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- Identify a ‘real-world’ sustainability issue or area of interest. Work out how the campus can be used as a test bed, decide on the central focus of a project and identify what the desired outputs/outcomes are. - Identify key stakeholders at the earliest possible stage and how the project will be interdisciplinary collaboration. Consider and discuss the practicalities of a collaboration, what working together would mean for all parties, time commitments and how the outputs/outcomes would benefit them. - A Leeds Living Lab project should meet as many as possible (ideally all) of the key principles outlined below. - Assess the project’s potential as both a learning opportunity (research and/or teaching) and as something that can result in useful solutions for stakeholders. Consider who the beneficiaries of the project will be. - Make sure that existing data you will need is available and/or that new data can be generated within the specified timeframe. - Consider what funding you might need and identify sources available to you. - It might be more difficult identifying stakeholders who are willing or able to collaborate on a project due to time commitments or different working approaches (for instance, in the case of attending focus groups or workshops). It can be useful to have a backup plan. - Contact the Sustainability Service to make us aware that your project is taking place and for more information or advice. Consider how your proposal can include each of these principles: - Does it align with the key aims and themes of the University’s Strategic Plan and underpin delivery of the Sustainability Strategy? Will it also support the University’s Global Challenges? - Is it about people, processes and infrastructure, drawing on the cultural and social sciences as well as the STEM subjects? - Does it integrate sustainability-related research, student education and University operations? - Will the project identify, test and embed transformational solutions to ‘real world’ sustainability challenges whilst being scalable, replicable and transferable to our cities and regions? - Will it drive experimental learning, enhanced participation and opportunities for outreach and engagement through co-creation and co-implemented campus-based solutions? - Is it interdisciplinary and delivered in partnership with internal and external stakeholders for mutual benefit, to increase impact and to enhance shared knowledge and action? - Will it build knowledge and capacity by playing a leading role in the global debate and development of sustainable living labs? Stakeholders The Living Lab project is a great way to increase stakeholder engagement, co-creation, collaboration and participation. The Sustainability Service can help to identify and engage potential stakeholders if you are not already in contact with them. Academic staff and students: consider whether it is possible to work directly with operational staff to help identify sustainability improvements to the University. These may benefit the environment, community, staff, students etc. Operational and professional staff: identify if there are researchers that will be available to collaborate to bring about sustainability improvements and/or solve operational challenges. Outputs/Outcomes Leeds Living Lab projects bring together students, academic and operational teams to research and test sustainable solutions, enhance the curriculum and solve real world challenges using the University as a test bed. Academic staff and students are often looking for an interesting problem or question to research, whilst operational colleagues tend to be looking for a practical solution or innovation to resolve specific challenges. Properly planned Living Lab projects will always deliver valuable outputs but cannot guarantee a solution to a specific operational problem e.g. the research may demonstrate that the challenge is more complex than initially thought, so therefore lead to further research or recommendations for alternative approaches. All parties should discuss their desired outputs/outcomes early on and come to an understanding of what the project can realistically accomplish. Remember: consider how the project addresses the University’s Strategic Plan and Sustainability Strategy as well as the University’s Global Challenges. University Services and operational teams – reflect on your work, processes and procedures. What challenges do you face? What environmental or social/community impacts do you have? Where could researchers help to identify and develop new solutions or innovative working practices? The list may well be long but remember that to engage academic collaboration the project will need to be interesting and important e.g. is it relevant and scalable to other organisations? If you are unsure then if a project meets these requirements a good place to start can be with an early conversation with an academic colleague. Academic staff and students – research questions may well arise from gaps in the literature, evolution of previous projects or indeed your general interest areas. However, it is key to review industry reports and discuss your project ideas with operational practitioners to ensure that is relevant and can offer a needed solution to a known challenge. Think carefully about how the outputs/outcomes will be scalable, transferrable and replicable. Beneficiaries Highlight who the beneficiaries are from the outset. Consider whether there are learning opportunities for research and/or teaching. Can your project be a learning opportunity as well as a valuable solution for stakeholders? What is the mutual benefit of the project to all stakeholders? Timescales Consider the timescales you are going to work to and identify proposed start and end dates. It is useful to discuss this with key stakeholders as different parties will often operate on different timescales. It can be sensible to agree on timescales and deadlines with all stakeholders and put this in writing in a project plan. Operational staff may work on a shorter-term basis with clearly defined targets and strict project deadlines and are therefore keen for solutions within a short time frame. Depending on the project, academic staff might be working within longer timescales – sometimes over several years – because of funding. Students carrying out Living Lab projects will usually only be working on these for a few months or even just a few weeks depending on whether this is coursework or their final dissertation. Data Identify where there is an opportunity to gather or analyse data that supports delivery of the University’s Sustainability Strategy. Highlight any known data requirements for the project early, including exactly what type of data is needed, whether the data is available and/or what data can actually be collected. Funding Consider proposed funding arrangements and try to clearly establish these early on. Identify appropriate funding sources and speak to the Sustainability Service about any funding already identified/secured. Where possible we aim to help those applying for external funding to demonstrate research impact through the principals of interdisciplinary Living Lab projects. The Living Lab can financially support some projects, including match funding, seed funding or small grants, so it is worth considering whether this could help make the project happen. The amount of funding is dependent on the scale of the project, its outcomes, and other sources of funding available. Please highlight any funding needs at the earliest possible stage. Collaboration Collaboration is at the core of the Living Lab, so think carefully about how the project could integrate relationships between research, student education and University operations. Remember, researchers and different stakeholders are coming together to tackle real world challenges in a Living Lab project. It is important that clear communication as different parties have different approaches. Mutually agree on what can realistically be achieved with the project. Highlight the priorities and constraints for each stakeholder. Interdisciplinary Projects based in real-life settings offer the chance to collaborate with researchers from different disciplines. It might be worth considering whether multiple researchers could concurrently investigate various aspects of an issue to provide solutions and recommendations based on their different skills, perspectives and specialisms. Successful interdisciplinary collaboration requires the researchers involved to be aware and understanding of each other’s approaches, methodologies and evaluation criteria. Sharing your research It is helpful to consider at an early stage how findings and recommendations will be shared with relevant stakeholders as well as the Sustainability Service.	https://sustainability.leeds.ac.uk/formulating-a-project/
Dear Colleagues: SCOPE The U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) and the French Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR) have signed an agreement on Research Cooperation. The agreement provides an overarching framework to encourage collaboration between U.S. and French research communities and sets out the principles by which jointly supported activities might be developed. The agreement is a lead agency opportunity whereby collaborative proposals between U.S. and French researchers are submitted to only the lead agency for review, and the partner agency agrees to accept the review. Based on the lead agency review of collaborative proposals, NSF and ANR will make joint funding decisions to support meritorious collaborative projects. The lead agency opportunity allows for reciprocal acceptance of merit review through unsolicited mechanisms with the goal of reducing some of the current barriers to international collaborations. The NSF Division of Molecular and Cellular Biosciences in the Directorate for Biological Sciences and Division of Physics in the Directorate for Mathematical and Physical Sciences (NSF/BIO and NSF/PHY) and the ANR are pleased to announce topical areas associated with the lead agency opportunity. In FY 2022 (October 2021-September 2022), NSF will serve as the lead agency for all proposals. It is expected that NSF and ANR will alternate as lead agency in subsequent years. FY 2022 NOTICE OF INTENTIONS The lead agency opportunity allows U.S. and French researchers to submit a single proposal describing a project involving U.S. and French researchers, that will undergo a single review process by the lead agency, on behalf of NSF/MCB, NSF/PHY and ANR. In FY 2022, proposals will be accepted for U.S.-France collaborative projects in the areas of intersection between NSF/MCB, NSF/PHY and some of the research themes covered by the ANR's Generic call for proposals, 2022 edition G, as set out in this Dear Colleague Letter. Proposals must address the priorities of each of the participating entities: ANR, NSF/MCB and NSF/PHY. Proposers must provide a clear rationale for the need for a U.S.-France collaboration, including the unique expertise and synergy that the collaborating groups will bring to the project. Proposers should note that the lead agency opportunity does not represent a new source of funding. Proposals will be assessed in competition with all others submitted to the priority areas and agency programs identified in this DCL, and outcomes will be subject to both success in merit review and the availability of funds from NSF/MCB, NSF/PHY and ANR. Proposals relevant to the following priority areas and agency programs are eligible to apply for the lead agency opportunity in FY 2022. Physics from Molecules to Cells The emergence, evolution, dynamics and function of self-organized cellular systems stem from the interaction of biological components and the environment to yield robust, resilient and adaptive living systems. Through this DCL, NSF and ANR seek proposals that use multidisciplinary approaches that emphasize quantitative, predictive and theory driven science aimed at understanding mechanisms underlying these essential life processes at the molecular, subcellular and cellular scales. We are seeking proposals that integrate approaches from theoretical and experimental physics and biology to develop testable and quantitative understanding of biological questions. Projects providing innovative methodological or conceptual approaches to a biological question together with a strong theoretical physics component are strongly encouraged. Purely descriptive projects without predictive quantitative components are of low priority. Projects that leverage unique resources and capabilities of partners in the U.S. and France will be given priority. Projects that focus on the etiology and pathogenesis of disease and projects that focus on tissue or organismal level problems are not appropriate for NSF/MCB and, therefore, would not be appropriate for this lead agency opportunity. PROPOSAL PREPARATION AND SUBMISSION - Proposers submit a research proposal in accordance with the proposal preparation requirements of NSF: NSF Proposal & Award Policies & Procedures Guide (PAPPG). Proposals should be submitted to: NSF 21-593 Division of Physics: Investigator-Initiated Research Projects. The deadline for proposals is December 14, 2021. While proposals are submitted to NSF/PHY, they will be jointly reviewed by PHY and MCB. - The proposal should include a description of the full proposed research program and research team. The Project Summary and Project Description of the proposal must include a description of the collaboration, including an explanation of the role(s) of the French collaborator(s) and an explanation of how the team will work together. - NSF proposers should indicate only the U.S. expenses on the NSF budget form. Expenses for the French collaborator should be included in the "Supplementary Document" section of the NSF proposal. The ANR budget form should be used for the French budget and budget justification. - The proposal should indicate that the proposal is to be considered under this Lead Agency Opportunity by prefacing the title with "NSF-ANR". - If the proposal is arranged as separate submission from multiple U.S. organizations, the title of the proposal should begin with "Collaborative Research:" followed by "NSF-ANR". Do not check "Collaborative" proposal unless more than one U.S.-based organization will be submitting the same proposal for separate funding (i.e., the "Collaborative" check box only applies if there is more than one collaborating organization on the U.S. side, each submitting the same proposal). - French investigators should not be listed as co-PIs on the NSF Cover Sheet; French personnel should instead be listed as "non-NSF funded Collaborators". This listing is for administrative purposes and is not intended to characterize the level or value of contribution of French personnel to the project. Guidance on information to provide for "non-NSF funded Collaborators" is below. - Biographical Sketch - Required. The biographical information must be clearly identified as "non-NSF funded Collaborators" biographical information and uploaded as a single PDF file in the Other Supplementary Documents section of the proposal. Use of a specific format is not required. - Collaborators and Other Affiliations (COA) Information - Optional but requested. The COA information should be provided through the use of the COA template, identified as "non-NSF funded Collaborators" COA information and uploaded as a PDF file in the Single Copy Documents section of the proposal. - Current and Pending Support - Not required. - Results of Prior Research - Not required. - The French institution must submit a proposal with the identical Project Description, with any required additional information to ANR, via the ANR submission system (https://anr.fr/fr/appels/). - The same scientific project proposal as that submitted to NSF, in the same format. The French coordinator is subject to the rules (in particular of eligibility) to which all national scientific coordinators of the 2022 Generic call for proposals must comply (see AAPG 2022 Guide, § B.5.2. Eligibility of full proposals). Please note, the acronym and title of the project provided to each agency must be the same. - The administrative and funding information linked to both French and foreign partners must be filled in on the submission site's online form. The minimum information expected concerning foreign partners is: the name of the Institute, its category (private/public), and the information concerning the foreign coordinator (country referent). Only the amount of requested funding by foreign partners must be stated in the online form (via simplified entry only). Detailed information is expected from the French partners. - A scientific panel responsible for the scientific monitoring of the project in case of success (description of the scientific panels is available in the AAPG 2022 text). Please note: this choice cannot be changed once the closing date and time has passed. - Proposals that are inappropriate for funding by NSF or ANR or are not responsive to this funding opportunity will be returned without review. Proposers should review the Introduction section of the PAPPG for a general description of research topics normally outside the scope of NSF funding, such as disease, clinical, or drug related or other biomedically related research. MERIT REVIEW & AWARDS Merit Review - Proposals will be reviewed in competition with other unsolicited proposals or with proposals received in response to a specific call by the lead funding agency (that is, proposals submitted to the Lead Agency Opportunity will not undergo a special review process). - Proposals will be reviewed in accordance with the lead agency's review criteria, in this case NSF's merit review criteria. While not identical, the NSF/PHY, NSF/MCB and ANR ask reviewers to evaluate the proposed project on both its scientific or intellectual merit as well as its broader or societal impacts. A description of the NSF merit review process is provided on the NSF merit review website at: http://www.nsf.gov/bfa/dias/policy/merit_review/index.jsp. A description of the ANR assessment process is provided in the Generic Call for proposals text and its Guide as well as in the annex dedicated to the ANR - NSF/PHY, NSF/MCB collaboration. Funding Decision - After the reviews are received, program directors from the lead and non-lead agencies will discuss the potential outcomes. Afterwards, the lead agency will use its usual internal procedures to determine whether a proposal will be awarded or declined. In the case of NSF, an award requires a formal recommendation by the Program Officer and then concurrence by the cognizant Division Director. NSF's Division of Grants and Agreements will review the proposal from a business and financial perspective. NSF funding decisions are subject to the availability of funds. Only the NSF Grants Officer can make commitments on behalf of the Foundation or authorize the expenditure of funds. In the case of the ANR, funding recommendations from Panels are received by Research Council Officers who, taking into account the availability of funds, will fund those proposals recommended for funding in the order identified by the Panel. - Proposers will be advised whether their proposal has been recommended for funding or will be declined by the lead funding agency. Proposers will receive copies of the unattributed reviewers' comments and, where applicable, a panel summary. - Once a proposer has been notified of a pending award, the non-lead researcher(s) associated with the project must submit a copy of the proposal to the non-lead agency so that each agency has complete documentation of the overall proposed research project. - If a proposal is recommended for funding, the U.S. organization(s) will be supported by NSF/PHY and/or NSF/MCB, and the French organization(s) will be supported by ANR. NSF/PHY, NSF/MCB and ANR staff will review budgets to ensure that there are no duplications in funding. - Because the participating organizations have different funding cycles, it is possible that some projects will have delayed start dates in order to wait until funds become available. Award Conditions and Reporting Requirements - NSF and ANR will clearly state in award notices and any related documents that awards resulting from this activity were made possible by funding from this ANR -NSF/PHY/MCB Lead Agency activity. - Awardees will be expected to comply with the award conditions and reporting requirements of the agencies from which they receive funding. - Researchers will be required to acknowledge both NSF and ANR in any reports or publications arising from the grant. - Requests for extensions will be considered by the funding agency using standard procedures. Requests for changes to awards will be discussed with other involved funding agencies before a mutual decision is reached. Timeline for Submissions Full proposals \| \| NSF/PHY \| \| December 14, 2021 (due by 5 p.m. submitter's local time) \| \| ANR Registration \| \| December 15, 2021 (due by 5 p.m. Paris time) Contacts Wilson Francisco, [email protected] Krastan Blagoev, [email protected] Joanne S. Tornow, Ph.D. Assistant Director Directorate for Biological Sciences Sean L. Jones, Ph.D.	https://www.nsf.gov/pubs/2021/nsf21120/nsf21120.jsp?org=NSF
AUC-ROC Curve: Visually Explained In any machine learning problem, evaluating a model is as important as building one. Without evaluation, the whole process of formulating the business problem and creating a machine model for it goes in vain. In one of the previous articles, I have mentioned about the critical aspects of the Confusion Matrix. ROC (Receiver Operating Characteristic) curve is also one such tool to determine the suitability of a classification model. It is a curve that can help us understand how well we can distinguish between two similar responses (e.g., an email is spam or not). These responses vary based on the business problem we are trying to solve. Hence a proper understanding of what ROC Curve is can make our work more comfortable at times. “ROC curve represents the extent of …” Better models can accurately distinguish between the two responses, whereas a poor model will have difficulties in distinguishing between the two. We visually confirm this behavior by studying the Area Under the ROC curve (AUC-ROC). Let us dive into its explanation with a simple example case. Probability Distribution of Responses: Let’s assume we have a model that predicts whether an email is spam or not. Most of the machine learning models provide us propensity (probability) for each email to be spam. This probability distribution can be drawn like this. Note that: - Red distribution represents all the emails which are not spam - Green distribution represents all the emails which are spam - Shaded region represents the extent of the model’s inability to distinguish between the classes - Optimum probability cutoff is chosen to maximize the business objective (detecting spam emails in this case). An optimum probability cutoff is used to segregate between the two responses (Spam or Not Spam) in this case. This decision-making process is represented in the below diagram for a cutoff of (0.5). Theoretically, we can choose this probability cutoff anywhere between 0 and 1. For any such cutoff value, we get a different set of predicted responses. We can build a confusion matrix corresponding to each set of these predictions and hence evaluation metrics are bound to change in this case. This is presented in the below diagram for a cutoff of (0.5). Note that the region of overlap corresponds only to wrong predictions (FP and FN). Till now, we have understood the basic idea of the model predictions using a probability cutoff. Let us now understand how we use this to plot a ROC curve and how we can interpret that. ROC Curve: In the above section, we understood how the results and the confusion matrix could vary based on the threshold we wish to choose for our problem. To study this variation in these error metrics, we plot the ROC-curve. ROC Curve is the graph between True Positive Rate (TPR) and the False Positive Rate (FPR) for different cutoff values, where, True Positive Rate = Sensitivity or Recall False Positive Rate = 1- Specificity As we decrease the probability cutoff, we get more positive responses thus, we increase the sensitivity (TPR) of the model. Meanwhile, this decreases the specificity and hence (1-specificity) or FPR increases. Similarly, as we increase the probability cutoff, we get more negative responses thus, we increase the specificity (FPR decreases) while decreasing sensitivity. In short, when we increase FPR, TPR also increases and vice versa. AUC stands for Area Under the Curve. In this case, it means the Area Under the ROC Curve (AUC-ROC). It is a metric that tells you how separable your positive and negative responses are from each other. This metric varies with the model we choose for the problem in hand. In the above figure, note how the AUC depends upon only the model that we choose. It projects a model’s performance over a landscape of all possible thresholds. Greater the area under this curve (AUC), greater the model’s ability to separate the responses (e.g., Spam and Not Spam). Below figures represents the nature of the curve for different AUC values. Notice how the curve gets flattered with decreasing AUC. In machine learning approaches, our aim revolves around increasing this AUC as much as possible. It is done by choosing a model that maximizes the AUC of this ROC curve. The assimilation of probability distributions with differing cutoff can be summaries in the below animation. This animation explains how the change in probability distributions obtained by different models can lead to a different overlapping region and the corresponding ROC curve. I hope I have given you some basic understanding of what is the AUC-ROC curve. We also learned how we could use it to evaluate any model’s performance and compare it with other similar models.	https://www.newtechdojo.com/auc-roc-curve-visually-explained/
The loss curve is shown just after a model has started training and has completed at least one epoch. The curve marked Training shows the loss calculated on the training data for each epoch. The curve marked Validation shows the loss calculated on the validation data for each epoch. Exactly what the loss curve means depends on which of the loss functions you selected in the Modeling view. This table gives you a hint on what you can do if the model under- or overfits. Example: Your model have a large discrepancy between training and validation losses, then you can try to introduce Dropout and/or Batch normalization blocks to improve generalization, where generalization is the the ability to correctly predict new, previously unseen data points. For image classification, image augmentation may help in some cases. The blog post Bias-Variance Tradeoff in Machine Learning is a nice summary of different things to try depending on your problem. Accuracy is the ratio of correctly classified examples and the total number of classified examples. Higher accuracy is better. The curve marked Training shows the accuracy calculated on the training data set. The curve marked Validation shows the accuracy calculated on the validation data set. A large discrepancy between training and validation accuracy (where the training accuracy is much higher than the validation accuracy) can indicate overfitting, or that the validation data are too different from the training data. If there is a large discrepancy between training and validation accuracy, try to introduce dropout and/or batch normalization blocks to improve generalization. If the training accuracy is low, the model is not learning well enough. Try to build a new model or collect more training data. The area under curve (AUC) metric computes the area under a discretized curve of true positive versus false positive rates, Receiver Operating Characteristic curve. The AUC is used to see how well your classifier can separate positive and negative examples. AUC around 0.5 is the same thing as a random guess. The further away the AUC is from 0.5, the better. If AUC is below 0.5, then you may need to invert the decision your model is making. AUC = 1 means the prediction model is perfect. AUC = 0 is good news because you just need to invert your model’s output to obtain a perfect model. This StackExchange post contains a nice explanation of the AUC. Gradient norm indicates how much your model’s weights are adjusted during training. If gradient norm is high, it means that the weights are being adjusted a lot. If it’s low, it indicates that the model might have reached a local optimum. What proportion of positive predictions was actually correct? The precision of the model ranges from 0 to 100%, where 100% means that all the samples that the model classifies as the positive class are truly positive. Example: If a medical test that has high Precision shows that a patient has a disease, there is a high likelihood that the patient does, in fact, have the disease. However, the test could still fail to identify the presence of the disease in many patients! This is because the Precision is only concerned with positive predictions. False positive is when actual negative is predicted positive. Read more about this in the Confusion matrix entry in the glossary. What proportion of actual positives was predicted correctly? The recall of the model ranges from 0 to 100%, where 100% means that the model correctly classifies all truly positive samples as the positive class. Example: A medical test with high Recall will identify a large proportion of the true disease cases. However, the same test might be over-predicting the positive class and give many false positive predictions! False negative is when actual positive is predicted negative. For models with more than 2 target classes the true positives, false positives, and false negatives are computed for each class independently. This is done by considering the class in question as the positive class and all the other classes as the negative class. In order to compute an overall precision and recall metric over all the classes, we need to average the per-class values. This can be done either by micro-averaging or macro-averaging. Micro-averaging is performed by first calculating the sum of all true positives, false positives, and false negatives, over all the classes. Then we compute the ratio for precision and recall for the sums. Micro-averaged precision and recall values can be high even if the model is performing very poorly on a rare class since it gives more weight to the common classes. Macro-averaging is performed by first computing precision and recall independently for each class, based on the true positives, false positives, and false negatives per class. Then the overall precision and recall are calculated by averaging the per class precision and recall values. Macro-averaged precision and recall values will be low if the model is performing poorly on some of the classes (usually the rare classes), since it weighs each class equally regardless of how common the class is. Macro-averaging is the default aggregation method for precision and recall for single-label multi-class problems. For single-label multi-class problems, micro-averaging would result in both precision and recall being exactly the same as accuracy. That does not provide any additional information about the model’s performance. If the target classes are imbalanced the accuracy is not a very useful metric, since it can be high for models that only focus on predicting correctly the common classes, while performing very poorly on the rare classes. Macro-averaged precision and recall will be low for models that only perform well on the common classes while performing poorly on the rare classes, and therefore a complementary metric to the overall accuracy. Note that you can always check the precision and recall for each individual class in the Confusion matrix on the Evaluation view. For multi-label multi-class models, micro-averaging of precision and recall already provides additional information compared to the overall accuracy. Micro-averaging will put more emphasis on the common classes in the data set, and for multi-label classification, this is usually the preferred behavior. Labels that are very rare in the dataset, e.g., a genre that only represents 0.01% of the data examples shouldn’t influence heavily the overall precision and recall metric if the model is performing well on the other more common genres.	https://peltarion.com/knowledge-center/documentation/evaluation-view/classification-loss-metrics
October 27, 2015 – Computed tomography angiography (CTA) scans of the heart’s vessels are far better at spotting clogged arteries that can trigger a heart attack than the commonly prescribed exercise stress that most patients with chest pain undergo, according to a recent study1 by Johns Hopkins researchers. While single-photon emission computed tomography (CT)-acquired myocardial perfusion imaging (SPECT-MPI) is frequently used for the evaluation of CAD, coronary CTA has emerged as a valid alternative. The researchers designed a study comparing the accuracy of SPECT-MPI and CTA for the diagnosis of CAD in 391 symptomatic patients who were prospectively enrolled in a multicenter study after clinical referral for cardiac catheterization. They looked at the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve to evaluate the diagnostic accuracy of CTA and SPECT-MPI for identifying patients with CAD, which they defined as the presence of ≥1 coronary artery with ≥50% lumen stenosis by quantitative coronary angiography. Radiation doses were 3.9 mSv for CTA and 9.8 for SPECT-MPI. Sensitivity to identify patients with CAD was greater for CTA than SPECT-MPI (0.92 versus 0.62, respectively; P<0.001), resulting in greater overall accuracy (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve, 0.91 versus 0.69. Results were similar in patients without previous history of CAD (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve, 0.92 versus 0.67, and also for the secondary end points of ≥70% stenosis and multivessel disease, as well as subgroups, except for patients with a calcium score of ≥400 and those with high-risk anatomy in whom the overall accuracy was similar because CTA's superior sensitivity was offset by lower specificity in these settings. Based on these results, the authors concluded that CTA is more accurate than SPECT-MPI for the diagnosis of CAD as defined by conventional angiography and may be underused for this purpose in symptomatic patients. Arbab-Zadeh A1, Carli MF2, Cerci R, et al. Accuracy of Computed Tomographic Angiography and Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography–Acquired Myocardial Perfusion Imaging for the Diagnosis of Coronary Artery Disease. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging . 2015 Oct;8(10). pii: e003533. doi: 10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.115.003533.	https://reversitas.com/index.php?pg=article_viewer_int.php&show_menu=on&zoom=HNvFCzrbQ23y8LKg
- Published: Towards a guideline for evaluation metrics in medical image segmentation BMC Research Notes volume 15, Article number: 210 (2022) - 107 Accesses - Abstract In the last decade, research on artificial intelligence has seen rapid growth with deep learning models, especially in the field of medical image segmentation. Various studies demonstrated that these models have powerful prediction capabilities and achieved similar results as clinicians. However, recent studies revealed that the evaluation in image segmentation studies lacks reliable model performance assessment and showed statistical bias by incorrect metric implementation or usage. Thus, this work provides an overview and interpretation guide on the following metrics for medical image segmentation evaluation in binary as well as multi-class problems: Dice similarity coefficient, Jaccard, Sensitivity, Specificity, Rand index, ROC curves, Cohen’s Kappa, and Hausdorff distance. Furthermore, common issues like class imbalance and statistical as well as interpretation biases in evaluation are discussed. As a summary, we propose a guideline for standardized medical image segmentation evaluation to improve evaluation quality, reproducibility, and comparability in the research field. Introduction In the last decade, research on artificial intelligence has seen rapid growth with deep learning models, by which various computer vision tasks got successfully automated through accurate neural network classifiers . Evaluation procedures or quality of model performance are highly distinctive in computer vision between different research fields and applications. The subfield medical image segmentation (MIS) covers the automated identification and annotation of medical regions of interest (ROI) like organs or medical abnormalities (e.g. cancer or lesions) . Various novel studies demonstrated that MIS models based on deep learning revealed powerful prediction capabilities and achieved similar results as radiologists regarding performance [1, 2]. Clinicians, especially from radiology and pathology, strive to integrate deep learning based MIS methods as clinical decision support (CDS) systems in their clinical routine to aid in diagnosis, treatment, risk assessment, and reduction of time-consuming inspection processes [1, 2]. Throughout their direct impact on diagnosis and treatment decisions, correct and robust evaluation of MIS algorithms is crucial. However, in the past years a strong trend of highlighting or cherry-picking improper metrics to show particularly high scores close to 100% was revealed in scientific publishing of MIS studies [3,4,5,6,7]. Studies showed that statistical bias in evaluation is caused by issues reaching from incorrect metric implementation or usage to missing hold-out set sampling for reliable validation [3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11]. This led to the current situation that various clinical research teams are reporting issues on model usability outside of research environments [4, 7, 12,13,14,15,16]. The use of faulty metrics and missing evaluation standards in the scientific community for the assessment of model performance on health-sensitive procedures is a large threat to the quality and reliability of CDS systems. In this work, we want to provide an overview of appropriate metrics, discuss interpretation biases, and propose a guideline for properly evaluating medical image segmentation performance in order to increase research reliability and reproducibility in the field of medical image segmentation. Main text Evaluation metrics Evaluation of semantic segmentation can be quite complex because it is required to measure classification accuracy as well as localization correctness. The aim is to score the similarity between the predicted (prediction) and annotated segmentation (ground truth). Over the last 30 years, a large variety of evaluation metrics can be found in the MIS literature . However, only a handful of scores have proven to be appropriate and are used in a standardized way . This work demonstrates and discusses the behavior of the following common metrics for evaluation in MIS: - F-measure based metrics like Dice Similarity Coefficient (DSC) and Intersection-over-Union (IoU) - Sensitivity (Sens) and Specificity (Spec) - Accuracy / Rand Index (Acc) - Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) and the area under the ROC curve (AUC) - Cohen’s Kappa (Kap) - Average Hausdorff Distance (AHD) In detail descriptions of these metrics are presented in the Appendix. The behavior of the metrics in this work is illustrated in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 which demonstrate the metric application in multiple use cases. Class imbalance in medical image segmentation Medical images are infamous in the field of image segmentation due to their extensive class imbalance [10, 17]. Usually, an image in medicine contains a single ROI taking only a small percentage of pixels in the image, whereas the remaining image is all annotated as background. From a technical perspective for machine learning, this scenario entails that the model classifier must be trained on data composed of a very rare ROI class and a background class with often more than 90% or even close to 100% prevalence. This extreme inequality in class distribution affects all aspects of a computer vision pipeline for MIS, starting from the preprocessing, to the model architecture and training strategy up to the performance evaluation . In MIS evaluation, class imbalance significantly affects metrics which include correct background classification. For metrics based on the confusion matrix, these cases are defined as true negatives. In a common medical image with a class distribution of 9:1 between background and ROI, the possible number of correct classifications is extensively higher for the background class compared to the ROI. Using a metric with equal true positive and true negative weighting results in a high-ranking scoring even if any pixel at all is classified as ROI and, thus, significantly biases the interpretation value. This behavior can be seen in metrics like Accuracy or Specificity which present always significantly high scorings in any MIS context. Therefore, these metrics should be avoided for any interpretation of segmentation performance. Metrics that focus on only true positive classification without a true negative inclusion provide better performance representation in a medical context. This is why the DSC and IoU are highly popular and recommended in the field of MIS. Influence of the region-of-interest size on evaluation The size of an ROI and the resulting class imbalance ratio in an image demonstrates an anti-correlation to evaluation complexity for interpretation robustness. In the medical context, the ROI size is determined by the type in terms of the medical condition and the imaging modality. Various types of ROIs can be relevant to segment for clinicians. Whereas organ segmentation, cell detection, or a brain atlas take up a larger fraction of the image and, thereby, represent a more equal background-ROI class ratio, the segmentation of abnormal medical features like lesions commonly reflects the strong class imbalance and can be characterized as more complex to evaluate. Furthermore, the imaging modality highly influences the ratio between ROI and background. Modern high-resolution imaging like whole-slide images in histopathology provides resolutions of 0.25 μm with commonly 80,000 × 60,000 pixels [19, 20] in which an anaplastic (poorly differentiated) cell region takes up only a minimalistic part of the image. In such a scenario, the resulting background-ROI class ratio could typically be around 183:1 (estimated by a 512 × 512 ROI in an 803 × 603 slide). Another significant class ratio increase can be observed in 3D imaging from radiology and neurology. Computer tomography or magnetic resonance imaging scans regularly provide image resolutions of 512 × 512 pixels with hundreds of slices (z-axis) resulting in a typical class ratio around 373:1 (estimated by a 52 × 52 ROI in a 512 × 512x200 scan) . In order to avoid such extreme imbalance bias, metrics that are distance-based like AHD or exclude true negative rewarding like DSC are recommended. Besides that, patching techniques (splitting the slide or scan into multiple smaller images) are often also applied to reduce complexity and class imbalance [2, 20]. Influence of the segmentation task on evaluation For valid interpretation of a MIS performance, it is crucial to understand metric behaviors and expected scores in different segmentation tasks. Depending on the ROI type like a lesion or organ segmentation, the complexity of the segmentation task and the resulting expected score varies significantly . In organ segmentation, the ROI should be located consistently at the same position with low spatial variance between samples, whereas an ROI in lesion segmentation shows high spatial as well as morphological variance in its characteristics. Thereby, optimal performance metrics in organ segmentation are more likely to be possible, even though less realistic in lesion segmentation [22, 23]. This complexity variance implicates expected evaluation scores and should be factored in performance interpretation. Another important influencing factor in the segmentation task is the number of ROIs in an image. Multiple ROIs require additional attention for implementation and interpretation because not only high scoring metrics can be misleading and hiding undetected smaller ROIs between well predicted larger ROIs but also distance-based metrics are defined only on pairwise instance comparisons . These risks should be considered in any evaluation of multiple ROIs. Multi-class evaluation The previous evaluation metrics discussed are all defined for binary segmentation problems. It is needed to be aware that applying binary metrics to multi-class problems can result in highly biased results, especially in the presence of class imbalance . This can often lead to a confirmation bias and promising-looking evaluation results in scientific publications which, however, are actually quite weak . In order to evaluate multi-class tasks, it is required to compute and analyze the metrics individually for each class. Distinct evaluation for each class is in the majority of cases the most informative and comparable method. Nevertheless, it is often necessary to combine the individual class scores to a single value for improving clarity or for further utilization, for example as a loss function. This can be achieved by micro and macro averaging the individual class scores. Whereas macro-averaging computes the individual class metrics independently and just averages the results, micro-averaging aggregates the contributions of each class for computing the average score. Evaluation guideline - Use DSC as main metric for validation and performance interpretation. - Use AHD for interpretation of point position sensitivity (contour) if needed. - Watch out for class imbalance and avoid interpretations based on high Accuracy. - Provide next to DSC also IoU, Sensitivity, and Specificity for method comparability. - Provide sample visualizations, comparing the annotated and predicted segmentation, for visual evaluation as well as to avoid statistical bias. - Avoid cherry-picking high-scoring samples. - Provide histograms or box plots showing the scoring distribution across the dataset. - Keep in mind variable metric outcomes for different segmentation types. - Be aware of interpretation risks by multiple ROIs. - For multi-class problems, provide metric computations for each class individually. - Avoid confirmation bias through macro-averaging classes which is pushing scores via background class inclusion. - Provide access to evaluation scripts and results with journal data services or third-party services like GitHub and Zenodo for easier reproducibility. Sample visualization Besides the exact performance evaluation via metrics, it is strongly recommended to additionally visualize segmentation results. Comparing annotated and predicted segmentation allows robust performance estimation by eye. Sample visualization can be achieved via binary visualization of each class (black and white) or via utilizing transparent color application based on pixel classes on the original image. The strongest advantage of sample visualization is that statistical bias, overestimation of predictive power through unsuited or incorrect computed metrics, is avoided. Experiments We conducted multiple experiments for supporting the principles of our evaluation guideline as well as demonstrate metric behaviors on various medical imaging modalities. Furthermore, the insights of this comment are based on the experience during the development and application of the popular framework MIScnn as well as our contribution to currently running or already published clinical studies [2, 26,27,28]. The analysis utilized our medical image segmentation framework MIScnn and was performed with the following parameters: Sampling in 64% training, 16% validation, and 20% testing sets; resizing into 512 × 512 pixel images; value intensity normalization via Z-score; extensive online image augmentation during training, common U-Net architecture as neural network with focal Tversky loss function and a batch size of 24 samples; advanced training features like dynamic learning rate, early stopping and model checkpoints. The training was performed for a maximum of 1000 epochs (68 up to 173 epochs after early stopping) and on 50 up to 75 randomly selected images per epoch. For metric computation and evaluation, we utilized our framework MISeval, which provides implementation and an open interface for all discussed evaluation metrics in a Python environment . In order to cover a large spectrum of medical imaging with our experiments, we integrated datasets from various medical fields: Radiology–brain tumor detection in magnetic resonance imaging from Cheng et al. [32, 33], ultrasound–breast cancer detection in ultrasound images , microscopy–cell nuclei detection in histopathology from Caicedo et al. , endoscopy–endoscopic colonoscopy frames for polyp detection , fundus photography–vessel extraction in retinal images , dermoscopy–skin lesion segmentation for melanoma detection in dermoscopy images . Outlook This work focused on defining metrics, their recommended usage and interpretation biases to establish a standardized medical image segmentation evaluation procedure. We hope that our guidelines will help improve evaluation quality, reproducibility, and comparability in future studies in the field of medical image segmentation. Furthermore, we noticed that there is no universal Python package for metric computations, which is why we are currently working on a package to compute metrics scores in a standardized way. In the future, we want to further contribute and expand our guidelines for reliable medical image segmentation evaluation. Availability of data and materials In order to ensure full reproducibility, the complete code of the analysis is available in the following public Git repository: https://github.com/frankkramer-lab/miseval.analysis. Furthermore, the trained models, evaluation results, and metadata are available in the following public Zenodo repository: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5877797. Our universal Python package for metric computation “MISeval: a metric library for Medical Image Segmentation Evaluation” is available in the following public Git repository: https://github.com/frankkramer-lab/miseval. Abbreviations - MIS: - Medical image segmentation - ROI: - Region of interest - CDS: - Clinical decision support - TP: - True positive - FP: - False positive - TN: - True negative - FN: - False negative - DSC: - Dice similarity coefficient - IoU: - Intersection-over-union - Sens: - Sensitivity - Spec: - Specificity - Acc: - Accuracy - ROC: - Receiver operating characteristic - TPR: - True positive rate - FPR: - False positive rate - Kap: - Cohen’s kappa - HD: - Hausdorff distance - AHD: - Average hausdorff distance References Litjens G, Kooi T, Bejnordi BE, Setio AAA, Ciompi F, Ghafoorian M, et al. A survey on deep learning in medical image analysis. Med Image Anal. 2012;2017(42):60–88. Müller D, Soto-Rey I, Kramer F. 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Appendix Appendix In the following chapters, each metric will be defined and discussed in terms of possible issues. Nearly all presented metrics, except Hausdorff distance, are based on the computation of a confusion matrix for a binary segmentation task, which contains the number of true positive (TP), false positive (FP), true negative (TN), and false negative (FN) predictions. Except for Cohen’s Kappa and Hausdorff distance, the value ranges of all presented metrics span from zero (worst) to one (best). F-measure based metrics F-measure, also called F-score, based metrics are one of the most widespread scores for performance measuring in computer vision as well as in the MIS scientific field [10, 11, 39, 40]. It is calculated from the sensitivity and precision of a prediction, by which it scores the overlap between predicted segmentation and ground truth. Still, by including the precision, it also penalizes false positives, which is a common factor in highly class imbalanced datasets like MIS [10, 11]. Based on the F-measure, there are two popular utilized metrics in MIS: The Intersection-over-Union (IoU), also known as Jaccard index or Jaccard similarity coefficient, and the Dice similarity coefficient (DSC), also known as F1 score or Sørensen-Dice index. Besides that, the DSC is defined as the harmonic mean between sensitivity and precision, the difference between the two metrics is that the IoU penalizes under- and over-segmentation more than the DSC. Even so, both scores are appropriate metrics, the DSC is the most used metric in the large majority of scientific publications for MIS evaluation [10, 11, 40]. Sensitivity and specificity Especially in medicine, specificity and sensitivity are established standard metrics for performance evaluation [10, 11]. For pixel classification, the sensitivity (Sens), also known as recall or true positive rate, focuses on the true positive detection capabilities, whereas the specificity (Spec), also known as true negative rate, evaluates the capabilities for correctly identifying true negative classes (like the background class). In MIS evaluation, the sensitivity is a valid and popular metric, but still less sensitive to F-score based metrics for exact evaluation and comparison of methods [10, 11]. However, the specificity can result in an improper segmentation metric if not correctly understood. In MIS tasks, the specificity indicates the model’s capability to detect the background class in an image. Due to the large fraction of pixels annotated as background compared to the ROI, specificity ranges close to 1 are standard and expected. Thus, specificity is a suited metric for ensuring model functionality, but less for model performance. Accuracy/Rand index Accuracy (Acc), also known as Rand index or pixel accuracy, is one or even the most known evaluation metric in statistics . It is defined as the number of correct predictions, consisting of correct positive and negative predictions, compared to the total number of predictions. However, it is strongly discouraged to use accuracy due to the strong class imbalance in MIS. Because of the true negative inclusion, the accuracy metric will always result in an illegitimate high scoring. Even predicting the segmentation of an entire image as background class, accuracy scores are often higher than 90% or even close to 100%. Therefore, the misleading accuracy metric is not suited for MIS evaluation and using it is highly discouraged in scientific evaluations. Receiver operating characteristic The ROC curve, short for Receiver Operating Characteristic, is a line plot of the diagnostic ability of a classifier by visualizing its performance with different discrimination thresholds . The performance is shown through the true positive rate (TPR) against the false positive rate (FPR). In particular, ROC curves are widely established as a standard metric for comparing multiple classifiers and in the medical field for evaluating diagnostic tests as well as clinical trials . As a single-value performance metric, the area under the ROC curve (AUC) was first introduced by Hanley and McNeil 1982 for diagnostic radiology . Nowadays, the AUC metric is also a common method for the validation of machine learning classifiers. It has to be noted that an AUC value of 0.5 can be interpreted as a random classifier. The following AUC formula is defined as the area of the trapezoid according to David Powers : Cohen’s kappa The metric Cohen’s Kappa (Kap), introduced by Cohen in 1960 in the field of psychology, is a change-corrected measure of agreement between annotated and predicted classifications [10, 43, 44]. For interpretation, Kap measures the agreement caused by chance like the AUC score and ranges from -1 (worst) to + 1 (best), whereas a Kap of 0 indicates a random classifier. Through its capability of application on imbalanced datasets, it has gained popularity in the field of machine learning . However, a recent study demonstrated that it still correlates strongly to higher values on balanced datasets [44, 45]. Additionally, it does not allow comparability on different sampled datasets or interpretation on prediction accuracy. Average hausdorff distance In contrast to other confusion matrix based metrics, the Hausdorff distance (HD) is a spatial distance based metric . The HD measures the distance between two sets of points, like ground truth and predicted segmentation, and allows scoring localization similarity by focusing on boundary delineation (contour) [10, 46, 47]. Especially in more complex and granular segmentation tasks, exact contour prediction is highly important which is why HD based evaluations have become popular in the field of MIS . However, because the HD is sensitive to outliers, the symmetric Average Hausdorff Distance (AHD) is utilized in the majority of applications instead [10, 17, 46]. The symmetric AHD is defined by the maximum between the directed average Hausdorff distance d(A,B) and its reverse direction d(B,A) in which A and B represent the ground truth and predicted segmentation, respectively, and \|\|a-b\|\| represents a distance function like Euclidean distance : Other metrics In the field of MIS, various other metrics exist and can be applied depending on the research question and interpretation focus of the study. This work focused on the most suited metrics to establish a standardized MIS evaluation procedure and to increase reproducibility. For further insights on the theory of previously presented metrics or a large overview of all metrics for MIS, we refer to the excellent studies of Taha et al. . Additionally, Nai et al. provided a high-quality demonstration of various metrics on a prostate MRI dataset . Rights and permissions Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data. About this article Cite this article Müller, D., Soto-Rey, I. & Kramer, F. Towards a guideline for evaluation metrics in medical image segmentation. BMC Res Notes 15, 210 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-022-06096-y Received: Accepted: Published:	https://bmcresnotes.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13104-022-06096-y
Public health practice and quality of medical care rely heavily on the accuracy, precision, and robustness of risk prediction models. Health care providers use risk prediction models to assess a patient’s risk of developing an event during a specified time frame given the patient’s specific characteristics, and subsequently recommend a course of treatment or preventative action. In public health research, risk prediction models are often constructed with common statistical modeling techniques, such as logistic regression for binary outcomes or Cox proportional hazard regression for time-to-event outcomes, and the performance of the model is assessed through internal or external validation, or some combination. Model validation requires statistical and clinical significance and satisfactory baseline or improvement in model calibration and discrimination: calibration quantifies how close predictions are to observed outcomes while discrimination quantifies the model’s ability to distinguish correctly between events and nonevents. Measures for evaluating these qualities include (but are not limited to) Brier score, calibration-in-the-large, proportion of variation (R2), sensitivity and specificity, area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC), discrimination slope, net reclassification index (NRI), integrated discrimination improvement (IDI), and decision theory analytic measures such as net benefit and relative utility. Among these measures exist several interrelationships under certain assumptions, and their estimation and interpretation is an active area of research. The first two parts of this thesis focus on studying the empirical distributions and improving confidence interval (CI) estimation of ∆AUC, NRI, and IDI for both binary event data and time-to-event data. Through data simulation and the comparison of several CI types derived with bootstrapping techniques, we make recommendations for proper estimation in future work and apply our recommendations to real-life Framingham Heart Study data. The third part of this thesis summarizes the many interrelationships and possible redundancies among the measures listed, extends theoretical formulas assuming normal variables for ∆AUC, NRI, and IDI from nested models to non-nested models and to Brier score, and explores the impact of varying discrimination and calibration assumptions on Yates’ and Sanders’ decomposed versions of Brier score through simulation. Lastly, overall conclusions and future directions are presented at the end.	https://open.bu.edu/handle/2144/20738
Liquid moisture transport of textile structures has been studied in order to manage human perspiration well. This article deals with investigation of dynamic moisture transport of knitted fabrics by sophisticated methods, such as moisture management tester (MMT), thermography and microtomography systems. Three groups of knitted fabrics were analysed by the above-mentioned methods. Specifically, the distribution of liquid drops on samples was compared with the results of vertical wicking of tested materials and the parameter of three-dimensional fabric porosity. Both dynamic spreading of liquid drops on the surface of samples (from top and bottom sides simultaneously) and vertical wicking behaviour of textiles were analysed by the combination of thermography and image analysis system. Further, the results from MMT and porosity analysis by microtomography system were investigated to specify the interaction between structure parameters of knitted fabrics and their liquid transport properties which influence total wear comfort. Environmentally Sustainable Apparel Acquisition and Disposal Behaviours among Slovenian Consumers 1University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, Department of Textiles, Snežniška ulica 5, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia Citation Information: Autex Research Journal. Volume 15, Issue 4, Pages 243–259, ISSN (Online) 2300-0929, DOI: 10.1515/aut-2015-0044, December 2015 Fibre production and textile processing comprise various industries that consume large amounts of energy and resources. Textiles are a largely untapped consumer commodity with a strong reuse and recycling potential, still fibres and fibre containing products ends up in landfill sites or in waste incinerators to a large extent. Reuse and recycle of waste clothing results in reduction in the environmental burden. Between 3% and 4% of the municipal solid waste stream in Slovenia is composed of apparel and textiles. This exploratory study examines consumer practices regarding purchase and the disposal of apparel in Slovenia. Data were collected through structured online survey from a representative random sample of 535 consumers. Responses to online questionnaire indicated the use of a variety of textile purchase and disposal methods. The influence of different sociodemographic variables on apparel purchase, disposal and recycling behaviour was examined. Moreover, the differences in the frequency of apparel recycling between consumers with and without an apparel bank available nearby were explored. This research was conducted, since it is crucial to analyse the means by which consumers are currently disposing their textile waste in order to plan the strategies that would encourage them to further reduce the amount of apparel sent to landfills. A Comparative Study of Hooks in the Ya Rns Produced by Different Spinning Technologies 1Department of Textile Technology, Government College of Engineering & Textile Technology, Berhampore, West Bengal, 742 101, India 2National Institute of Fashion Technology, Hyderabad- 500081, India Citation Information: Autex Research Journal. Volume 15, Issue 4, Pages 260–265, ISSN (Online) 2300-0929, DOI: 10.1515/aut-2015-0020, December 2015 This article presents a comparative study of hooks’ characteristics of ring, rotor, air-jet and open-end friction spun yarns. Hook types and their extent, spinning in-coefficient and mean fibre extent in the yarns produced on different spinning technologies are investigated. The results show that the hook extents for open-end friction spun yarn are the highest followed by rotor, ring and air-jet spun yarns. Ring and air-jet spun yarns have higher percentage and extent of trailing hook as compared with leading hook, whereas, rotor and friction spun yarns show the reverse trend. Prediction of Drape Coefficient by Artificial Neural Network 1University of Monastir, National Engineering School, Textile Department, Ibn El Jazzar Street, 5019 Monastir, Tunisia 2ATSI: Research unit of automatic, Signal and Image analysis, University of Monastir, Ibn El Jazzar Street, 5019 Monastir, Tunisia 3LESTE, Laboratory of Energetic and Thermic systems, University of Monastir, Ibn El Jazzar Street, 5019 Monastir, Tunisia Citation Information: Autex Research Journal. Volume 15, Issue 4, Pages 266–274, ISSN (Online) 2300-0929, DOI: 10.1515/aut-2015-0045, December 2015 An artificial neural network (ANN) model was developed to predict the drape coefficient (DC). Hanging weight, Sample diameter and the bending rigidities in warp, weft and skew directions are selected as inputs of the ANN model. The ANN developed is a multilayer perceptron using a back-propagation algorithm with one hidden layer. The drape coefficient is measured by a Cusick drape meter. Bending rigidities in different directions were calculated according to the Cantilever method. The DC obtained results show a good correlation between the experimental and the estimated ANN values. The results prove a significant relationship between the ANN inputs and the drape coefficient. The algorithm developed can easily predict the drape coefficient of fabrics at different diameters. A Statistical Approach for Obtaining the Controlled Woven Fabric Width 1Faculty of Engineering & Technology, National Textile University, Faisalabad-37610, Pakistan Office address: Department of Materials & Testing, Faculty of Engineering & Technology, National Textile University, Sheikhupura Road, Faisalabad-37610, Pakistan Citation Information: Autex Research Journal. Volume 15, Issue 4, Pages 275–279, ISSN (Online) 2300-0929, DOI: 10.1515/aut-2015-0008, December 2015 A common problem faced in fabric manufacturing is the production of inconsistent fabric width on shuttleless looms in spite of the same fabric specifications. Weft-wise crimp controls the fabric width and it depends on a number of factors, including warp tension, temple type, fabric take-up pressing tension and loom working width. The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of these parameters on the fabric width produced. Taguchi’s orthogonal design was used to optimise the weaving parameters for obtaining controlled fabric width. On the basis of signal to noise ratios, it could be concluded that controlled fabric width could be produced using medium temple type and intense take-up pressing tension at relatively lower warp tension and smaller loom working width. The analysis of variance revealed that temple needle size was the most significant factor affecting the fabric width, followed by loom working width and warp tension, whereas take-up pressing tension was least significant of all the factors investigated in the study. Development of Personal Protection Equipment for Medical Staff: Case of Dental Surgeon 1Laboratory of Textile Physics and Mechanics, University of Haute Alsace, France 2Faculty of Dental Surgery, University of Strasbourg, France Citation Information: Autex Research Journal. Volume 15, Issue 4, Pages 280–287, ISSN (Online) 2300-0929, DOI: 10.1515/aut-2015-0002, December 2015 During daily oral health care, dental surgeons are in contact with numerous potentially infectious germs from patients’ saliva and blood. Appropriate personal protection equipment should be chosen to mitigate these risks, but the garment must also be comfortable and not hamper activities. This paper presents our research work on optimised working clothing for dentists and discusses some important points in the functional design. Following a consumer study on how users wear the garment and what are their expectations, three main functions were investigated: protection, ergonomics and thermal comfort. Aesthetic appearance was also taken into consideration as it is necessary that the wearer should feel appropriately and attractively dressed in the context of health care. Concerning protection, spray tests in real conditions helped us to localise the potential contamination areas on the garment and led us to select a three-layered material that is protective and breathable enough. However, this part of the garments made from these fabrics exhibited low thermal comfort and the wearer felt some discomfort. In terms of ergonomics, instrumented garments were worn and pressure measurements were taken. The results highlight that a special shape and raglan sleeves should be selected for a better dynamic comfort. Concerning thermal comfort, an infrared camera was used to detect warm zones of the garment where heat and moisture transfers should be enhanced. Breathable, stretchable and shape-retaining knitted fabric that is usually used for sportswear was selected. These fabrics were strategically placed as low and high vents to promote a chimney effect, which minimises retention of heat and humidity inside the garment. The usual PES/cotton fabric was selected for the rest of the gown. Based on these results, a new gown has been proposed. Through fitting tests conducted in a hospital on 25 dentists, it was revealed that the new design was highly appreciated, particularly on the ergonomic structure of the sleeves and thermal comfort of breathable zones. However, some points can be further improved, such as durability of the PES/cotton fabric, the neck length or the shape of ‘breathable zones’. The final product will be produced based on necessary improvements.	http://www.autexrj.com/articles/436/471
Silk is a natural fiber known for its luster, shine, strength, and durability, and it has a long trading history across the world. Silk is the epitome of luxury due to its high cost to produce, soft feel, and elegant appearance, and it is thus a popular textile in high-end and couture fashion design. What Is Silk? Silk Yarns are natural fibers produced by insects as a material for their nests and cocoons. There are several types of insects that produce silk, including silkworms (the most common type of silk), beetles, honey bees, bumble bees, hornets, weaver ants, and many more. Made primarily of a protein called fibroin, silk is known for its shine and softness as a material. What Is the History of Silk Production? The earliest example of Silk Fabrics comes from China when it was used in a child’s tomb to wrap the body. China dominated the silk industry for many years, and initially the material was reserved for the Emperor. The Chinese used silk as a form of currency, and cost was measured in lengths of silk. The Silk Road, which connected industries from the East to the West, was a popular trading route named for the material, and that region of the world, still maintains the name today. Eventually, silk production moved to Korea, Thailand, India, and Europe. The material finally made its way to the U.S. in the seventeenth century. King James, I introduced silk to the colonies, but many of the country’s early settlers couldn’t afford the material. Patterson, New Jersey and Manchester, Connecticut both became centers of silk production in the United States, until the trade and production was disrupted by World War II, leading to the creation of synthetic fabrics like nylon. How Is Silk Made? The process of making Silk Crepe Satin Fabric is called sericulture, and it involves harvesting silkworms for the material. Larvae are fed mulberry leaves. After they have moulted several times, they spin a cocoon. The silk solidifies upon contact with air. This process takes about 2 to3 days. Once the cocoon is formed, it is dropped into a pot of boiling water effectively killing the pupae. The silk filament is extracted by brushing the cocoon. The raw silk is woven or knit into a fabric or spun into a yarn. Note that it takes about 2500 silkworms to spin a pound of raw silk. Each cocoon contains about a mile of silk filament, and one thread of silk is made of 48 silk filaments. Different weaving processes result in different types of fabric, including crepe (a rough crinkled texture), organza (a thin, sheer fabric), and chiffon (a lightweight, plain-weave fabric with a slight stretch). What Are the Pros and Cons of Silk Fabric? Silk is known for its beautiful drape and absorbent nature, along with other positive factors, including: Texture. Silk Twill Fabric is incredibly soft with a flattering sheen, giving it a high-end and luxurious appeal. Strength and durability. It is also one of the strongest natural fibers, though some of its strength diminishes upon getting wet. Silk is often blended with other fibers, such as cotton, for added sturdiness. Elasticity. The material’s flexibility makes it ideal for garments and upholstery. Absorbency. Silk is one of the most absorbent fabrics, therefore it handles moisture well in clothing items. However, silk has some drawbacks as well, including: Static cling. Since the material does not conduct electricity well, it can experience a lot of static. Shrinkage. The fabric shrinks in the wash so a silk clothing item should always be dry-cleaned or the material should be washed before the clothing item is constructed. 8 Primary Uses for Silk Fabric Silk is primarily used in garments and household items, but it is also employed in unexpected ways, such as in bicycle tires and in medicine. Silk Stretch Fabric is great for summer clothing because of its absorbent nature and how it wicks moisture, and it is also a staple for winter wear since it has low conductive properties. Here are some examples of the material’s many uses. Bridal and formal wear. Silk is a staple of many gowns and dresses thanks to its beautiful drape, and the long floats of yarn on one side create a dressy and lustrous appearance. Ties and scarves. The material’s strength and nuances with color make it ideal for accessories. Many high-end ties are made from heavy silk, which allows for tightly woven patterns, rich colors, and durable material. Silk is also a great material for scarves for both decoration and for warmth. Bedding. Silk Scarves sheets are the height of luxury and the material’s softness and absorbent nature makes it truly shine in the bedroom. Parachutes. Silk was originally used for parachutes for its strength and elastic properties; however nylon is more commonly used today. Upholstery. Silk is used to cover furniture and pillows, and thanks to its strength and durability, it provides a long-lasting covering. Wall hangings. Decorative wall hangings are often woven from silk, as the material is beautiful and dynamically reacts with colors and dyes. Bicycle tires. The material is sometimes used in the tire’s casing because of its lightness, durability, and flexibility. Since silk can be expensive, the casings can also be made from nylon and cotton. Surgical sutures. Since silk is a natural material, it has amazing uses in medicine. The material does not cause an autoimmune response and cannot be absorbed by the human body. Home textile is a branch of technical textile comprising the application of textiles in household purposes. Home textiles are nothing but an internal environment, which deals with internal spaces and their furnishings. Home textiles are mainly used for their functional and aesthetic properties which provides us a mood and also give mental relaxation to the people. Definition Of Home Textile Home Textiles can be defined as the textiles used for home furnishing. It consists of a various range of functional as well as decorative products used mainly for decorating our houses. The fabrics are used for home textiles consist of both natural and man-made fibers. Sometimes we also blend these fibres to make the fabrics stronger. Generally, home textiles are produced by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting, or pressing fibers together. Different Types Of Home Textile Products A considerable portion of home furnishings consists of textiles. A number of these furnishings are typical in households and are made according to certain general methods of construction and composition. The basic items may be grouped as Sheets and Pillowcases, Blankets, Terry towels, Table cloths, and carpets and Rugs.	https://www.cipiacecucinare.it/utenti/khug5263/activity/3991/
Gathering information about wants and needs. Describe the purpose of their products and the intended user. Year 4 Developing their own design criteria and using them to inform their ideas. Indicate design features that will appeal to intended users. Making Year 3 Select suitable tools and materials and explain in relation to techniques. Order the main stages of making. Assemble and join components with some accuracy. Use a range of finishing techniques from art and design. Year 4 Explain choices of materials according to functional properties and aesthetic qualities. Evaluating Year 3 Identify strengths and areas for development in their products. Use their design criteria to evaluate their completed products. Explore: how products are designed, made, what materials and components are used, how well they work. Year 4 Identify strengths and areas for development in their ideas and products. Refer to design criteria as they design and make. Explore: who/where/when designed a product, how well does it achieve its purpose, can it be recycled? Technical Knowledge - Cooking and Nutrition Year 3 To learn key skills such as weighing, sieving, rolling, shaping. To learn about classes cultures through food and cooking. To be experimental and try a range of new foods from around the world. To follow more complicated recipes with a wider range of ingredients. Year 4 To learn about traditional British dishes. To use the bridge hold to cut harder foods using a serrated vegetable knife. To explore different ingredients, making suggestions for recipes. To know how to plan and shop for a meal with some support. Technical Knowledge - Textiles Year 3 Identify different forms of textiles e.g. felt, cotton, hessian, binca. With support, thread smaller-eyed needles using finer thread. Learn and begin to use a wider variety of stitches e.g. cross stitch and blanket stitch, with support. Stitch directly onto fabric, following a pattern or design. With support, cut and shape fabric, following a pattern or design. With support, join two pieces of fabric together using taught stitching methods. Gather and pad a range of fabrics and textiles. Year 4 Show a developed awareness of and name a range of different fabrics and textiles. Cut and shape fabric, following a pattern or design. Explore simple weaving techniques to create a pattern, showing an understanding of the process. Technical Knowledge - Construction Year 3 To explore how to make structures stronger and more stable. To discuss and experiment with strengthening and reinforcing materials. To select from and accurately use a selection of tools and materials to make a bridge, following a unified design. Year 4 To confidently explain why a certain material has been chosen for the project. To understand properties of materials and which materials would be a good choice for the project. To confidently use a wide a range of tools and equipment independently and to know which tools are needed for each element of construction.	https://www.thomasjonesschool.org/curriculum/subject-areas/design-technology/progression-in-skills-and-understanding/lower-key-stage-2
All fashion designers need a strong understanding of fabrics and their properties. How are different types of fabric made? What are they made from? How will they perform? Author Jenny Udale offers a full, authoritative overview of fabrics and techniques for dyeing, printing, embellishing, embroidering, and more in this lavishly illustrated guide. Case studies from textile and fashion designers, as well as other industry creatives, offer priceless insights into real-world design decisions. Love clothes? Love Project Runway? Long to be a designer? Get Basics Fashion Design: Textiles and Fashion and get started now!	http://fashion-design-schools.net/resources/books/basics-fashion-design-textiles-and-fashion/
It is possible to conceptualize, design, and develop plastic components most efficiently, but there are a number of phases (some of which overlap with one another) that must be completed before this can be accomplished. Here’s how the part is designed in simple terms. - Determine the needs of the end-users. - Sketch the concept - Choose the materials - Draw the part with materials - Choose the right material - Make manufacture simpler - Prototype - Tools & Manufacturing The design process can involve several activities happening simultaneously, but they are discussed separately at different stages. End-User Requirements Definition A comprehensive and thorough description of specifications and end-use criteria is provided throughout the entire product development process. Engineers and designers will create the product based on these requirements, which is the first step in the construction process. It is not possible to use nonconforming products. A product should be designed according to its intended end-use, rather than its quality. When defining solid products, terms such as “strong” or “clear” should be used. Because it is not as straightforward, determining how a product should look and what it should withstand is much more challenging. However, despite all the possible uses of a product, its use can be difficult to measure when considering the potential misuse of that product. In general, it applies to replacing existing products with new ones (e.g. on a conversion to metal basis), but not when producing completely new products. It can be difficult to anticipate specifications such as these. The goal of this stage is typically to create prototypes (or models) to ensure that our understanding of the end-use specifications is complete. A number of factors must be taken into consideration, including structural loading, environment, size specification, and standard requirements. There are several factors to consider and define when it comes to loading types, speeds, loading time, and loading frequency. Consider the load while mounting, transporting, storing, and using the product. Plastic components are often designed to ensure that when a product is shipped and stored, it is properly packaged. In addition to assessing typical loading situations for the part, the manufacturer should consider worst-case scenarios as well. It is crucial to determine which side of the load will be most affected if it fails. Products that are poorly designed are more likely to fail, while products that haven’t taken misuse into consideration will also fail. It is especially important for product designers to ensure that their designs are reliable when failure will cause serious injury. Because the properties of plastic materials are extremely sensitive to environmental conditions, it is essential to specify the anticipated environmental conditions for use. In addition to radiation exposure and relative humidity, a chemical environment and a temperature are also required.When assembling and storing items, the environmental conditions to be met (ovens for curing paints, acids, adhesives, etc.) should be carefully examined. A temperature high enough for creep or oxidative degradation is not recommended, and a temperature low enough for creep is also not recommended. Again, the key to preventing misuse is anticipating it, forming worst-case scenarios, and specifying requirements in advance. Chemicals in the product and any risks of UV exposure must be clearly displayed if the product is intended for outdoor use. The measurements of plastic parts, as well as their surface finishes, are often critical for practical reasons. Tooling and development costs are significantly affected by differences in measurement tolerance. In certain applications, plastics are regulated by certain agencies. It is important to know which agency is responsible for a given product. If you follow this step correctly, conforming to these standards should be easy. A material’s grade (flammability, food quality, etc.) or performance standard can be verified (EMI shielding, for example). Prototypes or pre-production are often required to assess a product. The maximum cost of the product and the replacement interval are also specified during the first phase of development. The product development team’s goal is to develop a product that is attractive and affordable (i.e., the most efficient design). Similarly, other restrictions related to the market, such as size, color, and shape, should also be quantified. As aesthetic values are difficult to quantify, models (prototypes without functional components) are a great way to communicate them. A business must also consider how long the material will last, as well as the type of material to be used. Designing products and processes to have the lowest possible costs (i.e., the most efficient projects) is crucial. Market-related constraints such as color and size must always be communicated to consumers. An early concept sketch Once the product requirements have been defined, the product development team will collaborate with industrial designers to create early sketches. These sketches are often 3D renderings, rather than CAD drawings. Fig. 3.5 Highlight and detail areas of the part that need special attention. It is important to determine whether a particular dimension or function are fixed or variable. Fixed-functions are those in which the designer cannot express his creativity about the product design (e.g. dimensions that have been set by a standard). A variable function is being designed at the appropriate stage. Fig. 3.5 shows a typical nozzle of a garden hose. Designing an all-plastic hosenozzle is the task. It’s possible for 10 designers to design the hosenozzle from the same specs. Because certain dimensions are set by standards, there is no room for creativity or variation. Because these dimensions are standard-governed, for example, the inner dimensions of the inlet thread will remain the same. Other features, however, can vary greatly from one design to the next, including the shape and the way the product shuts off water flow. Fig. The nozzle in Fig. 3.5 is very similar to the plastic one. Most likely, plastic part designers were heavily influenced by metal designs. The other plastic hosenozzle is, however, a completely different design than the one in Fig.3.5. This product has a completely different image. In a replacement part application like this, it is better to follow the specifications than the existing part. Designers will find it difficult to copy the existing design once they see the functionality of metal components. Designers who don’t think outside of the box are less likely be innovative and creative. This can lead to significant cost or quality reductions, as well as quality improvements. Additionally, a lack of a thorough analysis of competitors’ products can increase the likelihood of infringing on patented designs. Once a part’s end-use requirements have been established, designers can start searching for suitable plastic materials for the material selection and screening process. These decisions are made based on whether the physical properties of a specific plastic material meet the end-use requirements. There are more plastic materials on the market than ever before. This means that a designer will likely be able to find the right material for the job. During the initial material selection process it is generally preferable to identify several potentially suitable material candidates (e.g., 3-6 specific formulations/grades). Sometimes the selection process can be difficult due to the sheer variety of available material grades. It is important to take into account the material properties that are not easily modified by design in order to determine which material is the best for your application. These characteristics cannot be changed: transparency, chemical resistance and softening temperature are all non-negotiable. Polycarbonate injection molding, for example, is not suitable to make gasoline containers. It lacks the necessary resistance to hydrocarbons. Because it is opaque or translucent, high-density polyethene does not work well in window applications. Both cases will not resolve the problem by changing the design of the part. \|Materials\|\|Plastic manufacturers often select a standard grade of plastic for a similar application or based on supplier recommendations. However, these resins may not be optimal. In plastic selection, there are many factors to consider, including:\| \|Heat: The stress created by normal and extreme conditions of use and during the assembly, finishing, and shipping processes.\| \|Chemical resistance is a property affecting part performance when solids, liquids, or gases are in contact.\| \|Agency approvals: Standards developed by the government or the private sector for properties like heat resistance, flammability, and mechanical and electrical performance.\| \|Assemblage: During the assembly process at plastic factory, the plastic is bonded, mechanically fastened, and welded.\| \|Finish: Ability of the material to come out of the mold with the desired appearance values, such as gloss and smoothness.\| \|Price: The price of resin, costs of manufacturing, maintenance, assembly, disassembly, and other costs to reduce labor, finishing, and tools.\| \|Access: The availability of resin from the point of view of the amount required for production of plastic manufacturer.\| \|Draft\|\|A draft angle makes it easier to remove a cooled, finished part from a mold . Draft angles are an essential component of injection molding. Minimizing friction during the part release process can achieve a uniform surface finish and reduced wear and tear on the mold at plastic factory.\| \|An angle of the draft is measured according to the direction of pull. Draft angles of at least 0.5° for the cavity and 1.0° for the core are suggested by most design engineers for parts with sufficient draft. The tool must also be designed with more draft if a textured surface is desired and steel shut-off surfaces.\| \|Wall Thickness\|\|The wall thickness of injection molded parts is also an important consideration. An injection molded part from plastic products supplier with a proper and uniform wall thickness is less prone to structural and cosmetic problems.\| \|Most resins have a typical wall thickness ranging from .04 – .150. Yet, it is recommended that you obtain thickness specifications for your material(s) of choice by consulting with an injection molder/design engineer and plastic manufacturer.\| \|Wall thickness should be analyzed during the design process to ensure that parts don’t sink, warp, or become non-functional.\| \|Ribs\|\|As ribs are used to reinforce the walls of your injection molded parts without increasing their thickness, they are a valuable component in injection molded parts. Rib design should reduce mold flow length when designing complex parts and ensure that the ribs are appropriately connected to increase the part’s strength.\| \|Ribs should not exceed 2/3 of the wall thickness, depending on the material used. WIDE ribs may create sinking and design problems. It is typical for a design engineer and plastic manufacturer to core out some fabric to reduce shrinkage and keep the strength.\| \|If the height of the ribs exceeds 3 times the wall thickness, this could result in the part being short/unable to be filled. Rib placement, thickness, and length are critical factors in determining the viability of a part in its early design phases.\| \|Gate\|\|In a mold part, a gate is a point at which liquid plastic flows into it. Injection molded parts have at least one gate, but they are often produced with multiple gates. Runner and gate locations influence polymer molecules’ orientation and how the part shrinks during cooling. As a result, gate location affects your part’s design and functionality.\| \|The gate should be placed at the end of a long and narrow part if it must be straight. It is recommended to have a gate positioned in the centre of parts that must be perfectly round.\| \|With the input of your plastic manufacturer team, you will be able to make optimal decisions regarding gate placement and injection points.\| \|Ejector Pin\|\|Mold ejector pins (located on the B-side/core of the mold) are used to release plastic parts from a mold after being molded. The design and positioning of ejector pins should be considered as early in the process as possible by plastic manufacturers. This is even though they are usually a relatively minor concern in the early design phases. Indentations and marks can result from improperly placed ejector pins, so proper placement should be considered in the early phases.\| \|Ejector pins are typically located at the bottom of side walls, depending on the draft, texture, depth, and type of material. You might be able to confirm that your initial ejector pin placement was correct by reviewing the design. In addition, you may be able to make further changes to improve production outcomes.\| \|Sink\|\|Sink marks can appear on the injection molded plastic part during injection moulding when the material shrinks more in thicker areas such as ribs and bosses. In this case, the sink mark is caused by thicker areas cooling slower than thin ones, and the different cooling rates lead to a depression on the adjoining wall.\| \|Sink marks are formed due to several factors including the processing method, the geometry of the part, the material selection, and the tooling design. The geometry and material selection of the part may not be able to be adjusted based on its specifications, but there are several options to eliminate sink areas.\| \|Sinking can be influenced by tooling design (e.g., cooling channel design, gate type and gate size), depending on the part and its application. The manipulation of process conditions (for example, packing pressure, time, phase of packing, and conditions) can also reduce sink. Further, minor tool modifications (e.g., foaming or gas assist) can reduce sink. It is best to consult your injection molder and plastic manufacturer regarding the most effective method to minimize sink in injection-molded parts.\| \|Parting Lines\|\|For more complex parts and/or complex shapes, it is important to note where the parting line is located.\| \|Having your design shared with your injection molder can greatly influence your finished product’s production and functionality since designers and molders tend to evaluate parts differently. The challenge of parting lines can be addressed in several ways.\| \|It’s important to be aware of the importance of the parting line when designing your initial concept, but you are not limited to that. You may be able to locate other possible locations using CAD software and mold flow analysis. When you work with an injection molder, they keep your part end use in mind and help you determine where the parting lines should be placed.\| \|Special Features\|\|It is essential to design plastic parts so that mold tools can open them and eject them without difficulty. Injection molds release parts by separating the two sides in opposite directions. A side action may be necessary in some instances, where special features such as holes, undercuts, or shoulders prevent the release from occurring.\| \|Coring is pulled in a direction opposite that of mold separation as a side action. In some cases, costs may increase due to this flexibility in part design.\| \|When designing and developing a product, you (plastic manufacturers )were having the right injection molder, and engineer on your side is essential. You can avoid many issues by working with them. In integrating these elements into your product design process and working with a plastics engineer who has experience with these materials, your goal will be to get your product to market as quickly and cost-effectively as possible.\| These features can be used to extend the process by eliminating whole families of materials with the same characteristics. This will eliminate the need for many potential plastic material candidates. The selection of materials can be complicated by the use of coatings, additives, and co-injection technology. Coatings can alter chemical resistance, hardness and abrasion resistance and make parts look great. A material that is not suitable for the intended application can be used as a coating. Adding additives to the material selection process can also complicate matters. Compounding, also known as melting blending, is a method that allows you to modify the properties of plastic materials. The mechanical properties of polymers can be improved by design, but not the ones listed above. This is provided that the appropriate application temperature is met. Designers generally consider the material’s modulus before deciding on a candidate for metal-replacement applications. This is where the problem with metals lies. They are tough and rigid, while most rigid plastics are relatively fragile (e.g. many glass-reinforced grades that are both rigid yet fragile). Engineering polymers that have lower reinforcement levels or are not reinforced in many cases are better than others. The modulus values can be very low and they may creep faster, but the part geometry can still be modified (by making the ribs deeper to compensate). Material selection in the beginning This is the point where the application can benefit from comparing and learning about different candidate materials. Each material has its own unique properties and geometries. A designer might be considering applications that involve static loads or organic solvent exposure in high density polyethene, nylon 6/6, and polypropylene. Each material is considered to have its own advantages by the designer. Each part must be designed before a final decision can be made about the material. The material consumption and manufacturing times of each piece will vary. Nylon 6/6 is more expensive per unit weight or volume than nylon 6. However, the benefits of decreasing the material’s thickness and decreasing the cycle times may partially offset the higher cost per unit. Fig. 3.6 Figure 3.6 illustrates two-part geometries that have equivalent stiffness values. They have sections with the exact moduli and moment of inertia values (where the section can be any dimension). These values have been adjusted for material differences. Although the given example has a simple geometry, there are many other geometrical features that can affect the performance and assembly of a device. This would depend on the material specifications. The designer does not have to choose a primary material for product design at this stage. However, they can still use flexible materials in case of an unexpected problem later on in the development process, such as during prototyping and production. It is unlikely that any of these candidates will be able to do the job well. Materials that are considered for consideration come with their own advantages and disadvantages. Based on past experience, the designer might have a favorite material. When working with familiar materials, it can be helpful, but other materials may be more appropriate. However, decisions made solely on cost of materials or manufacturing are not based on performance or other advantages. Candidates should be evaluated on the basis of their processing costs, end use performance, and overall manufacturing characteristics. Designers can choose the most suitable materials by weighing their properties and characteristics based on an almost unbiased grading system. Although individual numerical ratings for a house are sometimes arbitrary, I believe they are based on actual numerical data. After considering all of these factors, a semi-quantitative process will be used to select the best material candidates based on balance. After the initial design and material have been determined, the design should be modified for manufacturing. The input of process engineers and tooling engineers is invaluable. Moldability is essential for the part geometry. Designers should consider the effects of different phases of the injection molding process on part design. Every stage of injection molding, including mold filling, packing and holding, cooling and ejection has its own requirements. Practically, the part should be modified with draft angles to aid in part ejection and flow (and reduce stress concentrations), radii to help in flow, and surface texture to improve the visual appearance (due to material shatterage) of the sink marks on the wall to the side of the ribs. These are just a few possible design modifications that may be required from a manufacturing perspective. You should evaluate the effect of modifications on the part’s end-use performance after they have been made. Because design changes such as adding draft angles to the ribs can have a significant impact on the maximum deflections or stresses caused by service loading, Checklists for part design, such as that shown in Fig. 3.9 can be used during planning or final checks to make sure that every aspect of manufacturing and assembly has been considered. The prototype of the final part design is usually made at this stage to test both its manufacturability as well as its performance. Because all the process (e.g. molding simulations) or performance design work (e.g. structural analysis) that have been done up until this point in time are “theoretical”, prototyping is necessary. This is particularly important for molded plastic parts because many manufacturing-related problems are difficult to predict in advance (weld line appearance and strength, warpage, sink marks, etc. ). It is important to create prototype parts from the desired production material in order to achieve realistic results. This involves either building a single cavity tool (or a unit) for smaller parts, or soft (often simplified), tools for larger parts. Prototyping can be costly and time-consuming. However, it is better to detect manufacturing or end use performance issues with a single cavity or soft tool than a multi-cavity hard tool. To reduce the cost of tool rework, steel safety practices should be observed. Molded prototypes are useful for verifying engineering functions and manufacturing processes. However, there are other prototypes that can be easily made (rapid prototyping, etc.). They can be made quickly (within hours, or even days) and offer invaluable models for communication and limited functionality well before the prototype tool is built. After the parts and prototype tools have been tested and modified, pre-production tools or production tools can be built. It is common to start the basic work on the tools before the deadline. This saves time. The first stage of manufacturing begins after the tools have been built and debugged.	https://www.plasticmoulds.net/plastic-parts-design-process
This collection of masks is designed give an aesthetic warning if the wearer is running a fever or the concentration of allergens in the air exceeds a certain threshold. The pattern printed with thermochromic ink changes color when the exhale exceeds 40°C. The collection comprise a series of different prints and three different shapes of masks: the traditional surgical style, a wrap-around-scarf, and a full-face sinus mask. The latter also senses temperature increases of the forehead as well as around the mouth. The idea is to create a stylish early-warning system at least for other people if not for the wearer. This PhD project investigates the relationships between textile patterns, scale and spatial contexts from the perspective of textile design. Against this background, the purpose is to answer the research questions “How can the designer get a better understanding of scale and size in designing textile patterns and what kind of functions and characteristics do different patterns have in spatial contexts?”. It is expected that this practical and methodical approach can offer insights of scale and size issues in designing textile patterns, and may be useful especially for the textile design community. This PhD project investigates the relationships between textile patterns, scale and spatial contexts from the perspective of textile design. In order to examine this area, a physical model in scale 1:10 was built to create a scenario for the design example. The design decisions were made to understand and to analyze what´s happening concerning scale and pattern. The patterns are tried methodically in six different scales and with the four most common repeat methods. This practical and methodical design example aims to share a systematic approach for a better understanding of scale and size in designing textile patterns and to find functions and characteristics among different patterns in spatial contexts. This article analyses a series of negotiations on how to measure welfare and quality of life in Sweden beyond economic indicators. It departs from a 2015 Government Official Report that advanced a strong recommendation to measure only ‘objective indicators’ of quality of life, rather than relying on what is referred to as ‘subjective indicators’ such as life satisfaction and happiness. The assertion of strictly ‘objective’ indicators falls back on a sociological perspective developed in the 1970s, which conceived of welfare as being measurable as ‘levels of living’, a framework that came to be called ‘the Scandinavian model of welfare research’. However, in the mid-2000s, objective indicators were challenged scientifically by the emerging field of happiness studies, which also found political advocates in Sweden who argued that subjective indicators should become an integral part of measuring welfare. This tension between ‘subjective’ and ‘objective’ measurements resulted in a controversy between several actors about what should count as a valuable measurement of welfare. As a consequence, we argue that the creation of such value meters is closely intertwined with how welfare is defined, and by what measures welfare should be carried through. Smart textiles with its vast range of possibilities provide a considerable opportunity for societal sustainability for the waste-oriented fashion industry. May the new textiles react to the environment, wearer, have a mind of its own or simply provoke and inspire people – it is a great tool for the transition from the product-oriented industry to the service-minded economy. Fashion field needs to mature and adapt to the new rules set by the user within today’s environment. While developing the new field of smart textiles, this paper stresses the importance of learning from traditional crafts and the value of craftsmanship. We start by introducing the importance of crafting and connecting it to the industrialized way of producing. Then, we ask whether we could merge valuable insights from both in order to develop the smart textiles area. Later, you will find an example project merging Quick Response (QR) codes with traditional embroidery that inspired a set of TechCrafts explorations in a form of student projects. In case of the embroidered QR codes, the link to technology is an add-on feature to textiles. In the other examples, craftsmanship technologies are used to create the textile substrate itself. These explorations are the input for a discussion about the role of craftsmanship and skills in developing materials with interactive properties that is held with relation to the possibilities for societal sustainability. This licentiate thesis presents and discusses experimental explorations in search for new methods of form-thinking within the knitwear design process. The position of textile knitting techniques is somewhat ambiguous. This is because they are not only concerned with creating the textile material, but also with the form of the garment as these two are created in the same process. Consequently, the common perception of form and material as two separate design parameters can be questioned when it comes to knitting. Instead, we may view it as a design process that has a single design parameter; a design process in which the notion of form provides the conceptual foundation. Through conducting a series of design experiments using knitting and crochet techniques, the notion of form was explored from the perspective of the way in which we make a garment. The outcome of the experiments showed that there are possibilities for development of alternative working methods in knitwear design by viewing form in terms of topological invariants rather than as abstract geometrical silhouettes. If such a notion, i.e. a notion of a more concrete geometry, were to be implemented in the design process for knitwear, it would provide another link between action and expression that could deepen our understanding of the design potential of knitting techniques and provide the field with new expressions and gestalts. In this practice-based experimental design research project a tablecloth reacting on external signals is designed. The tablecloth is connected to mobile phones and reacts to incoming calls and messages with burned out patterns. Due to the mobile phone activity, changes in colour and structure appear in the table-cloth. The tablecloth is a way to explore visual and tactile changes in a textile surface. It is also a way to investigate how our relation to mobile phones and mobile phone technology is affected by the way the phones are being expressed. Imagine that the table is set and dinner is ready. It’s time to sit down and share the moment. That is what we do also in terms of sharing a one time pattern change in the tablecloth, and in terms of sharing each others’ mobile phone activity. Incoming phone calls and messages are not notified by the phones themselves, but through a burned out pattern in the tablecloth, in between our plates. The Burning Tablecloth serves as a design example of the design technique for irreversible patterns, expressing colour and structure-changes in a knitted textile. The Burning Tablecloth changes colour and structure according to mobile phone signals (calls and text messages) with burned out patterns and acts as a medium for raising questions about interactive tactile and visual expressions in textiles. The project is a design example of research into three fields, knitted circuits, textile patterns and peoples’ relation to computational technology. The tablecloth is knitted with cotton yarns and a heating wire in a Stoll flatbed knitting machine. The pattern that appears when using the tablecloth is built up as squares with the potential of becoming chess-patterned over the whole tablecloth surface. The table-cloth is connected to a microcontroller and various electronic components. The heating wire knitted in the table-cloth is the active material; when heated it is able to change the colour and structure of the table-cloth. The burning tablecloth reacts to mobile phone signals by getting warm so that colour and eventually structure changes is appearing in the tablecloth. The experiment demonstrates a design example where visual and tactile interactive properties are expressed in a tablecloth by mobile phone signals. Combined in a material structure, textile circuits are controlled by external stimuli adding an aesthetical value to the textile expression. With a foundation of experienced knowledge from latter experiments, the tablecloth shows an example developed by the design technique for irreversible patterns. The Burning Tablecloth also demonstrates how information can be expressed in an esthetical way through textiles, acting as an interactive colour and structure changing ambient textile display. Conceptual movies focusing on the interaction between garment and choreography. The garment acts as choreographer. Performance at Ambience 2011 Dressed–Integrity presents new logics of expression and functionality in dress and its relation to the body. As an aesthetic research program in dress it is about the fundamental relationship between form and material, between technique and expression. Through the development in art the program aims to challenge the institutions of craft through the appropriation of technology, and through the development science and epistemology the program aims to challenge the institutions of technology through the appropriation of art. The research program is therefore not an empirical research program that aims to introduce new theories about fashion. It is about developing foundational concepts and theoretical propositions of fashion design in and for itself as an academic field with an obvious integrity. As such the exhibition present a few examples of new techniques, methods, models and definitions of dress and its relation to the body, conducted by handful of PhD candidates within the research program in fashion design at the Swedish School of Textiles, Borås, Sweden. Today’s fashion market is characterized by short life cycles, low predictability and high impulse purchasing. Many fashion companies are responding to this by constantly introducing new collections. Zara, which is considered to be the leader of fashion are introducing as many as 211 new models per week. One of the drawbacks of Zara’s and others’ methods is the resulting overproduction; many garments have to be sold to reduced price or are thrown away. An average of one third of the collections is considered waste. It costs money for the fashion companies; it reduces the sell-through factor and wastes natural resources. Knit on Demand is a research project at the Swedish School of Textiles that aims to reduce the waste and increase the sell-through factor and service level. A local producer of knitwear and a retailer of tailored fashion in Stockholm also participate in the project. The purpose of the project is to test new methods of supply chain management and to analyse whether mass customization is applicable on knitwear. There are several benefits with mass customised garments: the customer receives a garment that is better suited to his or her needs, the producer does not have to make garments on forecast, and the environment and natural resources are spared because only what is bought by the end consumer is produced and shipped. Metadata that serve as semantic markup, such as conceptual categories that describe the macrostructure of a plot in terms of actors and their mutual relationships, actions, and their ingredients annotated in folk narratives, are important additional resources of digital humanities research. Traditionally originating in structural analysis, in fairy tales they are called functions (Propp, 1968), whereas in myths – mythemes (Lévi-Strauss, 1955); a related, overarching type of content metadata is a folklore motif (Uther, 2004; Jason, 2000).In his influential study, Propp treated a corpus of tales in Afanas'ev's collection (Afanas'ev, 1945), establishing basic recurrent units of the plot ('functions'), such as Villainy, Liquidation of misfortune, Reward, or Test of Hero, and the combinations and sequences of elements employed to arrange them into moves.1 His aim was to describe the DNAlike structure of the magic tale sub-genre as a novel way to provide comparisons. As a start along the way to developing a story grammar, the Proppian model is relatively straightforward to formalize for computational semantic annotation, analysis, and generation of fairy tales. Our study describes an effort towards creating a comprehensive XML markup of fairy tales following Propp's functions, by an approach that integrates functional text annotation with grammatical markup in order to be used across text types, genres and languages. The Proppian fairy tale Markup Language (PftML) (Malec, 2001) is an annotation scheme that enables narrative function segmentation, based on hierarchically ordered textual content objects. We propose to extend PftML so that the scheme would additionally rely on linguistic information for the segmentation of texts into Proppian functions. Textual variation is an important phenomenon in folklore, it is thus beneficial to explicitly represent linguistic elements in computational resources that draw on this genre; current international initiatives also actively promote and aim to technically facilitate such integrated and standardized linguistic resources. We describe why and how explicit representation of grammatical phenomena in literary models can provide interdisciplinary benefits for the digital humanities research community. In two related fields of activities, we address the above as part of our ongoing activities in the CLARIN2 and AMICUS3 projects. CLARIN aims to contribute to humanities research by creating and recommending effective workflows using natural language processing tools and digital resources in scenarios where text-based research is conducted by humanities or social sciences scholars. AMICUS is interested in motif identification, in order to gain insight into higher-order correlations of functions and other content units in texts from the cultural heritage and scientific discourse domains. We expect significant synergies from their interaction with the PftML prototype. The chapter focuses on the present situation (2012) of library systems in the Baltic countries (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) Covers på cocktail Liksom en samlingsskiva med covers på nittonhundratals hits har studenter från Textilhögskolan i Borås under ledning av Rickard Lindqvist satt samman en utställning med nytolkningar av klassiska klänningarna från Röhsskas samlingar. I slutet av augusti draperade studenter från Textilhögskolan i Borås replikor av klänningarna i Röhsskas Cocktail utställning. Dessa replikor har sedan legat till grund för ett utvecklings- och tolkningsarbete där studenterna har reproducerat klänningarna med en metodik jämförbar med att spela musikaliska covers. Att kopiera det man finner intressant ser jag som något högst nödvändigt för att en utveckling ska ske. Det kräver ett intresse, ett engagemang och en medvetenhet. Man undersöker originalet och vidareutvecklar det och samtidigt sin förmåga att se, utvärdera och skapa. En av modets grundessenser är att återskapa historien i perfekt samklang med nuet. Den perfekta kollektionen är en som upplevs som banbrytande och ny men där det samtidigt finns igenkänningsfaktorer och gemensamma referenser. Strävan efter originalitet från grunden och ignorans av historien är kanske den moderna mänsklighetens största misstag. Ska det till någon genuin progression inom modet och inte bara skapas nonsenskreationer måste dagens designers vara medvetna om historien och träna sin förmåga att se potentialen inom den. A presentation of examples of cutting as design method. If the expression of the body is the focal point, and how this expression is transformed by dressing it in fabric, a more reflective study of the body from a dressmakers perspective might be meaningful for the development of new design methods. “Mörk kostym 2012” aspires to both challenge and preserve the art of tailoring. Challenge tailoring methodologically in construction, hence propose an alternative view upon the body, meanwhile preserve it by utilizing traditional methods of making. The jacket and the trousers are two examples, using the “La coupe en un seul morceau” method developed by French costumier Genevieve Sevin-Doering, here a piece of fabric is sculptured into a garment on a living body, from which a new logic is extracted proposing an alternative way of approaching the body while cutting garments. The theory is visualised in a number of gravity and balance lines on the body to initiate the work of cutting, draping and fitting garments from and certain points proposing where on the body to address the foundational cuts. These garments are cut from one single piece of fabric however the number of pieces composing the garments are of less significance. The one-piece principal can be compared to a beautiful proof in mathematics, or the simplest equation explaining a series of experiments, the proof could be written differently, in any number of pieces, but the simplicity expresses the theory more clear. Fashion designers are presented with a range of different principles for pattern cutting and the interest in this area has grown rapidly over the past few years, both due to the publication of a number of works dealing with the subject in different ways and the fact that a growing number of designers emphasise cutting in their practices. Although a range of principles and concepts for pattern cutting are presented from different perspectives, the main body of these systems, traditional as well as contemporary, are predominately based on a quantified approximation of the body. As a consequence, the connection of existing models for pattern construction to the dynamic expression of the body or the biomechanic function of the body is problematic. This work explores and proposes an alternative model for pattern cutting that, unlike the existing models, takes as its point of origin the actual, variable body. As such, the research conducted here is basic research, aiming to identify fundamental principles in order to create alternative expression and functions. Instead of a static matrix of a non-moving body, the proposed model for cutting garments is based on a qualitative approximation of the body, visualised through balance lines and key biomechanic points. Based on some key principles found in the works by Geneviève Sevin-Doering, the proposed model for cutting is developed through concrete experiments by cutting and draping fabrics on live models. The result of a proposed model is an alternative principle for dressmaking that challenges the fundamental relationship between dress, pattern making and the body, opening up for new expressions in dress and functional possibilities for wearing. Fashion designers are presented with a range of different principles for pattern cutting, and interest in this area has grown rapidly over the past few years, due to both the publication of a number of works dealing with the subject in different ways, and the fact that a growing number of designers emphasise experimental pattern cutting in their practices. Although a range of principles and concepts for pattern cutting are presented from different per¬spectives, the main body of these systems, traditional as well as contemporary, are predominantly based on a quantified approximation of the body. As a consequence, the connection between existing theories for pattern construction and the dynamic expression and biomechanical func¬tion of the body are problematic. This work explores and proposes an alternative theory for pattern cutting, which unlike exist¬ing models takes as its point of origin the actual, variable body. As such, the research presented here is basic research. Instead of a static matrix of a non-moving body, the proposed model for cutting garments is based on a qualitative approximation of the body, visualised through balance lines and key biomechanical points. Based on some key principles found in works by Geneviève Sevin-Doering, the proposed model for cutting is developed through concrete experiments by cut¬ting and draping fabrics on live models. The proposed theory is an alternative principle for dressmaking, which challenges the fundamental relationship between dress, pattern making, and the body, opening up for new expressions in dress and functional possibilities for wearing. Cuts by Rickard Lindqvist and Andreas Eklöf The aim of the Cuts project is to merge print design and pattern cutting within the practise of fashion design. Working within a tradition of cutting with only one pattern piece, established by French costume designer Genevieve Sevin-Doering, the project developed out of a selection Rickard's pattern archive. Instead of seeing print design and pattern cutting as two separated activities the cutting pattern becomes the print, which then becomes the cutting template. A printed line replaces the cutting line and no fabric is cut away in the making of the garments. The printed patterns are exhibited in there own right alongside with the garments made out of them. The beauty in the lines of the cutting is as important any other line in the garment composition. The starting point of three different research projects will be exhibited and the question " What is actually a cardigan?" will be discussed. Karin Landahl, Ulrik Martin Larsen and Rickard Lindqvist are PhD students in fashion design at the Swedish School of Textile. The research in fashion design at the school has its focus on practice based design research with special emphasis on the development of methods for professional and experimental fashion design. Karin Landahls main focus for the research-years ahead is the relation between form and materials sprung from a background in knitwear design. Ulrik Martin Larsens first research project will examine the distinctions between accessory and garment through the creation of objects that straddle the line between these two categories. Rickard Lindqvist has throughout his career worked with pattern cutting as creative method and aims to carry out research on pattern cutting as aesthetics. With a belief that the core of fashion is to recreate the past in perfect congruence with the present together with a photo by Stefanie to set the mood we turned to Marcel Proust for guidance. In his novel In search of lost times Proust introduces the concept of involuntary memories. The taste of the Madeleine cookie evokes Swann’s involuntary memory of things that have vanished over times. How can we through fashion evoke involuntary memories? If the garments are vanishing into transparency will that evoke our involuntary memories of bodies and dresses. If only half a lapel is appearing will that evoke our involuntary memories of coats we used to wear? Isn’t a good piece of fashion one that reminds us of the past but at the same time gives us a feeling of being totally here now? Exploring the themes of form and memory through vanishing details and fabrics. This is carried out through the cuts in detail and silhouette and through the use of prints and ausbrenner treatment of the fabrics. The aim of this thesis is to explore the conceptions of aesthetic quality used in Swedish literature policy through a study of the discourse of the state support to new, Swedish fiction 1975-2009. This support scheme is a quality-based retrospective grant, introduced in 1975, aiming to guarantee the quality and versatility of book publishing. It is explored as an expression of cultural policy in a welfare policy setting, where the autonomy of the arts is a central concept. The quality of the book is the foremost criterion for the award of support and quality assessment is carried out by a work group consisting of authors, critics, librarians and researchers. The empirical part of the study analyses arguments concerning state support forwarded in the debate from political documents, articles in newspapers and trade press, debate books and also in six interviews with former members of the workgroups from the 1970s and the 2000s. A discourse policy analysis is used to examine the discourse of the support, how it is legitimized and the conceptions of aesthetic quality embedded in the discourse. The results show that for stakeholders state support is highly legitimate. The support is discursively connected to welfare politics and democracy, even though it is aimed at artifacts, not citizens. It is legitimized as being a support to book production, not for mediating literature. There has been a shift in the conception of quality, from being identified in a negative sense to a positive sense. A professional concept of quality as a driving force is used by the workgroup. The shift towards explicating quality can be seen as a way of protecting the concept of quality in a time where it is perceived as being under threat. The use of quality as the foremost criterion can be seen as resistance against shifts in cultural policy that are perceived as adaptations to market values or politicization. The results render visible the political aspects of the concept of quality in state support. Culture is a central concept for the Nordic radical right parties, but little research has been done on the cultural policy of the parties. This article is a comparative overview of the party programs of four Nordic radical right parties during the latest decade. It relates the cultural policies of the radical right to the predominantly welfare-based corporatist cultural policy of the Nordic countries. Through a discursive policy analysis two problem representations are found: That multiculturalism is seen as a threat against national culture and that public funding is seen as a threat against freedom. The parties share a common understanding of cultural policy, with minor differences. There is an underlying conflict in the discourse: While the parties argue that the political governance of art needs to be limited, they are, at the same time, deeply involved in how cultural expressions and cultural life should be defined. The aim of this chapter is to trace the conceptual history of diversity in Swedish cultural policy. Earlier research on diversity in cultural policy has mainly been devoted to ethnic understandings of the concept from 1995 and onwards. A longer perspective makes it possible to follow a cultural policy in transition. Cultural policy is conceptualised as a practice that reinforces certain values in a nation. The material consists of cultural policy documents published during the time period. Three overlapping understandings are found: diversity as variation (from 1972), ethnic diversity (from 1995) and an umbrella-concept (from 2007) including different social categories. The results reveal that the understanding of the concept has changed from being anti-commercialism to including private actors and 240 freedom of choice to achieve diversity. Another change has been a shift in focus from groups to individuals. Diversity may be seen as an outside goal, and a result of immigration policy and discrimination laws and not coming from inside the cultural field. However, it is mostly perceived as a positive concept, used to legitimate a cultural policy in liberal, heterogenic societies since the market cannot guarantee diversity by itself. A risk is that the concept will become too vague when it is used for many different aspects of cultural policy. The European Union nominates cities as European Capitals of Culture in order to highlight the richness and diversity of European cultures and the features they share, as well as to promote greater mutual acquaintance between European citizens. For the chosen cities, the nomination creates a possibility to promote the cultural identity, originality and diversity of the region and city. The empirical focus of the article is on three cities which were chosen as European Capitals of Culture for 2010 (Pécs in Hungary), and 2011 (Tallinn in Estonia and Turku in Finland). The cities utilize various strategies in emphasizing and representing their cultural diversity. All of the cities stress their location as a historical meeting place of different ethnicities and nationalities. Additionally, the cities stress their architecture as an expression of multicultural layers of the cities. In the cities, cultural diversity is related to the global imagery of popular culture, street culture and contemporary art. In addition, the cities stress the canon of Western art history as a base for common Europeanness compounded of various nationalities and regionalities. One essential strategy is to represent different minorities and their visual culture as signs of cultural diversity. Cultural diversity is a complex and political concept. Its definitions and representations inevitably involve power structures and production of cultural and political hierarchies. Hierarchies and political tension are bound to the concept even though it is often introduced as equal and anti-racist discourse. In this paper, we explore the possibility of applying high-dimensionalvector representations of concept-relation-concept triplets, which have been successfullyapplied to model a small set of relationship types in the biomedicaldomain, to the task of modeling folk tales. In doing so, our ultimate aim is todevelop representations of narratives through which their underlying structurecan be compared. The current paper describes our progress toward this aim, withemphasis on addressing the technical challenges involved in moving from therelatively constrained set of relations that have been extracted from biomedicaltext to the much larger set of unnormalized relations that have been extractedfrom the open domain. A toy example using graded vectors demonstrates that ourapproach will be feasible once more material will be added to the test collection. In this paper we explore layered conceptions of access and accessibility as they relate to the theory and praxis of digital scholarly editing. To do this, we designed and disseminated a qualitative survey on five key themes: dissemination; Open Access and licensing; access to code; web accessibility; and diversity. Throughout the article we engage in cultural criticism of the discipline by sharing results from the survey, identifying how the community talks about and performs access, and pinpointing where improvements in praxis could be made. In the final section of this paper we reflect on different ways to utilize the survey results when critically designing and disseminating digital scholarly editions, propose a call to action, and identify avenues of future research. Trust is a crucial quality in the development of individuals and societies and empathy plays a key role in the formation of trust. Trust and empathy have growing importance in studies of negotiation. However, empathy can be rejected which complicates its role in negotiation. This paper presents a linguistic analysis of empathy by focusing on rejection of empathy in negotiation. Some of the rejections are due to failed recognition of the rejector's needs and desires whereas others have mainly strategic functions gaining momentum in the negotiation. In both cases, rejection of empathy is a phase in the negotiation not a breakdown. For some years customers have been able to purchase mass customized garments on the Internet and “Design your own...” is very often used to attract the customer. Most of the products are standard products that the customer are allowed to change in a number of predetermined ways. Design however is something more than just choosing the colour or changing the length of the arms, it also involves changing the silouette and the whole expression of the garment. The idea is to create the basis for a new type of design and manufacturing that allows true own design for everybody. This paper traces how subjective measures of welfare were transformed from a marginal issue in the social sciences to a valuation of welfare of nations. The co-production of social science and politics is analysed in a case study of negotiations of subjective and objective indicators in Sweden. Since the 1970s social scientists have strived towards finding a replacement for the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as an indicator of welfare in nations. Over the years, various political actors have attempted to make such measurements comply with their ideas of what constitutes a good society. This paper traces the co-production of social scientific knowledge and the political process of attempting to establish a new standardized way of measuring welfare in Sweden. As GDP and other purely economic indicators have dominated how value is ascribed to nations, the various attempts of challenging this form of measurement have taken place at the margins of the social sciences. However, during the past two decades, the negotiations of finding alternative measures of welfare have dramatically moved forward their positions, entering mainstream science and politics. Drawing from a variety of source documents (political proposals, influential reports, mass media accounts and scientific literature), this article connects and analyses multiple modes of veridiction that are the subjects of controversies and negotiations in the construction of a proposed valuemeter of welfare in Sweden. As a result, we show how two major social scientific conceptions of welfare measurements, based either on subjective or objective indicators, relate (without being reduced) to political proposals. This article presents a study that investigates product satisfaction in the context of clothing. The paper furthermore presents suggestions on how this knowledge can be used to create proactive fashion design for sustainable consumption. One of the main challenges in today’s consumer society is how to design products that encourage consumers to engage in more environmentally responsible behaviour, sustainable consumption. This paper opens the discussion on how to change current unsustainable consumption behaviour related to clothing through a visionary, far-sighted design approach. Designers can create future-oriented sustainable designs that can transform consumption patterns towards more sustainable ones. Design for sustainability can thus be a redirective practice that aims for sustainable consumption, and the ways in which fashion design can be a proactive process with this aim will be described. This article shows why emotional satisfaction and enhancing a product’s quality and other intrinsic characteristics are most important when attempting to extend the product’s lifetime. Furthermore, this paper shows that services can create an opportunity to extend the enjoyable use of a product and offer satisfaction to consumers in a sustainable manner. Textile materials and textile design are a part of countless products in our surroundings, as well as of diverse design fields and industries, with very different material traditions and working methods. Textile materials and industry have undergone many changes during recent decades, in terms of how and where textiles are produced, and what textiles can be and do; in much the same way, the design practices that textiles are involved in have also developed. What these diverse and evolving design contexts in which textiles are involved in have in common is that textile materials and textile design decisions somehow meet the rest of the design during a design process. The aim of this thesis is to add to our understanding of the relationship between textiles and products in the design process, and to explore the roles that textile design plays when designing textile products, the roles they can come to play when textiles become more complex and offer new means of functionality and expressiveness, for example through smart textile technology. This thesis presents two types of result: Firstly, descriptions of textile product design processes that highlight the wide range of roles that textiles can play in the textile product design processes of today, accentuate how textile materials and design decisions can influence both what can be designed and the design process, and describe some of the additional complexities that come with designing and designing with smart textiles. These examples are presented in the appended papers, and are the outcome of an observation of students who were designing textile products and collaborative, practice-based design research projects. Secondly, this thesis presents a theoretical framework which aims to offer a broad perspective on the relationship between textile design and the product design process, with the intention of opening up for reflection on how we design, and can design, with textiles. The framework focuses on how textile design decisions and textile materials participate in the process, and to what degree they influence the development of the design; this includes methods, questions, etc. that can be used to explore and define this dynamic. One of the main points of the framework is the importance of the textile influence in textile product design processes; the specific qualities of textiles as a design material - the considerations, possibilities, and challenges, which influence both the design of the product and the process of designing it. This includes not only the textiles in the final design, but also the textiles that, in other ways, feature in this process. Hermeneutik är både en filosofi om förståelsens villkor och en benämning för en forskningsansats med tolkning som analysredskap. Inom ramen för en hermeneutisk forskningstradition söks emellertid inga sanningar i termer av ett orsak - verkan tänkande. Istället söks fruktbara sätt att förstå företeelser som kan vara svåra att hantera i vår vardagsförståelse. Forskningsfrågor som kan formuleras i termer av ”vad betyder den här företeelsen för den här gruppen av människor” lämpar sig ofta för en hermeneutisk forskningsansats. Vi människor använder emellertid alltid tolkningar för att orientera oss i tillvaron, det vi uppfattar som sanningar brukar helt enkelt vara de tolkningar som gäller i ett bestämt sammanhang, t.ex. det samhälle som vi växt upp i. Därför behöver vi skilja mellan vanliga vardagstolkningar och tolkningarna i en vetenskaplig studie. De sistnämnda är förstås aktuellt för empirisk hermeneutik, en humanvetenskapligt inriktad forskningsansats som kan tillämpas inom flera områden. Vanligast är den förmodligen inom samhälls- och vårdvetenskap. De forskningsfrågor som är aktuella för den här typen av studier kan inte besvaras med en orsaksförklarande metod som syftar till att förutsäga (predicera). Förklaringsnivån inom hermeneutiken handlar snarare om innebörder i texter, utsagor, handlingar och andra meningsskapande mänskliga aktiviteter. Hermeneutiken är dock inget nytt påfund. Begreppet myntades långt före den naturvetenskapliga revolutionen. Den tillämpade hermeneutiken har flera olika utgångspunkter och användningsområden. Låt oss därför, innan vi tar itu med frågan om hur man kan gå tillväga i empirisk hermeneutisk, ägna oss åt den historiska utvecklingen. Människan i vården - etnografi, vård och drama riktar sig till alla som söker en metod att undersöka och förändra specifika miljöer, inte minst inom vården. Boken beskriver tre metodologier, etnografi, hermeneutik och dramapedagogik. I första delen diskuteras etnografins teori och perspektiv medan dess andra del visar på den praktiska tillämpningen. Den tredje delen av boken tar upp vilken form av kunskap som kan erhållas genom etnografisk forskning och hur en lärande praktik kan utvecklas. Innehållet i boken rör sig mellan metodologi och fältarbete, deltagande observation, berättelse, etnografiskt skrivande och dramapedagogik i vårdmiljö. En viktig fråga är hur den subjektiva erfarenheten blir kroppsliggjord och hur den kan förstås i sitt sociala sammanhang. Författarna introducerar både teoretiskt och praktiskt, en förening mellan etnografi och dramapedagogik som de benämner etnografiskt drama. Abstract units of narrative content called motifs constitute sequences, also known as tale types. However whereas the dependency of tale types on the constituent motifs is clear, the strength of their bond has not been measured this far. Based on the observation that differences between such motif sequences are reminiscent of nucleotide and chromosome mutations in genetics, i.e., constitute “narrative DNA”, we used sequence mining methods from bioinformatics to learn more about the nature of tale types as a corpus. 94% of the Aarne-Thompson-Uther catalogue (2249 tale types in 7050 variants) was listed as individual motif strings based on the Thompson Motif Index, and scanned for similar subsequences. Next, using machine learning algorithms, we built and evaluated a classifier which predicts the tale type of a new motif sequence. Our findings indicate that, due to the size of the available samples, the classification model was best able to predict magic tales, novelles and jokes. Den nationella ungdomspolitiken betonar ungas delaktighet och att de ska ges reellt inflytande med möjlighet att kunna påverka samhällsutvecklingen. I Falköpings kommun har under de senaste åren bedrivits ett systematiskt arbete med denna inriktning. Mål 1 i kommunen är ”Ett socialt hållbart Falköping”. I kapitlet redovisas hur kommunen arbetar för att implementera sin policy i praktisk verksamhet med fokus på unga. Följeforskningen pekar på ett socialt innovativt arbete men också utmaningar för att främja alla ungas delaktighet och samhörighet. Knitted products have a flexibility that offers many attractive possibilities. Combined with technical fibres, this gives interesting and innovative possibilities. Many technical fibres and yarns has however properties such as high stiffness and brittleness which are difficult to process in the practice of weft knitting. This paper is about the experimental product development of a light radiating textile lamp in which optical fibres are used as the only illumination source. The lampshade is produced on an electronic flat knitting machine with special equipment suitable for the feeding of yarn with high stiffness. The work was divided in two parts: exploring the possibilities to knit the desired shape on one hand and experimenting about knitting with optical fibres as a weft insertion on the other hand. The method is an inductive approach; a literature survey, information from suppliers of knitting production equipment and experimental work on a flat knitting machine at The Swedish School of Textiles, Borås, Sweden. Results show that the diamond shaped structure can be knitted in one piece with transparent monofilament yarns. Furthermore it also shows that difficulties occur when knitting with stiff and brittle optical fibres therefore the paper ends with a discussion with suggestions of how to overcome these challenges. Substantial development has taken place, slowly, in the field of Quick Response (QR) since its evolution; however, the holistic view of it has been complex and fuzzy. The paper determines the dimensions and key elements of QR by identifying the essential virtues of a supply chain in a globalized environment and takes help of 3-dimensional concurrent engineering to develop a QR Practicability Tool-kit for future interpretation into a QR-rating model for measuring its adoption. The analysis is based on a critical review and synthesis from prior conceptual articles as a theoretical base. The work highlighted is expected to be beneficial for firms for developing value-added partnership (VAP), determining performance, re-configuring resources and aligning organizational activities.	http://hb.diva-portal.org/smash/resultList.jsf?p=151&fs=false&language=en&searchType=SIMPLE&query=&af=%5B%5D&aq=%5B%5B%7B%22categoryId%22%3A%2211799%22%7D%5D%5D&aq2=%5B%5B%5D%5D&aqe=%5B%5D&noOfRows=50&sortOrder=author_sort_asc&sortOrder2=title_sort_asc&onlyFullText=false&sf=all
You’ll learn about the relationship between a fabric’s drape and the sort of garment it is suited to. Katrina discusses design and wearing ease—excess space in a garment for comfort and style. The “pinch test” is a way to evaluate the textile’s drape. Fabrics with more drape, such as crepe, hang more closely to your body. Stiffer fabrics, such as taffeta, stand away from the body, and Katrina recommends using stiff fabrics for fitted or structured garments. Alternatively, use it for something geometric and deliberately boxy. After checking a fabric’s drape, Katrina recommends looking at how easily the silk textile can be shaped with heat and steam. She makes mock sleeve caps to see whether the fabric can be smoothly eased.	https://www.threadsmagazine.com/2022/04/26/sewing-with-silk-design-compatibility
Textile-reinforced concrete is a type of reinforced concrete in which the usual steel reinforcing bars are replaced by textile materials. Instead of using a metal cage inside the concrete, this technique uses a fabric cage inside the same. Overview Materials with high tensile strengths with negligible elongation properties are reinforced with woven or nonwoven fabrics. The fibres used for making the fabric are of high tenacity like Jute, Glass Fibre, Kevlar, Polypropylene, Polyamides (Nylon) etc. The weaving of the fabric is done either in a coil fashion or in a layer fashion. Molten materials, ceramic clays, plastics or cement concrete are deposited on the base fabric in such a way that the inner fabric is completely wrapped with the concrete or plastic. As a result of this sort of structure the resultant concrete becomes flexible from the inner side along with high strength provided by the outer materials. Various nonwoven structures also get priority to form the base structure. Special types of weaving machines are used to form spiral fabrics and layer fabrics are generally nonwoven. History First patents The initial creation of textile-reinforced concrete (TRC) began in the 1980s. Concepts for TRC originated from the Sächsisches Textiforschungs-institut e.V. STFI, a German institute focusing on Textile technology. The first patent for textile-reinforced concrete design, granted in 1982, was for transportation related safety items. These items were specifically meant to be reinforced with materials other than steel. In 1988, a patent was awarded for a safety barrier that used a rope-like reinforcement as its design. This reinforcement was made from concrete waste and textiles, and the innovative arrangement and size of the reinforcing fibers inside was notable. The reinforcements were set in place so that the concrete could be poured in, and the size of the reinforcement was described using diameter and mesh size. Concrete canoe and textile reinforced concrete In 1996, German university students created two concrete canoes using textile reinforcement. One boat utilized alkali-resistant glass as its textile reinforcement. To manufacture the glass in a fabric, a process called Malimo-technique was used to keep the glass in one continuous yarn, such that it could be used to make the fabric. The other boat was constructed using carbon fiber fabric as its method of reinforcement. The boats competed in the 1996 Concrete Canoe Regatta in Dresden, Germany, and this was the first time that textile-reinforced concrete was brought to public attention; the boats received an award for their design. Construction Four factors are important when constructing TRC, which include the quality of the concrete, the interaction between the textile and the concrete, the amount of fibers used, and the arrangement of the textile reinforcement inside of the concrete. The particle size of the concrete must be carefully selected. If the concrete is too coarse, it will not be able to permeate through the textile reinforcement. For the best results, fresh concrete should be used. To aid in adhesion, chemical admixtures can be added to help the fibers stick to the concrete. The characteristic features of TRC are its thin structure and malleable nature, as well as its ability to retain a high tensile strength; this is due to reinforcement in the concrete that uses long continuous fibers that are woven in a specific direction in order to add strength. As the result of the varying strength and properties needed to support correct loading, there are many different types of yarns, textiles weaves, and shapes that can be used in TRC. The textile begins with a yarn that is made of a continuous strand of either filaments or staples. The yarn is woven, knit, glued, braided or is left non-woven, depending on the needs of the project. Carbon, AR glass, and basalt are especially good materials for this process. Carbon has good tensile strength and low heat expansion, but is costly and has bad adhesion to concrete. Basalt is formed by melting basalt rock; it is more cost effective than carbon, and has a good tensile strength. The drawback of basalt is when it is placed in an alkali solution, such as concrete, it loses some of its volume of fibers, thus reducing its strength. This means a nano composite polymer coating must be applied to increase the longevity of the construction. AR glass has this problem, as well, but the positives of using AR glass in TRC structure, including its adhesion to concrete and low cost, outweigh these issues. Textile-reinforced concrete is described as a strain-hardening composite. Strain-hardening composites use short fiber reinforcements, such as yarn made from carbon fiber, to strengthen a material. Strain-hardening requires the reinforcements and concrete matrix surrounding the reinforcement to be carefully designed in order to achieve the desired strength. The textile must be oriented in the correct direction during design to handle the main loading and stresses it is expected to hold. Types of weaves that can be used to make fabrics for TRC include plain weave, Leno weave, warp-knitted, and 3D spacer. Another important aspect of textile-reinforced concrete is the permeability of the textile. Special attention must be paid to its structure, such that the textile is open enough for the concrete to flow through, while remaining stable enough to hold its own shape, since the placement of the reinforcement is vital to the final strength of the piece. The textile material must also have a high tensile strength, a high elongation before breaking, and a higher Young's Modulus than the concrete surrounding it. The textile can be hand laid into the concrete or the process could be mechanized to increase efficiency. Different ways of creating textile-reinforced concrete vary from traditional form-work casts, all the way to Pultrusion. When making TRC using casting, the form work must be constructed, and the textile reinforcement must be pre-installed and ready for concrete to be poured in. After the concrete is poured and has had time to harden, the form-work is removed to reveal the structure. Another way of creating a TRC structure is lamination by hand. Similar to casting, a form-work must be created to house the concrete and textile; concrete is then spread evenly in the form work, and then the textile is laid on top. More concrete is poured on top, and a roller is used to push the concrete into the spaces in the textile; this is completed layer after layer, until the structure reaches its required size. TRC can also be created by Pultrusion. In this process, a textile is pushed through a slurry infiltration chamber, where the textile is covered and embedded with concrete. Rollers squeeze the concrete into the textile, and it can take several sized rollers to get the desired shape and size. Uses Uses of textile reinforced materials, concretes are extensively increasing in modern days in combination with materials science and textile technology. Bridges, Pillars and Road Guards are prepared by kevlar or jute reinforced concretes to withstand vibrations, sudden jerks and torsion (mechanics). The use of reinforced concrete construction in the modern world stems from the extensive availability of its ingredients – reinforcing steel as well as concrete. Reinforced concrete fits nearly into every form, is extremely versatile and is therefore widely used in the construction of buildings, bridges, etc. The major disadvantage of RC is that its steel reinforcement is prone to corrosion. Concrete is highly alkaline and forms a passive layer on steel, protecting it against corrosion. Substances penetrating the concrete from outside (carbonisation) lowers the alkalinity over time (depassivation), making the steel reinforcement lose its protection thus resulting in corrosion. This leads to spalling of the concrete, reducing the permanency of the structure as a whole and leading to structural failure in extreme cases. Due to the thin, cost effective, and lightweight nature of textile-reinforced concrete, it can be used to create many different types of structural components. The crack control of TRC is much better than that tradition steel-reinforced concrete; when TRC cracks, it creates multiple small fisures, between 50 and 100 nanometers wide. In some cases, the cracks can self-heal, since a 50 nanometer crack is almost as impermeable as a non-cracked concrete. Due to these properties, TRC would be a great material for all different types of architectural and civil engineering applications. Textile-reinforced concrete can be used to create full structures, like bridges and buildings, as well as large structures in environments with much water, such as in mines and boat piers. As of 2018, the testing procedures and approval for these structures is not available, although it can currently be used to create small components, such as panels. Façade panels would be a convenient use of TRC, due to the material being thinner and lighter than typical concrete walls, and a cheaper alternative to other options. For bridges and building profiles, TRC could add to the strength and overall design of the structure. TRC could also be used to create irregular shapes with hard edges, and could be a novel way to enhance style and architectural design of modern buildings. Textile-reinforced concrete could also be used to reinforce, repair, or add on to existing buildings, in either a structural or cosmetic basis. Furthermore, TRC could be used to provide a protective layer for old structures or retrofit new elements to an old structure, due to the lack of corrosion associated with this mechanism. Unlike steel, which will rust if a crack forms, TRC does not corrode and will retain its strength, even with small cracks. If carbon fiber fabric is used as the textile, TRC could be used to heat buildings; carbon fiber is conductive, and could be used to support the building, as well as heat it. Current examples Large scale textile-reinforced concrete can be seen in Germany, at RWTH Aachen University, where a pavilion was constructed using a textile-reinforced concrete roof. The roof was engineered using four TRC pieces; each piece was thin and double curved in the shape of a hyperbolic paraboloid. Traditional concrete design would not allow this structure, due to the complex form-work needed to create the piece. RWTH Aachen University also utilized textile-reinforced concrete to create façade panels on a new extension added to their Institute of Structural Concrete building. This façade was made using AR glass and was made much lighter weight and in a more cost effective manner than a traditional façade of steel-reinforced concrete or stone. In 2010, RWTH Aachen University also helped to design a textile-reinforced concrete bridge in Albstadt, Germany, using AR glass as the reinforcement; the bridge is approximately 100 meters long, and is expected to have a much longer service life than the steel reinforced concrete bridge it replaced. Sustainability Textile-reinforced concrete is generally thinner than traditional steel-reinforced concrete. Typical steel-reinforced construction is 100 to 300 mm thick, while a TRC structure is generally 50 mm thick. TRC is much thinner due to an extra protective layer of concrete that is not needed for its design. Due to this thinner structure, less material is used, which helps to reduce the price of using concrete, since the amount of concrete needed is also reduced. Since TRC can be used to extend the life of existing structures, it cuts down on the cost of materials and man power needed to tear down these existing structures, in order to create new ones. Instead of replacing old structures, they can now be repaired to add years of service to the lives of their construction. See also - Geotextiles - Fiber-reinforced concrete References \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Textile reinforced concrete.\| - ^ "The Institute - Sächsisches Textilforschungsinstitut e.V." www.stfi.de. Retrieved 2018-12-11. - ^ a b c d e Scheerer, Silke. "Textile Reinforcement Concrete-From The Idea To A High Performance Material" (PDF). Webdefy. Retrieved 1 December 2018. - ^ a b c d e f Simonsson, Ellen (2017). "Complex shapes with textile reinforced concrete" (PDF). Chalmers. Retrieved 7 December 2018. - ^ a b c d e f g h i Alva, Peled; Bentur, Arnon; Mobasher, Barzin. Textile reinforced concrete (First ed.). Boca Raton, FL. ISBN 9781315119151. OCLC 993978342.	https://enwik.org/dict/Textile-reinforced_concrete
As a period costume designer in the theatre, film and museum industries, my goals are to work on projects with a focus on historical accuracy and detail, to create exciting and realistic visuals to help expand the audience’s understanding of different periods, and to combine my creativity and my knowledge and research skills to create works of dynamic visual and dramatic art that inform as well as visually excite the audience. Costume Design: I am skilled at combining design aspects such as colour, shape and detail which I use to translate character and depth visually through costume design. I can create a unified production design, working with director, set and lighting designers, and specialize in period and fantastical costumes. Research: I am an experienced researcher, and can draw from multiple sources the aesthetic of a particular time period, culture and class. I have a strong fashion history background. Construction: I am experienced in period costume construction and familiar with unusual sewing techniques found only in period costume, such as boning and cartridge pleating. I can draft my own patterns, use commercial patterns, or follow others' hand-made patterns. I can also distress, dye, break down and stain costumes and fabrics. Millinery: I have experience as a milliner and can construct hats of a wide range of types and shapes. Buying: I am experienced at making the most of a tight project budget and am very familiar with the resources available in Vancouver for inexpensive fabrics, props and supplies and am organized and keep excellent records of purchases. Repair and Maintenance: As a designer on small productions and as a costume assistant for other designers, I have a great deal of experience with repair work, both by hand and machine as well as standard costume maintenance work. I am creative and have a wide variety of craft skills that can assist with props and stage maintenance as well. Wardrobe Management: I have supervised crews of up to ten, devised budgets and schedules, created and implemented costume archive systems, dealt with rental companies and worked with other designers to create their vision. Textile Arts: I can embroider, make bobbin lace, bead, and do various other forms of ornamental textile arts. I also teach several of these skills on a regular basis. Fashion History: I have a strong fashion history background, and have taught the subject up to the college level. 2007-2016 – Collingwood School: "The Diary of Anne Frank", "Amadeus", "The Crucible", "Harvey", "Scenes From American Life", "The Laramie Project", "The Visit", "12 Angry Men", "The 39 Steps", "The Farnsworth Invention", "Witness for the Prosecution", "The Crucible", "The Diary of Anne Frank", "The Dining Room", "Amadeus" 2005-2011 – Spectral Theatre Society: "Hamlet, Prince of Denmark"; "Dead Ends IV":"Pyewacket"; "Black Holes": "Tranquility Station", "The Unbecoming of Dr. Kronor", "The Visitors"; "Dead Ends V": "The Good, the Bad and the Unclean", "Succubus-A-Go-Go", "The Dweller In the Dark"; "The Late Night Double Feature": "Necromance", "Bayswater Station", "The Visitors", "Pyewacket", "The Good, The Dead and the Unclean"; "Tales from the Toadstool": "The Story of Erisichthon" 1990-2001 - Teaching of a variety of classes from basic costume research and design to theatre etiquette for children and adults. Return to the Main Costumes Page.	http://naomilazarus.com/resume.html
Luca Curci talks with Monika Zabel during PLACES the second appointment of SURFACES FESTIVAL 2018 in Venice. Monika Zabel born in Hamburg, she has lived and worked in urban metropolis like New York, Sao Paulo, Moscow and London. She is currently based in and between New York and Hamburg. She is a graduate of New York’s Fashion Institute of Technology (FIT) specialised in sustainable design. She also holds a PhD in Economics of TU Berlin. She has presented her design work at art exhibitions and fashion shows and has shared her advanced positions in fashion design in Europe and the US. She curated and contributed to the international exhibition “Art of Fashion” featuring international designers at Poolhaus-Blankenese art space in Hamburg 2016, was 2017 and 2018 key note speaker at Global Sustainable Fashion Week in Budapest. Monika was Artist in Residence 2017 of RUCKA Art Foundation in Cesis (Wenden), Latvia, the first designer who was awarded with this international recognition. The residency included an exhibition that was concluded by a fashion show at the Cesis Art Hall. Currently she is showing her work at Surfaces, a sales exhibition along the Architecture Biennal in Venice, Italy. She is invited fashion designer at the Fashion Art Bienal in Seoul, South Korea , in October 2018. Image courtesy of Monika Zabel \| Photography courtesy of Birgit Karsten (studio) and Frederika Adam (Venice) Luca Curci – What is art for you? Monika Zabel – Art is a form of expression, a statement towards life. My statement is exuberant joy and beauty. Being an artist is also a profession. L.C. – Which is the role the artist plays in the society? And in contemporary art? M.Z. – By definition contemporary art is the art of today, produced in the second half of the 20th century or in the 21st century. Contemporary artists live and work in a globally influenced, culturally diverse, and technologically advancing world. In my view an artist in our times has to communicate a narrative that goes beyond storytelling. Artists and their works play a crucial role in triggering the thinking process for others, often in regard to social and political issues. Image courtesy of Monika Zabel \| Photography courtesy of Birgit Karsten (studio) and Frederika Adam (Venice) L.C. – How would you describe your work? As art or as fashion? M.Z. – Each of my textile compositions is a suggestion. My work is fluid and can exist in different spheres. It has been displayed in galleries, private homes, in the windows of a swimming pool house turned an art space, in museums. Another mode of display is the human body. What is currently shown in Palazzo Ca’ Zanardi are textile sculptures on metal torsi hung from the ceiling – ART. It may and can be worn and then transit from fine art to fine fashion, it is fashion art. The wearer, however, has to WANT to wear it, proudly, being aware of standing out in a noble attire that is truly unique. “It certainly has weight and presence, and gives its wearer the same”, as a visitor of the exhibition, briefly wearing one of the attires, put it. Image courtesy of Monika Zabel \| Photography courtesy of Birgit Karsten (studio) and Frederika Adam (Venice) L.C. – What is your creative process like, what is special about your way of designing? M.Z. – I am a fashion designer trained at FIT New York. We were among the first graduates who specialized in Sustainable Design. This continues to guide my creative process. The “DNA” of my creations is particular and distinct from what is known and typically applied in fashion design. First, the sourcing of the materials. For the two textile installations exhibited at Palazzo Ca’ Zanardi I have worked with sample pieces of fabrics, gifted and thrifted materials and end of roll fabric, also labelled as overproduction or pre- and post-consumer “waste”, along with some found objects. All materials are of finest qualities, pure silk, cotton, linen and combinations of these, and used not only for the upper, but also for the lining of the work. No chemical fibers are processed at all. Second, the design techniques I apply, such as de- and reconstruction, zero waste, repurposing and redesigning. I effectively minimize the utilization of scarce resources. Design follows in this case (available) fabrics – the size of a particular fabric as well as its quality define what can be created with it. My creations are assembled in small couture ateliers near to the places I live and work, involving master tailors’ work, partly by hand. All Urban Pilgrim creations exist only once – there is no possibility to meeting another person wearing the same clothes. Image courtesy of Monika Zabel \| Photography courtesy of Birgit Karsten (studio) and Frederika Adam (Venice) L.C. – Which art themes do you pursue in your work? M.Z. – Currently, it is the theme of transition and travelling through different places and spaces. Combining the old and the new. Making time related and cultural references, like the cape, the pilgrim stick, the heavenly head. And, as a cross cutting theme, creating something cherished and precious in times where clothing has become a(nother) quickly produced and disposed fast moving consumer good, and where the fast turnover of contemporary clothing is creating significant environmental and human damage. L.C. – What do you think about the concept of this festival? In which way did it inspire you? M.Z. – My inspiration is twofold. First, it’s the place. The venue of a Venetian Palace was immediately appealing to me and adequate to exhibit URBAN PILGRIMS. Second, the surfaces festival brings together different art forms under the thematic umbrella of Places. Contemporary Art is more and more result of collaboration between artists of same or different disciplines as well as of cooperation between different design forms (like interior and fashion design, dance, photography, drawing and architecture). Image courtesy of Monika Zabel \| Photography courtesy of Birgit Karsten (studio) and Frederika Adam (Venice) L.C. – In which way the fashion artwork presented in our exhibition is connected with the festival’s theme? M.Z. – Surfaces and places directly relate to the modes of display. My works are strongly connected to places where I found the materials used for the work currently exhibited at PLACES. They originate from all over the world – Paris, New York, Hamburg, Baku, Cesis, London, Brussels. These places reflect my own pilgrimage through time. Visiting and living in different cities and being exposed to different cultural identities that became over time part of my own personality. L.C. – And what is next for you? M.Z. – Just after the vernissage in Venice I had to travel back to Hamburg for a photo shooting of the next capsule collection on live models. The set was a magic urban park setting around a Japanese Tea House. And for the end of the exhibition on 13 September I will come back to Venice to bring the Urban Pilgrims back to the next exhibition venue. Next place to exhibit my work will be the International Fashion Art Biennale in Seoul in October, as one of the invited international artists. This recognition is a big honor and an exciting opportunity. For this occasion I am creating a special work, of course a “one of”. Image courtesy of Monika Zabel \| Photography courtesy of Birgit Karsten (studio) and Frederika Adam (Venice) L.C. – Do you think ITSLIQUID GROUP can represent an opportunity for artists? M.Z. – Absolutely yes. It takes a bit of research about the venues and the artists that have exhibited in the past. For me the venue Palazzo Ca’ Zanardi appeared to be ideal for my work presented as textile sculptures hanging from the ceiling on metal torsi It is in the spirit of La Biennale, opening the Palaces with a long tradition telling stories from the past and to populate them with contemporary art, to contrast and to combine the ancient with the current. It also depends on the artist what you make out of this opportunity. I have taken the opportunity of the full moon night in July, a day after our vernissage, to unhook the two installations over the night and let them walk to the St Markus Square. Blue Sculpture walking under Red Moon. Image courtesy of Monika Zabel \| Photography courtesy of Birgit Karsten (studio) and Frederika Adam (Venice) L.C. – Did you enjoy cooperating with us? M.Z. – Yes, absolutely, and I still do! It’s not even half time of the ongoing exhibition PLACES. I will be coming back to Venice to de-install my work and before that welcoming fellow Italian designers and friends for a guided tour through my work. I can also imagine to come back another time with other works.	http://www.itsliquid.com/interview-monika-zabel.html
Q1: You’ve been on this project now for 11 weeks, how would you describe your journey to date? Keely Russell: I've had an amazing experience so far. I've made so many industry connections in such a short space of time. I specialised in printing at university and loved that pathway, so working in a company like CMYUK that is a leader in wide format digital print has been a really good starting place. Evie Venables: It’s been really interesting working on different briefs because it’s pushed me to approach my designs in different ways and experiment with new styles that I wouldn’t have done on my own. Sarah Willcocks: I’ve seen how important digital printing is to the future of textile design and been exposed to cutting-edge production technology. Visiting the Mentors in their own studios has made me even more passionate about what I want to do. Q2: How has your approach to the second brief differed from your first? KR: This second brief has been graphic and shape orientated because obviously, it’s about geometrics. In the initial brief, we used photographs to manipulate and produce designs to create a more photorealistic outcome – similar to how I used to work at university – so this latest brief is a completely new experience for me. EV: The first brief was all about photography, scanning images, manipulating and deconstructing them – a different approach for me as I’ve never designed a collection purely on digital input. With the second brief I took a hands-on approach drawing with Indian inks and fine liners to create my geometric shapes. SW: I have more clarity on my end products and what styles I'm drawn to. Adam Slade, a mentor from Standfast and Barracks gave me some really useful feedback that helped me narrow down my themes for this current brief to Art Nouveau styles. The pace of the project has really challenged my creative process in a good way, stopping my tendency to overthink and helping my more playful ideas come to the fore. Q3: What are the things you’ve found most insightful, challenging, and/or enjoyable? KR: The different industry visits have been very insightful as we’ve been behind a lot of closed doors. Our design work has been punctuated with lots of visits making turnaround times faster than I’m used to, which is a really good introduction to the industry. Getting to use all the technology at CMYUK to test, sample and print to my heart’s content has definitely been one of the most enjoyable aspects. EV: The visits and industry mentoring have been both insightful and enjoyable. We’ve got to see how different designers work and how they run their businesses. The most challenging aspect has been learning to use all the different RIP software as there’s a lot to take in. Up until now, I’ve focussed on the design side of things, so it’s really good to think about the end product. SW: The challenge has definitely been the time pressure and finding the best methods to execute ideas. The insights I’ve gained by seeing the technology behind bespoke printing and the ethical side of fashion has really helped to solidify my interests. The most enjoyable aspect has been the diversity of work that I have done. Q4: How has the way you approach a project changed? KR: I'm think much more about the end result. The CMYUK demo and training facility provides opportunities for an expanded spectrum of applications. This has pushed me to broaden my whole approach. EV: I now think about the design and the production as a continuous process that are entirely interlinked. The way fabrics, inks and printer technology combine to produce the look, feel and practical use of a printed product. SW: For me, its’s been about approaching the brief as a unified whole and considering all aspects of the project beyond the design element. All the various processes are as important as one another. Q5: How has becoming more familiar with different digital print technologies helped your practice? KR: I’m thinking much more about the end product, the fabrics I’ll be using and what ink technology is most suitable for the job in hand. Just knowing about the technology has really help broaden my ideas. I’ve also been looking at printing onto hard surfaces. At university I printed onto a lot of textiles but never onto the variety of surfaces that CMYUK offers here. EV: Working with an array of digital technology has made me think about the finished product and what I can or can’t achieve with different technologies. SW: It’s been good to understand the reach of certain technologies and also what type of ink you might need to use depending on the application. It’s been really useful understanding how long the various processes take and what this might mean to a large volume order with a quick turnaround. Q6: How are you incorporating Earth-friendly considerations into your designs? KR: Digital printing is perfect for short-run production. Designs can be sampled at small scale and produced immediately on-site. We had a CAD session on dropping designs onto garment patterns that reduces wastage. There’s also a great deal of organic and recycled materials to choose from the CMYUK textile binders, which I’ve been looking at as a first choice for my designs. EV: Accuracy and efficiency of print onto natural and recyclable materials, minimising waste, and only using what you need. SW: Talking to the Pattern Room really bought home how much waste there is in the fashion industry. I am being mindful of that and conscious of the type of base materials I use. I am also looking more closely at the textile manufacturing processes and the lifecycles of all materials both natural and man-made. Also, understanding that sustainability is dependent on a number of factors and working out what would be the best-case scenario. Q7: Have your perceptions around digital textiles and affiliated industries changed due to your mentoring sessions? KR: Talking to designers and industry experts has really deepened my understanding of digital print. I'm excited by the fashion and interior businesses that we've been mentored by and the digital methods they use in-house, which obviously opens up a lot more opportunities for print designers in the industry. EV: I was already aware of the high demand and time pressures of the textile design industry but it's definitely been highlighted even further. You can't spend too long on a design even if you want to because you will just end up wasting money and making no profit. I’m just a lot more aware now of the commercial aspect of design. SW: I have become aware of the rise in demand of personalised products and the new business models that have come to the fore due to digital processes and the Internet. Q8: How are you enjoying your internship at CMYUK and how inspiring has the CIRL project been for you so far? KR: I think it's exceeded expectations. I didn't realise that we'd be able to design and print as much as we've been able to. I feel really lucky to be able to tap into such great opportunities in the industry straight after graduating. EV: It's been really good and I can't believe that it’s happening in Shrewsbury where I live, which is an added bonus. It’s been a good learning experience so far and I'm excited for the upcoming briefs. The mentors and the trips have been most inspiring, it’s given a glimpse into the future, where I could be and what I could achieve. SW: It’s been the best job ever. I’ve been able to explore so many areas of digital textiles where I could base my future career. This experience has certainly provided a context of everything that goes on in the background. Meeting the mentors, seeing how they’ve set up their business and understanding that good design on its own isn’t enough for commercial success. Q9: What are your future career hopes? KR: I love reading interior design magazines. It would be a dream to be able to have my work featured in these magazines either through a brand or my own designs. EV: I would love to gain more experience in both a fashion and interior design studio to help me decide what I’m best suited to, or possibly break the boundaries and do both. I would love to run my own business one day and see my products commercially available. SW: I am gravitating towards the décor market, it’s definitely an area where I can see myself developing a full-on career. Join the discussion Sign In or Become a Member, doing so is simple and free Inks and Automatic Color Switching on the HP Indigo V12 Digital Press High Lifespan Consumables for the HP Indigo V12 Digital Press The Power of HP Indigo One-Shot Technology User Experience and Design on the HP Indigo V12 Digital Press The HP Indigo Optimizer: Planning Efficient Print Runs at the Press of a Button © 2022 WhatTheyThink. All Rights Reserved.	https://whattheythink.com/news/108654-cmyuk-creatives-residence-live-11-weeks/
How Do Fashion Designers Use Math? Math is a crucial element of fashion design. It is used to measure sample garments for fitting as well as to keep sizes consistent. In addition, an understanding of geometry is needed when mapping a two-dimensional pattern that has to be designed to fit on a three-dimensional body. According to Math for Grownups, fashion designers use math-based computer programs to help manipulate flat garment patterns into three-dimensional shapes. Flat sketches of garments must be mathematically accurate. They are then paired with the measurement specs and given to the factory to produce the garments. Without knowledge of math, designers would not be able to draft garment patterns. Math is also used when creating trim pages for the factory. Designers use trim pages to tell factories the number of trims needed for each garment. Math is necessary to allow designers to order correct numbers of buttons. Any errors in arithmetic can result in huge cost overruns. Designers need a particularly good sense and understanding of geometry to successfully create three-dimensional patterns. They also need to be able to add fractions in their heads easily since most patterns are measured out in 1/8-inch increments. Being able to manipulate calculations regarding area is also important when it comes to designing how patterns should be laid out on fabric.	https://www.reference.com/business-finance/fashion-designers-use-math-ef448c84865af92f
The burning of fossil fuels (e.g. through driving cars and to produce electricity), the cutting down of rainforests, the destruction of native vegetation, unsustainable development, the increase of livestock farming, industrial processes and an increased amount of waste going to landfills all contribute to speeding up … What are the 5 causes of climate change? The main causes of climate change are: - Humanity’s increased use of fossil fuels – such as coal, oil and gas to generate electricity, run cars and other forms of transport, and power manufacturing and industry. - Deforestation – because living trees absorb and store carbon dioxide. What are 10 causes of climate change? The Top 10 Causes of Global Warming - Power Plants. Forty percent of U.S. carbon dioxide emissions stem from electricity production. … - Transportation. EPA reports state that thirty-three percent of U.S. emissions come from the transportation of people and goods. - Farming. … - Deforestation. … - Fertilizers. … - Oil Drilling. … - Natural Gas Drilling. … - Permafrost. 22.11.2019 What is the main cause of climate change? Human activity is the main cause of climate change. People burn fossil fuels and convert land from forests to agriculture. … Burning fossil fuels produces carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas. It is called a greenhouse gas because it produces a “greenhouse effect”. What are 4 effects of climate change? Increased heat, drought and insect outbreaks, all linked to climate change, have increased wildfires. Declining water supplies, reduced agricultural yields, health impacts in cities due to heat, and flooding and erosion in coastal areas are additional concerns. What are the 6 major factors that affect climate? LOWER is an acronym for 6 factors that affect climate. - Latitude. It depends on how close or how far it is to the equator. … - Ocean currents. Certain ocean currents have different temperatures. … - Wind and air masses. Heated ground causes air to rise which results in lower air pressure. … - Elevation. … - Relief. How we can reduce climate change? Learn More - Speak up! … - Power your home with renewable energy. … - Weatherize, weatherize, weatherize. … - Invest in energy-efficient appliances. … - Reduce water waste. … - Actually eat the food you buy—and make less of it meat. … - Buy better bulbs. … - Pull the plug(s). 17.07.2017 How do we solve climate change? What solutions to consider? Changing our main energy sources to clean and renewable energy. Solar, Wind, Geothermal and biomass could be the solution. Our transport methods must be aligned with environmental requirements and reduce their carbon footprint. What is climate change and its causes? The primary cause of climate change is the burning of fossil fuels, such as oil and coal, which emits greenhouse gases into the atmosphere—primarily carbon dioxide. Other human activities, such as agriculture and deforestation, also contribute to the proliferation of greenhouse gases that cause climate change. What is the number 1 cause of global warming? The gas responsible for the most warming is carbon dioxide, or CO2. What evidence indicate the climate is changing? The physical and biological changes that confirm climate warming include the rate of retreat in glaciers around the world, the intensification of rainfall events, changes in the timing of the leafing out of plants and the arrival of spring migrant birds, and the shifting of the range of some species. Who is responsible for climate change? Fossil fuel firms clearly play a major role in the climate problem. A major report released in 2017 attributed 70% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions over the previous two decades to just 100 fossil fuel producers. An update last year outlined the top 20 fossil fuel firms behind a third of emissions. Is climate change bad 2020? According to NOAA, as of October 7, 2020, there have been 16 weather/climate disaster events with losses exceeding $1 billion each to affect the US. These included one drought event, eleven severe storms, three tropical cyclones, and one wildfire, resulting in 188 deaths and significant economic effects. What are the bad effects of climate change? More frequent and intense drought, storms, heat waves, rising sea levels, melting glaciers and warming oceans can directly harm animals, destroy the places they live, and wreak havoc on people’s livelihoods and communities. As climate change worsens, dangerous weather events are becoming more frequent or severe. How will climate change affect us? Human health is vulnerable to climate change. The changing environment is expected to cause more heat stress, an increase in waterborne diseases, poor air quality, and diseases transmitted by insects and rodents. Extreme weather events can compound many of these health threats.	https://flairng.com/africa/what-are-the-5-causes-of-climate-change-in-south-africa.html
The global effects of climate change are very painful! If you’re also worried about global warming, you’re definitely not alone. The world is always getting warmer due to human activities, and climate change now threaten all aspects of human life. If these changes are not controlled, human and nature will face catastrophic global warming. This will be accompanied by intensifying drought, further sea level rise and mass extinction of species. Warming is not just an environmental problem. This problem affects all aspects of our lives. That is why our answer to this problem must be comprehensive. Evidence suggests that the main cause of climate crisis is the burning of fossil fuels such as oil, gas and coal. When burned, fossil fuels release carbon dioxide into the air, causing the earth to heat up. Farmers around the world who are affected by heat waves are familiar with this phenomenon. The number of victims has increased due to heatstroke. For those who have lost their homes due forest fires in southern Europe and the United States, global warming has long been a reality. But is it really too late to prevent catastrophic global effects of climate change? What is climate change definition? Climate change refers to long-term changes in temperature and normal climate patterns in a particular region or Earth’s surface. Throughout the Earth’s history, the climate has changed steadily and slowly over hundreds and thousands of years. But it is now occurring at a much faster rate due to human activities and global effects of climate change affect all humans. The Earth’s climate has been changing since it forming around 4.5 years ago. Until recently, natural factors contributed to these changes. Natural effects on the climate include volcanic eruptions, changes in the Earth’s orbit, and changes in the Earth’s crust. Over the past million years, the Earth has experienced a series of ice ages and warmer “interglacial” periods. Glacial and interglacial periods occur approximately every 100,000 years due to changes in the Earth’s orbit around the Sun. For the past several thousand years, the Earth has been at a constant temperature between glaciations. However, since the Industrial Revolution in the 1800s, the Earth’s temperature has risen much faster. By burning fossil fuels and Land use changing, human activities have rapidly led to major causes of climate crisis. Storms, floods, droughts, and severe forest fires all indicate unusual high-velocity changes in the Earth’s atmosphere. Global effects of climate change and global warming have become one of the most important environmental challenges today. Affecting all countries of the world, and tackling these changes requires global action. The global effects of climate change Onset of the Industrial Revolution in the 1850s and consumption of fossil fuels increased the level of “carbon dioxide”. Rising levels of carbon dioxide are the main cause of global warming. Climate change can make it difficult and impossible to predict climate patterns. And these unexpected climate patterns can make it difficult to maintain and grow crops in areas that rely on agriculture. Why? because they can no longer meet the expected temperature and rainfall. Global warming is also associated with other destructive weather events such as frequent and more severe storms, floods, rain and winter storms. Global warming may occur as part of natural processes such as fluctuations in sunlight intensity, deviations in the Earth’s path and volcanic activity. The climate after the Industrial Revolution and the increasing consumption of fossil fuels are increasingly under the impact of human activities. The main climate change causes The cause of current effects of climate change is mainly human activities such as burning fossil fuels, such as natural gas, oil and coal, which emit greenhouse gases into the Earth’s atmosphere. These gases trap the heat of the sun’s radiation inside the atmosphere and cause the earth’s average temperature to rise. This increase in global temperature is called “global warming”. The world’s attention to climate crisis and global warming has increased more than ever since 1992, following the UN Convention on Climate Change. Which aims to stabilize the amount of greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere to prevent future global effects of climate change. In 2015, 174 countries and the European Union ratified the Paris Agreement within the framework of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The purpose of the Paris Agreement is to control global warming by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and preventing global warming by more than 2 degrees Celsius. This agreement trying to limit it to 1.5 degrees Celsius. Currently 197 countries are members of these international treaties. The destructive impact of human activities on global effects of climate change Environmental researchers warn of the devastating impact of human action on climate crisis in a report released by the United Nations. Researchers called the situation critical “an expression of the bitter reality of the planet’s condition” for its inhabitants. The report discusses the devastating effect of continuous greenhouse gas emissions on global warming. Its authors warn that a two-meter rise in sea levels by the end of the century due to the melting of polar ice caps could not be ruled out. Environmentalists say the report is a “huge wake-up call” to governments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The first important point of the report is that the earth is getting warmer. The rate of this heating today is 1.2 degrees Celsius higher than when the Industrial Revolution began. Second, this warming is largely the result of fossil fuel consumption. Consumption of fossil fuels and other human economic activities releases more than 40 billion tons of greenhouse gases into the Earth’s atmosphere each year. Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, nearly 2.4 trillion tons of greenhouse gases have entered the Earth’s atmosphere. When human use fossil fuels to generate energy and forests are cut down, greenhouse gases are released into the atmosphere. some of main human causes of climate change: - Burning fossil fuels such as oil, gas, and coal contain carbon dioxide - Deforestation and Cutting Forests down - Planting crops and rearing animals - Producing cement are Greenhouse gases and their effects on climate crisis Greenhouse gases are one of the most dangerous climate change factors. It is a common name for gases such as carbon dioxide, methane nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons, hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons. Greenhouse gases absorb long-wavelength radiation emitted from the earth and prevent the planet from cooling down. But excessive accumulation of these gases as a result of climate crisis and industrialization of societies can have negative effects. It cause Excessive global warming that could lead to the extinction of thousands of plant and animal species. Increasing the amount of greenhouse gases causes climate change. By absorbing infrared radiation, these gases control the natural flow of energy by changing the climate. The climate system is adjusted in response to the emission of greenhouse gases with a thick coating of these gases. It maintain a balance between energy received from the sun and energy returned to space. The fact is that the emissions of greenhouse gases have intensified global effects of climate change. Weather change rapidly with the release of gases. This change will continue for hundreds of years. It can be said detect some important effects of climate crisis such as rising sea levels take a long time. Even though if the release of gases and their concentration at the surface of the atmosphere stops. The main reason for greenhouse gas emissions Greenhouse gases are released into the atmosphere as a result of human activities. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is produced when fossil fuels are used to generate energy and forests are cut down and burned. Methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) are also released as a result of agricultural activities, land use change and other sources. Industrial chemicals such as halocarbons (CFCS9, HCFS, and PFCS9) and other long-lived gases such as sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) are released as a result of industrial activity. The main greenhouse gases are: - water vapor - carbon dioxide (CO2) - tropospheric ozone (O3) - methane (CH4) - nitrous oxide (N2O) - industrial gases (halocarbons) - and so on. Except for industrial gases, the rest are produced naturally and together make up less than one percent of atmospheric gases. This amount of gas is more than the temperature necessary for life on Earth to create a greenhouse effect and maintain the natural temperature of the Earth at about 30 degrees Celsius. The level of the main greenhouse gases, including water vapor is increasing directly due to human activities. - Emissions of carbon dioxide (due to burning coal, oil and natural gas) - methane and nitrous oxide (due to agricultural activities and land use change) - tropospheric ozone (due to car exhaust fumes and other sources - and long-lived industrial gases, including chlorofluorocarbons (CFCS), hydrofluorocarbons (HCFS), and perfluorocarbons (PFCS) cause changes in how energy is absorbed by the atmosphere. These changes are taking place and are therefore known as greenhouse effect enhancers. The global effects of climate change: How will different parts of the world be affected by? Scientists warn that if greenhouse gas emissions are not controlled, the situation will be much worse and more unpredictable. The amount of heat increase from 1.2 degrees Celsius should not reach two degrees. Reaching two thresholds has been described as dangerous and can cause severe and unpredictable reactions in nature. Global warming threatens food and economic security for billions of people and has dangerous political and social consequences. Scientists predict that if greenhouse gases are not controlled, the earth may reach the two-degree threshold by 2030. This volume of greenhouse gases has caused the world to face severe climate fluctuations such as droughts, storms and floods. From fires to floods, it causes a great deal of human and financial damage to the world economy every year. The oceans and their habitats are also at risk. The loss of half of Australia’s Great Barrier Reef corals due to warming seas because of global effects of climate change is one big event. Scientists believe that if no action is taken, at least 550 species of animals may become extinct due to lack of food and water needed for life. As the earth warms more, some areas may become uninhabitable due to the conversion of agricultural land into a desert. And in some areas there may be severe flooding due to heavy rainfall. As a result, Britain and Europe will be vulnerable to floods caused by heavy rains. The Middle East will be vulnerable to extreme heat waves. Island nations in the Pacific may disappear under the seas. And many African countries are likely to suffer from drought and food shortages. If the earth’s temperature continues to rise, almost all hot-water coral reefs may disappear. Related: 6 Tips To Improve Your Mental Wellbeing Climate change solutions: What can governments and individuals do? Atmospheric studies warn in a recent report that 10 million people will die from “severe temperatures”. It isnecessary that world leaders fail to reach an agreement to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 2030. Researchers also point out that under these conditions, agricultural production may decrease by about 30 percent by 2050. while the amount of food needed by the expanding population will increase by 50 percent. The development of renewable energy has always been considered as one of the solutions to deal with greenhouse gas emissions. Consequently we can decrease global effects of climate change and global warming. Many developed countries have begun long-term measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 40 to 50 percent by 2030. In addition to controlling greenhouse gases, resilience and the adoption of measures and policies that reduce vulnerability to climate change, can be effective and practical in combating global warming. Water resource management for drought seasons and the protection of forests and biodiversity are among the factors that their mismanagement in countries such as Iraq, Iran, India and many other countries has doubled the global effects of climate change. - 7 Simple Tips To Have a Healthy Diet Take the future in your hands It is difficult for many people to adapt their daily lifestyles to climate crisis. According to researchers, we need a radical change that is far from a consumption-based economy. We should also be aware of the limited resources of our planet. Instead of fearing, we should visualize the future in which we want to live and work. But can climate protectors realize their vision for the future? It depends on how the climate is developing and simultaneously how we are evolving as a global community. Of course, the worst-case scenarios can not be ignore. Meaning a world with a catastrophic climate, rising sea levels, disorder and war. We have to act anyway and fear should not be our motivation. What motivates us should be that Earth has been the best planet ever and there is no such second great planet. Frequently asked questions 1- What is climate change exactly? Any natural or artificial change in the Earth’s surface climate or a specific region. It means any specific change in the expected patterns of the average climate, which occurs over a long period of time in a particular region or for the entire global climate. 2- What are the global Effects of Climate Change and global warming? Rising maximum and minimum temperatures, rising sea levels, higher ocean temperatures, melting of the polar caps, warming oceans, heavy rain and hail, frequent and intense drought, storms, heat waves and so on. 3- How do we solve climate change? Measures such as widespread use of bicycles in cities, lower energy consumption, revision of the diet and switching to vegetarian diets, tree planting, non-use of insecticides and plastic bags, less waste production, Preparing compost from food scraps, etc. can counteract these changes and slow them down. 4- What are main causes of climate change? The use of fossil fuels, Deforestation, non- recyclable waste and packaging, Burning coal in Power Plants, Oil drilling, transportation Vehicles, Factory farming, The chemicals and materials used within industrialization, changing the way land is used and Overfishing are 10 main causes of global warming.	https://zhinmag.com/global-effects-of-climate-change/
Compensated Reduction and Climate Change: Cutting greenhouse gas emissions by slowing tropical deforestation Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are produced primarily by industrial processes, power plant and car motors (mostly by burning fossil fuels). But there is a fourth major source of GHG emissions that is too often neglected: tropical deforestation. The clearing and burning of tropical forests accounts for up to 25% of annual anthropogenic GHG emissions. If current rates of deforestation are not reduced sharply, the continued loss of forests poses a major threat to the global climate system. A system designed to reduce emissions will only be successful if it addresses both the burning of fossil fuels and tropical deforestation. Compensated Reduction is a plan that provides incentives for developing countries to reduce their deforestation rates. Download a Compensated Reduction overview.	http://thepaperlifecycle.org/forests/in-the-field/compensated-deforestation-reduction-edf/
The greenhouse effect is a natural process, without it, earth’s temperature would be below -18 Celsius. It enable to hold enough heat within the atmosphere to support every kind of life on the planet and maintainsthe Earth’s temperature at around 33 degrees Celsius warmer than it would otherwise be. Greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, water vapor and some artificial chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), perfluorocarbon (PFC). • Carbon dioxide, 9–26%produced by burning solid waste, wood and wood products, and fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas, and coal • Water vapor, 36–70% • Methane, 4–9% emitted by livestock or by the decomposition of organic wastes in municipal solid waste landfills • CFC manufactured by the industry for use in coolants and insulation • Ozone, 3–7%pollutants emitted by power plants, industrial boilers, vehicles and refineries However, the real issue arises when greenhouse gas levels get rapidly increase because of human activities, trapping too much of the sun’s heat and damage the natural systems that regulate our climate. When the Sun’s energy hits the Earth’s atmosphere, some of it is reflected back and the rest is absorbed and re-radiated by the greenhouse gases. With more greenhouse gases, heat will stick around, and it will trap the sun’s warmth in the planet’s lower atmosphere causing global warming. Causes of greenhouse gas effects 1. Burning of fossil fuel Carbon stored inside fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas, and coal is released which combines with oxygen in the air to create carbon dioxide. With the increase in the number of vehicles and population greenhouse effect will be getting higher and higher 2. Deforestation Burning or clearing trees reverses the effects of carbon sequestration and releases mainly carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Lands converted from forests to paddy produce methane gas which also contributes to the greenhouse effect 3. Increase in population Due to rapidly increased demand for food, cloth and shelter releasing of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere will be increased too. Also, the extensive usage of fossil fuels will also be a problem 4. Farming Emitted by livestock or by the decomposition of organic wastes in municipal solid waste landfills. The usage of fertilizer will increase the emission of nitrous oxide to the atmosphere and contributes to the greenhouse effect which in turn leads to global warming. 5. Industrial wastes and landfilling In the waste sector, typically, CH4 emissions from solid waste disposal are the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions. . CH4 emissions from wastewater treatment, incineration and open burning of waste containing fossil carbon, e.g., plastics, are also the most significant sources of CO2 emissions.	https://climateorg.com/causes-of-greenhouse-effect
Pakistan is the 7th most vulnerable country to climate change. In the last 50 years, the annual mean temperature in Pakistan has increased by roughly 0.5°C. The number of heat wave days per year has increased nearly fivefold in the last 30 years. Annual precipitation has historically shown high variability but has slightly increased in the last 50 years. Sea level along the Karachi coast has risen approximately 10 centimeters in the last century. By the end of this century, the annual mean temperature in Pakistan is expected to rise by 3°C to 5°C for a central global emissions scenario, while higher global emissions may yield a rise of 4°C to 6°C. Average annual rainfall is not expected to have a significant long-term trend, but is expected to exhibit large inter-annual variability. Due to this climatic condition Pakistan has faced catastrophic floods, droughts, and cyclones in recent years that have killed and displaced thousands, destroyed livelihoods, and damaged infrastructure. The main causes of climate change include the emission of greenhouse gases, burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, increasing livestock farming, excessive use of fertilizers, use of aerosol sprays and many more. Greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and other fluorinated gases. Carbon dioxide is the main greenhouse gas which is added to the atmosphere by burning of the fossil. Most all the causes of climate change are due to human activities. Humans are cutting down trees, burning fossil fuels at an alarming rate, using a lot of fertilizers and increasing amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Due to these anthropogenic activities, the ozone is also depleting. The biggest effect of climate change is global warming, increase of earth’s temperature, which is the main cause of acute drought conditions. The availability of water for domestic and agricultural uses is badly affected by it. Pakistan’s greenhouse gases emissions have doubled in last 2 decades. On the global scale Pakistan ranks 135th in per capita GHG emissions in the world. The agriculture sector is the victim of abrupt climate change in a country. 65-70% of country’s population is directly or indirectly related to agriculture. The seasonal changes are changing sowing time for crops which consequently changes irrigation requirements which modify the properties of soil and increase the risk of pest and disease attack, negatively altering agricultural productivity. There are many solutions to climate change which involve community, individuals, governments and other agencies of the world. More and more trees should be planted, Energy should be used efficiently. Renewable power sources should be adopted. The garbage should not be burned or burry in landfills. It may be made composts for kitchen gardens. The loss of water in any form should be checked. Electric automobiles should be preferred. Recycling is one of the most effective ways to check carbon emissions. Media should spread awareness regarding the effects of climate change. Use eco-friendly appliances. The treatment of industrial waste should be made mandatory all over the world. Governments should start taking this problem seriously. They should implement Paris agreement in their countries. They should start investing in projects which can try to minimize climate change. Plastic should not be used. Environment-friendly shopper bags should be used. Use of aerosol sprays should be minimized. The misuse of fertilizers should be avoided. Water should be used wisely. The power generation should be done by environmental friendly means. Conservation practices should be adopted regarding agriculture.	https://thefrontierpost.com/climate-change-of-pakistan-and-its-effect-on-agriculture/
The amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has skyrocketed since the Industrial Revolution, causing concerns about global warming, climate change, and carbon footprints. Animal agriculture, deforestation, transportation, and the production of electricity have all contributed to this problem, but what can be done to solve it? This article aims to explain what greenhouse gases are, their causes, their effects, and what can be done to lower their emissions. Join Our Network Greenhouse gases are gases that trap heat in the Earth’s atmosphere, leading to increased temperatures. The most common greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and fluorinated gases, including hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride, and nitrogen trifluoride. Water vapor is also considered a greenhouse gas, but because its increased atmospheric concentrations are not caused by humans and are a consequence of global warming, rather than a cause, it will not be discussed in this article. The Sun’s energy reaches Earth mostly as light, which is made of photons that have a certain amount of energy. This energy then leaves Earth as infrared radiation, or heat. Greenhouse gas molecules, however, absorb some of this energy, preventing it from leaving the atmosphere. Eventually, the greenhouse gas molecules release the energy, which can either remain trapped in Earth’s atmosphere by other greenhouse gas molecules or continue out into space. When the energy stays trapped, it does so as infrared radiation, causing increased temperatures. This process of greenhouse gases reflecting infrared radiation back into the atmosphere is called the “greenhouse effect” because it traps heat like the glass of a greenhouse. Because there are multiple greenhouse gases, scientists and policy makers need a way to compare them. This is usually done using a gases’s Global Warming Potential. This conversion factor accounts for two key differences among greenhouse gases: how long they stay in the atmosphere, or their lifetime, and how well they absorb energy, or their radiative efficiency. According to the EPA, it compares gases by measuring “how much energy the emissions of one ton of a gas will absorb over a given period of time, relative to the emissions of one ton of carbon dioxide.” This means that, by definition, carbon dioxide has a Global Warming Potential of one, no matter the time period. The most common time period used for other greenhouse gases is 100 years. Methane has an estimated Global Warming Potential of 30 over 100 years because while it has a shorter lifetime than carbon dioxide, it has a much higher radiative efficiency. Nitrous oxide has a lifetime of over 100 years on average, and therefore has an estimated Global Warming Potential of 273 over 100 years. The Global Warming Potentials for fluorinated gases varies but can be in the thousands or tens of thousands because of their extremely high radiative efficiency. While Global Warming Potential is by far the most commonly used measurement of greenhouse gases, the conversion factor is not perfect. A recent study has suggested adopting a new method because Global Warming Potential may underestimate the effect of methane, with another study finding that methane may be four times as sensitive to global warming than previously thought. The greenhouse effect is not entirely a problem. A well-balanced atmosphere of greenhouse gases is necessary to keep Earth warm enough to support life. However, human activity is causing more greenhouse gas emissions, which increases the greenhouse effect unnaturally, leading to abnormally high temperatures. This causes climate change. The effects of climate change are numerous. Extreme weather events such as heat waves, hurricanes, and precipitation changes leading to droughts or floods increase in frequency and intensity. Sea levels rise because of melting glaciers and icebergs, as well as higher ocean temperatures. Ecosystems and habitats are altered, disrupting species’ abundance, geographic ranges, seasonal activities, and migration patterns. In addition to wildlife, humans are harmed due to the increased spread of diseases, heat-related illnesses and deaths, and food insecurity as agriculture fails to respond to the extreme weather changes. his instability can also cause mass migration and political unrest, further harming humans. There is a clear and broad consensus in the scientific community that human activity has been the main driver of climate change since the 1800’s. This figure depicts sources of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, as of 2016. Energy is the sector producing the most global greenhouse emissions. The combustion of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, produces the energy much of our world is dependent on, but also releases large amounts of carbon dioxide, as well as some methane and nitrous oxide. Most of this energy is used for manufacturing to power industrial buildings and machinery. Some of these fossil fuels are needed to produce electricity for commercial and residential buildings. Energy is also needed to power buildings and machinery necessary for agriculture and fishing. On factory farms, feed requires about 75 percent of the total energy input, and the other 25 percent is used for heating, lighting, and ventilation of buildings. Finally, leaks during energy production, such as coal mining and oil and gas extraction and transportation, are responsible for almost six percent of global greenhouse emissions. Agriculture is the largest contributor of global greenhouse gas emissions after the energy sector. Animal agriculture alone is responsible for around 15.4% of global greenhouse gas emissions—approximately equivalent to the emissions from the entire transportation sector. Farmed animals release methane through enteric fermentation, in which the microbes in the digestive systems of ruminant animals breakdown and ferment plant material, creating methane as a byproduct. Ruminant animals include cows, goats, sheep, and buffalo, but cows are by far the largest source of animal agriculture emissions. Farmed animals’ manure also releases lots of emissions, as nitrous oxide and methane are produced when manure decomposes in anaerobic conditions. This process is especially common when manure is stored in large piles or disposed of in lagoons, which is typical on factory farms where a large amount of animals occupy a small area. Various other parts of agriculture contribute to greenhouse gas emissions as well. Several agricultural practices affecting soil increase the nitrogen available in it, leading to the release of nitrous oxide. These practices include the drainage of organic soil, certain irrigation practices, and the use of fertilizers, which also contribute to greenhouse gas emissions via their production. Rice cultivation releases methane via the anaerobic digestion of the flooded paddy fields. To prepare for the next growing season, farmers often burn leftover vegetation from their harvest to clear their fields. This crop burning releases carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. Agriculture also contributes to issues surrounding land use, land use change, and forestry. Deforestation to grow crops and raise animals converts the land from a carbon sink to a carbon source because greenhouse gases can no longer be absorbed by the soil and vegetation, and because the gases that were already being stored there have been released. Agriculture is the leading cause of deforestation, releasing about 65 billion tons of carbon dioxide each year through changes in forestry cover alone—driven primarily by the growth of feed products for livestock and grazing land for cattle. Additionally, carbon dioxide is released when cropland and grassland is degraded due to poor soil management techniques. Similar to the energy sector, most greenhouse gas emissions from the transportation sector result from the combustion of fossil fuels in internal combustion engines. Most transportation requires gasoline or diesel—petroleum-based fuels whose combustion yields large amounts of carbon dioxide and smaller amounts of methane, nitrous oxide, and hydrofluorocarbon, a fluorinated gas. The emissions of the transportation sector can be further broken down into emissions by types of transportation, with road transportation, such as cars and trucks, releasing the most emissions, followed by the aviation industry, the shipping industry, rail transportation, and finally pipelines. Just over five percent of total global emissions result from cement and chemicals used in industry. Carbon dioxide is produced in a chemical reaction used to make clinker, a component of cement. It is also produced during the production of ammonia, most of which is then used in synthetic fertilizers. Additionally, nitrous oxide is a byproduct of reactions used to make chemicals such as nitric acid, another component of fertilizers. Waste products that end up in landfills and other areas were responsible for 1.46 billion tons of methane and 142.38 billion tons of nitrous oxide as of 2018. Decomposition of organic matter accumulated in wastewater systems and in landfills releases methane and nitrous oxide, and treatment of wastewater involving nitrification and denitrification releases additional nitrous oxide. While greenhouse gas emissions are still on the rise, lowering greenhouse gas emissions is possible and we know what actions we need to take today to make the biggest impact possible, on both the individual and institutional levels. Reducing fossil fuel combustion would directly decrease greenhouse gas emissions from the energy sector, and this can be done several ways. Though the Supreme Court has limited the Environmental Protection Agency’s ability to regulate emissions from power plants, the EPA still has some ability to monitor and manage these emissions with less powerful tools and at scales smaller than those before the decision. Additionally, renewable energy, which does not require fossil fuel combustion, has been expanding and becoming more accessible and efficient. Using solar, geothermal, waste and biomass, wind, or tidal energy, or hydropower is an effective way to decrease dependence on fossil fuels. Increases in energy efficiency and reductions in overall energy use are two other ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the energy sector. Food production is responsible for 25% of all greenhouse gas emissions, so restructuring the global food system is an important opportunity to reduce emissions. Many factory farms have adopted ‘carbon neutral’ commitments in recent years while failing to address that the root of the problem is the current scale and methods of meat production, a classic case of greenwashing. While it is true that practices such as changes to animal feed formulation, smarter handling of farmed animals, changes in field layout, technological monitoring of fertilizer application, and other more efficient agricultural techniques can limit emissions from agriculture, they lead to minor reductions in emissions at best. In order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions enough to reach the goals of the Paris Agreement by 2030, factory farming must be replaced with a sustainable, plant-based food system. While this may seem like a daunting task, there are steps both individuals and institutions can take to revitalize the global food system and reduce overall meat production. Our own food choices can help combat climate change. Shifting to a plant-based diet can drastically reduce greenhouse gas emissions, as is found in numerous studies including this one performed by scientists at Stanford University and the University of California, Berkeley. In fact, according to a study by Yale University, by switching from the average western diet to a plant-based diet, people can cut their diet-related greenhouse gas emissions in half. Even if some people cannot go fully vegetarian or vegan, adopting a reducetarian diet, one that reduces consumption of animals and animal products without eliminating them completely, is a tangible step we can take in the right direction. Individuals cannot eradicate factory farming alone, however. Governments can do their part by preventing existing factory farms from expanding, regulating factory farms to ensure they are safer for the climate and our health, eliminating exceptions for factory farms in environmental laws, switching subsidy and incentive programs from supporting meat and dairy to supporting a plant-based food system with less farmed animals overall, and supporting small farmers. Senator Cory Booker (D-NJ) has even introduced the Farm Systems Reform Act, which calls for a ban on factory farming by 2040 and wants to ensure access to affordable and nutritious food for all by reforming our food system. The act includes support for farmers to make this transition, which could also be aided by organizations like Solutions from the Land, as they work to reduce their emissions while continuing to produce and sell goods. We can reduce our emissions from this sector by opting for transportation that either does not require fossil fuels or requires less fossil fuels than traditional modes of transportation. For example, driving an electric car, biking, using an electric scooter, and walking do not require gasoline or diesel. Taking public transportation, carpooling, driving a hybrid car, or using other fuel-saving modes of transportation are effective ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions if completely eliminating them is not an option. One important part of making this transition from fossil fuel dependence possible is by having towns and states make changes such as increasing the public transportation budget, adding bike lanes on roads, and expanding sidewalks, and working on other projects to reduce urban sprawl. Reducing how much we throw out, especially organic material like food, means less waste in landfills releasing methane. This can be achieved by avoiding overconsumption, composting food, and recycling when possible. Once waste is in landfills, however, incineration with energy recovery can lead to reductions in methane emissions, and have the added benefits of reducing foul smells and space requirements for landfills. In addition to reducing the amount of emissions, pulling greenhouse gases out of the atmosphere helps reduce the greenhouse effect. Because carbon sinks absorb more greenhouse gases than they release, they are a vital tool in combating climate change. Forests, grasslands, peatlands, and wetlands are all examples of carbon sinks that must be protected so that their soil, trees, bamboo, and other plants retain all of the carbon they currently store and can absorb more from the atmosphere. For example, the Amazon Rainforest is one of the world’s most important carbon sinks, but in the first half of 2022 experienced the highest deforestation rate in six years—with beef production as the primary culprit Conserving existing carbon sinks against land use change such as deforestation and degradation, and reforesting areas where forests have been destroyed, is one of the most effective methods of reducing the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Human activity, particularly the dependence on fossil fuels and factory farms, is releasing unprecedented amounts of greenhouse gases into Earth's atmosphere, artificially raising global temperatures. This climate change has negatively impacted both humans and the environment, but reducing our emissions is possible. Taking action on both the individual and institutional levels, sooner rather than later, will give us the best chance to avoid further damage by greenhouse gases. Julia Collum is an FFAC college advocate studying biology, environmental/ sustainability sciences, and chemistry at the George Washington University in Washington DC.	https://ffacoalition.org/articles/a-guide-to-greenhouse-gases-examples-causes-effects-and-more/
Human activities create carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, which are emitted into the air. Scientists know that the source of extra carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is industrial activity because analysis of the different types (or isotopes) of carbon shows that it comes from human activities, predominantly the burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity. The carbon cycle The extra carbon from human activities is changing the natural cycling of carbon through the environment that has occurred for millions of years. Carbon flows in and out of the land, ocean and living things as part of the carbon cycle. Plants take in carbon dioxide during photosynthesis, with animals – including humans – breathing it out. When plants and animals die, their stored carbon is released as carbon dioxide into the air. Each year, natural processes such as respiration and decay, forest fires and volcanic eruptions add 190.2 billion tonnes of carbon to the air. This is balanced by the oceans, land and plants absorbing 190.2 billion tonnes of carbon from the air. People create carbon dioxide when we burn fossil fuels such as gas, petrol, oil, and coal, adding an additional 9.1 billion tonnes of carbon to the air each year. Plants and the land take up 2.8 billion tonnes of this extra carbon, while the oceans take up 2.2 billion tonnes. The remainder (4.1 billion tonnes) stays in the air, increasing the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide. Global emissions Emissions of carbon from fossil fuels make the largest contribution to climate change. About 90 per cent of the world’s carbon emissions comes from the burning of fossil fuels – mainly for electricity, heat and transport. In 2021, most of the world's fossil fuel carbon emissions came from coal (40 per cent), oil (32 per cent), natural gas (21 per cent), cement (5 per cent) and flaring and other smaller sources (2 per cent). Just four regions accounted for about two-thirds of global fossil-fuel carbon emissions in 2021: China (31 per cent), the USA (14 per cent), the EU27; 7 per cent), and India (7 per cent). Industrialised countries represent just 20 per cent of the world’s population but account for 80 per cent of cumulative carbon dioxide emissions since the beginning of the industrial revolution. Australian emissions Australia is the world’s 14th highest emitter, contributing just over 1 per cent of global emissions. The Australian Government tracks the nation’s greenhouse gases emissions through the National Greenhouse Gas Inventory. According to the December 2020 update, Australia emitted 499 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent, a 5 per cent decrease on 2019. Energy production is the largest contributor to Australia’s carbon emissions. This is followed by transport, agriculture, and industrial processes. Specifically: - energy (burning fossil fuels to produce electricity) contributed 33.6 per cent of the total emissions - stationary energy (including manufacturing, mining, residential and commercial fuel use) 20.4 per cent - transport 17.6 per cent - agriculture 14.6 per cent - fugitive emissions 10.0 per cent - industrial processes 6.2 per cent - waste 2.7 per cent. Greenhouse gas emissions are also influenced by changes in land use. Total (or net) greenhouse gas emissions factor in the influence of how land is used. For example, reductions in forest clearing increase the carbon stored in plants and trees rather than in the atmosphere, reducing net emissions. Australia’s greenhouse gas emissions total was reduced as a result of land use, land use change and forestry removing 4.9 per cent of our emissions in 2020. Resulting concentrations As a result of increasing emissions, the global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has increased by 48 per cent since pre-industrial times, rising from 277 ppm in 1750 to 412 ppm in 2020. The carbon dioxide concentration today is much higher than the natural range of 172 to 300 ppm that existed for hundreds of thousands of years. In fact, carbon dioxide concentrations now are likely to be the highest they have been in at least the past 2 million years. It's expected a total of 39.7 billion tons of carbon will be emitted by the end of 2021.	https://www.csiro.au/en/research/environmental-impacts/climate-change/Climate-change-QA/Sources-of-GHG-gases
Continuation of current trends in fossil-fuel and land use is likely to lead to significant climate change, with important adverse consequences for both natural and human systems. This has led to the investigation of various options to reduce greenhouse gas emissions or otherwise diminish the impact of human activities on the climate system. Here, we review options that can contribute to managing this problem and discuss factors that could accelerate their development, deployment, and improvement. A variety of options could make a significant contribution in the short term. These include: changing agricultural management practice to increase carbon storage and reduce non-CO2 gas emission; improving appliances, lighting, motors, buildings, industrial processes, and vehicles; mitigating non-CO2 greenhouse gas emissions from industry; reforestation; and geoengineering Earth's climate with stratospheric sulfate aerosols. Longer-term options that could make a significant contribution include separating carbon from fossil fuels and storing it in geologic reservoirs or the ocean; developing large-scale solar and wind resources with long-distance electricity transmission and/or long-distance H2 distribution and storage; ceasing net deforestation; developing energy-efficient urban and transportation systems; developing highly efficient coal technologies (e.g., integrated gasifier combined cycle, or IGCC, discussed later in this chapter); generating electricity from biomass, possibly with carbon capture and sequestration; producing transportation fuels from biomass; reducing population growth; and developing next-generation nuclear fission. As long as we continue to use fossil fuels, there are relatively few places to put the associated carbon. • If CO2 is put directly into the atmosphere, about one-third stays in the atmosphere, causing climate change. Another one-third currently goes to the biosphere, but this sink will eventually saturate, leaving CO2 to accumulate in the atmosphere, where it can cause climate to change. The remaining one-third quickly enters the ocean (and most of the increased atmospheric burden will end up in the ocean on longer timescales). This movement causes significant acidification of the biologically active surface waters before mixing and diluting in the deep ocean on timescales of centuries. • If CO2 is put directly into the deep ocean (through deep injection), most of it will stay there without first producing a substantial acidification of biologically more active surface waters, but risks to deep ocean biota are not well understood. • If CO2 is put into deep (>1 km) geological formations (through geologic sequestration) it may be effectively sequestered, but there is uncertainty about the available geological storage capacity, about how much of the injected carbon dioxide will stay in place and for how long, and what ecological and other risks may be associated if and when reservoirs leak. • If CO2 could be mineralized to a solid form of carbonate (or dissolved forms in the ocean), it could be effectively sequestered on geological timescales, but currently we do not know how to mineralize carbon dioxide or accelerate natural mineral weathering reactions in a cost-effective way. In the short run (<20 years), management of emissions of non-CO2 greenhouse gases and black carbon may hold as much or more potential to limit radiative forcing than management of carbon dioxide. Continued management of these non-CO2 greenhouse gases and particulates will remain essential in the long run. Management strategies must be regionally adaptive since sources, sinks, energy alternatives, and other factors vary widely around the world. In industrializing and industrialized countries, the largest sources of CO2 are from fossil fuel. In less-industrialized countries the largest sources involve land use. Technologies and approaches for achieving stabilization will not arise automatically though market forces. Markets can effectively convert knowledge into working solutions, but scientists do not currently have the knowledge to efficiently and effectively stabilize radiative forcing at acceptable levels. Dramatically larger investments in basic technology research, in understanding consequences of new energy systems, and in understanding ecosystem processes will be required to produce the needed knowledge. Such investments would enable creation of essential skills and experience with innovative pilot programs for technologies and options that could be developed, deployed, and improved to facilitate climate stabilization while maintaining robust economic growth.	https://www.climate-policy-watcher.org/carbon-cycle-2/a-portfolio-of-carbon-management-options.html
As of May 2015, the Philippines had 17 operating coal-fired power plants. The Department of Energy (DOE) has approved 29 more, which will start operating commercially by 2020. The 2012-2030 Philippine Energy Plan also promotes fossil fuels exploration. The DOE has proposed 16 sedimentary basins in the country that have a combined potential of 4,777 million barrels of fuel oil equivalent for exploration. Using appliances Climate change: Why PH should caredesktop We’re in the second half of the year and that means the rainy season is here. But it’s not the usual wet season - experts warn of La Niña, a natural phenomenon that’ll make rains more frequent and stronger. It’s the flip side of El Niño, which brought the drought we’ve just witnessed across the country, especially in Mindanao. El Niño and La Niña will be made harder by the effects of climate change. Filipinos should understand that while they bear the brunt of the effects of climate change, they can also do something to mitigate it. What is climate change? Climate change is caused by the buildup of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gas emissions can come from both natural sources and manmade activities. But it is man made activities like fossil fuel use, deforestation, intensive livestock farming, use of synthetic fertilizers, and industrial processes that worsen the problem. The following are the main sectors that contribute to climate change in the Philippines: Activities that emit dangerous greenhouse gases - Cultivating rice Growing rice in flooded fields requires organic fertilizers, which emit methane when they decompose. 44% of emissions from agriculture come from rice cultivation. - Growing livestock Ruminant animals like cows and goats produce methane when they digest food. - Large-scale chemical agriculture This uses massive amounts of pesticides and chemical fertilizers, the production of which is dependent on fossil fuels. The industry also uses petroleum products for food distribution and transport. - Clearing forests for plantation - Illegal logging These activities reduced the country’s forest cover from 1934-2010. - Using vehicles that run mainly on oil and petroleum products - Using cars instead of mass transportation The country has too many vehicles on the road but few reliable modes of mass transportation, as well as infrastructure and facilities. Latest data shows there are 7.4 million vehicles plying Philippine roads and only 15 running trains that carry up to 650,000 passengers every day. - Mineral production 92% of the emissions from the industry sector came from mineral production - Metal production - Throwing waste in open dumps and in landfills This is largely a result of the centralized method of waste management in the country. Out of the 40,000 tons of waste thrown in Metro Manila per day, only 65-75% are collected and 13% are recycled. Bulk of the garbage go to sanitary landfills or open dumps instead of being reused, re-purposed, or recycled. When organic material in waste decomposes, it emits methane, a potent greenhouse gas. - Burning trash When waste management fails, sometimes with no garbage collection to begin with, individuals resort to burning their trash, which emits carbon dioxide. The effects of climate change Rains in Luzon and Visayas will be heavier, and the dry season in Mindanao will be longer. The average temperature in the country will rise by 0.9°C to 1.1°C by 2020 and 1.8°C to 2.2°C by 2050. Drastic weather changes will bring about more diseases such as malaria and dengue. Disasters way more destructive than Yolanda will happen. Storm surges will be frequent and will affect about 42% of the country’s coastal population. The economy will contract. How to reduce emissions Under the Paris Agreement on climate change, the Philippines has committed to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 70% by 2030. To mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, the following can be done: Tip: hover and click over different parts of the image Energy Go for renewable energy The government passed the Renewable Energy Act in 2008. The Department of Energy has awarded a total of 650 service contracts for renewable energy projects totalling 10,040 megawatts in capacity. These include 404 hydropower, 68 solar, 54 wind, 43 biomass, 41 geothermal and 5 ocean energy projects. Use appliances that are energy efficient Buy appliances with the Department of Energy’s “yellow tag”. This tag indicates that the appliances consume less energy. Turn off appliances and electronics when not in use. Unplug them. Best practices in the world Scotland stopped its coal power production in 2015 Hawaii passed a law requiring the 100% use of renewable energy by 2045 Bhutan aimed to practice organic agriculture as a whole country by 2020 Norway was the first country in the world to have electric vehicles topping car sales Mexico has reduced the rate of its deforestation by 10 times since the 1990s Estonia recycles 40 percent of its waste Spain has a mandatory program for building energy labelling Sources: - Asian Development Bank - World Bank - http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2015/10/11/3710618/bhutan-organic-united-states-transition - www.zerowasteeurope.eu - National Statistics Office - Department of Transportation and Communication - Deforestation Success Stories by the Union of Concerned Scientists - World Resources Institute - USAID #ClimateActionPH is a campaign that aims to show Filipinos why we should care about the causes and impact of climate change and the urgent need to mitigate it.	https://www.rappler.com/brandrap/climate-change
There are many human generated causes attributed to global warming- industrialization, deforestation and pollution being the most significant of them all. Apart from human, there are few natural causes also responsible for global warming like-suspended particulate matter as a result of the volcano eruption, dust. Sometimes simple geology of place may play its part in global warming, for example, giant termite mounds in Africa expel methane gas which is a greenhouse gas, adding to global warming. Ten Lines on Causes of Global Warming in English Some sets of 10 lines, 5 lines, 20 lines, few lines and sentences on Causes of Global Warming are given below for the Students of Class 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. Language is kept very simple for easiness of everyone, let's start reading: 10 Lines on Causes of Global Warming 1) Global warming refers to an increase in earth’s atmospheric temperature. 2) Global warming is a consequence of the greenhouse effect. 3) Greenhouse gases responsible for the greenhouse effect are carbon dioxide, methane, ozone and water vapour. 4) Industries, releasing greenhouse gases as by-products, are responsible for global warming. 5) Large scale extraction and use of fossil fuels release methane, a potent greenhouse gas. 6) Landfills contain waste to release methane adding to global warming. 7) Deforestation increases environmental CO2, intensifying the greenhouse effect and leading to global warming. 8) Large scale use of chemical fertilizers causes more trapping of heat by soil, resulting in global warming. 9) Ice crystals in Arctic sea beds upon disintegration release methane potent greenhouse gas. 10) Termite mounds around the world release methane to the tune of 23 million tons annually. 10 Lines and Sentences on Causes of Global Warming 1) The greenhouse gases block the escape of earth’s heat energy and increase temperature. 2) Most human activities are also responsible for increasing Global Warming. 3) The increased proportion of these gases cause the greenhouse effect causing global warming. 4) Natural and man-made emissions of greenhouse gases cause intensive global warming. 5) Use of fossils fuels by the human in a large quantity is also a reason for Global Warming. 6) Volcanic eruptions and methane belches from livestock are the natural causes of global warming. 7) The improper waste disposal emits a huge amount of Methane increasing global warming. 8) Power plants using fossil fuels are also responsible for it. 9) Forests act as a carbon sink and deforestation increase carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere. 10) Agricultural irrigation, fertilizers and soil management are also responsible for global warming. 5 Lines on Causes of Global Warming 1) Global Warming is caused by harmful gases. 2) Pollution is the reason for global warming. 3) Global Warming is caused by Industrial Wastes. 4) Deforestation is the major reason for Global Warming. 5) Global Warming is increasing every day along with ozone depletion. 20 Lines on Causes of Global Warming 1) Every human activity that harms nature, is a cause for Global Warming. 2) Deforestation reduces rain and increases Global Warming. 3) Carbon Dioxide traps heat from the atmosphere, so is the main factor of Global Warming. 4) The excess use of plastic has indirectly increased the heat in the atmosphere. 5) We can reduce Global Warming by reducing the use of burning fossil fuels. 6) The increasing number of vehicles on the roads impacts the climate, causing Global Warming. 7) We can balance Global Warming by balancing the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere. 8) The Industrialization of the economy makes the atmosphere penetrated of excess smoke causing Global Warming. 9) Removal of fishes from the oceans has made ocean unfit contributing to Global Warming. 10) Wide use Aerosols has also made Global Warming effective as they contain harmful gases. 11) Global Warming is the greatest disaster for living beings on Earth. 12) Burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas are the foremost reasons for Global Warming. 13) Trees reduce the Green House Effects and cutting them is leading us towards Global Warming. 14) Some harmful fertilizers release Nitrous Oxide spreading Global Warming. 15) Live stocking of Sheep, Cows and other cattle release Methane leading Global Warming. 16) 5) A loss made to the environment in the form of Global Warming is non-recoverable. 17) Deforestation and use of synthetic fertilizers are also contributing to increasing Global Warming. 18) Chlorofluorocarbon, by the Air Conditions and other appliances, contributes the most to Global Warming. 19) Increasing Green House Gases make Global Warming take place all over the Globe. 20) The Industrial smoke is full of pollutants which help in increasing to Global Warming. Global warming is the most immediate threat to the existence of life on earth. It is a global problem which needs the attention of all countries and taking adequate measures is very important to reduce the effects of global warming.	https://www.teachingbanyan.com/10-lines/10-lines-on-causes-of-global-warming/
What are greenhouse gases? Greenhouse gasses have become a global concern because of the effects they have on our macroenvironment. While we keep addressing greenhouse effects, global warming, and their impact on the continent, it is crucial to discuss greenhouse gases’ contributions to global warming. Although not all gasses present in the atmosphere are greenhouse gases, greenhouse gases are gases in the atmosphere that absorb infrared radiation emitted by the earth and reradiate it back to the earth’s surface to warm the earth’s surface. Greenhouse gases are just a fraction of the gasses in the atmosphere. The typical greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). How are greenhouse gases detrimental to the environment? Over the years, various activities have adversely affected what is supposed to warm the surface of the earth and keep us all from freezing to become a matter of global concern (global warming). Without these greenhouse gases, the earth’s average atmospheric temperature would be somewhere around -18°C. The concentration of these greenhouse gases keeps increasing in the atmosphere. Hence, it has become a threat to the existence of living beings on the planet. Scientists speculate that the concentration of these greenhouse gases is the primary cause of climate change, extreme weather conditions, rising sea levels, reduced wildlife populations, reduced food supply, etc., that we are experiencing today. Some of the activities we engage in that increase the concentration of these greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are: - Burning organic materials, burning coals, wood, oil, fossil fuels, and other organic substances increases the amount of carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere. - Burning of agricultural residues, disposal of industrial waste, and fertilizers and manures for farming are the primary sources of nitrous oxide. Nitrous oxide consists of about 6% of greenhouse emissions. - Deforestation and urbanization are also notable causes of the increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. All these activities and more are the cause of the adverse climatic changes we are experiencing. If it is not adequately checked, it will make the earth inhabitable in the long run. How to save the environment by reducing greenhouse gas emissions To save the environment from these increasing greenhouse gas emissions, we must first replace human dependence on fossil fuel consumption with renewable and energy-efficient technology. Other activities we can engage in to save the environment are: Engaging in sustainable practices (reduce, reuse, and recycle) Why get more of the same thing if you can use it again? Recycling household waste can prevent as much as 2400 pounds of carbon dioxide from getting to the atmosphere yearly. Replacing the regular light bulbs with the power saving bulbs These are small actions that make a large difference over time as more people participate and change their behaviors. Walk or ride your bicycle more, and drive less You get to exercise more and reduce greenhouse gas emissions to the atmosphere. Plant a tree Plant as many trees as you can. They help to absorb carbon dioxide and release more oxygen to the environment. It is essential to take action today to preserve the planet To keep the planet habitable in the long run, it is important to balance greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and probably eliminate the excess already stored in the atmosphere. It is essential to educate the public on the best environmental practices to adopt in their day-to-day activities. The truth is that change happens gradually and then quickly; if one does not prepare early on, it can create massive problems overall to the overall quality of life.	https://augustafreepress.com/what-are-greenhouse-gases/
The carbon dioxide that is present in the atmosphere heats the Earth, causing changes in the climate. Carbon dioxide is Earth’s largest and most important greenhouse gas. It absorbs heat and then releases heat. Carbon dioxide levels are higher in the present than at any other time in the history of humankind. The last time that the carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere were this high was three million years ago, in the Middle Pliocene Warm Period, which saw the Earth’s surface warm in the range of 4.5 up to 7.2 degrees Fahrenheit (2.5 up to 4 degree Celsius) before the advent of the industrial age. In 2019, humans released 36.44 million tons of carbon dioxide into the air, which will be there for many centuries. Global warming and carbon dioxide You’ve read that carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gasses function like a cap and trap specific amounts of heat the Earth sends to space. If carbon dioxide gas was not present, the global greenhouse effect would be insufficient to keep average global temperatures above freezing. By increasing carbon dioxide levels in the air, humans are accelerating the impact of climate change and causing global warming. A rise in carbon dioxide gas in atmospheric air has intermittently heated the Earth’s climate over the last few million years. Warmer times (interglacials) started with an increase in sunlight in the Northern Hemisphere due to differences in the Earth’s orbit around the Sun and its circular axis. How does carbon dioxide capture heat? CO₂ is a significant greenhouse gas or heat-trapping gas produced by the burning and extraction of fossil fuels (such as oil, coal, natural gas, and coal), forest fires, and natural processes like volcanic eruptions. It is produced. Carbon dioxide alone is responsible for around two-thirds of the global warming effect of all the greenhouse gases produced by humans in 2021, based on the findings of NASA’s Global Monitoring Laboratory. Carbon dioxide molecules in atmospheric atoms absorb energy in various long wavelengths ranging from 2,000 to 15,000 nm. This range overlaps with the infrared spectrum. As CO₂ absorbs the infrared light, it vibrates and reflects the infrared light across all directions. Around half of the energy goes into the atmosphere, and the remaining half is returned to Earth through heat, which contributes to the greenhouse effect. It’s extremely hot in the world. Sources of carbon dioxide There are both anthropogenic and natural sources of carbon dioxide emissions. Natural sources Carbon dioxide is added to the atmosphere when organic matter is inhaled or decomposed (decomposing), carbonate rocks are weathered, and forest fires and volcanic eruptions. 1. The process of respiration and decomposition The process of respiration involves the exchange of carbon dioxide between the blood of the animal and the surrounding environment. Carbon dioxide gas is released when animals breathe. Every cell requires breathing to generate the energy needed. This process is known as cell respiration. glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + energy If living organisms die, they’re decomposed by bacteria. The carbon dioxide released is released into the air or water during the decomposition process. During the dormancy, limestone could undergo biodegradation and atmospheric processes where bacteria degrade organic matter like glucose into methane (CH₄) and CO₂. 2. The weathering process of carbonate rocks In the process of collecting carbonic acid rain created by the dissolution of carbon dioxide within the water, it dissolves carbonate rocks, releasing carbon dioxide. In addition, since dissolved CO₂ exists within equilibrium to atmospheric CO₂, it is removed from the atmosphere to take the place of what the atmosphere removed from the solution. Because of the mountain’s uplift, rocks become easily weathered, increasing atmospheric CO₂ levels and decreasing global warming. 3. Volcanic eruptions Volcanoes may influence the climate. In massive eruptions, volcanic gases, airdrops, and ash are injected into the upper water column. Volcanoes release carbon dioxide gas in two ways: in eruptions and via underground magma. The carbon dioxide is released from underground magma through the air, porous rocks and soil, and water, which feeds the lakes of volcanic eruptions or hot springs. Estimates of carbon dioxide emissions from volcanoes should take into account both non-eruptive as well as eruptive sources. 2013 saw a group of scientists comprised of Michael Burton, Georgina Sawyer, and Domenico Granieri – release updated estimates based on more details on CO₂ emissions from magma underground which were made available over the past few years between the previous global estimates. Human sources Human activity has raised the quantity of carbon dioxide in the air by 50 percent in just 200 years. That means CO₂ emissions are today 150% of the amount it was in 1750. Human activities, such as burning coal, oil, and gas, and deforestation are the primary cause of increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. 1. Industry Numerous industrial processes emit CO₂ by burning fossil fuels. Numerous processes also generate CO₂ emissions by chemical reactions that don’t require combustion, such as the manufacture of mineral-based products, such as cement, the manufacture of metals, such as steel and iron, and the manufacture of chemicals. Components of fossil fuel combustion in different industrial processes will make up approximately 16% of the total CO₂ emissions and 13% of US greenhouse gas emissions by 2020. Products from petroleum are among the primary carbon dioxide emissions due to energy consumption. Oil is expected to be responsible for 971 million metric tons of carbon equivalent by 2025, which represents 40% of the predicted total. Coal is the second most significant source of CO₂ emissions. It is expected to generate 73 million metric tonnes of carbon equivalent by 2025, representing 34 percent of the total. In 2025, natural-gas consumption is expected to contribute 23% of the total CO₂ emissions and 500 million tons equivalent to carbon. 2. Forest fires The burning of vegetation in the aftermath of a forest fire triggers the carbon stored in trees to ignite and be released into the atmosphere. Harmful and potent gases like carbon dioxide CO₂ and methane (CH4) are released into the air. Based on CAMS analysis of data as well as global wildfire data, It has been found that Arctic Circle fires have increased the global emissions of CO₂. Forest fires released 1.76 billion tonnes of carbon into the world in 2021. Globally speaking, the number of wildfires has been lower since 2003; however, the emissions are expected to grow due to the impacts of climate change continuing to spread. The days of peak wildfires in California are believed to generate approximately 4-8 tons of smoke, more than the daily emissions of all business activity across the state. 3. Transportation The most significant emission source by transportation comes from the combustion of fossil fuels like diesel and gasoline used in combustion engines. In reality, transportation accounts for around 24 percent of CO₂ emissions that result directly due to fossil fuel emissions, as per the International Energy Agency (IEA), with three-quarters of the CO₂ emissions being generated by vehicles on the road. Commercial and private vehicles emit more carbon dioxide per ton-mile or passenger mile on average compared to the other types of transport. In 2021, the CO₂ pollution from the transportation sector within the United States will reach 1.7 BMT. It is higher than the average for any other sector of the economy. Conclusion Carbon dioxide and the other gases that cause the greenhouse effect heat the planet. Unfortunately, we only have a short time of years to take on the carbon dioxide swarm. In the next few years, millions of people will suffer and die due to the impacts of climate change. Massive extinctions will occur, and our beautiful planet will soon be completely unrecognizable. We can stop a lot of the suffering and harm by reducing the carbon footprint sources of energy, eliminating CO₂ from our atmosphere, and creating sustainable growth paths.	https://env-experts.com/carbon-dioxide-gas-a-remarkable-greenhouse-gas-and-climate-changer/
What is Net Zero Emissions? Meaning of Net Zero Emissions: – Net Zero Emissions means that all man-made greenhouse gas emissions must be removed from the atmosphere through measures to reduce them, thus reducing the Earth’s net climate balance, followed by removal through natural and artificial sinks to zero. In this way the human race will be carbon neutral and the global temperature will be stable. Achieving zero emissions means releasing no greenhouse gases to the atmosphere—that is, no carbon dioxide (CO2), no methane, no nitrous oxide or other greenhouse gases. Achieving net zero emissions means that some greenhouse gases are still released, but these are offset by removing an equivalent amount of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere and storing it permanently in soil, plants, or materials. Because it would be prohibitively expensive or disruptive to eliminate some sources of emissions entirely, achieving net-zero emissions is considered more feasible than achieving zero emissions at a nationwide scale. Net zero Emissions basically refers to the balance between the quantity of greenhouse gases emitted and the quantity removed from the air. A country is said to have reached net zero carbon emission when the quantity of greenhouse gases it adds to the atmosphere is equal to the quantity it manages to remove from the air – cancelling each other out. India’s road to zero carbon emissions will be long and challenging while it is not impossible, it will require a lot of strategic planning in the coming decades. The world’s third-largest emitter of greenhouse gases stunned the world on Monday by setting a target for net zero carbon emissions – after years of rejecting calls for it. Speaking at the COP26 summit, Prime Minister Narendra Modi said that India will aim for Net Zero Carbon Emissions by 2070. Although this is the first time India has made such a pledge, it is still two decades ahead of the 2050 target set by the organizers of the climate summit. What is United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change? The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) established an international environmental treaty to combat “dangerous human interference with the climate system”, in part by stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere. It was signed by 154 states at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), informally known as the Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro, the sister convention to the Convention on Biodiversity, from 3rd to 14th June 1992. It established a Secretariat headquartered in Bonn and entered into force on 21 March 1994. The UNFCCC has around 200 countries that are ‘Parties’ to the Convention. The Parties to the Convention meet every year (with the exception of 2020 due to COVID-19) at the Conference of the Parties (COP). The UNFCCC meeting will be COP26 in Glasgow in November 2021. The UNFCCC established agreements between the parties to act on climate change. The first agreement was the Kyoto Protocol, which sets binding emissions reduction targets for 36 industrialized countries and the European Union. Overall, these targets bring an average of 5 percent emissions reduction over the five-year period of 2008-2012 compared to 1990 levels. Phase II ran from 2013 to 2020, with the parties committing to reducing GHG emissions by at least 18 percent below 1990 levels; However, fewer countries made commitments for this second phase. The United States was notably absent from both phases of the Kyoto Protocol. The UNFCCC takes scientific guidance from the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which submits its Assessment Report (AR) every five years, with AR6 in 2021/22. The IPCC produced a special report on Sustaining Global Temperature Rise to 1.5 degree Celsius in 2018, showing a significant difference between an increase of 1.5 degree Celsius and a rise of 2 degree Celsius and the dramatic risk of exceeding these two targets. It also recommended a global ‘net zero’ emissions target by 2050. What is the Paris Climate Agreement? Meaning of Paris Climate Agreement: – The 2015 United Nations Climate Conference (COP21) in Paris opened with the largest gathering of world leaders in history, and ended with the adoption of the Paris Agreement; a new global agreement on tackling climate change. The Paris Agreement is a landmark in the multilateral climate change process because, for the first time, a binding agreement brings all nations into a common cause to undertake ambitious efforts to combat climate change and adapt to its effects. The Paris Agreement, which takes effect in 2020, is markedly different from the Kyoto Protocol in that it calls for action from all 195 signatory countries, not just industrialized countries. The Paris Agreement’s long-term temperature goal is to keep the rise in mean global temperature to well below 2° C (3.6° F) above pre-industrial levels, and preferably limit the increase to 1.5° C (2.7° F), recognising that this would substantially reduce the impacts of climate change. Emissions should be reduced as soon as possible and reach net-zero by the middle of the 21st century. The Paris Agreement, which takes effect in 2020, is markedly different from the Kyoto Protocol in that it calls for action from all 195 signatory countries, not just industrialized countries. In addition to mitigation (cutting greenhouse gas emissions), it also agrees on action on adaptation (response to the effects of climate change) and loss and damage (response to climate catastrophe); It also agrees that rich countries should provide finance and technology to help poor and vulnerable countries take action. Why United Nations Framework Convention (COP26) is important? COP26 is the biggest and most important climate-related conference on the planet. In this treaty, nations agreed to “stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere” to prevent dangerous interference from human activity on the climate system. Today, the treaty has 197 signatories. During the conference, among other issues, delegates will be aiming to finalise the ‘Paris Rulebook’, or the rules needed to implement the Agreement. This time they will need to agree on common timeframes for the frequency of revision and monitoring of their climate commitments. Basically, Paris set the destination, limiting warming well below two degrees, (ideally 1.5) but Glasgow, is the last chance to make it a reality. The official negotiations take place over two weeks. The first week includes technical negotiations by government officials, followed by high-level Ministerial and Heads of State meetings in the second week, when the final decisions will be made – or not. There are four main points that will be discussed during the conference according to its host, the United Kingdom: – - Secure global net zero by mid-century and keep 1.5 degrees within reach: – To do this, countries need to accelerate the phase-out of coal, curb deforestation, speed up the switch to greener economies. Carbon market mechanisms will be also part of the negotiations. - Adapt more to protect communities and natural habitats: – Since the climate is already changing countries already affected by climate change need to protect and restore ecosystems, as well as build defences, warning systems and resilient infrastructure. - Mobilise finance: – At COP15, rich nations promised to channel $100 billion a year to less-wealthy nations by 2020 to help them adapt to climate change and mitigate further rises in temperature. That promise was not kept, and COP26 will be crucial to secure the funds, with the help of international financial institutions, as well as set new climate finance targets to be achieved by 2025. - Work together to deliver: – This means establishing collaborations between governments, businesses and civil society, and of course, finalising the Paris Rulebook to make the Agreement fully operational. In addition to formal negotiations, COP26 is expected to establish new initiatives and coalitions for delivering climate action. In the context of the recovery from the coronavirus and the global recession, the impact of climate change continues, and climate risks are increasing around the world. Three components will make up a successful Conference of the Parties 26 (COP26): – - What happens in the year before COP26 to advance climate ambition; - How successful are the official talks at COP26, including high-level segments with heads of state and ministers from around the world; and - What progressive coalitions and coalitions for action on climate change have emerged to successfully implement the Paris Agreement. All parties to the Paris Agreement are requested to submit updated pledges (Nationally Determined Contributions, NDCs) during 2020, setting tough targets to reduce emissions by 2030. How many governments do this during 2020 or before the summit in 2021 will be an important thing. Testing the effectiveness of the Paris Agreement. In February 2021, the UNFCCC will prepare a synthesis report to assess whether sufficient progress is being made on increasing ambition in the NDC. So far, developing countries are coming forward with better NDCs, and the UK and EU are expected to present their advanced NDCs by December 2020. 2020 is also the year that wealthy nations are set to target $100bn per year in climate finance. The UNFCCC is expected to review whether this has been achieved prior to COP26. Official Negotiations: – Official talks take place in two weeks. The first week is mainly technical talks by government officials. The second week is dominated by high-level ministerial and heads of state meetings. The most challenging issues of negotiations go to the ministers for final negotiation decisions. Conference of the Parties 26 (COP26) has a number of technical issues to be finalized, including some hard sticking points that were carried over from COP26 in Madrid in 2019. Issues that will be brought up at COP26 includes the following: – - Carbon market mechanism, which allows countries to buy (reduction) carbon credits from another country to allow the purchasing country to continue to emit emissions within its borders. Carbon markets may also include trading in ‘negative’ emissions, such as carbon absorption through forestry. The parties have very diverse views on the limits and rules of these markets. - While loss and damage is a core part of the Paris Agreement, there is as yet no mechanism within the UNFCCC to deal with losses and damages suffered by vulnerable countries. This is seen by the LDC as a key factor in unlocking the talks but is opposed by many wealthy countries. - The delivery of the $100 billion finance target is likely to be discussed, and will again be an important factor for less developed countries. Additionally, COP26 is likely to set the next target for climate finance to be achieved by 2025. - An important aspect of the climate debate is around ‘nature-based solutions’ (NBS). Thus nature (forests, agriculture and ecosystems) can become a climate solution to absorb carbon and protect against climate impacts. COP26 will begin to discuss how to integrate NBS into the Paris implementation strategy. - The other element of the ‘Paris rulebook’, which requires agreement, is on the common timeframes for NDCs of countries – whether those timeframes should be five years or ten years. Shorter time-frames mean more frequent revision of NDCs, potentially fuelling greater ambition, if only they were revised every decade. Can India achieve net zero carbon emissions by 2070? India’s road to net zero carbon emissions will be long and challenging while it is not impossible, it will require a lot of strategic planning in the coming decades. The world’s third-largest emitter of greenhouse gases stunned the world on Monday by setting a target for net zero carbon emissions – after years of rejecting calls for it. Speaking at the COP26 summit, Prime Minister Narendra Modi said that India will aim for net zero emissions by 2070. Although this is the first time India has made such a pledge, it is still two decades ahead of the 2050 target set by the organizers of the climate summit. Net zero emissions refers to achieving an overall balance between greenhouse gas emissions produced through natural means or using still-nascent carbon capture technology and greenhouse gas emissions removed from the atmosphere. Ulka Kelkar, director of the climate program at the World Resources Institute, India, told CNBC: “I was surprised because there is a lot of heated debate on net zero carbon emissions in India”. India is still largely dependent on fossil fuels such as oil and coal and its economic priorities are mostly focused on domestic issues. The country’s energy demand is expected to increase rapidly over the next decade as the economy continues on its growth trajectory. Kelkar said he believes India’s 2070 target of net zero emissions, along with other 2030 targets announced by Modi, is “very achievable”. Targets announced by PM Modi, 5 goals at COP26 Climate Summit: – - India will bring its non-fossil energy capacity to 500 GW by 2030; - India will fulfil 50 per cent of its energy requirement through renewable energy by 2030; - India will cut down its net projected carbon emission by 1 billion ton from now until 2030; - India will bring down carbon intensity of its economy by more than 45 per cent, by 2030; - India will achieve its zero-net carbon emissions target by 2070. Kelkar said over email, the pledges will give policy certainty to the industry to invest in decarbonization technologies, and inspire India’s states and cities to set their own net-zero paths to growth. PM Narendra Modi’s commitments at COP26 summit on climate change The announcement, made at the UN-led COP26 climate change summit in Glasgow, will push the developed world to enhance climate finance for the 2021-2030 period. The Indian PM also made it clear that rich countries will have to provide $1 trillion in climate finance to the developing world to achieve its climate change mitigation targets, while speaking out in support of vulnerable island nations that are in the danger of submerging because of rising sea levels. India is No. 4 in the world when it comes to installed renewable energy capacity, and its non-fossil fuel energy has increased by more than 25% in the last seven years, reaching 40 % of country’s energy mix this year. However, India will continue to grow on fossil fuels for another 20 years, and only after that, its emissions will start to fall, show various studies done on the country’s energy basket. India’s five-point climate action plan, which PM Narendra Modi described as “panchamrit (five values)”, is set to give a firm push to India’s plans for increasing renewable energy, and switching to electricity and hydrogen fuels for transport. - Net Zero Emissions by 2070 The Council for Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW) said solar electricity generation will have to go up to 5,630 GW by 2070, while the wind energy will be second biggest contributor by providing 1,792 GW by 2070. To achieve net zero emissions, the share of electric cars and the contribution of biofuels for heavier vehicles will have to reach 84% by 2070, the CEEW said, adding that the majority section of industry will have to shift to cleaner biofuels or hydrogen. As of 2019, India installed a capacity to generate about 134 GW of clean energy from solar, wind and nuclear sources, the Centre for Science and Environment said. There is unanimity among energy experts that India’s dependence on coal will have to be cut down drastically in the next 10-15 years to achieve its net zero target, and the country will have to swiftly switch to cleaner fuels. With India aiming to cover one-third of its geographical area with trees and forest cover, the country’s carbon reducing capacity will go up considerably. Forests can absorb up to 20% of carbon emissions, according to an environment ministry study conducted in 2011 when India’s green cover was about 24% of the its geographical area. With the green cover increasing, the country’s carbon sequestration ability will also improve. - 500 GW of Non-Fossil Fuels by 2030 In an analysis for the 500 GW target, the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) said India’s Central Electricity Authority (CEA) has done a projection for the country’s energy mix for 2030 that shows it will need to have solar energy installed capacity of 280GW and wind energy installed capacity of 140GW. The rest of the energy needs will come from nuclear. This would mean India will produce half of its energy requirements from renewables, which PM Narendra Modi promised at the COP26 summit. According to the CEA, India’s total installed electricity capacity will be 1,100 GW by 2030. The CSE said that target is achievable if India stops investing in coal. - Cutting Carbon Emissions by 1 billion Tonnes According to the business-as-usual scenario, India’s projected carbon emissions by 2030 will be 4.48 billion tonnes, almost double its present emissions, according to the CSE. This would mean a 22% reduction in carbon emissions. India’s projected emissions in 2030 would be 3.48 billion tonnes, just 9% of the remaining carbon budget of 400 billion tonnes. Of the total global emissions, India’s share will be a relatively small 8.4%, while China and the US will continue to be two biggest carbon emitters, the CSE said. In per capita terms, it would mean India will have emitted 2.98 tonnes of CO2 in a business-as-usual scenario, and going by this target, it will be 2.31 tonnes per capita, less than that of any industrialised country in the world including China. As of today, India’s per capita emissions is 1.98 tonnes of CO2 . If you compare this to the world, the US per capita emissions will be 9.42 tonnes in 2030, EU 4.12 tonnes in 2030, India’s will be 2.7 tonnes in 2030 and China’s will be 8.88 tonnes per capita. - Reducing Carbon Intensity by 45% Achieving 45% won’t be difficult considering India would be meeting half of its energy demand from cleaner technologies by 2030, and there is a broad hydrogen road map for the country to adopt over the next 10 years. India has taken measures to reduce emissions from the transport sector, and the energy intensive industrial sector – especially cement, iron and steel, non-metallic minerals and chemical, which contribute about 30% of the total emissions. In the coming years, India will have to make the measures stringent and force industries to comply with them, Ahluwalia said in his paper. The CEEW said that India will have to reinvent its mobility systems to move people and goods in a more efficient manner. “India can significantly reduce its carbon intensity by giving incentives to adopt hydrogen as fuel for new industries and for non-peak hours,” said Chandra Bhushan, CEO of I-Forest. - Climate Finance The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) defines climate finance as money from government, private and alternate sources of financing. Climate finance is needed for mitigation because large-scale investments are required to significantly reduce emissions. Modi categorically said the developing world expects developed countries to provide climate finance of $1 trillion at the earliest to meet net zero targets and adopt a cleaner growth trajectory. Till end of 2020, the rich countries were able to provide $80 billion dollars of climate finance. In 2009, developed countries pledged to raise $100 billion a year by 2020 to help developing countries deal with the impact of climate change. What is the greenhouse effect? Meaning of Greenhouse Effect: – The greenhouse effect is a process that occurs when gases in Earth’s atmosphere trap the Sun’s heat. This process makes Earth much warmer than it would be without an atmosphere. The greenhouse effect is one of the things that makes Earth a comfortable place to live. The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet’s atmosphere warms the planet’s surface to a temperature above what it would be without this atmosphere. Radiatively active gases (i.e., greenhouse gases) in a planet’s atmosphere radiate energy in all directions. Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface, thus warming it. Similarly, aerosols have radiatively active effects. The intensity of downward radiation – that is, the strength of the greenhouse effect depends on the amount of greenhouse gases and aerosols that the atmosphere contains. The temperature rises until the intensity of upward radiation from the surface, thus cooling it, balances the downward energy flow. Earth’s natural greenhouse effect is critical for supporting life and initially was a precursor to life moving out of the ocean onto land. Human activities, mainly the burning of fossil fuels and clearcutting of forests, have increased the greenhouse effect and caused global warming. Human activities are changing Earth’s natural greenhouse effect. Burning fossil fuels like coal and oil puts more carbon dioxide into our atmosphere. It is observed that increase in the amount of carbon dioxide and some other greenhouse gases in our atmosphere. Too much of these greenhouse gases can cause Earth’s atmosphere to trap more and more heat. This causes Earth to warm up. Which gases cause the greenhouse effect? The contribution that a greenhouse gas makes to the greenhouse effect depends on how much heat it absorbs, how much it re-radiates and how much of it is in the atmosphere. Earth’s greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere and warm the planet. The main gases that contribute most to the Earth’s greenhouse effect are: – - Water Vapour (H2O): – The most abundant greenhouse gas overall, water vapor differs from other greenhouse gases in that changes in its atmospheric concentrations are linked not to human activities directly, but rather to the warming that results from the other greenhouse gases we emit. Warmer air holds more water. And since water vapor is a greenhouse gas, more water absorbs more heat, inducing even greater warming and perpetuating a positive feedback loop. - Carbon Dioxide (CO2): – Accounting for about 76 percent of global human-caused emissions, carbon dioxide (CO2) sticks around for quite a while. Once it’s emitted into the atmosphere, 40 percent still remains after 100 years, 20 percent after 1,000 years, and 10 percent as long as 10,000 years later. - Nitrous Oxide (N2O): – Nitrous oxide (N2O) is a powerful greenhouse gas. It has a GWP 300 times that of carbon dioxide on a 100-year time scale, and it remains in the atmosphere, on average, a little more than a century. It accounts for about 6 percent of human-caused greenhouse gas emissions worldwide. - Methane (CH4): – Although methane (CH4) persists in the atmosphere for far less time than carbon dioxide (about a decade), it is much more potent in terms of the greenhouse effect. In fact, pound for pound, its global warming impact is 25 times greater than that of carbon dioxide over a 100-year period. Globally it accounts for approximately 16 percent of human-generated greenhouse gas emissions. - Fluorinated Gases: – Emitted from a variety of manufacturing and industrial processes, fluorinated gases are man-made. There are four main categories: hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), and nitrogen trifluoride (NF3). Although fluorinated gases are emitted in smaller quantities than other greenhouse gases (they account for just 2 percent of man-made global greenhouse gas emissions), they trap substantially more heat. Indeed, the GWP for these gases can be in the thousands to tens of thousands, and they have long atmospheric lifetimes, in some cases lasting tens of thousands of years. - Ozone (O3): – Ozone, unlike the other criteria pollutants, is not emitted directly into the air by any one source. Ground-level ozone is a secondary pollutant. It is formed through chemical reactions of other molecules already in the air, specifically nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Ground-level ozone, which exists in the atmosphere close to earth, is not the same as the “ozone layer” in the earth’s outer atmosphere (the stratosphere), where ozone helps to absorb ultraviolet radiation that would otherwise be harmful to organisms on Earth’s surface. Sources of the NOx and VOCs that contribute to the formation of ground-level ozone include vehicles, lawn and garden equipment, paints and solvents, refuelling stations, factories, and other activities that result in the burning of fossil fuels. In terms of the amount of heat these gases can absorb and re-radiate (known as their global warming potential or GWP), CH4 is 23 times more effective and N2O is 296 times more effective than CO2. However, there is much more CO2 in the Earth’s atmosphere than there is CH4 or N2O. Not all the greenhouse gas that we emit to the atmosphere remains there indefinitely. For example, the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere and the amount of CO2 dissolved in surface waters of the oceans stay in equilibrium, because the air and water mix well at the sea surface. When we add more CO2 to the atmosphere, a proportion of it dissolves into the oceans. What are the sources of greenhouse gases? The Primary Sources of Greenhouse Gases are as follows: – - Burning Fossil Fuels: – Carbon dioxide levels are substantially higher now than at any time in the last 750, 000 years. The burning of fossil fuels has elevated CO2 levels from an atmospheric concentration of approximately 280 parts per million (ppm) in pre-industrial times to over 400 ppm in 2018. This is a 40 per cent increase since the start of the Industrial Revolution. CO2 concentrations are increasing at a rate of about 2–3 ppm/year and are expected to exceed 900 ppm by the end of the 21st century. - Cement Manufacture: – Cement manufacture contributes Carbon Dioxide (CO2) to the atmosphere when calcium carbonate is heated, producing lime and CO2. Estimates vary, but it is widely accepted that the cement industry produces between five and eight per cent of global anthropogenic CO2 emissions, of which 50 per cent is produced from the chemical process itself and 40 per cent from burning fuel to power that process. The amount of CO2 emitted by the cement industry is more than 900 kg of CO2 for every 1000 kg of cement produced. - Transportation (29 Percent of 2019 Greenhouse Gas Emissions): – The transportation sector generates the largest share of greenhouse gas emissions. Greenhouse gas emissions from transportation come primarily from burning fossil fuels for our cars, trucks, ships, trains, planes, etc. More than 90 percent of the fuel used for transportation is petroleum-based, consisting primarily of gasoline and diesel. Carbon dioxide is the primary gas emitted, though fuel combustion also releases small amounts of methane and nitrous oxide, and vehicle air conditioning and refrigerated transport release fluorinated gases too. - Electricity Generation (25 Percent of 2019 Greenhouse Gas Emissions): – Electricity generation generates the second largest share of greenhouse gas emissions. About 62 percent of our electricity comes from burning fossil fuels, with carbon dioxide the primary gas released (along with small amounts of methane and nitrous oxide), mainly from coal combustion. - Industry (23 Percent of 2019 Greenhouse Gas Emissions): – Greenhouse gas emissions from industry primarily come from burning fossil fuels for energy, as well as greenhouse gas emissions from certain chemical reactions needed to produce goods from raw materials it happens. - Commercial and Residential (13 Percent of 2019 Greenhouse Gas Emissions): – Greenhouse gas emissions from businesses and homes primarily result from fossil fuels burned for heat, the use of certain products containing greenhouse gases, and waste management. Operating buildings around the world generates 6.4 percent of global greenhouse gases. These emissions, made up mostly of carbon dioxide and methane, stem primarily from burning natural gas and oil for heating and cooking, though other sources include managing waste and wastewater and leaking refrigerants from air-conditioning and refrigeration systems. - Agriculture (10 Percent of 2019 Greenhouse Gas Emissions): – Trees, plants, and soil absorb carbon dioxide from the air. The plants and trees do it via photosynthesis (a process by which they turn carbon dioxide into glucose); the soil houses microbes that carbon binds to. So non-agricultural land-use changes such as deforestation, reforestation (replanting in existing forested areas), and afforestation (creating new forested areas) can either increase the amount of carbon in the atmosphere (as in the case of deforestation) or decrease it via absorption, removing more carbon dioxide from the air than they emit. (When trees or plants are cut down, they no longer absorb carbon dioxide, and when they are burned or decompose, they release carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere.) Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture come from livestock such as cows, agricultural soil and rice production. - Land Use and Forestry (12 Percent of 2019 Greenhouse Gas Emissions): – Land areas can act as a sink (absorbing CO2 from the atmosphere) or a source of greenhouse gas emissions. In the United States, since 1990, managed forests and other lands are a net sink, that is, they have absorbed more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere than they emitted. - Aerosols: – Aerosols are small particles suspended in the atmosphere that can be produced when we burn fossil fuels. Other anthropogenic sources of aerosols include pollution from cars and factories, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) used in refrigeration systems and CFCs and halons used in fire suppression systems and manufacturing processes. Aerosols can also be produced naturally from a number of natural processes e.g., forest fires, volcanoes and isoprene emitted from plants. We know that greenhouse gases provide a warming effect to Earth’s surface, but aerosol pollution in the atmosphere can counteract this warming effect. For example, sulphate aerosols from fossil fuel combustion exert a cooling influence by reducing the amount of sunlight that reaches the Earth. What are the adverse effects of greenhouse gases? Scientists are highly confident that global temperatures will continue to rise for decades to come, primarily due to greenhouse gases produced by human activities. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which includes more than 1,300 scientists from the United States and other countries, has forecast a temperature increase of 2.5 to 10 degrees Fahrenheit over the next century. Some of the long-term adverse effects of Greenhouse Gases are as follows: – - Global Temperatures Will Continue to Rise: – Many experts predict that Earth’s surface temperature will rise by at least 1 degree Fahrenheit, possibly much more, by the end of this century. Global temperatures will continue to rise until growth is driven by a decline in greenhouse gas emissions, especially in the industry and agriculture sectors. - More Droughts and Heat Waves: – In the new IPCC report, the world’s leading climate experts pointed out that unless “drastic” cuts to emissions are made, extreme weather will become more common. Heat waves have happened in the past, but climate change is making heat waves longer, more extreme and more frequent. By comparing different scenarios, scientists can tell that global warming is making heat waves worse. Severe heat waves are expected to increase the number of heat-related illnesses and deaths. - Hurricanes Will Become Stronger and More Intense: – Researchers say that climate change gives storms more energy, which keeps them powering on land. The scientists involved say it will cause more damage to the storm in years to come. - Sea Level Will Rise 1-8 feet by 2100: – Global Sea level has risen nearly 8 inches since reliable record-keeping began in 1880. It is projected to grow by 1 to 8 feet by 2100. This is the result of additional water from the melting of land ice and the expansion of seawater as it warms. Over the next several decades, storm surges and high tides may combine with sea level rise and land degradation to further increase flooding in many areas. Sea level rise will continue after 2100 because the oceans take too long to respond to warmer conditions on Earth’s surface. - Arctic Likely to Become Ice-Free: – A new study finds that just 15 years from now, the Arctic Ocean may be functionally free of ice for some part of the year. The Arctic will see an ice-free period every year in early 2035 due to high rise in global temperature. - Depletion of Ozone Layer: – The depletion of the ozone layer results in the entry of the harmful UV rays to the earth’s surface that might lead to skin cancer and can also change the climate drastically. Global warming of the lower atmosphere may trigger major ozone destruction that has added a dangerous new dimension to the climate change landscape (Nature, Volume 360 No. 6401). British scientists John Austin of the Office of Meteorology, Neil Butcher of the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Keith Shine of the University of Reading calculated that by the middle of the 21st century, when carbon dioxide levels are expected to double, almost all of the ozone The lower stratosphere above the Arctic would be destroyed. - Smog and Air Pollution: – Smog is formed by the combination of smoke and fog. It can be caused both by natural means and man-made activities. In general, smog is generally formed by the accumulation of more greenhouse gases including nitrogen and sulfur oxides. The major contributors to the formation of smog are the automobile and industrial emissions, agricultural fires, natural forest fires and the reaction of these chemicals among themselves. - Acidification of Water Bodies: – Increase in the total amount of greenhouse gases in the air has turned most of the world’s water bodies acidic. The greenhouse gases mix with the rainwater and fall as acid rain. This leads to the acidification of water bodies. Also, the rainwater carries the contaminants along with it and falls into the river, streams and lakes thereby causing their acidification. What are the causes for rising of Global Warming? Global warming is an aspect of climate change, referring to the long-term rise of the planet’s temperatures. It is caused by increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, mainly from human activities such as burning fossil fuels, and farming. The main causes for rising of Global Warming are as follows: – - Burning of Fossil Fuels: – Fossil fuels are an important part of our lives. They are widely used in transportation and to produce electricity. Burning of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide. With the increase in population, the utilization of fossil fuels has increased. This has led to an increase in the release of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Burning coal, oil and gas produces carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide. - Deforestation: – Trees help control the climate by absorbing CO2 from the atmosphere. Plants and trees take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen. Due to the cutting of trees, there is a considerable increase in the greenhouse gases which increases the earth’s temperature. When they are cut down, that beneficial effect is lost and the carbon stored in trees is released into the atmosphere, adding to the greenhouse effect. - Oil and Gas: – Oil and Gas is used all the time in almost every industry. It is used the most in vehicles, buildings, production and to produce electricity. When we burn coal, oil and gases it largely adds to the climate problem. The use of fossil fuels is also a threat to wildlife and the surrounding environments, because of the toxicity it kills off plant life and leaves areas uninhabitable. - Fertilizer: – The use of nitrogen-rich fertilizers increases the amount of heat for the crop. Nitrogen oxides can trap 300 times more heat than carbon dioxide. Sixty-two percent of the nitrous oxide released comes from agricultural by-products. - Power Plants: – Power plants burn fossil fuels to operate, due to this they produce a variety of different pollutants. The pollution they produce not only ends up in the atmosphere but also in the water ways, this largely contributes to global warming. Burning coal which is used in power plants is responsible for around 46% of total carbon emissions. - Oil Drilling: – Burning from the oil drilling industry has an impact on the carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere. The recovery, processing and distribution of fossil fuels accounts for about eight percent of carbon dioxide and thirty percent of methane pollution. - Natural Gas Drilling: – Known as a clean fuel source, natural gas drilling causes massive air pollution in states such as Wyoming; Hydraulic fracturing techniques used to extract natural gas from shale deposits also pollute groundwater sources. - Waste: – As waste breaks down in landfills, it releases methane and nitrous oxide gases. About eighteen percent of the methane gas in the atmosphere comes from waste disposal and treatment. Humans create more waste now than ever before, because of the amount of packaging used and the short life cycle of products. A lot of items, waste and packaging isn’t recyclable, which means it ends up in landfills. When the waste in landfills begins to decompose/break down it releases harmful gases into the atmosphere which contribute to global warming. - Volcanic Eruptions: – Volcanoes release large amounts of carbon dioxide when they erupt. Volcanoes have an overall small effect on global warming and an eruption causes short-term global cooling as the ash in the air reflects a greater amount of solar energy. - Farming: – Farming takes up a lot of green space meaning local environments can be destroyed to create space for farming. These animals produce a lot of greenhouse gases for example methane, as well as this they also produce an extreme amount of waste. Factory farming is responsible for even more climate issues because of the extra pollution it produces and the more animals it can hold. Why ‘Net Zero Emissions’ is necessary? Technologies exist in many sectors of the economy that can bring emissions down to zero. In electricity, this can be done using renewable and nuclear generation. A transportation system that runs on electricity or hydrogen, well-insulated homes and industrial processes based on electricity instead of gas could all help bring regional emissions down to absolute zero. However, technological options are limited in industries such as aviation; Even in agriculture, it is highly unlikely that emissions will be brought down to zero. So, some emissions from these areas will likely remain; And to offset these, a similar amount of CO2 would need to be pulled out of the atmosphere – negative emissions. Thus, the target becomes ‘net zero’ for the economy as a whole. The term ‘carbon neutrality’ is also used. Sometimes the total zero target is expressed in terms of greenhouse gas emissions, sometimes simply as CO2. The UK Climate Change Act now states its net zero emissions target by 2050 in terms of greenhouse gases overall. What are the possible ways to achieve Net Zero Emissions by 2050? The possible ways to achieve Net Zero Emissions by 2050 areas follows: – - An End to Waste: – - Policy makers have put reduction in unnecessary consumption at the top of their agenda. That’s where our analysts believe. Cutting down on energy demand, keeping raw materials in use longer, puts a premium on efficiency. And there is much that can be done in this area on behalf of governments, companies, investors and consumers. - For example, capital goods manufacturers can make large profits by using software that predicts performance through the life of a piece of equipment. Developers and operators of office buildings – the largest consumers of energy in the commercial real estate sector could be re-ready for a post-Covid world, reducing the need for heating, lighting and refrigeration. - Meanwhile, in “fast fashion”, about 80% of clothing ends up in landfills or burns. That industry is a clear target for greater use of recycling. - Generate Electricity without Emissions: – - Using sources such as wind, solar, nuclear, and water power combined with advances in electricity storage can provide much of the nation’s electricity with minimal CO2 emissions. - Other low-carbon energy sources can be used alongside these power sources to make sure electricity is always available. - Bioenergy to the Fore Once More: – - The focus is shifting from the “food versus fuel” dilemma, under which crop-based biofuels were linked to rising food prices, deforestation and land conflicts. - There is now a new generation of biofuels that can be made from non-edible crops and oils, and from agricultural and municipal waste. Our analysts predict that bioliquids will account for 20% of the demand for liquids by 2050, while bio-gas will account for 5% of the gas market. - Greater Use of Hydrogen: – - Hydrogen is light and storable and produces no direct CO2 emissions when converted into energy. So, society needs to make more use of it and why governments should continue to provide incentives to do so. - Today, most of the demand comes from the refining industry, for hydrocarbons and desulfurization, and from chemical companies, for the production of ammonia. - Carbon Sequestration: – - Governments, companies and consumers are committed to moving to a low-carbon world. But even after major changes, there will be areas and sectors where net zero is not possible – either from a technology or cost perspective. - More efficient technologies and processes that reduce energy use can also reduce emissions significantly. Switching to electric equipment often improves efficiency. Also, “smart” technologies, which sense when energy is needed and when it is not, can help to optimize how electricity is generated and used, helping minimize waste. - According to our analysts’ estimates, CO2 removal would require approximately 20 gigatons per year, either through direct capture or other offsets such as nature-based solutions. - Absorb Carbon Dioxide from the Climate: – - The only greenhouse gas that can be easily absorbed from the atmosphere is carbon dioxide. There are two basic approaches to extracting this: by stimulating nature to absorb more, and by creating technology that works. - To offset emissions that are too costly or difficult to avoid, it is necessary to remove CO2 from the atmosphere and store it permanently. This can be done with technologies that directly capture CO2 from the air and trap it so it cannot re-enter the atmosphere. Plants and soils already remove CO2 from the atmosphere, and certain land management practices can increase their capacity to absorb and store carbon. - Plants absorb CO2 through photosynthesis as they grow. Therefore, all other things being equal, more plants growing, or plants growing faster, will be more distant from the atmosphere. Two of the easiest and most effective methods for negative emissions are afforestation – planting more forests – and reforestation – replacing forests that have been lost or thinned. Technical options include Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS) and Direct Air Capture. - Material Efficiency, Longevity, and Re-Use: – - A large share of industrial emissions are associated with creating materials used in products, buildings, and infrastructure, such as concrete and steel. Smart design and precise use of material (enabled by technologies such as automation and 3D printing) can produce products delivering equal or better services while requiring less material. - Improved designs and materials can also lengthen the useful lifetime of buildings or products, so they don’t have to be replaced as often. Buildings and products can also be designed to facilitate re-use by a new owner, and approaches such as vehicle sharing may enable fewer vehicles to provide mobility services for more people. - Replace Fluorinated Gases: – - Fluorinated gases (F-gases) used as refrigerants, propellants, and electrical insulators can be replaced with more climate-friendly alternatives serving the same functions, such as propane, ammonia, isobutane, and various synthetic chemicals. - The Montreal Protocol, an international treaty that phased out the use of refrigerants that damage the ozone layer in the 1990s-2000s, has now been extended to similarly phase out F-gases that harm the climate. - Methane Capture and Destruction: – - Methane is the main component of natural gas, with a heat-trapping ability 28 times that of CO2 per molecule over a 100-year timescale. Leaks from natural gas wellheads, pipelines, and equipment were responsible for 31% of U.S. methane emissions in 2015 while and coal mining was responsible for another 9%. - Better monitoring and prompt repair of natural gas leaks and systems to destroy methane leaking from coal mines (or phasing out coal mining) can help reduce these emissions. Who is moving to net zero emissions target? Many countries have set targets, or are committed to, to reach net zero emissions on a time-frame consistent with the temperature targets of the Paris Agreement. These include the UK, Germany, France, Spain, Norway, Denmark, Switzerland, Portugal, New Zealand, Chile, Costa Rica (2050), Sweden (2045), Iceland, Austria (2040) and Finland (2035). The small Himalayan kingdom of Bhutan and the most forested country on Earth, Suriname, are already carbon-negative – they absorb more CO2 than they emit. Many governments and businesses have set a goal of achieving net-zero emissions by 2050. The U.S. currently produces 6 Gigatons of greenhouse gas emissions each year. The amount of greenhouse gas emissions is measured in terms of CO2-equivalent, which is the amount of CO2 that would have an equivalent global warming impact as a different greenhouse gas (for example, methane or nitrous oxide). To achieve net-zero emissions across the entire United States would require reducing net emissions by an average of 0.2 Gigatons of CO2-equivalent per year over the next 30 years. If the United States were to achieve this goal, it would reduce global greenhouse gas emissions by about 10%. In addition, the European Union has recently agreed in its European climate legislation to ensure its political commitment to be climate neutral by 2050. The principle that rich countries should take the lead in climate change is rooted in the United Nations Climate Conference that dates back to 1992, and was ratified in the Paris Agreement. So, if science says ‘global net zero emissions by mid-century’, there is a strong moral case for developed countries to adopt an earlier date. So far, the UK, France, Sweden, Norway and Denmark have set their net zero targets in national legislation. Other countries, including Spain, Chile and Fiji, are looking to do the same. In the UK Soon after the IPCC published its special report on 1.5°C in October 2018, the governments of the UK, Scotland and Wales asked their official advisers, the Committee on Climate Change (CCC), to advise on UK and developed administrations. Term target for greenhouse gas emissions. The CCC previously indicated that the UK should aim for net zero emissions by 2045-2050 to be compatible with the 1.5º C Paris Agreement target. The CCC gave its advice in May 2019. Its recommendations were: – - For the UK, a new target: net-zero greenhouse gases by 2050 (up from the current emissions reduction target of 80% from 1990 levels by 2050); - For Scotland, a net-zero dates of 2045, reflects a greater relative ability of Scotland to remove emissions than the UK as a whole; - For Wales, a 95% reduction in greenhouse gases by 2050, indicating ‘less opportunities for CO2 storage and relatively high agricultural emissions that are difficult to reduce’.	https://legalpaathshala.com/net-zero-emissions-by-2050-analysis/
Scientists attribute the global warming trend observed since the mid-20th century to the human expansion of the “greenhouse effect” – warming that results when the atmosphere traps heat radiating from Earth toward space. Certain gases in the atmosphere block heat from escaping. Long-lived gases that remain semi-permanently in the atmosphere and do not respond physically or chemically to changes in temperature are described as “forcing” climate change. Gases, such as water vapor, which respond physically or chemically to changes in temperature are seen as “feedbacks.” Gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect include: • Water vapor. The most abundant greenhouse gas, but importantly, it acts as a feedback to the climate. Water vapor increases as the Earth’s atmosphere warms, but so does the possibility of clouds and precipitation, making these some of the most important feedback mechanisms to the greenhouse effect. • Carbon dioxide (CO2). A minor but very important component of the atmosphere, carbon dioxide is released through natural processes such as respiration and volcano eruptions and through human activities such as deforestation, land use changes, and burning fossil fuels. Humans have increased atmospheric CO2 concentration by more than a third since the Industrial Revolution began. This is the most important long-lived “forcing” of climate change. • Methane. A hydrocarbon gas produced both through natural sources and human activities, including the decomposition of wastes in landfills, agriculture, and especially rice cultivation, as well as ruminant digestion and manure management associated with domestic livestock. On a molecule-for-molecule basis, methane is a far more active greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, but also one which is much less abundant in the atmosphere. • Nitrous oxide. A powerful greenhouse gas produced by soil cultivation practices, especially the use of commercial and organic fertilizers, fossil fuel combustion, nitric acid production, and biomass burning. • Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Synthetic compounds entirely of industrial origin used in a number of applications, but now largely regulated in production and release to the atmosphere by international agreement for their ability to contribute to destruction of the ozone layer. They are also greenhouse gases. On Earth, human activities are changing the natural greenhouse. Over the last century the burning of fossil fuels like coal and oil has increased the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). This happens because the coal or oil burning process combines carbon with oxygen in the air to make CO2. To a lesser extent, the clearing of land for agriculture, industry, and other human activities has increased concentrations of greenhouse gases. The consequences of changing the natural atmospheric greenhouse are difficult to predict, but certain effects seem likely: • On average, Earth will become warmer. Some regions may welcome warmer temperatures, but others may not. • Warmer conditions will probably lead to more evaporation and precipitation overall, but individual regions will vary, some becoming wetter and others dryer. • A stronger greenhouse effect will warm the oceans and partially melt glaciers and other ice, increasing sea level. Ocean water also will expand if it warms, contributing further to sea level rise. • Meanwhile, some crops and other plants may respond favorably to increased atmospheric CO2, growing more vigorously and using water more efficiently. At the same time, higher temperatures and shifting climate patterns may change the areas where crops grow best and affect the makeup of natural plant communities. The Role of Human Activity In its Fifth Assessment Report, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, a group of 1,300 independent scientific experts from countries all over the world under the auspices of the United Nations, concluded there’s a more than 95 percent probability that human activities over the past 50 years have warmed our planet. The industrial activities that our modern civilization depends upon have raised atmospheric carbon dioxide levels from 280 parts per million to 400 parts per million in the last 150 years. The panel also concluded there’s a better than 95 percent probability that human-produced greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide have caused much of the observed increase in Earth’s temperatures over the past 50 years.	https://www.thesolarhawk.com/nasa-climate-change-is-man-made/
How to Talk About Climate Change Climate change is being talked about in classrooms, on the news and in our everyday lives. We created a list of definitions for frequently used words and phrases so we can all have a deeper understanding of climate change. Each definition also includes a video, infographic, podcast and article for more context. We learned a lot through the process and we hope you do too. Activism Climate activism is a powerful global movement representing a broad spectrum of individuals and organizations working in scientific, social, academic, conservation, and political realms, that address concerns and impacts of climate change. Climate activist Greta Thunberg is one of the world’s most noted climate activists and creator of the international global climate movement FridaysfortheFuture. Environmental activism has played a crucial role in policy to pass laws that protect people and the planet and mitigate the impacts of climate change. Collective activism through campaigns prompts students, collectives, and communities to identify key issues, join together, and pressure decision makers to enact diverse solutions to heal the planet (EcoWatch). Resources Adaptation Adaptation refers to adjustments in ecological, social, or economic systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli and their effects or impacts. It refers to changes in processes, practices, and structures to moderate potential damages or to benefit from opportunities associated with climate change as well as prepare for future impacts (United Nations). Resources Agriculture Regenerative agriculture describes farming and grazing practices that, among other benefits, reverse climate change by rebuilding soil organic matter and restoring degraded soil biodiversity – resulting in both carbon drawdown and improving the water cycle. (Regeneration International). Common practices include abandoning tillage, eliminating time and space of bare soil, fostering plant diversity on the farm, and integrating livestock and cropping operations on the land (LaCanne and Lundgren). Industrial agriculture is the large-scale, intensive production of crops and animals, often involving chemical fertilizers on crops or the routine, harmful use of antibiotics in animals. It may also involve crops that are genetically modified, heavy use of pesticides, and other practices that deplete the land, mistreat animals, and increase various forms of pollution (NRDC). Resources Anthropocene An unofficial unit of geologic time, used to describe the most recent period in Earth’s history when human activity started to have a significant impact on the planet’s climate and ecosystems (National Geographic). Resources Atmosphere An atmosphere is the layers of gases surrounding a planet or other celestial body. The atmosphere protects life on earth by shielding it from incoming ultraviolet (UV) radiation, keeping the planet warm through insulation, and preventing extremes between day and night temperatures. The sun heats layers of the atmosphere causing it to convect driving air movement and weather patterns around the world (National Geographic). Resources Biodiversity Biodiversity refers to the variety of living species on Earth, including plants, animals, bacteria, and fungi. While Earth’s biodiversity is so rich that many species have yet to be discovered, many species are being threatened with extinction due to human activities, putting the Earth’s magnificent biodiversity at risk (National Geographic). Resources Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide is the gas that accounts for about 84 percent of total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions. In the U.S. the largest source of carbon dioxide (98 percent) emissions is combustion of fossil fuels. Combustion can be from mobile (vehicles) or stationary sources (power plants). As energy use increases, so do carbon dioxide emissions (UC Davis). Resources Carbon Footprint A carbon footprint is a simple way to express that impact. The “size” of your carbon footprint depends on multiple factors. The primary one is the amount of greenhouse gas emissions released into the atmosphere by a given activity. People, products and entire industries have carbon footprints. Your personal footprint includes emissions from a variety of sources — your daily commute, the food you eat, the clothes you buy, everything you throw away … and more. The larger your footprint, the heavier the strain on the environment. (Conservation International). Resources Carbon Sequestration The process of removing carbon from the atmosphere and storing it in a fixed molecule in soils, oceans, and plants. Carbon sequestration secures carbon dioxide to prevent it from entering the Earth’s atmosphere. The idea is to stabilize carbon in solid and dissolved forms so that it doesn’t cause the atmosphere to warm. The process shows tremendous promise for reducing the human “carbon footprint” (UC Davis). Resources Climate Change Long-term shifts in temperature and weather patterns. These shifts may be natural, such as through variations in the solar cycle. But since the 1800s, human activities have been the main driver of climate change, primarily due to burning fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas. Burning fossil fuels generates greenhouse gas emissions that act like a blanket wrapped around the Earth, trapping the sun’s heat and raising temperatures (United Nations). Resources Compost Composting is the natural process of recycling organic matter, such as leaves and food scraps, into a valuable fertilizer that can enrich soil and plants. Anything that grows decomposes eventually; composting simply speeds up the process by providing an ideal environment for bacteria, fungi, and other decomposing organisms to do their work (NRDC). Resources Conservation Conservation is the act of protecting Earth’s natural resources for current and future generations, which encompasses the landscape and geography as well as the wildlife that lives there. It includes maintaining the diversity of species, genes, and ecosystems, as well as functions of the environment, such as nutrient cycling (National Geographic). Resources Deforestation The permanent removal of trees to make room for something besides forest. Deforestation can include clearing the land for farming or livestock, or using the timber for fuel, construction, or manufacturing. These forested areas produce oxygen and absorb carbon dioxide (CO2), and are home to an estimated 80% of Earth’s terrestrial species. Forests also are a source of food, medicine, and fuel for more than a billion people (Live Science). Resources Ecosystem A geographic area where plants, animals, and other organisms, as well as weather and landscapes, work together to form a bubble of life. Ecosystems contain biotic or living, parts, as well as abiotic factors, or nonliving parts. Biotic factors include plants, animals, and other organisms. Abiotic factors include rocks, temperature, and humidity (National Geographic). Resources Environmental Justice “Environmental Justice” (EJ) is the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income with respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies. The environment refers to everything around you. It is your home, your school, where you play, where you work, and any other places that you visit. Justice means fair treatment for everyone. EJ simply means making sure that everyone has a fair chance of living the healthiest life possible (NIEHS). Resource Environmental Racism A form of systemic racism whereby communities of color are disproportionately burdened with health hazards through policies and practices that force them to live in proximity to sources of toxic waste such as sewage works, mines, landfills, power stations, major roads and emitters of airborne particulate matter. As a result, these communities suffer greater rates of health problems attendant on hazardous pollutants (World Economic Forum). Resources Extreme Weather Events Includes unexpected, unusual, unpredictable severe, or unseasonal weather; weather at the extremes of the historical distribution – the range that has been seen in the past. Extreme events include heat waves, droughts, heavy downpours, floods, tornadoes, and hurricanes (COAPS). Resources Fast Fashion Fast fashion can be defined as cheap, trendy clothing that samples ideas from the catwalk or celebrity culture and turns them into garments in high street stores at breakneck speed to meet consumer demand. The idea is to get the newest styles on the market as fast as possible, so shoppers can snap them up while they are still at the height of their popularity and then, sadly, discard them after a few wears. It forms a key part of the toxic system of overproduction and consumption that has made fashion one of the world’s largest polluters (Good On You). Resources Fossil fuels Fossil fuels are sources of non-renewable energy, formed from the remains of living organisms that were buried millions of years ago. Burning fossil fuels like coal and oil to produce energy is where the majority of greenhouse gases originate. As the world has developed and demand for energy has grown, we’ve burned more fossil fuels, causing more greenhouse gases to be trapped in the atmosphere and air temperatures to rise (The Climate Reality Project). Resources Global Warming Global warming is the long-term heating of Earth’s climate system observed since the pre-industrial period (between 1850 and 1900) due to human activities, primarily fossil fuel burning, which increases heat-trapping greenhouse gas levels in Earth’s atmosphere. Since the pre-industrial period, human activities are estimated to have increased Earth’s global average temperature by about 1 degree Celsius (1.8 degrees Fahrenheit), a number that is currently increasing by 0.2 degrees Celsius (0.36 degrees Fahrenheit) per decade. It is unequivocal that human influence has warmed the atmosphere, ocean, and land (NASA). Resources Greenhouse Effect The greenhouse effect is a process that occurs when gases in Earth’s atmosphere trap the Sun’s heat. This process makes Earth much warmer than it would be without an atmosphere. The greenhouse effect is one of the things that makes Earth a comfortable place to live (NASA Climate Kids). Resources Greenhouse Gas Many of the chemical compounds in the earth’s atmosphere act as greenhouse gases. When sunlight strikes the earth’s surface, some of it radiates back toward space as infrared radiation (heat). Greenhouse gases absorb this infrared radiation and trap its heat in the atmosphere, creating a greenhouse effect that results in global warming and climate change. Many gases exhibit these greenhouse properties. Some gases occur naturally and are also produced by human activities. Some, such as industrial gases, are exclusively human made (EIA). Resources Ocean Acidification The long-term change in ocean chemistry due to the excess absorption of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, which increases the acidity (due to decreasing pH levels) of seawater. This disrupts the lifecycle of ocean fauna, like corals and seashells, since they are highly sensitive to carbon levels. Roughly 30 percent of all human-made CO2 is absorbed by the oceans (UC Davis). Resources Oceans Oceans are large continuous bodies of salt water that are contained in the enormous basins on Earth’s surface. (Britannica). They are one of our greatest allies against climate breakdown, but so often, they’re forgotten. Diverse and bountiful oceans help mitigate climate change because the organic life in them allows for the capture and storage of carbon that would otherwise contribute to climate change in the atmosphere (The Maritime Executive). Resources Organic Organic food, specifically, is grown without the use of synthetic chemicals, such as human-made pesticides and fertilizers, and does not contain genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Foods that carry the USDA organic label highlight that they have met government standards (Britannica). Resources Pollination/Pollinator Pollination is the act of transferring pollen grains from the male anther of a flower to the female stigma. (U.S. Forest Service). A pollinator is anything that helps carry pollen from the male part of the flower (stamen) to the female part of the same or another flower (stigma). Pollinators include bees, wasps, moths, butterflies, birds, flies, and small mammals, including bats. The movement of pollen must occur for the plant to become fertilized and produce fruits, seeds, and young plants (National Park Service). Resources Pollution The introduction of harmful materials into the environment. These harmful materials are called pollutants, which damage the quality of air, water, and land. Pollutants can be natural, such as volcanic ash. They can also be created by human activity, such as trash or runoff produced by factories. (National Geographic). Things as simple as light, sound, and temperature can also be considered pollutants when introduced artificially into an environment (Live Science). Resources Recycling The process of collecting and processing materials that would otherwise be thrown away as trash and turning them into new products. Recycling includes three steps, which create a continuous loop: collection and processing, manufacturing, and purchasing new products made from recycled materials. Recycling has many benefits for the community and the environment, such as conserving natural resources, reducing waste in landfills, and creating jobs (EPA). Resources Renewable Energy Energy that comes from naturally replenished resources, such as sunlight, wind, waves, and geothermal heat. Most types of renewable energy produce no CO2 at all once they are running. For this reason, renewable energy is widely viewed as playing a central role in climate change mitigation and a clean energy transition (MIT). Resources Restoration The process of assisting in the recovery of an ecosystem that has been damaged, destroyed, or degraded. Damages can include human impact such as deforestation or extreme weather such as hurricanes. The full recovery of establishing a self-organizing ecosystem may take years, decades, or even hundreds of years (Society For Ecological Restoration). Resources Sea Level Rise Sea level rise is the increase in the average level of large water bodies (sea, ocean) primarily due to two major factors: the melting ice and the thermal expansion of the water. (National Geographic). First, more water is released into the ocean as glaciers and land ice melt to increase the sea level. Second, the ocean expands as ocean temperatures increase. Warm water expands and takes up more space than colder water, increasing the volume of water in the sea. This puts millions of people who live in coastal communities at risk (Smithsonian). Resources Soils Soils are complex mixtures of minerals, water, air, organic matter, and countless organisms that are the decaying remains of once-living things. It forms at the surface of land – it is the “skin of the earth.” Soil is capable of supporting plant life and is vital to life on earth (Soil Science Society of America). Resources Sustainability The integration of environmental health, social equity, and economic vitality in order to create thriving, healthy, diverse, and resilient communities for this generation and generations to come. The practice of sustainability recognizes how these issues are interconnected and requires a systems approach and an acknowledgement of complexity (UCLA Sustainability Committee). Resources Watershed A land area that channels rainfall and snowmelt to creeks, streams, and rivers, and eventually to outflow points such as reservoirs, bays, and the ocean (NOAA). Resources Zero Waste The conservation of all resources by means of responsible production, consumption, reuse, and recovery of products, packaging, and materials without burning and with no discharges to land, water, or air that threaten the environment or human health (Zero Waste International Alliance).	https://turninggreen.org/terms-for-climate-change/
Our world changes every single day. One of the things that change over time is the state of our climate. Climate change is man’s common problem, affecting every nation on the earth’s surface. Initially, our atmosphere works in a way that taps heat energy from the sun. The energy it receives produces heat energy for us while it sends harmful rays back to space. However, our environment is becoming warmer because the atmosphere can no longer perform its function. Several factors have contributed to climate change. They range from natural causes to human causes – the actions of you and me. An increase in the sun’s intensity and natural volcanic eruptions are biological factors that lead to climate change. Also, the concentration of greenhouse gases seems to increase. Greenhouse gases trap the heat in our atmosphere. When their concentration increases, they make our environment warmer. The concentration of greenhouse gases is the result of both natural and human-made activities. Carbon dioxide is a primary greenhouse gas. Other gases are water vapor, methane, fluorine gases, and nitrous oxide are other important greenhouse gases. Human activities like burning fossil fuels (coal, gas, and oil), deforestation, and industrial operations contribute to releasing these gases. The world currently releases more than 36.57 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide. As of 2018, the United States was the second-largest emitter of carbon dioxide. Sadly, in North America, the average temperature rose by 1.19 degrees Celsius. In the past years, government and private individuals are doing a lot to protect the environment. Spending on climate change sees a significant increase each year. Yet, there is still a large amount of carbon in the atmosphere. How Does Climate Change Affect You? The effects of climate change are disastrous. It affects every way of human life, and the risks you face from climate change may increase if you do nothing to bring carbon levels down. Extreme Weather Conditions Climate change accounts for higher temperatures, wildfires, heatwaves, flooding, storms, and droughts. These disasters lead to loss of life, damage to properties, and pollution. Health Problems Organ failures and skin cancer significantly arise from higher temperatures. Natural disasters also cause injury, death, and displacement. These events may cause urban crowding, lack of access to food and water, and many health challenges. Imbalance in the Ecosystem Climate change causes rising sea levels, acid concentration in the seas, and death of sea animals. Climate change also threatens global biodiversity and increases the risk of extinction of species. What Are We Doing About Climate Change? We are committed to ensuring reduced levels of climate change in our world. For this reason, we partner with regulatory agencies to encourage sustainable, eco-friendly practices. We also understand the relationship between climate change and solid waste. Thus, we are keen on significantly reducing the greenhouse gas emissions from the solid waste industry. Sustainable activities like landfill gas to energy projects are integral to reducing methane and CO2 emissions in solid waste. Waste to energy facilities also helps reduce the burning of fossil fuels for energy. Recycling of solid waste and composting transforms used products to new elements. As an industry, we recorded a decline in greenhouse gas emissions. We also commit ourselves to the design and use of alternative energy sources. We also direct our efforts to the discovery of efficient methods through which recycling and composting can occur. We believe in a world of climate stability, and we are ready to achieve it.	https://environmentalistseveryday.org/climate-change/
Tribes are uncentralized egalitarian systems in which authority is distributed among a number of small groups; unity of the larger society is established from a web of individual and group relations. uncentralized system relatively small and loosely organized kin-ordered group that inhabits a specific territory and that may split periodically into smaller extended family groups that are politically and economically independent. – political authority is concentrated on a single individual or group of individuals. Sort of multi-grouped and usually bigger than bands, tribes tend to contain communities that are a bit larger. A chiefdom is a political unit headed by a chief, who holds power over more than one community group. With more than one community involved, chiefdoms are usually more densely populated. Chiefdoms constitute a political organization characterized by social hierarchies and consolidation of political power into fulltime specialists who control production and distribution of resources. Sometimes the prestige of the leader and their family is higher, but not always. Anthropologists generally recognize four kinds of political systems, two of which are uncentralized and two of which are centralized. Uncentralized systems. Band society. Centralized governments. Chiefdom. Supranational political systems. Empires. Leagues. The type of government with which we are most familiar is democracy, or a political system in which citizens govern themselves either directly or indirectly. An example of such a democracy in action is the New England town meeting, where the residents of a town meet once a year and vote on budgetary and other matters. Formal political institutions play a role in determining the process for electing leaders; the roles and responsibilities of the executive and legislature; the organisation of political representation (through political parties); and the accountability and oversight of the state (Scott & Mcloughlin, 2014). A band is the smallest unit of political organization, consisting of only a few families and no formal leadership positions. Tribes have larger populations but are organized around family ties and have fluid or shifting systems of temporary leadership. Democracy is government in which power and civic responsibility are exercised by all adult citi- zens, directly, or through their freely elected rep- resentatives. Democracy rests upon the principles of majority rule and individual rights. While chiefdoms are societies in which everyone is ranked relative to the chief, states are socially stratified into largely distinct classes in terms of wealth, power, and prestige. By definition, a band was a small, egalitarian, kin-based group of perhaps 10–50 people, while a tribe comprised a number of bands that were politically integrated (often through a council of elders or other leaders) and shared a language, religious beliefs, and other aspects of culture. Chiefdom, in anthropology, a notional form of sociopolitical organization in which political and economic power is exercised by a single person (or group of persons) over many communities. A chiefdom is a form of hierarchical political organization in non-industrial societies usually based on kinship, and in which formal leadership is monopolized by the legitimate senior members of select families or ‘houses’. These elites form a political-ideological aristocracy relative to the general group. Band, in anthropology, a notional type of human social organization consisting of a small number of people (usually no more than 30 to 50 persons in all) who form a fluid, egalitarian community and cooperate in activities such as subsistence, security, ritual, and care for children and elders. Each chiefdom is an autonomous, territorial, as well as socio-political unit headed by a paramount chief who is traditionally chosen from one of the ruling houses, that is one of the descent groups whose ancestors are reputed to have founded the chiefdom.	https://www.mundomayafoundation.org/interesting/readers-ask-which-of-the-following-is-considered-a-centralized-political-system-tribe-chiefdom-band-capitalism.html
How are nonindustrial economic systems embedded in society? How are nonindustrial economic systems embedded in society? The economic system cannot easily be separated from other systems, such as kinship. the relations of production, distribution, and consumption are social relations with economic aspects. How are ranked societies different from states? How are ranked societies different from states? States have social classes. States have social classes. What are the two main questions for anthropologists? Physical Anthropology (the study of the human body) Were ancient human bodies different from ours? How have humans evolved? Why are people all different, physically? What kind of diversity is found in humans? How have humans adapted to their different environments? What do we know about human genetic variation? What term refers to the study of a community region society or culture over time? longitudnal research. The term that refers to the study of a community, region, society, or culture over time. Key cultural consultant. term for an expert on a particular aspect of local life. Why does a big man accumulate wealth? the term big man refers to the liminal state that a Kapauku youth enters before marriage, during which he accumulates wealth in order to fund the wedding and pay the bride-price. big men do not keep the wealth they accumulate but rather redistribute it to create and maintain alliances with political supporters. What are the two basic social units of foraging societies? The nuclear family and the band are the two basic social groups typically found in forager societies. What is an egalitarian society? Egalitarian Society In egalitarian societies, all individuals are born equal, and all members of society are said to have a right to equal opportunities. What is stratified in a ranked society? In ranked societies, there are a limited number of positions of power or status, and only a few can occupy them. State societies are stratified. There are large differences in the wealth, status, and power of individuals based on unequal access to resources and positions of power. What kinds of societies are divided into social classes? Many sociologists suggest five: Upper Class – Elite. Upper Middle Class. Lower Middle Class. Working Class. Poor. What are the basic concepts of anthropology? Anthropology is the systematic study of humanity, with the goal of understanding our evolutionary origins, our distinctiveness as a species, and the great diversity in our forms of social existence across the world and through time. What questions does anthropology ask? Anthropologists ask such basic questions as: When, where, and how did humans evolve? How do people adapt to different environments? How have societies developed and changed from the ancient past to the present? Answers to these questions can help us understand what it means to be human. What is anthropological concept? Anthropology is the study of what makes us human. Anthropologists take a broad approach to understanding the many different aspects of the human experience, which we call holism. They consider the past, through archaeology, to see how human groups lived hundreds or thousands of years ago and what was important to them. What are the 5 branches of anthropology? 5 Most Branches of Anthropology – Discussed! Physical Anthropology: Linguistic Anthropology: Socio-Cultural Anthropology: Ethnology: Archaeological Anthropology: How does anthropology benefit society? Social anthropology plays a central role in an era when global understanding and recognition of diverse ways of seeing the world are of critical social, political and economic importance. Social anthropology uses practical methods to investigate philosophical problems about the nature of human life in society. How does anthropology define culture and society? Anthropology takes quite a different approach to culture. Most anthropologists would define culture as the shared set of (implicit and explicit) values, ideas, concepts, and rules of behaviour that allow a social group to function and perpetuate itself.	https://www.skipperwbreeders.com/popular/in-what-sense-are-nonindustrial-economies-embedded-in-society.html
The GLOBE Eastern European cluster consists of Albania, Georgia, Greece, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Poland, Russia, and Slovenia. The societal culture practices for this cluster are very distinct. Societies belonging to this cluster reflect relatively high scores of the societal cultural practices on the dimensions of In-Group Collectivism and Power Distance. These societies maintain close family ties and individuals express pride and loyalty in organizations and family. Members of these societies also do not expect power to be distributed evenly among citizens. The cluster scores on Assertiveness are in the medium range but still higher than most other clusters. Low scores on Future Orientation and Performance Orientation are noteworthy as they are the lowest of all clusters. Uncertainly Avoidance, the use of rules and procedures to alleviate unpredictability of future events, also is extremely low among the clusters. The ratings of the other societal cultural dimensions including Humane Orientation, Institutional Collectivism, and Gender Egalitarianism fall in the middle range. Interestingly, while all clusters are male-dominated, this cluster is the most gender egalitarian of all clusters. Also, Humane Orientation, while in the medium range, is less than the average of other clusters. Overall, the Eastern European cluster is highly group and family-oriented with societal cultures that accept and endorse authority, power differences, and status privileges. These societies exhibit relatively high tolerance to unpredictable future events but also tend to be assertive, confrontational, and aggressive in social relationships compared to other clusters. The cluster's societal values (that is, what people in society believe should be), on the other hand, are considerably different than its cultural practices. Specifically, the cluster's values score is much higher than its practice score for Performance Orientation and Future Orientation. Still, these scores fall in the average range for all clusters. They wish to remain about the same level of In-Group Collectivism (high) and Institutional Collectivism (low to medium). They wish to increase their level of Humane Orientation (being generous, caring, and kind), and Uncertainty Avoidance (use of rules and procedures to reduce unpredictability). All societies in the cluster express a strong desire to reduce Power Distance (the degree to which the community accepts and endorses authority, power differentials, status privileges, and social inequality) and Assertiveness (reducing the level of dominance and toughness). Concerning leadership profile scores of the Eastern European cluster, Charismatic/Value-Based and Team-Oriented Leadership are believed to contribute to outstanding leadership. The Charismatic score is about average compared to other cluster scores but the Team Oriented score is higher than most other clusters. The Charismatic attributes that are endorsed include a realistic vision, high performance orientation, integrity, and decisiveness. These societies also value team oriented leaders whose characteristics include developing outstanding teams and using their administrative and interpersonal skills to create cohesive working groups. Although these societies also view Participative and Humane- Oriented Leadership positively, these dimensions are not held in the same importance as the first two leadership dimensions. In fact, the Participative dimension score is one of the lowest among clusters. Autonomous Leadership is viewed in a neutral manner but is the highest of all clusters indicating the importance of being independent. Self- Protective Leadership is viewed somewhat negatively but compared to the other GLOBE clusters, the Eastern European cluster is ranked as one of the highest for Self-Protective Leadership (i.e., less negative than most other clusters). Overall, the rankings indicate that an outstanding leader for this cluster would be one who is somewhat charismatic and team- oriented, but prefers to be independent (i.e., their own person), does not particularly believe in the effectiveness of participative leadership, and is not reluctant to engage in self-protective behaviors if needed.	https://globe.bus.sfu.ca/results/clusters/eastern-europe?menu=list
This volume analyzes a group of Southeast Asian societies that have in common a mode of sociality that maximizes personal autonomy, political egalitarianism, and inclusive forms of social solidarity. Their members make their livings as nomadic hunter-gatherers, shifting cultivators, sea nomads, and peasants embedded in market economies. While political anarchy and radical equality appear in many societies as utopian ideals, these societies provide examples of actually existing, viable forms of "anarchy." This book documents the mechanisms that enable these societies to maintain their life-ways and suggests some moral and political lessons that those who appreciate them might apply to their own societies. Thomas Gibson is Professor of Anthropology at the University of Rochester. He began fieldwork among the Buid of Mindoro, Philippines, in 1979, and among the Makassar of South Sulawesi, Indonesia, in 1988. Kenneth Sillander is Senior Lecturer in Sociology at the Swedish School of Social Science, University of Helsinki. He has done fieldwork among the Bentian of Indonesian Borneo since 1993. Table of Contents Introduction. Thomas Gibson and Kenneth Sillander 1. A theoretical overview of anarchic solidarity Charles Macdonald 2. Sources of sociality in a cosmological frame: Chewong, Peninsular Malaysia Signe Howell 3. Cooperative autonomy: social solidarity among the Batek of Malaysia Kirk Endicott 4. Childhood, familiarity and social life among East Semai Robert Dentan 5. Kinship and fellowship among the Palawan Charles Macdonald 6. Kinship and the dialectics of autonomy and solidarity among the Bentian of Borneo Kenneth Sillander 7. Egalitarianism and ranking in the Malay world Geoffrey Benjamin 8. Encapsulation and solidarity in northeast Borneo: Punan of the Malinau area Lars Kaskija 9. Mending nets of relatedness: words and gifts as sources of solidarity in a Sama Dilaut fishing community Clifford Sather 10. Nicknames at work and at play: sociality and social cohesion among the Cuyonon of the Philippines James Eder 11. Egalitarian islands in a predatory sea Thomas Gibson This collection marks an epochal leap in anthropological studies of egalitarianism. Rather than engage in the usual quixotic and rather pointless debate over whether it is possible to find a truly "egalitarian society," the authors start from the much more sensible assumption that we must begin by considering egalitarianism as a form of moral commitment, and conclude that those places where that moral commitment is strongest are precisely those places where "society," as we usually conceive it, can least be said to exist. This volume should become a model for future research. David Graeber, Reader in Anthropology, University of London How do anarchic, egalitarian societies maintain their shape and values in a world of hierarchy? Here in Anarchic Solidarity, Gibson and Sillander have brought together the most experienced and sophisticated scholars to brilliantly illuminate the social, economic, geographic and ritual foundations and practices that underwrite individual autonomy and coordination without hierarchy. Unsurpassed and bound to be influential far beyond regional studies.	http://raforum.site/spip.php?article7287
A new story for empowering women to a level of equality with men needs to include a chapter which evolves or transforms the dominant religion from patriarchy to gender-equality; as in a religious partnership of women and men. The most powerful and meaningful new story would then be that of the merging of male-oriented transcendent spirituality with the immanence of creation and grace in women’s spirituality. The drama in the story of replacing patriarchal religion is in avoiding a matriarchal religion and instead in balancing masculine and feminine aspects in a Partnership Spirituality. For most of the world, the dominant, patriarchal religion is the Abrahamic faiths of: Judaism (founded 19th century B.C.), Christianity (1st century A.D.), and Islam (7th century A.D.). “The patriarchy” will not end as long as the patriarchal Abrahamic faiths are not replaced by a Partnership Spirituality. One of the many new stories that need to be told in order to work for equalitarian or egalitarian culture is how the early partnership culture was lost and how it is being reclaimed today. Among Christians there has long been both academic and theological debates about women and feminism in at least the New Testament of the Bible. The Jewish tradition also has had a long debate about women and feminism, while the Islamic tradition has somewhat less. There is plenty of such debate among Christians to slog through, including many books on the topic such as, “In Memory of Her: A Feminist Theological Reconstruction of Christian Origins” (1989), in which the author, Elisabeth Schussler Fiorenza, talks about an aspect of the Early Christian Church which affirmed not just an equality-of-believers among people of different economic levels in society, yet also people of different genders (presumably whether you believe there are just two genders or more). The author writes of the, “Christian feminist vision of the discipleship of equals,” explaining how that got lost by orthodox Catholicism and how to reconstruct it. An Internet search on “Christian feminism” brings up plenty of material from people affirming that originally Christianity was feminist, and suggesting how to reclaim that lost nature of the dominant religion of the West. (Fiorenza, p. xxiv; see also pp. 143, 147-8, 151) Religion can be a powerful force in culture for either conservative or for progressive influences, and so it is necessary to understand how it has been used to design the patriarchal culture, and how to utilize this force in order to direct the influence of religion toward the support of equality-of-the-genders, or egalitarianism. A place to begin is to realize that there are people who have constructed, and who are enjoying today, a culture of economic equality among women and men in the communal societies of the Federation of Egalitarian Communities. One of the ideals of the feminist movement has always been that of valuing domestic labor, including childcare, cleaning, food preparation, healthcare, and more, equal with income-generating and other work typically done by men, and this ideal in particular has been realized in the Federation communities. The idea of “wages for housework” came up in the first wave of feminist organizing around the time that women won the right to vote in America about a century ago. Yet what developed instead since then has been the turning of everything that people used to do for themselves in the home into commodities or services for purchase, essentially monetizing domestic work, which is one of the reasons women today have to work for income as well as work in the home, while many men have begun doing the same. While it is essential that men share the domestic workload, which does move us a step toward feminist, egalitarian culture, merely sharing the domestic labor burden does not result in valuing the two types of work equally. Child care is among the lowest paid occupations for those who work in it, while being one of the biggest expenses for those who must pay for it. The contribution of the member communities of the Federation of Egalitarian Communities in creating feminist culture is in devising processes that effectively value domestic labor equally with all other forms of work by doing away with money altogether, in fact using no exchange system at all, not even labor-exchange within the community. Instead, the economic process used is labor-sharing, which is a form of time-based economics. While time-based economics includes labor-exchanging, there are two other forms as well: labor-gifting which is essentially volunteering time as in “giving back” or “paying it forward;” and labor-sharing which is a common commitment to contributing one’s own time to functions which mutually support all the members, including oneself. It is labor-sharing in Federation communities like Twin Oaks in Virginia (founded 1967) and East Wind in Missouri (landed 1974) through a vacation-credit labor system that has enabled these communal societies to enjoy an egalitarian, feminist, non-monetary, time-based economy, in which all labor that benefits the community is valued equally. (Full disclosure: the author lived twelve years in these two Federation communities.) The importance of knowing this story about gender-equality in communal society is the evidence shown that the ideal is attainable; egalitarian culture does exist, and anyone can learn about and enjoy it! The problem, of course, is that most people do not want to live in communal society. Frequently, young adults who individually join a Federation community will form a relationship, then leave to have children in the dominant culture rather than in the community where they met. I once did a survey of former members of East Wind Community, asking them why they joined and why they left, and the answers were most often that people joined for idealistic reasons, like to enjoy an ecological, feminist, sharing lifestyle, and left for practical reasons, like to go back to school, to pursue a career not available in the community, and especially to have children. Children-in-communal-society is a major issue among both religious and secular groups. The systems for communal childcare in the Federation communities have changed over time, from where during about the first quarter-century of the movement the communities, rather than the parents, made all decisions regarding the children through their childcare programs. However, the Federation communities found two major problems with communal childcare in large communities. First, the turn-over rate of members, both parents and non-parent care-givers, meant that issues like immunizations, discipline, diet, etc., that had been settled earlier invariably have to be re-debated as new parents come into the program, requiring ongoing meetings to continually reset or redesign a consensus. Second, the fact that many or most parents leave with their children before they reach school age results in reluctance on the part of some members of the communal group to fund birthing and childcare. In response to these and other issues, the Federation communities since the early or mid-1990s now empower parents in creating support systems for their children with the help of other individual members, rather than the community itself organizing childcare for the parents, which I think of as “cofamilies” formed around each child and nested within the larger communal society. The Cofamily in Egalitarian, Feminist Culture The term “cofamily” is intended to add to the common list of types of families. The existing list includes: single-parent family, nuclear family, extended family, and blended families. While this list involves only people who are related biologically or through marriage, there is another form of family which needs to be acknowledged and added, which is groups of three-to-nine, usually unrelated and unmarried adults, supporting each other and their children. A cofamily is a form of small intentional community, with the prefix “co” in this case representing any number of terms including: cooperative, collective, communal, complicated, convoluted, or any similar term other than “consanguine family.” The term “cofamily” can refer to either a small group by itself, or to a small group within a larger intentional community, whether communal, collective, cohousing, land trust, ecovillage, or other. The classic problem of children and families in communal society is best explained by a quote from the Catholic Worker movement. In his book, “Breaking Bread: The Catholic Worker and the Origin of Catholic Radicalism in America” (1982), Mel Piehl quotes a Catholic Worker community resident named Stanley Vishnewski who clearly explains the dynamic. “Single persons under the influence of a powerful religious motive can live happily in a communal society where everything is shared in common. … But we soon learned that marriage and our attempts at communal living were incompatible, for no matter how devoted to the work, the moment they married their relationship gradually and imperceptibly and then frankly and strongly veered away from the community to take care of their own. … This fact, that the family seeks its own because it is a natural community, is the fundamental reason why a complete plan of communal living was bound to fail.” (Stanley Vishnewski, quoted in Piehl pp. 128-9, found in Brian Berry, “America’s Utopian Experiments,” p. 204) Although the Catholic Worker movement is now growing rapidly, it is mostly creating small communities or cofamilies of under ten adult members each, which can manage communal childcare for a few children at a time. When a Catholic Worker community grows to ten adults or more it will likely experience the problem with communal childcare that Stanley Vishnewski explained. All large communal societies have had to deal with the communal childcare problem. Monasteries often simply refuse any children, while the Christian Hutterites gave up their communal children’s houses for family-based early childcare while maintaining socialization methods for keeping their children in their communities (Huntington, pp. 38-40, 42), and most of the Israeli kibbutzim went on down the slippery slope of privatization of their communal economies after giving up their children’s houses in favor of cohousing-like family apartments on government-owned land trusts. (Isralowitz, pp. 5-6; Lieblich, pp. 64-5; Near, p. 734) East Wind Community’s communal childcare program lasted 10 years, Twin Oaks’ 20 years, kibbutzim 80 years, although today there are new urban kibbutzim practicing communal childcare, and the Hutterites’ communal childcare lasted 300 years although it was on and off a couple times in their history. For the group of first Christians in the Book of Acts their communalism only lasted around 20 years. Trevor Saxby suggests in his book, “Pilgrims of a Common Life,” that the reasons for this loss of communalism in the Early Christian Church may have been due to persecution, famine, and the failure of members to work for income to support the community, although the failure of communal childcare could have been another reason. (Saxby, pp. 21, 52, 59-60) The stories are different, yet the lesson is the same. This is why communities which share privately-owned property as opposed to sharing commonly-owned property, like cohousing, usually advertise for people with children while communal societies usually do not. This is also much of the reason why collective, rather than communal, community designs like cohousing and Catholic Worker communities are the fastest-growing community movements. The confusing thing is that many communities may function communally while the property is owned by an individual, which is a form of intentional community which I have named “class-harmony community,” some of which are Catholic Worker. While it is amazing that the egalitarian communities have existed for over fifty years, with their solution to the communal childcare problem being to limit the number of children they will support while providing for “nested cofamilies,” it is their turn-over rate of membership that keeps the movement to a slow growth-rate. After half a century there are fewer than 250 adult members of egalitarian, communal Federation communities while a few thousand people have been members, with the largest community, Twin Oaks, being about 100 adults. Twin Oaks Community appears to have adopted a decentralized model of about one-hundred adults per community while similar communities are founded around it, with a current maximum of one child for every five adults, which is slightly below the ratio of children-to-adults in the dominant culture of the “Outside World.” Understanding the membership turn-over rate, plus the fact that most all of the children born into these communities either leave with their parents by the time they reach school age or leave on their own once they become adults, suggests that this method of creating feminist culture is limited in application to the dominant culture. The value of communal, egalitarian culture is in showing the extent of the concept, or how the ideal of gender equality can be fully realized in the real world. While we now know how to create a culture that values all labor equally, by using forms of time-based economics, especially what I call the, “vacation-credit labor system,” we have to recognize that even after experiencing it most people simply do not want to live in communal culture, even though many idealize communalism. While many people talk anti-capitalism, most people abandon communalism once they experience it to return to capitalist culture, usually valuing their communal experience yet refusing to live it again once they acquire property and family. Theoretically, it is possible that a communal economy could work on a scale large enough that most people could satisfy their personal needs and wants, while the current strategy for getting there is the decentralized network of separate communal groups of up to a hundred adults each in close proximity. What communal culture shows us is that while the problems of capitalist monetary economics inspires people to step outside of the dominant, competitive culture to create communalism, the experience of living communally inspires people to want to return to capitalist competition, if only to see how well they can play the game! LIVE FREE! Ironically, both capitalism and communalism give rise to the other, as each engenders its own opposite. Besides in communal society, we can also see this dynamic in various festivals, like the Gatherings of the Rainbow Family of Living Light and in Burning Man and related events. While the people who attend such gatherings are committed to community and cooperation in their gifting cultures, there remains a strong tendency among attendees of Gatherings in national forests to spread a ground-cloth and offer items displayed upon it for trade in a sprawling “Barter Lane.” The resulting scene is of the ages-old, bustling, colorful, market ambiance that attracts many people to what I call, “wilderness training experiences in basic market economics,” practicing through barter transactions the market functions of: buy-low-sell-high, inflation in the cost of the most desired commodities of chocolate and tobacco, market deflation when someone brings a large bag of chocolate bars and hands them out, comparative advantage, rational self-interest, and other market dynamics all for fun and profit, enjoyed particularly among teenagers and younger children. While the Burning Man administration actively disrupts such Barter Circles, the much more anarchistic Rainbow Gatherings have been unsuccessful in preventing barter in our otherwise non-commercial events. Communal groups even end up using the monetary system for trading commodities among themselves. For example, East Wind Community makes peanut butter as a business while Sandhill Community makes sorghum sweetener and honey for their businesses, the two being about 300 miles apart in Missouri. For internal consumption both communities wanted the other’s commodities. They tried bartering the commodities, yet problems resulted in how to value the different items, whether by weight or labor involved, or some other method. Then too there was the problem that barter transactions are taxable, and so the communities had to value their products in dollars for sales tax reporting. And further, having a separate ledger for barter complicated the computations of productivity, dollar-per-hour of industry labor, and annual income tax reporting. The communities simply found it to be easier to sell their commodities to each other rather than barter them. Here again we see why monetary economics exists, and the difficulty for even communal societies to do without at least an alternative or local currency, which is an exchange system rather than a gifting or sharing system. One important and valuable function of time-based economics beyond the individual community is labor-exchange between communities. As long as labor is not given a dollar value, either within or between communities, it is not considered to be a commercial exchange, and therefore is ruled non-taxable by the IRS and other government agencies. By assuring that the community’s income is below the taxable level per person, a communal society can then be tax-free. Because the communities share so much internally it has been proven to be possible to live a lower-middle-class lifestyle on poverty-level income. Further, a time-based, communal economy avoids not just income taxes yet also, when incorporated as what the IRS calls a “religious and apostolic association” using section 501(d) of the tax code, communal groups are free of social security and unemployment taxes. From all of this I developed the acronym: LIVE FREE! Which stands for: Labor Is Valued Equally • For Realizing Economic Equality! Evidently, despite the economic freedom and feminist culture of egalitarian communalism, people have an innate desire for private property in family groups, for the excitement of meeting and trading in markets, and for efficient exchange mechanisms between communal groups. While people want to know that alternative cultures exist outside of monetary economics, few people, including those who experience it, choose to make it a lifelong commitment. The issues around children in communal-sharing societies, barter in festival-gifting experiences, and trade among communal societies serve to explain both why capitalism exists and why communalism can never become the dominant culture. The greatest value, then, of successful communal societies like those in the Federation of Egalitarian Communities, is in the model these communities present of egalitarian culture. The experience of these communal societies shows us the practical extent of the application of feminist, egalitarian culture as practiced in some communal societies in economics, governance, and the social design considerations of children and family. The next step, therefore, is to apply feminist, egalitarian culture to religion. Partnership Spirituality in Unitarian Universalism “Any vital social program is possible only if it is the expression of a religion which calls on the whole loyalty of [women and] men … The more adequate the interpretation of life which is provided by a political or economic philosophy, the better foundation does it constitute for a social and economic program … [and that interpretation needs] a religious motive to vitalize the program.” Arthur Morgan wrote this view of the importance of religion in his study of utopian theory, fiction, and practice, published in his 1944 book titled, “Edward Bellamy: A Biography of the Author of ‘Looking Backward’.” (Morgan, 1944, pp. 302-3) In the above quote Arthur Morgan presents the case for making our religion consistent with our cultural intentions. I extrapolate from this to say that if we want an egalitarian, feminist culture on any large scale, then we need a religion which respects those values: which I am calling a “Partnership Spirituality.” In considering where to start in the creation of a Partnership Spirituality it is helpful to consider who is already doing something similar, and the largest such group is the Unitarian Universalists. Arthur Morgan served a time as the vice-president of the American Unitarian Association (from the back cover of “Edward Bellamy”), before it merged with Universalism in 1960, both originally being Christian denominations. Arthur Morgan and family founded Community Service, Inc. in 1940 (now Community Solutions), and The Vale community in 1946, both in Yellow Springs, Ohio, and sponsored the founding of the Fellowship of Intentional Communities in 1948-9, which changed its name in 1986 to the Fellowship for Intentional Community. (Morgan, 1942, p. 9) Unitarians and Universalists inspired and supported several intentional communities in America during at least the 19th and 20th centuries. The founder of the famous Brook Farm community outside of Boston, Massachusetts, George Ripley, was a Unitarian minister in Boston. Ripley contributed to transcendental thought, hosting the first meeting of the Transcendental Club in his home in 1836, which later became the organizational theory of Brook Farm (1841-47). Robert Fogarty called Brook Farm, “By far the most well-known of all the ‘utopian’ societies.” (Fogarty, pp. 99, 183; Oved, pp. 142-3) A member of Brook Farm, John Orvis, became a leader in the Universalist minister John Murray Spear’s Harmonia community (1853-63) in southern New York, close to the Pennsylvania border. In 1858 they sponsored a convention with the theme “Feminine Equality.” (Fogarty, pp.107-8, 197) The Altruria community in Fountain Grove, California lasted only one year (1894-5). Its founder, Edward Biron Payne, was a Unitarian minister who preached a social gospel, eventually becoming a Christian Socialist advocating gradual change, interdependence, and mutual obligation. Although Altruria attracted many competent people who started several different income projects, the group failed to focus upon any one to scale it up to sufficiently support the community. (Fogarty, p. 127; Hine, pp. 102-4) Early in the 20th century two community projects were started by Unitarian ministers in Massachusetts, one in 1900 in Montague by Edward Pearson Pressey called New Clairvaux, and the second in 1908 in Haverhill by George Littlefield called Fellowship Farm. Both of these groups were homesteading communities focused upon rural self-sufficiency and cottage businesses, taking inspiration from the arts and crafts movement which decried urbanization and industrial mass production. New Clairvaux had a printing press, a school, and up to twenty-nine residents, yet dissolved by 1909 due to financial problems. (Miller, pp. 54-5) Fellowship Farm had about forty members, a printing press and craft businesses, although it is unclear how long it lasted. Littlefield’s community idea inspired several other groups, including homesteader/arts and crafts communities in Norwood, MA, Kansas City and Independence, MO, and in Los Angeles, CA where twenty families comprised the LA Fellowship Farm from 1912-27. In all about three-hundred families lived in Fellowship Farms. (Fogarty, pp. 228, 230; Miller, pp. 107-8) Later in the 20th century three intentional communities in central Virginia were associated with the Thomas Jefferson Memorial Church Unitarian Universalist in Charlottesville, Virginia: Twin Oaks (1967-present), Springtree (1971-to present), and Shannon Farm (1972 -to present). Springtree and Shannon both started after their founders attended a summer Communities Conference at Twin Oaks Community. Early on, Twin Oaks had its own UU Fellowship, which carried on exchanges with the UU Church in Charlottesville, members of which helped Twin Oaks build a UU meeting hall with labor and money donations, called the Ta’chai Living Room. Over the decades various Twin Oaks members have attended UU services and other events in Charlottesville and at various UU churches in the Washington D.C. area. Notice in the timeline above of intentional communities and organizations that the Unitarian Universalist influence is an important part of the foundation of some of the movement, culminating now in the Fellowship for Intentional Community which publishes “Communities” magazine, the “Communities Directory” and other books, and sponsors conferences, trainings, consultations, a loan fund, a website, and other movement services. There are as well many other religious and spiritual organizations comprising the foundation of the communities movement, with the Quakers having the longest association with communitarianism, yet the point is that while religious sentiments often give rise to people wanting to live by their religious precepts, which results in the founding of utopian societies, all of that already exists with regard to egalitarian, feminist culture. Effectively, Partnership Spirituality works in the opposite direction, with the creation of egalitarian culture having been completed first and its religious expression following. Unitarian Universalism is likely to be friendly toward the idea of developing a Partnership Spirituality movement since it has already an earth-based, women’s spirituality affirmation in its independent affiliate called the “Covenant of UU Pagans” or CUUPS. The origin of this affiliation is said to be in 1977 when the UU Association passed at its General Assembly a “Women and Religion Resolution.” In 1988 the UUA General Assembly granted CUUPS an affiliate status, “honoring goddess-based, earth-centered, tribal and pagan spiritual paths.” CUUPS provides a theological orientation and a liturgical tradition (i.e., the rites of public worship) which is consistent with the idea of combining the spiritual traditions of transcendence and immanence, Goddess and God, male and female. (See: cuups.org) Merging an egalitarian expression of Christianity with women’s spirituality in a form which could be affirmed as being not so much polytheistic as it would be a binarian monotheism would involve extensive dialogue and deliberation, and so Unitarian Universalists would be the perfect group to carry on the idea of a Partnership Spirituality. In the same way that Trinitarian Christianity (i.e.: Father, Son, Holy Spirit) is considered to be monotheist, so also may a Binarian Partnership Spirituality of male and female (or any other genders) be considered monotheist when affirmed as one entity. That is, we say it is so, then for us, so it is! Such is the malleable nature of spiritual and religious beliefs. It would be well that Twin Oaks Community and other groups utilizing the 501(d) tax status consider taking one of its primary organizational tenants, which is feminist egalitarianism, to an affirmation of a religious belief, because having a spiritual or religious orientation is a requirement of that favorable tax status. We know that the IRS and conservative government in general has a bias against communalism, and any time these conservative forces desire to do so they can challenge again Twin Oaks’ claim to meet the requirements of the 501(d) Religious and Apostolic Association, as they did in the late 1970s. While Twin Oaks had been filing its taxes for many years under the 501(d) subsection of the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) tax code they did not formally request the status. When the IRS discovered what Twin Oaks was doing in 1977 they said that they were not exempt and had to pay a quarter-million dollars in back taxes. Because Twin Oaks does not have a vow-of-poverty like churches and monasteries filing under the tax-exempt 501(c)(3) status, the IRS made the spurious statement that in 1936 when the U.S. Congress created the 501(d) status they intended to include a vow-of-poverty requirement like that of the 501(c)(3) churches and monasteries. To challenge this contrived argument Twin Oaks appealed the problematic IRS ruling in Tax Court and won the case! (Twin Oaks Community, Inc., versus Commissioner of Internal Revenue, 87th Tax Court, No. 71, Docket No. 26160-82, Filed 12-3-86) Given that such a spurious legal challenge happened once, it could happen again to any Federation or other community using the 501(d) tax status, and the obvious charge next time could be that the community is not actually a religious organization, instead it is secular. The United States Post Office made such an adverse determination against East Wind in 1979 when the community applied for the non-profit bulk rate mailing permit. The USPO St. Louis Office denied East Wind’s request saying, “The bylaws submitted by the East Wind Community makes no mention of any religious worship or religious activities.” (Postmaster, USPO Mail Classification Center, St. Louis, MO, January 4, 1979 to the Postmaster, Tecumseh, MO 65760) In another case, East Wind Community was attempting to set up an “Earned Leaving Fund” (ELF) to enable members to leave the community by letting them work in the community businesses to earn personal funds for resettlement costs in the outside world. This is clearly contrary to 501(d) requirements, so the community retained a legal firm, which responded saying that the ELF be “treated as an outside employee both for accounting and tax purposes. One way to do this would be to set up a separate bank account … into which the Earned Leaving Fund is deposited as earned.” (Collins Denny, III, letter of 9-4-87, Mays & Valentine, Richmond, Virginia) I have since suggested that this separate bank account plan could and perhaps should be used by especially new communal groups that have a significant amount of income from outside jobs as opposed to community businesses. While the community business income is exempt under 501(d), outside job income is not. Therefore, having two separate community bank accounts, one exempt for community-business income and the other non-exempt for outside-work income with the two taxed differently, would likely facilitate a new community’s application for 501(d) status, yet that is a another issue. What is relevant to this article in the Collins Denny letter is his concluding comments that, “I believe that the Internal Revenue Service still maintains an internal bias against 501(d) organizations which do not have a vow of poverty. In saying this, however, I must point out that I have not made any inquiries or seen any IRS publications which support my feelings that a bias exists.” (Collins Denny, III, letter of 9-4-87, Mays & Valentine, Richmond, Virginia) There may come a time when Federation communities will want or need to dust off their statements of religious belief which they have filed with the IRS and make witness of their lifestyle as justification for their claim that they are indeed religious organizations. Both East Wind and Twin Oaks include in their statements of religious belief the quote from the Book of Acts in the Bible about all believers holding property in common, along with various ideals about sharing and oneness. Yet the most prominent aspect of their existence and structure is egalitarianism, and so adding the equality of women and men as another aspect of their stated religious beliefs could make Partnership Spirituality a saving grace for them. A New Age Partnership Documentary As we have already in existence examples of the furthest expression of egalitarian lifestyle and culture, affirming and building a religious or spiritual expression of egalitarianism builds upon the ideals and experience of women and men in partnership, as means of effecting what Natalie Portman and many others have stated needs to be done of “toppling the patriarchy.” Do not underestimate the significance of the cultural change from patriarchy to partnership. This is a “New Age” level of transformation of our culture through which we many anticipate many rippling affects. Consider that around the year 2027 will be the 2,000th anniversary of the beginning of Jesus of Nazareth’s ministry, which became Christianity. Jesus’ birth date is contested, yet in our Gregorian calendar is considered to have been December 25, 4 B.C. not 0 A.D. and he began his ministry at age 30, so 2,000 years later is about 2027. Another reason for emphasizing this date is that 2027 will be the 200th anniversary of the first printing of the term “socialist,” in the “London Cooperative Magazine” in 1827, eventually giving rise to the community movement of “Christian socialism.” Now is a good time to assess the heritage of this patriarchal era, and to begin to affirm the new era of partnership. A very good ally in that assessment and projection is the Center for Partnership Studies created in 1987 by the author Riane Eisler. The CPS website states that it serves as a, “catalyst for cultural, economic, and personal transformation–from domination to partnership, from control to care, from power-over to empowerment. CPS’s programs provide new knowledge, insights, interventions, and practical tools for this urgently needed shift.” (See: centerforpartnership.org) “The identification of the partnership model and the domination model as two underlying social configurations requires a new analytical approach that includes social features that are currently ignored or marginalized, such as the social construction of human/nature connections, parent/child relations, gender roles and relations, and the way we assess the value of the work of caring for people and nature.” (Wikipedia.org, Riane Eisler, Partnership and Domination Models) Riane Eisler’s Partnership Center would likely be an excellent resource for Unitarian Universalists and others in the creation of new stories of partnership culture and spirituality. A New Age of Partnership, however will require more, it will need a new Bible, and for that I have written an alternative history of gifting and sharing societies through the ages, focusing upon tribal and communitarian cultures, with an emphasis upon women’s stories in them. This work is currently only available in digital format at Amazon.com titled “The Intentioneer’s Bible: Interwoven Stories on the Parallel Cultures of Plenty and Scarcity.” Much of the material in this article is also in that book. Having a good start on a history of gifting and sharing cultures, as opposed to the taking and exchanging of the dominant culture, another potential resource would be a video documentary of the history portrayed in “The Intentioneer’s Bible.” And who better for such a project than the Public Broadcasting System (PBS) documentarian Ken Burns! Perhaps PBS is not exactly a Hollywood-level story-teller, yet the difference in emphasis and orientation likely makes PBS more appropriate for telling the story of egalitarianism through the ages, toward a transition of our civilization from patriarchy to partnership. References: Berry, Brian. (1992) America’s utopian experiments: Communal havens from long-wave crises. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England. Fiorenza, Elisabeth Schussler. (1989). In memory of her: A feminist theological reconstruction of Christian origins. New York: The Crossroad Publishing Company. Fogarty, Robert. (1980). Dictionary of American communal and utopian history. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Hine, Robert. (1953). California’s utopian colonies. New York: Norton & Company. Huntington, Gertrude Enders. (1981). Children of the Hutterites. Natural History. Feb., vol. 90, no. 2. Isralowitz, Richard. (1987, February). The influence of child sleeping arrangements on selected aspects of kibbutz life. Kibbutz Studies, no. 22. http://www.communa.org.il. Lieblich, Amia. (2002). Women and the changing Israeli Kibbutz: A preliminary three-stage theory. Journal of Israeli history. Vol 21: 1, 63-84. (http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13531040212331295862) Miller, Timothy. (1998). The quest for utopia in twentieth-century America, volume 1: 1900-1960. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. Morgan, Arthur. (1942). The small community: Foundation of democratic life. Yellow Sprigs, OH: Community Service, Inc. Morgan, Arthur. (1944). Edward Bellamy: A biography of the author of “Looking backward.” New York: Columbia University Press. Near, Henry. (2003). Intentional communities in Israel-history. In Karen Christensen and David Levinson (Eds.), The encyclopedia of community: From the village to the virtual world: Vol. 2. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Oved, Yaacov. (1988). Two Hundred Years of American Communes. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Inc. Piehl, Mel. (1982). Breaking bread: The Catholic Worker and the origin of Catholic radicalism in America. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press. Quoted in Berry, Brian J. L. (1992). America’s utopian experiments: Communal havens from long-wave crises. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England. Saxby, Trevor. (1987). Pilgrims of a common life: Christian community of goods through the centuries. Scottdale, PA: Hearld Press.	https://intentioneers.net/2018/12/20/from-patriarchy-to-partnership-telling-the-story-of-equality/
Why do we overlook the original democracies? God created the world six thousand years ago. Human beings are not related to primates. There is no such thing as climate change. The first democracy emerged in classical Athens. There are some important groups that continue to hold fast to certain beliefs, despite the availability of a mass of contrary evidence. One such group is composed of many people interested in history, philosophy and political theories. While there is ample evidence that democratic principles were applied to power relations in Palaeolithic Homo sapiens communities tens of thousands of years, i.e., long before the Athenian democracy of antiquity emerged, a mainstream claim in history, philosophy and political theory discourses continues to be that democracy first emerged in Athens. It has been documented, in the political anthropology and evolutionary anthropology fields, that the first political systems—those that have governed us for most of our existence on this planet—were democratic. The existence of these democracies, which I call the “original democracies”, is confirmed by two types of evidence. Firstly, in different parts of the world, hunter-gatherer communities that have survived in a form close to their original Palaeolithic form, organise themselves politically according to democratic principles, e.g., African peoples such as the Bushmen and Pygmies, Australian and New Guinean Aborigines, indigenous Amerindian peoples, etc. Secondly, Palaeolithic fossil records provide evidence of egalitarian and non-hierarchical societies. Considering just the Upper Palaeolithic, democratic hunter-gatherer communities lasted several tens of thousands of years; in contrast, non-democratic, authoritarian systems only began to emerge less than ten thousand years ago, during the Neolithic, with the consolidation of agriculture and livestock herding and a sedentary way of life. The fact that many historians, philosophers and political theorists hold that democracy first emerged in classical Athens is certainly problematic, yet it is also very significant, because it reflects perceptions of our species derived from the epistemological bias of Western and contemporary culture, determined by extreme chrono-centric and ethno-centric perspectives that run very deep. Ultimately, such perspectives contribute to placing the contemporary white race originating in Western culture at the top of the evolutionary tree and legitimises its usurpation of the planet. Numerous authors, however, when they write about democracy, also refer to Palaeolithic democracies, e.g., Federico Traversa, Kenneth Bollen, Pamela Paxton, Doron Shultziner and Ronald Glassman. Those democracies of the Palaeolithic hunter-gatherer peoples are called “Palaeolithic democracies” by Doron Shultziner, “community democracies” by Federico Traversa and “campfire democracies” and “clan and tribal democracies” by Ronald Glassman. I suggest that these democracies should preferably be called "original democracies”, first, because this term better reflects the importance of these democracies in the evolution of humanity, and second, because it establishes a chronological sequence going back in time, from modern democracies to ancient democracies to the original democracies. The evolution to Homo sapiens: a journey towards democracy Palaeolithic democracies, which emerged in all parts of the world settled by Homo sapiens, undoubtedly represent the most important cultural development of our species, first, because these democracies reflect almost all of human existence, and second, and more importantly, because these democracies have greatly shaped the natural and cultural tendencies of Homo sapiens. Joseph Carroll identifies four different power systems, reflecting periods from the emergence of hominids to the Homo sapiens of today: (1) alpha male domination; (2) Palaeolithic egalitarian and democratic systems; (3) despotic or authoritarian domination as emerged with the Neolithic; and (4) Western Modernity systems deriving from democratic revolutions. Homo species split from the pan species about six million years ago . This evolutionary divergence reflected a journey to democratic communities from the alpha male-dominated despotic communities, typical, for instance, of current great apes species such as chimpanzees and gorillas. The evolutionary journey to Homo sapiens is, therefore, also a journey from despotism to Palaeolithic democracy. Broadly speaking, what we understand by a democratic system for organising and equally distributing political power within a community is specific to Homo sapiens. Various factors led to the disappearance of the alpha male in Homo sapiens hunter-gatherer communities. The advent of lethal weapons meant that subjugated individuals could easily kill an alpha male; the need for cooperation in hunting and raising children generated a communitarian and egalitarian spirit; and the development of hypercognition and language meant that decision-making affecting a community could be based on open and joint deliberation by members. The tens of thousands of years in which humans lived in Palaeolithic democratic communities has left deep marks on our species. These include the development of discursive capacities that enabled deliberation, negotiation and cooperation and also the burgeoning of a certain morality based on the principles of justice and equity. This morality, original, egalitarian and democratic originated in the Upper Palaeolithic, explains why present-day humans are largely repulsed by abusive coercion, non-legitimate power and arbitrary decisions deemed unjust. While humans have inherited (from the hominin species prior to Homo sapiens) a tendency to dominate others, they have also developed al sense of egalitarianism and anti-domination. Our social morality and politics operate within this contradiction. For all these reasons, while we have a tendency towards domination over others, we also tend to reject domination over ourselves and others. The sense of democratic and egalitarian morality that beats in the heart of humans is largely due to the evolutionary development of Homo sapiens living in democratic and egalitarian hunter-gatherer communities of the Palaeolithic. Palaeolithic hunter-gatherer communities, and later tribal societies, did not have a state, as this form of governance developed later from primitive chiefdoms and kingdoms. But the fact that there was no state did not mean that there were no politics and no social power systems. Circumscribing politics exclusively to societies with a state reflects chrono-centric bias. The original Homo sapiens communities clearly demonstrate that politics reached beyond the historical existence of the state. The main problem in considering hunter-gatherer communities to be fully democratic is that, in those peoples that survive to this day, the most important decisions are generally made by adult males. While the exclusion of women would suggest a significant democratic deficit, it is no greater a deficit than that of classical Athens or even, until universal suffrage for men and women was finally introduced, of that of our liberal democratic societies. Nonetheless, this issue has given rise to controversy, as important archaeologists and anthropologists, such as Lerna Lerner, Riane Eisler, and Marilène Patou-Mathis, argue that women during the Palaeolithic had the same prestige and power as men and that this status was not lost until the Neolithic. As evidence, they indicate that the archaeological record does not unequivocally demonstrate that men had a superior status to women, and they further argue that the notion that Palaeolithic women were subordinate is simply a product of the andro-centrism that overwhelmingly dominated early archaeology and anthropology work. If women did indeed possess the same status as men, then those communities were truly democratic. There is a fundamental problem in studying Palaeolithic hunter-gatherer communities from similar communities that have survived to the present day, namely, that, in recent centuries, many of the surviving communities have seen their original way of life contaminated, degraded or radically suppressed by other cultures and by domination exercised by other cultures, especially modern and Western empires. This is an accelerating process and, as time passes, it becomes increasingly difficult to obtain reliable data on the original political life of hunter-gatherer and tribal peoples. The domination and influence of states, empires and large business corporations, aided by the new technologies, today reach into all corners of the earth. The consequences for the original hunter-gatherer peoples is that they no longer preserve their original forms of life and culture. Democratic systems in Palaeolithic communities Democratic systems and decision-making bodies existed in both hunter-gatherer and mobile tribes, according to anthropological studies, which document organs of power such as community assemblies, functional leadership and community chiefs. Space does not allow for an extensive explanation of the political organisation of hunter-gatherer communities. However, some brief considerations are necessary, because despite being limited and even reductionist, they can also be very illustrative. Although the records that throw light on these early political power systems are drawn from peoples who have lived within their original systems until recently, in what follows the past tense will be used because those communities are assumed to have existed during the Upper Palaeolithic. We can, for instance, point to the existence of “community assemblies”, which were meetings of all adults to discuss, deliberate and reach agreements on fundamental issues affecting their community’s future. All adult members of the community, men and women, participated in these assemblies, although, from some of the known present-day communities of hunter-gatherers and horticulturists, we can deduce that smaller and more formal assemblies were composed only of adult males. In many cases, the women stood around those smaller assemblies, actively participating and making their voices heard. In hunter-gatherer community meetings, decisions had to be made by consensus, as the survival of small communities depended on cooperation between members. The search for consensus often meant that the assemblies were extremely lengthy, while no decisions were even reached if there was no unanimity. Community fusion and fission processes were common in hunter-gatherer communities, and, in cases of great conflict, the solution was for the community to split. Persons who excelled in public speaking skills and persuasive strategies were important and acquired prestige in community assemblies. Kenneth E. Read, in an article describing the political power system of the Gahuku-gama (an aboriginal people of New Guinea), provides an excellent explanation of individual communication strategies aimed at influencing community assemblies. In some hunter-gatherer peoples a group strategy that ensured that no one would try to put themselves above the rest was ridicule and laughter directed at people who used bombastic oratory to impress. We can also distinguish individuals who could be defined as "functional leaders" or "task managers”, i.e., men or women who were expert or skilled at a particular task, e.g., hunting, warfare, healing, birthing, music, dance, various rituals, etc. Leadership was not a designated role; rather, roles were acquired by individuals who demonstrated particular knowledge, experience or skills. Leaders only had the authority as permitted by the community and only for the performance of their assigned tasks. Although they held the most important political position in hunter-gatherer communities, chiefs were typically powerless. That is why they were a major source of surprise for the first Europeans who came into contact with these communities. Roberth H Lowie, who studied the chiefs of Amerindian peoples, such as the Ojibwa, the Dakota, the Nambikuara, the Barana, etc, concluded that chiefs did not have any coercive force to impose their decisions, nor had they executive, legislative, or judicial power. They were fundamentally peacemakers, benefactors and the conduit of community principles and norms. Fundamentally, they functioned as mediators and peacemakers in internal conflicts and resource providers to community members in need, and also provided periodic reminders of the norms and values on which member coexistence and community survival depended. This figure of the powerless chief has been encountered in hunter-gatherer communities around the world. According to Claude Lévi-Strauss, the benefits of being a community chief were so few and the burden of responsibility so high that many refused to assume the role. However, what did motivate some individuals to assume the chiefdom was the associated prestige and a vocation to assume certain responsibilities for the community. The community chief was generally elected by the adult community members—men and women—and could also be removed by the community. An example is given by Claude Levi-Strauss in his explanation of the power system of the Nambikwara in Brazil: if the chief was egoistic, inefficient or coercive, the community dismissed or abandoned him. In some tribes, while war chiefs acquired important executive powers, these could only be exercised in periods of war, and despite the associated prestige, they had few or no powers in peacetime. It can hardly be argued that these hunter-gatherer communities—the original democracies—were not democratic, as argued by some authors. Karl Popper, for instance, stated that they were not "open societies" and were therefore undemocratic. However, this argument is based on a liberal perspective: Popper essentially claimed that they were not liberal societies. Yet those societies were profoundly communitarian and egalitarian and, although they were not what we currently understand as liberal, they were in their way democratic. Political theory and political anthropology In the field of modern Western political theories, the tendency to overlook the relevance of the original democracies in the history of humanity is the outcome of the narrow perspective of our cultural tradition. What we call modern democracies are little more than two hundred years old, yet for some thirty thousand years, the original democracies organised the political power structures of Homo sapiens, with the resulting decisive impact on our evolution and on what we are today. Instead of taking into account the reality of the original democracies, Western thinking has focused on establishing hypotheses—with little foundation in reality—regarding illusory states of nature and assumed contracts between individuals aimed at shaping a society and, further on in time, creating a state. Thus, instead of taking into account the key contributions of anthropology, Western thinkers have explored the contractarian ideas of authors like Hobbes, Rousseau, Locke, and Kant, not to mention other more recent authors inspired by liberal contractualism, e.g., Rawls and Nozick. Human society and its political power systems did not originate from a contract between isolated individuals, but from the evolution of societies and power systems of other Homo species from which Homo sapiens arose. Given that the evolutionary processes that gave rise to the first human societies are known, the contractarian origin myth—a device that legitimises liberal individualism—makes little sense, even as a mere logical hypothesis for reflection. In their introduction to a classic overview of the political systems of African peoples, the anthropologists Meyer Fortes and Edward Evans-Pritchard argued that the teachings of political philosophy were of little help with ethnographic research into the political systems of African peoples as conducted by anthropologists in the field. The philosophy, political and anthropological disciplines may be very different, but both philosophers and political theorists need to take anthropological data into account in their reflections. Political principles of the original democracies Two anthropologists in particular, in their reflections on the political systems of hunter-gatherer peoples, have developed important theoretical models: the French anthropologist Pierre Clastres and the US anthropologist Christopher Boehm. Pierre Clastres, whose thinking has strongly influenced French theorists such as Claude Lefort and Miguel Abensour, drew a novel conclusion from his ethnographic studies of Amerindian peoples in the Amazon region in the 1970s, namely, that hunter-gatherer peoples were not people without a state. Rather, they acted against the state, i.e., their political power systems were designed so that no state would ever emerge. For this reason, communities always tried to ensure that their chief was a chief with little or no power, while the community as a whole and its assembly was considered to predominate over any other political power that might be established. As for Christopher Boehm, he concluded, from a detailed study of a large number of ethnographic works conducted in almost all continents, that the political systems of hunter-gatherer peoples were based on the principle of a reverse dominance hierarchy, in which the communities established formal and informal systems that ensured that a chief never achieved power, that no political body could coerce the community, and that no individual or group could prevent community members from freely making decisions on matters that concerned the community. Systems of control over the power of chiefs or leaders ranged from mild punishments, such as ridicule, to much more serious punishments, such as ostracism, banishment or even execution. For Christopher Boehm, the first genuinely human taboo was the taboo of dominance, and the first individual outlawed by the Homo sapiens community was the individual with aspirations to be the alpha male of the community. Both principles—Clastres’ society against the state and Boehm’s reverse dominance hierarchy—are valid, but neither has been applied to date to develop theories consistent with models of democracy. Of the two principles, I consider the reverse dominance hierarchy to be the more productive principle, among other reasons, because it allows us to think about forms of non-state domination of a community. If, for instance, we transfer this principle to modern societies, it would apply to the dominance of certain groups in our society, not only in relation to the control of state apparatuses, but also to the wealthy, religious leaders, private armed militias, excessively powerful corporations, and media and information and communication systems oligopolies, etc. From my point of view, the reverse dominance hierarchy leads to a model of democracy that separates domination from management. In the original democracies, chiefs could exercise direction and influence but held little or no power; rather, it was the community as a whole, through its deliberative assemblies and other formal and informal decision-making mechanisms, which held power over itself, including over the chief, and also over alpha males aspiring to take power, who would be banned by the community. The reverse dominance hierarchy in original democracies allowed communities to freely take decisions over themselves without the interference and dominance of individuals and powerful groups. Adapting this principle to modern societies would lead to reflection on alternative models of democracy. Why revisit the original democracies? My focus on the original democracies is not intended as an exercise in historical or anthropological scholarship, but is grounded in two needs. First, we need to respect the remaining indigenous and aboriginal communities on our planet, as an enormous reserve of democratic culture, ancestral wisdom and human dignity. In recent centuries, their numbers have been greatly reduced, their communities have been annihilated, and their members have been enslaved and acculturated by Western imperialism and predatory capitalism. Second, we need to revisit the moral and political principles of the original democracies in order to be able to rethink our own democracies and our democratic projects for the future. For instance, I consider the reverse dominance hierarchy principle to be a very fruitful and interesting concept for rethinking the notion of democracy. I also believe that we could reflect on the notion of “people” in accordance with political characteristics of hunter-gatherer communities in defence of freedom and the power of the community as a whole. Liberal democracy, the hegemonic form of democracy today, is clearly in crisis, among other reasons due to its increasingly diminished legitimacy in society. The fact that liberal democracy allows socioeconomic inequalities to grow to a disproportionate degree leads to the suspicion that elected politicians do not really represent the majority of voters, thereby reflecting a profound crisis of representation. Moreover, the alliance between liberal democracy and runaway capitalism and its fostering of senseless consumerism and unbounded economic growth is leading scientists and conscientious citizens to fear the planet and humanity are headed for ecological collapse. An important task for political theorists today is to consider alternative forms of post-liberal democracy that lead to greater equality and freedom. Democracy, in sum, needs to be rethought. While republicanism, since the end of the last century, has developed a line of thinking that seeks to renew democracy by drawing on sources such as classical Greece, the Roman Republic and the Italian republics of the Renaissance, those sources are too close to our own culture; they are, in fact, where our political culture originated. We need, surely, to decentralise more, to seek inspiration in sources more remote from our habitual way of thinking—because, if our thinking is derived from what is familiar, then we will likely continue to think in the same way and devise broadly similar solutions. Rethinking democracy by considering Palaeolithic communities has a number of advantages. Looking back to those cultures so foreign to us could bring us closer to alternative perceptions of the human power relationships, and so opens up perspectives lost to us. Furthermore, those different perceptions would not be fanciful or speculative but anchored in reality, and would reflect deeper and more specific aspects of our nature as a species. Palaeolithic cultures can show us that another way of being human and of being a community is possible because that alternative form of humanity lies in our own evolutionary roots. It is not about appealing for the return to an idealised past, as this is evidently neither possible nor desirable, given the immense differences between the original democracies and modern urban and technologically advanced societies. Rather than some kind of futile anachronistic exercise, it is a matter of seeking new references that break with known modes of thinking. It is about looking forward, but considering what led to our present. And what led to our present is not only a few millennia of human authoritarianism and despotism, but also tens of millennia of egalitarian and democratic communities. Hunter-gatherer peoples may not have a written culture, but they do have a very rich oral culture—even if it is increasingly impoverished by the intrusion of Western culture. The myths that they keep alive are their means for formulating deep political thought; those myths also reveal their way of life and their governance and political systems. Undoubtedly we have much to learn from these original democracies, and much to reflect on and to rethink regarding their practices and the data and reflections of the anthropologists who have studied them. The Upper Palaeolithic dates to approximately 40,000 to 10,000 years ago. The Neolithic dates to approximately 10,000 to 5,000 years ago. See: Glassman, R. M. (2017). The Origins of Democracy in Tribes, City-States and Nation-States. Springer; Bollen, K. & Paxton, P. 1997. Democracy before Athens. Inequality, democracy, and economic development 13-44. Cambridge University Press; Traversa, F. (2011). La gran transformación de la democracia: de las comunidades primitivas a la sociedad capitalista. Ediciones Universitarias; Shultziner, D. (2007). From the Beginning of History: Paleolithic Democracy, the Emergence of Hierarchy, and the Resurgence of Political Egalitarianism Shultziner et al. (2010). The causes and scope of political egalitarianism during the Last Glacial: A multi-disciplinary perspective. Biology & Philosophy, 25(3), 319-346. Carroll, J. (2015). Evolutionary social theory: The current state of knowledge. Style, 49(4), 512-541. Pan species that have survived to this day are the chimpanzee and the bonobo. They are part of the family of the great apes (hominids), which includes humans, gorillas and orangutans. See: Eisler, R. (1987). The Chalice and the Blade: Our History, Our Future. Harper Collins; Lerner, G. (1990). La creación del patriarcado. Editorial Crítica; Conway Hall; Patou-Mathis, M. (2020) L’homme préhistorique est aussi une femme. Allary. [7 Read, K. E. (1959). Leadership and consensus in a New Guinea society. American Anthropologist, 61(3), 425-436. Lowie, R. H. (1948). Some aspects of political organization among the American aborigines. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 78(1/2), 11-24. [9 ] Lévi-Strauss, C. (1967).The social and psychological aspects of leadership in a primitive tribe, in Cohen and Middleton, Comparative Political Systems. New York: Natural Historical Press. Lévi-Strauss, C. (1992). Tristes tropiques. Penguin Books. Popper, K. (1966) The Open Society and its Enemies. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Fortes, M., & Evans-Pritchard, E. E. (2015). African political systems. Routledge. See: Clastres, P. (1974). La société contre l'Etat. Minuit; Clastres, P. (1977). Archéologie de la violence: la guerre dans les sociétés primitives. Editions de l'Aube. See: Boehm, C. (2012). Ancestral hierarchy and conflict. Science, 336(6083), 844-847; Boehm, C. (2000). Conflict and the evolution of social control. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 7(1-2), 79-101; Boehm, C. (1999). Hierarchy in the Forest: The Evolution of Egalitarian Behavior. Harvard University Press.	https://www.ideology-theory-practice.org/blog/category/political-anthropology
…two months after resigning as a CS volunteer, in the form of responses to two calls for an egalitarian CS community in the CS Brainstorm group. Hello Abrahim, I appreciate your efforts to bring this issue to the attention of the community again. You obviously put a lot of thought into your post and recognize the critical importance of this to a community which shares the values that we do. I hope I’m proven wrong, but I feel certain that the kind of movement you are proposing would end up going nowhere in CS. Just over a year ago, there was an excellent opportunity to redirect the course of the CS community away from being under the control of a small elite group, unaccountable and unanswerable to the community at large. This opportunity coincided with a major crash of the servers followed by Casey‘s termination of the CouchSurfing Project. For most of the last year since the community-led rebuilding effort, some volunteers worked towards an egalitarian community, which they thought was consistent with the stated CS 2.0 goal of decentralized participation, while the former administrators of the website redefined themselves in secret. A few months ago, the elite group re-emerged in the form of the “Leadership Team”. These self-appointed leaders are really rulers (if you consider CS as a community) or managers (if you consider CS as a corporation). Leaders generally lead by consent of the led. Rulers need no consent. Since the Leadership Team members were each chosen (or at least endorsed) by Casey, the owner of the Corporation, and by extension felt entitled to govern the community that has formed around the web site as they saw fit, some of us who hoped for a different CS realized that our cause was lost and moved on, in some cases to alternative hospitality organizations which do have an egalitarian community. The Leadership Team has clearly taken a stand against democracy. They have taken upon themselves the role of guardians of the CS mission, as they define it. Their “constitution” is as much about protecting their power as it is about protecting the mission. They don’t seem to be aware of the hazards of this stance. It is an easy mistake to make, since they are generally good people with good intentions and a noble mission. But the structure itself is inherently flawed and prone to abuse and corruption. This has happened countless times throughout human history whenever too much power is concentrated in the hands of too few people, even in organizations started by the best people with the best intentions. As one example of how easy it is for a self-reinforcing group with no accountability to the people they claim to serve, consider the mission of intercultural understanding that they purport to promote and protect. The very essence of intercultural understanding is respect for diversity. Yet, the structure of the leadership team requires unanimous agreement among themselves to make important changes. The implication is that, knowing that one person could bring the effectiveness of the Leadership Team to a complete halt, extreme care will be used to select only those people that will not disrupt the consensus; in other words, people who will not create “divisiveness” or “conflict”, but conform to the established groupthink. This is perhaps the worst possible environment for promoting diversity of values, opinions and ideas, cultural or otherwise. Yet it seems they consider themselves to have a special insight and virtue which entitles them to be the guardians of the CS mission. I have already seen cases where extremely valuable volunteers have been blacklisted because of what seems to me are mostly cultural or gender differences, or because they had an ideology not in sufficient conformity with the elite’s ideology. Besides being inconsistent with the CS mission, the LT policies are inherently non-viable according to the lessons of nature, where diversity is the primary guarantee of adaptability and survivability in the face of changing environmental conditions and random events. Another inconsistency: in a community which is as much about freely giving as anything, truly built upon the generosity of people willing to give without expecting a financial return, how is it that the owner, who should be exemplifying the spirit of the community, is the only one getting financial benefit for his contributions? If someone is to be granted an exception to the otherwise universal policy (so far) of voluntary work, voluntary donations and voluntary hosting, shouldn’t the community, who provides the money used to operate the infrastructure, have a say in this? I’ve heard all the counterarguments to this, but nevertheless I’m certain that CS could be run entirely by volunteers. The fact that it isn’t has not been a community decision. Without going into details now, there is now doubt in my mind that the lack of participation and responsiveness of many of the so-called leaders in many areas at many times is a symptom of the structural problem (lack of accountability to the community) and the attitude it fosters. (For example: over a year and counting and still no acceptable NDA, something of such grave importance to several volunteers that they stopped volunteering because of this fiasco). Likewise, the chronic server problems and the slow response to member requests for bug fixes and feature enhancements are also traceable to the same problem. The only possibility I see for CS to become an egalitarian community is for the community to obtain ownership of the Corporation. In other words, buy out Casey. But I don’t think this is realistic considering that perhaps 99% of the users of the CS website are reasonably happy with the free service that it provides. The number of members actively involved in the community (beyond hosting and surfing) are a small percentage of the total membership and of those, only small percentage of us are really concerned with such philosophical and political matters as we’re discussing. There are some other hospitality communities where self-government is considered as important an objective as intercultural understanding, and inextricably linked to it. For me, it is more efficient to start over with one of those communities. Indeed, I was given no choice. Casey himself stated that if we don’t like the way CS is run, then leave and come back later [after all the structural changes now being implemented are locked in - he has veto power over any proposed structural change in the future]. Don’t get me wrong, I like a strong, assertive leader, and even encouraged Casey that way, but any leader without accountability to those led is a dictator, even if a benevolent dictator. I recommend you think of CS in terms of the Western culture notion of “corporate entity” and all the concepts of ownership and entitlement that go with that, rather than a diverse community of equals with shared values. That may save you a lot of heartache. For me, it is best to think of the new CS as a social website like Myspace combined with a travel website like Expedia. Then, Casey is just a dot.com entrepreneur carefully protecting his investment and his personal vision and getting his just reward financially. No problem with that if you’re a fan of Western corporate culture! (Just be clear about it to potential volunteers: your free work and ideas are welcome, but Casey is the only one who financially benefits from them, and you have no say in that.) We are all free to use what the CS Corporation offers and to go elsewhere if we object to the way it is managed. Thankfully. Just the mere fact that this post will not be censored is a credit to the LT — they ARE doing some things well! John Responding to David Lee Frazer’s commentary on the “Wolf Pack Psychology” of the LT in another thread: Hi David: The following is meant to be taken partly in jest. I don’t think “Wolfpack” is the best analogy to descibe the LT, although it’s imaginative. I just don’t see Casey as the alpha male of the pack. Brute force is not his means of holding power. “Monarchy” is a better analogy: King Casey and the Lords and Ladies of CouchSurfing. But most monarchies do not justify their entitlement to power as virtuous protectors of a noble mission. It is enough for them to claim hereditary entitlement, or royal blood, in many cases, or else “might makes right”. “Religion” is an even better analogy. Pope Casey the First and the College of Cardinals. The Global Ambassadors would be the Bishops, from whom the Cardinals are chosen. The other ambassadors complete the priesthood, and the rest of us are the bleating flock, who are shepherded by the wise and learned Bishops. Very good description, actually. Can you imagine an election for the Pope by the flock ever happening? Those of use who resigned as volunteers could be thought of as the Protestants and have gone on to find a more tolerant and open cultural milieu. Among other things, we didn’t like the idea of the CS Corporation claiming custody of our creative ideas like a Church claiming custody of our souls. We even had a heretic among us, who was shunned after enormous contributions (Kasper). The Roman Church began with a noble mission but which over time, due to the inherent structure it shares with CS, erred in many ways. The leaders acquired an attitude of condescension and hubris, thinking themselves infallible, not needing checks and balances. They became enamored of their wealth and power, drifting far astray from the example of Jesus, who wanted neither. Protecting their power became more important than the original mission. Anyone who is ignorant of this danger of concentrated power, or thinks themselves immune to it, is surely vulnerable.	https://www.opencouchsurfing.org/2007/07/17/reflections/
Our Liberty Requires Limitations On Government! Not A Particular Method For Selecting Governors. Liberty, not from ideas but from the interactive experiences of members of an established community. The decline of healthy community infrastucture & rule by tyrants. Does breakdown in strong communities doom us to an age of tyranny? Students of social history, we fear that the West--as identified with the Nations of America, Canada and Western Europe--may have passed into an era from which future rule by tyrants is virtually certain. Why is this likely? How did it come to pass? Can we yet avert it? Liberty, as a driving political concept, does not arise as an abstract idea, but in the interactive experiences of members of an established community--one either definable by an ethnic group in a specific location, or by a continuing, multi-generational, self-identified interest group. An individual may achieve a particular species of personal "liberty" by moving to a location where he or she will not feel interfered with. But such "liberty" is a subjective thing, with few if any safe-guards against what may follow. A community establishes Liberty by a community's effort to remove or escape impediments to its members' freedom to conduct themselves in the ways that the individual members of that community desire. Thus the Norman Barons--a community of interest, who had provided the underpinnings of the English Monarchy for a century and a half prior to the Charter--forced the compact between their community & the Plantagenet Government known as "Magna Carta" in 1215; thus demonstrating the viability of the compact theory of government, embraced by the Founding Fathers in our Declaration of Independence in 1776. Thus, that Declaration, and the sustained effort that made it viable, was itself made possible by "Committees Of Correspondence," operating among the experienced social leaders in the various local communities, which rallied to the Patriot cause reflected in the American Revolution. Both the Norman Barons and Patriots managed to prevail in a libertarian direction because they were able to invoke strong community identification among their supporters; a sense of ongoing ethnic values, providing a basis for trust and continuity in both the leadership and credibility of each movement. The concepts and motivations were born, not in theory, but in the interactive involvements--the ethnic experiences of real peoples, over a period of time--which had preceded each action. While the immediate precedents may have been somewhat different, the same essential prerequisites were present in the Athenian and early Roman experiences, as in the later achievement of Liberty in Switzerland and the Netherlands. Contrast the experiences leading to the pursuit of Liberty, with the ideological revolutions that have come since! In those communities which achieved Liberty, there were both an ongoing sense of ethnic pursuit and purpose, as well as interactive experiences which inspired the quest; there were also fairly cohesive leaderships of affluent high achievers who identified with the ongoing ethnic pursuit. Theory followed experience! Modern ideological revolutions, on the other hand, though led, for the most part, by men born into affluent classes, have generally been characterized by very different motivations. In place of a celebration of ethnic achievement, they sought to vent a vengeful spirit against all who stood in the way of their ideological quests. In place of protection for individual initiative, through a multi-generational prospective, they sought to maximize collective interference with individual prerogatives. Theory became a substitute for experience. Thus the French Revolution (1789 to 1795) purged and destroyed much of the traditional French leadership, even as it suppressed the freedom of those classes which had previously obtained a species of Liberty. Thus, too, the Bolshevik Communist Revolution in Russia tore down the traditional structure of ethnic Russia, and imposed a brutal totalitarian regime; as did the National Socialist Revolution in Germany. It is instructive, in regard to the latter, that the original success there was via the ballot box; an obvious refutation of the myth, currently promoted both by the recognized American Left and the "Neocon" poseurs, that "Democracy" provides some sort of magic defense for human Liberty. Liberty springs from the experiences of intelligent, confident individuals, unapologetic as to their own perceived potential, and willing to work with other intelligent and confident individuals, within a congenial community, to achieve and preserve it. Tyranny springs from the dependence of a people, or a large proportion of a people, on collective solutions even as to personal needs and individual problems; the resentment promoted by ideologically driven egalitarian movements, appealing to the mob or potential mob, often providing a spark to hasten the advent. No one surveying the social dynamics in any major Western Nation, today, can be completely oblivious, either to tendencies to attempt a micromanagement of the affairs of individuals to an extent seldom seen, even under the most autocratic of ancient tyrannies; or to a breakdown in the intrinsic strength, both of ethnic and community identification. The cause of regimentation advances in proportion to a decline in the ability to resist; in the ability to rally others with a sense of perceived common interest, to say "no" to those who would micromanage. And while the greatest thrust in the direction of this deteriorating situation--from the standpoint of Libertarian values--may continue to come from the egalitarian ideologues; a grasping for perceived short-term advantage by Corporate business interests can not be ignored. Other issues will be involved, in other aspects of a developing reality. Yet for the purposes of understanding a Society careening towards tyranny, a Corporate bailout, or a community undermining immigration policy, intended to benefit Corporate interests at the expense of those of the rooted, achieving individual, or his family and community, are certainly part of an overall threat. Neither the "bread and circuses" of classic Rome, nor Bismarck's German Welfare State (intended to defuse Socialist agitation), were conceived for egalitarian ends. Yet, in each case, they actually undermined the ability of the free and productive to preserve a traditional way of life, in their respective nations, by offering palliatives for discontent; while failing to grasp the significant dynamics involved in promoting a healthy society. While neither Imperial Rome nor Imperial Germany were known as "Libertarian," prior to the adoption of such palliatives; each had well rooted, intelligent high achievers, who could easily have moved in the direction of the Norman Barons, or the American Founding Fathers, in recognizing a better way to preserve their status and achievements. Indeed, the palliatives embraced, moved their respective societies away from the strengths of their respective traditions. America in the 20th Century has increasingly fallen into similar error--tragically compounded by the embrace of a mythological human "equality," which has never existed anywhere. Note the multi-faceted effect of the mistaken path. It diminishes the motivations for success, even as it diminishes responsibility for failure, while building up a collectivist structure (Government), ever more susceptible to manipulation by tyrants. Yet more significant, philosophically, it substitutes a panoply of utilitarian concepts (notions such as "the greatest good for the greatest number," or that Government is the source of individual rights) for the moral concepts of a free society (i.e., that Government is set up to safeguard the primal rights of the individual, who remains responsible for his own life and fully accountable for his own conduct--neither of which being dependent upon the whims of other individuals or groups of individuals). Finally, this conceptual corruption of a people's mores takes place against a background where most principal "educational" institutions openly disparage the importance of ethnic continuity, embracing a denial of the most basic attribute of an enduring community or nation, the continuity of a people; the importance of kinship, shared history and lines of descent; a sense of duty to your own, from which effective resistance to tyranny may emerge. Thus what in America, for prime example, was once sacred, becomes increasingly dependent upon those able to control the Central Government. In this social atmosphere, it may be only a short while before, given the "right" crisis, we produce our own Lenin, Mussolini or Hitler--or some innovation, of our own, in the long history of rule by tyrants. Perpetrators have come in many different styles. An American version need not feature a leader shouting and gesticulating from a balcony; or ranting about a "classless, casteless" nation with a "single will" from a podium to his uniformed automatons, seated rigidly in a great stadium; or standing stoically behind a stone wall, surveying an endless parade of his forces, carrying military arms and pictorial banners. More likely, we will be treated to televised pronouncements. Only the threat is clear in the fundamental shifts in public perceptions of political and social reality. The motivation for this Web Site, as of the novel (below), is that the looming socio-political disaster may yet be averted. But in nine years of operation, the picture has continued to darken; the prospects for the free America of Washington & Jefferson, Adams & Madison, have continued to decline. While not hopeless--certainly the rallying of some of our youth to the Ron Paul candidacy is a hopeful sign--the hour is very late indeed. To fully grasp the lateness of the hour--in a society coasting along on its past achievements, its affluent members smug in the belief that they will continue to prosper, and largely oblivious to social warning signs, which appear to affect only those in other circumstances--one must understand both changing demographics and the gathering momentum of deterioration in the social infrastructure. Consider the relative birth rates of those with IQs under 90 compared to those with IQs over 110; the refusal of politicians to make any distinction based upon a recognition of the actual inequality of man, while adopting ever more expensive programs, based upon the pretense of an equality of human potential. Consider how rapidly we evolved from the very notion of "political correctness"--little more than a bad joke in the early 1990s--to the present reality in America, where people get fired from jobs in academia or the media, for violating its now apparently sacred egalitarian shibboleths. Understand that such policies are based on fantasy, a pseudo-reality increasingly enforced by measures of thought control, absolutely antithetical to both Liberty and any healthy social order. 1. The Constitution means now, what it meant when adopted. A compact among peoples (here sovereign States) must be interpreted according to the intentions of those who have mutually agreed to its terms, no less so than would be the case with a business contract between individual parties. The idea that politicians or jurists may twist Constitutional meaning, is as threatening to the preservation of individual liberty, as it is inconsistent with any concept of the "Rule of Law." 2. Our fundamental individual rights come not from Government, but are found as inherent attributes of our nature. The recognition of same--including their defining qualities--arises not in theory but in the interactive experiences of intelligent people, usually with a similar perspective and common mores. 3. There is no substitute for the social cohesion derived from identification with established communities, lines of descent: An appreciation of the fact that a nation is defined by a specific people--their ethnicity, biological and social heritage--not by the ideas of those connected with their Government at a particular moment in time. 4. A continuation of Liberty has always depended upon a willingness, on the part of its adherents, to fight for its survival. The only realistic chance to avoid either tyranny or great bloodshed, is in such perception of that willingness to fight, as might yet deter--even reverse--a course towards chaos and tyranny upon which our political societies have already embarked. This willingness must be widespread, or it may be merely suicidal. It must include not only thoughtful civilians, but many career military personnel, who must understand what their oath to defend the Constitution may actually come to require. Once again, we must all come to a recognition that if we do not stand together for a right to pursue different courses, we may all find ourselves being programmed by others, much sooner than even the most pessimistic may expect. Parts of this essay may appear as simply rehashes of other, previously published, articles. This is no accident or mistake. We continuously seek to demonstrate different conceptual approaches to the same truths--useful illustrations of the wisdom in the Hindu fable of six blind men & an elephant--to help the young Conservative understand the importance of being able to approach a debate from the most advantageous facet in that encounter. Comments are always welcome.	http://truthbasedlogic.com/basics.htm
Acephalous literally means headless society without any institutionalized system of power and authority. Thus, in many acephalous societies, there was a clear separation between power (defined as the ability to influence events in a desired. In anthropology, an acephalous society (from the Greek ἀκέφαλος “headless”) is a society which lacks political leaders or hierarchies. Such groups are also. \|Author:\|\|Mezile Tuk\| \|Country:\|\|Hungary\| \|Language:\|\|English (Spanish)\| \|Genre:\|\|Music\| \|Published (Last):\|\|17 April 2009\| \|Pages:\|\|320\| \|PDF File Size:\|\|2.41 Mb\| \|ePub File Size:\|\|10.78 Mb\| \|ISBN:\|\|443-4-20027-241-8\| \|Downloads:\|\|75911\| \|Price:\|\|Free* [*Free Regsitration Required]\| \|Uploader:\|\|Arakree\| Kilmer’s work is often disparaged by critics and dismissed by scholars as being too simple and overly sentimental, and that his style was far too traditional and even archaic. Unity lay, however, in the political autonomy, obligations of mutual aid and the territorial isolation of the lineage or village Olaniyan, The Law of the Somalis. Four lines of the poem survive,[b] preserved in Hephaestion’s Enchiridion, a treatise on meters in Greek poetry. Notify me of new comments via email. Kulintang is a modern sociwty for an ancient instrumental form of music composed on a row of small, horizontally laid gongs that function melodically, accompanied by larger, suspended gongs and drums. It was therefore in the societies without chiefs or kings where African democracy was born and where the concept that the people are sovereign was as natural as breathing. acephalous A system of checks and balances was instituted in which two or more power centers were balanced against each other and applied in all levels of the community so that no single center predominated. The storm, which can in part be read as symbolizing the Irish War of Independence, overshadows the birth of Yeats’ daughter and creates the political frame that sets the text i Member feedback about Fula people: Decisions had to be unanimous…If the Amaala acted arbitrarily and refused to call the assembly, people could demand it by completely ignoring them and bringing town life to a halt a village strike! A slight modification of the above is found among the Awka Igbo where members of title societies and lineage elders constitute the political decisionmaking group. Socety traditional archetype whereby decisions are reached by consensus among the lineage representatives among whom age, wealth or privilege have no overriding influence. Acephalous society Acephalous line Acephali Thus, they come in constant contact with other ethnic groups in their migrations. Smallpox survivors Revolvy Brain revolvybrain. Social stratification topic Social stratification is a kind of social differentiation whereby a society groups people into socioeconomic strata, based upon their occupation and income, wealth and social status, or derived power social and political. Kenyan politicians Revolvy Brain revolvybrain. As land-bonded societies grow larger, they can change into Village-bonded societies, which are able to simultaneously support age sets and secret societies, and enable them to transition to statehood. After a close study of the various power bases decisionmaking in the Igbo political system, Olaniyan discovered five general features: Modern nomads Revolvy Brain revolvybrain. The village assembly therefore was acephlaous body in afephalous the young and old, the rich and poor could be heard. Canon law Catholic Church Revolvy Brain revolvybrain. Thus, in many acephalous societies, there was a clear separation between power defined as the ability to influence events in a desired manner and direction and authority meaning the acknowledged or recognized right to exercise power. Acephalous \| This group associated with other like groups in the wet season but separated from them as the dry season approached and they began their search for water. Member feedback about Lineage-bonded society: His research themes included: In the wetseason when they were together, they had a political societt, the ardo. The Igbo Nation in West Africa is alleged to be an acephalous or egalitarian society. A New Nigeria raising standards, impacting lives Home. In scientific literature covering native African societies and the effect of European colonialism on them the term is often used to describe groups of people living in a settlement with “no government in the sense of a group able to exercise effective control over both the people and their territory”. Acephalous society These elites form a political-ideological aristocracy relative to the general group. Map showing the approximate maximal extent of the Cucuteni-Trypillia culture all periods Due partly to the fact that this took place before the written record of this region began, there have been a number of theories presented over the years socidty fill the gap of knowledge about how and why the end of the Cucuteni—Trypillia culture happened. The archaeology of Igbo-Ukwu sociey bronze artifacts dated to the 9th century A. The categorization of people by social strata occurs in all societies, ranging from the complex, state-based or polycentric societies to tribal and feudal societies, which are based upon socio-economic relations among classes of nobility and classes of peasants. It is governed by customary laws, known as xeer, that come very close to natural law. Acephalous society They were usually wealthy personages and some title holders, particularly the ozo title holders. Kilmer is most remembered for “Trees”, which has been the subject of frequent parodies and references in popular culture. Member feedback about Social stratification: Such groups are also known non-stratified societies. acephaloys Evidence for cooperation One e The Lobi belong to an ethnic group that originated in what is today Ghana. A lineage-bonded society that outgrows its limits may break apart into subgroups. Groundwork of Government For West Africa. Thomas Condon wrote, in The Sanctifying Function of the Diocesan Bishop Especially in Relationship with Pastors, that this canon “empowers the bishop to regulate sacramental sharing for Catholics sociefy might need to approach a non-Catholic minister [ Good husbandry ensures that the next generation is provided for. The wards were grouped around a large village market which acephalouw every four or eight days depending upon its size and importance. The colonialists had the most difficulty in dealing with this distinction in stateless societies. Social Theory and African Tribal Organization. This sociology -related article is a stub. In he was offered a three-book contract by Pan Macmillan, and his first acephalosu length novel Gridlinked was published in The Copper Age, also known as the Eneolithic and Chalcolithic periods, lasted in Europe from roughly to BC, however, it ended for this culture between BC. Sorry, your blog cannot share posts by email.	https://eyetube.me/acephalous-society-64/
CDD Statement on Controversy in the National Communication Association The Center for Democratic Deliberation(CDD) is a nonpartisan interdisciplinary center that promotes research and programming focused on rhetorical aspects of democratic deliberation. It’s one of two centers of excellence in the McCourtney Institute for Democracy at Penn State. Many faculty and students in the CDD community are members of professional societies in the fields of communication, composition, and rhetoric. This includes the National Communication Association (NCA). Controversy erupted recently within the NCA membership over proposed changes to its procedures for Distinguished Scholar awards. The dispute quickly affected allied academic communities like the Rhetoric Society of America, to which many members of the CDD community also belong. Since NCA created the Distinguished Scholar Award in 1991, only one person of color has received this honor. Its recipients are overwhelmingly white men, joined by a moderately increased number of white women in recent years. The changes, as the NCA Executive Committee proposed them, are intended to increase award nominations for exceptional scholars from marginalized communities—people of color, women, LGBTQ members, and persons with disabilities—whose work has transformed their fields of study. The core of the controversy involves some Distinguished Scholars’ perceived deployments of merit as a defense against such changes, which were proposed in the name of diversity and inclusion. These immediate points of controversy are painful symptoms. Controversy like this in a single scholarly society is part of the legacy of institutional racism throughout higher education and the nominally democratic society that it serves. Opposing institutional racism and its fundamentally anti-democratic entailments is an essential part of the CDD’s mission. The CDD also stridently opposes, as part of this same mission, institutional sexism, homophobia, transphobia, and ableism—including the hierarchies of value and bodies of knowledge from which they derive. Beyond those declarations, the controversy in NCA lays bare a difficult set of truths. Universities and scholarly societies are hierarchies. They establish and pursue highly laudable goals. But they pursue those goals by assigning merit, power, or authority to some bodies, and not others, in structurally unjust or inequitable ways. Universities and scholarly societies are built to function this way. Yet they promote and even celebrate themselves as truly egalitarian spaces. Communities within universities and scholarly societies may enthusiastically adopt the language of diversity and inclusion. They may propose rules changes or changes in leadership—sometimes dramatic ones, with great passion. The CDD certainly endorses constructive policy changes and, if it can lead to significant reforms, the language of diversity and inclusion in those institutions. But the machinery of institutional discrimination will still comprise a huge portion of their foundations and overall functions if it remains unaddressed in structural terms. The word “democracy” can refer to formal institutions of governance. As a guiding idea, however, it originally referred to an absence of hierarchy. In classical times, the power to govern was said to reside in an arche, meaning an origin, beginning, or first principle. That foundation of authority usually supported an essentially authoritarian hierarchy, whether in the form of military power, nobility, religious authority, or wealth. Democracy names the ideal of governance based on no fundamental arche, on no innate hierarchy, even when its practice enshrines governance of the majority by the few. Yet, in its fullest expression, democracy always retains the possibility of dramatically transforming whatever archepresently exists. The CDD proposes not only that NCA and other organizations institute substantive reforms. It insists upon the need to forge a new arche—one without existing hierarchies. It insists, in particular, upon the need to reflexively address institutional tendencies to reproduce privileged social networks as meritocracy. All of this poses the question of how the bodies that benefit most from existing hierarchies—the ones artificially invested with the archeas if it was natural—may be moved to disinvest from those hierarchies and advocate for more legitimately equitable associations. Activist, songwriter, and storyteller Courtney Ariel suggests one path for doing so. Existing as one of those bodies who most benefit from existing hierarchies, she says, means that one owes a debt. And one may choose to pay it in any number of ways. Ariel does not mean a strictly monetary model. This work, she writes, may take many forms in society at large: It might mean providing a meal or shelter, listening, using your particular area of expertise to help someone in need of that expertise who might not have access to it otherwise, bailing a protester out of jail, or paying a family’s rent one month (if you have the resources to do so), or marching at a rally with marginalized folks alongside other allies. There may not always be a practical, tangible way to pursue this work, but I believe you will know it when you meet it face-to-face. Universities and scholarly societies should struggle over changes to bylaws, procedural rules, and leadership positions. But those changes, and the conflicts they entail, will not involve the kind of work that Ariel describes without confronting the fact that conditions of debt fundamentally shape unequal relations among very different sorts of bodies. It will not involve that kind of work without asking what mutual commitment to repayment of debt should look like in the specific institutional spaces that those bodies inhabit—or, in many cases, from which they have been excluded. Basing institutional membership on mutual commitments to do such work suggests a way to begin dismantling hierarchies built upon institutional racism and other forms of institutional discrimination like sexism, homophobia, transphobia, and ableism. It suggests the possibility of a new arche.	https://democracy.psu.edu/nca
Decision-making was decentralised and leadership ad hoc; there weren’t any chiefs. There were sporadic hot-blooded fights between individuals, of course, but there was no organised conflict between groups. Nor were there strong notions of private property and therefore any need for territorial defence. These social norms affected gender roles as well; women were important producers and relatively empowered, and marriages were typically monogamous. But by the mid-20th century a new theory began to dominate. Anthropologists including Julian Steward, Leslie White and Robert Carneiro offered slightly different versions of the following story: population growth meant we needed more food, so we turned to agriculture, which led to surplus and the need for managers and specialised roles, which in turn led to corresponding social classes. Meanwhile, we began to use up natural resources and needed to venture ever further afield to seek them out. This expansion bred conflict and conquest, with the conquered becoming the underclass. More recent explanations have expanded on these ideas. One line of reasoning suggests that self-aggrandising individuals who lived in lands of plenty ascended the social ranks by exploiting their surplus – first through feasts or gift-giving, and later by outright dominance. At the group level, argue anthropologists Peter Richerson and Robert Boyd, improved coordination and division of labour allowed more complex societies to outcompete the simpler, more equal societies. From a mechanistic perspective, others argued that once inequality took hold – as when uneven resource-distribution benefited one family more than others – it simply became ever more entrenched. The advent of agriculture and trade resulted in private property, inheritance, and larger trade networks, which perpetuated and compounded economic advantages. It is not hard to imagine how stratification could arise, or that self-aggrandisers would succeed from time to time. But none of these theories quite explain how those aiming to dominate would have overcome egalitarian norms of nearby communities, or why the earliest hierarchical societies would stop enforcing these norms in the first place. Many theories about the spread of stratified society begin with the idea that inequality is somehow a beneficial cultural trait that imparts efficiencies, motivates innovation and increases the likelihood of survival. But what if the opposite were true? In a demographic simulation that Omkar Deshpande, Marcus Feldman and I conducted at Stanford University, California, we found that, rather than imparting advantages to the group, unequal access to resources is inherently destabilising and greatly raises the chance of group extinction in stable environments. This was true whether we modelled inequality as a multi-tiered class society, or as what economists call a Pareto wealth distribution (see “Inequality: The physics of our finances“) – in which, as with the 1 per cent, the rich get the lion’s share. Counterintuitively, the fact that inequality was so destabilising caused these societies to spread by creating an incentive to migrate in search of further resources. The rules in our simulation did not allow for migration to already-occupied locations, but it was clear that this would have happened in the real world, leading to conquests of the more stable egalitarian societies – exactly what we see as we look back in history. In other words, inequality did not spread from group to group because it is an inherently better system for survival, but because it creates demographic instability, which drives migration and conflict and leads to the cultural – or physical – extinction of egalitarian societies. Indeed, in our future research we aim to explore the very real possibility that natural selection itself operates differently under regimes of equality and inequality. Egalitarian societies may have fostered selection on a group level for cooperation, altruism and low fertility (which leads to a more stable population), while inequality might exacerbate selection on an individual level for high fertility, competition, aggression, social climbing and other selfish traits. So what can we learn from all this? Although dominance hierarchies may have had their origins in ancient primate social behaviour, we human primates are not stuck with an evolutionarily determined, survival-of-the-fittest social structure. We cannot assume that because inequality exists, it is somehow beneficial. Equality – or inequality – is a cultural choice. Chronique des Indiens Guayaki by Pierre Clastres (Editions Plon, Paris, 1972). “Hunter-gatherers and human evolution” by Frank Marlowe, Evolutionary Anthropology, vol 14, p 54, 2005. The !Kung of Nyae Nyae by Lorna Marshall (Harvard University Press, 1976). “Violence and sociality in human evolution” by Bruce Knauft, Current Anthropology, vol 32, p 391-428, 1991. “The complexities of residential organization among the Efe (Mbuti) and the Bamgombi (Baka): A critical view of the notion of ‘flux’ in hunter & gatherer societies” by Jon Pedersen and E. Wæhle in Hunters and Gatherers Volume 1: History, evolution and social change, edited by Tim Ingold, David Riches and James Woodburn (Berg, Oxford, 1988). The Egalitarians – Human and Chimpanzee: An anthropological view of social organization by Margaret Power (Cambridge University Press, 1991). Nisa: The life and words of a !Kung woman by Marjorie Shostak (Harvard University Press, 1981). The Forest People by Colin Turnbull (Simon and Schuster, New York, 1961). “Egalitarian societies” by James Woodburn, Man, vol 17, p 431, 1982. “Emergency decisions, cultural-selection mechanics, and group selection” by Christopher Boehm, Current Anthropology, vol 37, p 763, 1996. Hierarchy in the Forest: The evolution of egalitarian behavior by Christopher Boehm (Harvard University Press, 1999).	https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn22071-inequality-why-egalitarian-societies-died-out/
private property; many have none at all. Tribalism has also sometimes been called " primitive communism" but this is rather misleading since allegiance to a communist state is not based on kin-selective altruism. One thing that is certain is that tribalism is the very first social system that human beings ever lived in, and it has lasted much longer than any other kind of society to date. The other concept to which the word tribalism frequently refers is the possession of a strong cultural or ethnic identity that separates oneself as a member of one group from the members of another. This phenomenon is related to the concept of tribal society in that it is a precondition for members of a tribe to possess a strong feeling of identity for a true tribal society to form. The distinction between these two definitions for "tribalism" is an important one because, while "tribal society" no longer strictly exists in the western world, "tribalism", by this second definition, is arguably undiminished. People have postulated that the human brain is hard-wired towards tribalism due to its evolutionary advantages. See Tribalism and evolution below. Many tribes refer to themselves with their language's word for "people," while referring to other, neighboring tribes with various epithets. For example, the term " Inuit" translates as "people," but they were known to the Ojibweby a name translating roughly as "eaters of raw meat." Fact\|date=April 2008 This fact is often cited as evidence that tribal peoples saw only the members of their own tribe as "people," and denigrated all others as something less. In fact, this is a tenuous conclusion to draw from the evidence. Many languages refined their identification as "the true people," or "the real people," dehumanizing the other people or simply considering them inferior. In this, it is merely evidence of ethnocentrism, a universal cultural characteristic found in all societies. Tribalism and violence The anthropological debate on warfare among tribes is unsettled. While typically and certainly found among horticulturaltribes, an open question remains whether such warfare is a typical feature of hunter-gatherer life, or an anomaly found only in certain circumstances, such as scarce resources (as with the Inuit), or among food producing societies. There is also ambiguous evidence whether the level of violence among tribal societies is greater or lesser than the levels of violence among civilized societies. If nothing else, conflict in tribal societies can never achieve the absolute scale of civilized warfare. Tribes use forms of subsistence such as horticulture and foraging which, though more efficient, cannot yield the same number of absolute calories as agriculture. This limits tribal populations significantly, especially when compared to agricultural populations. When tribal conflict does occur, it results in few fatalities. Lawrence Keeley argues in "War Before Civilization", however, that as a "percentage" of their population, tribal violence is much more lethal. Nevertheless, Keeley also admits that the absolute numbers are so low that it is difficult to disentangle warfare from simple homicide, and Keeley's argument does not ever cite any forager examples, save the anomalous Inuit. Tribalism and evolution Tribalism has a very adaptive effect in human evolution. Humans are social animals, and ill-equipped to live on their own. Tribalism and ethnocentrism help to keep individuals committed to the group, even when personal relations may fray. This keeps individuals from wandering off. Thus, ethnocentricindividuals would have a higher survival rate -- or at least, with their higher commitment to the group, more opportunities to breed. A more significant vector may be that groups with a strong sense of unity and identity can benefit from kin selectionbehavior such as common property and shared resources. The tendency of members to unite against an outside tribe and the ability to act violently and prejudicially against that outside tribe likely boosted the chances of survival in genocidal conflicts. Logically, a distinct divide between one's own group and other groups fosters the ability of the individual to interact with members of those groups in a manner that is equally distinct: one being altruistic (in the case of a group of unrelated members) or kin-selective (in the case of a group of more or less related members), the other being violent. While it may be tempting to believe that racial conflict, ethnic cleansing, and genocideare the result of increased social pressures from relatively recent societal paradigms such as nations and empires, our understanding of early human history suggests otherwise. Acts of genocide are described in the Judeo-Christian Old Testament(Deut7:2), which is one of the earliest historical works, and clearly involving a state-level society. Genocide is also often used to explain the disappearance of Neanderthalsin Europe shortly after the arrival of early humans in prehistorical times, though this has been largely discredited ("see" Neandertal interaction with Cro-Magnons). It is logical to assume that a predisposition to tribalism and specifically to genocide aided early humans in their expansion into Europe, though no evidence of such activity exists. Modern examples of tribalist ideologies, such as the Rwandan genocide, are often treated separately as many of the characteristics that define the tribes that existed prior to the Neolithic Revolutionare largely not present, for example small population and close-relatedness which were not held by the Hutus and Tutsis of the Rwandan Conflict as they both numbered in the millions and were not defined by kin, but by European-created classes. According to a study by Robin Dunbarat the University of Liverpool, primate brain size is determined by social group size. Dunbar's conclusion was that the human brain can only really understand a maximum of 150 individuals as fully developed, complex people ("see" Dunbar's number). Malcolm Gladwellexpanded on this conclusion sociologically in his book, "The Tipping Point". According to these studies, then, "tribalism" is in some sense an inescapable fact of human neurology, simply because the human brain is not adapted to working with large populations. Beyond 150, the human brain must resort to some combination of hierarchical schemes, stereotypes, and other simplified models in order to understand so many people. Nevertheless, complex societies (and corporations) rely upon the tribal instincts of their members for their organization and survival. For example, a representative democracy relies on the ability of a "tribe" of representatives to organize and deal with the problems of an entire nation. The instincts that these representatives are using to deal with national problems have been highly developed in the long course of human evolution on a small tribal scale, and this is the source of both their usefulness and their disutility. Indeed, much of the political tension in modern societies is the conflict between the desire to organize a nation-stateusing the tribal values of egalitarianism and unity and the simple fact that large societies are unavoidably impersonal and sometimes not amenable to small-society rules. In complex societies, this tribalistic impulse can also be channelled into more frivolous avenues, manifesting itself in sports rivalries and other such "fan" affiliations. "New tribalism" In the past 50 years, anthropologists have greatly revised our understanding of the tribe. Franz Boasremoved the idea of unilineal cultural evolutionfrom the realm of serious anthropological research as too simplistic, allowing tribes to be studied in their own right, rather than stepping stones to civilizationor "living fossils." Anthropologists such as Richard Borshay Leeand Marshall Sahlinsbegan publishing studies that showed tribal life as an easy, safe life, the opposite of the traditional theoretical supposition. In the title to his book, Sahlins referred to these tribal cultures as "the Original Affluent Society," not for their material wealth, but for their combination of leisure and lack of want. This work formed the foundation for primitivist philosophy, such as that advocated by John Zerzanor Daniel Quinn. These philosophers have led to new tribalistspursuing what Daniel Quinn dubbed the "New Tribal Revolution". The new tribalists use the term "tribalism" not in its traditional, derogatory sense, but to refer to what they see as the defining characteristics of tribal life: namely, an open, egalitarian, classless and cooperative community, which can be characterized as primitive communism. New tribalists insist that this is, in fact, the natural state of humanity, and proven by two million years of human evolution. Whether life in this natural state was better or worse than life in modern society is a question that remains open to debate, and the answer may depend on each person's preferences as well as on the particular tribes that are used as a point of reference - because tribal life itself was not (and is not) the same for all tribes; the natural environment where a tribe lives has an especially important influence. See also Social structure * Aboriginal people * Civilization * Indigenous peoples of the Americas * Neo-Tribalism * Societalism * Tribal chief * Collectivism Mentality * Dunbar's number * Sectarianism * Ethnocentrism * Heterosexism * Jingoism * Nationalism * Patriotism * Racism * Chauvinism * Feminism * Misandry * Identity politics * Fiction-absolute References External links Sow, Adama: [http://www.aspr.ac.at/epu/research/Sow.pdf Ethnozentrismus als Katalysator bestehender Konflikte in Afrika südlich der Sahara, am Beispiel der Unruhen in Côte d`Ivoire] at: European University Center for Peace Studies(EPU), Stadtschleining 2005 de_icon [http://president.uoregon.edu/speeches/newtribalism.shtml "The New Tribalism"] by University of Oregonpresident Dave Frohnmayer, condemning a "new tribalism" in the traditional sense of "tribalism," not to be confused with " new tribalism." * [http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/30/065.html "Tribalism in Africa"] by Stephen Isabirye * [http://www.maxhtec.net/Terrace_Culture/culture_02.html "Tribalism on the terrace" ] An article in Greek about soccer tribalism in Britain * [http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76159 "KENYA: It’s the economy, stupid (not just “tribalism”)" ] An IRINarticle on post election violence in Kenya- January 2008 Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.	https://en-academic.com/dic.nsf/enwiki/117883
Apple Inc question .. Choose one location in which your organization operates and relate the region to the four dimensions of culture proposed by Hofstede. Hint: Refer to the response you entered for Online Class 3 earlier in the semester. Now, apply this understanding to your case research. My response is BELOW READ IT BEFORE YOU ANSWER THE QUESTION :) Describe the four dimensions of culture proposed by Hofstede. What are the managerial implications of these dimensions? Compare Hofstede's findings with those of Trompenaars and the GLOBE project team. The Hofstede model discussed that there are varied cultural perceptions and dimensions in varied nations globally. In this regard, the model discussed four key dimensions, namely the power distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity, and individualism respectively. On one hand, a power distance dimension discusses the extent to which the fewer powerful families and individuals in the society accept that power is unevenly distributed and how they expect a power distribution change. On the other hand, the uncertainty avoidance dimension illustrates the extent and nature to which the society and culture base accepts to take risks in the market. As such, the process involves the various levels of undertaking risky projects with uncertain and unpredictable results. Moreover, the masculinity dimension discusses on how a society has specific rules designed and distributed among the male and female genders. In this case, where its evaluation ranges from societies and cultures with clear roles between the genders to those with no specific roles and duties for any of the genders. Finally, the individualism culture dimension illustrates the extent to which societies and cultures wish to work together in groups or individually as single unit members. In this regard, the dimension scale ranges from societies with a high individualism perception, where members function separately, in a low individualistic culture where embers liaise and work together as teams. Managerial Implications As Piepenburg (2011), stated, the Hofstede model stated that the various dimensions have direct effects and implications of organizational management systems. In this regard, the culture dimension ratings and ranking for different societies and labour force in organizations. On one hand, the power distance dimension influence the organizational management structures adopted. In this regard, for a low power dimension culture where power is perceived as equally distributed organizations apply the bureaucratic management structure, while for a high power dimension culture organizational management apply the flat organizational management structures. Moreover, the individualistic dimension influences the use of management teams where teams are easy to manage on the low individualistic cultures. As such, while such team management is imperatively hard and focus on individual employee performances in the high individualistic cultures. In addition, the masculinity, culture dimension influences the perception and use of cross-gender management teams in that, where there is a high perception of the masculinity, culture, and organizations have to organize their manager into the perceived gender roles. Further, the uncertainty avoidance cultural dimension has any implications on organization ability to invest and manage their respective investments in risky projects, where low uncertainty avoidance cultures have a higher propensity for investing in high risk high profit projects, while the high-risk avoidance cultures have a tendency to invest in low-risk stable return projects, thus directly affecting business venture investment portfolio trends. Culture Models Comparisons An evaluation of the Trompenaars cultural model that discusses seven cultural dimensions as key national culture differentiating aspects illustrates that the model focuses on the cultural implications on management. On the contrary, the Hofstede model focuses on a cultural evaluation both from the social perspective, thus making their perception diversity. In addition, as Rothlauf (2012) stated, an evaluation of the global team project model as compared to the Hofstede model illustrates the team focuses on cross-cultural relationships on both the managerial organizational and social perspectives, making it reliable and widely applicable. References Piepenburg, K. (2011). Critical analysis of Hofstede's model of cultural dimensions: To what extent are his findings reliable, valid and applicable to organizations in the 21st century?. München: GRIN Verlag GmbH. Rothlauf, J. (2012). Interkulturelles Management: Mit Beispielen aus Vietnam, China, Japan, Russland und den Golfstaaten. München: Oldenbourg, R.	https://www.studypool.com/discuss/494345/apple-inc-question-1
If we explore the Lithuanian culture through the lens of the 6-D Model©, we can get a good overview of the deep drivers of Lithuanian culture relative to other world cultures. Power Distance This dimension deals with the fact that all individuals in societies are not equal – it expresses the attitude of the culture towards these inequalities amongst us. Power Distance is defined as the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organisations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally. With a low score on this dimension (42), Lithuanians show tendencies to prefer equality and a decentralisation of power and decision-making. Control and formal supervision is generally disliked among the younger generation, who demonstrate a preference for teamwork and an open management style. However, similar to the other Baltic States, there is a sense of loyalty and deference towards authority and status among the older generation, who has experienced Russian and Soviet dominance. It is important to note that Lithuania showed a preference for teamwork even during the Communist era, where work units commonly met to discuss ideas and create plans. The scepticism towards power-holders is due to the fact that those ideas and plans rarely resulted in implementation. Bear in mind that the high score on Individualism accentuates the aversion of being controlled and told what to do. Individualism The fundamental issue addressed by this dimension is the degree of interdependence a society maintains among its members. It has to do with whether people´s self-image is defined in terms of “I” or “We”. In Individualist societies people are supposed to look after themselves and their direct family only. In Collectivist societies people belong to ‘in groups’ that take care of them in exchange for loyalty. Lithuania is an Individualist country with a high score of 60, and it is important to remember that Lithuania remained Individualist during the soviet occupation. The ideal of a nuclear family has always been strong and close family members are usually regularly in touch, while respecting each other’s space. Children are taught to take responsibility for their own actions and considered as young adults at an early age. The country has seen an increase in individualism since independence in 1990, due to an increase in national wealth as represented by less dependency on traditional agriculture, more modern technology, more urban living, more social mobility, better educational system, and a larger middle-class. Today the new generation of workers are more focused on their own performance rather than that of the groups. Although there is a hesitancy to open up and speak one’s mind, Lithuanians speak plainly without any exaggeration or understatement; this too represents individualism. They are tolerant in that they do not care too much about what other people do as long as it does not annoy them; what you do and how you live your life is your business. Masculinity A high score (Masculine) on this dimension indicates that the society will be driven by competition, achievement and success, with success being defined by the winner / best in field – a value system that starts in school and continues throughout organisational life. A low score (Feminine) on the dimension means that the dominant values in society are caring for others and quality of life. A Feminine society is one where quality of life is the sign of success and standing out from the crowd is not admirable. The fundamental issue here is what motivates people, wanting to be the best (Masculine) or liking what you do (Feminine). As a Feminine country with a score of 19, Lithuanians have a tendency to feel awkward about giving and receiving praise, arguing that they could have done better, or really have not achieved anything worthy of note. As such they are modest and keep a low profile, and usually communicate with a soft and diplomatic voice in order not to offend anyone. Conflicts for Lithuanians are usually threatening, because they endanger the wellbeing of everyone, which is also indicative of a Feminine culture. Although the Lithuanians are considered a relatively reserved culture, they are tolerant towards the culture of other nations. This is partly due to their long experience of mixing with others nationalities. Uncertainty Avoidance The dimension Uncertainty Avoidance has to do with the way that a society deals with the fact that the future can never be known: should we try to control the future or just let it happen? This ambiguity brings with it anxiety and different cultures have learnt to deal with this anxiety in different ways. The extent to which the members of a culture feel threatened by ambiguous or unknown situations and have created beliefs and institutions that try to avoid these is reflected in the score on Uncertainty Avoidance. With a score of 65 on this dimension there is an emphasis on Uncertainty Avoidance. Lithuanians have a built-in worry about the world around them, which society provides legitimate outlets for. In the work environments of countries with a low Uncertainty Avoidance, one can be a good manager without having precise answers to most questions that subordinates may raise about their work. Among Lithuanians it is the other way around; a manager is a manager, because he knows everything and is able to lead. This takes the uncertainty away and also explains why qualifications and formal titles should be included on business cards. Other signs of high Uncertainty Avoidance among Lithuanians are a reluctance to taking risks, bureaucracy and a emotional reliability on rules and regulations, which may not be followed but reduce uncertainty. Long Term Orientation This dimension describes how every society has to maintain some links with its own past while dealing with the challenges of the present and future, and societies prioritise these two existential goals differently. Normative societies. which score low on this dimension, for example, prefer to maintain time-honoured traditions and norms while viewing societal change with suspicion. Those with a culture which scores high, on the other hand, take a more pragmatic approach: they encourage thrift and efforts in modern education as a way to prepare for the future. A very high score of 82 indicates that Lithuanian culture is extremely pragmatic in nature. In societies with a pragmatic orientation, people believe that truth depends very much on situation, context and time. They show an ability to adapt traditions easily to changed conditions, a strong propensity to save and invest, thriftiness, and perseverance in achieving results. Indulgence One challenge that confronts humanity, now and in the past, is the degree to which small children are socialized. Without socialization we do not become “human”. This dimension is defined as the extent to which people try to control their desires and impulses, based on the way they were raised. Relatively weak control is called “Indulgence” and relatively strong control is called “Restraint”. Cultures can, therefore, be described as Indulgent or Restrained. With a very low score of 16, Lithuanian culture is one of Restraint. Societies with a low score in this dimension have a tendency to cynicism and pessimism. Also, in contrast to Indulgent societies, Restrained societies do not put much emphasis on leisure time and control the gratification of their desires. People with this orientation have the perception that their actions are Restrained by social norms and feel that indulging themselves is somewhat wrong.	https://www.hofstede-insights.com/country/lithuania/
The gap between rich and poor has been increasing in the United States for decades. Such inequality, experts argue, is detrimental to everyone’s health. It erodes social cohesion and creates stress and insecurity that can lead to greater risk-taking. In many countries this economic inequality takes its toll on health and wellness. But is the association limited to industrialized nations with high inequality, where health is largely impacted by chronic, non-communicable maladies like heart disease, diabetes and cancer? In a paper published in the science journal eLife, a team of researchers at UC Santa Barbara, Washington State University and the University of Zurich studied the relationship between economic inequality and health among the Tsimane, an indigenous population of relatively egalitarian forager-horticulturalists in the Bolivian Amazon. The Tsimane live in small, remote villages of 50 to 500 people. Villages have few leaders, and even those have limited authority. Their active livelihood — based on farming, fishing, hunting and gathering — allows groups of families to largely provide their own subsistence. But recent decades have seen rapid changes. Many Tsimane now sell crops or timber or are involved in wage labor. And as cash flow increases, so does economic inequality. “Across villages, inequality ranges from low — think Denmark — to high — think Brazil,” said senior author Michael Gurven, a professor of anthropology at UC Santa Barbara, director of the campus’s Integrative Anthropological Sciences Unit and co-director of the Tsimane Health and Life History Project. For the study highlighted in eLife, the researchers tracked 13 measures of health and wellbeing over a period of up to a decade across 40 Tsimane communities. They assessed whether and how the degree of income inequality in each community associated with any of their health measures. While it has been proposed that the effects of inequality on health may be universal, only two significant health impacts stood out: higher blood pressure and respiratory disease. For several health variables, including body mass index, gastrointestinal disorders and depression, the researchers found no clear connection to economic disparity. However, in communities where inequality was high, many had higher blood pressure, regardless of whether they were at the top or the bottom of the economic ladder as compared to their peers in communities that were less stratified. Blood pressure was highest among poor Tsimane men, no matter where they lived — though hypertension is still rare among most adults. The study was conducted before the coronavirus pandemic, so COVID-19 impacts were not included, but the researchers found that greater inequality was also associated with a higher risk of respiratory illness such as influenza and pneumonia. The authors are unsure what the exact mechanisms for that connection might be, but they note that the effect isn’t due to psychological stress. “It’s worth understanding because respiratory disease is the most important cause of morbidity and mortality among the Tsimane,” said Gurven. Overall, however, inequality had inconsistent effects on other health measures. “The connection between inequality and health is not as straightforward as what you typically see in the industrialized West,” said co-lead author Aaron Blackwell, an associate professor of anthropology at Washington State University. “Our findings suggest that at this scale, inequality is not at the level that causes systemic health problems.” Added Gurven, “What matters more is your own income and access to resources. All those changes sweeping across the Tsimane territory are leading to rapid growth in inequality. Those living near roads or a short canoe ride to town are seeing more bling. But while running the status treadmill increases stress, Tsimane are still physically active, don’t have McDonalds, and they’re intensely social. Heart disease and diabetes are rare.” These conditions, he commented, buffer Tsimane from the more harmful effects observed elsewhere. “If you feel like you’re worse off than others, that’s stressful,” said co-lead author Adrian Jaeggi of the University of Zurich. “In Western countries, that feeling is associated with poor health — including high blood pressure, cardiovascular problems and infectious disease, as COVID-19 has shown. In the Tsimane communities the effects of living in a more equal community are less universal. Blackwell and Jaeggi began this research project with Gurven while working as postdoctoral scholars at UC Santa Barbara. They harnessed many different types of data collected by the Tsimane Health and Life History project to make the most comprehensive test to date of the inequality-health hypothesis in a subsistence society. “I think this study tells us that there are some seeds of why inequality is bad for us, even in relatively egalitarian societies without huge economic differences,” said Blackwell. “With rising media exposure and greater access to richer neighboring populations, Tsimane perceptions of their own status may soon change — possibly for the worse,” noted Gurven. “Comparing themselves to neighboring groups might shift their idea of wealth to include fancy clothes, motorcycles and bundles of cash to spend. “If the healthy Tsimane lifestyle changes at the same time as the growing gap between the haves and the have-nots,” he added, “the harmful effects of inequality will be a problem.” Contact Info:	https://www.news.ucsb.edu/2021/020315/health-gap
Our ability to cooperate closely with other group members and to suppress cheats means that selection at the group level rather than the individual level has been an exceptionally strong force during human evolution. It may have played a crucial role in shaping both our genes and our culture. Rare and momentous event Converging lines of evidence suggest that human genetic evolution represents a major evolutionary transition and one which accounts for our uniqueness among primates. In most primates, members of a group cooperate to a degree, but there is also intense competition within groups for social dominance. In contrast, most extant hunter-gatherer societies are vigilantly egalitarian, suppressing individuals who try to benefit themselves at the expense of others. As we have seen, the suppression of within-group selection is the hallmark of a major transition. Vigilant egalitarianism probably arose early in human evolution and was a precondition for the other attributes that make us so distinctive as a species. This is an example of gene-culture co-evolution in which it is impossible to say which came first.	https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21128242-800-selfless-evolution-a-new-view-of-human-origins/
John Naisbett’s 1982 book: Megatrends spent more than two years on The New York Times Best Seller List, selling 14 million copies. In it, Naisbett highlighted the ten most significant trends that define our contemporary technological era. The fifth trend he explored was introduced as a rapid transition from centralization to decentralization. Decentralization is a characteristic descriptive of power, control, access, or ownership, as they are spread across multiple actors, points, or nodes comprising a network. It is reflected and manifested in various architectures, collectives, and frameworks. Rewind 10,000 years and egalitarian hunter-gatherer societies were the dominant social formation. Before we organized into hierarchies of class, wealth, and power, stringent cultural norms were enforced to prevent any individual or minority from acquiring more status, authority, or resources than others. Maintaining a level playing field was a matter of life and death. Enterprising groups spread into new regions and survived in isolated conditions due to their ability to work together and maintain group stability. But as people got better at surviving, populations increased; we needed more food, so we developed agriculture. This led to surplus and the need for progressively specialized roles. We started to use up local resources and tread further afield to explore. This bred conflict and conquest, the conquered becoming the underclasses and the conquerors becoming nobles, chiefs, and kings. Inequality, nationalism, and fear entrenched hierarchical norms into the bedrock of society for thousands of years to come. The term decentralization was initially coined by Alexis De Tocqueville to describe the distribution of political power in the federalized United States. But as German economist Wilhelm Röpke wrote, the “outlooks of centralization and decentralization are reflected “not only in politics, but also in administration, economy, culture, housing, technology, social and industrial organization, [and] community formation.” In synthetic systems, decentralization means security — spreading data out over multiple nodes reduces the likelihood that any one point could negatively affect a system. In society, it is characterized by more egalitarian divisions of power, less control over infrastructure by minority actors; And in thought, decentralization propels egalitarian political, social, and philosophical notions, in which there are no hierarchies but multiplicities of interdependent interactions, constellations of meaning, and symbiotic ecosystems. Technological decentralization can be defined as “a shift from concentrated to distributed modes of production and consumption of goods and services.” But this is not just attributable in the digital domain. Technologies can include tools, materials, skills, techniques, and processes that we use to interact with our environment. Back to the dawn of industrial civilization — and rapid social decentralization began to occur by means of vast technological innovation. The printing press preceded the internet in making information available to a wider demographic; The automobile spread the freedom of mobility, so people would no longer be reliant on centralized modes of transportation; Decentralization of manufacturing created jobs in local areas, extending access to middle-class life. These inventions snowballed, culminating in the most rapid period of technological decentralization yet, our internet age. The largest technological network sprouted from an idea of decentralization. This idea was that a communications network could be fractured into pieces and still operate if it was not reliant on any single source of power, data, or control. A number of devices sharing data through a common protocol meant no center, no single point of failure. And during the first wave of the internet, from the 1980s through to the early 2000s, technological decentralization was reflected in human relationships with the web. Protocols were controlled by the online community. Though the dot-com bubble brought swathes of investment to the space, a period of intense creativity, learning, and development had to occur before monopolies formed. Internet users access today is largely centralized, and limited in its scope as a decentralizing societal mechanism as such. Technology companies have built software and systems that outstrip the capabilities of open protocols. And users have migrated from open platforms to these more advanced services. The companies that own the connections and cables now are profit-making entities; core services are centralized and controlled. Even when we access the open source web, this is often mediated by centralized software, services, and servers. As Roger McNamee, Co-founder of Silicon Valley investment firm Elevation Partners, states, “Google, Facebook, Amazon are increasingly just super-monopolies, especially Google […]. The share of the markets they operate in is literally on the same scale that Standard Oil had […] more than 100 years ago — with the big difference that their reach is now global.” The bright side of the first wave of internet decentralization for consumers was that billions of people gained access to information and communication. We achieved this ability to express ourselves at lightning-fast speeds and over previously unimaginable distances. Socialization, participation in commerce, and education became faster, easier, and programmable, though perhaps not in the way of decentralized, egalitarian ideals. For the first time ever, we can witness, communicate with, and express ourselves to the entire world. But there is a sense in which this only highlights the uneven distribution of value, power, and sovereignty. Billions of people are unable to join the global economy due to centralized infrastructure that does not accept their credentials or blocks them from access. In this once utopian internet age, more than 1.1 billion people are still “invisible,” unable to use vital services like healthcare, social protection, education, and finance. Productivity has been declining for decades, globally, at what we would expect to be a time of creativity, innovation, and invention. Inequality has led to worrying social tensions, which we see reflected in controversies over heated topics like fake news, state-sponsored bots, the “banning” of service users, privacy, and biased algorithms. Internet technologies, as they are currently deployed, have not yet overturned the core centralization of value networks, trust, governance, identity management, and ownership. But it is important to recognize that centralization is not dominant because of some inherent benefit. In a research simulation conducted at Stanford University, it was observed that rather than benefiting groups, centralized structures were inherently destabilizing and greatly increased the chance of group extinction in stable environments. The researchers who conducted the study said it was clear that the instability caused by centralization would have incentivized tribes of old to search further for resources, leading to the spread of hierarchies and the extinction of more stable egalitarian societies through conquest, exactly what history has shown. The destabilizing nature of social centralization, and the resulting motivation to search, migrate, and dominate caused the extinction of entire species and led to hardship, protest, and revolution. Inequality did not spread because it is an inherently better system, but because it creates demographic instability, driving irrationality, conflict, and leading to the end of weaker societies. A quote from the paper published by the research group at Stanford puts it well: “we human primates are not stuck with an evolutionary determined, survival-of-the-fittest social structure. We cannot assume that because inequality exists, it is somehow beneficial. Equality — or inequality — is a choice.” The trajectory of decentralization we have been on since the dawn of the industrial revolution shows that at the macro scale, we are making the right decisions. It would be foolish to think that the internet’s revolution is done. It is, after all, still a relatively new technology. And through distributed ledger technology, the internet could become so much more than a global communications network. As economist and social theorist Jeremy Rifkin explains, now our information internet is beginning to converge with blockchain technologies to form “A nascent, digitalized [sic], renewable-energy internet; and now both those internets are converging with a fledgling, automated, GPS, and very soon driverless road, rail, water, and air transport internet.” The blockchain is a stepping stone to a fully decentralized worldwide web. Essentially, the blockchain expands the speed, reach, flexibility, and automation capabilities of our current internet beyond communication and into the most valuable corners of human concern. Applications have already been explored and are currently being established in identity management, retail and supply, education, the financial sector, nonprofits, energy, waste management, logistics, and data services. This evolving technological coupling of internet and blockchain may even one day decentralize thought by way of new collective intelligences with significant implications for society because it operates on the most trusted levels. The “choice” between decentralized and centralized social systems could literally be made by global consensus in the future, using secure blockchains as scalable electronic voting tools for decision-making. By storing data on a blockchain, voting can be made transparent, completely anonymous, and protected against the possibility of tampering. Blockchain solutions have already been experimented with in Sierra Leone and Brazil in the political sphere to show how they can provide security, fairness, and transparency. Blockchain technologies are already used to make decisions on the running of companies such as electing board members and verifying changes to protocols. If the internet is a primitive form of global, collective intelligence, supercharged with blockchain technology it could become collective intelligence with teeth — a communal thought network with the capacity to affect and influence real, valuable change. You don’t need to be a Marxist to believe that our technological environment, our economy, and culture deeply impact consciousness and behavior. In a world in which assets, data, trust, identity, and governance are secure and digitally-operable by consensus, from anywhere in the world, our outer and inner lives could both evolve. At IOST, we are working towards equality for the future. We believe that decentralized blockchain networks will create a better society, new ways to think about global issues and respond with solutions that could truly affect change. We are building a scalable, efficient, and permissionless blockchain ecosystem to form the foundation for a secure internet of online services. The advent of blockchain technologies is filtering decentralization into diverse technological, social, and conceptual systems. But the relationship between technology and us is one of cyclical codependence. As blockchain affords certain organizational ideals, it is also clear it is a manifestation of its historical context. Naisbett captured it well — the infrastructure on which we rely is highly centralized, but we live in an era marked by movements ever-closer toward a decentralized ideal. The blockchain is the next step in this evolution toward an advanced, egalitarian, and benevolent world. To join us on this journey to a decentralized future and to learn more, visit us at the IOST website. Create your free account to unlock your custom reading experience.	https://hackernoon.com/decentralizing-technology-society-and-thought-c59318a8aef9
Climate Change Connection > Science > What might happen in the future? How hot might it get? What is expected to happen to precipitation patterns? How do they make these projections? We know that the world is warming, and we know that it is expected to continue to warm in the future. Over the course of the twentieth century, the global average temperature increased by approximately 0.74°C. (1) It is expected that the twenty-first century will yield a similar outcome: an even warmer planet. This warming will not be distributed equally around the globe; certain parts of the world are expected to warm more than others. Projections show that areas located at higher northern latitudes (such as Canada and the Arctic) are expected to warm more than the projected global average. How climate change will impact precipitation is cause for concern in all regions of the world. Precipitation impacts our food production, our drinking water availability, our economy, our recreation and our property. Changes in precipitation amounts and distribution will impact most aspects of our lives. Projecting future precipitation patterns is much more difficult than projecting future temperature trends. Climate models are limited in their ability to provide precipitation projections. In general, regions that are wet now are expected to get wetter. Regions that are dry will get drier. Manitoba lies between regions with opposing precipitation shifts. The Arctic and Alaska are expected to get wetter. The American south-west and Mexican Baja are expected to get drier. Applying various scenarios to computer climate models provides us with the means to make projections about how the climate could look in the future. Climate Models Global Climate Models (GCMs – also known as general circulation models) are the tools that scientists employ to predict what the future climate will look like. GCMs are complex computer programs that make projections by relating multiple variables, processes and their interactions in order to simulate what the resulting climate outcome could be. There is a large array of processes and variables that affect our climate system. Modern climate models account for a large number of these key elements and do a good job in providing us with a snapshot of the future climate. Greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere are an important driver of global warming, and humans are contributing to the greenhouse gas problem to a large degree. Because anthropogenic sources of greenhouse gas emissions are the result of human activity, and human activity in the future is not very predictable, different emissions scenarios are used to account for the various levels human influence on greenhouse gas concentrations. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) developed a system of scenarios that estimate how greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere could change in the future in response to human activities. The scenarios take into account the direct contribution of greenhouse gases from the burning of fossil fuels, but also consider other natural and human-induced factors that influence greenhouse gas concentrations, such as technological advancements and population growth. Climate change is a complex interaction of multiple factors and processes. As climate change research progresses, so will our understanding of the processes at work. Because human activities effect the climate in profound ways, it is important to consider how humans will impact the climate in the future when discussing climate change. Population growth impacts our climate as it produces more consumers, and thus more people to use resources. as does the technology available to drive our economies. Our level of commitment to sustainable development impacts our climate. How we will decide to live our lives in the future will impact our future climate. Knowing what choices we will make as societies in the future is not clear. There are many paths that we could choose to take. The IPCC accounts for the human element uncertainty by adopting a system of scenarios. These scenarios allow climate models to make projections for the future while considering the many different choices that we, as drivers of climate change, may make. Climate models do not model as well for clouds and precipitation as they do for temperature. Making projections about how precipitation amounts and distribution will change in the future is thus difficult to do with a great degree of certainty. First generation climate models were simple in nature, and did not account for many factors beyond atmospheric processes. Today, climate models are much more complex: they account for a variety of processes, feedbacks and variables. As climate models continue to evolve, their ability to predict precipitation amounts and distribution will most likely improve as well.	https://climatechangeconnection.org/science/what-might-happen-in-the-future/
Earth & Environmental Sciences, BSc Are you passionate about the environment? Do you see opportunities to improve environmental practices? Are you committed to protecting the unique resources of Central Asia? Do you enjoy applying scientific concepts to real world problems? If so, UCA's Earth and Environmental Sciences programme is for you. UCA's cross-disciplinary Earth and Environmental Sciences programme integrates the study of socio-cultural, ecological and geological systems to create informed and engaged leaders and scholars. The programme draws on the vast diversity of life experiences, ecological zones and cultures in Central Asia's mountainous regions and addresses complex regional and global problems such as climate change, poverty, environmental degradation, intolerance, and food and energy security. The Earth and Environmental Sciences curriculum is developed in collaboration with the University of British Columbia in Canada, and this specialisation benefits from the resources of UCA’s Mountain Societies Research Institute. The curriculum delivers a strong foundation in Earth and Environmental Sciences through the study of natural science, social science and the humanities. It will also foster the development of critical professional and research skills and provide opportunities for you to undertake research in your own specialised areas of interest. Our campuses, located in mountain communities, provide unique learning landscapes. You will have access to the University's Mountain Societies Research Institute, which leads UCA's Learning Landscapes Initiative and offers a range of resources, including UCA's geographic information systems (GIS) laboratory and access to an international network of researchers. Meet UCA’s Earth & Environmental Sciences Faculty Core Curriculum - Foundations in Chemistry, Physics and Ecology - The Concept of Modern Natural Science - Economic Geography and Demographics of Tajikistan - Introduction to GIS and Remote Sensing - Mixed Research Methods - Ways of Knowing: Mountain Environments in Thought and Practice - Environmental Governance: Water, Air, Land and Biosphere Environmental governance refers to how and why societies and governments manage the relationship between human beings and the natural world. To study environmental governance is to study the rationales, rhetoric and structures of environmental management systems, and to compare these systems to understand why certain environmental problems are managed as they are, what approaches to environmental management are more (or less) successful, and for whom, and in what ways they are successful. This course seeks to provide tools for describing, discussing and analysing the issues that underpin environmental management problems. The course begins with a review of the major conceptual approaches to managing human-environment relationships: regulation-based approaches, incentive or market-based approaches, community-based management approaches, and co-management approaches. It also considers the role of these approaches in global environmental governance. The course then focuses on case studies representing governance of water, air, land, and biosphere, in which students can apply the concepts they have learnt in the first part of the course to specific cases. Next, students will explore how the uniquely environmental aspects of these problems manifest in governance, how environmental impacts and outcomes are assessed, and how scientific information influences decision-making. - Environment and Development in Mountain Regions - Science, Impact, and Complexity of Climate Change This course investigates the scientific evidence for global warming, examines the causes of climate change, considers the impacts on natural and human systems, and explores options to mitigate and/or adapt to changing climatic conditions. Particular attention is paid to impacts and adaptation in the mountain regions of Central Asia. - Natural Hazards and Risk Management in Mountain Regions - Introduction to Geology and Earth Processes - Introduction to Geological Materials and Resources This course introduces the physical and chemical properties and characteristics of minerals, rocks and sediments, including techniques of measuring or determining their values in the lab and on site. The relationships between rock types and plate tectonics, and the origins and characteristics of geological resources are discussed. Students will complete laboratory and/or field-based studies as part of this course. - Advanced Geological Materials and Resources - Surface Processes in Mountain Environments - Hydrology and Hydrogeology Specialised Courses Environmental Science Courses: - Conservation Science - Applied Ecology - Environmental Impact and Risk Assessment - Advanced GIS and Remote Sensing Geologic Science Courses: - Geochemistry - Geodynamics and Structural Geology - Sediments, Stratigraphy and Hydrocarbon Resources - Minerals, Petrology and Mined Resources * Courses are subject to change. Elective courses are offered to students in line with the national requirements, and students can also choose free elective courses from another major. You will acquire the following professional skills: - Apply specialised skills such as remote sensing and modeling techniques to address real-life needs or conduct research; - Integrate scientific knowledge with an understanding of economic and social realities to assess impacts and address current environmental problems; - Incorporate local or indigenous knowledge into their scholarship and research; - Collect environmental and geological data utilising multiple research methods and equipment for fieldwork; - Analyse geological and environmental samples using laboratory equipment and field instrumentation as appropriate; - Communicate effectively scientific concepts in written, oral, and graphical forms to technical and non-technical stakeholders. Career Pathways Your minor complements your major area of study, enriching your skill set and knowledge base, making you an all-rounded candidate for any future employer.	https://ucentralasia.org/Admissions/EarthAndEnvironment
Seien Sie dabei – wir freuen uns auf sie - es lohnt sich! The exploration of the deep sea has been technologically limited to the last century. This creates a vacuum of knowledge and information regarding the geological and biological properties of the earth’s most vast environment. We must therefore strive to increase our understanding of the deep sea and human impact thereof. This subtopic deals with human and natural interactions within coastal areas in different regions of the world. Hence major problems and processes occurring within these systems are addressed. To begin with, natural driven events are looked at followed by human ways of dealing with them. Moreover, coastal resources are discussed as well as the effects of land reclamation and how anthropogenic pollution changes coastal environments. Due to rising economic interests and the possible impacts of climate change, the polar regions are getting more and more important these days. It is our aim to provide an overview of different aspects of these unique, high latitude areas. A short geological introduction is followed by a historical and political overview. Furthermore, insights in current scientific research programs and polar exploration are presented. Catastrophic events such as earthquakes, meteorological hazards, volcanoes or tsunamis and impact events endanger the human population and our biosphere. Because of their potential devastating effects, they have given humanity the incentive to acquire further knowledge of their characteristics and modes of occurrence. Technological advances have led to the development of probabilistic models and early warning systems as well as diverse methods of geoscientific earth observation, ameliorating our understanding of planet Earth.	https://www.geo.uni-bremen.de/page.php?pageid=118&p_reg=1&highlight_ID=340
I will strive to be worthy of their example and their friendship; to offer a common sense way through the climate conflict; and, also, to place this particular issue in the broader search for practical wisdom now taking place across the Western world. It would be wrong to underestimate the strengths of the contemporary West. Climate change, in fact, has become a cause of concern particularly over the last few decades. Change in the pattern of the climate on the Earth has become a global cause of concern. There are many factors that lead to climate change and this change affects the life on the Earth in various different ways. Long and Short Essays on Climate Change in English Here are some essay on Climate Change of varying lengths to help you with the topic in your examination. You can select any climate change essay as per your need: Climate Change Essay 1 words Climate change is basically a change in the pattern of the climate that lasts for a few decades to centuries. Various factors lead to the changes in the climatic conditions on the Earth. These factors are also referred to as forcing mechanisms. These mechanisms are either external or internal. Internal forcing mechanisms, on the other hand, are the natural processes that occur within the climate system. These include the ocean- atmosphere variability as well as the presence of life on the earth. Climate change is having a negative impact on the forests, wildlife, water systems as well as the polar region on the Earth. A number of species of plants and animals have gone extinct due to the changes in the climate on the Earth and several others have been affected adversely. Human activities such as deforestation, use of land and use of methods that lead to the increase in carbon in the atmosphere have been a major cause of climate change in the recent past. It is important to keep a check on such activities in order to control climatic changes and ensure environmental harmony. Climate Change Essay 2 words As the name suggests, climate change is a change in the climatic conditions on the Earth. Several factors contribute towards this change since centuries. However, the more recent ones that are mainly a result of human activities are having a negative repercussion on the atmosphere. Researchers continually observe the pattern to understand the past, present as well as the future climatic conditions. A record of the climate has been accumulated and is updated regularly based on the geological evidences to study the changes occurred. These evidences include the records of flora and fauna, glacial and periglacial processes, records of sea levels, borehole temperature profiles and sediment layers among other things. Here is a closer look at the causes and effects of climate change: Causes of Climate Change The factors that contribute towards climate change are: Solar Radiation The energy emitted by the Sun that reaches the Earth and is carried further to different parts of the planet by winds and ocean currents is one of the main reasons for climatic change. Human Activities The new age technology is adding to the emission of carbon on the planet which in turn is having a negative impact on the climate. Apart from this, the orbital variations, plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions also cause changes in the climate. Effects of Climate Change Impact on Forests and Wildlife A number of species of plants and animals have gone extinct due to the change in the climatic conditions and many others are on the verge of going extinct. With the mass extinction of trees in certain regions, many forests are also diminishing. Impact on Water Changes in the climatic conditions are also having a negative impact on the water system. It has resulted in the melting of glaciers and erratic rainfall patterns that in turn are leading to environmental imbalance. It is important to take the climate change issue seriously and control human activities that are contributing towards this change. Climate Change Essay 3 words Climate change is basically a modification in the distribution of the pattern of the average weather conditions on the Earth. When this change lasts for a few decades or centuries, it is referred to as climatic change. Several factors contribute towards change in the climatic conditions. Here is a look at these contributory factors and repercussions of climate change:Language bends and buckles under pressure of climate change. Take the adjective “glacial.” I recently came across an old draft of my PhD dissertation on which my advisor had scrawled the rebuke: “You’re proceeding at a glacial pace. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations, set up at the request of member governments, dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective, scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts. It was first . Global Warming and Climate Change Essay 1 ( words) The whole climate of the world is changing regularly because of the increasing global warming by the natural means and human activities. Climate Change Speech Essay Sample. My speech today will be about the concerning topic of Climate Change. Climate change is a serious global challenge. Know your audience or reader: Your informative presentation – whether through speech or essay – should cover a subject not already well known to your audience, but still relevant to caninariojana.com you do choose a topic they’re familiar with, then present new and exciting information. Consider the age, knowledge level, and interests of your audience when preparing your informational speech or essay. Anti-Corruption: The Global Fight is a new handbook from IIP Publications that outlines the kinds of corruption, their effects, and the ways that people and governments combat corruption through legislative and civil society actions.	https://siwywopyrysi.caninariojana.com/climate-change-speech-essay-38696ml.html
In this video, paleobotanist Dr. Scott Wing reveals evidence for changes in plant communities during a distinct global warming event about 56 million years ago. Description: Meet Dr. Scott Wing, a paleobotanist at the National Museum of Natural History. See what he found in the Big Horn Basin of Wyoming that was worth eleven years of searching. Join him in interpreting the climate record from fossilized leaves and other clues. Explore how plant communities have changed in response to global climate changes. Understand today's warming of our planet in a geological context. This show aired June 5, 2014. National Middle School Standards: STEM Discipline: Paleobotany Teaching Resources: Divider National Middle School Standards Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) MS-ESS3Earth and Human Activity - MS-ESS3-5Ask questions to clarify evidence of the factors that have caused the rise in global temperatures over the past century. MS-LS4Biological Evolution: Unity and Diversity - MS-LS4-1Analyze and interpret data for patterns in the fossil record that document the existence, diversity, extinction, and change of life forms throughout the history of life on Earth under the assumption that natural laws operate today as in the past. - MS-LS4-2Apply scientific ideas to construct an explanation for the anatomical similarities and differences among modern organisms and between modern and fossil organisms to infer evolutionary relationships. - MS-LS4-4Construct an explanation based on evidence that describes how genetic variations of traits in a population increase some individuals' probability of surviving and reproducing in a specific environment. - MS-LS4-6Use mathematical representations to support explanations of how natural selection may lead to increases and decreases of specific traits in populations over time.	https://qrius.si.edu/explore-science/webcast/past-present-climate-change
Searched for: subject:"adolescent" (1 - 10 of 10) - document - Differences in genetic background and/or environmental exposure among individuals are expected to give rise to differences in measurable characteristics, or phenotypes. Consequently, genetic resemblance and similarities in environment should manifest as similarities in phenotypes. The metabolome reflects many of the system properties, and is...article 2008 - document - Combined association and linkage analysis is a powerful tool for pinpointing functional quantitative traits (QTLs) responsible for regions of significant linkage identified in genome-wide scans. We applied this technique to apoE plasma levels and the APOEε2/ε3/ε4 polymorphism in two Dutch twin cohorts of different age ranges. Across chromosome...article 2004 - document - Longitudinal height and weight data from 4649 Dutch twin pairs between birth and 2.5 years of age were analyzed. The data were first summarized into parameters of a polynomial of degree 4 by a mixed-effects procedure. Next, the variation and covariation in the parameters of the growth curve (size at one year of age, growth velocity, deceleration...article 2004 - document - The genetic basis of cardiovascular disease (CVD) with its complex etiology is still largely elusive. Plasma levels of lipids and apolipoproteins are among the major quantitative risk factors for CVD and are well-established intermediate traits that may be more accessible to genetic dissection than clinical CVD end points. Chromosome 19 harbors...article 2003 - document - Plasma levels of lipoprotein(a) - Lp(a) - are associated with cardiovascular risk (Danesh et al., 2000) and were long believed to be influenced by the LPA locus on chromosome 6q27 only. However, a recent report of Broeckel et al. (2002) suggested the presence of a second quantitative trait locus on chromosome 1 influencing Lp(a) levels. Using a...article 2003 - document - This is the second in a series of three articles addressing the intersection of interests in behavioral genetics and behavioral medicine. In this article, we use risk factors for cardiovascular disease as a prototypical trait for which behavioral genetic approaches provide powerful tools for understanding how risk factors, behavior, and health...article 1997 - document - Genetic analysis of sex and generation differences in plasma lipid, lipoprotein, and apolipoprotein levels in adolescent twins and their parentsBoomsma, D.I. (author), Kempen, H.J.M. (author), Gevers Leuven, J.A. (author), Havekes, L. (author), de Knijff, P. (author), Frants, R.R. (author), TNO Preventie en Gezondheid (author)In a sample of Dutch families consisting of parents aged 35-65 years and their twin offspring aged 14-21 years, a significant difference between generations was observed in phenotypic variances and in genetic heritabilities for plasma levels of total cholesterol, triglycerides, high density lipoprotein (HDL) and low density lipoprotein (LDL)...article 1996 - document - Plasma levels of histidine-rich glycoprotein (HRG) were investigated in three groups of women receiving a different dose of estrogens. First, the effect of low-dose estrogen was studied in a group of 83 postmenopausal women who were treated with 0.625 mg conjugated estrogens (CE). No significant change from baseline levels was found at the end...article 1995 - document - - document - Reduction of telomere length has been postulated to be a causal factor in cellular aging. Human telomeres terminate in tandemly arranged repeat arrays consisting of the (TTAGGG) motif. The length of these arrays in cells from human mitotic tissues is inversely related to the age of the donor, indicating telomere reduction with age. In addition...article 1994 Searched for: subject:"adolescent"	https://repository.tno.nl/islandora/search/subject%3A%22adolescent%22?f%5B0%5D=mods_name_personal_author_namePart_family_ss%3A%22Boomsma%22
- Kit size: 1 small tote + 2 medium totes for Modeling Climate Science and combustion demonstration apparatus. - NGSS STANDARDS ADDRESSED - NGSS Standards Earth and Space Sciences MS-ESS3-5 Human Impacts on Climate: Ask questions to clarify evidence of the factors that have caused the rise in global temperature over the past century. MS-ESS3-3 Earth and Human Activity: Apply scientific principles to design a method for monitoring and minimizing a human impact on the environment.* MS-ETS1-1 Define the criteria and constraints of a design problem with sufficient precision to ensure a successful solution, taking into account relevant scientific principles and potential impacts on people and the natural environment that may limit possible solutions. MS-ETS1-2 Evaluate competing design solutions using a systematic process to determine how well they meet the criteria and constraints of the problem. MS-ETS1-3 Analyze data from tests to determine similarities and differences among several design solutions to identify the best characteristics of each that can be combined into a new solution to better meet the criteria for success. MS-ETS1-4 Develop a model to generate data for iterative testing and modification of a proposed object, tool, or process such that an optimal design can be achieved.	https://nheep.org/for-teachers/resources/equipment-kits/transportation
A decade of advances in macro systems biology – research encompassing interconnected systems and scales of ecological processes around the world – is summed up in a series of scientific papers published this week. The Macrosystems Biology Challenges and Achievements special, published February 1 by the Ecological Society of America, features eight articles by more than 70 authors from around the world. “This is an emerging and emerging field full of applications. The eight articles illustrate the directions and importance of viewing human connectivity, biodiversity, and function in nature on a larger scale around the world, ”said Sudeep Chandra, Reno Associate Professor of Biology and co-editor of the special edition at the University of Nevada said. The special edition on Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment was edited by Walter Dodds, distinguished professor of biology at Kansas State University, along with co-editors Chandra and Songlin Fei, professor of forestry and natural resources at Purdue University. “Macrosystems biology is a new area of research that considers biological processes on a large scale up to and including continental scales,” said Dodds. “The problem is a product of a decade of developments in research.” The externally reviewed work captures the current state of macro systems biology as dynamic and full of potential when the discipline moves on to the next phase. Flavia Tromboni, research fellow at the University of Nevada, Renos Global Water Center and Department of Biology at the College of Science, is the lead author of one of the eight articles “Macrosystems as Metacoupled Human and Natural Systems”. The article examines how metacoupling is applied in the field of macro systems biology, while evaluating near and distant links with ecological and socio-economic dimensions. Global research “We live in an increasingly connected world and the human impact is now affecting every place on earth,” she said. “The SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus outbreak in 2020 demonstrated how quickly a local disease due to human movement became ubiquitous, spawning new global socio-economic and ecological dynamics. In this increasingly metacoupled world, proximity may not always prevail, and many processes can bypass one place to affect one further away. “ Tromboni said other examples include the increasing frequency of forest fires caused by climate change and other anthropogenic factors that are transporting terrestrial particulate matter to further locations, or the floods in Ohio in 2018 that caused a plume of terrestrial sediment and related nutrients in caused the Gulf of Mexico. “To understand the magnitude of human impacts around the world and find solutions to pressing global environmental problems, we need to change our perspective and start looking at all of these interactions at multiple levels,” she said. “This also means that we have to intensify international cooperation and cooperation. Metacoupling is an extremely relevant framework for the current time and a new frontier in research. “ Working in a macro project means traveling a lot and sharing scientific knowledge with scientists from different cultural backgrounds, Tromboni said. “This is an extremely enriching experience that enables a scientist to approach complex ecological problems from new perspectives.” Chandra and Tromboni are part of an interdisciplinary research team in a US National Science Foundation-funded study of rivers that span continents using the principles of macro systems biology. The work “Joint research: Hierarchical functioning of river macro systems in temperate steppes from continental to hydrogeomorphic patch scales” provides information on 18 rivers that are evenly distributed between the two largest temperate steppe biomes in the world: the North American Great Plains and the Euro-Asian steppe, also in Mongolia. Travel and knowledge sharing between cultures “The need to understand and manage ecosystems on a regional to continental scale is becoming increasingly important with global climate change and the impact of exotic plants and animals on freshwater rivers and lakes,” said Chandra, director of the University of Nevada, Reno’s Global Water Center said. “What we learn about the similarities and differences between the individual river macro systems in the US and Mongolia can help predict the future impact on each individual system and enable more effective management approaches.” For example, most of the rivers in the US contain some dams and many exotic animals have been introduced, while the vast majority of Mongolian rivers do not contain dams and their aquatic fauna is almost entirely natural and different from those in the US. Mongolia has one of the strongest warming signals on earth. Air temperatures rise three times faster than the northern hemisphere average. In addition to this project, the University of Nevada, Reno, is involved in several macro-systems biology research and long-term research efforts to understand how climate affects water quality and lake fisheries. Through a partnership with UC Davis and other researchers, work was recently published that quantifies how climate change will affect future ice conditions in mountain lakes in the Sierra, Cascades, and Northern Rockies. In addition, the more than 62 years of monitoring a long-term mountain lake research station at Castle Lake in Northern California links climate and ice dynamics with the food production and feeding behavior of trout in lakes. “We hope that this special edition will provide a new and important insight into the emerging field of ecology, the study of which has far-reaching implications for society and how we interact with nature and understand relationships in the environment,” said Chandra.	https://cincinnatichronicle.com/macrosystems-biology-the-science-journal-explores-new-knowledge-in-the-area-of-%E2%80%8B%E2%80%8Becological-limits/
To answer the question of what are the similarities and differences between community psychology and public health to social problems. We will have a brief look at the historical background of both community psychology and public health to gain an understanding of how they came to be. We will then look into the models and/or approaches to both community psychology and public health and see how they compare and contrast with one another. 2. Historical development In the United States of America, Community Psychology was largely influenced by mental health reform movements. The three movements that were most influential led to the developments of particular types of institutions were: Therapeutic mental hospitals in the ‘Moral Treatment’ era in the early 1800`s, Child Guidance Clinics in the ‘Mental Hygiene’ era in the early 1900`s, and Community Health Centres in the ‘Deinstitutionalisation’ era in the 1960`s. These movements were the influential move toward mental illness as a social rather than an individual one-on-one problem as well as the influential move toward prevention rather than cure.This is one of the similarities that Public health has with Community Psychology, of being prevention focused rather than curative focused. One of the differences is that Public Health was largely influenced by the western or biomedical model of illness, which is an understanding that diseases and distress are a result of lesions within the mind or body which is caused by an interaction between the ill person, the disease causing agent and the external social and environmental context. 3. The difference Approaches/Models to social problems Community Psychology has two approaches that we will discuss and that is the Mental Health Model and the Social Action Model. The Public Health has four approaches that we will look into and those are, Sanitary Science, Social Medicine, Community Health and The new Public Health: A social-ecological model. 3. 1. Community Psychology 3. 1. 1. Mental Health Model.The mental approach is based on the prevention of mental illness which can be seen in the disruption of normal living patterns. It assumes that mental illness is a product of the interaction between individual and environmental factors. It strives to prevent mental disorders by developing and strengthening human resources that include entire populations, small groups and/or organisations within them. It focuses on implementing programs to improve and develop coping skills, psychosocial skills and crises management ex. 3. 1. 2. The Social Action Model 4. The similarities between Community Psychology and the Public Health approach As stated earlier, one of the biggest similarities is that they are prevention focused rather than curative focused. The Mental Health approach in Community Psychology is very similar to the sanitary science, Social Medicine and the Community Health in Public Health Approach by being focused on the Individual and the community.It is believed in these approaches that if they can help the individual and communities to change living condition they will prevent mental illness. The Social Action Model in Community Psychology is very similar to the New Public Health in the Public Health Approach in that they focus on the national, political level of intervention. They believe that if they can change the way Government influences various communities it can make a change to those communities outlook in life and prevent mental illness. 5. The difference between Community Psychology and the Public Health Approach One of the main differences is that Community Psychology focuses on the mental health of the individual, whereas the Public Health focuses on the diseases and distress of the individual. 6. Conclusion Having looked at the similarities and differences between Community Psychology and Public Health we found that the end goal or aim is the same, which is to prevent the oppressed from suffering mentally and physically and to contribute equally to society. I think the best would be to combine the best of all the approaches. Firstly to focus on the national level, how political forces play a major role in the oppressive and exploitive social and economic structures and secondly to focus on the individual factors such as health and on psychosocial skills and empowerment. To focus on the global and individual levels is the key to success in trying to prevent social problems.	https://finnolux.com/the-similarities-and-comparisons-in-community-psychology/
GEOPS is a « Unité Mixte de Recherche » (UMR) of University (« Université Paris Sud Orsay ») and CNRS (« Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique »). At university, GEOPS belongs the « UFR des Sciences » and its department of Earth Sciences. The laboratory is located on the Orsay campus in two buildings (504, 509) of the « quartier du Belvédère ». It belongs the « Observatoire des Sciences de l’Univers de Paris Sud » (OSUPS). It is composed of 63 permanents (teachers-researchers, researchers, engineers, technicians and administrative people) and ≈50 PhD student, postdoc and ATER. Research themes Earth sciences at University Paris Sud are oriented toward the study of geological processes produced and/or recorded at the surface of the Earth and terrestrial planets. They are focused on the characterization, tracing, measurement and modeling of these interactions in surface and subsurface environments and their reconstruction back to the past. The study field of GEOPS is divided in 5 themes : - Study of the continental part of the water cycle by integrating climate and anthropogenic constraints, particularly in the frame of the protection and sustainable management of water and soil resources - Impact of recent climate changes on the permafrost in Yakutia and on Mars, modeling of active erosion processes on Mars due to water ice and CO2 exchanges, determination of the present impact flux and characterization of impact structures in the Solar System, modeling of primitive magma oceans on terrestrial planets, modeling of thermal exchanges in periglacial context - Study of the dynamics of Earth climates during terminal Quaternary and of its impact on terrestrial surfaces (erosion) and marine ecosystems - Tracing of the history of volcanic systems through the use of dating techniques such as K-Ar or Ar-Ar, and risk factors resulting from their evolution - Study of the thermal history of rocks (burying and/or erosion stages) in mountain ranges and in sedimentary basins, circulation of associated fluids and diagenetic modifications, genesis of metal concentrations and storage of nuclear waste and 2 transversal axes: - Study of the impact of climate change in arctic regions - Use of tephrochronology for studying past climates and volcanic hazard. Main international projects - FP 7/ IRSES " Nickel dynamics in impacted ultramafic soils" - Implication in LMI (“Laboratoire Mixte International”) CLAREA "Climate Land Agro-ecosystems in East Africa ": analysis of the interactions between hydroclimatic variability, societies and agro-ecosystem resources - PHC Tassili (Algeria), PHC Stefanik (Slovakia), collaboration CNRS/CNRT (Morocco), Darius program (Iran) on the themes topography-basin, diagenesis and deposit formation - Interpretation of PFS Mars-Express data (IAPS, Roma) - ANR CLIMAFLU with the Permafrost Institute of Yakutsk on permafrost melting - French-Swedish project on the variability of southern climate - LIA MONOCL (cooperation with LSCE and China) on the dynamics of Asian monsoon - European network GTS-next on the calibration of time scales - French-Italian University (UFI) on evolution of recent volcanic systems Collaborations We already work in collaboration with other laboratories of IPSL, mainly LSCE in the fields of climate, continental water and permafrost modeling, and also LATMOS and LMD in planetology. On Orsay campus, GEOPS collaborates with several physics laboratories on interdisciplinary research programs (FAST, IPN, CSNSM, IAS) and a biology laboratory (IBP). Main international collaborations: - UMS LSBB (“Laboratoire Souterrain Bas-Bruit de Rustrel”), in the frame of the “Idex MIGA”, on the monitoring and multigeophysical characterization of an analog of a geological reservoir - Universities of West and North Africa (Abidjan, Agadir, Alger, Marrakech, Niamey, Nouakchott, …) in the field of groundwater resource assessment - Diverse universities (UK, USA, Belgium, Morocco, Japan, Algeria) on the themes topography-basin, diagenesis and deposit formation - Open University (UK) for the analog simulation of debris flows - Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum (US) on the study of impact craters - University of Heidelberg on Atlantic hydrology - Diverse universities (Damascus, Lisbon) on the study of volcanism Experimental developments The study of the interactions between the different reservoirs of the terrestrial surface is tackled through a quantification using geochemical, mineralogical and geophysical tools, and analog and numerical modeling, and also makes use of terrestrial and planetary surfaces imaging. Several innovative experimental developments may be listed: - Tracers for groundwater dating (H2O-Max platform shared with LSCE) - Thermochronological methods of fission traces and (U-Th)/He on various mineral phases for the quantification of erosion/burying phases or the dating of alteration or mineralization phases - Mass spectrometry for the measurement of argon isotopes - Hydraulic channel in a cold chamber for analog modeling - Relative and absolute dating by using the geochemistry of radio-chronometers : 14C by AMS (link with ARTEMIS Saclay), K/Ar and 40Ar/39Ar, and dating of the surface of Mars by counting of impact craters - Utilization of geo-tracers for tracing processes at the interface between different compartments of the terrestrial surface and reconstruction of past evolution of climates and terrestrial environments (87Sr/86Sr, εNd, …) The instruments are distributed over three experimental platforms composed of about ≈30 instruments : (i) Geochemistry, (ii) Mineralogy, (iii) Geophysical measurements and analog modeling. A part of the geochemistry and mineralogy platforms is in the course of being shared with LSCE within a common analytic platform of geochemistry and geochronology of the Paris Saclay Campus. A part of the geophysical platform is shared with UMR FAST within a common platform devoted to the study of geophysical processes named PEPS. Valorisation / Expertise Societal by-products of Earth science research led in Orsay are multiple: management of water and soil resources, exploration and exploitation of mineral resources, geological materials and fossil energy sources (uranium, oil, gas), geological hazards, storage of nuclear or domestic waste and consequences of climate change on the evolution of our environment. Members of GEOPS provide their expertise for several public of private companies (ANDRA, AREVA, “Gaz de France”, IFP, Total, CEA, IRSN, IFREMER, …). The laboratory has developed a partnership with the section « Isotopic Hydrology» of IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency), with 4 researchers playing the role of experts. Direction team Director: Eric Chassefière ( [email protected] ) Assistant Director: Christophe Colin ( [email protected] ) Contact UMR 8148 Géosciences Paris Sud Université Paris-Sud, Bat. 504.	https://www.ipsl.fr/en/Organisation/IPSL-Labs/GEOPS
Martinez, Grit; Orbach, Mike; Frick, Fanny; Donargo, Alexandra, Ducklow, Kelsey; Morison, Nathalie 2014: "The cultural context of climate change adaptation: Cases from the U.S. East Coast and the German Baltic Sea Coast", in: Grit Martinez; Hans-Joachim Meier and Peter Fröhle (eds.): Social Dimensions of Climate Change Adaptation in Coastal Regions - Findings from Transdisciplinary Research. Munich: oekom verlag, 85-103. Coastal communities in the U.S. and in the EU are increasingly aware of the existing and possible impacts of climate change. Over 123 million Americans and nearly half of European citizens live on or near their respective coasts. Adapting to ongoing and future climate change in coastal communities is an area of common concern between the U.S. and the EU, and it is an area where the two can pursue common approaches that build on learning and best practices. Further, climate change adaptation for coastal communities must be considered in the context of already existing constraints and challenges to these communities. What coastal stakeholders in Europe and the U.S. learn from each other to safeguarding their shores has been explored in a publication by Dr. Grit Martinez from Ecologic Institute in collaboration with colleagues from Duke and Humboldt University. In some places, often in the EU, national and regional governments drive coastal communities to increase their resilience and adapt to climate change, through the development of climate adaptation plans and the provision better estimations of projected risks in the short and longer term. In other areas, often in the US, coastal communities are actively aware of increasing risks and have begun to organize themselves to strengthen their resilience to potential and existing threats through e.g. improved information sharing and developing alternatives to cope with perceived and estimated risks. These communities, policymakers, and researchers have much to learn from each other. In their study "The cultural context of climate change adaptation: Cases from the U.S. East Coast and the German Baltic Sea Coast" lead author Dr. Grit Martinez from Ecologic Institute jointly explores with colleagues from DUKE University (Prof. Mike Orbach, Alexandra Donargo, Kelsey Ducklow, Nathalie Morison) and Humboldt University (Fanny Frick) the role of socio-cultural and socio-economic development, as it is displayed in law and policy, in relation to perceptions, local knowledge and values concerning environmental changes and climate change in geo-morphological similar regions at coasts in the U.S. and Germany. The authors found that history, values and experiences shape perceptions and actions of coastal communities. In different countries, the process of action-orientation has different time lapses, dynamics and results. To understand these differences and to learn from them it is important to analyze how historical and contemporary characteristics of coastal management regimes and perceptions and values of coastal stakeholders emerged and how and why they differ since these differences impact upon the current transition process to a global challenge. The authors argue that important factors that explain differences in approaches to environmental challenges, including climate change, can be derived from theories and narratives about path-dependency developed in a historical and context. The article has been published in December 2014 in the volume "Social dimension of Climate Change Adaptation in Coastal Regions". The volume is available for 29,95 Euros at oekom.	https://www.ecologic.eu/11735
Sea ice extent is constantly changing; to stay up to speed visit The Arctic Sea Ice News and Analysis blog at the National Snow and Ice Data Center. Next Generation Science StandardsPermalink to Next Generation Science Standards Cross-cutting ConceptsPermalink to Cross-cutting Concepts Grades K–2 C1 Patterns. Children recognize that patterns in the natural and human designed world can be observed, used to describe phenomena, and used as evidence Grades 3–5 C1 Patterns. Students identify similarities and differences in order to sort and classify natural objects and designed products. They identify patterns related to time, including simple rates of change and cycles, and to use these patterns to make predictions. C7 Stability and Change. Students measure change in terms of differences over time, and observe that change may occur at different rates. Students learn some systems appear stable, but over long periods of time they will eventually change. Grades 6–8 C1 Patterns. Students recognize that macroscopic patterns are related to the nature of microscopic and atomic-level structure. They identify patterns in rates of change and other numerical relationships that provide information about natural and human designed systems. They use patterns to identify cause and effect relationships, and use graphs and charts to identify patterns in data. C7 Stability and Change. Students explain stability and change in natural or designed systems by examining changes over time, and considering forces at different scales, including the atomic scale. Students learn changes in one part of a system might cause large changes in another part, systems in dynamic equilibrium are stable due to a balance of feedback mechanisms, and stability might be disturbed by either sudden events or gradual changes that accumulate over time Grades 9–12 C1 Patterns. Students observe patterns in systems at different scales and cite patterns as empirical evidence for causality in supporting their explanations of phenomena. They recognize classifications or explanations used at one scale may not be useful or need revision using a different scale; thus requiring improved investigations and experiments. They use mathematical representations to identify certain patterns and analyze patterns of performance in order to re-engineer and improve a designed system. C7 Stability and Change. Students understand much of science deals with constructing explanations of how things change and how they remain stable. They quantify and model changes in systems over very short or very long periods of time. They see some changes are irreversible, and negative feedback can stabilize a system, while positive feedback can destabilize it. They recognize systems can be designed for greater or lesser stability Disciplinary Core IdeasPermalink to Disciplinary Core Ideas Grades K–2 ESS2.A Earth Materials and Systems. Wind and water change the shape of the land ESS2.C The Roles of Water in Earth's Processes. Water is found in many types of places and in different forms on Earth ESS2.D Weather & Climate. Weather is the combination of sunlight, wind, snow or rain, and temperature in a particular region and time. People record weather patterns over time ESS3.C Human Impact on Earth systems. Things people do can affect the environment but they can make choices to reduce their impacts. Grades 3–5 ESS2.A Earth Materials and Systems. Four major Earth systems interact. Rainfall helps to shape the land and affects the types of living things found in a region. Water, ice, wind, organisms, and gravity break rocks, soils, and sediments into smaller pieces and move them around ESS2.C The Roles of Water in Earth's Processes. Most of Earth’s water is in the ocean and much of the Earth’s fresh water is in glaciers or underground. ESS2.D Weather & Climate. Climate describes patterns of typical weather conditions over different scales and variations. Historical weather patterns can be analyzed so that they can make predictions about what kind of weather might happen next. ESS3.C Human Impact on Earth systems. Societal activities have had major effects on the land, ocean, atmosphere, and even outer space. Societal activities can also help protect Earth’s resources and environments. ESS3.D Global Climate Change. If Earth’s global mean temperature continues to rise, the lives of humans and other organisms will be affected in many different ways. Grades 6–8 ESS2.A Earth Materials and Systems. Energy flows and matter cycles within and among Earth’s systems, including the sun and Earth’s interior as primary energy sources. Plate tectonics is one result of these processes. ESS2.C The Roles of Water in Earth's Processes. Water cycles among land, ocean, and atmosphere, and is propelled by sunlight and gravity. Density variations of sea water drive interconnected ocean currents. Water movement causes weathering and erosion, changing landscape features. ESS3.C Human Impact on Earth systems. Human activities have altered the biosphere, sometimes damaging it, although changes to environments can have different impacts for different living things. Activities and technologies can be engineered to reduce people’s impacts on Earth. ESS3.D Global Climate Change. Human activities affect global warming. Decisions to reduce the impact of global warming depend on understanding climate science, engineering capabilities, and social dynamics. Grades 9–12 ESS2.A Earth Materials and Systems. Feedback effects exist within and among Earth’s systems.The geological record shows that changes to global and regional climate can be caused by interactions among changes in the sun’s energy output or Earth’s orbit, tectonic events, ocean circulation, volcanic activity, glaciers, vegetation, and human activities. ESS2.C The Roles of Water in Earth's Processes. The planet’s dynamics are greatly influenced by water’s unique chemical and physical properties. ESS2.D Weather & Climate. The role of radiation from the sun and its interactions with the atmosphere, ocean, and land are the foundation for the global climate system. Global climate models are used to predict future changes, including changes influenced by human behavior and natural factors ESS3.C Human Impact on Earth systems. Sustainability of human societies and the biodiversity that supports them requires responsible management of natural resources, including the development of technologies that produce less pollution and waste and that preclude ecosystem degradation. ESS3.D Global Climate Change. Global climate models used to predict changes continue to be improved, although discoveries about the global climate system are ongoing and continually needed. Notable FeaturesPermalink to Notable Features - Seasonal change of sea ice - Shrinking of Arctic sea ice extent, especially in summers - The disappearance of the Odden, a thumb-shaped sea ice feature east of Greenland, which often is visible in winter prior to the late 1990's - In 2007, the Arctic minimum sea ice record broke the previous minimum sea ice record set in 2005 by 23% and contained 35% less ice than the September 1981 to 2010 average. - The Arctic minimum sea ice extent record was then shattered in September 2012 with 47% less ice than the 1981 to 2010 average. The September 2012 extent still holds as the record minimum to date.	https://sos.noaa.gov/catalog/datasets/sea-ice-extent-september-only/
In boreal regions, increased precipitation events have been linked to increased concentrations of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), however less is known about the extent and implications of these events on lakes. We assessed the effects of precipitation events on six drinking water lakes in Maine, USA to better understand how DOC concentration and quality change in response to precipitation events. Our results revealed three types of responses: (1) an initial spike in DOC concentrations and quality metrics; (2) a sustained increase in DOC concentrations and quality metrics and; (3) no change during all sampling periods. Lake residence time was a key driver of changes in DOC concentration and quality. For the same set of drinking water lakes, we investigated a link between changes in DOC to a household’s willingness to pay (WTP). Our results revealed that percent change in DOC and SUVA254 correspond to initial Secchi depth values. This relationship was used to determine that WTP from improvement in water quality was highest in lakes with shallower Secchi depths and lowest in lakes with deeper Secchi depths. WTP estimates were also correlated with maximum depth, residence time, and percent of wetland coverage. A set of six lakes in Acadia National Park, Maine were evaluated to assess differences in seasonal storm response. Our results revealed differences in the response of DOC quality metrics to an early summer versus an autumn storm. The response of DOC quality metrics to storms was mediated by differing lake and watershed characteristics as well as seasonal changes in climate such as solar radiation and antecedent weather conditions in the early summer versus autumn. Investigation of the effects of ice-out timing on physical, biological, and biogeochemical lake characteristics in Arctic and boreal regions during an early and late ice-out regime revealed differences in mixing depths and strength and stability of stratification. Key drivers of observed responses included a combination of climate factors, including solar insolation, air temperature, precipitation, and, in the Arctic, permafrost thaw. This research provides important insights that will be useful for management of water resources as temperature and precipitation patterns continue to change. Recommended Citation Warner, Kathryn, "Ecological and Economic Implications of Increased Storm Frequency and Severity for Boreal Lakes" (2019). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 2954.	https://digitalcommons.library.umaine.edu/etd/2954/
21 September 2011: The Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) Program of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) hosted a science video seminar to accompany the launch of a study on "Climate Change in CCAFS Regions: Recent Trends Current Projections, Crop Climate Suitability, and Prospects for Improved Climate Model Information." The study features four parts on: West Africa; East Africa; the Indo-Gangetic Plains; and Progress in Climate Science Modelling. During the video seminar, two of the authors, Mark New and Richard Washington, presented the study, which assesses the implications of climate change for agriculture, with a particular focus on those aspects of climate change that will have greatest impact on the crops currently grown in each region. The part on West Africa underlines that the influences and interactions that control the climate of the region are complex and models have difficulty in simulating the observed climate. It also highlights mixed results of models on whether the Sahel will experience drier or wetter conditions over the 21st century. In East Africa, the study focuses on maize, cassava and banana. On bananas, the models note that the absolute extent of crop growth is not likely to change over the 21st century in East Africa and that new opportunities may emerge for growing bananas in some country. The models predict that maize will will not be impacted significantly over the coming century, and that climate will introduce few adverse impacts on the suitability of cassava. In the part on Indo-Gangetic Plains, the authors stressed the driving role of the monsoons and the factors that predict monsoon behavior. They note large differences in suitability for growth depending on irrigated or rain-fed situations. The authors underscore that careful evaluation of results are required to identify global and regional models that satisfy basic performance characteristics across regions of interest.	http://climate-l.iisd.org/news/ccafs-study-examines-models-of-climate-impacts-on-agriculture/
The Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) has collapsed the world’s economy. A discussion of the reaction to structural and regional policies is imperative for the Chinese government because the implementation of policies is limited. As the state of the stock market indicates the direction of the economy, the financial reports of some enterprises from China’s Stock market for the first quarter of 2020 were collected and analyzed. This was the period in which the productivity of the enterprises were severely impacted by the coronavirus pandemic with respect to industry, actors’ scale, and region. The results show: 1) Except agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, and fishery, all other industries had lesser profit and limited operating cash flow, and their balance sheets had deteriorated. The services industry faced more challenges than the others. The behavioral decisions made by individuals, the governmental policies for lock-down, and the nature of industries were responsible for these detrimental changes; 2) The companies with small and medium market value were affected more than big enterprises. In Q1, big companies made more profits, optimized their operating cash flows, and stabilized their balance sheets. This is mainly because of the difference of operating ability among actors and the Matthew effect; 3） Owing to the differences in the population structure and land price in different regions, the manufacture, service, and building and estate industries faced greater challenges in the developed provinces than in the less developed regions. The pandemic adversely affected the finance industry in Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangdong; however, it showed improvement in Jiangsu. It has been observed that the financial structure in regions, and operating ability of companies were the main reasons for the negative impact on the finance industry. The medical industry was affected but progressed in areas with better industrial basement. This was because the demand for certain medicines and devices peaked during the period and the areas with better industrial base played more important role in fighting the virus. In this context, the authors discussed the two approaches: “Adopting a more proactive fiscal policy and deeply optimizing financial environment of enterprises,” and “Choosing policies implements regionally.” It can be argued that unilateral expansion of demand will result in a larger gap between demand and supply. This is disadvantageous because the global production system mainly depends on the manufacturing industry in China. The government should not only focus on resumption, but also start investment of new or traditional infrastructures. Moreover, owing to the uncertainty of the market, the factors that improve the balance sheet are few. Therefore, helping more entities by financial market and making the social capital more active have become the priorities for the government. In order to improve the manufacturing and service industry, undeveloped regions are encouraged to expand job opportunities, and the residents in developed regions are encouraged to consume more services and decrease the operating costs of the service industry. This can positively contribute to restoring the economy. Some measures adopted to benefit financial and building and estate industries are encouraging local commercial banks in medium-sized and small cities to provide loans to Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (SMEs), boost infrastructure construction in developed regions, and loosen control of estate development. The policy makers of the medical industry were advised to focus on long-term development. Optimizing the financial environments for SMEs in medical industry and developing a multi-core, nation-wide distribution of industry are necessary for China. Dike-ponds are a type of ecological agricultural land formed by man-made depressions in ponds where silt is accumulated as dikes to farm fish and grow crops such as mulberry and sugarcane; they are mainly distributed in the Pearl River Delta. Ecosystem services refer to the living environment they provide for human beings, as well as the various types of ecosystem products and functions that are beneficial to human beings. In recent years, Ecosystem Service Value (ESV) has become a hot topic for scholars in China and abroad. Using the Pearl River Delta’s birthplace, Foshan City (FS), as a case study, the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) framework, which combines the characteristics of a dike-pond ecosystem and the social and economic conditions of the study area, is used to adopt the market price method, replacement cost method, and shadow engineering method to estimate the ESV of dike-ponds in FS in 2000, 2009, and 2017. Additionally, Dike-pond’s ESV in FS law of change was discussed and the influencing factors of ESV changes in dike-ponds were analyzed. The results show that during the study period of 2000-2017: 1) a few towns (streets) such as Lubao Town and Hecheng Street in the west and north, respectively, of FS have increased their dike-pond area, while Beijiao Town and Lecong Town in the east and south, respectively, have significantly decreased their dike-pond area to 19,244.47 hm2, which have been mainly transferred to construction land. 2) In 2000, 2009, and 2017, the ESV of dike-ponds in FS first decreased and then increased to 1,661.91×108 and 978.60×108, and 1,166.37×108 yuan, respectively. The overall trend is a declining one, with a total decrease of 495.54×108 yuan. In the three years, the proportion of adjustment functions in the total ESV is higher than 86%, which is the core function. Among the individual functions, the value of tourism and leisure increases the most, with an average annual growth rate of 19.36%. The value of climate regulation decreases significantly, by 589.37×108 yuan. 3) The ESV of dike-ponds in the southeast of FS is the highest. The western and northern regions are less affected by human activities and the ecological environment is suitable in this region; thus, the ESV of the dike-ponds increases accordingly. While the high level of industrialization and urbanization in the eastern and southern regions, serious pollution in the dike-ponds, and shrinkage of the dike-ponds all caused the ESV to decline, the material production and tourism and leisure values of the dike-pond of each research unit generally increased. The value changes of the remaining individual functions show strong consistency in space, i.e., the value of the towns (streets) in the northwest and southwest has increased significantly and the value in the southeast has decreased. 4) The results of a Geodetector probe show that a change in the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of primary industries is the principal factor affecting the spatial distribution of the ESV of dike-ponds in FS, followed by the change in GDP, population density, population, investment in fixed assets, GDP of the secondary industries as well, and impact of policy factors, none of which should be ignored. Measures such as controlling the scale of development, restoring green vegetation, and giving importance to the advantages of the dike-pond landscape to increase the ESV of the dike-pond are all recommended. Considering the debate between place and placelessness research brought about by globalization, scholars discuss their views around the simple relationship of "local-global" duality. However, existing research focusses on the powerful class characterized by wealth, ignoring the role of the general public as the disadvantaged group in the dual evolution of place and placelessness. In response to this problem, this study adopts a qualitative research method to conduct a content analysis on the online comments of Chinese and foreign tourists on local food in Hong Kong. The study's findings indicate the following. First, the experience evaluation of tourists shows that whether it is the innovation of food products, a diversified decoration of the dining environment, or the content and form of restaurant services, Hong Kong food culture reflects the integration of Chinese and Western cultures. Further, it has assimilated Western culture to adopt innovations while retaining traditional Chinese characteristics. The coexistence of place and placelessness shows that through globalization, tourists not only want to experience the new and exciting "place" of their target destination. They also need a standard "placelessness" that provides them with a sense of security and comfort. In this process, place and placelessness tolerate, transform, and promote each other and even generate new local products with global attributes. The counter-effects to globalization are reflected through such a process. That is, place and placelessness are not—as many scholars worry—being penetrated by globalization, but rather both can be transformed into each other, and then react to and redefine globalization. This is how a locality presents new cultural connotations in the process of constant internal and external interactions, thereby forming a "new locality," and global forces reconstruct the local meaning. Second, different from wealth, power, and culture, the influence of factors such as the community play a significant role in the process of globalization. People, particularly tourist groups, have a direct influence on wealth and power through consumer choice and the power of the culture subject gaze. The public's adherence to the place will have a direct impact on wealth and power through huge consumer demand, which will guide the protection and creation of local elements. This is the key to the formation of "global significance." On the contrary, globalization can produce a homogenized value identity that transcends the boundaries of the nation-state and then creates a universal standard space with placelessness. In this space, mass groups of different cultural backgrounds can quickly develop a sense of identity and comfort, which is relatively more helpful in ensuring the quality of consumer experience for such groups that rapidly travel worldwide. As previously mentioned, place and placelessness in the tourism space can be transformed into each other, and the process of transformation primarily depends on the value and meaning construction of the place by tourists in the subject's gaze. At the same time, different results will be produced due to differences in various social groups and cultural backgrounds. Nevertheless, globalization is reducing this cultural difference. Based on the census data of 1991,the population structure in 91 blocks of Guangzhou and their characteristics on space distribution are discussed.Compered with that in 1982,the basic characteristics on space changes are indicated.1) The urban population density is variously high.In central part of the city,31.35% of the people live in 6.7% of the area.In spite of the situation like this,the density of the central part tends to decrease, but that of the marginal districts tends to increase.Additionally, the increasing speed of population in the central pert is lower than that in the marginal ones.2)The population average age in the central pet is larger than that in the marginal.The communities of Core Family appear in the newly-built residential parts around the city border.From the structure of reseneration ages,the percentages of age from 0 to 14, from 15 to 49 and over 50 in central part are 16.1%, 59.4% and 24.5%,respectively.But those in the marginal districts are 14.9%,68.2% and 16.8%.In Guangzhou Economic and Technical Development Zone which rose in recent years, the Percentase of young people is above 90%.3)The sex ratio varies greatly(95.63-274.03).The further it is away from the central part, the higher the sex ratio is.This relates to the difference of occupation's space distribution, age structure and historical male immigrants.4)The distribution of occupation smicture matches the industrial structure.The 3rd industrial area is located at the northeast.The fixture of the 1st and 2nd stand at southwest.In the middle, the mixture of the 2nd and 3rd industries.5)The average education level is 9.35 years.It is high in the east, low in the west.This matches the space structure of occupation types.6) Muslin, Zhuang, Man are the main minority nationalities.Their percentages to the total population are 0.21%, 0.13% and 0.13% respectively.Although their population is small, their space distributions are relatively concentrated with lucrative businesses.General speaking, the space distribution of population structure is quite disbalanced.It is the combinative consequence of natural and historic background,city functions arrangment,industrial structure and urban planning. There are up to 44 islands and reefs illegally occupied by foreign countries in the Spratly Islands, that is a serious threat to China's national security. Therefore, the strategic value of the occupied islands and reefs in the Spratly Islands region should be evaluated. Previous studies concentrate on the period before large-scale construction in the region. Additionally, they lack consideration of the islands development potential. Considering this potential, radiation capacity, and carrying capacity, the present study investigated 26 influence factors, their respective assessment values were calculated. The subjective and objective integrated method was used to determine the weight of each factor. The linear weighting method was used to obtain the evaluation results of the strategic value of 44 islands and reefs occupied by Vietnam, Philippines, Malaysia, and Brunei. The results were spatially interpolated to identify their spatial pattern characteristics. The main results are as follows: 1) The strategic value evaluation of islands and reefs shows the gradient distribution characteristics. The Danwanjiao reef occupied by Malaysia, Nanweidao Island occupied by Vietnam, and Zhongyedao Island occupied by the Philippines are the ones with highest strategic value, and their evaluation values are 100, 98.42, and 97.09, respectively. The islands and reefs with lower strategic value were mainly sandbars and hidden shoals, such as the Orleana Shoal and Bombay Castle, with scores of less than 40. 2) The strategic value, radiation capacity, carrying capacity, and construction potential of islands and reefs all have a multi-core spatial distribution pattern, in which the spatial distribution pattern of their radiation capacity is the "NW-SE band", the areas of highest and high grades extend from northwest to southeast of the study area and decrease to both sides (northeast and southwest). There are two core regions and two secondary core regions in the pattern of radiation capacity. The spatial distribution pattern of carrying capacity shows a "horizontal strip", which decreases from north to south, in which there is one core region and two secondary core regions. There are three core regions and two secondary core regions in the spatial distribution pattern of island potential and strategic value of islands and reefs. 3) Vietnam occupies the most islands and reefs and has a wide spatial distribution. In the spatial distribution pattern of strategic value of islands and reefs, there is one core region and two secondary core regions closely related to Vietnam. Bishengjiao, Liumenjiao, Nanhuajiao, Wumiejiao, and West reefs are occupied by Vietnam and have a great potential for building islands and reefs, as their geographical location is of great strategic significance. Further construction would support the core areas of islands and reefs occupied by Vietnam, which could lead to a pincer attack on China's garrison islands and reefs, thereby requiring close attention. With a strong emphasis on historical heritage and culture-making, culture-led redevelopment has become an important policy in many megacities to revitalize declining areas, such as urban villages. However, local governments have different understandings of cultural development and historic preservation and often take them at face value while ignoring the internal mechanisms. For cities of migration, cultural identity has richer connotations. The time-space nexus between the origins and destinations of migrants is highly significant for fostering a diverse and more inclusive urban culture. Taking three urban villages in Singapore and Shenzhen as empirical cases and using the theoretical perspective of cultural identity, this paper explores the culture-making process in the redevelopment of urban villages. We argue that the essence of cultural identity lies in social relations, not merely in visual symbols and images, and understanding cultural identity requires comprehending the relations between the global and the local, as well as between the past and the present embedded in places. The paper starts with an interpretation of the culture-led macro policy, followed by an analysis of urban redevelopment's internal political and economic driving forces. Based on data from participant observation and semi-structured interviews in both cities, a qualitative analysis on the modality, mechanism, and influences of identity-making in urban village redevelopment was conducted. Research findings include differences in the dominant stakeholders' attitudes toward cultural identity, especially migrants' identity, in the redevelopment modalities in the two aforementioned cities. These differences have led to different outcomes. The case of Singapore's Geylang Serai Village centered on the living needs and activities of Malay migrants, who were the main residents there, to conduct the regeneration. Further, the Housing and Development Board (HDB) issued a policy to ensure residents' housing rights. Therefore, the program maintained the continuity of the existing community by protecting the spontaneously formed identity while developing the showcase economy based on simultaneous market activities. Regarding Shenzhen, developers of Nantou Ancient City and Gankeng Hakka Town focused on specific historical periods and designated the architectural style as the local characteristic in order to develop the tourism economy. However, the top-down imposed identity had little to do with the migrants' community, which led to their exclusion and broke down their established social networks, indicating that the mere focus on beautifying the physical environment will lead to gentrification catering to middle-class aesthetics. The study findings point to the conclusion that the designation of the cultural identity of a place is, effectively, the use of cultural capital. The voice of identity in cultural discourses represents the social right of a community to urban spaces. Therefore, culture-led urban village redevelopment should focus more on local communities' social relations and actual needs in order to promote a more just, inclusive, and sustainable urban redevelopment. Fractal theory can be used to reveal the fractal features of many geographic phenomena, and the composition of sediment grain size has been successfully applied to the study of the evolution of geographic environments. The fractal dimension has widely been used as a new grain size index, which is consistent with the environmental changes reflected in the traditional analysis of grain size and composition; however, whether the fractal dimension can also reveal environmental changes in the Poyang Lake area in the mid-subtropics has not yet been determined. This study analyzes the fractal dimension characteristics of Houtian sandy land based on the results of grain size and the power of the exponential function relation method in fractal theory. A series of dune sand-sandy paleosol sequences were developed intermittently on the terraces of the lower reaches of the Ganjiang River. Based on multiple comprehensive investigations, the Houtian section, with rich sequences and a relatively continuous deposition, was selected in Houtian sandy land, Xinjian County, and Nanchang City. With the research carried out, Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) age and grain size tests were completed. A comparison of the fractal dimensions with clay, average grain size, winter and summer monsoon intensity-sensitive grain size, and the Nanjing Hulu Cave stalagmite oxygen isotope gave the following results: 1) Combined with the results of OSL dating and deep-sea oxygen isotope and stratigraphic characteristics, an age-depth framework was constructed based on the segmented sedimentation rate interpolation. The sand dune-sandy paleosol sequence of the Houtian section was mainly formed during the last glacial period (14.9-77.0 ka). The entire section has a good fractal structure, with the dune sand's fractal dimension at 2.04-2.62 (average 2.34) and the sandy paleosol at 2.24-2.70 (average 2.51). 2) The fractal dimension is positively correlated with the summer monsoon intensity-sensitive grain size, negatively correlated with the winter monsoon intensity-sensitive grain size, and closely related to the standard deviation (whereby the smaller the standard deviation, the smaller the fractal dimension). Medium silt, coarse sand, and winter monsoon intensity-sensitive grain size content are higher during the developmental period of the dune sand, and the average grain size is thicker. The standard deviation is smaller, the sorting is better, the degree of self-organization is higher, and the fractal dimension is smaller during the development period of the sandy paleosol. Due to the warm and humid climate, the weathering pedogenesis is stronger; the content of clay, fine silt, and summer monsoon intensity-sensitive grain size has increased significantly; the average grain size is finer; the standard deviation is larger; the sorting is worse; the self-organization is lower; and the fractal dimension is significantly larger. As a result, clay and fine silt formed by weathering sedimentation have the most significant impact on the fractal dimension. 3) The fractal dimension shows some alternating peak-valley cycles in the vertical direction. The peak values correspond to the early MIS2, MIS3c, and MIS3a stages, indicating a strong summer monsoon and a warm and humid climate; the valley values correspond to the late MIS2, MIS3b, and MIS4 stages, indicating that the winter monsoon is strong, and the climate is dry and cold. The results indicated that three climate warming cycles have occurred in the Houtian sandy land. At the same time, the fractal dimension reveals that the H5 and H6 events, which occurred in the HTS3b and HTS4 stages, show that the winter monsoon is the strongest and the summer monsoon is the weakest. Further, the sequence of aeolian sand deposition in the Poyang Lake area is practically synchronized with global climate change and extreme cold weather events. Increasing globalization and informatization has enhanced the intercity exchange of information, materials, and energy. Cities no longer represent isolated systems. Instead, they are closely linked to each other, forming regional or global city network systems. Therefore, the study of urban networks has attracted massive attention in human geography and urban planning. In particular, the emergence of the concept of “space of flow” provides a new perspective and paradigm for the interpretation of regional spatial structure. Based on the data collected from domestic and foreign journal database published from 2000 to 2018, this paper uses social network analysis method and spatial structure index method to explore the evolution process of the overall characteristics, organizational structure, and the spatial pattern of the knowledge network in Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area. Furthermore, it identified the evolution trend of factors influencing the knowledge network in the Bay Area. The results also revealed the following: 1) Over the duration of the research, publications in the Greater Bay Area significantly increased. The pattern of the knowledge network gradually evolved from the “single power” represented by Guangzhou to “simultaneous development” that included Guangzhou, Shenzhen, and Hong Kong. Although Hong Kong is at the core of the knowledge network, it establishes close knowledge cooperation primarily with Guangzhou and Shenzhen due to administrative barriers. 2) The knowledge network of the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area represents a “core-edge” structure with the knowledge connection in the western region significantly lower than that in the eastern region. The knowledge network densities and spatial structure indices of the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area suggest an increasing volatility. In 2016, the knowledge network density of the Bay Area attained the maximum value, indicating the development and maturity of the overall knowledge connection of the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area. In addition, the spatial structure indices demonstrate an alleviation of polarization characteristics of knowledge networks in the Bay Area, despite persistent significant imbalance. 3) The demand of the knowledge activity actors such as universities and scientific research institutions in the Bay Area is the internal driving force promoting knowledge cooperation among cities. The knowledge environment and the knowledge connection channels are the external driving forces of the regional knowledge cooperation network. The influence of endogenous and exogenous factors is responsible for the output of knowledge cooperation, resulting in the development of the knowledge network in the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area. This study provides a reference for the development of innovative collaborative paths in the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area by refining the characteristics of Bay Area’s knowledge network. Three geonlorphictheories i.e.dynamic equilibrium,piedmonttreppen as well as the geomorphic cycle are briefly discussed in the paper.It is obvious to know that accordant summits and stepped landforms are of various genesis indeed,and planation surfaces should be the elevated peneplain and multiple planation surfaces excluding to faulting must be responsible for multiple geomorphic cycles.It is not easy to identify the planation surfaces from the accordant summits with other origins by general methods.However,using a fuzzy model of planation surfaces,combing with three standards of planation surfaces identification,the planation surfaces in north Guangdong are recognized.They are: the North Guangdong Surface (1010-1350m above sea level (ASL),the Yanashan Surface (610-780m ASL),the Renhua Surface (410-460m ASl) and the Yingde Surface (300-350m ASL) respectively,the antic characteristics of which are also presented.The strata records in the basins both in enclosed and nearby areas as well as in the continental shelf suggest that the ages of the four surfaces are late Cretaceous to early Oligocenc,middle Oligocene to early Miocene,middle Miocene to late Pliocene and Quaternary respectively.The researches on the planation surfaces in the region also manifest that the fault-block movemant including their uplifting,subsiding and tilting is the basic feature and that the height of the North Guangdong Surface can represent the maximum elevation in neotectonic period in northern Guangdong region (estimated to exceed 1300m). This study relies on analyses of the top layer of the material extracted from Well Chenke-2, which is part of a coral reef drilling program in the south-east of Chenhang Island, Xisha Islands. The age of the material at the bottom of the borehole was determined by high-precision uranium dating technology. Five coral samples were selected for the U-Th dating. The five groups of data can be clearly dated to the Holocene or to the Pleistocene. The Holocene part includes samples CK2-15, CK2-16, and CK2-17. Their age was determined as 7 914 ± 67, 7 552 ± 73, and 7 584 ± 55 years, respectively. The Pleistocene part includes samples CK2-18 and CK2-19. Their age was determined as 112 700 ± 700 and 128 100 ± 1 000 years, respectively. Furthermore, a MAT-253 isotope mass content of δ13C, δ18O, and strontium in 21 whole rock samples extracted in the depth interval 0-21 m. Based on the contents of these three elements, the interval can be divided into two parts. The content of δ13C, δ18O, and strontium in the depth interval 0-16 m is higher, with average values of 0.647‰, -3.392‰, and 0.843%, respectively, than that in the depth interval 17-21 m, with average values of -3.185‰, -7.994‰, and 0.174%, respectively. On the basis of the U-Th age, and considering that the contents of δ13C, δ18O, and strontium decrease evidently between 16 and 17 m, it can be concluded that the boundary between the Holocene and the Pleistocene corals is located at a depth between 16 and17 m in Well Chenke-2, and that the age of the corals determined by uranium dating in the upper part of the boundary represents the initiation time of the Holocene reefs. Therefore, it is concluded that the Holocene coral reefs in Chenhang Island started to develop 7 900 years ago, basically simultaneously with most of the Holocene reefs in the Indo-West Pacific, Central Pacific, and Caribbean. The Holocene reefs are 16.7 m thick, and are in unconformity with the late Pleistocene coral reefs (aged 110 ka). Considering the relative stability of the Neotectonic activities in the study area, as well as the fact that the reef flat of the modern coral reefs in the South China Sea is basically located at the low tide height, and that the borehole of Well Chenke-2 is located approximately 2.9 m above the modern reef flat, it is speculated that the top of Well Chenke-2 was originally located about 13.8 m below the low tide level of the modern sea. In other words, the sea level at Xisha Islands 7 900 years ago was about 13.8 m below the modern sea level. This result provides new information for understanding the development history of the Holocene coral reefs in the South China Sea and the sea level changes in the area. Wuhuangshan Geopark which has been developed in the Pubei pluton is the typical observation point of the Darongshan-Shiwandashan granitoid belt and S-type granite. The granite landscapes in the Geopark are generally classified into five categories: spheroidal stone, mountains, platform, gorge, and hydrological heritage. All of them have been distributed orderly and intensively in the different zones of the granite mountains that are relative independent, and showed obvious vertical differentiation features. These granite landscapes constitute a typical, majestic, beautiful and precious south subtropical granite landscape group and spheroidal stone group with spheroidal stone landscape at the core and mountains, platform, pools group and waterfall group as the important complement. Based on the analysis and investigation about the regional geologic background of the geopark and the characteristics of the granite pluton, this paper systematically studies and discusses the formation and evolution of the granite pluton and the granite landscapes in the geopark. Some main conclusions held by the authors are as follows: 1) During Middle Triassic, there was large-scale magmatic activity in this region, then a giant granite batholith with the continuous time and the integrity of formation, namely, Pubei pluton was gradually formed after a series of processes, i.e. magma emplacement, differentiation, cooling crystallization; and then this pluton was uplifted, denuded and exposed to the earth’s surface to form mountains. 2) Since Quaternary, controlled jointly by humid-warm climate, surface water and granite pluton in which primary and epigenetic joints developed well, the ability to converge all forms of surface water has been gradually increased from mountaintop→mountainside→foothill, the corresponding erosion has been gradually increased but weathering has been gradually weaken from mountaintop→mountainside→foothill. After going through the process of horizontally–vertically differently erosion, washout and weathering during the long geological period, the typical south subtropical granite landscape group in the geopark has been gradually formed. Wind speed and turbulence are two closely related indicators that measure the properties of a wind profile. Obtaining an insight into the development of turbulence over a complex urban terrain can help deepen the understanding of the performance of urban wind farms. In this research, three building models with vertical scales 1:2000, 1:1000, and 1:500, respectively, were constructed. Using large boundary-layer wind tunnels and generating wind from two directions (northwest and southeast), the variation in turbulence with height over a complex urban terrain, and its dependence on the macroscopic terrain characteristics, were analyzed in a neutral flow simulation. Based on the experimental data obtained in the wind tunnel, the two model coefficients A and B were determined with respect to four types of boundary-layer roughness, under neutral flow or with turbulence varying with height at different vertical scales. In both cases, the average correlation of the proposed model was about 0.8. A close relationship between the wind profile index and the turbulence at different heights was observed. Based on the profile index α the turbulence at different heights could be predicted, so that the variation in turbulence with height over a complex urban terrain could also be quantified. Generally speaking, the turbulence decreases with altitude, and the maximum turbulence develops at the bottom. However, there are exceptions. It is common that the turbulence of the hole at the lowest measuring point is not the largest, which makes the shape of turbulence change with the height like a hook. The shape of turbulence varying with height can be summarized into four types. The height at which the maximum turbulence occurs is found to be concentrated in the range 0-0.2 h (where h is the dimensionless unit), which makes up more than 80% of the total number. Therefore, in the height range 0-0.2 h above the urban terrain, the wind direction and velocity of the airflow showed complex patterns, and turbulence is extremely developed, with an important impact on the diffusion of urban pollutants and the transfer of heat. Using the existing model, the main coefficient of the turbulence model corresponding to a given height could be determined, with high precision accuracy, according to the four kinds of boundary-layer roughness and the different vertical scales. The development along the height of the non-maximum turbulence intensity depended on the difference between the actual wind profile and the standard wind velocity at the same height, whereas the maximum turbulence level under the given urban topography occurred within the narrow range 0-0.2 h. The turbulence degree index β was used to characterize the variation of turbulence intensity with height. The exponential β of the turbulence intensity decreased with increase in the exponential alpha of the profile, regardless of the shape of the terrain (e.g., a ridge or a flat terrain). It was shown that the overall turbulence profile increases from the upwind and top areas to the leeward area, and increases gradually along the wind flow direction. Turbulence profile also has a strong dependence on the terrain and the wind path, and has the same flow characteristics as those over a simple terrain. At the same time, the shape of the β isolines of the three models did not show the same overlap. On the contrary, great differences were observed. This shows that in the past, when the wind tunnel simulations were carried out, the method of ensuring the number of thunderbolts simply by increasing the vertical scale was affected by a large uncertainty. The consumer service industry directly provides residents with material and spiritual living consumption services and products to meet residents' consumption needs. The reasonable spatial layout of the consumer service industry is of great significance for improving residents' quality of living, optimizing the urban spatial structure, and alleviating urban problems. Based on consumer service point of interest (POI) data, mobile phone signaling data, and population data from Shenzhen, using the nearest neighbor index, kernel density, and entropy index methods, this study analyzes the spatial pattern of the overall and different types of consumer service industry as well as the spatial characteristics of the degree of mixing in the consumer service industry in Shenzhen. Using the Geodetector method, this study also detects the impacts of seven factors, including population, traffic, economy, and space dimensions, on the overall and different types of consumption service industry as well as analyzing the impacts of population age structure on the spatial pattern of this industry and its types. This study is expected to provide a theoretical and decision-making basis for urban planning and development in Shenzhen and other cities. The results show that: 1) The spatial distribution of the consumer service industry in Shenzhen is unbalanced and is concentrated in the central and western regions. The consumer service industry presents the spatial characteristics of two core areas and three belt areas. The two core areas are the Dongmen business area in Luohu District and the Huaqiangbei business area in Futian District. The three belt areas consist of the Luohu-Futian belt, Nanshan-Baoan belt, and Longhua belt. The spatial distribution of the consumer service industry has developed along strips and is mainly concentrated in the areas around the main roads and rail lines. 2) The spatial agglomeration characteristics of the overall and different types of consumer service industry are remarkable and differentiated in Shenzhen. The spatial distribution characteristics of most types of consumer services are similar to those of the overall consumer service industry. The development of industry in some areas has resulted in differences in the spatial distribution of certain categories. 3) The balance of the consumer service industry is better in the Luohu, Futian, Nanshan District and worse in the other Districts. The high balanced areas are the edge areas outside the two core areas, rather than the two core areas with the highest POI density. 4) Population density factors are the most important factors affecting the spatial pattern of the consumer service industry, followed by traffic factors. The influence of economic and spatial factors is relatively low. 5) The population of people aged 19-35 has the greatest impact on the density of the consumer service industry. Age groups have different impacts on the spatial distribution of different types of consumer service industries because of specific needs. These results are consistent with the spatial planning of urban functional zoning and industrial development layout in the Shenzhen Urban Master Plan (2010-2020). Combining these results and current urban development activities, this study provides suggestions for optimizing the spatial layout of the consumer service industry in Shenzhen. The trasformation of “the Three Olds” refers to that of the old towns, old factory buildings and old village residences. Taking “Lingnan Tiandi” in Foshan City as an example, this article discusses the evolution, mechanism and restriction of utilizing the conception of urban renewal for famous historical and cultural city. Especially more attention is paid to analysis of the utilazation, function and restricting factors of the conception in the core area transformation of historical and cultural city. The relevant conclusion of this article is based on the case study of the Ancestor Temple-Donghuali historical and cultural blocks (Lingnan Tiandi) in Foshan. It is indicated that the concept of the trsndformation of “the three olds” has been applied to the latest renewal of the old district of Foshan, which reflected the desire, imagination and cognitive disposition of the local government, and some limitation in application of the concept existed. It is considered that the mode and imagination of “the Three Olds” transformation might be a means for local government and developers to develop the city and industry, and might also be the technology for them to seek their own concerns and raise their comprehensive competitiveness. Essentially the attraction of the concept to them is the associated resources and the language for their use, interpretation and replacement, while less attention was paid to the practicability of the concept for the renewal of the historical and cultural city. Coralline algae are common in calcified red algal groups and an essential component of coral reefs. In addition, they play an important role in the process of coral reef development: 1) Coralline algae provide calcium for building the reef body; 2) coralline algae have strong binding and gluing ability to glue the broken biological fragments together and build coral reefs that can withstand strong winds; 3) coralline algae’s hard calcareous surfaces provide rigid basements for coral larvae to attach and grow; 4) coralline algae promote energy flow in coral reef ecosystems through photosynthesis; 5) coralline algae’s high primary productivity helps to maintain the efficiency of material cycle in coral reef ecosystems. Current research on coralline algae is focused on coralline algae’s responses to environmental stresses such as global warming and ocean acidification, and on the relations between the community structure, species diversity and spatial and temporal variations of coralline algae and environment changes. Further studies will be conducive to reveal the multiple functions of coralline algae in coral reef ecosystems. With the spread of globalization, the phenomenon of growth and shrinkage in rapidly urbanizing areas has become an international topic in the study of regional development and transformation. Following the reform and opening up of China, rapid urbanization spread through the Pearl River Delta, promoted by external capital and cheap labor. At the same time, a large number of “Desakota” regions appeared, featuring different types of property rights. However, the financial crisis had a huge impact on urban development in 2008. The differences in the property rights of the regions meant that renewal policies followed different paths, so that a new spatial phenomenon occurred in which growth and shrinkage coexisted. In light of this, our research will start from the special conditions of regional urbanization, combined with the system of binary land property rights between city and rural areas, to explore the intrinsic features of Desakota regions in the Pearl River Delta and propose an analytical framework for understanding growth and shrinkage. The post–financial crisis era saw great differences between state-owned land and collective-owned land in their matched-degree with national industrial policies, leading to completely different development opportunities for different regions. In fact, the phenomenon of centralized and decentralized urban-rural integration (Desakota), which happened in the vast rural areas of the Pearl River Delta, was the result of the endogenous system of binary land property rights between city and rural areas. After the outbreak of the financial crisis in 2008, the Chinese government’s macro-control policies underwent major adjustments, and the country’s fiscal and industrial policies have begun to shift. State-owned land with a single property rights structure has become a key area for local renewal and transformation due to its low-cost advantage. It provides space for the entry of new industries through functional replacement and promotes regional economic transformation and development. At the same time, due to the dispersive land property and small scale, the long-term accumulation of small property collective land leads to higher transaction costs and difficulty in large-scale production activities. Consequently, transformation and renewal are difficult to achieve. The difference in regional property rights structure and difficulty of renewal has led to a new spatial pattern in which both growth and shrinkage coexist. This empirical analysis takes Dongguan as an example and tries to overcome the limitations of traditional social and economic indicators. Innovatively, it uses NPP-VIIRS nighttime lighting data to explore visually the spatial distribution characteristics of growth and shrinkage in Dongguan. Combining this case study with those of typical regions, we analyze the mechanism of different types of development inside the regions from the perspective of property rights. We find that land is the essential factor determining the direction of regional development. The growing areas of Dongguan are mainly concentrated in ports, cross-border areas, and key areas supported by national policies, which have clear property rights and a single structure. In addition, the shrinking areas often occur in mixed areas of industrial parks and urban villages, which have relatively dispersive property rights. This study provides a good sample for the development of rapidly urbanizing areas in the post-financial crisis era. Local governments should focus on the regional property rights structure in the process of decision making and should adapt to local conditions and adopt different policies to promote regional development. Based on landscape characteristics, regional development level, location conditions, public awareness, and management level, and others, we categorized thousands of karst landscape areas in China into four subtypes. These types include the following: famous attractions of karst tourism, classical destinations of karst tourism, new destinations of karst tourism, and new development areas of karst tourism. Then, using time as our theme, we researched the development modes of the tourism of karst landscapes in China over the past 70 years. To do so, we used inductive and analogical analysis. Our study found three main results. First, the main tourism development modes that have been introduced and that have acquired different implementation effects since 1950 are divided into nine types and thirty-eight species. Each have different respective requirements, thereby matching with different characteristics of various karst landscapes. Second, both different and the same types of karst landscape resource communities or areas often have multifarious tourism development modes. Multifarious tourism development modes have immense differences regarding the degree of importance, exploitation benefit, development tendency, among others. Conversely, the same tourism development mode may have different implementation effects, exploitation benefits, and development tendencies in the development of various karst landscape resource communities or areas. Third, we summarized two main types of development models (i.e., the characteristic and benefit-driven themeless-separated development and the characteristic and science-driven themed-converged development) and considered them to be the result of the karst tourism in special phases of development. The characteristic and benefit-driven themeless-separated development has played an important role in the development and prosperity of karst tourism. The characteristic and science-driven themed-converged development is a new development model comprising the resource community, scientific research, development, protection, management, and feedback, and would be the main trend of karst tourism development under the new situations. Finally, we explored the basic flow of the themed-converged development by using the system dynamics method. For this system dynamics method, resource community and its characteristics are its intrinsic motivation, scientific research is its outside motivation, protection, management, research(the anaphase),feedback, and so on are its operation systems which are derived from the motivation with theme as the soul. It is discussed in this paper about the discovery and report of coastal erosion landform in Qixinggang and barrier-lagoon system landform in Songgang of the southeastern suburb of Guangzhou by Wu Shangshi in 1937. Wu Shangshi is proved to be the first discoverer of ancient coastal landform in the Pearl River (Zhujiang) Estuary and Delta area, which formed in the middle Holocene while global sea-level rising and Guizhou transgression in Pearl River Estuary in 8-2 ka BP. The discovery has important scientific significance and shows that the research capacity of Chinese scholars can rival the contemporary foreign counterparts. The discovery supports the existence of Pearl River Delta and provides evidences in kind for the record of the evolution of the Pearl River Estuary in Chinese ancient books, while playing a major role in teaching practice, scientific research, public knowledge popularization and social-culture education in past decades. Several generations of geological, geographical and marine talents benefited from Qixinggang relics of ancient coast. The discussion and study of the erosion landform of Qixinggang promotes the development of geomorphology, Quaternary geology, paleooceanography, paleogeography, estuarine and coastal research in Guangzhou area and global change study. There is more achievement and talents in the formation and development of Pearl River Delta, which devoted in the regulation of Pearl River Estuary Delta. Qixinggang relics of ancient coast were listed as city-level key historical relic by Guangzhou government in 1956 and monument was set up there by Guangdong Geographical Society in 1983. The scientific park of Qixinggang relics of ancient coast is being built, while the first stage project has been commissioned and sculpture of Wu Shangshi has been unveiled. All of those would be good for the efficient protection and teaching and researching of Qixinggang relics of ancient coastal landform. We should learn from Wu Shangshi with his scientific innovation spirit of emphasizing on field-study, seeking truth from the facts, no superstitions, no blind obedience, bold exploration, and hard writing.	http://www.rddl.com.cn/EN/article/showDownloadTopList.do?year=y
. Plants synthesize the sugar dextrose according to the following reaction by absorbing radiant energy from the sun (photosynthesis). Will an increase in temperature tend to favor or discourage the production of C6H12O6(s)? Interpretation: Whether an increase in temperature tends to favor or discourage the production of is to be predicted. Concept Introduction: The chemical reactions in which energy is released from dissociation during the formation of products are known as exothermic reactions. In endothermic reactions, reactants absorb energy to form the desired products. Exothermic and endothermic reactions are opposite to each other. According to the Le Chatelier’s principle, the change in concentration, volume, pressure and temperature affects the equilibrium constant of the reaction. The given reaction is,	https://www.bartleby.com/solution-answer/chapter-17-problem-41qap-introductory-chemistry-a-foundation-9th-edition/9781337399425/plants-synthesize-the-sugar-dextrose-according-to-the-following-reaction-by-absorbing-radiant/3c7dc662-2b6a-11e9-8385-02ee952b546e
During the Intensive Revision Bootcamp, the concepts surrounding the chapter on Energy Changes (Endothermic/Exothermic) are dissected and the correct concepts are shared with the class.This chapter requires little memorization and in fact, 95% of the chapter involved the understanding of the concepts and applying them accordingly in application questions, especially for those that involves Bond-Forming & Bond-Making. First we need to define Exothermic and Endothermic properly. Exothermic Reactions: – Reactions that gives out heat energy to the surroundings – T of reaction mixture rises. Container feels hotter Endothermic Reactions: – Reactions that takes in heat energy from the surroundings – Temperature of reaction mixture falls. Container feels cold. Energy changes in reactions are caused by the making & breaking of chemical bonds ? Bond Making –> Exothermic Process ? Bond Breaking –> Endothermic Process Tell if a Reaction is Exothermic or Endothermic by: ? Exothermic Reaction:? ?H bond breaking < ?H bond making ? Endothermic Reaction:? ?H bond breaking >? ?H bond making Q) Is this reaction Exothermic or Endothermic then? What is the value of Enthalpy Change? Given: Cl-Cl bond energy = 242 kJ/mol H-H bond energy = 436 kJ/mol H-Cl bond energy = 431 kJ/mol Any takers? Write down your suggested answers in the Comment section below, and we will discuss it accordingly. PS: Once again –> Participation is Impt! No point me showing you all the answers and working, and u dont learn. Related Articles:	https://www.simplechemconcepts.com/chemistry-question-energy-changes-exoendo-bond-energy/
Exothermic Reaction Diagram Exothermic Reaction Diagram. Learn about Exothermic Reactions with Various Examples Here..exothermic reaction? how to use an energy level diagram to illustrate energy changes in exothermic and endothermic chemical reactions, how do you know a reaction is exothermic? how. An Exothermic Reaction is a Chemical Reaction that Involves the Release of Energy in the Form of Heat or Light. In this diagram, the activation energy is signified by the hump in the reaction pathway and is labeled. Exothermic reactions take place at elevated temperature due to the decomposition of the cathode Endothermic and exothermic reactions are combined in an annular tubular reactor to achieve. An exothermic example of chemical reactions. Definition of an exothermic reaction, the role of energy and examples of exothermic reactions. An energy level diagram shows whether a reaction is exothermic or endothermic. There are other types of energy which may be produced or absorbed by a chemical reaction. and exothermic reaction graph. Learn about endothermic and exothermic reactions and energy exchange by experimenting with temperature change in chemical reactions. In exothermic reactions, there is more energy in the reactants than in the products.	https://www.izmirpay.com/2021/04/exothermic-reaction-diagram.html
What are 5 examples of an exothermic reaction? Here are some of the examples of exothermic reaction: - Making of an ice cube. Making ice cube is a process of liquid changing its state to solid. - Snow formation in clouds. - Burning of a candle. - Rusting of iron. - Burning of sugar. - Formation of ion pairs. - Reaction of Strong acid and Water. - Water and calcium chloride. What is a real life example of an exothermic reaction? Brushing your teeth, washing your hair, and lighting your stove are all examples of exothermic reactions. Keep reading to learn about combustion, neutralization, corrosion, and water-based exothermic reactions. What is Delta H of exothermic? They can only measure changes in enthalpy. When enthalpy is positive and delta H is greater than zero, this means that a system absorbed heat. When enthalpy is negative and delta H is less than zero, this means that a system released heat. This is called an exothermic reaction. Is cooking an egg exothermic or endothermic? Cooking an egg is an endothermic process because added energy makes it cooked. An egg without heats stays an (uncooked) egg. In this reaction, energy is absorbed. In an exothermic reaction, energy is released. Which reaction is exothermic? Chemical reactions that release energy are called exothermic. In exothermic reactions, more energy is released when the bonds are formed in the products than is used to break the bonds in the reactants. Exothermic reactions are accompanied by an increase in temperature of the reaction mixture. Is freezing exothermic? When water becomes a solid, it releases heat, warming up its surroundings. This makes freezing an exothermic reaction. What are three everyday exothermic reactions? 8 Examples of Exothermic Reaction in Everyday Life - Ice Cubes. When water freezes into ice cubes, the energy is released in the form of heat. - Formation Of Snow In Clouds. The process of snow formation is an exothermic reaction. - Hot Packs. - Rusting Of Iron. - Burning Of Candles. - Lightning Of Match. - Setting Cement And Concrete. What are exothermic reactions give two examples of exothermic reactions from our daily lives? What is endothermic reaction with Example Class 10? Endothermic reaction: A chemical reaction in which heat is absorbed is called endothermic reaction. It causes fall in temperature. e.g. (i) When nitrogen and oxygen together are heated to a temperature of about 3000°C, nitric oxide gas is formed. Is it easy to demonstrate an endothermic reaction? Endothermic reactions are cold and more difficult to demonstrate. This is safe, cheap, easy, and exciting. This lesson is based on California’s Middle School Integrated Model of NGSS. PE: MS-PS1-2 – Analyze and interpret data on the properties of substances before and after the substances interact to determine if a chemical reaction has occurred. Why are exothermic reactions so interesting to see? These reactions are energetically favorable and often occur spontaneously, but sometimes you need a little extra energy to get them started. Exothermic reactions make interesting and exciting chemistry demonstrations because the release of energy often includes sparks, flame, smoke, or sounds, in addition to heat. Is it safe to use sodium in an exothermic reaction? Lithium and sodium are fairly safe to work with. Use caution if you try the project with potassium. It’s probably best to leave the exothermic reaction of rubidium or cesium in water to people who want to get famous on YouTube. If that’s you, send us a link and we’ll show off your risky behavior.	https://runtheyear2016.com/2020/04/12/what-are-5-examples-of-an-exothermic-reaction/
GCSE Science Exothermic & Endothermic Reactions - A2 Poster Tax included. GCSE Science poster to support the study and revision of exothermic & endothermic reactions. Exothermic reactions transfer energy to the surroundings. Endothermic reactions take in energy from the surroundings. A2 poster All GCSE posters are printed onto high quality paper and finished with a durable gloss laminate.	https://www.tigermoon.co.uk/collections/gcse-science/products/exothermic-endothermic
After a while the forward and backward reactions will be going at the same rate so it has reached equilibrium- where each reaction is still happening but there is no effect. Equilibrium only takes place if the reaction takes place in a closed system -no products or reactants can escape or get in They can be exo/endothermic. If it’s endothermic in one direction it will be exothermique the other. Energy transferred from surroundings by endothermic reactions is the same as energy to surroundings in exothermic reaction. E.G. thermal decomposition of hydrated copper sulfate Heating blue hydrated copper sulfate crystals removes water and leaves white anhydrous copper sulfate powder -ENDOTHERMIC If u add water to white powder the blue crystals come back- EXOTHERMIC Position of equilibrium A reaction at equilibrium doesn’t mean the amount of product/reactants are equal If equilibrium lies to right- concentration of product is greater than reactant If equilibrium lies to left- concentration of reactant is greater than product Position of equilibrium depends on temperature, pressure, concentration Temperature example: Ammonia chloride ⇌ ammonia+hydrogen chloride Heating moves equilibrium to the right (more ammonia and hydrogen chloride) and cooling it moves it to the left (more ammonia chloride) Le Chatelier’s principal The principle: if you change conditions of a reversible reaction at equilibrium the system will try counteract the change. Temperature: If decrease temp equilibrium moves in direction of exothermic to produce more heat -more product for exothermic reaction- If raise temp, moves to endothermic to lose heat-more product for endothermic reaction Pressure: equilibrium involving gases only Increase pressure, moves to direction of fewer molecules of gas, decrease pressure, direction of more molecules USE BALANCED SYMBOL EQUATION TO FIND TTHE MOLECULE AMOUNTS Concentration:	https://getrevising.co.uk/revision-cards/c6-15
. The reaction is exothermic in the forward direction. Will an increase in temperature shift the position of the equilibrium toward reactants or products? Interpretation: The effect of an increase in temperature on the position of the equilibrium towards reactants or products of the given reaction is to be predicted. Concept Introduction: The chemical reactions in which energy is released from dissociation during the formation of products are known as exothermic reactions. In endothermic reactions, reactants absorb energy to form the desired products. Exothermic and endothermic reactions are opposite to each other. According to the Le Chatelier’s principle, the change in concentration, volume, pressure and temperature affects the equilibrium constant of the reaction. The given reaction is,	https://www.bartleby.com/solution-answer/chapter-17-problem-39qap-introductory-chemistry-a-foundation-9th-edition/9781337399425/the-reaction-c2h2g2br2gc2h2br4gis-exothermic-in-the-forward-direction-will-an-increase-in/2a1c31ab-2b6a-11e9-8385-02ee952b546e
Q. 33 B4.0( 8 Votes ) What do you mean by a precipitation reaction? Explain giving an example. Answer : Reaction in which an insoluble solid(precipitate) is formed which separates from the solution is called a precipitation reaction. Ex- Barium Chloride and Sodium sulphate solution reacts to form a white precipitate called Barium sulphate is a precipitation reaction. Rate this question : How useful is this solution? We strive to provide quality solutions. Please rate us to serve you better. Related Videos Doubt Session - Types of Chemical Reactions44 mins Goprep Genius Quiz \| Redox Reactions and its Applications35 mins How to Identify Type of Reactions?35 mins Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions54 mins Balance Any Chemical Equation Within 15 Seconds30 mins Champ Quiz \| Understanding Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions36 mins Pradeep \| Chemical Reaction and Equations34 mins Champ Quiz \| Types of Double Displacement Reaction45 mins Master Redox Reactions Within 30 Minutes30 mins Genius Quiz \| All About Oxidising and Reducing Agents38 mins Try our Mini CourseMaster Important Topics in 7 DaysLearn from IITians, NITians, Doctors & Academic Experts view all courses Dedicated counsellor for each student 24X7 Doubt Resolution Daily Report Card Detailed Performance Evaluation RELATED QUESTIONS : Which among the following statement(s) is(are) true? Exposure of silver chloride to sunlight for a long duration turns grey due to: (i) The formation of silver by decomposition of silver chloride (ii) Sublimation of silver chloride (iii) Decomposition of chlorine gas from silver chloride (iv) Oxidation of silver chlorideEvergreen Science When copper powder is heated strongly in air, it forms copper oxide. Write a balanced chemical equation for this reaction. Name (i) substance oxidised, and (ii) substance reduced.Lakhmir Singh & Manjit Kaur - Chemistry Which of the following are exothermic processes? (i) Reaction of water with quicklime (ii) Dilution of an acid (iii) Evaporation of water (iv) Sublimation of camphor (crystals)Evergreen Science Balance the following chemical equations:	https://goprep.co/what-do-you-mean-by-a-precipitation-reaction-explain-giving-i-1njdev
Thermochemistry deals with heat (energy) changes in chemical reactions. In chemical reactions heat is released or absorbed. If reaction absorbs heat then we call them endothermic reactions and if reaction release heat we call them exothermic reactions. Endothermic Reactions: In endothermic reactions, potential energy of reactants are lower than potential energy of products. To balance this energy difference, heat is given to reaction. Potential energy is shown with H. Exothermic Reactions: Condensation of gases, combustion reactions are examples of exothermic reactions. In these reactions, potential energies of reactants are higher than potential energies of products. Excess amount of energy is written in right side of reaction to balance energy difference. Enthalpy and Thermochemical Reactions Physical and chemical changes are done under constant pressure. Gained or lost heat in reactions under constant pressure is called enthalpy change. Enthalpy is the total kinetic and potential energy of particles of matter. It is denoted by letter "H". If HR is the enthalpy of reactants and HP is the enthalpy of products, change in enthalpy becomes, ∆H=HP-HR - In exothermic reactions, HR is larger than HP, so enthalpy change becomes negative HP<HR so; ∆H<0 - Since endothermic reactions absorb heat, HP>HR and enthalpy change becomes positive. HP>HR so; ∆H>0 - Enthalpy change depends on temperature and pressure. Thus, you should compare enthalpy changes of reactions under same temperature and pressure. - Enthalpy change under 1 atm pressure and 25 0C temperature is called standard enthalpy change. Reactions showing both changes of matters and energy are called thermochemical reactions. Examples of thermochemical reactions; - Exothermic reaction; C(s) +O2(g) → CO2(g) ; ∆H=-94 kcal - Endothermic reaction; 2H2O(g) → 2H2(g) + O2(g) ; ∆H=116 kcal Properties of Thermochemical Reactions - Coefficients in front of each element shows number of moles of matters and given ∆H value shows heat released or absorbed by reaction balanced with these numbers. - If you multiply reaction with number "n" than you must multiply ∆H value also with "n". - If direction of thermochemical reaction is changed, then sign of ∆H is also changed. - Since ∆H depends on states of matters, you must write states of matters in thermochemical reactions. Hess' Law (Summation of Thermochemical Reactions) Hess' law states that, you can sum one more than one reactions to form new reaction. While doing this, you apply same changes also on enthalpy changes of used reactions. 1) Standard Molar Enthalpy of Formation: Enthalpy change of formation of 1 mole compound from its elements is called standard molar enthalpy of formation and expressed in kcal/mol or kjoule/mol. Be careful when writing formation reactions an pay attention on following suggestions; - Reaction must be written for 1 mole compound - Compound must be formed by elements - Compound must be formed stable elements 2) Standard Enthalpy of Decomposition: Enthalpy change of decomposition of 1 mole compound into its elements is called standard molar enthalpy of decomposition. Example: H2O(l) → H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g) ; ∆H=68 kcal 3) Standard Enthalpy of Combustion: It is the heat released from the reaction of one mole element with O2(g). Example: CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) ; ∆H=-212 kcal 4) Standard Enthalpy of Neutralization Reaction: It is the enthalpy change of neutralization of 1 mol acid and one mol base. These reactions are exothermic reactions. Acid + Base → Salt + Water + Heat Example: H+ + OH- → H2O + 13,5 kcal Forming chemical bond atoms become more stable and their energies decrease and this energy is released outside. While breaking this bond same amount of energy is required. Energy released during formation of one mol bond and required for breaking one mole bond is called bond energy. Reactants → Products ; ∆H=? ∆H=∑(Bond Energies)Reactants-∑(Bond Energies)Products Where ∑ shows sum of given quantities. In a reaction If; - (Sum of bond energies of reactants) > (Sum of bond energies of products) then, ∆H > 0, in other words reaction is endothermic. Some part of energy required to break bonds of reactants is taken from energy released from formation of bonds of products and some part of it is taken from outside. - (Sum of bond energies of reactants) < (Sum of bond energies of products) then, ∆H < 0, in other words reaction is exothermic. Thus, some part of the energy released from forming new bonds in products is used for breaking bond in reactants and some part of energy is released outside. Measuring Enthalpy and Calorimeter Most of enthalpy change can be measured experimentally. This process is called " measuring heat transfer " calorimetry. Calorimeters are devices used in measuring heat flow. In calorimeters; Heat Absorbed = Heat Released Heat flow in calorimeter is calculated with following formula; Q=mcal.ccal.∆T + mwater. cwater.∆T Where; mcal= mass of calorimeter, in g. ccal=specific heat capacity of calorimeter mwater= mass of water in g.	https://www.chemistrytutorials.org/content/thermochemistry/thermochemistry-cheat-sheet
Physics: Light Intensity About half of my students were gone for an AP exam today. The students who were here used a flashlight to find a relationship between the area light covers and the distance to a light source. Chemistry: Exothermic vs. Endothermic Reactions I introduced students to exothermic and endothermic reactions and we used a PhET simulation to look at the role of energy. Then, students did a short lab where they made observations of these two reactions.	https://stoeckel180.com/2016/05/02/day-145-light-intensity-exothermic-vs-endothermic/
Vector graphs of endothermic and exothermic reactions. Activation energy. Reactants, products, increase and decrease in the enthalpy H. Big hand giving a big key (solution) to a smiling businessman , Organization Belly Bump Huge hand gave the businessman a key Vector illustration cartoon of two little girls fighting over a teddy bear. The conflict between children. Mind towards the Left Cute blue Santa Claus with sack climbing chimney and showing heart symbol Endothermic and exothermic chemical reactions, two chemical reactions found in nature. Exo, endo, heat.	https://vector.me/search/4shared-come
The melting of the ice can also be considered as an effective image of endothermic responses. The ice gets warm energy from the environments, and also the strong melts into fluid type. This is a physical change that can not be possible without outside power. The process of electrolysis where a particle obtains broken down to its component ions is likewise an instance. A chemical response is a procedure that causes the change of one set of chemical materials to another. While going under chain reaction a material is transformed into several materials. It presents the principle of electron exchange. A reaction can be an exothermic response or endothermic reaction. The materials associated with chemical response are called catalysts and reagents. There are likewise chain reactions that release energy as well as warmth, called exothermic responses. Heat streams from the object right into its environments, the reverse of an endothermic response. An instance of an exothermic response is taking two substances, such as water and calcium chloride, as well as mixing them together, causing them launching warmth into the bordering area. To being with, allow us recognize what is implied by endothermic response, as well as attempt to identify its principal features. Any sort of chain reaction which needs an outdoors input of energy as heat from the atmosphere is referred to as an endothermic response. Therefore, these sorts of chain reactions are usually accompanied by the absorption of heat from surrounding location. This more lowers the outdoors temperature level.	https://wildseasonthegame.com/qpwbfp7121/YnRFyW7130/
What is thermochemistry? 2 Answers Answer: Thermochemistry is the study of energy and heat connected with chemical reactions. E.g. exothermic and endothermic reactions and the changes in energy. Explanation: When a reaction takes place, bonds between atoms are broken and then reformed. Energy is required to break bonds, and energy is released when they are formed. This is usually in the form of heat. Different reactions have different ratios of used energy to released energy, which determines whether it is endothermic (takes in more energy from it's surroundings than it release) or exothermic (releases more energy than it takes in). Some examples of exothermic reactions are: any form of combustion (think of the heat released when you burn fuel), neutralisation and most oxidation reactions. Some examples of endothermic reactions are: electrolysis, decomposition and evaporation. The study of these processes, and the factors involved, is known as thermochemistry. Hope this helps, let me know if you need any more help of any kind:) I should be able to get back to you in a day or two. Answer: Thermochemistry is the study of energy transfer with regard to physical and chemical reactions. Explanation: Thermochemistry is a sub-branch of thermodynamics, the study of energy transfer. It developed from the study of heat engines (specifically steam engines), in the 18th and 19th centuries. Two fundamental principles of thermochemistry are: (i) the energy change associated with any process is equal and opposite to the reverse process (due to Laplace), and (ii) the energy change for a series of stepwise processes or reactions is the same as that of the entire process (Hess' law). (These follow fundamental laws of thermodynamics, the first being " You can't win ", and the second, " You can't break even either ". ) These are posed as laws rather than theories in that there has never been an observed physical or chemical process that has violated these laws. This means that when you hear of spectacular claims of free energy, you can dismiss them out of hand.	https://socratic.org/questions/what-is-thermochemistry
Process steps include mining, concentration, roasting, smelting, converting, and finally fire and electrolytic refining. 12.3.2 Process Description2-4 Mining produces ores with less than 1 percent copper. Concentration is accomplished at the mine sites by crushing, grinding, and flotation purification, resulting in ore with 15 to 35 percent copper. A. 0 J. A 100 N force directed at 60 above the horizontal pulls a box 2 m horizontally across a floor. How much work was done B. 100 J. A 10 kg box initially at rest is pulled with a 50 N horizontal force for 4 m across a level surface. The force of friction acting on the box is a constant 20 N. The lifecycle of a gold mine. People in hard hats working underground is what often comes to mind when thinking about how gold is mined. Yet mining the ore is just one stage in a long and complex gold mining process. Long before any gold can be extracted, significant exploration and development needs to take place, both to determine, as accurately as possible, the size of the deposit as well ... Mining produce ores containing 2 or less of copper. Concentrating the ore by froth flotation can result in ores with up to 35 copper. A collector oil, such as an organic xanthate or thiophosphate, is added to the powdered ore and adheres strongly to the chalcopyrite particles making them water repellant. a rock that contains a large enough concentration of a mineral making it profitable to mine. what do the most reactive metals form easily ... Example of endothermic reaction. Thermal decomposition. endothermic reaction profile ... Device that combines hydrogen, or other fuels, and oxygen and produces electricity in the process. pros of fuel ... The chemical reaction between iron oxide and carbon is used here to produce iron metal. The balanced chemical equation for the reaction is 2Fe 2 O 3 3C 4Fe 3CO 2. ... The Okiep Copper Mine, South Africa, established in the 1850s, is one of the richest bodies of copper ore ever found to this day. ... If the mining process is not ... Extraction of Metals. Extraction of Copper.. Copper is sometimes found as native metal.. Copper ores include copperII oxide and copperII sulfide. CopperII oxide can be reduced by reaction with carbon.. Some copper ores may contain only small amounts of copper. These are called low grade ores and have less than 1 copper but they are still used because copper is so valuable. 4 A grain of a weathered copperiron mineral presumably originally a copperiron sulphide, reduced to copper and iron metal, from a small lung-powered copper smelting pit furnace of the ... May 22, 2012 The authors suggest that 3.41 MeV of energy is released by the fusion of a proton with a nickel 58 nucleus into copper 59. I can obtain this value if I calculate the mass difference between a copper 59 atom and a nickel 58 atom plus the mass of the proton and the mass of the extra electron. So far their calculations are in line with mine. further used in hydrogenation reactions or to provide energy for fuel cells.11 For this endothermic DH52.5 kJmol 1, non-oxidative, direct dehydrogenation of ethanol, copper-based catalysts appear to be most suitable.12 Mesoporous silica-supported copper catalysts perform particularly well and the Copper mine tailings were provided by Zijin Mining Group in Fujian province, China. The elements content in the tailings were analyzed by XRF ARLAdvantX Intellipower 3600, and the result is shown in Table 1.The major component in the tailings is SiO 2 with a content of 72.57, followed by Al 2 O 3 and SO 3, and the content of alunite is 12.11 according to the mass fraction of SO 3. Dec 01, 2020 Applications of exothermic and endothermic reactions in everyday life Application of exothermic and endothermic reactions The principle of exothermic and endothermic reactions is applied in instant cold packs and hot packs which are used to treat sports injuries. Instant cold packs have separate compartments of water and solid ammonium nitrate placed in a plastic Overall copper yield matches well with recovery levels achieved in the conventional process. In the first step copper concentrate is fed with recycled fine particulate CuO and air. Equation 4 demonstrates that oxidation of chalcopyrite in CuO is an endothermic process it is also known that oxidation of CuFeS2 in O2 is exothermic. Molybdenum mining and processing Mining Molybdenum can be found in a number of minerals, but only molybdenite is suitable for the industrial production of marketable molybdenum products. Molybdenite can occur as the sole mineralization in an ore body, but is usually associated with the sulphide minerals of other metals, mainly copper.Molybdenum mines are classified into three groups ... Jun 07, 2021 This chemical reaction produces acid mine drainage AMD, a pollutant that is present at many abandoned mine sites. Learn more about abandoned mine drainage. Copper mining waste storage piles may be as large as 1,000 acres and typically include three types of waste tailings, dump and heap leach wastes, and waste rock and overburden. At this stage of the process, the chemical reactions begin. They convert the copper minerals into copper metal. We can illustrate the types of process using the example of chalcopyrite - CuFeS 2.From the formula, it is clear that iron and sulphur have to be removed in order to produce copper. In the furnace, the concentrates are instantly oxidized, after which they melt and separate by their own reaction heat into copper matte with a grade of 65 and slag consisting of iron oxide, silica, and other compounds. Reaction in the flash smelting furnace. CuFeS 2 SiO 2 O 2 Cu 2 SFeS 2FeOSiO 2 SO 2 Reaction heat. Jun 18, 2020 The formation of ferric oxides could accelerate with the reaction proceed, thereby boosting the sulfation process of nickel and copper. Then the sulfide oxidizing reactions with characteristic exothermic effects lower 676 C the second stage - reactions of sulfates decomposition and formation of copper ferrite with endothermic effects above 676 C. The basic sulfide composition of sample CuFeS2, FeS2 with initial weight 1570 mg remains almost without change in the interval to 195 C. Dec 28, 2011 A mine is defined as an area of land upon or under which minerals or metal ores are extracted from natural deposits in the earth by any methods, including the total area upon which such activities occur. Mining is the process of digging into the earth to extract naturally occurring minerals. It can be categorized as surface mining, Mar 29, 2020 There are two types of reactions exothermic reaction and endothermic reaction. Match the examples of processes with the correct type of reaction. a Burning of petrol b Photosynthesis c Respiration Exothermic reaction d Making bread Endothermic reaction e Neutralisation f Rusting of iron 2. 20 The temperature of a copper-leaching dump 20 A dramatically fluctuates due to endothermic reactions and exothermic reactions that each take place. B remains at an optimal temperature of 80 C throughout the process. C remains at copper processing - copper processing - Roasting, smelting, and converting Once a concentrate has been produced containing copper and other metals of value such as gold and silver, the next step is to remove impurity elements. In older processes the concentrate, containing between 5 and 10 percent water, is first roasted in a cylindrical, refractory-lined furnace of either the hearth or ... Nov 28, 2018 That would take 3 lbs of sulfamic acid. Its an endothermic reaction and it is best done hot. I prefer to denox at 90 deg C. In addition, the addition of sulfamic very well could complicate waste treatment as it will chelate the copper in solution. Just add a good piece of copper busbar. Even better would be atomized copper powder. Science in Action with Boardworks. Explore science with engaging and varied teaching material like exciting interactive activities, dynamic animations, summary quizzes and virtual experiments. With hundreds of ready-made yet customizable presentations, Boardworks gives you everything you need to teach exciting, inspirational lessons. Apr 27, 2013 Pyrometallurgy Encyclopedia The Free Dictionary. Information about Pyrometallurgy in the Columbia Encyclopedia, Computer Desktop Processes that use chemical reactions at elevated temperatures for the Smelting involves the complete conversion of the charge to a melt, which is then reactions and is carried out in converters to produce steel, copper, and nickel. The copper ore coming from the mine 0.5 1 Cu must be concentrated by beneficiation. ... temporal coupling of exothermic and endothermic reactions leads to an economical process, but the ... Working Processes Usually copper is treated initially by noncutting, shaping processes to 5. Give criteria in terms of temperature changes for exothermic and endothermic reactions. Exothermic reactions - release heat and feel hot to the touch Endothermic reaction - gain heat and feel cold to the touch 6. If 1.65 g of CuNO 3 2 are obtained from allowing 0.93 g of Cu to react with excess HNO 3, what is the percent The process used to treat sulfide copper ores begins at the mine site, where the copper-bearing minerals are physically separated from the rest of the rock. The flow diagram below shows how the percentage of copper increases as the ore is refined, first physically by froth flotation, then chemically by smelting and finally electrolytic refining. Nov 17, 2020 Electrowinning is defined as the cathodic deposition of metal, in this example copper, from a copper bearing solution by the passage of an electric current current using an insoluble anode.. For copper the electrowinning reaction reaction is CuSO4 H2O Cu O2 H2SO4. The overall reaction is the combination of two electrochemical half reactions. Nov 09, 2021 Minnesota lets public weigh in on adequacy of mining rules. In this Oct. 4, 2011, file photo, a core sample drilled from underground rock near Start studying Chem metal reactivity unit 4amp5 start. Learn vocabulary, terms, and more with flashcards, games, and other study tools. Feb 06, 2015 Cyanide Leaching Chemistry amp Gold Cyanidation. The reactions that take place during the dissolution of gold in cyanide solutions under normal conditions have been fairly definitely established. Most agree that the overall cyanide equation for leaching and cyanidation of gold is as follows 4 Au 8 NaCN O2 2 H20 4 NaAu CN2 4 NaOH. by Sherritt Gordon. In this process, ammonia leaching of. sulde minerals of copper, nickel, cobalt and iron was. conducted at a temperature of about 105 C and air pres-. sure of 0.8 MPa ...	https://www.dagonfly.pl/reaction/Jun-03_39809.html
The exothermic reactions might take place quite unexpectedly; and it can also be made use of under limited circumstances to create surges. On the various other hand, the endothermic reactions are the ones where energy is made use of for the reactions to happen is not nearly enough and thus, heat is taken in to make up for this deficiency. Since we have the keynote regarding the distinctions in between exothermic and also endothermic responses, we can go better to illustrate this with the aid of instances. Thermodynamics is sub part of Chemistry, and it generally deals with the study of power exchanges that happen throughout any chain reaction, as well as exactly how it influences the variables state of any kind of system. In situation of any type of endothermic responses under constant stress, there is a significant surge in the enthalpy of the system. Pupils can better comprehend this concept with the aid of pictures from reality. Solvents: protic solvents such as water and also alcohols maintain the nucleophile a lot that it will certainly not respond with substrate. Consequently, making use of an excellent polar aprotic solvent such as ethers and also ketones and also halogenated hydrocarbons is required. Chemical modifications are a result of chemical reactions. All chain reactions include an adjustment basically and an adjustment in power. Nonetheless, neither issue nor power is developed or destroyed in a chain reaction. There are many chemical responses that it is handy to classify them right into different types including the extensively utilized terms for explaining common responses.	https://formula.wildseasonthegame.com/ufxnsf5416/jIdZhu5425/
Q. 573.7( 6 Votes ) You are given the following chemical equation: Mg (s) + CuO (s) → MgO (s)+ Cu(s) This equation represents: A. Decomposition reaction as well as displacement reaction. B. Combination reaction as well as double displacement reaction. C. Redox reaction as well as displacement reaction. D. Double displacement reaction as well as redox reaction. Answer : Here, Magnesium is oxidized and copper is displaced from its compound. Rate this question : How useful is this solution? We strive to provide quality solutions. Please rate us to serve you better. PREVIOUSConsider the reaction: This is an example of:NEXTWhen a green iron salt is heated strongly, its colour finally changes to brown and odor of burning sulphur is given out. (a) Name the iron salt. (b) Name the type of reaction that takes place during the heating of iron salt. (c) Write a chemical equation for reaction involved. Related Videos Pradeep \| Chemical Reaction and Equations34 mins Doubt Session - Types of Chemical Reactions44 mins How to Identify Type of Reactions?35 mins Goprep Genius Quiz \| Redox Reactions and its Applications35 mins Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions54 mins Balance Any Chemical Equation Within 15 Seconds30 mins Champ Quiz \| Understanding Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions36 mins Balance the Chemical Equations49 mins Champ Quiz \| Types of Double Displacement Reaction45 mins Master Redox Reactions Within 30 Minutes30 mins Try our Mini CourseMaster Important Topics in 7 DaysLearn from IITians, NITians, Doctors & Academic Experts view all courses Dedicated counsellor for each student 24X7 Doubt Resolution Daily Report Card Detailed Performance Evaluation RELATED QUESTIONS : Which among the following statement(s) is(are) true? Exposure of silver chloride to sunlight for a long duration turns grey due to: (i) The formation of silver by decomposition of silver chloride (ii) Sublimation of silver chloride (iii) Decomposition of chlorine gas from silver chloride (iv) Oxidation of silver chlorideEvergreen Science When copper powder is heated strongly in air, it forms copper oxide. Write a balanced chemical equation for this reaction. Name (i) substance oxidised, and (ii) substance reduced.Lakhmir Singh & Manjit Kaur - Chemistry Which of the following are exothermic processes? (i) Reaction of water with quicklime (ii) Dilution of an acid (iii) Evaporation of water (iv) Sublimation of camphor (crystals)Evergreen Science Balance the following chemical equations:	https://goprep.co/you-are-given-the-following-chemical-equation-mg-s-cuo-s-mgo-i-1njdfw
Why water is added to CaO slowly? Why we do not mix whole CaO into the water bucket? Asked by shailusharma983 \| 24th Jul, 2020, 02:41: PM Expert Answer: When quicklime is added to water, it forms slaked lime along with evolution of heat. There will be a rise in temperature of the bucket. If we add whloe quick lime into water, it will produced a large amount of heat and may be turn into a accident, hence to avoid all these consequences quicklime is added to water slowly. Answered by Ramandeep \| 24th Jul, 2020, 06:56: PM Application Videos Concept Videos - What is combination reaction? - is burning of magnesium ribbion endothermic or exothermic and explain how - Are the reactions in which bases are produced are always endothermic or exothermic ? - . 2g of ferrous sulphate crystals are heated in a dry boiling tube. (i) List any two observations. (ii) Name the type of chemical reaction taking place. (iii) ‘Write the chemical equation for the reaction - formula of calcium carbonate - combination reaction - What is electrolysis. Explain its procedure and usages. - wht is decomposition reaction - How can we classify equations into endothermic and exothermic reactions just by looking at it?	https://www.topperlearning.com/answer/why-water-is-added-to-cao-slowly-why-we-do-not-mix-whole-cao-into-the-water-bucket/vbl5ov11
What does the research say about effective strategies for building teachers' and other adults' social and emotional learning (SEL) to best support students? Ask A REL Response Thank you for your request to our Regional Educational Laboratory (REL) Reference Desk. Ask A REL is a collaborative reference desk service provided by the 10 RELs that, by design, functions much in the same way as a technical reference library. Ask A REL provides references, referrals, and brief responses in the form of citations in response to questions about available education research. Following an established REL Northwest research protocol, we conducted a search for evidence- based research. The sources included ERIC and other federally funded databases and organizations, research institutions, academic research databases, Google Scholar, and general Internet search engines. For more details, please see the methods section at the end of this document. The research team has not evaluated the quality of the references and resources provided in this response; we offer them only for your reference. The search included the most commonly used research databases and search engines to produce the references presented here. References are listed in alphabetical order, not necessarily in order of relevance. The research references are not necessarily comprehensive and other relevant research references may exist. In addition to evidence-based, peer-reviewed research references, we have also included other resources that you may find useful. We provide only publicly available resources, unless there is a lack of such resources or an article is considered seminal in the topic area. References Albrecht, N. J. (2018). Teachers teaching mindfulness with children: Being a mindful role model. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 43(10), 1–23. https://eric.ed.gov From the Abstract: "Mindfulness is taking a preeminent role in today's education system. In the current study the author explored how experienced MindBody Wellness instructors make sense of teaching children mindfulness. The methodology of Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis combined with autoethnography was used to interview eight teachers from the United States and Australia teaching children mindfulness. In this article, the author discusses findings related to the theme of Being a Mindful Role Model. Participants, on the whole, felt that someone looking to teach children mindfulness needs first to connect deeply with the practices. They felt this connection was an elemental foundation in becoming a mindful role model and teaching children mindfulness. The experienced mindfulness instructors also found that cultivating mindfulness with children is enhanced by the creation of a mindful school culture. A number of recommendations are suggested, including the establishment of MindBody Wellness and mindfulness teacher training courses at the university level." Benn, R., Akiva, T., Arel, S., & Roeser, R. W. (2012). Mindfulness training effects for parents and educators of children with special needs. Developmental Psychology, 48(5), 1476. Retrieved from https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu From the Abstract: "Parents and teachers of children with special needs face unique social–emotional challenges in carrying out their caregiving roles. Stress associated with these roles impacts parents' and special educators' health and well-being, as well as the quality of their parenting and teaching. No rigorous studies have assessed whether mindfulness training (MT) might be an effective strategy to reduce stress and cultivate well-being and positive caregiving in these adults. This randomized controlled study assessed the efficacy of a 5-week MT program for parents and educators of children with special needs. Participants receiving MT showed significant reductions in stress and anxiety and increased mindfulness, self-compassion, and personal growth at program completion and at 2 months follow-up in contrast to waiting-list controls. Relational competence also showed significant positive changes, with medium-to-large effect sizes noted on measures of empathic concern and forgiveness. MT significantly influenced caregiving competence specific to teaching. Mindfulness changes at program completion mediated outcomes at follow-up, suggesting its importance in maintaining emotional balance and facilitating well-being in parents and teachers of children with developmental challenges." Boulware, J. N., Huskey, B., Mangelsdorf, H. H., & Nusbaum, H. C. (2019). The effects of mindfulness training on wisdom in elementary school teachers. Journal of Education, Society and Behavioural Science, 30(3), 1–10. Retrieved from http://www.journaljesbs.com/ From the Abstract: "Aims: School teachers have hundreds of spontaneous interactions with students each hour, requiring frequent decision-making. Often these interactions require social understanding and emotional self-regulation, two constructs often identified with wisdom and mindfulness. Increasing mindfulness could aid wiser management of classroom demands. The present study evaluated effects of an online mindfulness course on measured wisdom in a sample of public elementary school teachers. Study Design: This study used a pretest posttest design using data collected immediately before taking the online mindfulness course and after completion of the course. End of the school year follow-up data was analyzed for all teachers.Place and Duration of Study: Participants were enrolled from multiple cities across the United States including Boston, Columbus, Chicago, Milwaukee, Seattle, and San Diego between June 2014 and June 2015. Data were collected online and analyzed at the University of Chicago. Methodology: Public elementary school teachers (n = 12) were assigned to a mindfulness training or a matched wait-list condition (11 female, 1 male; age range 26 – 57 years). Teachers had a range of teaching experiences from 1 to 36 years (median =18 years) and taught grades K-4 at schools with 30%–50% Caucasian students with 40%–60% students receiving free and reduced-price lunches. We used standardized measures for mindfulness, wisdom, emotion regulation, compassion, theory of mind, state/trait anxiety, stress, burnout, and efficacy. Results: Online mindfulness training produced a significant increase in mindful awareness and changes in cognitive wisdom implying increased understanding of inter/intrapersonal concerns. There was a significant increase in mindful attention in those who completed both pre- and post-class online evaluations (n = 10) solicited by Mindful Schools (t (9) = 2.738, p = .02) from 54.3 to 59.9 following training (ΔM= 5.6, SD = 6.5). Wisdom, measured with Ardelt's Three-Dimensional Wisdom Scale (n =12), demonstrated a significant change increase in the cognitive dimension of wisdom (t(11) = 2.39, p =.03) with a non-significant increase in the affective dimension (t(11) =1.38, p =.19) and a non-significant reduction in the reflective dimension of wisdom (t(11) =.96, p = .35) following mindfulness training. Conclusion: Online mindfulness training may help develop wise decision making as a skill for teachers to aid classroom management and social problem solving." Brackett, M. A., Reyes, M. R., Rivers, S. E., Elbertson, N. A., & Salovey, P. (2012). Assessing teachers' beliefs about social and emotional learning. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 30(3), 219–236. Retrieved from https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/ From the Abstract: "Teachers are the primary implementers of social and emotional learning (SEL) programs. Their beliefs about SEL likely influence program delivery, evaluation, and outcomes. A simple tool for measuring these beliefs could be used by school administrators to determine school readiness for SEL programming and by researchers to better understand teacher variables that impact implementation fidelity and program outcomes. In a two-phase study, we developed and then validated a parsimonious measure of teachers' beliefs about SEL. In Phase 1, survey items were administered to 935 teachers and subjected to both exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, resulting in three reliable scales pertaining to teachers' comfort with teaching SEL, commitment to learning about SEL, and perceptions about whether their school culture supports SEL. Phase 2 provided evidence for the concurrent and predictive validity of the scales with a subsample of teachers implementing an SEL program as part of a randomized controlled trial. The discussion focuses on the value of measuring teachers' beliefs about SEL from both researcher and practitioner perspectives." Conroy, M. A., Sutherland, K. S., Algina, J., Ladwig, C., Werch, B., Martinez, J., et al. (2019). Outcomes of the BEST in CLASS intervention on teachers' use of effective practices, self-efficacy, and classroom quality. School Psychology Review, 48(1), 31–45. https://eric.ed.gov/ From the Abstract: "A growing body of research exists on the effectiveness of classroom-based intervention programs to prevent and ameliorate social, emotional, and learning difficulties demonstrated by young children at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD). Yet, little research has examined the influence of these targeted intervention programs on the teachers who are trained to deliver them. Impacts of the professional development associated with the intervention on teachers who implement the intervention are important to examine. Data from a 4-year study examining the efficacy of BEST in CLASS were used to examine the effect of BEST in CLASS on teachers' implementation of effective instructional practices, their sense of self-efficacy, and classroom quality. Using a multisite cluster randomized trial, a total of 186 early childhood teachers were included (92 assigned to BEST in CLASS and 94 assigned to a comparison group). Findings indicate BEST in CLASS positively impacted teachers' use of effective instructional practices, their sense of self-efficacy, and their overall classroom quality compared to teachers in the control condition. Future research and implications for professional development are discussed." Dolev, N., & Leshem, S. (2017). What makes up an effective emotional intelligence training design for teachers? International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 16(10), 72–89. Retrieved from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ From the Abstract: "Recently there has been a growing interest in ways in which Emotional Intelligence (EI) can be enhanced among teachers. However, although it has been noted that effective teaching requires high levels of EI, little is known about effective methods to develop teachers' EI. The current qualitative study followed a two year EI development training for 21 teachers in one school in Israel. Main emerging themes related to the training design included the focus on teachers' own development, the combination of personal and group processes, flexibility and self direction, long-term in-school training, and leadership support. Implications for future teachers' EI training design are discussed. The findings advance our understanding of possible mechanisms for promoting high-quality EI professional development for teachers." Emerson, L. M., Leyland, A., Hudson, K., Rowse, G., Hanley, P., & Hugh-Jones, S. (2017). Teaching mindfulness to teachers: A systematic review and narrative synthesis. Mindfulness, 8(5), 1136–1149. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ From the Abstract: "As school-based mindfulness and yoga programs gain popularity, the systematic study of fidelity of program implementation (FOI) is critical to provide a more robust understanding of the core components of mindfulness and yoga interventions, their potential to improve specified teacher and student outcomes, and our ability to implement these programs consistently and effectively. This paper reviews the current state of the science with respect to inclusion and reporting of FOI in peer-reviewed studies examining the effects of school-based mindfulness and/or yoga programs targeting students and/or teachers implemented in grades kindergarten through twelve (K-12) in North America. Electronic searches in PsychInfo and Web of Science from their inception through May 2014, in addition to hand searches of relevant review articles, identified 312 publications, 48 of which met inclusion criteria. Findings indicated a relative paucity of rigorous FOI. Fewer than 10% of studies outlined potential core program components or referenced a formal theory of action, and fewer than 20% assessed any aspect of FOI beyond participant dosage. The emerging nature of the evidence base provides a critical window of opportunity to grapple with key issues relevant to FOI of mindfulness-based and yoga programs, including identifying essential elements of these programs that should be faithfully implemented and how we might develop rigorous measures to accurately capture them. Consideration of these questions and suggested next steps are intended to help advance the emerging field of school-based mindfulness and yoga interventions." Hoare, E., Bott, D., & Robinson, J. (2017). Learn it, live it, teach it, embed it: Implementing a whole school approach to foster positive mental health and wellbeing through Positive Education. International Journal of Wellbeing, 7(3), 56–71. Retrieved from https://www.internationaljournalofwellbeing.org/ From the Abstract: "Schools provide unique environments for the implementation of interventions to support the mental health and wellbeing of young people. While promising as an intervention setting, the school system is inherently complex, and any successful intervention or program must account for, and adapt to, such complexity. Whole-school approaches that comprise multi-components and promote collaborative and collective action across the school system appear promising for accounting for these complexities. This paper reports the updated implementation processes of one whole-school approach, the Geelong Grammar School Applied Model for Positive Education, for fostering positive mental health and wellbeing among the school community. Drawing upon existing frameworks and from successes observed in the fields of Social and Emotional Learning, mental health prevention, and health promotion, adapted to meet the goals of Positive Education, we propose four interconnecting, cyclical processes; Learn it, Live it, Teach it, Embed it. In combination, these processes assist schools in designing and reviewing ongoing implementation. This study extends the literature to date by synthesizing organizational, systems change, education, and anecdotal evidence to identify barriers to implementation and subsequent outcomes of missed, or poorly executed processes. While schools will be unique in factors such as context, specific needs, and available resources, it is envisaged that reporting these processes and potential barriers to success may assist schools with their own future implementation endeavours." Methods Keywords and Search Strings: The following keywords, subject headings, and search strings were used to search reference databases and other sources: Teachers, Adults, Social-emotional, Social and emotional, Competencies Databases and Resources: We searched ERIC for relevant resources. ERIC is a free online library of more than 1.6 million citations of education research sponsored by the Institute of Education Sciences (IES). Additionally, we searched Google Scholar and EBSCO databases (Academic Search Premier, Education Research Complete, and Professional Development Collection). Reference Search and Selection Criteria When we were searching and reviewing resources, we considered the following criteria: Date of publications: This search and review included references and resources published in the last 10 years. Search priorities of reference sources: Search priority was given to study reports, briefs, and other documents that are published and/or reviewed by IES and other federal or federally funded organizations, as well as academic databases, including ERIC, EBSCO databases, and Google Scholar. Methodology: The following methodological priorities/considerations were given in the review and selection of the references: - Study types: randomized control trials, quasi experiments, surveys, descriptive data analyses, literature reviews, and policy briefs, generally in this order - Target population and samples: representativeness of the target population, sample size, and whether participants volunteered or were randomly selected - Study duration - Limitations and generalizability of the findings and conclusions This memorandum is one in a series of quick-turnaround responses to specific questions posed by stakeholders in Alaska, Idaho, Montana, Oregon, and Washington, which is served by the Regional Educational Laboratory (REL) Northwest. It was prepared under Contract ED-IES-17-C-0009 by REL Northwest, administered by Education Northwest. The content does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of IES or the U.S. Department of Education, nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.	https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs/regions/northwest/askarel/building-adult-sel.asp
While online learning has become the norm over the past year as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, school children in Hong Kong may be at risk of facing increased inequality in their education experience. The latest survey conducted by Save the Children Hong Kong shows divergent opinions from teachers on the quality of the learning experience and learning outcomes for students. Teachers also expressed very different preferred approaches to grading students for the 2019-20 school year, which raises concerns over potential inequities in the grading system across schools in a year with an ever-shifting learning environment. Save the Children Hong Kong conducted an online survey between September and December 2020 and collected responses from 139 local primary and secondary school teachers. The survey aimed to understand the perception of teachers towards online learning and students’ mental wellbeing, and identify ways to address the learning gaps due to school closures. According to the survey, most of the responding teachers (68%) said they were unprepared for the shift to online learning with little or no experience teaching virtual classes when the school suspensions began, and teaching methods have still not been perfected. More than a third (37%) reported that when teaching online, they were less able to identify and support the diverse learning needs of students and that students have had more difficulty focusing in virtual lessons (44%). When asked about the support for students’ mental wellbeing, many teachers in our survey said their schools recognised these issues as pressing concerns, but almost half cited insufficient number of mental health professionals in the community and inadequate resources and training for school staff as barriers to providing the necessary support. “The sudden transition from in-classroom to online learning has disrupted education and posed many challenges for students, parents, teachers and administrators,” said Carol Szeto, CEO of Save the Children Hong Kong. “We need to place children’s educational needs as a top priority. We encourage the government to take all possible measures to ensure schools are the last to close and first to reopen. In addition, sufficient support and resources must reside within and outside of the school structures, to maintain positive mental wellbeing for children during these challenging times.” Save the Children Hong Kong has been supporting parent-child communication and relationships, and helping to ensure that the physical and mental health needs of children are being addressed. Our mental wellbeing projects span a wide variety of interventions customising for the needs of children and youth, parents, teachers and professionals. Activities for children and youth range from art and therapeutic play therapies, mental wellbeing workshops and picture book, workshops, to more advanced interventions such as Cognitive Behavioural Therapy-Improving Access to Psychological Therapies (CBT-IAPT) and case management, providing an all-rounded and comprehensive support. Moreover, educational workshops for parents, teachers and social workers are provided to strengthen the capacity of the support system, and public exhibitions and school talks are conducted to further enhance public awareness towards mental health of children and youth. To learn more about Save the children Hong Kong’s Mental Wellbeing Programmes and Heart-to-heart Parent-child Programme. For detailed survey results summary, please visit here: Survey of School Teachers’ Views on Online Learning and Student Mental Wellbeing amid COVID-19 Related School Adaptations （只提供英文版） We would love to hear from you. Donation and General Enquiries: (852) 3160-8686 Child Sponsorship Enquiries: (852) 3160-8786 8/F Pacific Plaza, 410-418 Des Voeux Road West, Sai Wan, Hong Kong Monday to Friday: 9:30a.m. to 6:00p.m.	https://savethechildren.org.hk/en/latest-news/press-release-and-statement/schkteachersurvey/
Unicef survey finds parent support for student vaccinations so schools can re-open Australian parents want their children vaccinated against COVID-19 and back in the classroom for face-to-face learning due to their overwhelming concerns about learning loss caused by the extended periods of lockdown, a recent survey has found. In a national poll conducted by leading children’s charity UNICEF Australia, parents called on state governments to provide more support for home-schooling and want them to urgently make up lost ground with funded tutoring, extended school terms once lockdowns end and make up classes to be held in the holidays. Parents have clear opinions on what measures should be taken to protect children when they return to school, including vaccination for school staff (64%), masks (50%), limited class numbers and vaccinations for students (43%). Two thirds (65%) of the 1000 parents surveyed said they would vaccinate their children ‘tomorrow’ if they could, and that they would like their children to continue with face-to-face learning at school during lockdowns (53%). The main reason parents cited for wanting children back at school was for socialisation and mental health (69%), followed by learning (68%). Home schooling is also clearly a stress on parents, with more than a third saying they want their children to return to school to take the pressure off at home. Learning loss is a major concern for 63% of parents, with more than one in four (27%) saying they are concerned their child won’t be able to catch up and 69% saying they would like their child’s learning to be measured after lockdown. Three in four parents (83%) said they would like to see more teaching support for learning at home and when asked how they would like learning loss to be managed, 42% said they would like to see more 1:1 teacher contact during lockdown, followed by government funded tutoring, and one in four said they were open to extended term dates after lockdown finishes (31%) and subject specific classes during the school holidays (23%). Guardian Essential poll also found that two-thirds of parents are concerned that lockdowns are affecting the mental health of their children, with half worried about emerging behavioural problems.	https://www.catholicvoice.org.au/unicef-survey-finds-parent-support-for-student-vaccinations-so-schools-can-re-open/
Mindfulness? Courses MBSR 2019 Courses What is the course like? How to Apply Important Details Private Sessions Mindful Eating Course MBSR in French The Way to Mindful Parenting MBCT for Cancer @ Work Modern Work Issues Benefits and Courses Events Drop-In Sessions All Day Retreats Articles Research Articles Who We Are Contact Home Mindfulness? Courses MBSR 2019 Courses What is the course like? How to Apply Important Details Private Sessions Mindful Eating Course MBSR in French The Way to Mindful Parenting MBCT for Cancer @ Work Modern Work Issues Benefits and Courses Events Drop-In Sessions All Day Retreats Articles Research Articles Who We Are Contact Search Who we are A little bit about us... BIANCA KING Psychological Counsellor and Meditation teacher Geneva Mindfulness Lead Instructor Bianca King is a highly qualified and experienced Psychological Counsellor, Meditation Teacher, and registered Mindfulness-based Stress Reduction (MBSR) teacher with University of Massachusetts Medical School . She is a member of the Swiss MBSR Association . Bianca first came across meditation in 1991, and since 1997 she has been practicing meditation daily to ground her own inner resources for well-being. The clear awareness and emotional balance that it encourages have been the cornerstone to her own life and work. Bianca’s training and experience span both Eastern and Western perspectives on psychology and she draws upon these influences to help guide the therapeutic process and create a more powerful awareness of the benefits of mindfulness. Her qualifications include: Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Cancer – Bangor University Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction Teacher – University of Massachusetts Medical School Cultivating Emotional Balance – Santa Barbara Institute of Consciousness Masters in Counselling and Psychotherapy – University of Wales Post Graduate Diploma in Counselling – Australian College of Applied Psychology BA in Philosophy and Psychology – Griffith University Australia Bianca began her career in counselling in Australia at the Petrea King Quest for Life Centre for people with terminal illnesses. This is where she was formally introduced to incorporating meditation in processing life difficulties and uncertainties. For three years, Bianca was based in London where she worked at Guy’s Hospital, the Awareness Centre and for the children’s helpline Get Connected. Bianca came to Geneva with her husband in 2008. Over the past twenty years and throughout her work and studies, Bianca has also been practicing meditation and attending Tibetan Buddhist teachings. Bianca is based in Geneva, Switzerland, where she regularly conducts public courses at Webster University, as well as other locations in and around Geneva. In particular, she provides mindfulness-based programs for the workplace and teaching for numerous organisations, including: UN - United Nations - OCHA WHO – World Health Organization HSBC ALVEAN UNICEF The Oak Foundation IHS Cereal Partners Worldwide – Nestlé and General Mills Marketing Department International Schools of Geneva – Nations, La Châtaigneraie, La Grande Boissiere GEMS International School – Morges English Speaking Cancer Association (ESCA) – MBCT – Ca for Cancer The demands and stresses placed upon today’s workers are enormous, so learning to manage those demands and stresses effectively can have a profound and positive impact on corporate productivity and the personal happiness of individuals. ‘I was very impressed by Bianca’s flexibility and positive attitude to adapt the MBSR class to our business context and deal with sometimes difficult circumstances to bring the class to life .’ Cereal Partners Worldwide – Nestlé and General Mills Bianca is deeply passionate about helping others and this is reflected in her teaching approach which is considered and personable, inspirational, tailored to her audience, and clearly reflects her wealth of global experience gathered over many years. ‘This course helped me through a very difficult time. My relationships with people in my personal life and work have been transformed – in essence I feel much more at ease with myself. And I sleep much better!” Anonymous To contact Bianca, please email her on: [email protected] Bianca often collaborates with other teachers on her courses: Collaborators Caroline Werner Growing up in the traditions of German Naturopathic medicine, Mind-Body interactions were an integrative part of Caroline’ s health belief system from the very beginning. During her own Medical studies she had the chance to become introduced to transcendental meditation. Connecting to inner silence through a daily meditation practice was a life changing and a very healing experience. The wish of sharing it with others was born at the same time. She enriched her experiences through yoga, exploring christian based and eastern meditation techniques and silent retreats. In 2009 she participated at the Mind-Body course at the Herbert Benson Institute, Harvard, which was another revealing experience. Finally her inner convictions about the benefits of meditation and the importance in medicine were confirmed by evidence based studies, and the extremely good results of a very human medicine. Caroline absolved her training as a mindfulness instructor at the world known Center for mindfulness, Boston with Jon Kabat and his team. Through ongoing supervision, regular retreats and especially through implementing mindfulness in her daily private life and medical practice, she continues to explore the present moment day by day. Stephen Wainwright Stephen has been practicing mindfulness and related meditation practices for more than 20 years, and has guided a number of meditation and study groups during this time. He has acted both as a faculty member and advisor on the application of meditation practices for humanitarian workers to the Garrison Institute’s Contemplative-Based Resilience project . He supports Geneva Mindfulness by co-facilitating some of the public programmes, and providing advice and guidance. Christine Blom Christine brings together a wealth of holistic medical experience to deliver practical health promotion tools through yoga, mindfulness and first aid. Thirty years ago Christine received her BSN in nursing at Georgetown University and went on to focus on holistic health. She followed a 1000hr massage therapy course in AZ in the 93, and after practicing yoga for many years recently studied a 200 hr YA yoga course at Yoga Moves in Nyon. Having started practicing meditation as a teenager in her native Norway, Christine is a long time mindfulness practitioner, and has since practiced various forms of mindfulness in her life, including vipassana and MBSR. In the last several years, Christine has been promoting mindfulness in the International school of Geneva schools where she has worked as a school nurse for 10 years. She has created a popular course called M&M – Massage and Mindfulness – for 4 to 9 year olds where she uses both of these methods as vehicles to teach presence and kindness to the children. Additionally, Christine teaches yoga at the school, seeing yoga as a wonderful way to include mindfulness in daily life. As a nurse she sees the importance of health promotion and first aid training and is involved in both in Geneva. She is available to deliver lectures or courses in either French or English. She specializes in teaching First Aid for yoga teachers. For further information please contact Christine – [email protected] Silvia Vernaschi Silvia is a PCI Certified Parent Coach ®, with more than 200 hours of one-on-one coaching, and is trained to teach mindfulness techniques to kids and adults. After 15 years working in the field of international aid and development, and after becoming a mother for the third time, she decided to devote my energies to supporting parents in reconnecting with their strengths and values, to help them raise their children with awareness and ease. Silvia started her mindfulness practice in January 2015, and having experienced herself the transformative power of mindfulness practice, she decided to train to teach mindfulness to kids and their parents, to bring to others an effective tool for managing stressful, fast-paced and distracted lives. Silvia is currently studying transactional analysis, counseling path, to support parents with larger range of tools. Silvia moved back to Geneva, Switzerland, in August 2016 after four years in Bangkok, Thailand, and she is currently working with parents from different countries, via Skype, FaceTime and in person. She runs and facilitate mindfulness training, workshops, individual and group coaching sessions. She works with schools, organisations and individuals. Silvia is very passionate about helping other people to rediscover how strong, kind, determined and loving they are and can be – and how beautiful life can be if we take it moment by moment. QUALIFICATIONS: Transactional Analysis for Counselling, Centre AT. Geneva, Switzerland – Four-year training (ongoing). MBSR Teacher Certification. Bangor University, UK (ongoing). Parent Coaching Certification. The PCI. One-year post graduate course, with 100 hours of one-to-one coaching, 2016 Mindful Educator Essentials, Mindful Schools. Course on teaching mindfulness to kids (K- 12), 2015 Paws b, Mindfulness in Schools Project (MiSP). Phuket, Thailand. Course on teaching mindfulness to kids (aged 7 to 12), 2016 BA in Business Administration. University of Turin, Italy, 1994 RETREATS, PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT, TRAINING: Mindful Communication, Mindful Schools, 2016 Difficult Emotions, Mindful Schools, 2016 Cultivating Positive States of Mind, UCLA, 2016 Several one-day meditation retreats with Ajahn Brahm. Bangkok, Thailand 2015-2016 Five-day silent retreat with Josh Korda, Chiang Rai, Thailand, 2016 One-day silent retreat with Bianca King, Geneva, Thailand, 2016 Aha!Parenting Course. Course run by Dr Laura Markham, 2016 For more information: [email protected] @silviaparentcoach International Collaborators Mark Molony Mark is an organisational coach and therapist who has worked extensively with the Australian Army, sporting elites and business executives. He holds a Master of Health Service Management (MHSM) and Bachelor of Social Work (BSW), and is a registered mental health professional. Mark is the co-founder of the internationally recognised Mindful Life Program, and has conducted mindfulness programs in both Australia and the United States. Mark draws on his mindfulness practices regularly in his business coaching roles and has built a solid reputation—helping people achieve greater focus, well-being and performance. More information about Mark here . Jeremy Limpens Jeremy is a behavioural change and stress management coach, university lecturer, keynote speaker and workshop facilitator. He has spent twenty years working in health care as a senior manager, registered nurse and paramedic across fifteen countries, and holds a Master of Health and qualifications in conflict resolution, organisational psychology, counselling and mindfulness training. Jeremy currently leads effective mindfulness-based programs and conflict for individuals, couples and groups—including corporate organisations, health care professionals, people living with cancer, and those stuck in the cycle of conflict. More information about Jeremy here . Home Mindfulness? Courses MBSR 2019 Courses What is the course like?	http://www.genevamindfulness.com/who-we-are.html
One-on-one coaching for students, parents, or teachers; administrative consultation regarding school- or district-wide implementation of mindfulness programs; mindfulness in independent school settings. Specific populations include nervous system challenges (working with Tourette Syndrome/tics, OCD, ADHD), LGBT populations and mindfulness is diversity/identity work, stress and the college process (for parents and for students). Alan Brown is a Dean at Grace Church School in New York City, where he also leads the 9th-12th grade mindfulness program as well as the parent mindfulness program. Alan has taught in both public and private settings as a humanities instructor, and has worked with many other schools and districts as a trainer for GLSEN (the Gay Lesbian Straight Education Network). Blending a thorough understanding of the unique challenges facing students, parents, and teachers, with a firm belief that all people can learn to thrive both physically and mentally, Alan offers a framework that blends mindfulness and positive psychology through individual coaching, group teaching, and organizational consulting.	https://www.mindfulschools.org/resources/certified-instructor/name/w-alan-brown/
To date 12,728 teachers have completed my Teacher Burnout Assessment Tool .. I know of no larger collection of teacher burnout statistics. I created this in consultation with my doctor and several other research sources, for teachers worried about the impact of the job on their health. It uses burnouts' biggest early warning signs to diagnose how close a teacher is to burning out. I want to share the findings of this research - as it has important implications for individual teachers and school management .. Q1. How Many Hours do you Work on Average Each Week? Over 50% of teachers taking the survey, work what would be classified by many as 'unsustainable' working hours. Very few respondents (12%) reported working hours anything close to a 'normal' working week. Do educational leaders realise that they require many teachers to work hours which affect significantly their ability to be parents themselves? .. and do teachers feel fairly compensated for these hours of work? Conclusion 1: Teachers just beginning in the profession will be surprised at the level of commitment which the job requires. Those with children or in mid-life, are unlikely to make the sacrifices required by many schools, indefinitely. Workload is a big reason why many teachers leave the profession each year, and what is not talked about nearly often enough is the impact this has on recruitment too. Q2. How do you sleep on the average day? 43% of teachers taking the survey, sleep less than 6 hours a night. How much of their difficulty sleeping is due to their job, we don't know .. but many teachers complain of problems with sleep due to the stress of working in school. Even the 31% of people catching up at the weekend, are effectively borrowing sleep from their own time to substitute for their working week. Conclusion 2: It is almost a badge of honour for some teachers who boast of the tiny amounts of sleep they have - as if doing so shows their commitment or strength. This is dangerous behaviour, as regularly getting less than 7 hours sleep a night is linked to numerous health problems including a lower life expectancy. Teachers' wellbeing isn't a priority for many schools, and teaching staff need to be proactive in monitoring sleep and other health indicators themselves. Q3. What kind of social life do you have? Well over half of teachers surveyed, responded that they didn't have time for their own life because of the demands of their job. Anyone who teaches will tell you the paperwork, marking, planning and assessment involved, takes significantly longer than the delivery of lessons. Unrealistic increases in workload have crept up on the profession over recent decades. It is ironic that in a profession where many teachers are caring 'substitute parents' - that many complain of not having time for their own families. Conclusion 3: The majority of schools fail to prioritise work-life balance for their teaching staff - and have unrealistic expectations of them instead. School employers who want to retain the positive relationships which long serving staff have with their student population, would do well to note this result. Teachers looking for employment need to take a measure of management attitude to work-life balance at interview - so they can make an informed judgement about the type of school they might be just about to join. Q4. What is your mood on the average day? This question is important because general irritability is an early warning sign that a person is having difficulty coping with stress. Happily, a large percentage (32%) of teachers taking the survey are happy and don't feel stressed in their working lives. This is positive proof that schools do exist where staff have a healthy balance between hard work and enjoyment in the job. 68% of teachers aren't in jobs where this is possible however - leading to the conclusion that stress at work is a real problem for many teachers. Conclusion 4: Stress at work is a very real problem for many teachers. This is made significantly worse in many schools by a blame culture, which discourages teaching staff from sharing how they feel. These two factors combine in many schools to make burnout much more likely to occur in a teaching job than in many others. Q5. How tired do you feel most days? When you analyse the results of this question alongside the working hours many teachers have to commit to the job, this is worrying. 58% of teachers say they are constantly tired and are waiting for the next holiday to catch up. While this result is subjective, and may be the case in many professions - the school holidays exist for a reason. Many teachers rely on them to cope with the all consuming nature of the job. Conclusion 5: Being constantly tired can have serious consequences for teaching staff. School management and the politicians leading education policy, need to decide what they want most .. a continuous improvement in headline results and ever more control over it's delivery - or experienced teachers who want to stay in the profession. The difficult choice many teachers make to step out of the classroom, is often a direct a result of how much the job demands of them. Q6. How clearly can you think when you are at work? This is an important question because an inability to concentrate is an early warning sign of burnout. The 15% of teachers that struggle to concentrate all the time (when they are tired or not), should be most worried about this. Burnout is characterised by a reduction in your ability to be effective in your job. Monitoring how much of this is due to tiredness, is important to prevent burnout occurring. Q7. What kind of conversations do you have with co-workers? Dealing positively with workplace stress, is important for teachers to avoid burning out. Often this means sharing the burden with others in school. However, many teachers say their conversations with senior leaders about the problems they face, are met with indifference - or much worse, with blame. Conclusion 6: The current focus on 'accountability' in many schools, has resulted in a blame culture which discourages teachers from sharing problems positively. Many school leaders need to balance the requirements they make of teachers - with additional understanding and support of staff who work in extremely challenging conditions. Failing to do so will drive existing teachers out of their schools, and have a huge impact on the students they teach. Q8. Do you suffer from any of the following physical symptoms? Over 75% of teachers who responded to the survey complained of the health problems above, which are often associated with a failure to deal with stress. This is a worrying sign that the pressure and workload of many teaching jobs, is having a very real physical impact on many teachers. Conclusion 7: There are not many professions which make employees feel this physically unwell in the normal course of their duties. School leaders who relentlessly focus on 'improvement' and external inspections, risk their employees health as a result. Many senior leaders in education appear not to care how unapproachable their management style makes them. This has a direct impact on the physical health of teachers working for them. Diagnosis: Are You Burning Out? This survey was completed by those interested in doing so - and as such the results might not accurately reflect opinions of the overall teaching population. However 12,728 responses is a significant number - and at the very least this highlights trends in education which deserve investigation by those in charge. 65% of teachers responding identified signs they were burning out in their jobs. 85% were diagnosed as working 'unsustainably' .. with significantly increased risks to their health as a result. At what point does the relentless drive to 'improve' outcomes, take account of the impact that this is having on the human-beings who teach in many schools? This neglect of teachers health and wellbeing reflects very badly indeed on what is supposed to be a 'caring profession'. If you want to take the Teacher Burnout Assessment yourself click here: Whatever your experience of working in schools - please take a proactive approach to looking after your own health. A 'broken' teacher is no good to anyone - and the impact which burnout can have on other parts of your life can be significant. For teachers who realise they need to move career, this post might help - 373 Alternative Job Ideas For Teachers Tired of Their Classroom Job. What is your experience of the pressures of life in the classroom? Please add your comment below ..	https://notwaitingforsuperman.org/teacher-burnout-statistics/
Mindfulness at UPT “At many schools, the third-grader would have landed in the principal’s office. But in a hardscrabble neighborhood in West Baltimore, the boy who tussled with a classmate one recent morning instead found his way to a quiet room that smelled of lemongrass, where he could breathe and meditate. The focus at Robert W. Coleman Elementary is not on punishment but on mindfulness — a mantra of daily life at an unusual urban school that has moved away from detention and suspension to something educators hope is more effective.” Washington Post, November 2016 At UPT, this article was a conversation starter. Like any program where children are involved classroom management is an important aspect of running a healthy program. Trenton is an urban setting where students face many of the same challenges as those students in Baltimore. After spending some time researching the possibility of using mindfulness techniques, which focus on learning to “respond” rather than “react”, we determined that we should strive to have a Mindfulness pilot program at Camp Truth. The next question was; how to were we going to start this program as it clearly calls for someone with expertise in teaching the practice of mindfulness. Fortunately, our Volunteer Manager, Georgia Koenig knew who to contact; Lisa Caton, Director of the Center for Mindfulness and Compassion at The College of New Jersey. Lisa put together an outline for the pilot program after we met several times in the spring of 2017, and, in September we launched Mindfulness at UPT which includes the grade school children AND the teens who are part of our StreetLeader Team. We have to admit, it was slow going at first. There was some resistance. Slowly but surely, though, we have been able to establish a daily Mindfulness practice for the grade school students and a weekly practice and teaching module for our StreetLeaders. Now, when our Mindfulness Leaders, Ray and Shaniece who are students at TCNJ, ask our students to “come into their mindful bodies”, the children and teens easily become still, ready to listen to guidance from the Ray and Shaniece. Streetleader Director Elyse Smith said; “I am surprised, but many of the teens are really interested in this practice. The more we learn, the more they see that it benefits them.” In November we were awarded a $3000 grant from Janssen Pharmaceutical to underwrite the cost of the program for the year. This grant underwrites the cost of the program which included a recent half day seminar for the teens. We are committed to growing Mindfulness at UPT. In a world where we are constantly bombarded with information and stress, Mindfulness allows us to come to our breath and embrace the eternal now, and to respond from a place of compassion, for ourselves and others.	https://www.urbanpromisetrenton.org/mindfulness-at-upt/
About Kara Matheson Kara has been teaching adults and children for over 20 years and has rich experience working with various needs and learning styles. As a teacher of Mindfulness and Mindful Communication, Kara aims to keep it simple, and to create a space where people feel supported in discovering their present-moment experience, whatever it is, and being able to work with that – that moment, that feeling, that thought, that body sensation. Kara combines her training Education (BA Grad. Dip. Ed.), and Mindfulness (including Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction for adults and children, and training with Mindful Schools, and the Mindfulness in Schools Project) with her training in Nonviolent Communication (NVC). In 2013, after many years of training, practice, and teaching in NVC, Kara was accepted by the Centre for Nonviolent Communication as a candidate for International Certification. In 2015, Kara is teaching at Sydney TAFE; offering courses in mindfulness to children at Teens at her farm; and training teachers and students in local schools. Kara has a unique combination of experience and training: a long career in educating both adults and children, a long-term, treasured personal yoga and meditation practice, extensive training in Mindfulness teaching for adults, children and teens, and training and experience in teaching Nonviolent Communication. Please note that the mindfulness training Kara offers is educational rather than therapeutic. It does not constitute clinical treatment but is a sharing of mindfulness techniques to support people in developing their own practice in daily life.	https://ed21c.com/about/
Critics Misrepresent Poll Methodology On Wednesday, the St. Louis Post-Dispatch published an article that called into question the methodology of the poll we commissioned for our recent study about school choice opinions among the Missouri population. From the article: The critics say the Show-Me Institute’s poll by a research firm, Market Research Insight of Gulf Breeze, Fla., was a "push poll." Push polls phrase questions that steer a survey toward a predetermined, desired outcome. Jung and others point to the phrasing mixed in to the survey’s 50 questions. They say terms such as "crisis" when discussing public schools have negative connotations. "You have to wonder about the credibility of a poll like that, in our view," said Brent Ghan of the Missouri School Boards Association. This first objection is odd. The pollsters didn’t assert that the public schools are in a crisis, or even suggest it. Early in the poll, they asked this question: Which of the following statements comes closer to representing your personal opinion about public schools in Missouri? This was followed by a few options: "A Crisis"; "Not a Crisis"; "Critics Exaggerating"; "Doing Very Well"; and "Uncertain". These options were presented in rotating order, a measure intended to help prevent predetermined responses. A poll measuring opinions about school choice policies would be incomplete without gauging respondents’ views on the current state of available schools. In any case, respondents were able to choose any of these options, and the fact that only 26 percent statewide chose "A Crisis" as their response demonstrates that, if this question were somehow a "push" ploy, the people of Missouri weren’t falling for it. Later in the article someone presents another criticism: Kenneth Warren, a political science professor at St. Louis University, concluded that the order in which the questions were asked as they are presented in the "poll details" posted on the Show-Me Institute website constituted "placement bias." For example, he said, the survey prefaced one question with a wide range of statistics purporting to demonstrate the economic benefit of school choice. Warren noted that the next question "Do you think Missouri should or should not have some form of school choice … ?" was key to supporting the Show-Me Institute’s position on the issue. "When school choice is presented the way it is in this survey, it becomes a push poll," said Warren. This seems more plausible until you realize that these particular questions place at #33 and #34 in a 50-question poll. Almost all of the respondents’ demonstrated support for school choice came much earlier in the poll, beginning with question #4, where 57 percent statewide say they think school choice would work better than a single public school system. This rises into the 60s for parents and minorities. At question #10, 85 percent of respondents statewide indicated they think parents should make the basic decision of which school or kind of school that children should attend. This rose to 88 percent for African-American and Hispanic respondents. This is a huge margin of support, early in the poll, without any sort of preparation that could be seen as a "push." Not only that, but 11 of the 16 questions that follow the ostensibly objectionable questions, #33 and #34, are entirely demographic in nature. If the poll was meant to "push" people toward desired responses, why would it follow the single question someone hopes to identify as a "push" question with a string of queries entirely unrelated to school choice questions about age, occupation, income, education level, gender, etc.? This really seems to be a case of naysayers grasping at straws. They don’t like school choice policies, so they hope to discredit a poll that reveals a strong level of support for school choice. The Post-Dispatch may have fallen for these critics enough to take their tenuous claims seriously in their article, but anybody who takes a substantive look at the actual poll can tell the methodology was sound. The article also quotes Verne Kennedy, president of Market Research, the firm that conducted the poll, with an astute observation: "The basic response anyone gives today when they disagree with survey results is to label it a push poll," he said. "That’s the classic response."	https://showmeinstitute.org/blog/education/critics-misrepresent-poll-methodology/
Aggression, and the cluster of negative behaviours (such as oppositional behaviour, destructive behaviour) that typically accompanies it, is among the most serious and prevalent problems. Indeed, aggression is often the primary characteristic of both oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder. Many of the costliest and damaging societal problems have their origins in early conduct problems. These problems, particularly when they emerge in early childhood, are extremely stable and predictive of poor outcomes. Indeed, half of the children identified with behaviour problems in preschool continue to exhibit the behaviour pattern throughout childhood and into early adolescence. There is also an absolute need for teachers who are well-improved and competent in terms of both vocational and basic skills. These are mostly common needs of knowledge about early prevention. It is important to note that preventive interventions, particularly those focused on enhancing children’s cognitive skills, will also reduce child aggression. This project will gain highlights the inter connectedness of systems during the preschool period and will help to all participants exchange different and valuable experience. Erasmus+ will help participants at all stages of their lives, from kindergarten to school, to pursue stimulating opportunities for learning across Europe, both inside and outside of the classroom. We will gain valuable life-skills and international experience to help us develop personally, professionally, and academically. The staff will increase its skills and competences. We'll get to know first-hand the workings of another European education system, learn, and share innovative ideas and explore best practices. We'll be inspired by new colleagues and refresh our thinking. Improvement to the quality of teaching and learning across institution or organization following a staff mobility, partnership will enhance its reputation and its international standing. Aggression is the body's natural response to challenges which interfere with the children's ’s ability to learn, memorize, and earn good grades and which can also lead to poor physical, emotional, and mental health. Younge children, like adults, may experience stress every day and when they perceive a situation as dangerous and painful, they don’t have the resources to cope. That key fact that made us to do something for these students by starting an Erasmus Project with schools which face the same problem in Europe. We conducted a survey to carry out the number of t students with aggressive behaviour and started to gather information in order to deal with aggression and aggressors more professionally. And, according to the results, we noticed that the problem we intend to work on is too difficult and complex and we decided to face this challenge and to realize a project that will combine different countries. While working on the topic we noticed that we would need licensed teachers to provide training for coping with aggression. Luckily partner schools have those teachers and Psychologist who will contribute by giving presentations, workshops, and seminars, conducting surveys and even teaching meditation techniques and other emotion and problem-solving aggression management techniques to the applicants. In Aggression! No, thanks! project, partner schools from Romania, Turkey, Bulgaria, Italy, and Macedonia will combine their efforts to help their students to cope with about aggression: what it is, what causes it, what are the possible consequences and, above all, in which ways they can cope with it. Throughout the project, each partner school will contribute, in its own way, to spread knowledge about the problem and to offer, if not solutions, remedies that pupils will experiment and hopefully adopt in their everyday life. We want to have a Solid Plan and Methodology for prevention of aggression which will be used not only for our partnership but outside it too. To create Sufficient Resources which be acceptable and beneficial for kindergarten and primary schools. We want to create a classroom that is organized and that is characterized by mutual respect makes it a lot easier to teach effectively, and one of the most important things teachers can do to promote learning is to create classroom environments where students feel safe. We want to use interactive approaches such as small groups and cooperative learning, it’s especially important to create a classroom where students feel safe asking questions and contributing to discussions. It is also important to think about the environment of the school, beyond the classroom. When students stand in the hallway or school or kindergarten yard is important to comunicate free and calmly. Some schools feel like prisons, where students may not even be allowed to talk, and students may seem overly compliant. Other schools can be totally out of control. Both extremes are likely to take something away from the learning experience. Working together with other teachers and administrators we want to encourage positive interaction among students. We want organisations to have identified models of good practices in the contact, support and help of aggressive behaviour and this information to be disseminated within each partner organisation, other organisations workingwith the same or similar target groups in the partner organisation's country. Partner organisations to identify models of good practices in the monitoring and evaluation of training learning by doing programme; this information will be disseminated within each partner organisation, other organisations delivering education to the same or similar communities in each country and the wider lifelong learning community across Europe. Improvements in the delivery of training to our learners (ie: our trainers) by our staff .We expect to gaining, at the end of the project, the opportunity to show and share the results and the guidelines elaborated with regional, national and european institutions to discuss and propose new politics and new intervention strategy on the prevention of aggression in early age. The results expected during the project and on its completion are: -To make children understand that they behave aggressively and encourage them to get help from their teachers and parents when needed. - To teach children the signs of aggression - To help children stop the aggression. Eventually, they can be happier, healthier, and more productive; - To train children on how to cope with aggression (on that point, licensed teachers and psychologist). - Relaxation, emotion, and problem-solving aggression management techniques. - To train parents to work out with their children what is causing the stress and help them learn to manage it. Because spending time with children, taking part in school activities, learning to listen, being a role model helps them reduce stress - To make them trust themselves with effective aggression management which will increase their academic success. - Promoting the European dimension in education. -Increasing the education quality at schools by reducing stress among teenagers. Target Project results: Presentations and workshops on aggression, aggression symptoms, aggression types, coping With aggression (different techniques held by educated teachers,psychologist) Seminars related to stress for a group of teachers and parents. - Elaboration of profiles of aggressors. - Positive discipline - Identification of common as well as specific difficulties in the work with aggressive children - Analysis and explicitation of the factors/causes of the aggressive behaviour; - Sharing of practices and methodologies; - Presentation of alternative and innovative interventions, with more probability of success. - A publication out of the reflexive work on the profiles and their discussion in the workshops that will try to establish guidelines for good practice -.Elaboration of a training curriculum to better prepare professionals to understand and intervene with this population - The building of tools like a training book and DVD that can be used in the training of other professionals Organisation of International meetings will be a chance for sharing experiences between partners, discuss opportunities and solve problems. The whole school communities will take part, at different levels, in the project: students, families, teachers, principals, and the local communities as well, will be informed of the activities and the results. The project will also offer the opportunity of discovering, developing and using new teaching methods, by learning more about other educational techniques and school systems, attending classes in all participant countries and exchanging good practices. All the activities and final products will be recorded in a final electronic device and implemented on the Etwinning platform * * * * eTwinning Space - HERE! * Web site of the project - * Facebook page - HERE! © Copyright 2020 by Breshia In Debar - North Macedonia Design & CMS: Ozki КОРИСТИМЕ КОЛАЧИЊА *COOKIES НА ОВАА ВЕБ-СТРАНА ЗА ПОДОБРУВАЊЕ НА ВАШЕТО КОРИСНИЧКО ИСКУСТВО.	http://breshia.net/projects/aggression-no-thanks
The study was designed to facilitate the development of a set of guidelines which could be used by administrative personnel at Kokomo-Center Township Consolidated School Corporation (KCTCSC) in planning and implementing a program of administrative evaluation. A review of literature and research concerning administrative evaluation programs was made to identify principles and desirable practices relative to the development of evaluation philosophy and activities. The review of literature also was intended to focus upon the purpose of evaluation, responsibilities for making evaluations, criteria for evaluation, and acceptance of evaluation procedures and techniques by the administrative team members.The study included a review and analysis of evaluation programs conducted within the nineteen member school systems of the Indiana Public School Study Council as of January 1979. Twelve superintendents of the member school systems provided written descriptive materials. Selected materials were analyzed in order to determine the nature, scope, and procedural characteristics of practical, ongoing evaluation programs.The study also included a KCTCSC team survey. The survey was designed by a committee of representative administrators to solicit the opinions of all administrative team members of KCTCSC on eight specific areas affecting an evaluation program.Conclusions drawn from the findings of a review of the literature, the Indiana Public School Study Council Member Superintendent's Questionnaire, and the Kokomo Administrative Team Evaluation Survey Questionnaire were as follows.A. Administrative performance can and should be evaluated on a regular basis.B. Authorities are not in agreement that only one process of evaluation is correct.C. Evaluation may include two main purposes: the first, to help the evaluatee establish relevant performance objectives and work systematically toward objective achievement; and secondly, to assess the evaluatee's present performance in accordance with prescribed standards.D. Evaluation should require the evaluator(s) to assess the. performance of the evaluatee by rating the evaluatee on a value scale that may have varying degrees of excellence.E. Management by Objectives (MBO) should be a supplement to evaluation procedures that stress rating. Self-evaluation should always be encouraged.F. Formal evaluation of administrative team members should be conducted annually within the time framework of individual state laws. Informal evaluation should be a continuous process, on a day-to-day basis supplementing the formal process.G. The superior or supervisor should conduct the formal evaluation with informal documented evaluation input from peers, staff, students, parents, community, and evaluatee as situations and/or time warrants.H. Particular attention should be paid to amassing specific documentary evidence regarding each behavioral characteristic to be assessed.I. Evaluation should be supported by data, records, commendations, and critical comments, work achieved, spotchecks, special activities and awards.J. Little new information, if any, should be saved for the formal appraisal. Evaluation should concentrate on guidance and counseling, not solely on checking up on the evaluatee.K. The evaluator should enter the evaluation process with a mutual, unprejudiced, and unbiased attitude with respect to the evaluatee.L. The best evaluation system is of no value if the information is simply gathered and stored or ignored.M. Improvement of evaluatee performance involved two processes, assessment of evaluatee and in-service or job development.Guideline recommendations for planning and implementing an administrative evaluation program touch on the following considerations: the responsibilities of the board of school trustees, the superintendent of schools, and the evaluation committee which has been established by the superintendent of schools. Implementation and follow-up recommendations are also a part of the guideline recommendations made as a result of the study.	http://cardinalscholar.bsu.edu/handle/handle/176887
Linguists Discover Previously Unidentified Language In Malaysia Linguists working in the Malay Peninsula have identified a language, now called Jedek, that had not previously been recognized outside of the small group of people who speak it. The newly documented language is spoken by some 280 people, part of a community that once foraged along the Pergau River. The Jedek speakers now live in resettlement area in northern Malaysia. Jedek was recognized as a unique language by Swedish linguists from Lund University, who ran across the new language while studying the Jahai language in the same region. "Jedek is not a language spoken by an unknown tribe in the jungle, as you would perhaps imagine, but in a village previously studied by anthropologists," Niclas Burenhult, associate professor of general linguistics and the first researcher to record the language, said in a statement released by the university. "As linguists, we had a different set of questions and found something that the anthropologists missed." Doctoral student Joanne Yager spent four years doing intensive fieldwork and studying the language. "There are so many undocumented, undescribed languages that nobody has worked with," Yager told NPR. "But the difference here is ... we didn't know that it existed at all. Most languages that are undescribed and undocumented, we know that they exist." One possible reason the language went undetected for so long, she says, is that the formerly nomadic people who spoke it didn't have a single consistent name for it. (The name Jedek comes from one of several terms the speakers use.) Research by Yager and Burenhult was published in the latest issue of Linguistic Typology and publicly announced by Lund University on Tuesday. You can hear a small sample of Jedek in a video published by the school. Yager says that Jedek is surprising, in part, because it has words that have little in common with the languages immediately around it — but which were familiar to linguists from languages "spoken farther away, like in other parts of Malaysia and southern Thailand." And while the language is spoken by a very small community, it doesn't appear to be acutely threatened by extinction, like many other minority languages. "It's always been quite a small language ... because the groups have been small and quite mobile," Yager says. "Children still learn the language, which is really great for the future prognosis of the language." This is not the first time in recent history that a new language has been identified. In 2013, researchers at the University of Hawai'i announced that they had identified an indigenous sign language, dating back to the 1800s, that is separate from American Sign Language. And as NPR has reported, researchers in India discovered a previously undocumented language in 2008. Those linguists, like the Swedish researchers who recognized Jedek, were doing research into other languages in the region when they found the language now called Koro: "'It hadn't previously been noticed in the Indian census or in any study of the languages of India,' [linguist K. David] Harrison tells NPR's Mary Louise Kelly. 'It wasn't listed in any listing of the world's languages. It had basically been completely unnoticed by outsiders and by scientists.' ... "There are more than 7,000 languages in the world, and nearly half of them are in danger — likely to die out within our lifetime. In fact, one disappears about every two weeks. When languages die, they take with them a vast amount of human knowledge, Harrison says, from how to make medicines out of plants, how to survive in harsh environments, and creation myths and personal histories. ... "People really do value their languages," [Harrison] says. "And ... the decision to give up one language or to abandon a language is not usually a free decision. It's often coerced by politics, by market forces, by the educational system in a country, by a larger, more dominant group telling them that their language is backwards and obsolete and worthless." Speaking to Science Friday in 2012, Harrison emphasized the importance of fieldwork in documenting oral languages. "You can't just take a speaker and sit them down in their room and pick their brain, because language is kind of like a living organism. It is lived in a natural environment," he said. "The language is alive." The Swedish researchers who documented Jedek also emphasize the importance of fieldwork — extended periods of time spent with multiple speakers of a language. Whether or not a language is "newly discovered," it's worth spending time digging into little-known languages, Yager says. "The important thing is documenting this amazing diversity out there," she tells NPR. For many languages, researchers know that they exist and roughly where they're spoken — but nothing more than that. "And that's a real shame," she says. "There are all these amazing different ways of being ... a human that speaks language, that we're basically missing right now."	https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2018/02/07/583931629/linguists-discover-previously-unidentified-language-in-malaysia
and Receive Complimentary E-Books of Previous Editions Brazil is the largest country in South America and contains the largest portion of the Amazon rainforest of any country within its national borders. It also has a unique and exemplary role as a post-colonial multicultural developing nation, one that can raise important questions for the world in terms of the contemporary intersection of language and technology. Our work aims to explore the challenges and perspectives of language-education technology in Brazil. Our methodology involves a bibliographical research including a literature review, a case-study, and participatory research through semi-structured interviews. The need for presenting a case-study and a participatory research emerges from the contrasting educational realities found across the country. For instance, in the north, where the Amazon rainforest is located, many indigenous languages are nearing extinction, there are few resources to preserve what is left, and technologies to learn a new language or revitalize an indigenous one are scarce. In the South, the native forest of the so-called Atlantic Jungle slowly gave space to development. Currently, only 8% of it remains, and is found in state parks or areas of conservation. Such development not only dramatically impacted the environment, it also brought major changes and new technologies to the developed communities, including tools to learn a second language. Portuguese, the national language of Brazil, is the only official language recognized by the government and thus the single most utilitarian method of communication. However, Brazil is home to approximately 200 distinct indigenous groups who collectively speak 170 different languages (IBGE, 2007). For these groups, the need to communicate in Portuguese for economic survival brings forth simultaneous challenges of learning a second language and maintaining the primary indigenous language. These challenges will be presented here in this chapter through a case-study conducted in 2011 in a Northern Brazilian indigenous community. This section explores trends in local autochthonous languages and the threats manifested by globalized “Brazilian” culture, which inundates indigenous communities and replaces traditional language use with necessarily utilitarian linguistic choices (Meuth Alldredge, 2011). To address the situation in Southern Brazil, we will consider ways in which language learning is influenced by our increasingly globalized economy and highly competitive job market. The acquisition of a foreign language as a personal asset can become of great interest to citizens in the South. By and large, English is the most popular second language among Southern Brazilians. It has been introduced into the curriculum of the vast majority of public schools over the course of the past few decades. Additionally, several private, for-profit English learning enterprises now have widespread services throughout the country. Nonetheless, it has been observed that the availability of English classes is not necessarily proportional to fluency. To illustrate this situation, we present participatory research conducted in Southern Brazil that includes the formal system of Brazilian education. Our conclusions are that all teachers utilized the following basic tools for teaching a foreign language: computer for presentations and internet access; TV and DVD; other electronic frameworks; and other basic audiovisual tools that aid in communication processes for information exchange and knowledge acquisition. These two contrasting studies situate the perspective of this chapter, and make the case that Brazilian diversity adds to the complexity of language-education in that country. It further confirms access disparities: while some schools only have books (or copies of the books) to use in classroom, others capitalize on the use of live social media, internet, and other recent technological tools.	https://www.igi-global.com/chapter/challenges-and-perspectives-of-language-education-technology-in-brazil/233134
The Kayapo are a powerful and well-known Brazilian tribe who inhabit a vast area of the Amazon across the Central Brazilian Plateau. What is the Kayapo tribe called? The Kayapo tribe live alongside the Xingu River in several scattered villages ranging in population from one hundred to one thousand people. They have small hills scattered around their land and the area is criss-crossed by river valleys. Their villages are typically made up of about dozen huts. The Kayapos resisted assimilation (absorption into the dominant culture) and were known traditionally as fierce warriors. They raided enemy tribes and sometimes fought among themselves. Logging and mining, particularly for gold, have posed threats to the Kayapos’ traditional way of life. The Kayapó maintain legal control over an area of 10.6 million hectares (around 26 million acres) of primary tropical forest and savanna in the southeastern Amazon region of Brazil. They number approximately 7,000 people scattered across 46 villages in five territories. The Kayapo grow vegetables, eat wild fruits and Brazil nuts, and hunt fish, monkey, and turtle to eat. They use over 650 plants in the rainforest for medicine. Mẽbêngôkre, sometimes referred to as Kayapó (Mẽbêngôkre: Mẽbêngôkre kabẽn [mẽbeŋoˈkɾɛ kaˈbɛ̃n]) is a Northern Jê language (Jê, Macro-Jê) spoken by the Kayapó and the Xikrin people in the north of Mato Grosso and Pará in Brazil. Kayapo have fiercely protected their vast territory but face increased pressure from illegal incursions for goldmining, logging, commercial fishing, and ranching. Threats to the forest home of the Kayapo have been an area of extreme concern in the last 30 years, beginning with mining and logging enterprises which threatened to destroy the rainforest, and thus the Kayapos’ way of life. The Kayapo’s land is also under threat from logging and some farmers want to clear the rainforest to make fields for cattle. In an effort to preserve some of the remaining natural wilderness, laws have been passed banning development in sections of the rainforest. These protected areas of land are called reserves. The Kayapo people protect one of the largest regions of the Amazon Rainforest in the world. With this way of life, PURE Energies found it inspiring and embarked on a journey to learn from the Kayapo people what independence, leadership and sustainability mean in the most remote corners of the world. The Korubo, also known as the “clubber Indians” because of their war clubs, live in the region surrounding the confluence of the Ituí and Itaquaí rivers in the Javari valley. Most of the population (more than 200 people) still lives in isolation, moving between the Ituí, Coari and Branco rivers. Since the early 1980s, several Kayapó communities have acquired considerable wealth by allowing outsiders to exploit their natural resources ( especially gold and timber ) and receiving a portion of the proceeds. The Kayapó (ka-yah-POH), who call themselves Mẽbêngôkre (meh-bingo-KRAY), are a dynamic Indigenous people of more than 12,000 individuals. Surviving centuries of warfare and forced migration, they use their warrior heritage to protect their lands from new invaders. With outside help, tribes like the Kayapo defend their land against ranchers, loggers, and miners. The destruction of the Amazon in Brazil can be seen by satellite: Where logging roads have spread their tentacles and ranchers have expanded their grazing, all is brown. The Belo Monte Dam (formerly known as Kararaô) is a hydroelectric dam complex on the northern part of the Xingu River in the state of Pará, Brazil. Yanomami, also spelled Yanomamö or Yanoamö, South American Indians, speakers of a Xirianá language, who live in the remote forest of the Orinoco River basin in southern Venezuela and the northernmost reaches of the Amazon River basin in northern Brazil.	https://www.mundomayafoundation.org/interesting/where-do-the-kayapo-indians-live-perfect-answer.html
The Grammar of Happiness Discovering the Unique Communication Style of an Amazonian Tribe Daniel Everett is an American linguist and author best known for his study of the Amazon Basin's Piraha people and their language. THE GRAMMAR OF HAPPINESS is a documentary that explores whether Daniel's journey into the heart of the Amazon can redefine our understanding of human language. Running Time 53 mins Year 2015 Kanopy ID 3151022 Filmmakers Languages Subjects Show More Related videos Unknown Amazon - Brazilian Inhabitants in the Amazon Rainforest Observing the relationships between humans and nature in different parts of the Amazon today, what are the consequences of this occupation on the rain forest and the world? In UKNOWN AMAZON (Amazonia Desconhecida), we meet indians, miners, industries, farms, social movements and much more, and create a huge panel to… Amazonia - Voices from the Rainforest For 500 years the indigenous people of the Amazon have defended their homeland against the invasion that has brought the mass extinction of over 700 tribes and destruction of the rainforests in which they live. Amazonia gives voice to these native people, as well as the riverine dwellers, rubber tappers,… Native Planet Program 2: Ecuador - Saving Pachamama (Mother Earth) Host Simon Baker travels to Ecuador and deep into the Amazon jungle to meet one Aboriginal tribe waging an international fight to keep oil companies and their government off their territory.	https://www.kanopy.com/product/grammar-happiness
Did you know... SOS Children volunteers helped choose articles and made other curriculum material Sponsoring children helps children in the developing world to learn too. The Amazon Basin is the part of South America drained by the Amazon River and its tributaries. The basin is located mainly (54%) in Brazil, but also stretches into Peru and several other countries. The South American rain forest of the Amazon is the largest in the world, covering about 8,235,430 km2 with dense tropical forest. For centuries, this has protected the area and the animals residing in it. Plant life Not all of the plant and animal life in the Amazon Basin are known because of its huge unexplored areas. No one knows how many species of fish there are in the river. Plant growth is dense because rainfall and regrowth of leaves occur continually throughout each year. Amazonian indigenous people The Amazon Basin includes a diversity of traditional inhabitants as well as biodiversity in both flora and fauna. These peoples have lived in the rain forest for thousands of years, and their lifestyles and cultures are well-adapted to this environment. Contrary to popular belief, their subsistence living methods do not significantly harm the environment. In the past few decades, the real threat to the Amazon Basin has been deforestation and cattle ranching by large multinational corporations. People who live here also consume an extremely small amount of energy generated by plants and primary producers. Their energy-use percentage in the world is nearly zero. This is potentially helpful to the environment. History The Amazon basin has been continuously inhabited for more than 12,000 years, since the first proven arrivals of people in South America. Those peoples, when found by European explorers in the 16th century, were scattered in hundreds of small tribes with no writing system except for the part ruled by the Inca Empire. Perhaps as many as 90% of the inhabitants died because of European diseases within the first hundred years of contact, many tribes perished even before direct contact with Europeans, as their germs traveled faster than explorers, infecting village after village. Upon the European discovery of America, the Portuguese and the Spanish signed the Treaty of Tordesillas, dividing the country into a large Spanish western part, which encompassed all of the then unknown North America and Central America, and western South America, the Portuguese had Eastern South America, what would become modern eastern Brazil. The Spanish claim was confirmed by explorers, most famously by the expedition of Francisco de Orellana in 1541-42. By the late 17th century Portuguese/Brazilian explorers had dominated much of the Amazon basin because the mouth of the Amazon river lay within the Portuguese side, and the Brazilian inward exploration venturers such as the Bandeirantes, who originated in São Paulo, had conquered much of what is today central Brazil (states of Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Goiás) and then proceeded to the Amazon. In 1750 the Treaty of Madrid certified the transfer of most of the Amazon basin and the region of Mato Grosso to the Portuguese side, hugely contributing to the continental size of what is now Brazil. Brazilian General Cândido Rondon is also reckoned as a major 19th century explorer of the Amazon as well as a defender of its native peoples, the Brazilian state of Rondônia is named after him. In 1903 Brazil bought a large portion of northern Bolivia and made it its current state of Acre. In 2006 the new socialist Bolivian president Evo Morales talked about "getting it back. The Brazilians got it for the price of a horse". No action was taken and the two nations remain friendly. In the late 19th century, a US-Brazilian joint venture failed to implement the Madeira-Mamoré railway, in the state of Rondônia, with a huge cost in money and lives. Intense deforestation began in the second half of the 20th century, with population growth and development plans such as the failed Brazilian Trans-Amazonian Highway. In the late 1980s the Brazilian Chico Mendes, who lived in Acre, became internationally famous for his passionate defense of the forest and its people, especially after he was shot to death by farmers whose interests he harmed. Cities Amazonia is not heavily populated. There are a few cities along the Amazon's banks, such as Iquitos, Peru and scattered settlements inland, but most of the population lives in cities, such as Manaus in Brazil. In many regions, the forest has been cleared for soy bean plantations and ranching (the most extensive non-forest use of the land) and some of the inhabitants harvest wild rubber latex and Brazil nuts. This is a form of extractive farms, where the trees are not cut down, and thus this is a relatively sustainable human impact. The land The Amazon basin is bounded by the Guiana highlands in the north and the Brazilian highlands in the south. The Amazon, which rises in the Andes Mountains at the west of the basin, is the second longest river in the world. It covers a distance of about 6,400 km before draining into the Atlantic Ocean. The Amazon and its tributaries form the largest volume of water. The Amazon accounts for about 20% of the total water carried to the oceans by rivers.Some of the Amazon Rainforest is deforested because of a growing interest in hardwood products. It is also very grassy. Languages The most widely spoken language in the Amazon is Portuguese, followed closely by Spanish. On the Brazilian side Portuguese is spoken by at least 98% of the population, whilst in the Spanish-speaking countries there can still be found a large amount of speakers of Native American languages, though Spanish easily predominates. There are hundreds of native languages still spoken in the Amazon, most of which are spoken by only a handful of people, and thus seriously endangered. One of the most widely spoken languages in the Amazon is Reengage, which is actually descended from the ancient Tupi language, originally spoken in coastal and central regions of Brazil, and brought to its present location along the Rio Negro by Brazilian colonizers, who until the mid-17th century used Tupi more than the official Portuguese to communicate. Besides modern Reengage, other languages of the Tupi Family are spoken there, along with other language families like Jê (with its important subbranch Jayapura spoken in the Xingu River region and others), Arawak, Karib, Arawá, Yanomamo, Matsés and others. French, Spanish, and Portuguese are all similar to and derived from Latin.	http://75-3-247-200.lightspeed.sntcca.sbcglobal.net:81/wikipedia_en_for_schools_opt_2013/A/wp/a/Amazon_Basin.htm

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