in the wild courtesy of the Mountain Gorilla Conservation Fund. This is a clear show of the great initiative funded by the organization. | https://goldessays.com/mountain-gorilla-conservation-fund/ |
The Earth is the only planet man can ever call home. Therefore, he must love and take care of it. This is the place where plants and animals thrive, its atmosphere and its terrain providing what man needs in order to live. When man refuses to acknowledge his responsibility to care for nature, destruction occurs.
As far as we know, Earth is the only planet that has life. But since humans developed cities and industries, the modern lifestyle has changed.
Man has been using and misusing natural resources up to the limit. Now we are tearing up remote corners of the planet looking for crude oil and coal, and our forests and wild animals are disappearing.
Our environment is totally polluted: Hence we are suffering from diseases. As a result of human activities, the ozone layer has a hole, the sea is rising, and the ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland are melting.
Now global warming is warning us that climate change is not a hoax and it is coming. Mother Earth is in danger; life on Earth is in danger. Let us come together to save our life-giving and life-saving Mother Earth. Save this beautiful Earth!
Save the Forest The evolution of people and animals was only possible because of plants. Plants are the base of the food chain and the source of energy for almost all life on Earth.
Forests are ancient, mature communities of plants and animals, with homes and places for thousands of species. Forests give us oxygen, food, shelter, medicines, fuel, and furniture. Forests protect us from the heat of the sun, and from wind, cold, and rain.
Forests maintain the balance of nature, the environment, the climate, the weather, and the composition of the atmosphere. As a matter of fact, forests are our life. But what are we doing? We are destroying the forests, meaning we are destroying our life and our future. All the problems we face today are made worse by deforestation.
If we are thinking beings, we must save plants and forests, because they save us.
Our Earth belongs to all living things, if it belongs to any of them. But we overpowered many species and killed them for our use. Now thousands of species are extinct because their habitat is gone.
As a matter of fact, these animals, birds, and insects have actually built a better environment for us, provided us with so many things: We are here on Earth because they are here on Earth.
If they are gone, we will also be gone. So the only wise thing to do is to save wildlife and its habitat. Save the Environment Through deforestation, urbanization, industrialization, and pollution, our environment is being destroyed.
Flows of energy, nutrients, and other elements are disrupted. Global warming and climate change are the major threats to Earth and all human beings. Due to carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases emitted by civilization, heat is building up in the atmosphere at a rate not seen for tens of millions of years.
Levels of air pollution, water pollution, noise pollution, and food contamination are high. Human interference has brought nature close to destruction. Now we all must come together to prevent pollution and save the environment and humankind.
Pollution is on high alert Truly Global Destruction All these environmental changes are warnings of global destruction. Now we all must become aware of these consequences. The evidence is disturbing: What Can People Do?Jan 03, · How to Protect Environment Essay Sample # Get Custom Essay From Price 5% Discount Code Review Website; 1: Sometimes people forget how we depend on nature and environment surrounding us.
must be made on governmental level and provide legal limitations for industries that emit a lot of greenhouse rutadeltambor.com must unite together in order to /5(3).
Mar 20, · Save Mother Earth: An Essay. Updated on October 17, Suresh Chopane noise pollution, and food contamination are high. Human interference has brought nature close to destruction. Now we all must come together to prevent pollution and save the environment and humankind and the many things that we can do to protect the environment Reviews: Jun 12, · How to Take Action to Preserve Nature.
Being concerned about the environment can feel overwhelming, but there are actions that you can take to help preserve the natural world. Start by finding ways to protect the landbase and waterways in 82%(80).
People often take nature for granted just because it is everywhere. Seeing nature is different from observing it. Hearing it is not the same as listening to it. Walking within it is nothing like feeling it.
Experiencing nature is one of the best things that can happen to you. People spend most of their time watching television or surfing the internet. Protecting Nature.
Why should we protect nature? Earth is our home and we have to love it. In earth are things humans needed but they destroy them and never worry about it. “Many animals are in extinction because of earth destruction.” (Charman, 1) Animals are disappearing since people don’t save nature.
We must protect nature to conserve peoples' wellbeing Research shows the positive effect of nature on health and happiness. So why does environment remain on the margins of debate? | https://gafygequhakatumuj.rutadeltambor.com/we-must-protect-the-nature-essay-5713hc.html |
In Australia, when one thinks of the greatest female athlete, names like Cathy Freeman, Sally Pearson, Sam Kerr and Elysse Perry, come to mind. Their stories of battling it out against the worlds best in their respective sports is well-documented and covered globally. Their aspirations and challenges to reach the pedestal that they are placed on are talked about by fans and casual sports viewers alike.
However, arguably, Australia’s greatest athletes amongst both men and women, to ever play a sport, is the former professional squash player, Heather McKay. And she is undoubtedly Australia’s greatest female athlete.
Outside of squash circles, Heather McKay is not that well known, even within Australia itself.
While Australian icon, Geoff Hunt, was beating every Pakistani, who faced him in the finals of the British Open (until Jahangir Khan), Heather McKay won a remarkable, 16-straight British Opens.
To get a sense of her skills and ability, think of a tennis player winning 16 consecutive Grand Slams. Yes, that was Heather McKay.
READ: Donna Lobban on playing squash at the Optimal level.
Her father, an avid sportsman and baker, inspired and influenced her, a chain-smoker from Queanbeyan in New South Wales, Australia, to invest her time in sports.
It was the legendary Hashim Khan, who first stated to the Canberra Press while touring Australia, that Heather McKay was very much on her way to becoming a good squash player. This is something she never forgot, eventually playing an exhibition game with Khan in his senior years
However, her first choice was not the game of squash, rather she played tennis and field hockey until she eventually found squash to build her fitness, and then became the Australian champion, 12 months later, and dominated the world circuit for years to come.
To add to this, she was also a member of the Australian women’s hockey team during her squash career and won several racquetball tournaments, while taking up tennis again in her older age and winning world veterans tennis championships.
She won her first British Open in 1962, defeating British player, Fran Marshall, who she went onto beat in the finals of 1963 and 1964. Interestingly, Marshall was only of two players, and the last one, to have beaten McKay in a professional game (with the other one being her loss to Yvonne West in 1960).
Richard Eaton referred to her as “very strong-minded, making her focused, ruthless, and consistent. It made her conspicuously self-possessed too, creating a formidable on-court presence.”
She made up for what she lacked in size, with intense physical prowess and rapid speed that often overwhelmed her opponents. What was even more incredible, perhaps, was the fact that there were no sports development programmes for athletes, how they exist today, during her time.
READ: Promoting the game, its future & squash in Australia with Geoff Hunt
Upon being asked about these programmes by Pat Dobrez for the Bulletin, in 2001, Heather McKay responded ‘there was none of that: physiology, psychology, nutrition: no. I always say, and laugh about it: for fifteen, sixteen years, I had steak and salad before I played. Four or five hours before I played … So, no: we had very little help.’
After her 16th British Open win against Barbara Wall in 1977, she never competed in the British Open again. However, in 1979, she returned to win her second World Championship and retired from the game soon after that.
Over the course of her career and long after it, accolades followed.
Believe it or not, in 1967 she became the 4th woman to receive the ABC Sportsman of the year award (ironic, yes).
She also received various awards and recognitions, such as the MBE, Order of Australia, AO, and was honoured as an inductee in the Squash Hall of Fame and even the USA Racquetball Hall of Fame.
Her influence on growing the sport has been enormous, and she dedicated a lifetime of working with famous players and organisations to make sure that squash became bigger, better and for what it was worth, appealing to new and old audiences.
Alas, she may have succeeded on the court and set in stone the future of squash’s growing popularity, but today, she is not celebrated in Australia or even in most of the squash world, the same way that other athletes are.
A tragedy or perhaps a lack of appreciation, whichever it may be. At 79, Heather McKay is, without a doubt, the greatest female athlete from Australia, to play a sport, and arguably its greatest athlete ever. | https://www.sportageous.co/australia-greatest-female-athlete-heather-mckay/ |
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