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Fantasy can be one of the easiest genres to write in my opinion as an author. Everything in fantasy can be totally dissociated from reality, giving writers unlimited options that are irrefutable to readers.
But therein also lies the hindrance I notice when beta reading fantasy: authors have too much wiggle room and neglect aspects that are vital for cultivating their imaginary world. Here are some of the most common issues I encounter when reading fantasy…
Lack of World Building
Fantasy writers often open a novel by throwing readers into a brand-new world without explaining HOW things in this world work. This isn’t to say that readers require a full description in the opening chapter. If you drop a reader in the middle of a world unlike Earth, you have to equip your reader with an understanding of the rules of this new world. Remember that not only are readers learning about the territory of this new world, but they’re also learning about any inhuman creatures (elves, warlocks, ghosts) that exist there as well, and how any magic functions and affects settings/characters in the story.
World building looks like:
- Establishing a time period (medieval, modern, future, time is non-existent or may be irrelevant, etc.)
- Establishing location (can be relative or exact: in the mountains or America)
- Establishing the order of government, if present (knights are above citizens, elves are superior to dwarves, etc.)
- Establishing how magic works (magic heals instead of doctors, portals instead of planes and trains, weapons aren’t physical but magical, spells can be created at random, etc.)
Any way that your world differs from Earth in a major way (no gravity, the story is set in the future where the resources have dried up), explaining that difference provides readers with clarity.
Not All Fantasy Creatures are the Same
What comes to mind when you read the word “vampire?” Are you seeing the Salvador brothers from Vampire Diaries, the Cullens from Twilight, or Blade? Vampires in each of these movies are unique to their story. Damon doesn’t glitter in the sunlight. Blade is the only daywalker in his franchise (aside from Dracula). Bela Lugosi in Dracula (1931) wore a cape, but you’d never see Edward donning one in Twilight’s small town of Forks. The point is vampires in all of these stories offer a unique definition of what a “vampire” is.
Same thing with werewolves. What comes to mind when you think of them? Any of these:
Are your elves like the ones in Lord of the Rings? Do your dwarves follow the recent stereotype of short, drunk men?
The point is, no two fantasy species (dwarves, dragons, elves, werewolves, vampires, ghosts, etc.) are similar from story to story. If you just throw in the word “elf” or “vampire,” your readers are going to associate your fantasy species with whatever species they’re familiar with prior to reading.
The best way to establish your fantasy species is to give them more of a description than “werewolf.” Answer basic questions throughout the novel such as:
- What does your fantasy species look like? (Do you have a quadrupedal werewolf or a bipedal?)
- What are your fantasy species’ powers? (Can your vampires morph into bats?)
Sometimes, association to other works is helpful and prevents you from having to describe your fantasy species at all. If what we traditionally think of ghosts (that they’re translucent spirits of dead people) is true to your ghosts, there’s no need to explain that. The stereotype has done the work for you!
Regardless, distinguishing your fantasy species can help readers understand how those characters interact with other species, powers, magic, and constructs in the book.
Magic is Convenient
Probably my least favorite part about fantasy is when writers use magic to conveniently rescue their characters. Sometimes, the convenience of magic is calculated: The author arms a character with a magical power perfectly suited to solve a problem that arises later in the novel.
Other times, the magic is boundless. For example, a character conjures a spell of random words that they’ve never used before and won’t ever use again because it was created by the author for this scene specifically.
Either way, when magic is used opportunely, it impairs the character’s development and robs the readers of adequate tension and suspense in the scene.
Fantasy is the genre I beta read the most of, and a handful of over-qualified stories with exemplary characters and plots have crossed my desk. Shane Smith and Scott Killian come to mind right off the bat. But I have read enough fantasy novels with these three struggles that it was worth mentioning.
Do you have any recommendations for fantasy authors that I missed? Do you have a favorite fantasy author or fantasy book?
Thank you for reading! | https://writerdannyraye.com/2022/12/27/why-fantasy-can-be-my-least-favorite-genre/ |
Anyway, I did manage to see my kung fu brother Jon yesterday, and we gamed for a bit. So now I have footage for more CoOpted episodes, making up for the stupidity of my losing four episodes worth of footage from the last time. Those should be going up next week. I have also been editing Nights at the Round Table stuff, stuff for Ottawa Reads and stuff for CanCon. It's been a thing.
While things were rendering last night, and after I had a much needed chat with my mum (hi , Mum!), I did manage to get in a few hours of Skyrim. Afterwards, I had a long think about the suspension of disbelief.
Part of the reason many books and games are so impactful for me is because I can an do very readily suspend my disbelief. I mean, if you really think about it, a lot of stuff that is required to make games or books work is really silly.
For fantasy games, for example, you often find bits and pieces of armour laying about, in chests in dungeons or you can loot them from defeated foes. If that armour proves better than the stuff you currently have, you can simply put it on.
This is particularly hilarious if the foe you just defeated is quite clearly much larger (or smaller) than you are.
Anyone who knows this stuff knows that ill-fitting armour helps the wearer not one whit. In games like Skyrim, armour is magic, whether is is enchanted or not. It shrinks or grows to fit you perfectly. Obviously, that's ludicrous, but it's barely a thought as you change up your armour sets. You just take something from a chest of loot a body and it magically fits.
And we just accept that.
That's a game mechanic that probably wouldn't work in a book so much. Probably.
Similarly, strange things happen in books that readers would have a lot of trouble accepting if it happened in real life. I mean, if a tree just randomly started talking to you, you'd probably wonder what kind of psychosis you've suddenly contracted, or just what kind of mushrooms were in that Penne you had for lunch. In a fantasy novel, however, it tends to just be accepted (by most readers, and if done well enough).
I wonder why. What is it exactly that makes people able and willing to suspend their disbelief for the duration of a game or book (or film)? It certainly doesn't work for every book or game. For example, the game I'm currently recording with Jon for CoOpted is just silly. There's so much in there that makes me want to roll my eyes. I make fun of it quite a bit (when I'm not dying). There have been books where, no matter how willing I was, I was simply unable to suspend my disbelief.
Thinking about this stuff, I realise that I have absolutely no idea what it is that makes people suspend their disbelief while reading/watching/gaming. Part of it is a willingness to, obviously, but even that doesn't always guarantee it'll happen.
No doubt it is a mix of audience willingness, and the quality of the writing, the world-building, character creation and development, and, of course, how compelling the story is.
For Skyrim, for example, part of my suspension of disbelief is how fascinating the world you find yourself in is. There are ruins that speak to a long history, filled with wars and intrigue. You get hits of it in the landscape; the ruins of forts, the Dwemer ruins that were suddenly abandoned, left to the twisted Falmer. You find it in mentions of ancient battles and heroes in books, and conversations with NPCs. These mentions are never complete, leaving the player with a desire to learn more about it all. At least, for myself, and largely because I'm such an ancient history/archaeology nerd. Some of my favourite things to do in game is explore ruins. Every time I come across the body of a scholar, whose notebook nearby reveals some mystery relating to ancient lore, I get stupidly excited.
Questions of what happened and why in world keep me up last night. Like, for example, I am obsessed with the question of why the Dwemer blinded the Falmer. Why? Why did they demand that? What was the purpose? The result was that they ended up enslaving the Falmer, but was that the purpose? Were the Dwemer really just that awful? And surely there must have been some Dwemer that resisted the evil in their own ranks? And then there's the question of where did they go? The Dwemer and their Falmer slaves were at war when the Dwemer just suddenly upped and vanished.
I have a theory, given what I know of the Dwemer, but I have grave doubts about this theory because I simply do not know enough... and I need to know! That's some exceptional world building, and that element of ancient history and the mysteries it presents is key to my complete engrossment when playing the game; enough that the things that make no sense (magical armour!) don't even register... until I think about it later.
What do you think? What do you require for you to be able to suspend your disbelief enough that you can read/watch/game without pause? I'm interested to know. Leave your thoughts in the comments below.
PS - My theory is that the Dwemer managed to open a portal to a new dimension and escaped there, thusly ending the war with the enemy they created for themselves (the Falmer). That dimension? Oblivion. The Dwemer became the Daedra. I mean, if you think about it... the Daedra are just as awful as the Dwemer seemed to be. Now this is just a stab in the dark, and probably very wrong, but that's my current theory. It is subject to change. | https://www.smcarriere.com/journal/suspending-disbelief |
Be ready to be enthralled by magic.
By creatures you never imagined.
And by every supernatural being there is.
Born into a lineage of witches, the Pogue brothers encounter danger wherever they go. It follows them like a dark shadow, like one of the many demons who track their movement.
Alongside their friends, the Romani Coven, the witches must battle the power of evil to protect the human race.
With a Pogue and Romani witch held captives and war on the rise the witches are placed in a tense situation, grasping at straws for the final results.
Kester’s writing style possesses a sense of directory. He doesn’t beat around the bush leaving the reader behind trying to decipher what will happen. He uses simple words in short sentences to portray a clear message to the reader.
A unique literary device Kester uses in his novel is italics. He changes the font when something is being explained or if there is a flashback to the past. I really admired the change of font as it added originality to the writing and ease to the reading. If the reader had any unanswered questions they were answered through the use of italics.
I also appreciate the use of dialogue. There is nothing I dislike more than books with long, never-ending bodies of paragraphs. I understand, words are important but as a reader I prefer hearing and seeing what’s unfolding through a character’s words. It helps me to visualize myself in the place of the character. There was good use of dialogue in this novel. I was able to feel what the characters felt and knew how the experiences affected them.
My favourite character in Something Wicked is a witch from the Romani Coven, Madelyne. Every witch possesses an individual power, but not every one uses them the way she does. She holds herself on a pedestal of confidence and intimidation. When there was a demon to battle she never backed down, but persevered full speed ahead. Madelyne has a powerful personality which makes her a memorable character.
When reading this book one must be careful. There many characters which can become confusing. I do this with every book I read, but when reading this one I advise you make little notes as to who the characters are. This will help diffuse confusion in the long run.
I can’t count on one hand how many magical beings Kester included in his novel. It was brilliant. The ending was impactful, a perfect lead into a series.
If fantasy is your cup of coffee then this novel brings an extra dose of caffeine. I recommend this book to anyone aged 14 and up who love to read about witches and mythical creatures.
Don’t dive in too deep, or you may never come out.
This is a debut novel by T. R. Kester and a good start to what looks to be a promising writing career.
The Pogues and the Romani take center stage in this story which revolves around the magical town of Treadwell.
The story has loads of action – supernatural, kidnap, magic, betrayal – the mind boggles.
There are some editing/repetition issues but the writing overall from a new author is very, very good.
I am not an avid reader or fan of supernatural but I did enjoy this well told tale.
Note: The story ends on a cliffhangar, there are so many questions yet to be answered.
Overall, a solid 4.5* read.
All those of you who were around when Buffy and Charmed were popular, you’ll surely recognize their influence on this book. These two universes merged together (with the emphasis on the witch part, sadly for us vampire lovers) and added even more creatures, making it a unique mix.
Tha’s what I saw potential in – the plethora of cool creatures with awesome abilities making the book interesting. However, too many can be a bad thing. Unfortunately, the author kept adding so many characters throughout the book that neither of them got enough story into their background and thus their appearance in the book felt shallow and artificial. For a long time I couldn’t wrap my mind around them all and felt confused by the constant addition of more characters and then I realised that I couldn’t develop any feelings toward any of them (be it negative or positive) and because of that I couldn’t care less who won at the end. Which is sad because when I read a book about the battle of two sides I want to be able to choose and cheer for one of them. Here I couldn’t.
Speaking of battles – that’s something the author does well. Pretty much in every chapter there is a fight between two parties including a lot of effects and moves. Those of you who are into this kind of thing, you’ll be happy. To me, it felt like a script for a movie or the said TV shows. The action was great but sometimes it felt like the plot was on vacation and the purpose of the book’s existence was mainly for these scenes (those of you familiar with Greek drama imagine this: exposition, rising action, rising action, rising action,…oh wait, did we just jump right to the catastrophe?!).
You know how I hate trilogies and other -logies because I feel like the publishers just want to squeeze more money out of people and force the authors to artificially prolong a story which would be wonderful in one book but comes out too diluted in a series? Here, it was the exact opposite. If the author focused more on fewer characters and developed the story by putting in more background info, it would be a very adventurous series. But in just one book it felt rushed and not consistent.
“A fabulous book, worthy of praise, with a ripper start. What more could you want than a winged cougar?! A page turner from the very beginning to the very end. Passages will excite and entice readers, forcing them to read to the last word. I myself could not put it down. Just one thing I love are the twists. Just when you think you have everything figured out, something else jumps into perspective, like a siren, a new witch, or a new demon. Kester has brung together the world of magic and mortals; a mix that will be fatal for some characters!
I would recommend this book for people aged thirteen and up, as some words and content are too mature for younger readers. Although after you read it, I can guarantee that you will read it again. With a dynamic, sad and extremely powerful ending, I believe a sequel is in order! I would give this book five out of five.
The only thing I would recommend is a comment on the cover telling the reader about mature content.
“By now you may have realised that I’m a sucker for a local author, a debut author and sometimes a self-published author, so when I was approached by T.R. Kester, who happens to be all three, how could I possibly resist. Kester’s debut is also in one of my long time fave genres so I slid it in near the top of the pile. I’m certainly a sucker for a fantasy but sometimes these days I hold back because I need to concentrate more deeply on a fantasy to immerse myself properly in the world.
Something Wicked is the beginning of a series that promises to be epic. Three brothers born into a powerful line of witches stretching back to Salem, and Ancient Egypt, have fallen out of touch and they have to find a way back to one another to strengthen their power to face the challenges ahead.
There are a lot of characters in this novel, with more to be added in each book. There is an invaluable guide to keep track of who’s who in the very involved story included in the front of the book. Some of the characters are known by more than one name so it does get a little convoluted and confusing at times but once you get it all straight you should be alright.
Something Wicked is set in the gothic, fictional Treadwell, Deane County. I found the world building difficult to grasp, possibly because of where I live. Deane County seems to be somewhere close to Los Angeles but there were lots of familiar places names used from close to home. This may have only stuck out to me because of where I live and that they are familiar. People living in other areas will probably not give it a second thought.
Witches, vampires, sirens, mermaids, demigoddesses and demons – Something Wicked has them all and at times it all seems a bit fluid. The mythology seems to be both well researched and utilising poetic license. All of which ties together for an intense read requiring concentration. Much of this may be down to my headspace at the moment and the amount of time I have spent away from the genre.
The story behind the book is almost as intriguing as the story inside the book, and hopefully we will be able to bring you some of that in an upcoming interview.
Much of Something Wicked revolves around family, and the importance of that connection. The Pogue family power is compromised by the rift between the brothers but there is also great power in the Romani family, who may need to come to the rescue of Treadwell while the Pogue brothers struggle to put their differences aside.
Fantasy lovers will get a real kick out of the melding of mythologies and the belief that nothing is irreversible, except vampirism. Whether you choose the light side or the dark you can always change your mind.
My head is all over the place and with everything going on in the real world it’s been days between finishing the book and starting the review…. never a helpful mix.
Something Wicked demonstrates that having a disability doesn’t make you lesser, it only makes you different and that gives you different strengths even though you may have a weakness or two. One of the characters is deaf and the fact that he is the youngest of the family doesn’t really help his cause, his parents forever want to protect him and cushion him from what happens in the world which only makes him more determined to prove his independence.
Having said that Something Wicked is very involved and takes concentration, it was still an engrossing read that I managed to get through in a weekend which was quite a surprise. I thought it was going to take much longer.
Something Wicked is the first book by T.R. (Troy) Kester and I believe that he is an self-published author. The story revolves around two strong magical families the Pogues and the Romani, the Pogues are witches while the Romani are a witch/gypsie hybrid. They protect the world from evil magical beings and their main location is in the fictional town of Treadwell, Deane County. Treadwell is a magic haven and there is something else special about it and your gonna have to read to find out.
You guys I really liked this book, it is chock-filled with the supernatural. Also let it be know that I am a bit of a geek. I love all the geeky stuff like Star Wars (original trilogy), Harry Potter, anime, manga, Star Trek (new stuff), comics and graphic novels (because they are two different things), magic and so much more. I am also a big fan of action movies so imagine my delight that this book has so many battle scenes.
I really enjoyed the story so much and I hated to give Something Wicked the rating 3.75 stars. Unfortunately I had to give it a lower rating because I had some issues with this book. Some of the facts about the characters got mixed up and there was repeating in parts where I feel it was unneeded. The main work was goo it’s just that the writing needs to be fine tuned and it needs editing a little more. I know that Troy will improve and I am looking forward to that.
I love that Something Wicked reminded me of Charmed (American TV series about witches) and had all of these pop-culture references, stuff I actually knew. The characters were multilingual and Troy put the word mean in the paragraph, loved that. There were so many supernatural creatures mentioned and the different levels of witches and demons. The huge family trees of these two clans was amazing and I wish Troy would put it in the book because you wouldn’t believe who is related to who.
Something Wicked had magic, family issues, betrayal, magical powers, loads of supernaturals, other realms, kidnappings, Buffy references and other pop-culture, “romance”, evil plots, high level fighting skills, flashbacks, assassins and so much more. This book was like an tribute to the stuff I love. Something Wicked ended on a cliff-hanger, so many things were left unfinished and the questions I have need to be answered. I look forward to the next book in this series is Something Secret. | http://www.trkester.com.au/reviews/ |
Shh! Can you keep a secret?
Set in Scotland in 1565, Smailholm tells the story of Wynn, daughter of Laird and Lady Hoppringle, who has a very big secret. She has discovered a miniature village living under the brambles near her family home, Smailholm tower. With border raiders nearby, the small folk are in danger and need Wynn to help them break the curse that has reduced them to their current size. Wynn also faces dangers of her own - the scheming plans of her uncle who would see her sent to court to be married, which is not at all to free-spirited Wynn's liking. With the help of the moon folk, Wynn and the Smailholm secret residents set off to Rubers Law in hopes of reversing the curse. But will the Quog king or mysterious Deablin aid them on their quest, or add more hurdles to an already perilous predicament?
This book has been marketed as "The Borrowers meets The Hobbit" and I have to say, this is a very accurate tag line. Immediately, 'The Borrowers' came to mind in the minute detail of the small folks' daily life and world that the author depicts. The quest they go on is very reminiscient of 'The Hobbit' and Middle Earth. There are mountains full of gold, unnatural looking creatures (these are the quogs who may or may not be good-natured), and even hooded figures in the night. It has all the ingredients for a good adventure story and it leaves the reader satisfied on this front. I was intrigued and the quick pace helped sustain my enthusiasm.
However, there are some areas which could have been improved. Clearly Williams can write. There is some beautiful imagery interspersed throughout the novel, and the world she creates is fully believable. What I had issue with was the inconsistent syntax. While the novel is set in 1565, the author hasn't quite decided if she's writing in that style or not. In the first half of the novel, the characters seem to speak in a more old-fashioned style. For example, "I do admit in youth these walls seemed a cage to me" and the "fourth day of each week" - please just write Thursday. Deablin's passages are also, somewhat randomly, filled with thee and thy. The issue I have is not that the author has adopted this style, it's that it's inconsistent. In my opinion, words should flow seamlessly off the page. If I have to stop and decipher stuff (yes I had to work out Thursday was day 4!), it breaks the spell and wonder that is fantasy novels.
by Rebecca
I really enjoyed this book. It sucked me in fairly quickly as I am a big fan of historical fiction and fantasy. It is labeled as young adult fiction and I think that is a perfect placement. I might consider reading it or letting my 11 and 8-year-old read it except for one small part where the characters go swimming in their undergarments and then kiss. I know other than that small part they would really love the book. For me, it was an entertaining and engaging quick read. I was thankful and thrilled when I ended the book to know that a sequel is in the works. I would recommend this book.
Thanks, @netgalley for the opportunity to read this book before it was released!
by Krystle
Smailholm tells the story of 13 year old Wynn Hoppringle. She has a big secret of the smallest kind and has discovered a miniature village beneath her family home of Smailholm. With danger close by Wynn must help her tiny friends by finding a cure to the curse and join them on a journey to Rubers Law, a fire mountain, home to the scheming bat-like quogs.
I purchased the book for my niece and we read it together. We enjoyed the fast pace plot and heartwarming setting of Smailholm. The characters too were easy to like and it was exciting to go on an adventure with them. I very much look forward to reading the second book.
C.L Williams is a talented author with a bright writing future ahead. The attention to detail she has given this and the thought and care she has put into the package and all the extras makes her stand out from the rest.
My niece wears her pin and carries Smailholm around with her so she can find clues on the map.
I would highly recommend everyone to give this book a read.
by Joanne
A strong fantasy debut from a promising new author.
Smailholm is rich with all the right fantasy elements and magical peoples to ensure a captivating read. All without falling into cliched storylines.
In Wynn we have an engaging and relatable protagonist, whilst in Deablin and the king quog we have refreshingly two-dimensional antagonists.
Williams creates a page-turning pace throughout. Minor gripes aside, the story is well-edited, highly readable, and free from the dull filler content that so often plagues the fantasy genre.
This series will be one to watch.
by Roxanne
Smailholm was an engaging middle-grade fantasy that was easy to read and fun to enjoy. It is a historical fantasy with olde-worlde language in small parts. I enjoyed the setting of Scotland, the differences between the haves and the have-nots and of course the Lilliput/Borrowers context of little people in a little land.
There were two protagonists in this story, a 13-year old girl called Wynn who was noblewomen-to-be living in Smailholm Tower and then short chapter interludes from Deablin. Who or what Deablin is, is revealed during the story but it was a clever connection, even though her short interjections were sometimes a little confusing. That said, the confusion was part of the story and it did build up to answers eventually.
Wynn had found the little village, hidden under the brambles, where she was a giant and they were very small. Wynn had been getting to know these folks for a few years and they had become trusted friends. At the fore of the village people were Jimmy and Jenny. Vargo, Wynn’s dog was also a key character and a sweet addition to the story.
What starts off as an interesting story becomes one of adventure, fantastical beings and unsavoury creatures. It all made for a rather fast-paced story. There were moments of reading confusion with some of the fantasy elements but the world building came and caught me up on most questions. I found the eventual Deablin answers a bit confusing and some of the beings or spirits connected to that difficult to get into. The rest of the story kept me engaged, however.
The story finished rather openly and with some elements I want to know more about and some characters I need to know about. This was a solid debut from CL Williams and I would definitely read her work again.
by Micky
I loved this book. I love historical fiction, so it was a perfect blend of fantasy with historical elements. I found it entertaining, it was like going on a nice adventure. I would definitely recommend it.
by Umut
I loved the world building. The fact that it took place in real slash fictitious locations was fun. I also love a good map and the map this book is gorgeous. It also helps follow the story pared with the descriptive nature of the book made me feel completely immersed. The creatures in the world were also very interesting.
The story has multiple POV's, which I enjoyed. It creates a fast-paced plot. Really enjoyable read, with above average characters that have depth and lack cliches.
by Darian
This story was absolutely fantastic. I thoroughly enjoyed my trip to Smailholm, and all the wonderous inhabitants there! Wynn is a wonderful protagonist, and the secondary characters are delightful. There is a definite Hobbit vibe to the story (but what fantastical quest doesn’t have that), while still being its own unique story.
Perhaps because of it being an e-arc, the chapters labeled “Deablin” were difficult to understand at first. Luckily as I kept reading they began to piece together to add a fun dramatic element to the story. A few grammatical and spelling errors throughout that will hopefully have been fixed by publication.
I did not expect to enjoy this story so thoroughly! I was completely entranced. I will anxiously await the sequel!
by Maria
This book was received from the Author, and Publisher, in exchange for an honest review. Opinions and thoughts expressed in this review are completely my own.
A lovely fantasy of a curse, friendship, and magical adventures. Along with captivating characters that adds a perfect place to anyone’s bookshelf.
A enchanting medieval tale comes to life with beautiful imagery. Set in wild medieval Britain, thirteen year old Anne-Wynn Hopringle, the second of 3 daughters with the first name Anne is a wonderfully fleshed out three demetional protagonist.
Wynn Hoppringle, guards an incredible secret. She has found a tiny village that is concealed under the brambles beside her family home of Smailholm Tower.
This perfectly paced middle grade ya fantasy happens to be on the boarder of Britain and Scotland. Richly atmospheric details come to life within these lovely pages.
Anne-Wynn Hopringle, the second of 3 daughters with the first name Anne,
A lovely tale of friendship with unlikely well developed captivating heroes. I was completely immersed in this creative fantasy. The author prose flows seamlessly, and the lush atmospheric magical imagery catapults you into these stunning pages.
An easy to follow plot line that has two meticulously woven stories, that comes together perfectly at the end. I absolutely loved the chapters of Deablin.
This spellbinding book that held my attention all the way through, and I am patiently waiting to read the next from this very talented author.
by Gwendalyn
Claire Williams lives in Cheshire with her husband and children Ava and Henry. She is proud to be called a 'Clayhead' a person born in the Potteries (Stoke on Trent) and will always turn over a china cup to see where it is made. She is a huge fantasy fan and will often be found snuggled in front of the TV watching a sci-fi or fantasy movie. Smailholm is her first novel, inspired by visits to the Scottish Borders on family holidays. | https://www.troubador.co.uk/bookshop/young-adult/smailholm-hb-6024/ |
Christian urban fantasy defined for me
Christian urban fantasy defined for me as I get started anew. It’s time for a new book. I’m drawn to Urban Fantasy because my stories are too edgy for Contemporary or even Paranormal Romance. Besides, my characters tend to know the Lord enough to not go through the angst of a romance.
Also, in this time of the signs, true belief in Jesus has become a fantasy for most—including many in the church. Because I’m one of those spirit-filled believers who actually believes that Jesus didn’t change at the end of Acts, or when the canon was established for the New Testament. Hebrews tells me that.
So, how do I define Christian urban fantasy?
In the world, urban fantasy writers can be very popular, combining a edgy urban setting with fantasy elements like mythical creatures and magic. Of course, as believers, we know that many of these mythical creatures have a demonic origin. For example, there is good reason to believe that Norse, Greek, and Roman Mythologies were built on the giants, probably resulting from the Nephilim.
God had good reasons for the Flood. Yet, it is also obvious that the beings killed by the flood left their spirits behind, becoming what we now know as demons. That word was not used before the Flood. But these demons have the memories of those pre-Flood creatures.
Christian Urban Fantasy combines the dense worldbuilding of fantasy and science fiction with the gritty grounded reality of contemporary novels set in urban locales. If they take place in small towns they should technically be called Contemporary Fantasy, but that’s not an option in most category lists like Amazon KDP or IngramSpark.
7 Elements of Christian Urban Fantasy
- Fantasy tropes: we tell stories in the modern world with the complex worldbuilding found in the occult and spiritual warfare. Fantasy story lines work well in a world that is growing increasingly insane. I list a few common tropes below.
- An urban setting: Although small town urban fantasies make sense, most take place in present-day major cities. But you can easily explain that in your descriptions.
- Magic: Supernatural elements, the occult, Masonic spiritual power, witches, warlocks, works of power, and miracles. All the wonders of the New Age, the counterfeits of the enemy, and the realities of spirit-filled living. A lot of this is brought into reality through people involved with role playing games. There are plenty of urban myths to go around. They are increasing as psychedelics are being used for psychotherapy. There’s a reason why psilocybin is often called the Spirit Molecule. Experiences with demons are common with the psychedelics. All of these things will increase as we draw closer to the end of the age of the Gentiles.
- A noir aesthetic: Worldly urban fantasies often contain elements of crime, eroticism, cynicism, moral ambiguity, cruelty, strangeness, and fatalism. This level of sin is not hard to find—in fact it is the new norm—prophesied by Paul in II Timothy 3. The stories are often set in remote or lawless areas—but that can be anywhere in modern America. We’re largely isolated on our devices. This would include the dark net and many areas of online existence. The stories are often about elusive phenomena or something that’s just out of reach of the main characters.
- Mythical creatures: Worldly urban fantasies are populated with supernatural creatures including (but not limited to) undead zombies, vampires, werewolves, druids, demons, aliens, shapeshifters, and perhaps a mage or wizard. The Christian variant realizes that as lawlessness increases humans role-play many of these mythical beings out in the real world. Plus, the satanic kingdom offers convincing counterfeits of these creatures.
- A protagonist with a foot in both worlds: The main character of an urban fantasy is typically experienced in the real-life ways of their urban environment yet can also wield or exploit magical powers. So, our hero or heroine gets radically reborn. For us, we are talking about spirit-filled living using the spiritual gifts.
- A young protagonist: Relatively young characters who practice wizardry or witchcraft are common in worldly urban fantasy series. Brand-new radically reborn believers have all the access to the realities of the Kingdom of God—often far before they understand what is going on.
Common fantasy tropes
- The chosen one: One of the most common tropes involves a seemingly ordinary protagonist being plucked from obscurity in order to fulfill a great and singular purpose. Oftentimes, these characters are fulfilling the prophecy of an ancient text or dream.
- The dark lord: This is a character who personifies the forces of evil—a magical overlord who commands vast armies. Could be an occultic wizard, witch, warlock—or just a demon-possessed billionaire.
- The quest: A character going on a journey in order to complete a goal or task. The gives a calling or a vision to follow and obey.
- The damsel or guy in distress: This character is placed in mortal danger by the bad guys and gals, requiring the hero or heroine to rescue her or him.
- The mentor: A wise, elderly figure who educates the protagonist and gives them the training and information necessary to eventually save the world and triumph in the battle of good vs. evil.
What makes it Christian?
Jesus the Messiah. There are large portions of the modern Christian walk of faith that look like fantasy. Our society believes that miracles are mythical. Jesus is often seen as mythical in the post-Christian America. The world cannot see or understand the Holy Spirit.
The modern Christian is living a fantastic life—fantasy in an urban setting. We are living in a time where more people believe aliens are present [at least in UFOs] than there are people who believe Jesus rose from the dead. | https://radiqx.com/2021/08/christian-urban-fantasy-defined-for-me/ |
Though self-organization in a complex system is devoid of any explicit intent (i.e., system-level will or centralized control) to pursue specific aims or goals, a system possesses an intrinsic feature that underlies the capacity of its actors or components to possibly influence and manage other system properties (e.g., its resilience) and system ability to self-organize against novelty and change. This feature is defined as system adaptability.
In a natural CAS, it is related to the variability at different scales from genetic diversity (e.g., fitness to unpredictable changes), to species biodiversity (e.g., a portfolio effects of local species pool), or the heterogeneity of ecosystems and landscape mosaics in terms of structural patterns and processes. In an SES, it is related to the human social ability to learn (i.e., to create new ideas, laws, or norms) and the existence of social networks creating flexibility in problem-solving and balancing of power among interest groups. Thus adaptability is mainly a function of the social component (i.e., the individuals or groups, social norms, or economic organizations) acting directly or indirectly to manage and to dominate primarily the dynamics and direction of change of a system. However, though humans exhibit intent and are unique in having the capacity for foresight and deliberate action, an SES as a whole does not (e.g., as in the case of a market).
Adaptability could be hardly evaluated outside a retrospective analysis in real SES as it requires to assess the way actors may affect, for example, the system ecological resilience or its vulnerability/fragility. By the historical profiling of an SES' dynamic regimes and transition events, the role of actors could be enlightened and delayed effects (e.g., social learning from response to laws or disasters) appreciated. Focus needs to be on how actors could intentionally or not shift system thresholds away from or closer to the current state of the system, or the system could be moved from or closer to a threshold (Figure 1). Thresholds could be made more difficult or easier to reach, or acting at different hierarchical levels human actors could deal with cross-scale interactions to avoid or generate loss of system properties at bigger scales (e.g., by adopting national laws or international trade agreements).
Project Earth Conservation
Get All The Support And Guidance You Need To Be A Success At Helping Save The Earth. This Book Is One Of The Most Valuable Resources In The World When It Comes To How To Recycle to Create a Better Future for Our Children. | https://www.ecologycenter.us/population-dynamics-2/system-adaptability.html |
Organisational improvisation is often seen as a way for corporations to be able to cope with emergent strategies (Cunha, et al, 1999) and a way to meet the challenges of modern ways of working which include agility, flexibility and responsiveness (Vera and Crossan, 2004). However, seeing improvisation as a tool that can be used to deliver desirable organisational change is placing it within a discourse of systemic consultancy techniques that are predicated on assumptions about organisational change which I argue do not reflect the everyday lived experiences of people at work. As a management consultant, I have worked with many organisations using tools and techniques in an attempt to deliver prescribed outcomes. However, these never seemed to turn out as expected, for my colleagues or myself. Through my research I have understood that organisational change is far more pluralistic and uncontrollable than is suggested by systems thinkers like Seddon (2003; 2008) because consultants or managers could never predict with certainty how change initiatives would play out. I build on Mead's model of communication (1934) where a gesture to another evokes a similar response in the gesturer as it does the responder as part of the whole social act. In doing so I argue that improvisation is a way of describing communicative interaction between human bodies which are interdependent and therefore in relations of power with one another. As groups and individuals we become invested in and caught up in organisational games where many different groups struggle against one another in an attempt to control the game and get what they want. As these improvisational moves in the game are played, narrative themes that organise our experience are both sustained and contested at the same time. But these narrative patterns are not solely about working practices or procedures but also include wider aspects of identity such as gender and sexuality, which are interwoven in our organisational lives. Specifically I am arguing that communication is not just one body gesturing and responding to another, but one sexed and gendered body gesturing and responding to another sexed and gendered body and this affects our interactions, assumptions and understanding of what it is we are doing together. These improvisations which both create and maintain narrative themes emerge through the paradox of the rehearsed and the unrehearsed at the spontaneous moment of performance, where the anticipation of an audience's reaction, represented by Mead's concept of the generalised other (1934: 154), both enables and constrains one's performance. | https://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.769012 |
Reception:
A. Sufficient technical playability on the instrument.
B. Corresponding physical fitness
C. Clapping of medium rhythms
Modules of the pre and. Middle School:
6 semesters:
Are intended as preparatory jubilees for the jazz section. With special talent and qualitative progress of playability, a vintage can be skipped. Simpler etudes Leavit, guitar school First improvisation exercises, phrasing exercises, Jazz Stilrichtun-gen. Maintenance of various conventional scales and chord progressions. From the 2nd year onwards in the middle studies: One ensemble obligation per year; "Swing" / "Be Bop". Entrance exam requirements: Conventional major and minor scales over 2 octaves as well as chord studies Simple Etudes on Leavit Difficulty, page 10-12 A self-selected performance jazz standard such as Blue Monk, Autumn Leaves, Blach Orpheus, Tenor Madness. Improvisation with an existing rhythm group e.g. a blues Prima Vista game of a simple jazz standard with improvisation about changes Completed General Music Theory and Ear Training I
Modules of the upper level:
1.u.2. Semester:
Scales and chords, toning exercises, finger and grip technique, technical education based on the study of W.G. Leavit: School for jazz guitar, Volume 1, P. Fischer's "Total Guitar Technique", "Joe Pass - Guitar Style", Guitar School of Garbraith. - Development of a repertoire.
3.u.4. Semester:
Scales & amp; Modes, Cords & amp; Progression, flexibility, advanced phrasing study, Style exercises, improvisations, sheet reading exercises, development of repertoire works. Guitar Schools by W.G. Leavit, Volumes 1 and 2, and Joe Pass, and Leavit: Melodic Rhythms for Guitar, J. Diorio: "Fusion", Accompaniment with Bass Lines, J. Vogel: Pop & amp; Funk Grooves, Aebersold Series Entrance exam: Knowledge of the teaching contents of the 1st and 2nd year A transcribed improvisation e.g. by Charly Parker: Yardbird Mprovisation of a theme with rhythm group An Etude on the difficulty level of "Joe Pass - Guitar-Style", A piece from J. Vogel: Pop & amp; Funk grooves Modules of the education level:
5.u.6. Semester:
Scales & amp; Modes, Chords & amp; Progressions, exercises for flexibility, style, Phrasing exercises, improvisation exercises, sheet play exercises. Technical training with Leavit: Melodic Rhythms, Joe Diorio: Fusion, Joe Pass: Transcriptions for Jazz Solos, J. Scofield: "Funk Guitar I & amp; II ", Joe Pass:" Virtuoso ".
7.u.8. Semester:
Leaf play, improvisations, chords & amp; Progressions, unconventional meters, Ensemble playing. Repetition of the studies from the third year. Development of a corresponding repertoire and the certified Audit program. Certified final exam requirements: Three Etudes from Diorio: "Fusion", Ch. Parker: "Omnibook" and current literature. Two exercises from O. Nelson: Pattern for Saxophone Self-Arranged Chord Soli Over Standards, e.g. "All the things you are" A jazz standard with rhythm group e.g. & Quot; walkin & quot; Two ballads e.g. Yesterday, Misty, Wave Two jazz standard swing, latin or jazz rock - (Joy Spring, Blue bossa, Satin doll, Budy & amp; Soul) A song with song or brass á la "Tuck & amp; Patti " Quitting a solo part in a big band formation From a shortlist of 30 standards, 10 must be memorized at the diploma exam can be played.
The certified final exam is in two parts, namely in a committee internal and one commissional public examination. | https://www.franz-schubert-conservatory.com/f-s-c-jazz-e-guitar-certificate |
Improvisation can be described as a “sudden” creation, a spontaneous moment of inventivity that can appear in mind, body or spirit as inspiration. Improvisation in every aspect of life and in any form of art mainly manifests itself when practiced to encourage creative behavior. This practice implies the use of intuition and a technical understanding of the abilities needed for the field where someone improvises.
Method
The game develops the ability to enjoy life being in itself a great source of joy. Play encompasses social values more than any other human activity. The essence of game develops social adaptability, mental and emotional self-control, ethical values, imagination and creativity.
Important
A module consists of one weekly session which lasts 120 minutes for groups comprising a minimum of 10 participants. The duration of a module is from 4 to 6 months.
Classes for non-professionals with a practical purpose
Our theater classes are a way to self-discovery and personal improvement. These classes are designed for those who wish to improve their ability of becoming more conscious of themselves, to broaden their own perception of reality and their reactions to others, implicitly strengthening their decision making skills in their daily lives.
The activity that unfolds during our classes opens up the possibility to self-discovery and the development of each individual’s personality by means of “instruments” which are specific for the dramatic arts, namely for actors, regardless of our students field of activity, their initial level of preparation, their temperament or cultural level.
Why should you participate?
Because each individual must constantly question the paradigm they are using and exercise their creativity in order to remain competitive.
What will you do in this class? | https://personact.ro/en/improvisation/ |
The last few months remind me of a work by the great Scottish poet Robert Burns, called “To a Mouse”. Although written in 1785 this poem seems as relevant today as ever. Burns reflects on the broken social union between humans and “other earth born fellow mortals”, on wealth inequality and, perhaps the most recognisable part, how the best laid schemes of mice and men often go awry.
Family Business New Zealand’s very well laid plans for 2020 certainly went awry in March, as they will have done so for everyone. Burns’ poem talks about the fear of not being able to see and predict the future as a consequence of a sudden interruption to plans and I think that’s probably an accurate description of what many businesses, families and individuals are experiencing right now.
Burns also reflects on how adaptability is key to survival and that will come as no surprise to those of you who are having to find new ways to work and live.
I want to thank all our members for your patience and understanding as Family Business New Zealand has had to cancel and reschedule our planned events this year. I know many of you were looking forward to our governance course, networking events, June Insights Conference and of course seeing Seth Godin.
FBNZ's Country Manager Nicole, with support from Family Business Australia, has worked tirelessly to keep members informed and find new ways to provide value to you. Our first Forum Group is ready to go live in October, online seminars were arranged (I hope you have signed up for the most recent one with Michelle King, Director of Inclusion at Netflix ) and we have a new schedule of great events planned for the remainder of 2020 and into 2021.
Family businesses will have a big influence on how New Zealand is to prosper in the years to come. Adaptability, flexibility and long-term planning are hallmarks of successful family businesses and will be key to New Zealand’s future success.
Covid-19 and government responses to it, have created intergenerational issues we wouldn’t have imagined 12 months ago.
Now more than ever we need to be engaging with and learning from each other. I encourage you to come along to our events over the next few months and make the most of the opportunities the Family Business New Zealand team have arranged for you.
My very best wishes to you all. | https://www.familybusiness.org.nz/message-from-the-chair-2020 |
This Weekend: Noel Kennon
Greetings, Racers!
This week we are welcoming Noel Kennon to the Racer stage. Noel, who moved to Seattle in recent years, has been attending the session regularly for several months. As a composer, pianist, and violist, Noel is a frequent presence on the stage and as many know after watching him improvise at the sessions, a person with a lot of care and attentiveness with regard to group improvisations. Joined by Trevor O'Loughlin (acoustic bass), Jacob Neenan (winds), Jack Burgess (vibraphones), and Luke Hagerman (electric bass), we are sure to see and experience something beautiful. Noel wrote a thoughtful blog post for us on improvisation and listening, featured below:
"I am very excited to be hosting this week! I hope you all come out and enjoy the music my group has prepared. On your way to and from Racer I would encourage you to perform the sonic meditation written by the late Pauline Oliveros, "Take a walk at night. Walk so silently that the bottoms of your feet become ears."
I was ecstatic when I was asked to curate a performance for Racer. I've been thinking a lot about the social aspect of improvising. The shared fleeting experience of improvising that Racer provides. I recently started reading a book entitled "The Presentation of the Self in Everyday Life." I will leave a link because I think the introduction really gives a good insight onto the social setting of free improvisation.
One thing I want to encourage in the improvisations of the night is intense FOCUS on the sounds not made by you - listening to what your fellow improvisers and environment have to tell you.
Another thing I would like to address briefly is one of the core problems in free improvisation, which is structure. All great pieces of music have an underlying structure that holds everything together. Even bad pieces of music have structure but it is more accidental and just sort of occurs. I want to encourage us all to try and make music that flows and transports instead of just happens. I will be bringing some text scores to help with this problem which of course will be optional to use.
Most importantly I want us to all remember to care about each other. I think this is something that can be forgotten and I do this too. We all have our lives and our problems but Racer, for me, is a kind of sanctuary at the end of my week to just have fun and interact in my favorite way, with sounds! When we care about each other and not about how we are alone or are coming across there is something beautiful that happens. We begin to actually converse and (have a) dialogue with each other, leaving no one behind in a mess of notes. This for me is the goal of free improvisation - not to prove that we can play but to make a moment for each other, a shared moment that in itself lasts frozen in our memory." | http://www.racersessions.com/blog/2017/5/14/this-weekend-noel-kennon |
International Conference "Theatre Between Tradition and Contemporaneity"
Theatre - Dance - Music - Visual & Multimedia Art - Arts Administration - Performing Arts Training - Theatre Design & Technology
December 16 - 20, 2017
Improvisation as Civic Engagement
.
Practical workshop by Antonio Ocampo-Guzman, Associate Professor of Theatre, College of Arts, Media & Design, Northeastern University in Boston, Massachusetts (USA).
Antonio brings over twenty-five years of professional experience as an actor, stage director and a trainer of actors. Currently serving as Associate Professor of Theatre at Northeastern University in Boston, Massachusetts, Antonio trained with Teatro Libre in his native Bogotá, Colombia, and with Shakespeare & Company in Lenox, Massachusetts. He received a Master of Fine Arts in Directing as well as a Graduate Diploma in Voice from York University, Toronto. He has acted, directed and coached over 50 productions in several countries.
Antonio is a Designated Linklater Master Voice Teacher and is the author of La Liberación de la Voz Natural: El Método Linklater (UNAM, 2010). He serves as a consultant for CEUVOZ, a center for voice studies in Mexico City, where he runs a Linklater Voice Teacher training program.
WORKSHOP OVERVIEW
Theatre-based improvisation provides a playful yet profound environment for us to discover, to understand and to maximize the ways in which we interact, communicate and collaborate with others. By taking part in a series of “on-your-feet” explorations and games, and then by deeply considering and discussing our experience, we will arrive at a new meaning of community engagement. Think of it as Civility in Action.
The session will enrich our ability to interact and to communicate with others with efficiency, commitment, and persuasiveness. The exercises and games will include spatial awareness, physical presence, mental agility, status, adaptability, risk taking, intuition, and teamwork. We will discover and develop practical skills to sharpen our ability to pay attention, to shift focus swiftly, and to work effectively in teams. The sheer delight of being fully present and committed to the moment will certainly boost our civic engagement.
I believe wholeheartedly in the power of Improvisation to create community. The basic tenant of saying ”yes and…” immediately creates an invitation to all voices to be heard, to all experiences to be accepted and to us to deepen our understanding of human behavior. My hope for the session is that it provides a truly innovative vehicle for conversation about ways in which we interact in society.
Organized by IUGTE in collaboration with "ArtUniverse" | http://www.iugte.com/projects/theatretradition/antonio-ocampo-guzman |
This workshop will allow writers of all genres to think and ‘write’ on their feet, using verbal and non-verbal warmups, and new original games to stimulate perspective, generate cognitive flexibility, and gain creative flow. Get rid of the negativity blocking your creativity in a judgement free zone. Gain a multifaceted perspective knowing that all answers are correct!
Unclogging the Brain through Improvisation
May 7 @ 7:00 PM - 9:00 PM| $50.00
About Lisa Jan Sherman
Lisa Jan Sherman is an actor and improvisational acting and cognitive skills coach. She has been a member of AFTRA, and SAG for over 35 years, and has performed on stage, and television, film and radio. Lisa received a B.A. in Theatre and Speech at University of Maryland. She is a founding member of 'NOW THIS!, the totally improvised, musical comedy troupe which had a 27 year run. Facilitating communication skills groups with children since 1995, and finding that the improvisational 'piece' created a natural basis for social skill development, Lisa co-developed the 'Act As If' program and with Laura McAlpine co-wrote 'ACT AS IF' (improvisational activities for better social communication).
Teaching Style: Flexible communicator-knowing we are all here to grow-and have fun! | https://www.writer.org/event/su19-unclogging-the-brain-through-improvisation/ |
What to do on bad mood days?
As humans we are ruled by our emotions rather than logic. Sure, we think we are very logical beings but in reality, our emotions always supersede our logic. Those emotions are quickly initiated by a number of triggers including physical, psychological, social and circumstantial. Are there days when you wake up wearing the grumpy… Read More
How flexible and adaptable are you are as a personality?
How flexible and adaptable are you are as a personality? For mental health professionals, flexibility and adaptability are two of the clear indicators of good mental health. When we observe you, we are looking for how well you can adapt to changing environments and circumstances. A lack of the ability to adapt and be flexible… Read More
Do you have problems being friends with people?
Human beings require many kinds of stimuli including food, water, vitamins, minerals, sunlight, shelter, warmth and even money in society to buy what we need and stay safe. What is also important is our relationships with each other because human interactions are actually a ‘food’ and add to our well-being. Are you someone who has… Read More
Are you following through to be successful in achieving your goals? | https://tracieokeefe.com/category/uncategorized/page/3/ |
Humans have a basic need to be socially connected, and social connection is an important factor for healthy aging and longevity. We are conducting the first rigorous and mechanistic test of whether stress management training programs (either mindfulness meditation or relaxation and health education) can foster social connection and inflammatory health among older adults.
Over the last three years we have been focusing on the active ingredients underlying mindfulness intervention effects— one particular area we are developing is the role of learning acceptance and equanimity skills. These skills help individuals learn how to relate to difficult or unpleasant experiences, and we think are a key to fostering stress resilience and health. You might check out some of our papers on this topic here. One area of current interest is how these skills can be taught and how they impact emotion regulation processes.
The primary goal of the Life@CMU study is to identify and gain a deeper understanding of the psychological, social, and institutional factors that affect students’ overall health and academic success. We are observing the day-to-day experiences of first-year students throughout their first semester using Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA). Participants report on current activities, social interactions, stress and traumatic experiences, mood, coping strategies, and health behaviors. Using a provided Fitbit and a mobile context AWARE app, participants also recorded continuous passive sensing measures of activity, sleep, location, and smartphone use behaviors during the entire semester. This important data on how CMU students work, eat, sleep, study, socialize, and live during their time here will provide important insights into the student life experience.
There has been tremendous growth and interest in smartphone mindfulness programs, and Headspace is the most popular smartphone app worldwide. We are conducting a new study of Headspace in the workplace, exploring how this mindfulness training program changes the brain, health, and one’s work.
While we know a great deal about how stress can increase our susceptibility to a broad range of health problems, we know much less about what makes people resilient under stress. In fact, the modal response to life adversity is one of resilience. We are conducting a large qualitative interview study exploring how people respond to adversity, and coding these interviews for cross-cutting themes. We are exploring stress-buffering factors such as social connections, mindset, meaning, mindfulness, coping flexibility, and early life factors across a variety of adversity experiences in these rich interviews. | https://www.healthandhumanperformancelab.com/new-page-2 |
Emilia's teaching philosophy is firmly rooted in the importance of providing students with high standard classes that develop their practice towards a professional career as performers, makers, teachers and community practitioners in the Arts. With knowledge of the current Dance Higher Education climate and the increasing issues facing new graduates, Emilia aims to encourage the best possible foundation for their future. It is a goal to produce lessons for students that are both aligned with contemporary professional practice and theoretically balanced, where students can engage and build their physical, creative, analytical and discursive skills for dealing with dance and performance.
Teaching Philosophy: Studio Classes for Undergraduate University Students
Emilia's studio dance classes are based on a style of moving and being that is influenced by a combination of previous training in Somatic Practices, Contemporary Dance and Alexander Technique, with traces of Ballet and Yoga. Classes look closely at maturing individuals’ own body knowledge, physical information, sensory awareness, relationship to time and space, critical-eye, embodiment, creative expression, choreographic voice and performance skills.
Emilia does this through a variety of methods and exercises, working in such a way that allows a two-way exchange between student and teacher, relating Emilia's previous experiences and training to the design of the classes. Emilia firmly believes that each student feeds her professional development, artistic work, pedagogical approaches and practice as research. Emilia endeavours to create and sustain a supportive environment whereby mutual respect and professional etiquette are key.
Emilia tailors classes in accordance to students’ fitness, flexibility, agility, stamina and co-ordination skills, with a steady progression throughout the class and a significant progression throughout the course overall. Emilia encourages students to view their dance classes and training not as exercise in itself, but as the activity that they need to exercise and prepare for, outside of class time. In the reality of the Arts sector, studio-time is extremely precious and Emilia invites the students to consider their transition into professional practice by arriving early and preparing themselves for their class ahead, as well as taking care of their bodies by cooling down sufficiently afterwards. Safe practice is an extremely important aspect of Emilia's teaching and she provides a framework in which students can train safely, as well as providing knowledge as to how they can do this in other movement classes, physical work or choreographic practices. As part of students’ preparation for classes, Emilia provides or encourages individuals to consider the aims and objectives for the class, to think about what they want to get out of the class, and how they wish to use their body as a tool for learning.
Emilia's own technical dance practice and the choreography for her studio dance classes can be energetic, physical and challenging, encouraging students to take risks and find their limitations, or it can also be of a slower pace, more focused and attentive, anchoring in somatic mindfulness. Emilia's teaching tools are embedded in increasing inner and outer awareness, improving alignment, correct use of the anatomical self - by eliminating unnecessary tension or use and resulting in a more sufficient technical and aesthetic precision. Emilia teaches technique to students through specific exercises, but also as part of the process of learning a movement phrase, as opposed to sharing technical notes separately to the teaching of a choreography. Emilia does this so that students may view technique as a core part of their dancing, something that is embedded and central to the movement itself, not a purely aesthetic adjustment or addition. Emilia also focuses on performance-based aspects, such as relationships to others, clarity in movement and the gaze as part of the teaching of choreography or movement phrases, again as another integrated approach. This means that they are then able to learn movement phrases whilst simultaneously considering their technical sufficiency and performance aptness, which will be useful and important within professional stages of their practice. Emilia encourages students to recognise, acknowledge and consciously modify their habitual patterning that may be negatively impacting their body’s safety or aesthetic movement choices. One way in which Emilia does this is through inviting students to critically evaluate their own practice and the practice of others, through a variety of constructive feedback tasks, within a positive environment. An increase in self and peer-recognition and awareness allows students to develop their critical-eye and Emilia encourages students to always affirm themselves or their peers before giving critical notes, ensuring that students do not feel vulnerable at any point but they instead feel supported.
Emilia views performance is an important aspect of any studio classes, although it is normally informal, it provides a regular opportunity for students to become more familiar with performing for others, developing their skills as performers and also as audience members, by training themselves how to watch dance critically. This invites students to move away from a conversation about what they “like” and towards an articulate evaluation of their peers movement and performance. Emilia also motivates students to keep a reflective log or journal of their in-studio experiences, developments and aims for improvements, even if this is not being marked or assessed, as self-reflection and evaluation are extremely important and beneficial in the advancing of professional practice. It is also highlighted that video recording and documenting their practice is a good way for becoming more self-aware, but additionally fulfilling when comparing footage and seeing clear improvements. Emilia encourages students to read, watch, draw and write, just as much as they move, allowing a simultaneous development of body knowledge, intellectual comprehension, creative aptitude and further growth of the self as a whole. Emilia aims to signpost various models of practice and theoretical perspectives to studio classes, supporting students work with academic rigour and further feeding into their overall understanding of their practice, in relation to a wider field.
Emilia's classes provide students with a sound understanding of the opportunities and limitations in which their body provides, as a foundation for individual choreographic work on themselves or others. This also issues safe starting blocks for moving into partnering work or contact improvisation at further stages in their training and professional practice. Emilia teaches improvisation, partnering and contact work with a similar approach to technical-based classes, focusing on body-understanding, awareness of the space or your partner and recognising natural impulses or habits, choosing to resist or follow them. Emilia provides opportunities for students to experiment with choreographic exercises, engaging individuals’ creative enquiry as part of the their studio training. Emilia supplies tools and methods for choreographing the body or devising movement for others, whilst allowing others to trial and test their own ways of working. Emilia firmly believes that it is important for students to concurrently develop a clear voice for creative expression as well as technical understanding and articulation of the body-mind. | https://www.emiliarobinson.co.uk/teaching-philosophy |
Current research highlights the social-emotional nature of the human brain, and that face-to-face interaction and collaborative experiences are key to developing the skills people need to navigate a rapidly changing world. Improvisation is a form of human interaction that combines cognitive engagement, emotional connection and creative thinking that are especially important for managing uncertainty. Improv exercises and experiences cultivate cognitive and relationship skills that research shows aligned with principles of effective communication, self-and-other awareness, and social-emotional competence.
Improv as a process examines human interaction in a rich and dynamic way, grounded in good will, humor, warmth and a high energy that drives spontaneity. Skills learned in this kind of social-emotional atmosphere are more like to be available in the face of stress, and enhance receptivity to ideas and information that clients can use to shape their lives. Improv training strengthens skills for navigating uncertainty without being derailed by the stress response, the ability to make connections between ideas and think creatively in an atmosphere of social support. This workshop will provide experiences that demonstrate applications of improv training to learning and change and are grounded in research. Participants will learn techniques that can be deployed with individuals, groups and families and discuss relevant research into the social-emotional brain. | https://www.mostlytruethings.com/new-products-1/wired-to-connect-cultivating-social-emotional-skills-through-improvisation-training |
You explore and contextualise the use of qualitative research methods based on an understanding of the theoretical philosophical underpinnings of qualitative methodologies. You focus on the use of qualitative methods in health and social care settings in order to access subjective experiences of individuals to allow for a greater understanding of the complexity of the human condition.
This award is aimed at those undertaking the MRes Clinical Research, or who wish to undertake qualitative research.
At the University or through distance learning
Topics covered include:
Both face-to-face and online delivery will be used to allow flexibility and provide you with the opportunity to learn entirely in attendance, at a distance or through a combination of the two (flexible-learning).
For attending students, keynote lectures introduce theoretical concepts and individual and group-based exercises encourage the application of this theory to practice.
For distance-learning students, recorded lectures are available on the Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) e-learning@tees on a weekly basis following the same timetable as the class-based sessions. Individual exercises and activities requiring discussion through the VLE communication tools are used to encourage the application of theory to practice.
You are assessed in two parts, each carrying 50% of the overall award mark. Part 1 is a project proposal in which you write 2,000 words on a given clinical-research problem. This is submitted by Week 9. Part 2 of the assignment consists of the selection and application of a data analysis method to a verbatim transcribed interview which is provided by the teaching team. This report consists of a 2,000-word report and is submitted in Week 12.
Applicants should have a relevant degree at 2.2 level or above. International applicants require IELTS level 7 or above. Applicants with non-standard entry requirements are considered on an individual basis.
Fee for applicants: | https://www.tees.ac.uk/parttime_courses/nursing_&_health/ucpce_qualitative_research_methods_and_analysis.cfm |
“Learn to Think on Your Feet – for Kids!”
A free improvisation class for youth ages 9+, taught by Sheila Goldsmith.
Improv isn’t just for adults. It helps children learn teamwork while having fun and being creative.
It can help develop confidence, flexibility and interpersonal skills.
Interested in classes or workshops for kids?
Call (360) 756-0756 for more information. | http://www.thenorthernlight.com/coming-up/free-improv-playworks-class-for-kids/ |
Young people’s preferred ways of interacting are diverse but some generalisations can be drawn from.
Young people, particularly early and middle stage adolescents, are most likely to learn through direct experience rather than through vicarious experience or counselling. This is consistent with the view that behaviourally-oriented interventions focused on development of skills have been identified as more effective than purely cognitive and talking-based therapies. Whenever appropriate young people should be encouraged to ‘do’ for themselves. The degree to which health and social care practitioners undertake tasks on behalf of young people should be determined through continuous assessment of their capacity to manage (see Section c above).
Workers should strive to work alongside clients, positioning themselves to provide clients with direct, real-time feedback that recognises pro-social participation and interaction with others. This approach also enables workers to identify, highlight and facilitate naturally occurring rewards for pro-social interactions that occur in the lives of clients. Through guided experience clients can develop the emotional, cognitive, and behavioural skills that reinforce healthy development and promote pro-social behaviour.
Working with young people demands a high level of flexibility and adaptability from practitioners. The adolescent transition is not linear and consistent, rather, individuals move back and forth between orientations towards childhood and adulthood. In their comprehensive text book ‘Counselling Adolescents: A Proactive Approach’, Geldard and Geldard (2004) discuss the importance of counsellors being able to connect with various personae within themselves of different developmental stages – inner parent, inner adult, inner adolescent and inner child – in order to work flexibly with the adolescent according to the issues being explored at the time. Being able to ‘join’ or connect in a more personal way at the adolescent level is viewed as particularly useful, as is an ability to model deliberate switching from adolescent to adult communication modes (Geldard & Geldard, 2004). | https://www.youthaodtoolbox.org.au/f-developmentally-appropriate-and-conducive-ways-interacting |
Ingredients:
Feeds 2
1 sirloin steak (roughly 270g – 300g)
1 onion finely chopped
Salt and pepper
Oil for frying
200g dried spaghetti
2 tsp ground black pepper
2 tbsp flour
130ml boiling water mixed with 3/4 beef stock cube
110g creme fraiche
Roughly chopped parsley (optional)
Recipe created by Amy Sheppard
If you’re planning on having steak this Valentine’s Day – you have to try this!! All of the wonderful flavours of a peppercorn sauce turned into a creamy pasta dish!
Method:
Take the steak out of the fridge 30 minutes before you need it.
Boil the kettle for the spaghetti and finely chop the onion.
Season the steak on both sides with salt and pepper.
Heat a drizzle of oil in a small non-stick pan.
When the oil is spitting hot, place the steak in the pan and fry for 2-3 minutes on each side, depending on the thickness of the steak and your preference.
Place boiling water in a saucepan and add the spaghetti. Bring to the boil, before turning the heat down and simmering for 10 minutes or until cooked (less if using fresh spaghetti) When the steak is cooked, set aside to rest.
In the same pan that the steak was cooked add the onions and a drizzle of oil if needed.
Fry the onions for 5 minutes on medium heat until soft. Add the ground peppercorn for the last minute.
Stir in the flour on the heat for 1 minute.
Add half the stock, bring to the boil stirring constantly, before adding the other half.
When bubbling, stir in the creme fraiche and gently bring to the boil. Turn the sauce off before it bubbles too furiously.
Drain the pasta, reserving a tablespoon of the pasta water.
Stir the sauce into the pasta with the reserved pasta water.
Divide between two plates.
Thinly slice the steak, divide it between the two dishes, finishing with a little extra ground pepper and some roughly chopped parsley. Serve with salad or roasted tomatoes. | https://cooksmatches.co.uk/recipes/creamy-peppercorn-steak-spaghetti-recipe/ |
Garden Pasta Salad
Pasta is one of the most cooked foods in the entire world. Why is that? Well, there are a lot of pasta varieties, and you can pretty much add whatever it is that you want! Since we are advocating good health and wellbeing, we’re going to take a look at a very hearty, yet simple and healthy dish you can do in just a couple of minutes.
Preparing a Healthy Garden Pasta Salad
Today, I am going to share with you the recipe for a healthy Garden Pasta Salad. This pasta dish gets most of its flavor from Basil and Kalamata Olives. Kalamata Olives, also commonly known as Black olives, not only have a high sodium content, but it also has a variety of antioxidants as well.
If you’re into processed foods, you know that your body gets a lot of unwanted free radicals from them. Eating a generous amount of Kalamata Olives will help you eradicate free radicals, and at the same time, make you healthier than ever before.
Not only that, but this Garden Pasta salad also has a lot of nice vegetables added into the mix such as Tomatoes, carrots, and bell peppers.
Are you ready to cook this very nutritious and delicious Garden Pasta Salad dish? Let’s get on with the ingredients.
Ingredients Garden Pasta Salad Dish
- 2 cups whole-wheat rotini, (6 ounces)
- 1/3 cup reduced-fat mayonnaise
- 1/3 cup low-fat plain yogurt
- 2 tablespoons extra-virgin olive oil
- 1 tablespoon red-wine vinegar, or lemon juice
- 1 clove garlic, minced
- 1/8 teaspoon salt
- Freshly ground pepper, to taste
- 1 cup cherry or grape tomatoes, halved
- 1 cup diced yellow or red bell pepper, (1 small)
- 1 cup grated carrots, (2-4 carrots)
- 1/2 cup chopped scallions, (4 scallions)
- 1/2 cup chopped pitted Kalamata olives
- 1/3 cup slivered fresh basil
Instructions to Follow
- Get a large pot and lightly salt the water by adding a few pinches of salt. Cook pasta until tender, which takes roughly 8-10 minutes or according to the package directions. Drain and let it run with Cold water to stop the cooking process.
- Next, whisk the Mayonnaise, Vinegar (or lemon juice), Yogurt Oil, salt and pepper, and garlic into a large bowl until smooth.
- Add the pasta and toss to coat. Add bell pepper, scallions, carrots, tomatoes, basil and olives and toss it around until everything is well coated.
- Serve and Enjoy!
And that is pretty much it! You can enjoy the Garden Pasta Salad for two days. Just make sure you put it in a container and refrigerate it for the next day.
A lot of people have tried this healthy pasta dish. Here are just some of their reviews:
Rachel: “This Garden Pasta salad recipe is the perfect dish I need to complement my diet plan. I cook this at least once a month and even my husband is loving it. This is also very easy to prepare as well, and after eating some of it on the first try, I just can’t forget this dish because it is so amazingly tasty!”
Pia: “I just love pasta dishes, and this Garden Pasta Salad recipe is one of my all-time favorites. The one who made this dish is an absolute genius because it is not only easy to do, but it is packed with vitamins and minerals as well.”
The Garden Pasta Salad is one of the healthiest pasta dishes you can cook for you and your family. If you want to eat clean and healthy dishes, this is a very good dish to cook. | https://www.coquedis.com/garden-pasta-salad/ |
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Pea Salads
Sweet Pea Salad
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Test Kitchen Approved
Total Time
Prep: 30 min. + chilling
Makes
58 servings
—Betty Otten, Tea, South Dakota
Sweet Pea Salad Recipe photo by Taste of Home
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Lemon Rice Salad
Best Deviled Eggs
Ingredients
5 pounds uncooked bow tie pasta
1 pound carrots, shredded
1 package (16 ounces) frozen peas, thawed
10 celery ribs, diced
1 small onion, finely chopped
5 cups mayonnaise
4 cups sweetened condensed milk
2-1/2 cups sugar
3/4 cup cider vinegar
3/4 cup buttermilk
2 teaspoons salt
1 teaspoon pepper
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Directions
Cook pasta according to package directions; drain. In three large bowls, combine the pasta, carrots, peas, celery and onion.
In another large bowl, combine the remaining ingredients. Stir a third of the dressing into each bowl of pasta mixture. Cover and refrigerate until chilled. | https://preprod.tasteofhome.com/recipes/sweet-pea-salad/ |
I am breaking bread with a wonderful lady today — who happens to be my favorite neighbor. For those who don’t know, my house has been for sale. Knowing that I will miss my neighborhood and especially Ms. C, I decided to make this hearty and tasty Kale Pasta Salad — as I way to thank her for always being so kind and helpful.
The first thing was to make a stop at Walmart to buy Barilla® Penne…
… and then preparing all the ingredients to assemble our dish such boiling the pasta, mincing the garlic, slicing the lemon, and chopping both the bacon and kale.
This kale pasta salad is a simple yet versatile dish that can be served either cold or warm, as a side or main pasta dish, all year round. Although kale is a cold crop, it’s available the entire year in the US. Our dish can be easily adapted to fit a vegetarian diet by simply omitting bacon from the recipe… and was inspired in one of my favorite Brazilian leafy dishes, Couve à Mineira.
To bring its flavor, I just had to cook the kale in medium-high heat until slightly wilted — softening its bitterness. I could not be more pleased… the kale pasta salad turned out fantastic combining different textures and also flavors (salty, garlicky, smoky, and mildly bitter).
Because temps are already on the high, I am serving it cold… and yes, I can already foresee Ms. C’s smile when she takes the first bite. I am foreseeing yours too…
For other delicious pasta dishes, check out Barilla® recipes… and enjoy our refreshing kale pasta salad!
Kale Pasta Salad
Ingredients
- 1 pound Barilla® Penne
- 6 tablespoons vegetable oil divided
- 5 garlic cloves minced
- 10 strips cooked smoked bacon chopped (for a vegetarian version, omit bacon)
- 3/4 teaspoon salt (or more, if desired)
- 3/4 teaspoon ground black pepper
- 1 bunch kale washed, pat dry, and chopped
- Fresh squeezed juice of 1 lemon
- 3/4 cup Parmesan cheese either shaved or shredded
Instructions
- Cook pasta in salty boiling water for about 12 minutes. Drain, rinse with cold water, and add to a large bowl. Set aside.
- In a large skillet or pan, heat 4 tablespoons of oil and add the minced garlic. Cook over low heat, stirring occasionally, for about 2 minutes. Don't let garlic turn brown! Add the cooked bacon and heat for about 1 to 2 minutes to bring out its flavor. Remove pan from heat, stir in 3/4 teaspoon of salt and 3/4 teaspoon of pepper. Pour mixture all over the cooked pasta, tossing well to combine. Set aside.
- Add the other 2 remaining tablespoons of oil and chopped kale to the same skillet or pan (without wiping it out) and let cook over medium-high heat for about 3 to 5 minutes or until kale is slightly wilted. Warming up the kale over medium-high heat brings out its flavor, avoiding get too bitter. Add kale to the pasta mixture with the lemon juice, and toss to combine. Let sit for about 5 to 7 minutes. When mixture has cool down, add the Parmesan cheese and toss. Taste pasta mixture, adjusting the seasonings if necessary.
- Chill kale pasta salad for about 2 to 3 hours (or more if necessary) and serve.
Recipe Notes
P.S.: To find out about the health benefits of kale, click here. | https://www.easyanddelish.com/kale-pasta-salad/ |
This creamy pesto pasta salad is an easy and healthy version of your favorite side dish. It's chock full of roasted summer vegetables for a subtle sweetness.
Course
Salad, Side Dish
Cuisine
American, Italian
Keyword
arugula pesto, basil pesto, cashew arugula pesto, creamy pesto pasta, easy side dish, healthy side dish, healthy summer salad, homemade pasta, pasta salad, pesto, pesto dishes, pestO PASTA SALAD, pesto recipe, vegan pesto
Prep Time
10
minutes
Cook Time
15
minutes
Total Time
25
minutes
Servings
6
Equipment
Sheetpan
Large bowl
Rubber spatula
Ingredients
3
cups
brown rice pasta, fusilli or bowtie
2
cups
cherry tomatoes, multicolor
1
bunch
asparagus
1/2
tsp
salt
1
tsp
olive oil
1 1/2
tsp
dried oregano
pinch
black pepper
pinch
red pepper flakes
1 1/2
cups
pesto
1/4
cup
greek yogurt
I use dairy free coconut milk yogurt, the Coyo brand
Cashew Arugula Pesto
2 1/2
cups
arugula
1
cup
parsley or basil
Basil is more traditional for pesto but I like the flavor of the parsley with the arugula
2
small
garlic cloves, peeled and roughly chopped
2 1/2
tbs
olive oil
2/3
cup
raw cashews
1/2
lemon, juice only
1/3
cup
water
1/2
tsp
salt
1/4
tsp
black pepper
Instructions
Cashew Arugula Pesto
Add all of the pesto ingredients to a blender or food processor. Puree for 1-3 minutes (depending on the power of your machine) until the cashew bits are essentially smooth.
Pesto Pasta Salad
Preheat the oven to 400 degrees. Place tomatoes and asparagus on a parchment lined sheetpan. Toss with 1 tsp olive oil, 1/4 tsp salt, oregano, pinch of red pepper flakes and pinch of black pepper. Spread the veggies out across the cookie sheet into one even layer. Bake about 15 minutes until slightly golden.
Boil the pasta according to the package instructions and be sure to salt the boiling water with at least 2 tbs of salt. When th pasta is cooked, strain it and rinse under cold water;
this stops the cooking process and keeps the pasta from getting mushy. Tip: If you go with brown rice pasta add 1 tbs of olive oil to the water and stir the pasta every 2-3 minutes so that it doesn't stick together.
In a large bowl add the slightly warm pasta, pesto, yogurt, roasted vegetables, 1/4 tsp salt and a pinch of black pepper. Stir until everything is evenly combined. Enjoy! | https://brightrootskitchen.com/wprm_print/recipe/3640 |
As usual, I had a few food items that needed immediate attention. A partially cut tomato, fresh parsley, and an open jar of marinara sauce were shouting an SOS from the refrigerator. When I spotted a jar of Artichoke Tapenade in the pantry, I knew a pasta dish was on the dinner menu.
Tapenade is an olive oil based paste. There are many variations with chopped olives and garlic being a mainstay. However, the purchased tapenade I used for this dish contained artichokes instead of olives. Tapenade is considered a condiment and most often spread on toasted bread or sandwiches. Adding a few tablespoons to pasta sauce can really jumpstart the flavor.
I elected to use spaghetti noodles, but any type of pasta can be used.
Ingredients
- 1 Tablespoon marinara sauce
- 3 cups cooked pasta
- 3 tablespoons fresh parsley, chopped
- 3 tablespoons Parmesan reggiano, grated
- 1 tablespoon olive oil
- 2 tablespoons artichoke tapenade (I purchased a jar at Costco)
- 1/2 cup fresh tomoatoes, diced
- 1 small clove of garlic, finely chopped, or 1/2 teaspoon of garlic powder
- 1/2 teaspoon onion powder
- Salt & pepper to taste
- Optional: a pinch of red pepper flakes if you like it spicy
How To
Cook pasta as directed on package. Drain water and return pasta to the cooking pan.
Toss the remaining ingredients into the pasta and serve. This recipe makes three 1-cup servings. Each serving is in the neighborhood of 292 calories. You can shave off 45 calories by using whole wheat spaghetti, and it’s good for you! That puts a one cup serving at just 247 calories. Add a tossed salad or side of steamed broccoli and you’re still under 300 calories.
This dish is quick to prepare (I keep cooked pasta in my fridge so it’s ready in a pinch), filling and very flavorful. I skipped the side dishes and made garlic toast instead. | https://www.blimpygirl.com/all-recipes/artichoke-tapenade-pasta |
My husband and I like zesty pasta salads and have tried many different types. This delightful dish can be eaten warm or cold, so it's a perfect meal anytime of year.
Recommended: Recipes with Ground Beef
VERIFIED BY Taste of Home Test Kitchen
- 3 cups rotini pasta, cooked and drained
- 1 green pepper, julienned
- 1 cup halved cherry tomatoes
- 1/2 cup sliced ripe olives
- 1 pound boneless top sirloin, cut into strips
- 2 tablespoons vegetable oil
- 1 bottle (8 ounces) Italian salad dressing
- 1-1/2 cups (6 ounces) shredded provolone or mozzarella cheese
- In a large bowl, combine pasta, green pepper, tomatoes and olives. In a skillet over medium-high heat, stir-fry sirloin in oil until cooked as desired; drain. If serving salad hot, add dressing to skillet and bring to a boil. Pour over pasta mixture; toss to coat. Add cheese; serve immediately. If serving salad cold, let beef cool for 15 minutes. Add beef, dressing and cheese to pasta mixture; toss to coat. Chill for at least 1 hour. Yield: 6 servings.
Originally published as Beef and Pasta Salad in Home-Style Soups, Salad and Sandwiches Cookbook 1996, p45
Reviews forBeef and Pasta Salad
My Review
Click stars to rate
Any changes to your rating or review will appear where you originally posted your review
Average Rating
MY REVIEW
Reviewed Jul. 15, 2013
"I have made this recipe 3 times and I love it! My husband felt the steak needed a little flavor more. So the second time we rub it with minced garlic and blck pepper 1Tsp each, that was delish. Third time same way and its a winner."
MY REVIEW
Reviewed Sep. 21, 2009
"This was awesome! I used cherry tomatoes from my tomato plant. I would increase the amount of tomatoes to 2 cups. It was sooo incredibly good. Even my 2 year old liked it." | https://www.tasteofhome.com/recipes/beef-and-pasta-salad |
Aysha Mahmood, is a 20 year old student studying media and marketing at Keele University. Aysha has been taking part in work experience here with BabaBaboon and explored the world of food which took her around the world.
Here Aysha shares her own food recipes and ideas – exclusively – for BabaBaboon’s readers…
Aysha says: “My work experience has has helped me enjoy creative writing again, a hobby that really opened up my imagination when I was a child so I hope as you read and create these dishes for yourself you can experience the wonders of the ratatouille, cheesy naan bread, poulet au coco and aloo chaat….”
Aysha’s first Blog is all about Ratatouille…
“As the year 2020 come and went, we can all say it has been a time of self-reflection and growth…it led onto 2021 and a time to perhaps develop some new skills, cooking maybe?
As we can now make up for the loss of travelling by cooking up simple yet flavourful dishes from different cultures. Everyone has heard of the film Ratatouille but how about making France’s iconic dish?
It can and will be done by using this easy to follow recipe that will truly make everyone’s mouth water…
“This dish originated in the south of France around Provence and Nice but this specific recipe was passed down through generations from my childhood friend – Laetitia’s Bonnard’s great-great grandmother – to Laetitia herself. When I first tasted this recipe I was six at Laetitia’s house and ever since I fell in love with it… Each bite reminds me of summer as the different vegetables and herbs combined create a lively fresh flavour alongside the aroma of the herbs de Provence which is a combination of thyme, basil, rosemary, tarragon, savory, marjoram and oregano which can be used as a substitute if you are unable to find herbs de provence in your local supermarket.
“I usually eat this dish with fusilli pasta, as opposed to the penne pasta, as the sauce of the stew intertwines with the twists of the fusilli pasta to give maximum flavour of the ratatouille but with imagination, there are endless ways to serve ratatouille as it can be used as a main with a side of rice, bread, quinoa or even red wine but ratatouille can also be a side dish to various of different meats such as chicken, lamb, steak or fish.
“This method of cooking requires few steps and ingredients, but it is time-consuming so be sure to prepare for the wait whilst it cooks by making a cuppa or by watching an episode or two of your favourite show to keep your mind off the delectable ratatouille that awaits…”
(Main image by Aysha)
Aysha shares her friend’s recipe below:
Ratatouille
Cooking time: 3hrs
Serves: up to 6 people
Ingredients:
10 to 15 tbsp olive oil
2 courgettes
1 aubergine
1 red pepper
1 green pepper
1 full can of tomato chunks
1 whole yellow onion
3 garlic cloves
2 tbsp of herbs de Provence
Salt (to taste)
Pepper (to taste)
Method:
Step 1:
Chop the courgettes, aubergine, the red pepper, the green pepper into bite-size chunks.
Step 2:
Dice the onion into smaller chunks.
Step 3:
Cook the courgettes, aubergine, the red pepper, the green pepper and onion separately in a saute pan until they are all soft and cooked adding 2 to 3 tbsp of olive oil to the pan each time you cook each vegetable.
Step 4:
Once you have cooked all the vegetables separately you can put them all together in a soup pot.
Step 5:
It is time to add the can of tomato chunks, the 2 tbsp of herbs with the salt and pepper to taste.
Step 6:
Peel and mince the 3 garlic cloves and add it to the pot.
Step 7:
Leave the ratatouille to cook on low heat for 1 hour and 30 minutes.
Step 8:
And voila! Your ratatouille is cooked.
Eat this as a pasta dish or with rice on the side, make it your own! | https://www.babababoon.co.uk/all-about-ratatouille-with-blogger-aysha-mahmood/ |
Asparagus is a raw ingredient in ChefVille that can be harvested from the Asparagus Stall. It is used directly in 3 recipes.
SourcesEdit
- Asparagus Stall - 1 x
- 2nd Upgraded Garlic Stall - 1 x randomly
- Neighbor Dishes
CraftingEdit
There are no crafting recipes that require Asparagus.
RecipesEdit
|Recipe||Station||Crafted
|
Into
|# Asparagus
|
Required
|# Dishes
|
for Mastery
|Total|
|25px Asparagus Pasta Salad||Pasta Salad Picnic Station||1||40||40|
|Asparagus with Hollandaise||Broiler||*|
|Buttery Grilled Asparagus||BBQ||1||55||55|
|Fritatta||Griddle||2||30||60|
|25px Leek, Asparagus, Herb Soup||Easter Bunnys Oven||2|
|25px Spring Vegetable Soup||Spring Kitchen||1||?|
*Mastery values for one recipe in the above table is missing. This table will be updated as that information becomes available.
GoalsEdit
There have not been any goals requiring Asparagus.
Neighbor DishesEdit
There is 1 neighbor dish that yields Asparagus: | http://chefville.wikia.com/wiki/Asparagus |
For me, summertime and Portobello mushrooms go together wonderfully. They are light and airy, yet still provide a robust, meaty flavor that I love. They are also very versatile. From chopped, sautéed, and used in pasta dishes, to grilled and used as a burger alternative, Portobello mushrooms can be jazzed up and changed around to your liking.
This recipe is for my Portobello Mushroom Cap Pizzas. Unfortunately, I live in an apartment with little room for an actual grille outside so I used my George Forman, but an outdoor gas or coal grille would have been my first choice for preparing the mushrooms!
Portobello Mushroom Cap Pizzas
Ingredients:
- 2 large Portobello mushroom; cleaned well and patted dry (you will need to pat them a few times… they soak up water!); remove center stems (without breaking your mushroom!)
- 4 Tbsp. roasted garlic marinara or tomato sauce (I used Trader Joes Roasted Garlic Marinara); depending on how large your mushrooms are, the sauce amount will vary
- 2-3 Tbsp. shredded, fine parmesan cheese
- 1 small Roma tomato
- 6-8 spinach leaves depending on how large they are
- dried thyme
- dried basil
- garlic powder
- black pepper
Preheat your oven to 350 degrees.
Once your mushrooms have been cleaned, dried, and de-stemmed, place them on the grille for about 3-4 minutes (this was on my George Foreman where they were pressed, if on a normal grille, do about 2-3 minutes on each side; you may want to brush with a little olive oil as well to avoid sticking on a normal grille). Slice your Roma tomatoes to make about 1/2-1 cm thick rounds. You will need 6 slices total, so if your tomato is extra small you may need to use a second. A full-sized vine ripe or steak tomato may be used instead, just use one slice as it should take up about the same size as 3 Roma rounds. Once your mushrooms have been grilled, place them on a baking dish, lined with foil and sprayed with a little cooking spray. The stem side of the mushroom should be facing up. Spoon about 2 Tbsp. of sauce onto each mushroom cap. One top of the sauce, place a few spinach leaves to cover the sauce. Press them down gently so that they flatten out. Place 3 tomato slices on top of the spinach. Season with a pinch of dried thyme, dried basil, a little black pepper, and garlic powder. Once each mushroom has been seasoned, top each one with out 1 Tbsp. of shredded, fine parmesan cheese. If you would like your mushrooms a bit cheesier, go ahead an add a little more cheese! The parmesan cheese adds a salty taste, so there is no need to add extra salt. Place the mushrooms into the oven for 10-15 minutes or until the cheese is fully melted and starting to get a little golden brown on the edges. Enjoy your mushrooms with a side salad or a little pasta of your choice! Enjoy! | https://herhealthykitchen.com/2014/07/10/portobello-mushroom-cap-pizza/ |
This antioxidant-rich condiment is the perfect accompaniment to veggie burgers, cold meats, cheese platters, and more. If peaches are not available, you can substitute pears and pear vinegar for an equally scrumptious concoction. The piquant, vinegar-rich chutney contains remarkably less salt than similar chutneys or relishes, yet remains full of flavour. It’s obvious why health experts recommend vinegar as a tasty, blood pressure-friendly alternative to salt.
1 1/2 Tbsp (22 mL) extra-virgin olive oil
1 medium red onion, chopped
1 red bell pepper, seeded and chopped
3 garlic cloves, peeled and minced
1 cinnamon stick (about 2 to 3 in/5 to 7.5 cm)
5 or 6 large peaches (about 3 lb/1.5 kg), peeled and chopped
1/3 cup (80 mL) peach vinegar
1/3 cup (80 mL) packed coconut palm sugar (or organic brown sugar)
1/3 cup (80 mL) dark raisins
1 3/4 tsp (9 mL) sea salt
1 piece of fresh ginger (about 1 in/2.5 cm), peeled and grated
3/4 tsp (4 mL) ground cumin
3/4 tsp (4 mL) ground coriander
1/2 tsp (2 mL)) turmeric
1/4 tsp (1 mL) red chili pepper flakes
Heat olive oil in large heavy pot over medium heat. Add onion and red pepper and sauté until onion is golden. Add garlic and cinnamon stick and reduce heat, stirring for 1 to 2 minutes, being careful to not let garlic burn. Add remaining ingredients, mashing down peaches with fork to release juices. Turn up heat slightly until mixture is just simmering; reduce heat to minimum and allow to simmer covered for about 30 minutes, stirring occasionally to prevent sticking.
Discard cinnamon stick when mixture is cooked. Let cool in pan (covered) for about 45 minutes.
Makes about 4 1/4 cups (1.06 L).
Each 1/4 cup (60 mL) serving contains: 53 calories; 1 g protein; 2 g total fat (0 g sat. fat, 0 g trans fat); 14 g total carbohydrates (10 g sugars, 2 g fibre); 259 mg sodium
source: "Virtuous Vinegar", alive #367, May 2013
This vegan take on classic shepherd’s pie is jam-packed with bold and rich flavours that will ensure no one will miss the meat. While a great source of fibre, lentils also contain the highest amount of folate out of all plant-based foods. Oven ready If you don’t have an ovenproof skillet, you’ll need to transfer cooked lentil filling to a baking dish before topping with mashed sweet potatoes and baking.
Cauliflower has been having a moment lately, and this salad proves exactly why. Tender caramelized cauliflower is crowned in a glorious sweet and savoury crumble that will ensure it a place on your table all month long. Of all tree nuts, pecans have the highest concentration of flavonoids, which offer beneficial anti-inflammatory effects, and they also protect your cells from oxidative damage. Crumble perfection This crumble topping is too good not to use it on other preparations. Sprinkle over a carrot ribbon salad to add some extra pizzazz, use as a glorious garnish on a soup or stew, or consider generously spooning over your next vegetable “steak” to add some delicious textural variation.
This gloriously comforting dish gets its creamy lusciousness from a can of white beans. Feel free to use whatever vegetables you have on hand instead of broccoli. Pass the pasta Instead of regular pasta, consider serving this sauce over zucchini noodles, carrot noodles, or cooked spaghetti squash.
This nut-free take on classic queso dip is everything you want and more. Paired with chips, crackers, or crudités, this creamy, zesty, smoky, and oh-so-satisfying dip is easy enough to whip up for a cozy snack or as an appetizer for company. Go nuts! If you’re okay to eat nuts, try substituting sunflower seeds with 1 cup (250 mL) raw cashews. | https://www.alive.com/recipe/peach-chutney-2/ |
This gluten free Dill Pickle Pasta Salad recipe is a great easy side dish for summer. It's made with a creamy mayo dressing and fresh dill!
Prep Time
10
mins
Cook Time
15
mins
Total Time
25
mins
Course:
Side Dish
Cuisine:
American
Keyword:
dill pasta salad, pickle pasta salad, gluten free pasta salad, pasta salad with pickles,
Servings:
8
Calories:
202
kcal
Author:
Christine Rooney
Ingredients
1
16 oz. package
gluten free pasta
such as rotini, farfalle, or penne
1
cup
kosher dill pickles
about 5-6 baby kosher dills
1
lemon
For The Dressing:
1
cup
mayo
1.5
Tbsp.
white wine vinegar
2
Tbsp.
pickle juice
½
tsp.
garlic powder
½
tsp.
onion powder
pinch
kosher salt
¼
tsp.
pepper
¼
cup
fresh dill
plus more for garnish
US Customary
-
Metric
Instructions
Prepare 1 16 oz. package of
gluten free short pasta
such as rotini, farfalle, or penne (can use regular pasta if not GF) according to package instructions. Be careful not to overcook the pasta or it the pasta salad may become mushy.
Drain the pasta and rinse with cold water to stop the cooking process.
For The Dressing:
Combine 1 cup mayo, 1.5 Tbsp.
white wine vinegar
(or vinegar of choice), 2 Tbsp.
pickle juice
, ½ tsp. each of
garlic
and
onion powder
, a pinch of
kosher salt
and ¼ tsp.
pepper
in a small bowl. Stir until completely combined using a fork or
small whisk
.
Finely mince ¼ cup of fresh dill and add to the dressing. Stir until completely combined.
Roughly chop 1 cup of
baby kosher dill pickles
(about 5-6 pickles) and chop 1 lemon in half.
Place the drained and rinsed cooked pasta in a
large bow
l. Drizzle the dressing over the pasta and toss until completely coated (using as much or little dressing as you like).
Add the
chopped pickles
to the pasta and squeeze the juice of 1 lemon over the top (being careful to avoid adding the seeds). Toss until completely combined.
To Serve: Garnish with extra minced fresh dill.
Notes
Be sure to use kosher dill pickles and not a sweeter variety.
Dried dill may be substituted if fresh dill is not an option.
Nutrition
Serving:
1
cup
|
Calories:
202
kcal
|
Carbohydrates:
3
g
|
Protein:
1
g
|
Fat:
21
g
|
Saturated Fat:
3
g
|
Cholesterol:
12
mg
|
Sodium:
392
mg
|
Potassium:
52
mg
|
Fiber:
1
g
|
Sugar:
1
g
|
Vitamin A:
164
IU
|
Vitamin C:
9
mg
|
Calcium:
16
mg
|
Iron: | https://www.therusticfoodie.com/wprm_print/recipe/9407 |
Guacamole Pasta Salad (Vegan, Gluten Free)
I’m used to having pasta salads made with lots of mayo, but ever since I discovered what a great replacement avocado is for mayo, I’ve been making more vegan-ized versions of dishes that usually contain the other.
Being a carb lover, it’s always fun to experiment with different pastas that are not only gluten free, but loaded with protein; like the black bean pasta rotini from Trader Joes.
Add some traditional guacamole ingredients, and now you have a side that’s ready to wow any picnic or pot luck or BBQ; more importantly, you have a dish that is loaded with nutrients and wholesome yumminess.
Guacamole Pasta Salad
Who said pasta salad had to have mayo and gluten? Not this recipe.
Ingredients
- 1 12 oz. bag black bean pasta
- 2 garlic cloves minced
- 2 cocktail tomatoes chopped
- 1 avocado medium dice
- 1/4 cup cilantro chopped
- 2 tbsp lemon juice
- 2 tbsp avocado oil
- 1 tsp salt
- 2 tsp pepper
Instructions
-
In a large pot, cook the black bean pasta in 3 cups of boiling water for about 8 minutes or until tender, then strain and rinse with cool water until the pasta is cooled, and set aside.
(tip-> tossing in a little oil helps the pasta avoid getting sticky).
-
Prep all other ingredients for the pasta salad, toss together with the black bean rotini, and store in the fridge. | https://healthindulgenceblog.com/guacamole-pasta-salad-vegan-gluten-free/ |
Ceviche is a Latin method of “cooking” seafood by letting it marinate in acidic juices. It’s important that you use only sushi grade salmon for this preparation method. Using lettuce leaves for the wraps and stuffing them with a lively salsa assures this dish is exceptionally fresh tasting.
1/3 cup (80 mL) fresh lime juice
1/3 cup (80 mL) fresh lemon juice
1/3 cup (80 mL) orange juice
1 lb (450 g) fresh skinless salmon, cut into 1/2 in (1.25 cm) pieces
1 1/2 cups (350 mL) cherry tomatoes, quartered
1 avocado, diced
1 cup (250 mL) cubed pineapple
2 green onions, thinly sliced
1 jalapeno pepper, seeded and minced
1/3 cup (80 mL) fresh basil, chopped
1/4 cup (60 mL) dried coconut flakes (optional)
Zest of 1 lime
Juice of 1/2 lime
1/4 tsp (1 mL) sea salt
12 large lettuce leaves, such as romaine or Boston
Stir together lime juice, lemon juice, and orange juice in a flat container. Add salmon and marinate in refrigerator, flipping pieces at least once, for a minimum of 4 hours or up to 8 hours. Remove salmon from liquid and discard citrus juices.
For salsa, in large bowl, toss together tomatoes, avocado, pineapple, green onion, jalapeno, basil, coconut (if using), lime zest, lime juice, and salt.
Divide salmon among lettuce leaves and top with salsa before folding into wraps.
Serves 4.
Each serving contains: 351 calories; 25 g protein; 23 g total fat (5 g sat. fat, 0 g trans fat); 14 g total carbohydrates (6 g sugars, 5 g fibre); 220 mg sodium
source: "You Say Tomato", alive #370, August 2013
This vegan take on classic shepherd’s pie is jam-packed with bold and rich flavours that will ensure no one will miss the meat. While a great source of fibre, lentils also contain the highest amount of folate out of all plant-based foods. Oven ready If you don’t have an ovenproof skillet, you’ll need to transfer cooked lentil filling to a baking dish before topping with mashed sweet potatoes and baking.
Cauliflower has been having a moment lately, and this salad proves exactly why. Tender caramelized cauliflower is crowned in a glorious sweet and savoury crumble that will ensure it a place on your table all month long. Of all tree nuts, pecans have the highest concentration of flavonoids, which offer beneficial anti-inflammatory effects, and they also protect your cells from oxidative damage. Crumble perfection This crumble topping is too good not to use it on other preparations. Sprinkle over a carrot ribbon salad to add some extra pizzazz, use as a glorious garnish on a soup or stew, or consider generously spooning over your next vegetable “steak” to add some delicious textural variation.
This gloriously comforting dish gets its creamy lusciousness from a can of white beans. Feel free to use whatever vegetables you have on hand instead of broccoli. Pass the pasta Instead of regular pasta, consider serving this sauce over zucchini noodles, carrot noodles, or cooked spaghetti squash.
This nut-free take on classic queso dip is everything you want and more. Paired with chips, crackers, or crudités, this creamy, zesty, smoky, and oh-so-satisfying dip is easy enough to whip up for a cozy snack or as an appetizer for company. Go nuts! If you’re okay to eat nuts, try substituting sunflower seeds with 1 cup (250 mL) raw cashews. | https://www.alive.com/recipe/salmon-ceviche-wraps-with-tomato-pineapple-salsa/ |
I thought we’d celebrate the first day of summer with something fresh and flavorful.
I’ve had steak on the brain the past few days, as well as Thai food, so this is the end result of some different cravings, with a little inspiration from this recipe I found online.
This dish will definitely make its way back to the dinner table once Sacramento starts hitting triple digits, both because it tastes great but also because it requires minimal cooking.
Whisk honey, 1 cup soy sauce, 6 tablespoons fish sauce, 1 tablespoon lime juice, half the serrano, 3 cloves garlic and 3 tablespoons ginger in bowl; add steak. Cover with plastic wrap and refrigerate at least 45 minutes. Heat grill to medium-high and cook steaks 4-5 minutes on each side, until medium. Let cool and slice thin.
Mix remaining soy sauce, fish sauce, lime juice, Serrano, garlic and ginger in bowl with sesame oil and rice wine vinegar. Cover and place in refrigerator for 30 minutes.
Cook noodles according to package instructions, drain using colander and rinse in cold water before placing in a bowl.Place colander over noodle bowl and pour dressing into colander. Discard leftover Serrano, garlic and ginger left in the colander.
Toss noodles with bell pepper, cucumber, sprouts, cilantro and green onion. Scoop noodle salad onto plates and top with a few slices of steak.
I crashed a cooking class for kids the other day and while there I snapped some quick detail shots of the groupings of kitchen tools. Nothing fancy, but I'm a big fan of color in the kitchen and just thought these were fun.
Chris and I spent the weekend down in San Diego, where we both ran the Rock ‘n’ Roll Marathon. And while it might have felt like it, especially around mile 25, we didn’t spend the entire time running. There was a lot of relaxing, as well as a lot of eating, both before and after Sunday’s race.
Here’s a rundown of some of the places we tried.
We spent Friday and Saturday ingesting some serious carbs, while keeping meat, spicy dishes and dairy at a minimum. Friday night we feasted on Rama Thai’s Pad Thai with chicken, Drunken Noodles with beef, and the Birds Nest, a brothy dish with crispy noodles, shrimp, chicken, bamboo shoots and fresh vegetables.
I stumbled upon this newer Little Italy eatery via Yelp. For our last big pre-race meal Chris and I both opted for pasta bowls. Bencotto offers Pasta a Modo Tuo (pasta your way), allowing diners to pick between nine sauce choices and eight pastas, which are all made daily in house. While I thoroughly enjoyed my salsiccia (sausage in spicy tomato sauce) atop pappardelle (large hand-cut fettuccine), Bencotto’s menu featured many other tempting dishes I would have loved to try if I wasn’t uber-paranoid about my stomach.
Our post-race binge-fest took place at Karl Strauss’ downtown location. We tried the beer sampler and both honed in on the Pintail Pale Ale. Chris went for the chipotle-marinated flat iron steak, and I refueled with their Turkey Bleus Burger, a turkey burger with gorgonzola and pesto mayonnaise, with a side of some deliciously stinky garlic Parmesan fries.
A couple hours later we were ready to do some more eating, and enjoyed a light dinner of tacos at El Vitral, right next to PETCO Park, home of the Padres. Two taco plates did the trick — the Camaron Enchilados, made with spicy shrimp and mushrooms and topped with avocado cream, and the Taco de Dorado (beer-battered mahi mahi with slaw, salsa verde, crema fresca and chipotle aioli) were gone in no time.
Monday morning we hobbled down the street to the Broken Yolk Café for breakfast, where I indulged in Betty’s Southern Biscuits and Gravy and eggs over medium. We each ordered a mimosa and learned that we could get a full bottle of champagne for the price of those two drinks, and soon after a chilled bottle of bubbly and mini carafes of orange and pomegranate juices ended up at our table. Definitely helped ease the sore legs a bit! | https://www.onemoretaste.com/2010/06/ |
A week's worth of quick, healthful meals for budget-minded families.
SUNDAY: Celebrate family day with Indian Flank Steak and Rice (see recipe) on the menu. Add sauteed sliced carrots, mixed greens and naan alongside. Buy a Boston cream pie for dessert.
Plan ahead: Save enough steak, rice and Boston cream pie for Monday.
MONDAY: Make Steak Stir-Fry with the leftover flank steak (cut into bite-size pieces). Stir-fry the steak with frozen stir-fry vegetables and bottled stir-fry sauce. Spoon your creation over leftover brown rice and add bread sticks on the side. A piece of leftover Boston cream pie is dessert.
TUESDAY: Pappardelle With Turkey Ragu (see recipe) is an economical and tasty meal. Add a spinach salad and garlic bread. For dessert, try pears.
WEDNESDAY: Cuban Black Bean and Potato Soup makes a perfect no-meat meal: Combine 3 ½ cups sofrito with 3 cups canned reduced-sodium black beans (rinsed and well drained) in a blender; blend until smooth. Pour into Dutch oven. Add 7 cups water and 3 more cups rinsed black beans, 2 ½ cups diced potatoes (3 medium), 2 tablespoons white wine vinegar, 1 tablespoon cumin, 1 teaspoon dried oregano, 1 bay leaf and ½ teaspoon coarse salt. Bring to a simmer; reduce heat to medium-low and simmer, covered, 20 minutes or until potatoes are soft. Remove bay leaf. Garnish each serving with diced red onion and diced green bell pepper. Serve with plantain chips and Cuban bread. Make flan (from mix) for dessert.
Tip: Look for sofrito in the international food section of your market.
THURSDAY: Make it quick tonight with a pan-fried ham steak, potatoes with onions (from refrigerated) and spinach souffle (from frozen). Add whole-grain bread. Chunky applesauce is your dessert.
FRIDAY: The kids will run to dinner for Chicken and Cheese Quesadillas: Evenly top 4 (8-inch) whole-grain tortillas with ¼ cup shredded cheddar cheese, ½ cup shredded cooked chicken, 2 tablespoons chopped fresh cilantro and 1 tablespoon canned chopped mild green chiles. Cover each with another tortilla; press down gently. One at a time, brown in a large nonstick skillet on medium-high 2 minutes per side or until golden and cheese is melted. Cut into wedges and serve. Add vegetarian refried beans and baby carrots with dip. Slice kiwis for dessert.
SATURDAY: Take your guests to the south of France with Fish Provencal (see recipe). Add mashed potatoes to catch the juices, steamed fresh brussels sprouts, a Boston lettuce salad and a baguette to round out the meal. For dessert, hop over to Italy for Italian Pound Cake: Mix 1 (18-ounce) jar apricot preserves with ¼ cup amaretto (or apricot nectar) and heat until warm. Drizzle over sliced pound cake. Add a dollop of light whipped cream and toasted sliced almonds for garnish.
THE RECIPES
Indian Flank Steak and Rice
- 1 cup plain Greek-style yogurt
- 2 tablespoons garam masala
- 1 tablespoon garlic powder
- 1 tablespoon paprika
- 1 teaspoon coarse salt
- 2 pounds beef flank steak
- 2 red onions, cut into thick slices
- 3 cups hot cooked brown rice
- 2 cups frozen peas, cooked according to package directions
Combine yogurt, garam masala, garlic powder, paprika and salt in medium bowl. Spread 1/3 cup yogurt mixture over steak. Reserve remaining yogurt mixture for sauce. Place steak in food-safe plastic bag; turn steak to coat. Close bag securely and marinate in refrigerator 6 hours or as long as overnight. Remove steak from marinade; discard marinade. Place steak on grill over medium, ash-covered coals. Grill, covered, 11 to 16 minutes (or 16 to 21 minutes over medium heat on heated gas grill), turning occasionally, for medium-rare to medium doneness. Meanwhile, grill onion slices, covered, 11 to 15 minutes. Remove steak and onions from grill; let stand 3 to 5 minutes.
Meanwhile, heat remaining sauce and 3 tablespoons water in small saucepan over medium heat 2 to 3 minutes. Cut steak lengthwise in half, then across the grain into thin slices. Cut onions into bite-size pieces. Combine rice and peas in large bowl. Divide rice mixture evenly among plates. Serve with beef, onions and sauce.
Makes 8 servings.
Each serving (prepared with nonfat yogurt) contains approximately 302 calories, 29 g protein, 8 g fat, 29 g carbohydrate, 65 mg cholesterol, 289 mg sodium and 4 g fiber.
Carbohydrate choices: 2
■ ■ ■
Pappardelle With Turkey Ragu
- 12 ounces pappardelle or linguine pasta
- 2 medium carrots, chopped
- ½ cup unsalted chicken broth, divided use
- 2 teaspoons olive oil
- 1 medium onion, chopped
- 1 teaspoon minced garlic
- 1 1/3 pounds ground turkey breast
- 1 teaspoon dried crushed (or 2 teaspoons fresh) rosemary
- ½ teaspoon coarse salt
- ½ teaspoon ground black pepper
- 2 cups marinara sauce
- Freshly grated parmesan cheese to taste
- Cook pasta according to package directions; drain.
Cover and microwave carrots and 1 tablespoon broth 2 minutes on high.
In a large nonstick skillet, heat oil on medium. Add carrots, onion and garlic to skillet. Cook 6 minutes or until vegetables are softened. Add turkey, rosemary, salt and pepper; cook 6 minutes or until turkey is no longer pink. Add remaining broth; simmer, uncovered, 3 minutes. Stir in marinara sauce; reduce heat to low and simmer, covered, 4 minutes to blend flavors. Spoon sauce over pasta; serve with parmesan.
Makes 6 servings.
Nutrition information: Each serving contains approximately 402 calories, 33 g protein, 5 g fat, 54 g carbohydrate, 59 mg cholesterol, 329 mg sodium and 4 g fiber.
Carbohydrate choices: 3 ½
■ ■ ■
Fish Provencal
- 1 ½ pounds firm whitefish such as halibut or striped bass
- 1 tablespoon olive oil
- ½ cup finely chopped onion
- 1 (14-ounce) can diced tomatoes, drained
- ½ cup Kalamata olives, sliced lengthwise
- 2 tablespoons dry white wine
- 1 teaspoon dried basil
- ½ teaspoon garlic powder
- ¼ teaspoon dried thyme
Heat oven to 375 degrees. Place fish in a single layer in large baking dish coated with cooking spray. Bake 15 minutes.
Meanwhile, heat oil in medium saucepan on medium. Add onion; cook and stir 5 minutes or until softened. Add tomatoes, olives, wine, basil, garlic powder and thyme; simmer 3 minutes. Spoon sauce over fish. Bake 5 more minutes or until fish is opaque throughout.
Makes 6 servings.
Nutrition information: Each serving contains approximately 172 calories, 22 g protein, 6 g fat, 5 g carbohydrate, 56 mg cholesterol, 334 mg sodium and 1 g fiber. | https://www.arkansasonline.com/news/2022/nov/23/7-day-menu-planner/?news-columnists |
What is the hardest math problem to solve? It might not seem obvious but it often overlooked. The hardest math problem to solve is the one you can’t solve because the solution hasn’t presented itself yet. In the vast world of mathematics, numbers are the most important characters. We encounter a lot of equations and formulas.
There are concepts that are very difficult and students have to struggle to understand them. Math is one of the toughest subjects in school and it consists of various topics that need full attention and dedication. Solving math problems for example is very tedious but if you know how to solve it step by step, you would find it easier. There can be solve hard math problems if you know the strategies and techniques to work out these challenging problems in math.
Read the Problem
It is essential to read the before first before anything else especially in answering word problems. You must select the information that is necessary for you. Try to break down the problem in reading it again and again. Analyze it and try to break them into pieces to get the main idea. Remember that if you are not sure with what you need to take out, break them sentence by sentence if needed. Read it out loud slowly. Reading the instructions carefully and more than once is also essential since it is a tool in finding solution to the problem.
Take Time to Write
It is difficult to solve the problem mentally. So, in doing some addition problems, a student have to take the numbers they need to add and write them on paper. In older students who are solving more complicated problems, it is important that they translate word into numbers. It is much easier to solve the problem if you translate them since you can easily analyze it in math language. You can think of what formula you will use if it is in math equation form already.
Apply the Formulas
It is critical that you are familiar with math formulas to be able to apply in solving math problems especially when you are dealing with word problems. Recall the formulas that are applicable in the problem. If there are no formulas, try to think of similar example of the problem and find out the steps in using to solve the problem or equation. Many math problems are similar to solve but with different variables.
One Step at a Time
Perform the operation one by one. No need to hurry as long as your answer is right. Make your formula and example problem a guide and finish each step until you reach the solution. Most error only occur in one step and that cause a wrong number to pass through to the end; this commonly happens with long and complex problems. If you get stuck, go back to the previous process until you find an answer that you feel is right.
Check Your Answers
Check your work before jumping to another equation. It is vital that you check your formulas and solutions since one mistake makes the rest wrong. In math, it is necessary that you are very careful in solving. In doing home work, find an answer key if possible. Compare your solution with your classmates’ works or let your other siblings review your work.
Math problems are inevitable. Even in real life situations, we encounter most of them.
If you have any sort of questions relating to where and how you can utilize Math solution, you could call us at our web-site.
They vary depending on what type of math equation or problem you are doing. Techniques are important because they help students in finding solutions to the math problems. But of course you need a lot of patience and dedication in order to solve them. Like in real life, there are many unknowns but knowing how to deal with those variables is what the most successful people in the world do. | https://www.phenomenallife2020.com/2022/10/29/how-to-answer-math-problems-with-no-sweat/ |
How I think
In this essay, I discuss the different mental models I adopt when I need to think about things critically.
Here is a framework that I explain to others to about my thinking process. Basically, how I think is broken into three parts: break the problem and solve by first principles, build or understand a strategy around a problem by a Bayesian approach i.e ascribing probabilities and statistics to a set of solutions that might tackle the problem that is complex and emergent, and lastly, figuring a business problem using basic unit economics and perspectives while figuring out how irrationality or behavior models might affect them.
When I think, I am often trying to solve a problem. For me, every problem must start with a question. As a trained theoretical physicist, I am trained to think from first principles and use orders of magnitude and scale to figure out where the laws of physics apply. The laws of physics are immutable and stand against the test of time. At the same time, we have theories in physics that are constantly built and deploy to solve existing problems. The beauty of physics is that you have the mathematical and philosophical toolbox to break an extremely complex problem down to small units where you can solve it individually.
How do I solve a problem once I have framed it into a proper and reasonable question? The why is often important before we ask how and what. First, I break the problem down to a scenario where the problem in the system can be modeled by a set of assumptions. In the same light, the agents within that scenario are dictated by the rules within that system. Sometimes, we can observe the system and find the set of rules and sometimes, we can make an educated guess on the rules.
While I might want to set my thinking process by logical assumptions, I often relied on intuition to make an educated guess for the problem that I might be solving at that moment in time. There are times which I cannot express why my tuition keeps telling me that no matter how someone may convince me the logic of the argument, but they are driving us to the wrong set of conclusions. Many times, I discover that the underlying assumptions are wrong in the process. I have learned to trust my intuition more as the years go by. Hence I do caution that I may not be able to communicate why something is wrong because I need a longer period to understand the problem and only to know in time, that my intuition is right.
First principles thinking are good for solving technical and engineering problems, and allows me to troubleshoot problems associated with technology. In science, it’s never about proving something right but merely establishing whether a way of thinking will lead to a set of consequences by deduction and eliminate the possibilities by falsification which is inductive thinking. In technology business, we often hear the concept of building your case with hypotheses and put them to the test by collecting and analyzing the data. The analysis will lead us to the conclusion whether the hypothesis is right or wrong. However, it is not the complete Swiss army knife to everything.
The second framework I used is often use for thinking about strategy and complex systems. This framework came from an interesting field of statistical physics, when we approach a problem using a statistical framework. It’s easy to ascribe a simple law of physics to how one atom or molecule move but when you have a system of many interacting molecules and atoms, you apply the statistical physics approach of an ensemble. In doing so, you discover another way of thinking which allow you to discover emergence where a macroscopic system might governed by very simple rules but yet yield different consequences depending on its evolution.
Self-organized criticality in biological systems and macroeconomics can be applied into thinking about public policy. This approach allows me to think about complex problems from public policy to business strategy. This approach allows me to build a heuristic model to draw out a subset of solutions to a complex problem but at the same time, ascribe probabilities to each scenario. What it means, is that I can find a strategy to solve a business problem with at least 20-50 different combinations, but I will follow up by putting a probability on each one of them. In doing so, I can select those which will give me the likely outcomes.
In real life, I have a different approach to find the set of solutions by taking the opposite and extreme position that I have on the problem. Then let everyone debate against me, and then I find the median solution to find the true middle which I can compromise or trade off. Most situations in life and work are not clear cut and dry and it requires me to expand the space of all possible solutions to the problem.
The last framework is to use economics to think about business problems. I look at a business problem by building the basic unit economics and figure out the effective addressable market. It’s meant for me to understand a business and how it works. The problem relies on the demand and supply and applying economic theories to look at how businesses uses technology to improve their operations or build new business models. Lately, I have started to put a toolbox of behavioral economics and try to seek out the bias in how the logic might drive you one way but the results are otherwise.
To make decisions relating to people, I often employ a thinking tool which I called perspectives thinking. In my mind, I set up how each stakeholder in that situation wants and thinks about the issues, and then I seek to find an alignment or a common thread that everyone can agree on and move them towards that alignment. It’s not perfect but it’s the only way for me to get things done or in other words, solving the problem by an inch everyday. When different people have their own agendas at stake, we cannot win without compromises and trade-offs.
While logic and numbers are the best way to convince me, I have taken an empathic approach lately to see beyond the numbers, and understand the human costs involved. It is important to think and be critical about how you assess very situation. | https://www.bernardleong.com/how-i-think/ |
I got into a discussion the other day about BPM with a group of practitioners and quickly discovered that each was doing something rather different. One practitioner was working with people who were performing an existing process, helping them to introduce minor improvements in the way they worked. It turned out that a several of the problems being addressed involved feedback that the employees did or didn't receive from their supervisor. Another was working with a team that had been asked to entirely redesign a website and was in the process of redefining how customers would interact with the firm, and how employees would get and respond to information about potential customers. Still another was working with a new software tool designed to do process mining. In effect she was analyzing data about an existing business process to identify the steps that were taken and when and where problems were encountered. A fourth group was analyzing how decisions were made during a business process. They were focused on identifying business rules that were applied to decision making and considering if the rules were optimal and if the decisions could or should be automated.
To further clarify, I met this group of practitioners at a local BPM group meeting, and they were typical of those attending. If I had been attending a larger BPM gathering, or a more specialized gathering, I would have met Business Analysts, or Six Sigma or Lean professionals, or, perhaps, Business Process Architects with their more specialized concerns.
I mention all this just to remind readers of the variety of perspectives that a really comprehensive approach to business process management, process improvement or business transformation must embrace.
I was impressed with this need for a comprehensive approach in 2002 when I wrote Business Process Change. I had read several books on process change and each seemed to me to take one or two perspectives and ignore the rest. Six Sigma books were written as if everyone involved in process change were only working in the Six Sigma tradition. Some Process Improvement books and most Business Process Reengineering books were written as if automation was the only way to achieve process redesign. Other books were written to explain Human Performance Improvement, or Business Process Architecture, Lean, Supply Chain Improvement, or some specific Business Process Modeling Notation. In my experience, working with companies to improve processes for several decades, all of these perspectives were just that: perspectives. In my experience you started by examining the problems the organization faced, and then you considered which perspectives would be most useful in that specific situation.
I wrote Business Process Change to provide readers with an overview of how I looked at problems, and to explain ALL of the different techniques and practices that one might use, depending on the specific situation one faced. One can only go into a limited amount of depth if one wants to provide readers with a comprehensive overview. One needs to offer a general perspective, suggesting the various types of problems one is likely to encounter and the various techniques that work best with different types of problems. One must leave it to others to provide depth in specific techniques.
This comprehensive perspective is the same one that I brought to Business Process Trends – www.bptrends.com — when Celia Wolf and I created a website to publish information about business process change. We wanted to create a site that would provide information on all of the different perspectives – a place where IT practitioners could meet business analysts, Lean and Six Sigma analysts, BPMN designers and human performance specialists. Now, 16 years later, we have accumulated a large body of articles, columns, book reviews and white papers on all different aspects of process work. Through it all we have remained a free site and I am pleased to note the number of practitioners and students that regularly show up to search our database as they seek specific information on particular problems they face.
In a similar way, Celia Wolf, Roger Burlton and I created Business Process Trends Associates to offer training in a comprehensive approach to business process analysis. We offer several courses, but over the years the perennial favorite is our introductory week of courses that offers new analysts an overview and introduction to all of the various perspectives. We try to look at real problems that companies face and then consider how a variety of different techniques and practices are required to solve the problems. In all cases our goal isn't to promote any specific approach or technique, but to train process practitioners who have the flexibility and then knowledge to consider different possibilities and to craft an intervention that will deliver the biggest improvement for the expenditure.
As I've noted in other columns, business process improvement is a perennial challenge at all companies. The process perspective offers the best general approach to creating efficient new organizations or improving the work of existing organizations. As time changes new approaches (or fads) become hot and new types of interventions become popular. What doesn't change is the need to think carefully about what is really involved in producing quality products and services, providing good customer experiences, and minimizing the cost and maximizing the productivity of employees. There are always multiple ways to deal with complex problems, and one always works with a limited budget, and is forced to prioritize one's interventions.
Understanding your options, and considering which intervention will work best in a given situation is always the best way to approach a process problem. Hopefully a comprehensive approach will continue to flourish. | https://www.bptrends.com/harmon-on-bpm-the-varieties-of-bpm/ |
Fighting to make the American Dream a reality
My family knows a thing or two about what it means to work hard for the American Dream.
My grandfather, Patrick Naughton, came to America as a teenager from Ireland with pennies in his pocket and little to no education. The one thing he did have was the belief that with hard work and perseverance, he could accomplish anything. Patrick Naughton worked as a butler in Philadelphia, and then joined the U.S. Army and fought in World War I, where he was gassed by our country’s enemies and left for dead.
Thankfully, the Irish have a knack for getting back up when they’re knocked down. He returned home, received his citizenship and opened his own butcher shop. He married and started his own family. He earned enough to give back to those in his community who were faced with hunger during the Great Depression.
That isn’t just my grandfather’s story, it is our country’s story, too — the dream of wanting a better life and working hard to make that dream come true. Unfortunately, it seems more and more like the ability and willingness to seek out the American Dream is being slowly washed and faded from the fabric of our country. That’s why I decided to run for Congress.
We need to make big changes in Washington that will produce real results and bring struggling families closer to having the same opportunities Patrick Naughton did. The only way we’re going to change the culture of gridlock in D.C. is to change the people we send there.
I am a scientist by training and started my career working in breast cancer research and drug discovery for Wyeth Labs. One of the things scientific training teaches you is to look for solutions based on facts, a practice that is too often ignored in Washington these days.
My experience in the lab and as a small business owner has proven to me that the best way to solve problems is to take a fresh and honest approach to them. And we all benefit from diversity of experience in our houses of government. That’s why we need different perspectives and new approaches to the problems we’re facing, because the status quo is not working. I am not a career politician. I won’t play by the political games that seems to guide too many of our elected officials. And that is why you will always know where I stand.
I will stand with Planned Parenthood because of the work they do for women and families health. I will stand up against the special interest groups and corporations, and fight for a ban on fracking in the Delaware River Basin that will protect our drinking water. I will stand up to the NRA, and work for universal background check legislation. I will stand up to the Republicans when they try to privatize Social Security or turn Medicare into a voucher program because we know it will be just as important for our kids and grandkids as it is for our seniors today. I will stand with our young people who need affordable education, and work to find solutions that will not leave them in debt for decades.
Most importantly, I will stand with people like you and like my grandfather who believe in the American Dream, and that success is more than just a goal, it’s also a responsibility. We can make that dream attainable for more Americans if we take a new approach to solving the problems our country faces. I am asking for your support on April 26, because the Eighth District deserves someone in Congress who will fight to make their dreams of a future better than the past a reality.
Shaughnessy Naughton is a Democratic candidate for Congress. | https://www.buckscountycouriertimes.com/story/opinion/columns/more-voices/2016/04/18/fighting-to-make-american-dream/18167330007/ |
Domain-Driven Design (DDD) is an approach to software development that simplifies the complexity developers face by connecting the implementation to an evolving model.
If we were to take a concept, divide it into four ingredients, and stir them together or take the same concept and serve it as four different items on a plate, which would be more effective? Let’s use food as an example — say, a bowl of chili. We know that chili is made by taking different ingredients (such as meat, sauce, and beans), placing them in a pot, and cooking for 30 to 45 minutes. In contrast, we have steak, potatoes, and vegetables on a plate, ready to be served.
Which one would be easier to manage if we were to add/remove items: taking beans and diced tomatoes out of a bowl of chili or removing vegetables from a plate and adding another food item? In this case, chili represents Data-Driven Design. Layers of ingredients in sequence with one another in an order (such as beans, meat, tomatoes, and sauce) complete the recipe.
Let’s compare this to Domain-Driven Design, where you have the domain (steak), Bounded Contexts (vegetables), and Single Responsibility Principle (potatoes), and either one could be replaced by something different outside of the domain and the meal will still be considered a full dish. Being able to add/remove from organized software is how DDD functions, which is why it is important for software developers and business owners to use.
The purpose of DDD is to:
- Provide principles & patterns to solve difficult problems
- Base complex designs on a model of the domain
- Initiate a creative collaboration between technical and domain experts to iteratively refine a conceptual model that addresses domain problems
As developers, we are excited to jump into a project, start coding, and build software. However, we cannot build software without understanding the client’s needs first. DDD places a great amount of emphasis on not only comprehending what the client wants but working with them as partners through a project. The end goal is not only to write code, or even to build software, but to solve problems!
Understanding Domain-Driven Design
To understand DDD better, we need to know what the first “D” means — Domain. Domain is a sphere of knowledge and activity where the application logic revolves. In the world of Software Engineering, domain refers to the subject area to which the application is intended to apply.
DDD was created to make the domain the focus of design. DDD was initially introduced and made popular by a programmer named Eric Evans with his 2004 book, Domain-Driven Design: Tackling Complexity in the Heart of Software. Inside Eric’s book, he further defines a few common terms that are useful when describing and discussing DDD practices:
- Context: The setting in which a word or statement appears that determines its meaning. Statements about a model can only be understood in context.
- Model: A system of abstractions that describes selected aspects of a domain and can be used to solve problems related to that domain.
- Ubiquitous Language: A language structured around the domain model and used by all team members to connect all the activities of the team with the software.
- Bounded Context: A description of a boundary (typically a subsystem or the work of a specific team) within which a model is defined and applicable.
The emphasis of DDD is on understanding how to create an abstract model of the problem domain which can be implemented in a set of technologies. DDD, which is known as a methodology, provides guidelines for how model development and technology development can result in a system that meets the needs of its users while also being robust in the face of change in problem domain.
How to Use Domain-Driven Design
So how do we use DDD? Well, we can start by describing how the DDD process works.
The process of Domain-Driven Design involves collaboration between developers and non-developers. Ideally, one will have a shared model (which is a model that can be shared between a different Bounded Context) with shared languages so that as people from different domains with different perspectives discuss the solution, they have a shared knowledge base with shared concepts. You can find a list of concepts here.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Domain–Driven Design
DDD is a great approach to use for software development. However, it is not recommended for every project. DDD has advantages and disadvantages, and it is important for developers to know what they are before using the DDD approach for a project.
Advantages of DDD
- Patterns: Domain-Driven Design gives software developers the principles and patterns to solve tough problems in software and, at times, in business.
- Business Logic: Domain-Driven Design creates business logic by explaining requirements from a domain perspective. Conceptualizing the system software in terms of the business domain, reducing the risk of misunderstanding between the domain experts and the development team.
- Successful History: Domain-Driven Design has a history of success with complex projects, aligning with the experience of software developers and software applications developed.
Disadvantages of DDD
- Instant time consumption: Software Developers have to spend lots of time with domain experts to understand the domain thoroughly. Deciding the sub domains and system boundaries could also take a lot of time.
- Higher Learning Curve: Domain-Driven Design has a high learning curve. Developing a new way of thinking might seem painful at first. To help with the high learning curve, I recommend John Sonmez’s “10 Steps to Learn Anything Quickly”.
- Not ideal if complexity isn’t an issue: DDD was designed to simplify complexity. A lot of times complexity isn’t an issue in software development, such as CRUD (Create, Read, Update and Delete) or when developing Data-Driven applications. DDD is a great approach to software development if there is a need to simplify, but is not necessary if there isn’t.
Overall, DDD is worth learning because it simplifies one factor that is complex in every professional relationship: communication. DDD allows developers, domain experts, DBAs, business owners, and (most importantly) clients to communicate effectively with each other in order to solve problems.
Effectively Communicate with Domain-Driven Design
Domain-Driven Design is an effective way to write clear, testable code, and provides principles and patterns to solve difficult problems. Clients are typically not interested in how the code works or even how the software is built, but they are interested in a product that works. Communicating effectively with the client in regards to their product without being extremely technical is one of the greatest benefits DDD has to offer. | https://simpleprogrammer.com/importance-domain-driven-design/ |
We all know that a great business idea is one that solves a problem. We see an issue and offer the perfect solution. And solving problems remains just as important throughout the lifetime of a business. Whether it’s creating new products or overcoming obstacles in day-to-day operations, problem-solving drives innovation and moves things forward.
But a key question we all need to be asking is: who’s identifying and solving these problems in our businesses?
The solutions we create to solve problems are people powered. But people’s thinking is always affected by context – their age, race, gender, social status, etc. This means that the people in the room have a huge effect on what problems we’re addressing and how we solve them.
Diversity of thought
According to Harvard Business Review (HRB), teams solve problems better when they’re more cognitively diverse. This means that a range of different personality types and thinking styles help teams approach the problem from various [EH1] angles to find the best one.
This is down to something called mental sets. A mental set is a tendency for the brain to solve problems in the same way they’ve solved problems in the past. If you take a group of people with similar backgrounds, the combination of similar mental sets and groupthink can mean a limited ability to solve problems. You’ll be lacking fresh perspectives and different types of problem-solving.
According to the HRB study, cognitive diversity (a range of people who think in different ways) had a more significant effect on problem-solving than demographic diversity. However, as mentioned, this isn’t just about how we solve problems. It’s about what problems we’re solving in the first place. As purpose-driven businesses, when it comes to measuring impact, we need to consider our effects on all areas of society. And this is where diversity is really key.
Who’s in the room right now?
Throughout society, we can see examples of a lack of diversity leading to less-than-optimal decision-making. Let’s take the example of toilets (not the most glamourous, we’ll admit). Caroline Criado Perez, author of Invisible Women, explores why the queues outside women’s toilets are always longer. Women need more space, use the bathroom more frequently and take longer (due to changing period products, pregnancy, being accompanied by children, etc.). Yet women’s toilets are usually allocated the same amount of space as men’s when buildings are designed. And why hasn’t this problem been noticed by architects and planners (who tend to be men)? According to Criado Perez, "If you don’t experience it you don’t know about it."
Or we can also consider the fact that photography technology doesn’t show dark skin as well as light skin, because white people were always used as the baseline for developing cameras. In the white-dominated tech industry, many people won’t even notice that this is a problem.
If we look into the structures of organisations, we can see that there’s a diversity problem at the top of most large firms. Around 40% of UK management boards are completely white, and that number intensifies in certain industries. Just 1.5% of Black employees in the UK hold senior roles.
This means that when it comes to solving and making strategic decisions, the interests of these communities are likely to be unrepresented.
Opportunities for greater impact
When companies are aware of social problems, they can harness the power of innovation for positive change. And often it’s people from affected communities holding decision-making positions that identify these problems and push for change.
Let’s take the example of tech company VIVIDA. They create learning and training experiences for companies using tech like virtual reality (VR), as well as working on cyber security. But founder Simeon Quarrie has gone a step further. As a Black man, he was able to see an opportunity to harness his innovative technology to help challenge everyday racism. His company also creates immersive VR experiences that let people experience what it’s like to move through the world as a Black person. In 2019 he teamed up with EY to create one of these VR experiences for their employees.
And of course, intersectionality is key to solving many social and environmental problems. Take climate change, for example. The causes and effects of carbon emissions and pollution vary across the world, and we need to be aware of all of these in order to fight climate change.
It’s often women of colour who are on the frontline of these challenges. Their perspectives are therefore needed to identify innovative solutions. For example, Indian chemist Nidhi Pant, founder of S4S Technologies, saw the struggles of landless women farmers in India. She created an innovative solar dryer to help reduce food waste and carbon emissions from rotting food and create additional income for farmers in India.
How to increase diversity for a greater impact
So clearly, it’s important to get a diverse range of people in the room to identify and solve problems. But how exactly do you go about that?
How you address diversity in your business depends on the size of your business as well as the industry you’re in. However, there are several key principles that can be applied across most companies.
· Hire diversely
And at all levels of your business. However, pay special attention to the top levels of your business. Final decisions about the direction of the company fall to the board and upper management, so it’s essential that voices from all communities are heard at these levels. What’s more, according to research from Deloitte, “inclusive leaders cast a long shadow”. They found that inclusive leaders increased employees’ feelings of psychological safety by 70%.
· Listen and learn
If you’re running a larger company, listen to your employees. Invite them to put forward suggestions; ask for their opinions. They might just think of things you haven’t. And for companies of all sizes – listen to your customer base. Especially if your company is trying to have a social impact, anything you do needs to be based on the concrete needs of a group of people – as determined by the people themselves.
· Engage middle managers
According to Deloitte, while we often see grassroots movements effect change from the ground up, and big-picture moves at the top of a company, these efforts can get lost if middle management isn’t sufficiently supported and motivated. Make sure everyone in the company understands your goals and vision, as well as their role in implementation.
Explore your impact
If you want to hear and discuss more ideas about inclusion, diversity and how companies can make a positive impact, why not join us for the Impact Summit on the 14th September? It’s an online event with a range of speakers at the cutting edge of what it means to be a value-led business in today’s world. Learn more and book your ticket here. | https://www.futurexlearn.com/blog/people-matter |
We are living in an age of accelerating complexity, a world where change is exponentially increasing in speed, degree of surprise, and amount of possible outcomes. This means that our world is much less predictable, and requires a completely different mentality and approach to dealing with emerging issues and events.
Despite this realization, very few people have a clue as to what we should do about it. Governments are shifting, economies are in turmoil, technology is exploding, business models are falling and rising at the speed of light, a new social reality is evolving by the minute, and almost every single issue has become what is known as a “Wicked Problem.” The use of the word “wicked” in this phrase does not refer to being evil, but rather having an extremely complex nature that doesn’t have a straight-line or simple solution. On the contrary, every solution created for a so called “wicked problem” only reveals or creates more problems.
In today’s landscape of complex dilemmas in food economies, shifting concepts in work and education, technological disruption, economic distribution and disparities, shrinking job markets, political upheaval, class disenfranchisement, environmental collapse and resource wars, almost every single issue has become a systemic, complex problem with no obvious solution. And our leaders are desperately seeking for order in the midst of chaos. So, what should we do?
The common approach has been to avoid or attempt to “kill” complexity, but in this environment of accelerating change, that advice is similar to suggesting that we stop breathing in order to avoid the flu. One of the first things I tell clients is if they attempt to kill complexity in order to successfully navigate the future, they might as well quit doing business altogether. Whether building companies, steering governments or achieving personal goals, avoiding complexity isn’t the answer anymore. Rather, just the opposite is true.
In our world of accelerating complexity, we must recognize that it isn’t the rapidly changing landscape that is the real enemy of aspirational futures, but rather it’s our mental maps that are tuned to a way of thinking and acting that worked in the previous era. What we need now isn’t better teaching on mindsets that were successful in the last economy. We need to shift our models. Businesses, organizations, innovators, and entrepreneurs will need a new platform from which to operate. Instead of operating out of fear and a “fortress mentality,” leaders must embrace the increasing complexity as a matrix from which to create new ideas, new products and services, and new solutions. Nature itself moves from simplicity to complexity as a sign of growth and maturity. Despite the tremendous problems we face, our world of expanding complexity is an indication that we are growing as well. When we adopt this view, we will begin to realize that complexity is actually the catalyst for new ideas that can solve age-old problems. In this new world of rapid change, we must learn to “dance with complexity” rather than attempting to kill it.
What exactly does a future in which we “dance with complexity” look like?
Embrace transdisciplinarity
One of the results of attempting to create a world of simplicity was the siloing of ideas and disciplines. In our Wicked Futures, we must learn to embrace “transdisciplinarity,” a fancy word that means the crossing or converging or disciplines to create a holistic approach. The power of transdisciplinarity over the established concepts of multidisciplinarity or interdisciplinarity is in the creation of the “spaces in-between.” In complexity, we are afforded the emergence of new ideas and tools that result from this convergence. In a transdisciplinary world, the sum is greater than the parts, and we can see the answer to questions that have plagued us for decades.
Transformational, Not Incremental
We must move beyond incremental innovation into transformational thinking and invention. Complexity presents us with with the forces of disruption and creative destruction, helping us to leap-frog in our growth in business and society. Businesses have depended on making their products a little bigger, a little smaller, or in the most popular colors in order to extend their market cycles, but Wicked Futures will move much too quickly for this outdated notion. Complexity not only changes the fundamental concept of the consumer, but it forces us to innovate with greater meaning and purpose.
See The Big Picture
We must train ourselves in the art of pattern recognition and sense-making. This means that relying on trend analysis and even big data–a concept that is only in its infancy–will not suffice. As a matter of fact, growing complexity means that trends and data are amplifying and meshing at the speed of light, and those who are able to see the patterns that are emerging from this clustering of ideas and events will be those who can pull transformational futures into the present.
Foster A Global View
Since the command-and-control operations are shifting, business is requiring a mindset that works to see the world from multiple perspectives rather than a singular or myopic viewpoint. The “new global citizen” will be one that not only sees the perspectives held by other cultures, but is able to process and create new “worlds” from the convergence of those views. We are now realizing that the future isn’t linear, and we hold the key to framing preferred outcomes.
As the future becomes more complex, we must reframe our Wicked Problems as “Wicked Opportunities.” This means that we actively pursue unique and unseen opportunities created by the complex situations present in our increasingly connected world. The more complex our world, the bigger our canvas becomes on which to paint an unlimited amount of transformational and aspirational ideas. An era of Wicked Opportunities has the potential to usher in some amazing solutions to our greatest global problems, generating a new pipeline for job creation and economic development across the world.
We must see the rise of wicked organizations, wicked innovators, and wicked entrepreneurs. We need to foster an entire generation that has a positive relationship with our world of volatile change if we want to intentionally seize the unlimited opportunities that are just waiting to emerge from the fertile environment of increasing complexity. Without actively developing this new type of thinker in our businesses and society–leaders who know how to leverage complexity rather than kill it–we are going to miss the unlimited possibilities to create aspirational futures and solve long-standing big world problems. The choice is ours. But one way or the other, the future will be wicked. | https://www.fastcompany.com/2682062/turning-wicked-problems-into-wicked-opportunities |
Welcome. Let me introduce myself to you. I am a former teacher of university and theological seminary students. In addition to undergraduate university degrees in psychology and chemistry and a theological seminary master’s degree, I earned my Ph.D. at the Graduate Theological Union in Berkeley, California, in cooperation with the University of California at Berkeley.
Since leaving the academic world, I have created various websites and published books, ebooks, newsletters, videos, webinars, online articles, and blog posts.
About Perspectives
With hindsight, I realize that the common theme of just about everything I have ever written comes down to one single word: perspective.
Perspective is about vision. Perspective is what you see from where you stand. If you change where you stand, you will have a different perspective. If you are struggling with problems in your life, and can’t figure out how to solve them, the first step is to change your perspectives on your problems.
The importance of perspective applies to any circumstance in your life. Whatever life problems you are struggling to solve, whatever goals you are striving to fulfill, whatever dreams you are daring to dream, changing perspective is what brings about change in your life.
Anytime you feel stuck, frustrated, discouraged, confused, or hopeless about some aspect of your life, I urge you to ponder these words by Marcus Aurelius.
Everything we hear is an opinion, not a fact.
Everything we see is a perspective, not the truth.
Here’s the point of all of this. We live in a world filled with problems, failures, tragedies, set-backs, illnesses, diseases, wars, suffering, cruelties, betrayals, and deaths—the list goes on. Many of us never get over the legacies of such experiences.
We also live in a world in which some people have learned to take the stress and anger and hurt and struggle out of their lives by changing their perspectives on whatever happens in their lives.
This is another reality of human life. We have the capacity to change our lives by changing our perspectives on how we choose to respond to anything in our lives. Is it easy? Life-change can be easy and it be hard. It’s up to each of us to choose.
About the Website
The life-changing power of perspective is the focus of this website and all that I have written and all that I intend to write. I am not writing as the expert with all of the answers, but as one who is also learning how to change my own life by changing my perspectives.
This is why I have chosen to consolidate my websites into one website about life-changing perspectives. [The consolidation process will take a while to complete.]
Life is a journey for all of us. Writing books and blog posts and keeping a daily journal for most of my adult life are important parts of my own life journey. Whatever your life-journey, a journey requires changes in perspective. Whatever life problems you are struggling to solve, whatever goals you are striving to fulfill, whatever dreams you are daring to dream, changing perspective is what brings about change.
I welcome you to join me. I also welcome your insights on how your own life journey has changed your perspectives on your life.
About the Categories
Although life-changing perspectives is the common theme, the categories of the website focus on different aspects of life. The categories are Perspectives on:
Power of Love
Self-Confidence
Health & Wellness
Self-Identity
Chronic Anxiety
Happiness Now
Creations & Problems
Bible Assumptions
Stress Relief
Hero’s Journey Stories
Critical Thinking
Writing & Writers
Click on each category picture on the home page to take you to the list of posts in that category.
About the Pictures
If you glance at my website, you will quickly notice that I love photographs of the natural world. Rather than use pictures to describe life problems, I have intentionally chosen to use images on my pages and posts that are beautiful, interesting. and uplifting. The only time I will use pictures of unhappy, stressed-out, miserable people is here on this page. The pictures are here to demonstrate a problem.
Take a look at this gallery of “stressed-out” people. These are posed pictures. A photographer says to the model: “Look stressed out.” The models assume the stereotyped poses of stressed-out people posing for the camera. They grab fistfuls of hair and mime screaming. Or they hold their heads in their hands. You’ve probably seen such pictures again and again online. Stressed-out people are pictured as helpless, tormented, even demented. These are actually photos of ham actors who are attempting to look so stressed-out, unhappy, helpless, and frustrated that they attack their own hair.
About Life Energy
I choose not to use such pictures on the pages and posts of my website for three reasons.
First, such images cannot empower you because they weaken your energy. In his book, Life Energy: Using the Meridians to Unlock the Hidden Power of Your Emotions, Dr. John Diamond claims that just looking at certain pictures can weaken your energy meridians. In contrast, other pictures can empower you and strengthen your energy meridians. Dr. Diamond has a simple method that can demonstrate very quickly that looking at such pictures can weaken your energy.
Even though you know that these are exaggerated, posed pictures of paid models, such pictures weaken your capacity to change your stressed-out life into a peaceful life.
I choose not to fill my website with such energy-draining images, both for the wellbeing of my readers and for my own wellbeing. I don’t want to look at such pictures every time I add a page or post to my website. I would rather post spectacular photos of the natural world and its creatures and interesting photos of people actively engaged in their lives than to post an endless array of posed pictures of people trying to look miserable.
Second, beautiful pictures can strengthen your energy. If you feel stuck in your life somehow, one way to change your perspective is to spend time enjoying the wonders and magnificence of nature. If you can’t actually go off to nature, you can bring nature’s beauty into your life simply by looking at beautiful pictures of the natural world.
Third, I love to find beautiful pictures and I love to look at them. I especially love to go out in nature and take my own pictures. My idea of a good time is to put on my hiking boots and go on a photoshoot with my husband in a beautiful place.
This is a photo of me on one of our hikes on Mount Charleston, a mountain peak about 35 miles northwest of Las Vegas, Nevada. Although the photo isn't great, the hike up the mountain was great fun.
Changing Focus
One of the lessons I have learned as a serious amateur photographer is that any picture I capture with the camera depends on where I focus the camera. Do I get closer or back up? Do I include the background or do I focus just on the subject? What happens when I change the angle? What happens when I change the shutter speed? What’s the difference between photos of the same subject in the same location in early morning, or at noon, or late in the afternoon? You get the point.
Any photo results from the photographer’s focus on a particular perspective. Our lives are filled with wide ranges of possibilities. If you are a photographer, you choose your perspective of your pictures. If you change your perspective in any way, you will create a different picture.
The importance of focus applies to any circumstance in your life. Whatever life problems you are struggling to solve, whatever goals you are striving to fulfill, whatever dreams you are daring to dream, changing your perspective by changing your focus is what brings about life-change.
I hope you also love the pictures on my pages and posts and will let the pictures themselves inspire you and empower you to live your life with awe, joy, and peace.
All the best,
Kalinda Rose Stevenson, Ph.D. | https://kalindarosestevenson.com/about/ |
You can live life from many different levels and all of them are equally valid. The only questions are which level you like the most and why you want to move to it. Yes, I said MOVE.
If you go to a “deeper” level (which is my most favorite place to move to), you will acknowledge the fact of us shifting through different realities at every moment.
Whether we notice it or not, this shifting doesn’t stop. We normally only move to parallel realities that are so similar to the one we were in right before, that we don’t even notice the shift.
We all, humanity, change as a collective from one reality to another. This is natural evolution. Now, if you really want to make a quantum leap and sort of shift to a “new life”, you might notice that only a few take the lead to unexplored places. Quantum leaps might feel like a lonely place to be, however, they are very exciting, and sooner or later more people will follow you into this new terrain.
Just use a bit more focus, dedication and you will make it possible, and… there are a couple tricks I personally used. Read on.
One of my quantum leaps was when coming from Madrid to LA. Hollywood, as a collective, felt more representative of what I was at that time. My shift felt abrupt but it had the benefit of everyone around me living the life I wanted, so I just had to observe it. Adaptation was the only aspect to work on.
Now I feel I want to quantum leap again while staying in LA. How To Shift To a Different Reality While Observing The Same One? Well, so this is going to be a gradual shift. I am taking a sort of “monk” approach, going less to Hollywood and staying more at home so I can stay more in my own thoughts, surrounding myself by nature (nature has no thoughts or preferences, nature just is – Perfect Companion), and also connecting with different aspects of the new life I want through the internet. Sometimes transferring this new connections to real life encounters, such as in my Unleash The Superhero in YOU interviews.
What I found more important is to keep in mind the final picture of what you would like to experience and to try to match anything that you have around with that picture. You might just be experiencing a small aspect of your full desired outcome. As small as it could be, make sure to acknowledge it. Put your energy and attention on it. It will grow and attract more of the same, or even better!
“I want to have a key encounter that would bring me great success in my career”. This would be perfect because it lets the universe surprise you with infinite possibilities. Rather than “I want to meet a producer at a party this week who hires me to star in an action film”. This doesn’t leave much space to play with different possibilities and if it would happen, it might not be the thing that really please at the end, if compared with other possibilities that are in proximity to you and you can’t even imagine.
So let’s continue with “I want to have a key encounter that would bring me great success in my career”. Now look around, think, remember… did something close to this happen? Any similarities?
An example for a similarity could be “My friend had a key encounter that brought her success in her career”. You might think that this is not a sign of YOUR proximity to your success, but it is. It can be. You can always use anything around you to get you closer to your dream. Just use it in the right way, through the mechanism of inspiration. If instead, you would feel disappointed because it didn’t happen to you, it obviously would spit you further from your dream, so in that case don’t use it. None the less make sure to start intending to transform that feeling, which might be blocking your view from the new reality you want.
Another example “I remember I once had a key encounter that took me to the next level in my career”. This is PERFECT! You are activating this thought in your mind, which is as powerful as if it would be happening to you right now. Your mind doesn’t know the difference between what it is happening or what you are remembering or thinking about. It is the same vibration. The same you. The same mechanism.
Start channeling the energy through the shape you want, no matter what you use to transform yourself in that shape and where it comes from. Use anything you have in your proximity. Ask to yourself, how can I use this, whether it looks good or not, to consolidate my dream, to move one step further towards my desired parallel reality? Just the fact that you keep your mind busy, your attention busy, your energy busy with this exercises, all directed in a way that is constructive towards the kind of life you want, will make you massively move towards your dream! You have all the “ingredients” to make it happen, just put them together and see them grow into your new life. GO FOR IT SUPERHERO!
Thank you to Stephen Hawking, Bashar, Abraham-Hicks, and all the philosophers and imaginative artists that bring the real “fantasy world” to us through their creation.
Hello Victoria. I can feel in my everyday life that the place i live in is not the same according to my current mental and vibratory state, altough on a physical perspective nothing seems to really change. While i was very aware between the connections between personnal events and my mind, i only realized recently that reality and the mind were only one same thing and therefore, as my mood changed, the whole world followed.
I would appreciate if you could dig the subject more deeply, because it implies a lot of things.
However this might not be the topic of your website!
Yannos, thank you for sharing! I would love to share more about this theme and I am sure I did share in other posts or in my radio show. If I remember any piece about this or create something new about it, I will let you know <3 Lots of LOVE! | https://victoriavives.com/parallel-realities/ |
It’s not too difficult to come across posts or comments to posts at other librarian blogs where there is a good deal of whining about the inadequacies of an LIS education. The number one complaint is something along the lines of “I didn’t learn anything.” Well, that’s unfortunate, but my reaction is “Were you listening or thinking while you were doing all that reading, writing and fieldwork?” None of us recalls everything that happened in LIS school, or from our undergraduate days for that matter, but I have several memorable experiences that were indeed excellent learning events.
One came in my now ancient PL1 programming course. The instructor was awful, but trying my hand at computer programming languages taught me a great life lesson: to solve problems you must look at them from a completely different perspective and the more complex the problem the more perspectives one must think through. When my programs failed to run, and how I dreaded re-doing those punch cards, I realized the only way to attack my failure was to stop my linear thinking and turn the problem completely upside down. I had no idea then, but I was using a Thinkertoy technique to release my inner creativity
I had never heard of Thinkertoys until I came across an interview at IdeaConnection with the author of the book. Michael Michalko has put together an interesting collection of techniques for creative thinking, and collectively he refers to them as Thinkertoys, which is also the title of his book on creative thinking. While some of the suggestions will come off as platitudes (e.g., creative thinkers are positive thinkers), others are rather thought provoking. For example, one of our greatest barriers to creativity is our own expertise. It leads us to use the same experiences and resources to approach problems in the same ways we have always used them. Sometimes that approach works fine, but mostly for simple decision-making scenarios. In other words it is critical to understand the context of the problem. If you attempt to resolve a problem with a complex context with your techniques that work well in the simple context, you will likely fail (for more on this see an excellent article titled “A Leader’s Framework for Decision Making” in the November 2007 issue of Harvard Business Review). Michalko says “Learning how to look at problems in different ways with different perspectives, and learning how to generate a multiplicity of ideas is the key to solving any problem.”
What I found really interesting was the link between one of Michalko’s techniques for improving creativity to solve problems and Roger Martin’s new book on the opposable mind. Both propose that in order to release creativity in problem solving one must be able to resolve “two opposite or contradictory ideas, concepts or images that exist simultaneously and that may even be beyond logic” (Michalko). This approach is what moves creative thinkers into the realm of seeing totally new perspectives on their existing problems in ways that free them from the biases of their routine approaches. We think there can’t possibly be another solution, that we’ve thought it all the way through. But when we explore options that are in complete opposition to our existing solutions, and then make the effort to resolve the two opposites a new solution is able to emerge. [NOTE – in the HBR article the authors pose that some decision-making situations are so utterly complex that one can only create an environment that allows solutions to emerge from the people affected by the problem; master problem solvers and highly creative individuals have the knowledge and experience to both establish the right environment and avoid the urge to impose their own solution].
I believe this is what I experienced in my PL1 course when I learned that in order to get a non-thinking, highly logical computer to do what I wanted I needed to stop reading the code commands in the book and instead attack my challenge from a completely different angle that had never before occured to me. Unfortunately, that would usually happen only after many hours of frustration. But like Edison I suppose I was only exploring all the ideas that didn’t work before I found the one that did. Michalko has other good examples of this that are based on the methods of creative thinkers such as Leonardo da Vinci and Albert Einstein.
But is what Michalko has to offer anything more than what I might summarize as “think outside the box” which is simply a platitude that suggests we need to move beyond our inner biases and mental limitations? He even gives such basic advice as reading beyond the boundaries of one’s own profession (that’s a key element of the keeping up philosophy that I’ve been imparting for years) or seeking out experts from other fields for advice in solving problems. In seeking the answers to these questions I will need to read the book, and explore more of his creative thinking techniques. When I get to the end of it I will hope to be the monkey, not the kitten, when it comes to creative problem solving. Monkeys? Kittens? Go read the interview. | http://dbl.lishost.org/blog/2007/12/ |
Design Thinking Benefits
Many problems or challenges in a professional context are very complex and hard to understand – often there are several factors that play a role in this. But the more complex a task is, the more difficult it becomes to solve it in a team. One approach or method to solve these problems and tasks in a creative way is Design Thinking. Among many others the most essential benefit of Design Thinking: A consistent focus on the user, a customer- or a user-centred approach.
But how can freelancers, employees or companies profit from the benefits of Design Thinking? We explain the basics of this method and let you in on the secret on how to use the benefits of Design Thinking.
What does Design Thinking mean and what benefits are associated with it?
Interdisciplinary teams are becoming more and more common in companies, no matter what size. In contrast to rigid, technically homogeneous teams, they have the advantage that many more aspects are included in the discussion process. Design Thinking as a method is not only used in start-ups and tech firms, but in basically all organizational units. The benefits of Design Thinking can already be seen in the components that characterize the method. The first phase of the Design Thinking process, called the iterative phase, is based on individual steps.
– Understanding of a problem and discussion
– Development of questions that define needs, challenges and the product design
– Research and observation, for example through interviews or online surveys
– Development of a prototypical user based on the findings (basis: analysis of target groups)
The benefits of Design Thinking can already be seen in this schematic representation. The basic idea behind it is the development and visualization of adaptations and ideas. Essential elements that contribute to the benefits of Design Thinking are brainstorming i.e., a playful approach to the subject matter – and the goal of taking in as many angles and perspectives on the topic as possible. It is then in the context of this component that rules defining the process of brainstorming are to be seen.
Brainstorming and interdisciplinary teams: components and benefits of Design Thinking
When Herbert A. Simon first presented a social science-based approach to problem solving in 1969 with his book “The Science of the Artificial” it was just as much about the decision-making process. According to Simon, this proceeds in three stages, which we present below:
– Stage 1: Gathering information to identify a problem that requires a solution as such in the first place.
– Stage 2: Shaping or designing possible solutions, primarily by developing options that could concretely solve the problem.
– Stage 3: Selecting an option, having previously analyzed and discussed various possibilities.
The approach of the social scientist was not only well received in the scientific community but also emerged as a method. Since everyone can provide input here and thus provide inspiration for others, the benefits of Design Thinking thrive on open and constructive feedback. Each participant is equally involved, regardless of his role, his position in the company or his affiliation to a department. The benefits of Design Thinking are therefore most evident in interdisciplinary teams within a business.
“We don’t drive 130 km per hour by continuously improving the horse” – Arie van Bennekum
What does IFAAI add to the benefits of Design Thinking? The advantages of our certification!
The difficulty in everyday life is to get rid of stuck thought patterns and to allow for something new to develop. The strengths and benefits of Design Thinking are therefore shown in the open approach of putting the customer, including his needs and wishes, in the centre of attention. Customer satisfaction is not only the most valuable resource of a company, but also the source of continuous development.
Here at our Agile Certification Institute you can choose from different Design Thinking certifications, depending on your desired level. We offer the expertise of proven professionals and a globally recognized document that proves your skills and methodological knowledge.
Got questions about the benefits of Design Thinking? On our blog you will find regular articles on agile project management. We are also happy to answer your questions concerning the benefits of Design Thinking personally. Feel free to contact us at any time! | https://www.ifaai.org/blog/design-thinking-benefits/ |
Join the Not a Monad Tutorial Telegram group or channel to talk about programming, computer science and papers. See you there!
If you are looking for good engineers send me an email to [email protected] or you can also reach me via twitter at @federicocarrone.
We put together this post to share the release of our first book on data science methods, which focuses on solving real-life problems. This release is actually a beta version, as we are looking to receive constructive criticism and feedback, in order to improve the book until the first revised version is ready.
We come from different backgrounds. Federico Carrone is a developer with over 15 years of experience and founder of a startup that is running since 2014, who is currently studying towards a degree in Mathematics. Herman Obst is an Industrial Engineer who is just learning to program as is our Physicist, Mariano Nicolini. Martina Cantaro coordinated the writing process and our technical consultants, Manuel Puebla and Lucas Fernández Piana, are making sure our definitions are simple to understand yet accurate.
We do not come from academia, nor are we experts in statistics, which may make some people wonder whether we have enough authority to concern ourselves with such complex issues. But we have one thing in common: above all, we are doers. Collectively, we have experience in setting ourselves big goals and achieving them through, learning, hacking, tinkering and thinking. Data science is a toolkit that has enabled us to solve different real-life problems and we want to share what we have learned in the process.
Speaking of real-life problems, few disciplines have as much impact when it comes to solving them as data science. Currently, our society is constantly generating massive amounts of information encoding complex behaviors and relationships from a wide array of fields. And people are developing the tools to use that information to our benefit.
That was why we were so struck by the fact that almost all the books on data science and statistics had a very theoretical approach, focusing on understanding the mathematics of the algorithms and never talking about their applications to situations we might encounter in work or life in general.
Because of this (and because of our love for making and generating things) we decided to embark on the adventure of writing a book. A book whose first and foremost premise was to propose diverse and interesting problems, and solve them using the ingenuity and tools of data science. And theory does not play a minor role, not at all, but it is developed only to the extent that the resolution of the problem requires it. In this way, a real connection between theory and reality is achieved.
What we want you to learn
One of the ideas we are most interested in conveying is that of taking action. Nowadays there is a dominant way of thinking, widespread in the academic world, which maintains that before being able to carry any meaningful work we must first acquire a broad theoretical knowledge of the subject. We think this can be counterproductive, as it makes people afraid of taking risks and daring to immerse themselves in practice.
We decided to disprove this way of thinking by making a book about Bayesian statistics, machine learning and artificial intelligence, without (at first) knowing much about any of these fields.
That was our goal. We figured out the rest as we went along.
What we learned
With our goal always in mind, we started searching and solving a wide variety of problems that could be interesting to tackle using Bayesian inference, which at the beginning was the only topic we planned to talk about. That way we got used to the Bayesian mindset and the different probabilistic programming tools in Julia, our language of choice.
But as we profressed, we changed the focus of the book from something like “Bayesian methods from a practical perspective” to include data science topics in general, from time series prediction to the powerful Scientific Machine Learning ecosystem. Finally, although we wanted to focus on these -not so widespread- methods, we thought it pertinent to add a section on more classical methods, such as deep learning and machine learning — the latter currently in production.
As the dificulty of the scenarios we created began to increase (we often found that a problem was way more complicated than we initially thought), it became clear that we had to incorporate a little more solid knowledge about Bayesianism. That’s where reading Bayesian Methods for Hackers and Statistical Rethinking gave us a much better understanding and tools to deal with the complexity.
Our writing process also got better over time. Although we already had some experience writing blog posts, writing a book was a brand new challenge for everyone, especially since we are not native English speakers.
At the beginning, our explanations of models and the theory behind them were somewhat lacking. Several pages were discarded, and the rest were re-written several times until we found them passable. It was a process that involved some deal of frustration, but as we iterated over them, the quality of the pages increased substantially. Finally, we found a comfort zone in terms of diagraming, coding and writing the chapters.
The road was winding and some keys to keep the progress up were to not let ourselves be overwhelmed by the enormous task, to divide the work, to go chapter by chapter and, above all, to always keep moving forward. One strategy we used was to complete the writing of the chapters until we felt they were 80% complete. That way, the progress curve always kept a good positive slope, since (by Pareto law) that last 20% would take 80% of the time to complete. Only when we had completed 80% of the book, we went back chapter by chapter to finish polishing it.
Where you can read it
And that’s it! As of now, the book is up for everyone to read at:
https://datasciencejuliahackers.com/
We hope it will be useful to as many people as possible and we hope to receive lots of feedback and constructive criticism, so we can keep improving edition after edition.
Enjoy! | https://www.notamonadtutorial.com/how-we-wrote-a-hands-on-bayesian-data-science-book-in-6-months/ |
I recently participated in an industry panel on Redefining BI & Analytics in the Cloud at a conference in New York. Among other questions, moderator Michael Hickins, - a senior editor at the Wall Street Journal and editor of its online CIO Journal, - asked the panel to discuss the difference between the business intelligence and analytics approaches of the past twenty years and the emerging discipline of data science.
In my opinion, data science should be viewed as a multidisciplinary evolution from business intelligence and analytics. In addition to having a solid foundation in statistics, math, data engineering and computer science, data scientists must also have expertise in some particular industry or business domain, so they can properly identify the important problems to solve in a given area and the kinds of answers one should be looking for. Domain expertise is also needed to be able to draw the proper conclusions from their analysis, and to communicate their findings to business leaders in their own terms.
The emergence of data science is closely intertwined with the explosive growth of big data over the past several years. Institutions are now wrestling with information coming at them in volumes and varieties never encountered before. In addition to their multidisciplinary skills, data scientists bring increased breadth and depth to the analysis of these different sources of information compared to traditional analyst roles, as described in this short article in IBM’s website, So what does a data scientist do?:
“Whereas a traditional data analyst may look only at data from a single source - a CRM system, for example - a data scientist will most likely explore and examine data from multiple disparate sources. The data scientist will sift through all incoming data with the goal of discovering a previously hidden insight, which in turn can provide a competitive advantage or address a pressing business problem. A data scientist does not simply collect and report on data, but also looks at it from many angles, determines what it means, then recommends ways to apply the data.”
One of the problems with conducting an in-depth, comprehensive information analysis is that the multiple data sets that are typically required have often been locked away within organizational silos, - be they different lines of business in a company, different companies in an industry or different institutions across society at large. Data science holds the potential to let us address complex problems by working with, linking together and analyzing data sets previously locked away in disparate silos.
This could help financial institutions, for example, to better assess their risks and potentially extend loans to individuals and businesses that would not have otherwise qualified. It could enable health care practitioners to better identify individuals who are most at risk to develop diabetes and start taking precautionary actions.
This ability to work across data sets and silos could help us get early clues to hard-to-predict, high-impact black swan events, so we can dig deeper into these clues and assess their validity. When experts investigate catastrophic black swan events, be they airline crashes, financial crises, or terrorist attacks, they often find that we failed to anticipate them even when the needed information was present because the data was spread across different organizations and was never properly brought together.
The difference between analyzing individual data sets and the data science approach of looking across interrelated data sets reminds me of related questions in the study of complex systems. In science and engineering, it has long been known that you get different results when looking at a complex problem as a system of coupled systems compared to just modeling its individual components in isolation. In a complex system, it is often the intricate interrelationships between its components that accounts for its unpredictable, emergent behavior.
Simple, linear systems, such as those found in classical mechanics, are much easier for us to deal with. The elegant mathematical models of Newtonian physics depict a world in which objects exhibit deterministic behaviors, that is, the same objects, subject to the same forces, will always yield the same results. There is a direct, predictable relationship between inputs and outputs, actions and consequences. We identify the problem, gather data, evaluate alternatives, select a solution and proceed to implement. Most of the decisions and actions in our everyday life are based on such linear models.
But, these simple models are of limited value when dealing with dynamic, complex systems, such as you find in quantum mechanics, evolutionary biology, and aerospace engineering. Dynamic, complex problems are increasingly arising in the study of sociotechnical systems, that is, systems which combine powerful digital technologies with the people and organizations they are transforming, as is the case in health care, finance, cities and law enforcement.
We make the wrong decisions and get in trouble when there is a large gap between the complexity of the real problems we are trying to address and our simple models of the problem. Even highly educated, experienced and accomplished leaders in business, government and academia are often surprised by the unanticipated, negative (sometimes disastrously so) consequences of their actions and decisions.
MIT professor John Sterman has been addressing these issues in his research and in his extensive publications. As he wrote in Learning from Evidence in a Complex World:
“Complexity hinders our ability to discover the delayed and distal impacts of interventions, generating unintended side effects. Yet learning often fails even when strong evidence is available: common mental models lead to erroneous but self-confirming inferences, allowing harmful beliefs and behaviors to persist and undermining implementation of beneficial policies.”
He believes that unanticipated events and side effects are not features of reality in complex systems, but a result of overly simplistic, incomplete models:
“We have been trained to view our situation as the result of forces outside ourselves, forces largely unpredictable and uncontrollable. Consider the unanticipated events and side effects so often invoked to explain policy failure. Political leaders blame recession on corporate fraud or terrorism. Managers blame bankruptcy on events outside their organizations and (they want us to believe) outside their control. But there are no side effects - just effects. Those we expected or that prove beneficial we call the main effects and claim credit. Those that undercut our policies and cause harm we claim to be side effects, hoping to excuse the failure of our intervention. Side effects are not a feature of reality, but a sign that the boundaries of our mental models are too narrow, our time horizons too short.”
Getting back to the difference between traditional analytic approaches and data science, I think that over time we will learn that their differences are similar to those between simple linear systems and dynamic complex ones. Analyzing a complex problem one data set at a time will result in an overly simplistic, incomplete model that will likely miss the non-linear side effects resulting from the interrelationships of disparate data sets.
Over the past century, our ability to deal with complex dynamic systems has been critical to major advances in science, engineering and a number of other disciplines. Given the oceans of data we now have access to, we are counting on the emerging discipline of data science to help us extract the valuable insights buried deep inside all that data and thus help us address all kind of important problems. | https://blog.irvingwb.com/blog/2013/05/data-science-and-complex-systems.html |
If we let go of the idea that photography realistically portrays reality, we begin exploring a very different psychological, philosophical, and artistic territory: surreal photography. These types of photos have been described in a variety of ways: unusual, unreal, idiosyncratic, illogical, irrational, weird, dream-like, hallucinatory, surprising, startling, disorienting, upsetting, disturbing, and anarchistic. They tamper with the boundary between reality and fantasy, showing us things that are impossible in everyday life. They draw on a vivid imagination that leads to interpretations of the world extending beyond our usual perceptions of it. As suggested by the Latin root “sur,” it is a reality over, above, and more than our familiar reality.
Surrealism in the art world became popular in the early 1920s as an expression of a revolutionary philosophy. It aimed to free people from rigid rationality and restrictive habits in politics, religion, and social behavior. Surrealists, who sometimes allied themselves with radical political movements, wanted to liberate the mind by unshackling the imagination. If we release our thoughts from civilized standards, they claimed, we arrive at truths we had never known before. Unfettered by reason, outside of conventional aesthetic and moral rules, the play of fantasy arrives at new solutions to the problems of life. The compelling surreal image injects a shock to one’s psychic system, thereby revealing hidden emotional, psychological, and spiritual insights. This artistic style sometimes depicted the alienation people felt in the modern world, while attempting to point the way deep into the psyche to reveal one’s individuality.
In addition to drawing on ideas from Hegel and Marx, surrealism also allied itself with Freud. As a psychologist, I’d like to focus on this particular partnership. In its heyday during that period of time, psychoanalytic theory turned our attention to the mysterious world of the unconscious. Similar to analysts who used free association and dreams to explore this realm, so too artists and photographers employed them as tools for creating surrealistic images.
Primary Process Thinking
To appreciate how the unconscious works, we need to understand the psychoanalytic distinction between secondary and primary process thinking. Secondary process rests on reason, rationality, practicality, and logic. It’s the mechanism of the conscious mind. We learn it as we grow up, through traditional forms of education along with the need to adapt to a social world.
On the other hand, primary process thinking is our inborn, idiosyncratic, and more fundamental mode of experiencing the world, mostly relegated to the unconscious as we grow into civilized adult beings. It does continue to surface during our dreams, which is why Freud considered them to be the “royal road” to the unconscious mind. The characteristics of primary process thinking are as follows:
- It is primitive and primal
- It entails intense emotions, instincts, and experiences
- It defies reality, dwelling more on illogical, unusual, and bizarre imagery
- It entails distortions and even transcendence of time and space
- It is highly symbolic, richly imagistic, and sensation-oriented
- It relies on unusual associations between ideas and images
- It allows the experience of the physical and psychological self to be stretched, distorted, and merged with other things and other people
- It focuses on the experience of the self and one’s internal world
Features of Surreal Images
There are a wide variety of surreal images, ranging from subtle to bizarre. The various characteristics of primary process thinking listed above contribute to these different types of surrealistic photography. In some cases, it is the content of the image that pushes it into the surreal realm. In other cases, it is the visual style. Sophisticated shooting, compositional, and post-processing techniques can lead to complex surreal images by incorporating a variety of primary process qualities. The more elements of primary process present in the image, the more surreal it will be. However, in some cases a straightforward and simple approach, based on one or two elements of primary process, might best capture the primitive and intense qualities of this unconscious mode of thinking.
Blur
Unless one has uncorrected bad eyesight, the real world looks relatively clear and focused to the normal mind. We therefore associate blur with unusual modes of perception, as in fainting, falling asleep, moving rapidly, and being disoriented, dizzy or drunk. During such altered states of consciousness, we see the world quite differently. It doesn’t appear solid, stationary, and real as it usually does. People, objects, and spaces lose their boundaries as they blend into each other. Reality appears shimmering, liquefied, and translucent. We feel like we’re slipping, flowing, and gliding in and out of different forms and locations. Time itself becomes fluid as people and things appear in several places at the same instant, as if we’re looking at different moments presented to us at the same time.
Photographers create these surrealistic blur effects using a variety of techniques: by spinning, shaking, panning, and racking the camera lens; by slowing down shutter speed; by opening apertures wide to create shallow depth of field and bubbly bokeh; and by all sorts of blur filters in an image editing program, as in the star-shaped blur effect for the shot of the man with the colorful backpack.
Intense sharpness, detail, and contrast
In this age of high definition images, some TVs don’t look real, at least not to me. The intense sharpness, details, and contrasts push a souped-up reality into our eyeballs. Modern animation and CGI produce the same effect. It’s as if we have hyper-vision, like an eagle or an extremely sensitive Star Trek sensor. It’s similar to the intensely sensual “perceptual feast” that people experience during LSD trips. So too in the post-processing of photographs, we can boost sharpness, details, and contrasts past the normal range and into surreal territories. In the beach shot on the right, the stark contrasts surrealistically reinforce the arduous task of the man pulling his cart.
High dynamic range images (HDR) are another good example. I wouldn’t necessarily describe such photos as “dream-like” in the usual sense, but they do take us into the rich intensity of experience that is characteristic of primary process. They defy reality as we know it, catapulting us into an exaggerated sur-reality.
Intensified and unusual texture
Increased sharpness, detail, and contrast also heighten texture in a photograph. Here I mention texture as a separate feature of surreal images due to the unique impact it has on us. Texture means “touch.” Even just the visual experience of it stimulates tactile sensations on our skin as well as kinesthetic sensations in our muscles - along with all the feelings we associate with these sensations. Texture pumped up beyond the normal range of vision can therefore trigger the primal emotions, instincts, and experiences of the very body-oriented primary process. During post-processing, we can also add texture overlays to an image, creating such surreal effects as reptile human skin and canvas skies. In the portrait of the woman, the pebble texture overlay seems to hide her face from our sight, while also blending into her skin and highlighting our focus on her eyes.
Intensified and unusual color
The things of this world have somewhat specific ranges of hue and color saturation. Grass isn’t purple and human skin isn’t bright orange. That’s just the way reality is. However, in the post-processing of a photograph, reality poses no restrictions on us. By magnifying and altering colors, we can expand the scope of emotional and symbolic expression that colors offer us, as in the unreal but flavorful colors of the four glasses on the right. Digging deep into primary process, we create a world of hues and color saturation that reflect our personal subjective reality, rather than the objective one.
Composites and blendings
In photography we can build a composite of images either by multiple exposures, layering images on top of each other in an image editing program, or shots into reflective surfaces like water, glass, mirrors, and metal. By doing so we create a surreal distorting and merging of spaces, scenes, objects, people, and time frames, as in the photo of colorful branches over a lake reflection of trees, the sky, and a house. We present not just one reality, but several blended into each other. This is how the unconscious works. For example, dreams as well as memories of past events often are not an accurate objective record of something that happened, but rather an unconscious subjective merging of elements from different memories, what Freud called “screen” memories.”
On the right is a composite image I constructed in Photoshop based on my daughter’s dream about an imaginary creature with the fur of a hamster, the feathers of a parrot, the head of an anteater, and the legs of a spider. The image merges not just the visual aspects of these four animals, but also the qualities we associate with these critters.
Frozen movement
Both philosophers and scientists tell us that things are always changing. By it’s very nature, reality embodies flux and transition. Not so in a fast shutter speed photograph. In a very surreal way, even the most rapid blink-of-an-eye motion can be frozen in time, like the beautifully complex crown of a droplet falling into water, or a girl with long flowing hair magically suspended in space as she leaps from her bed. These images amaze us precisely because they seem surreal. A fleeting instant has been plucked from the high speeds of normal reality and mounted into eternity, enabling us to enter that timeless realm where we can examine every minute detail of this otherwise nearly invisible event. Psychoanalytic theory tells us that primary process thinking does not know time, that a memory from long ago remains fresh in the unconscious as if it just happened, as if it IS happening. So too high shutter speed photography surrealistically transcends temporal reality.
Perceptual distortions and illusions
Cameras can alter reality by how photographers use them, or by how they intrinsically function in terms of optics. For example, very wide angle lens result in strange distortions of space. Like Dali’s clock melting onto a tree branch, buildings can be made to surrealistically bend under the pressure of some unseen force. Similar to the painter Magritte who stuffed a huge apple inside a small room, photographers can also play on perceptual illusions to make us question the dimensions of reality. When the feet of a person in the distance rest on the shoulder of a person in the foreground, that person looks like a human miniature perched atop his companion. In a style resembling Escher, shots from carefully chosen perspectives can surrealistically confuse us about what direction is up, down, back, and forward. In some cases the perspective of the scene might seem physically or logically impossible, as in the dreamlike shot of the two legs jutting down towards what seems to be a wall or ceiling.
Strange juxtapositions
Surrealism in the world of art often took the form of placing seemingly unrelated things together in an illogical or startling way, suggesting some kind of hidden connection between them, as in Magritte sticking a leafy green apple onto a conservative looking man’s face. According to surrealistic philosophy, the more dissimilar the combined things seem to be at first glance, the more emotionally powerful and symbolic the underlying connection between them. Such relationships created via seemingly random “free association” is exactly how unconscious primary process thinking works, as evident in the often strange collection of people, things, scenes, and actions in a dream. “This reminds me of this, which reminds me of that...”
The same surreal effects can easily be created via photography, either by establishing unusual juxtapositions during the shoot, which is the preferred method for those who want to remain true to traditional photography - or by using image editing programs to insert things into an image for the purpose of creating strangely symbolic combinations. For the image of the clown in a cemetery, which many people find rather disturbing, the juxtaposition seems bizarre, unless we consider possible interpretations of combining happy and sad – for example, how people need humor even and perhaps especially during dire times.
Primitive content
Surreal images sometimes convey primitive emotions, instincts, and behaviors, including scenes of sexual and/or aggressive content. The basic emotions of anger, fear, disgust, surprise, sadness, happiness, love, and contempt – as well as variations or unusual combinations of them - appear as common themes. The blatancy of these images might surprise, shock, disgust, and even provoke anxiety in viewers. As Freud told us, the part of the unconscious mind called the “libido” thinks in selfish, uncivilized, and drive-determined ways.
Only particular people may create or show an appreciation for the more extreme forms of such primary process images. In other cases these types of surreal images aren’t necessary “primitive,” but they are nevertheless intense or strange in their depiction of archetypal emotions and instincts, as in the image of the ram-man on the right.
Adaptive Regression
Ernst Kris’s concept of “regression in service of the ego” – also known as “adaptive regression” – serves well to explain all types of creativity, and especially surrealism. This concept suggests that creative works arise from a two-step process: an inspiration stage and an elaboration stage.
During the inspiration stage, a person’s mind temporarily regresses to unconscious primary process thinking in order to obtain an insight into some artistic (or scientific) issue that the conventional restraints of the conscious mind cannot resolve. Logic and rationality are momentarily suspended in search of a novel idea. This primary process insight might appear in a dream, meditation, and other altered states of consciousness, or it might surface spontaneously into the normal awake mind after a period of “subconscious incubation,” when the person is no longer consciously attempting to work on the artistic issue, or may in fact have given up on getting any new insight. Even though the conscious mind has let go of the artistic process, the unconscious mind, operating in the background, continues to explore it and then suddenly serves up the new idea.
Coming from primary process thinking, the insight obtained during the inspiration “AHA!” stage is often raw and primitive. During the elaboration phase, the artist must figure out, in terms of technical skill, how to actually create the image. In the case of the photography, a big question is whether the artist can create the fully realized image during the shoot, in a photo-editing program, or by combining both.
In addition, the highly subjective, personal, and sometimes bizarre insight from the inspiration stage might need to be tamed so that it makes sense to other people. Artists must make a conscious effort to refine the idea in order to incorporate it effectively into their artistic work. Otherwise, if people are left scratching their heads, if they don’t “get it” or react only neagtively to the primitive and irrational imagery, the artistic work falls short of communicating anything meaningful to others.
Here a delicate balance emerges. Viewers might feel a sense of surprise, mystery and excitement as they search for the meaning of the startling and seemingly unintelligible image; or, if the photo hasn’t been tamed enough, they might just feel confused, frustrated, outraged, or indifferent. This is the danger of surreal photography. Is the photographer a genius, or just some crazy person showing us an uninterpretable image with no rhythm or reason. Psychotic people, in fact, do immerse themselves into the world of primary process, but they lack the conscious elaboration skills to present what they experience in a way that others can understand. They just don’t make any sane sense. As Dali once said, "There is only one difference between a madman and me. I am not mad."
The Personality of the Surrealistic Photographer
Some of the personality traits of creative people reflect this ability to tap primary process during a regression in service of the ego. These characteristics might be especially important among photographers and other artists who create surreal images. They have a thin boundary between different realms of experience, such as work and play, dream life and waking life, and the conscious and unconscious realms of their minds. They are open to and enjoy new experiences, including reveries, fantasy, hypnosis, meditation, and other altered states of conscious, chemically or naturally induced. Having the ability to “let go,” they do not fear a loss of control, which frees them from conscious rational restraints in pursuit of primary process insights. They appreciate play, exploration, mystery, ambiguity, and complexity. As independent thinkers, they do not feel the need to conform to rules, authority, or even to their own traditions. They understand the power of “un-knowing” in breaking the rigid mental sets that build obstacles to new connections and insights.
In cases of people with extreme abilities to immerse themselves into the world of primary process, they need to develop internal dangers signals to warn them when they are going so far into the unconscious that they might not be able to return to their normal, rational mind.
Surreal to Whom?
A problem in defining surreal photography is precisely this question: surreal to whom? For example, some people claim that surreal photography differs from abstract photography, which typically involves extreme close-ups that remove things from their overall context and meaning. I personally find such pictures to be quite surreal in how they tamper with logic, rationality, and the boundary between the world as we know it and the world of fantasy. Thinking of abstract photos as glimpses into the strangely minute aspects of reality, we might say that they are “sub-real” rather than “sur-real,” although the overall effect is the same.
In this modern age when fantastic digital images of many shapes and sizes bombard us all day long, we have become quite used to illogical, irrational, weird, dream-like, and hallucinatory scenes – some of us more so than others. Surreal images have lost a bit of their power to surprise, disorient, and shock us. For this reason, some photographers (as well as movie directors) feel they must push the envelope as far as possible in creating bizarre, primitive images – not necessarily to explore new territory in surrealistic symbolism and meanings, but just to get a reaction from viewers. Such images may not be illustrating any significant or meaningful idea at all. The photographer created it just to get a reaction, or just for the rebellious sake of “taking it to the limit” and beyond.
We could say that identifying a surrealistic image rests on an answer to this simple question: could this scene exist in reality? However, what’s interesting about these modern times is our acceptance of the idea - as postulated by philosophers, writers, mystics, and even modern physicists – that what we see out there in the normal world isn’t necessarily reality, or, perhaps more accurately, that there are other realities, other dimensions of truth. When we accept lens perspective distortions, digitally manipulated colors, souped-up textures, visually merged spaces, and strange juxtapositions as meaningful depictions of the world, we accept unconscious primary process as a valid experience, maybe even as a more compelling truth than our everyday perceptions.
Sometime the surreal is more real than the real.
CLICK HERE or on the images for explanations of them.
Would you like to read or participate in a discussion about this article in flickr?
If you liked this article in Photographic Psychology, you might also enjoy these:
Books about surreal photography:
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Surreal Photography: Creating the Impossible, by Daniela Bowker
Because extreme close-up shots result in abstract images that look surreal, books about surreal photography tend to focus on macro-photography. However, some books explore other methods as well, such as this one by Bowker. She describes techniques for creating surreal images during the taking of the shot as well as in post-processing.
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Surreal Digital Photography, by Barry Huggins
This book by Huggins explores the creation of surreal images during post-processing in Photoshop, either by compositing images or by color and tonal enhancements. The book endorses the philosophy that imagination, experimentation, and playfulness are the key elements of being a surreal photographer. | https://truecenterpublishing.com/photopsy/surreal.htm |
I’m amazed at the fact that we as people can come at a problem from two different angles or viewpoints and still end up feeling the same way about it. We’re all so complex and, while we have many very real differences, I believe we have a lot more in common than we think.
The other day, I was talking with a friend about Harriet Tubman and news of her picture being printed on the $20 bill. Originally, she was supposed to grace the front of the bill in the year 2020, yet that seems unlikely to happen any time soon. Both of us were annoyed by this fact but, halfway through the conversation, I realized we were annoyed for different reasons. We each had put our unique filters on this particular situation based on our experiences. He was upset because his race isn’t being represented and I was upset because my gender isn’t being represented. We both reached the same conclusion but got there by traveling on different mental paths.
This is what I love about having conversations in diverse groups: we can learn so much about our differences and our similarities.
I will always filter my experiences through the lens of a white, middle-class, American woman. I will see things through the perspective of my faith, my background, my education, and my worldview. The fact that I’m an only child, an Enneagram 3, an introvert, and a recovering workaholic all impact how I see the world.
Because of my default setting, I can look at a situation on the news or something happening in my backyard and view it completely differently than my neighbor. And a difference in opinion doesn’t necessarily mean that one is right and one is wrong. In our binary world, we’re taught that it’s either ‘yes’ or ‘no’, ‘right’ or ‘wrong’, and ‘good’ or ‘bad’. But what if we took a moment to be okay with some differences? What would our world look like if we dared to examine our beliefs, experiences, and worldviews so that we understood what we were bringing into a situation?
If you’ve experienced the tumultuousness of eviction, you might save money differently than a person who has always had enough.
If you worked your way through college, you might value higher education more than someone whose schooling was paid for.
If you’ve been discriminated against based solely on the color of your skin, you might view authority differently than those who haven’t.
One of the most incredible things about the church is that we are all from such diverse backgrounds and experiences and yet we can be united by a shared faith in the Lord. While we might have the opportunity to disagree about a thousand other things, we can be united in following Him. And when we encounter different perspectives, we can take the time to listen and understand and empathize with another group of people because that’s what Jesus did.
Let’s take the time to examine our own beliefs and what’s influencing them first before judging another. Then, hopefully, when we know where we’re starting from, we can start a dialogue with another. I believe the church has an opportunity to reach across the aisle, include those are different, and love others who might not be so loveable to the world.
Do you ever think about where your perspectives come from?
What value does listening to another provide? | https://workinprogressblog.co/2019/05/27/whats-influencing-your-perspective/ |
First Principles Thinking or reasoning from first principles is one of the best strategies to use to solve complex problems and come up with original solutions. It is also one of the best ways to learn the art of thinking clearly.
Heuristics from first thinking have been used for years by many successful people such as John Boyd (military strategist), Johannes Gutenberg (inventor) and Aristotle (ancient philosopher). However, no one has proven the benefits of first principles thinking better in our modern world than Elon Musk.
At the age of 46, Elon Musk created three multi-billion dollar corporations that revolutionized our world – Tesla Motors (Automotive), PayPal (financial services), and SpaceX (aerospace). His success is linked to his ability to solve complex problems and his amazing work ethic.
While work ethic plays a major role in mastering what you do and being successful, there is more. When it comes to success, it It has nothing to do with the time you spend on something but more to do with the way you think.
Read on and learn how thinking on first principles can help you solve complex problems, increase productivity, and achieve your biggest goals.
What is first principles thinking?
The first principle is the logical conclusion of the proposition. In short, it cannot be deduced further. Nearly two thousand years ago, the ancient philosopher Aristotle defined the Frst principle as the basis by which an individual knows something. This is a way of thinking that scientists have embraced for years. Research studies show that scientists do their best to eliminate all forms of bias from their research.
Some of the questions they ask themselves include:
- What has been proven?
- What are we sure of?
Thinking on first principles forces you to dig deeper into the real facts of something. French philosopher Rene Descartes used this way of thinking with Cartesian skepticism that forced him to systematically doubt everything he could until he had pure, non-arguable facts.
In our modern world, you don’t have to delve into the atomic level to understand every problem you encounter. All you have to do is go down one or two levels deeper than the average person. In each level, you will get different solutions.
John Boyd, a famous military strategist, created an experiment that will help you learn how to use elementary principles of thinking in your everyday life:
Imagine you have these things:
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- military tank
- bike
You can break these elements down into their component parts:
- Military tank – steel armor plates, metal struts, and a gun
- Bike – wheels, seat, gears, handlebar
You can use these individual parts to create something different but awesome. This is how you use the First Thinking Principle. You can break the situation down to its core and then put them back together in a better way. In short, it’s a dismantling process to build back better.
An example of first principles of thinking: Elon Musk and SpaceX
The most amazing thing about Elon Musk is not what he thinks but how he thinks. This is what he once said:
“I think people’s thought process is very restricted by convention or analogy to past experiences… You have to build logic from the ground up — ‘from first principles’ is the phrase used in physics. You look at the basics and build your reasoning from that, and then see if you have A conclusion that works or not, and may or may not be different from what people have done in the past.
To understand reality, it begins with abstract facts – not intuition. While we think we know a lot of things, the truth is that we don’t know as much as we think. Studies have shown that decision making works better when we use strategies. Therefore, relying on our intuition is not a good idea when solving complex problems.
Musk’s way of thinking is very different from the way the average person thinks. He begins by focusing on what he wants to achieve – eg building a rocket. Then he dives into the first principles of the problem.
Missiles are expensive. This is one of the problems he faced when he wanted to send people to Mars. Since he did not have the resources to purchase a missile, he asked himself, “What are missiles?” He found his answer – carbon fiber, copper, aluminum alloys used in the manufacture of aircraft, titanium.
Then he asked himself, “What are the market values of these materials?” He found that these materials were 2 percent of the missile’s cost.
So why is it expensive to get a rocket to Mars? Since Musk spends most of his time learning, he started learning rocket science. He found that getting a rocket is expensive because people don’t use first principles of thinking. Then he moved on to creating SpaceX to find out if he could build rockets from scratch.
During an interview with Kevin Rose, he summed up his approach by saying:
“I think it’s important to think from first principles rather than analogy… The first principle is kind of a physical way of looking at the world, you summarize things down to basic facts and say, ‘Well, what are we sure is true?’ …and then think from there.
The power of first principles thinking
Most people use conventional thinking to understand different situations and solve complex problems. Conventional thinking involves the use of intuition and measurements. While we would like to know everything to solve problems quickly and efficiently, the truth is that we don’t know many things. Therefore, relying on our intuition can make it difficult for us to understand and solve problems.
Another aspect to keep in mind is that comparisons cannot replace understanding. While it’s easy for you to think by analogy, you’ll have an easy time coming up with better answers when you embrace first principles thinking.
Thinking outside the box when solving problems
Deduction from first principles will enable you to break out of conventional and historical wisdom and discover new possibilities. When you understand the basic principles, everything will begin to be understood.
First principles Thinking is useful when:
- Trying to solve a complex problem
- Doing something for the first time
- Do your best to understand a complex issue
In these three areas, your thinking will improve when you avoid making assumptions or allowing others to frame problems and solve them for you.
Most people think creativity is a trait that only a few people are born with – you either have it or you don’t. Research studies have shown that this is not true.
Every person is creative. However, during the early stages, busy parents and teachers can overwhelm us. As we become adults, we start to think traditionally because it is easier than using first principles thinking. When you start using first principles thinking, anything is possible.
Applies to everyday problems
The first thought principle does not apply only when solving rocket science problems or complex scientific equations. You can use it to solve problems in your daily life.
Here are two examples:
Assumption: I will need a lot of money to grow my business
Initial thinking:
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- What do you need to grow your business? You will need to sell products or services to more customers.
- Do you have to invest a lot of money to sell products or services to new customers? Not right. However, you will need to reach these customers using inexpensive methods.
- Who can help you reach these clients? How can you reach a win-win deal for both parties? You can consider partnering with companies that serve these clients and split the profits.
Assumption: I should put in a lot of time and energy to become a successful writer
Initial thinking:
- What do you need to create quality content and earn a living as a writer? You will need a good number of well-paid clients and audiences who appreciate your work and are willing to buy your articles.
- What do you need to get a larger audience? You need to learn about the most effective marketing methods. Focusing on selling your pieces to improve the lives of your audience will help you achieve your goal.
How to master the first principles of thinking
The First Thinking Principle will help you develop a different view of the world and solve complex problems in ways that no one else can understand. Here are 3 simple steps that Elon Musk advises you to use:
1. Define assumptions
We all make assumptions in different areas of our lives. Some common assumptions include:
I will need to invest in expensive equipment to boost my productivity level. I don’t have time to work on complex projects…
The next time you encounter a complex problem, write down every assumption that comes to mind. You will be impressed with this exercise.
2. Break the problem
As we said earlier, basic principles are the basic elements of the facts of something. To discover these facts, you have to ask yourself powerful questions.
Here’s a great example used by Elon Musk during an interview with Kevin Rose:
Anyone can say, “Battery packs are really expensive and that’s how they always will be. Historically, it cost $600 per kilowatt-hour. It won’t be much better than that in the future.”
With first principles, I say, “What are the physical components of batteries? What is the stock market value of the physical components?” It contains cobalt, nickel, aluminum, carbon, some polymers for separation, and a canister sealant.
Break that down on a physical basis and say, “If we buy that from the London Metal Exchange, what would each of these things cost?” It’s like $80 a kilowatt-hour.
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conclusion? You just need to think of clever ways to take that material and combine it into a battery cell form and you could have batteries that are a lot cheaper than anyone realizes.
You don’t have to follow traditional ways of thinking to achieve your goals. Thinking differently is the way to go.
3. Create new solutions
After you have identified and broken down your assumptions into key facts, you need to create insightful solutions. Here’s an example to guide you:
Assumption: I don’t have time to exercise and achieve my health goals.
Thinking First Principles:
- What do you need to achieve your health goals? You need to exercise for five hours a week (an hour every day).
- Can I achieve my goals by exercising less? yes! You can exercise for fifteen minutes three days a week. Doing high intensity bodyweight exercises (HIIT) will help you achieve your health goals easily and quickly.
What can you do now
- Make an assumption about something you’ve always wanted to do but have been reluctant to do.
- Ask yourself, “What do you really need to do that?” You may need to do a little research to see if you’re not sure.
conclusion
As you strive to achieve your goals, you will face a lot of problems. Your mind will always come up with assumptions when you are trying to solve a complex problem.
Breaking these assumptions to discover basic facts will help you come up with solutions to seemingly impossible problems. Learning how to develop first principles thinking will pay off in the long run. You can apply First Principles Thinking in your daily life easily. | https://www.netkoding.com/think-like-elon-musk-with-first-principles-of-thinking/ |
Sustainability management education involves complexity, specific tools, and a vision for the future.
Rüdiger Hahn is the Henkel-Endowed Chair of Sustainability Management at the Heinrich-Heine-University Düsseldorf
I have two children, both kindergarten age. When they approach my wife or me with questions on sustainability (“Dad, why is there so much garbage lying around?” or “Mom, why don’t we do something to help the polar bears?”), I always think that we could go so much further with sustainability if everybody would do their part.
But sustainability and sustainability management are complex and even if humankind generally knows what we need to do, we are still far away from actually doing it.
After more than 15 years of research and teaching, and after creating a textbook on sustainability management, I want to share what I’ve learned. There are three main themes:
- Scientific information alone won’t lead to action
- Students need to grapple with “wicked” problems
- Future business leaders need concrete tools and a realistic perspective
Scientific knowledge of sustainability is not enough for action
As educators, it’s easy to think that knowledge changes action. But facts about sustainability, on their own, usually won’t drive behaviour change.
Take the example of climate change: Already in 1896 (!), Svante Arrhenius discussed in a scientific article “the influence of carbon acid in the air upon the temperature on the ground.” And in 1912, Francis Molena even more vividly argued, again in a scientific article, that the carbon dioxide emitted when burning coal “tends to make the air a more effective blanket for the earth and to raise its temperature.”
More than 100 years later, there is vast scientific consensus on human-caused climate change. Yet at UN Climate Change Conferences, responsibilities and commitments remain vague; many agree that valuable years have been lost in combating climate change.
The climate change example and many others show that action requires more than knowledge of the physical science. In my teaching, I’ve found that we need to communicate sustainability as a highly complex societal issue, involving many different actors and perspectives; action needs to be framed in those terms. We also need to provide students with concrete tools to guide action, and a realistic perspective on what’s possible.
Use multiple perspectives to help students understand and embrace “wicked problems”
Sustainability issues are often so-called “wicked problems,” with multiple causes and no “right” answer. In particular, they can’t be resolved by the isolated actions of one group. For example: Regulators and politicians are usually restricted by national borders, consumers often do not know or do not care about the consequences of their purchases, and companies feel market pressure if environmental regulations do not pay off financially.
As a result, there is almost always “somebody else” who has to (not) do something to improve sustainability, and this is often the biggest excuse not to do anything. When I begin my lectures on sustainability management by illustrating the status quo of sustainable development and then ask for suggested improvements, someone always claims that “without the actions of customers/ investors/ governments … sustainability management is doomed to fail.”
This is often correct! At the same time, however, it is not helpful to always expect others to take the first step. I often call this excuse “kindergarten logic” (“If he does not stop teasing me, I won’t stop teasing him”). Future managers need to embrace, not ignore, the reality of the many actors involved to be able to improve their company’s sustainability performance.
In my courses, therefore, I try to offer multiple perspectives of sustainability and sustainability management. I approach sustainability management from a stakeholder perspective, with a focus on companies’ relationships with the many actors that shape sustainable outcomes. How do companies interact as central and often powerful players in these dynamics?
The graphic below shows my way of presenting these relationships to students.
This approach lets students understand the importance of multiple actors, and begin to think about how they might engage with them.
I also emphasize the conflicting perspectives within each stakeholder group. Some customers might pay a price premium for sustainable products while others don’t. Some employees might prefer a company that addresses societal issues while others don’t care. This nuance produces hurdles and problems for sustainability management but also allies and opportunities.
Provide concrete tools and a realistic perspective
Once students have a holistic perspective, I believe that we need to equip them with specific guidance and a critical yet optimistic mindset. Practical tools can enable concrete action. And students need to be aware of the challenges but also have faith that they and their companies can advance sustainable development.
Concrete tools and resources
I try to be as concrete as possible in my teaching about the wide range of sustainability management tools and approaches to which companies have access. I focus on functional perspectives (e.g., marketing, supply chain management, accounting) and their related approaches and tools (e.g., product service systems, supplier audits, life cycle sustainability analysis).
I always emphasize that tools’ usefulness depends on specific company characteristics (e.g., industry or size) and other circumstances (e.g., country of operation). Tools also shouldn’t be viewed in isolation, as successful sustainability management is always interdisciplinary, requiring efforts throughout a company and often even beyond.
Using best practice examples from around the world illustrates the variety of sustainability management. For example, students in Europe or the US are often surprised to learn that mobile money applications first reached mass markets in Africa.
A critical yet optimistic perspective
It’s important to also identify failures of such approaches and tools as well to illustrate the many hurdles in sustainability management and illustrate ways to overcome them. This includes speaking to business’s “dark side” and providing “worst practice examples,” not least to build a teacher’s credibility as informed and independent. There are probably as many black sheep in the business world as there are visionary sustainability leaders. I ask students to share their own worst (and best) practice examples, often sparking discussion.
Combining conceptual knowledge of tools and approaches with practical examples of company reality can be another way to help overcome the aforementioned kindergarten logic, where people look to others to act. Instead, students, practitioners, and even teachers can then build upon the best aspect of kindergarteners. This quality is the vigorous optimism children harness to encourage others to be more sustainable human beings.
Sustainability Management – The textbook!
If you want to know more about my approach to teaching sustainability management, have a look at my textbook.
With this textbook, I try to enable others to follow my approach sketched above. I support instructors in introducing sustainability management tools and approaches from essential management domains such as marketing, accounting, supply chain management, strategy, or innovation management while employing an extensive stakeholder perspective.
Various features enrich the book with examples of thought leaders in sustainability (“Faces of Sustainability”); examples on sustainability and unsustainability in business practice globally (“Sustainability in Business”); practical challenges, ideas, and concepts of sustainability broadly (“Sustainability in Society”), and key research articles on sustainability management (“Sustainability in Research”). | https://nbs.net/what-ive-learned-about-teaching-sustainability-management/ |
Sort of MBTI of Problem Solving
This is the idea, that I am toying around with, and I am trying it out from time to time. Not sure, how successful it is practically, but it might help with some people. What it basically does, is to try and see on the problem from different perspectives, in this case, perspectives of different functions.
MBTI was designed based on the Jung's function theory. So Jung's said that we have four functions: Thinking, Feeling, Intuiting and Sensing, and each can be oriented inside or outside. I have to admit, I understand a lot more about inside and outside orientation, since I took first person research. Before, they would sometimes get mixed. For example, I could not understand introverted intuition, but if I think about it like an extroverted intuition oriented in the inside, it makes sense. But it did not make sense, until I started to observe myself.
And each function wants something. The thinking wants order, the sensing wants information, the intuition wants creativity and the feeling wants humanity. And then each one is turned in one side, the thinking wants order, but introverted thinking wants order in the thinking, and the extroverted thinking wants order in the external world. The same with sensing, the extroverted sensing gets the information from the world, and the introverted sensing gets the information from the inside us. The extroverted feeling wants to express humanity toward other people, so that we are more human to each other, the introverted feeling wants to express inner humanity, which is why it is connected to the values a lot of times. And so on and so on.
Penelope Trunk actually summarized what makes each type (not function) makes one happy and refuel them. I copied the information in the table below:
|Type||Activity|
|INTJ||Needs to create order and structure from theoretical abstraction.|
|ENTJ||Needs to visualize where an organization is headed.|
|INTP||Needs to generate new theories or to prove or disprove existing theories.|
|ENTP||Needs to understand the world they live in.|
|ISTP||Needs to understand the way things work.|
|ESTP||Needs to take action and get the job done.|
|ISFP||Needs to feel immersed in the world of senses.|
|ESFP||Needs to feel excitement and drama.|
|ISTJ||Needs to fulfill their duty.|
|ESTJ||Needs to enforce rules and/or traditions.|
|ISFJ||Needs to create harmony and cooperation.|
|ESFJ||Needs to make people feel good about themselves.|
|INFJ||Needs to see the world of hidden meanings and possibilities.|
|ENFJ||Needs to bring out the best in others.|
|INFP||Needs to make the world a better place.|
|ENFP||Needs to inspire and motivate others.|
(As the unrelated note, this can also be used to help type people :) )
So, going from that tangent (but this approach can also work with the needs above), how to use thins to solve problems? Well, when we have a problem, we can think about, how each function would approach this. How can be bring order and use this to solve problems? When can be get more information? Is there something else we did not consider? How do we bring fourth our humanity. | https://sarajaksa.eu/en/2019/05/sort-of-mbti-of-problem-solving/ |
Science and TechnologyWritten evidence submitted by Plymouth Marine Laboratory Applications Ltd
This document has been prepared by PML Applications Ltd, a wholly owned trading subsidiary of Plymouth Marine Laboratory.1 Plymouth Marine Laboratory (PML) is an independent marine research laboratory and undertakes leading international research to respond to societal needs and to promote stewardship of the world ocean. PML provides capability for observing, modelling, understanding and forecasting marine ecosystems. Operating in an interdisciplinary way PML is uniquely placed to undertake research, provide advice and deliver outcomes on the key challenges facing society in relation to global change and sustainability of marine ecosystems. PML is also designated as a National Capability delivery partner for the Natural Environment Research Council, providing a strategic research capability in marine science and Earth observation for the UK.
PML Applications was established in 2002 to broaden the application of PML’s research products and to drive the process of knowledge transfer, identifying and bringing to market the next generation of innovation and products.2
What are the difficulties of funding the commercialisation of research, and how can they be overcome?
The commercialisation of research takes place, fundamentally, in one of two forms:
Through a form of targeted research or provision of specialist consultancy services that are focused and often guided by an industrial partner with a particular challenge to overcome.
Through the development of some form of “product”that can then be further developed and released onto the open market. The definition or product can range from new chemical or extract, a new process or procedure, through new equipment, instrumentation, software to the provision of new services.
In very general terms, scientists tend not to be entrepreneurial in nature. They are great discoverers and having made an initial discovery tend to quickly move on in search of the next. They are driven largely by academic prowess and their currency is a publications record. Rather than consider the potential for commercial application of their discoveries and manage their intellectual property accordingly, their first reaction is to seek to publish their discovery. Entrepreneurs have a very different culture. They tend to see commercial opportunities through combining different discoveries in unique ways to create novel solutions.
Lack of understanding of the “route to product development” in scientists and pressures to publish are key barriers to more entrepreneurial behaviour. Development of simple business models, licence agreements and exploitation advice are fundamental in facilitating the commercialisation. Model agreements for management of IP, providing equitable returns to the inventors would help greatly. It is important to make it easier for scientists to commercialise discoveries and to be incentivised by appropriate rewards that should counter the inability to earn scientific currency (ie publish) whilst managing intellectual property. On making a discovery scientists should ask themselves first—“is there an application for this, because I have an easy route-map to help me exploit it, if not then I will publish?”
Secondly there are difficulties in understanding what industry needs. Research institutes need better guidance from industry to identify problems and opportunities that can be developed in partnership—ie the provision of industry-pull. The opposite is true; academia needs to improve links with industry to demonstrate emerging skills. Closer links are required together with a mechanism for actively engaging and exposing industry and academia to solutions and skills outside of the usual industry sectors—eg the food industry engaging with marine science where novel products and reagents may be harvested from an underutilised marine resource.
Having identified a potential commercial application for a discovery the challenge is how to develop this into a product. This requires a feasibility study. Most state funded feasibility studies require industry partners and cap funding to a proportion of the cost of assessment and development. Whilst this is fine for the more mature opportunities—ie those closest to market that are likely to be attractive to private equity—it does not work for those early concepts that require some focussed research to get to the next stage. Partial funding, coupled with difficulties in finding partners willing to sign-up to this type of higher risk funding, create a barrier as research organisations rarely have the additional funds to develop proof of concept to such a stage that it becomes attractive to partners. Proof of concept funding should therefore be a target area, with associated conditions (eg tax incentives) that attract industry partners.
Are there specific science and engineering sectors where it is particularly difficult to commercialise research?
It is particularly difficult to commercialise marine ecological research. The marine environment provides an untapped wealth of resources—particularly with respect to its microbial and algal communities. In general, markets for potential use of these resources are not clearly defined and in many cases there is direct competition with hydrocarbon derived products, creating both an opportunity and a very established incumbent technology. There is a limited track record of commercialisation of this science. A few niche markets have been developed—usually by very entrepreneurial inventors/scientists themselves—but in general, the potential of these resources is poorly understood by industry and often perceived as having high entry costs.
Comments of forums for industry engagement and “Godfathering partnerships” refer.
What if any examples of UK based research being transferred abroad
PML has excellent knowledge of marine bacteria, benthic ecology, ecological succession and water quality. It is a world leader in some of these areas. These skills when combined provide the relevant tools to develop novel technologies to manage ballast water. New legislation is being developed and more stringent ballast water management standards are required. In turn these require new technologies.
A significant privately funded research opportunity into the development of these new technologies has been transferred to a European institution on account of better state funding conditions at the proof of concept stage and the presence of stronger links with academia and industry partners that are likely to take up the new technology.
What evidence is there that Government and TSB initiatives have improved commercialisation
This is a question of timing. For those opportunities relatively closer to market, requiring feasibility studies and market development, it is clear that initiatives have worked.
We have also been very successful with earl stage funding. PSRE funding has also allowed us to screen some of our marine bacteria and micro algae resources and identify biotechnology opportunities. This has been essentially a “new raw material” search. New compounds and natural bioactivities (eg antibiotic properties, natural biosurfactants, natural sunscreens) have been identified. Additional funding is required for proof of concept and further development.
Similarly PSRE funding has allowed us to combine core scientific skills in unique ways to develop services in ballast water management and anti-fouling technologies relevant to the shipping and marine renewables industries. These services range from consultancy and expert witness advice, through to testing and development of new coatings and equipment.
PSRE funding has been successful in early stage commercialisation in our organisation. It has pump-primed the development of a successful business stream that in turn feeds income to our more fundamental research. In addition to providing the funding for targeted research, it has been used to develop commercial skills in our scientists, as well as developing strong links with industry. A number of new services and potential products have been developed and more industry partners are being sought. However, the challenge remains to source funds and partners to take these new opportunities past proof of concept and into early feasibility.
It is important to understand that the commercialisation of science has a long life cycle. Ten years of development from concept though to product is not uncommon. Funding strategies therefore need to be long term.
What impact will the Government’s initiative bring
The ability to undertake proof of concept early research that can be used to attract industry partners for joint targeted research and commercialisation. For example, France’s marine research is largely state funded and this provides the ability to offer industry a range of development opportunities, generally at more advanced stages than available in the UK.
Should UK encourage more private equity investment
Yes—but this needs to be targeted at early commercialisation, not the close to market opportunities that are usually funded by private equity.
What other types of investment should the Government develop
1. Equivalent PSRE funding to encourage early and proof of concept targeted research. This should be linked with industry partnerships that support out-sourcing of early development. As the IP develops, the partnership will naturally strengthen and will cascade ownership and employment towards industry as these opportunities become closer to being exploited. This funding should be seen as Government support for industry and not a mechanism to prop-up academia.
2. Funding to develop industry/academia partnerships. This should include a mechanism to actively scan developing research and IP, and then to actively promote these emerging skills to industry. These introductions can then foster the development of stronger links and potential partnerships. Conversely the mechanism should improve communication of industry requirements to academia.
3. The development of a set of tools or provision of business and commercial advice that makes it easy for scientists to exploit IP. Examples could include template licence agreements and business models that give confidence to the scientists that they will be fairly rewarded for their invention. These would set out best practice and illustrate the “going-rate”, thereby avoiding suspicion of having ideas “ripped-off” or exported by industry. | https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201213/cmselect/cmsctech/348/348vw45.htm |
For 250 years, Canada’s strong economic links with its neighbour to the south have been a cornerstone of its growth and prosperity. While the United States will continue to be a major economic partner and critical ally for Canada, it is vital that Canada build equally strong links with Asia.
During the period from 2010 to 2025, Asia is projected to generate 33 percent of global economic growth. China, the world’s second-largest economy, is urbanizing 100 times faster than the United Kingdom did in the 19th century, and is expected to rival the United States in economic terms by 2020-2030. India, too, is urbanizing rapidly. Seven new “smart” cities are planned for the Delhi-Mumbai corridor and more than 215 million people are expected to migrate from villages to cities by 2015.
Admittedly, both India and China have experienced a sharp drop in GDP growth this year. At the same time, China’s policy-makers are accelerating approvals of infrastructure investments and, in India, direct foreign investment levels are at record highs.
Asia’s growth has huge implications for governments and companies around the world, and how they react will fundamentally shape their future prospects. On the following pages, we take a closer look at the opportunities and challenges for Canadian companies doing business in China, given that China is now Canada’s second-largest trading partner. And we outline actions that Canada’s governments and business leaders could take, both separately and together, to build closer ties with Asia.
Our recommendations are not intended to be prescriptive. Rather, they are options for consideration, drawn from McKinsey’s experience in Canada and globally, as well as from best practice examples in other geographies.
In sectors ranging from agriculture to retail to consumer electronics and aviation, China is fast becoming the competitive battleground on which global winners will be determined. If a 2011 survey by the American Chamber of Commerce in China is any indication, foreign companies active there are becoming increasingly successful: they have seen their revenue, margins and profits improve markedly. They are raising their investment levels accordingly and view the future with increasing optimism.
Still, the challenges related to entering the Chinese market and flourishing there are numerous. In addition to human rights issues, companies face the need to protect intellectual property, cut through regulatory red tape, attract and retain local executive talent, cope with increasing labour costs, manage joint ventures and navigate the intricacies of government procurement. The severity of these challenges is amplified by the following:
- The sector in which companies are competing. In certain sectors (e.g., consumer, retail and some industrial sectors like chemicals), foreign participation is encouraged and doing business is relatively straightforward. In a second cluster of sectors (e.g., energy, mining, services, and automotive), participation is encouraged but subject to some ownership restrictions. In other sectors, foreign participation is restricted and closely reviewed by the Ministry of Commerce (e.g., telecom services, financial services and real estate/ construction), or even prohibited (e.g., defence, media and scarce basic materials). Although China recently decided to encourage private investment in some previously state-controlled sectors — including railways, finance, energy, telecommunications, education and health care — it will take time before those sectors are truly open to private companies.
- The presence of large incumbent state-owned enterprises (SOEs) in the markets in which Canadian companies want to compete. SOEs, like incumbents in many countries, can often leverage large balance sheets and strong working relationships with regulators to defend their positions.
- The ability of Canadian companies to align themselves with China’s overall development agenda. In March 2011, the National People’s Congress approved its 12th Five-Year Plan, which has five pillars: increasing domestic consumption, modernizing rural communities, modernizing the industrial system, improving regional development and improving resource efficiency. The more Canadian companies align themselves with these aims, the easier it will likely be for them to do business in China.
Considering the potential upside and the nature of the challenges, it is no longer possible for Canadian companies to succeed in China by treating it as an interesting side bet. They need to start treating China as a third home market, after Canada and the United States.
Despite the fact that Canada and Asia are linked by the Pacific Ocean, Canadian businesses lag their rivals from other OECD countries in making inroads into Asia: only half of Canada’s largest companies have operations there, whereas all of the top American companies do. Not surprisingly, many Asian business leaders see Canada primarily as a link to the United States. Canada has less brand visibility there than smaller countries such as Switzerland or the Netherlands.
Considering the potential upside and the nature of the challenges, it is no longer possible for Canadian companies to succeed in China by treating it as an interesting side bet. They need to start treating China as a third home market, after Canada and the United States.
Beyond China, we should not lose sight of other growth spots in Asia, specifically Southeast Asia and India. Canada and India share several fundamental characteristics: our parliamentary democracies, our Commonwealth relationship, the English language and pluralistic societies. India is a young country too; while China’s working-age population will decrease over the coming years, India’s will increase. This presents a host of opportunities and plays to Canada’s strengths in the areas of education and infrastructure.
The level of strategic thinking, action and coordination required to strengthen economic ties with Asia could prove challenging given Canada’s decentralized system of governance. However, the federal government might consider the following five potential initiatives:
- Appoint a minister for Asia and create a cabinet committee on Asia to drive and take accountability for this agenda
The Prime Minister has made Asia a priority, and he recently announced that Canada has accepted an invitation to joint the Trans-Pacific Partnership in ambitious new trade talks. Although some cabinet ministers have elements of the Asia agenda in their portfolio, Asia is often just one of many issues. To signal its commitment, the Canadian government could appoint a minister responsible for the entire Asia agenda, cutting across ministries and departments. The new minister would be a key contact point for Canadian businesses, civil society and Asian governments.
- Establish an Asia advisory council to provide advice on key opportunities and challenges
Such a council would comprise 15 to 20 influential Asia-based politicians and business people who would meet annually with senior government officials, including the Prime Minister and Minister of Finance. The council would be set up as a long-term body, with terms exceeding the electoral cycle, and it would be well supported to ensure initiatives are pursued and delivered. A potential model is Singapore’s International Advisory Council to the Economic Development Board.
- Enhance diplomatic activities in Asia
Strong diplomatic ties between Canada and Asia are essential in unlocking opportunities in Asia. Additional steps might include increasing Canada’s consular presence in the most significant potential growth markets in Asia, increasing the frequency and seniority of official trips to Asia, encouraging Asian government officials to visit Canada and reviewing allocations of diplomatic budgets.
- Actively pursue strategies to increase cultural and educational ties with Asia
Economic ties are not built by promoting trade and investment alone; they rest on a broader base of social and cultural links. Canada currently has no mechanism or institution to provide a focal point for such efforts. The National Centre on Contemporary Asia, an idea proposed by the Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada, could play such a role in increasing the cultural and educational links between Canada and Asia if supported by a sufficiently ambitious mandate and budget. For example, it could
- Promote Asian experiences (exchanges, hosting, language immersion, co-op terms, internships) for a much larger number of Canadian secondary and postsecondary students;
- Sponsor a national Asia speaker series that would bring prominent Asian business people, politicians, artists and thinkers to Canada and give them exposure in Canadian media;
- Encourage cultural and media organizations to develop more Asian content;
- Encourage more Canada-Asia links through the arts and sports.
- Partner with five to seven key sectors to help them compete successfully in Asia
In conjunction with provincial governments and, ideally, the Asia Advisory Council, the federal government could partner with a few strategic sectors and help drive the reorientation of Canada’s economy toward Asia. This could include leveraging trade missions and government visits that combine government and sector leaders to facilitate strong partnerships between the countries and help create Canadian-based global champions. These strategic sectors should correspond with priorities outlined in China’s 12th Five-Year Plan. For example:
- Infrastructure. Canada has some of the most admired infrastructure in the world and has developed some highly successful infrastructure models and companies. Yet Canadian companies and individuals are under-leveraging opportunities in areas like infrastructure in Asia. For example, in the next five years alone, the Indian government projects more than US$1 trillion in infrastructure spending. It is estimated that 80 percent of the Indian infrastructure of 2030 has yet to be built. Furthermore, according to a recent Economist Intelligence Unit ranking, Canada boasts three of the top 10 most livable cities in the world. Asia’s rapid urbanization creates opportunities to share Canadian knowledge and experiences in building cities while at the same time helping to build Canadian global champions. This could be achieved by expanding the “Twin Cities” concept, having officials introduce Canadian infrastructure companies to senior officials in the largest Asian cities, and encouraging partnerships between Canadian resource companies and infrastructure firms to build and operate ports, railways, airports and toll roads in Asian countries.
- Financial services. Canada’s financial system came through the 2008 crisis in stronger shape than those of other developed economies, and its regulatory system and banks are recognized globally as role models for effective governance and risk management. Canada could leverage this to establish closer financial ties to Asia. This should be a two-way street, with Canadi-an banks having greater access to Asia’s growing consumer markets and Asian financial institutions, and Asian savings and capital being channelled into investments in Canada. The government could also support Asian economies in applying some financial best practices from Canada.
- Aerospace. Canada has much to offer Asia in know-how, products and services in aerospace. Bombardier is the third-largest civil aircraft manufacturer in the world — and Canada also is home to a number of successful suppliers to the industry. Given China’s determination to develop its aerospace industries, the Canadian government could have a significant impact by facilitating the development of business relationships between Canadian and Chinese companies, as Europe and the United States have done with Airbus and Boeing respectively.
- Education. Increasing the number of Asian students studying in Canada has benefits beyond pure economics; it also raises Canada’s profile in Asia and provides an avenue for future Asian leaders to experience Canada first-hand. In addition to helping attract Asian students to Canada, the government could also encourage more educational partnerships, resulting in more of our universities and technical schools establishing campuses in Asia. Universities could also do more to facilitate access for Asian students. For example, the University of Sydney, one of Australia’s top universities, announced earlier this year that it would start accepting scores based on China’s Gaokao examination for admission into an undergraduate program, as long as applicants meet the university’s English language and special entry requirements. Tourism. By 2020, it is expected that Asia will be the source of more than 400 million tourist trips to global destinations annually. Many businesses and communities in Canada depend on tourism. The government could encourage the concerted marketing of Canadian tourist attractions in Asia, similar to Australia’s recent campaign in China, and also help ensure that attractions are welcoming to Asian tourists.
- Natural resources. As one of the world’s largest producers and exporters of resources, and a major player in the global agri-food industry, Canada is attracting growing Asian interest. This presents growth and diversification opportunities for Canada — but also some risks. The federal government could work with provincial governments and Canadian businesses to develop a transparent approach to managing Canada’s natural resources and its industries’ relationships with Asia. Not only would this provide flexibility and growth opportunities for Canada, it would also provide more growth and improvement opportunities for ports, infrastructure, and transportation development. Overseas investment could help bring down the cost of development, expand and modernize the nation’s resource infrastructure, and create more jobs for Canadians. It could also enable Canada to attract a hub of resource companies.
To take full advantage of this opportunity, Canada would need to proactively invest in its resource infrastructure. As the creation of such infrastructure would cross provincial lines and involve a variety of stakeholders, the federal government could play a significant role in leading and facilitating discussions.
At the same time, to create a sound platform to support this approach, Canada could put in place a long-term plan for managing its resource endowment.
Such a plan would need to answer three questions:
Under what conditions and to what degree should foreign ownership of Canadian resources be allowed?
Historically, Canada has allowed the sale of many of its natural resource companies to foreign owners. Recently, however, the federal government blocked a takeover bid for Saskatchewan’s Potash Corp. Since then, the government has announced that it will increase the threshold for reviewing foreign bids from $300 million to $1 billion. However, Canada’s policy on foreign ownership remains unclear to many. A clear position on the resources that may be sold to owners outside Canada, and under what conditions, would be optimal. Foreign ownership rules could also be designed to help create an environment that would enable globally competitive Canadian champions to emerge.
How will Canada ensure that future generations of Canadians benefit from the nonrenewable resources we are extracting today?
As many of Canada’s most important resources are nonrenewable, the nation will want to take care that it is not simply spending the wealth of future generations.
Interest from heritage funds set up to capture and invest resource revenues could perhaps be deployed to support Canada-Asia initiatives.
How could Canada most responsibly manage its resources from an environmental and social perspective?
The government should continue to work closely with natural resources businesses, environmental groups, indigenous peoples’ groups and local communities to ensure that Canada supplies Asia’s growing resource needs in a sustainable and responsible way.
In conjunction with Asia-focused public policies, Canadian companies will need to rethink their approach to doing business in Asia and their aspirations of market share, sourcing volumes, productivity, performance, and research and devopment activity. This also requires focusing management attention on Asia, including placing critical senior executives there.
Many leading multinationals have moved senior executives to Asia in recent months. For example, Schneider Electric, a leading French company that generates a quarter of its sales and half of its growth in Asia, announced last September it was moving its president and CEO, executive vice-president, global human resources, and executive vice-president, strategy, to Hong Kong. Schneider Electric was following in the footsteps of General Electric, Starwood and HSBC, all of which have moved global senior executives to Asia in the past 18 months. Some Canadian enterprises are doing the same. The Canada Pension Plan Investment Board recently appointed Mark Machin as the first president of its burgeoning Asian operations.
Just as critical is to think about Asia as a market that requires the same sophisticated approaches employed elsewhere and to bring best practices to Asia in areas ranging from technology and product strategy to marketing, distribution, service and supply chain management.
It would be naïve to suggest that Asia must be a second or third home for every company or product line, or that it will be possible in all cases to capture significant market share and scale advantages there and exploit them globally. Even when local market opportunities are limited, though, it is still possible to gain global advantages by leveraging Asia effectively.
Surprisingly, many foreign executives who ask themselves the following questions identify a significant gap between their stated intentions and Asia’s actual place on their priority lists:
- Leadership presence in Asia. How many senior executives of the company are located in Asia? If they are not already located there, how much time each year do the global CEO, CFO and other Csuite executives actually spend in Asia? When did the company last hold a board meeting there? How does this compare with the number of trips to, or board meetings in, Europe, Latin America or North America? Is this the right balance? Visibility into Asian operations. Do any of the company’s leaders in Asia, within either corporate functions or business units, report directly to the CEO? Are the company’s Asian operations important enough to its future that the CEO should hear about them first-hand?
- Knowledge of Asian customers and suppliers. In Canada, most CEOs and business unit leaders know the CEOs of their current and potential customers and suppliers quite well. Does the CEO have similar personal relationships in Asia? Relationships with government leaders and regulators. In Canada, top business leaders know government leaders and regulators well and often join government advisory boards. Does the CEO have the same level of familiarity with government leaders and regulators overseeing the business in Asia? Do company leaders play any advisory roles in Asia that are similar to those played in Canada?
- Product strategy. Have products been designed to meet Asian customers’ needs or are they simply imported or “de-featured” Western designs? Are price points at the same level as similar offerings from local or even foreign competitors? Is the company’s intellectual property (IP) strategy sophisticated enough in deciding which IP to bring into Asia and what the return should be with regard to market share?
- Operations strategy. Are operational performance expectations in Asia on par with those in the home market? Has the company invested as many resources or as much expertise in building and refining the company’s Asian manufacturing, distribution, supply chain and service models? Is there enough supply chain flexibility to supply cities in the second and third tiers? Is the global supply chain agile enough to adapt to unforeseen supply disruptions given increasing global volatility?
- Human resources. Is the company proactive enough in recruiting strong local talent or does it still rely primarily on expatriates? Does the company invest just as much in professional training and development programs, taught by equally qualified staff, in Asia as in Canada? Would the CEO be just as aware of a rising star in the Shenzhen office as he or she might be of someone in Canada?
- Acquisition and partnership strategy. Is there a clear mergers and acquisitions and partnership strategy in Asia to gain economies of scale and fill in product development gaps?
In essence, Canada must become more of an Asian-facing nation. In doing so, it must move beyond its current trading patterns with Asia — exporting natural resources and importing manufactured goods — to add value to achieve mutually beneficial relationships. Australia is also resource-rich but is taking steps to avoid becoming merely a quarrying nation. Canada must do the same.
We have many assets to deploy: our long history as a trading nation, a multicultural population, vibrant cities, natural resources, a successful education system and a strong business community. | https://policyoptions.irpp.org/magazines/canada-in-the-pacific-century/strengthening-economic-ties-between-canada-and-asia/ |
Between 2019 and 2022, the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) and the Department of Justice (DOJ) (collectively, the US Antitrust Agencies) have been active in issuing Second Requests and filing challenges to block mergers and acquisitions involving digital services and technology companies. This Chapter addresses recent technology and digital sector merger cases and highlights key trends emerging from enforcement in those sectors.
In the span of a month, Amazon announced it would acquire One Medical for US$3.5 billion and Roomba for US$1.65 billion. One Medical is a tech-focused, primary-care healthcare company, and its acquisition, combined with Amazon’s ‘existing online pharmacy and nascent telehealth and house call services’, could play a role in raising Amazon’s profile in the health industry and in the segment for virtual healthcare offerings. Roomba is the manufacturer of the iRobot vacuums, and Amazon announced its plans to acquire Roomba after introducing its own similar offering, the Amazon Astro, a camera-equipped robot device powered by Amazon’s Alexa smart home system.
The FTC is closely reviewing the proposed acquisitions. Amazon is facing data-related scrutiny in both its acquisitions, similar to the FTC’s concerns over user data in Microsoft’s acquisition of Activision Blizzard.
On 2 September 2022, it was reported that the FTC has launched an investigation into Amazon’s acquisition of iRobot, with one of its concerns being ‘whether the data generated about a consumer’s home by iRobot’s Roomba vacuum will give [Amazon] an unfair advantage over a wide variety of other retailers’.
On the same day, One Medical’s parent company disclosed in a US Securities and Exchange Commission filing that One Medical and Amazon each received requests for additional information and documentary material (Second Requests) in connection with Amazon’s acquisition of One Medical. ‘[T]he FTC is asking questions about the data Amazon would have access to, querying insurance companies and others about how One Medical’s patient data would potentially give it an advantage over competitors and customers,’ especially since Amazon has received criticism over its previous use of data collection and acquisitions to grow its position in the e-commerce segment. The FTC’s scrutiny will not necessarily result in a lawsuit to block both deals, though. US Antitrust Agencies might not have a strong case against Amazon’s acquisitions of either company and might elect not to challenge the deals. Both acquisitions could be a test for Chair Khan’s enforcement priorities, and the FTC’s ability to execute on its stated policy positions.
In March 2022, Amazon closed its US$8.5 billion acquisition of MGM. As a result of the transaction, Amazon’s Prime Video, its online streaming service, will acquire the rights to more than 4,000 movies and 17,000 TV shows. Amazon announced the acquisition in May 2021.
On 15 March 2022, the EU granted Amazon unconditional approval, stating that the transaction would not raise competition concerns in Europe. The FTC did not challenge the transaction by the mid-March 2022 deadline, and Amazon moved to close the transaction; however, the FTC has the ability to challenge acquisitions post-consummation, and recent reports suggest that the FTC may still be reviewing the transaction and could challenge the acquisition.
On 27 July 2022, the FTC sued in US district court to enjoin Meta Platforms’ proposed acquisition of Within. According to the complaint, Meta is a provider of virtual reality (VR) devices and apps in the United States. Previously, Meta had acquired several VR apps, including fitness app Beat Saber and Oculus VR, Inc., a VR headset manufacturer and owner of a distribution platform for VR software apps.
Within is a software company that develops apps for VR devices, such as the fitness app Supernatural. The FTC alleged that Meta’s proposed acquisition of Within would ‘combine the makers of two of the most significant VR fitness apps’, thereby significantly reducing competition, or tending to create a monopoly, in two relevant product markets: the VR dedicated fitness app market (with dedicated fitness apps being apps that deliberately provide a structured physical workout), and the VR fitness app market (comprising both VR ‘dedicated fitness apps’ and ‘incidental fitness apps’, which are apps whose primary focus is not fitness but that allow users to ‘accidentally’ get a workout because of the physically active nature of the apps). The FTC also contended that Meta’s proposed acquisition would enhance Meta’s market power in the already-concentrated VR fitness app market and was part of its effort to ‘exploit the network-effects dynamic in VR’ to grow its position in the overall VR ‘metaverse’.
Moreover, the complaint alleges that since Meta is a potential entrant in the VR-dedicated fitness app market and has the resources to build its own dedicated fitness app, its acquisition of Within would eliminate existing and potential competition, and dampen future innovation, in the VR dedicated fitness app market.
On 5 August 2022, the district court issued a temporary restraining order, and Meta and Within agreed not to close the proposed acquisition until 1 January 2023, or until the court rules on the FTC’s injunctive request, whichever comes first. As at September 2022, the court has not ruled on the FTC’s request for a preliminary injunction. This is the first time the FTC has pre-emptively challenged an acquisition by Meta.
In May 2022, Broadcom Inc., one of the largest semiconductor chipmakers in the world, announced plans to acquire VMware, Inc., a cloud software company, for US$61 billion. After Broadcom withdrew its US$117 billion acquisition of Qualcomm in 2018, Broadcom shifted towards acquiring software and cloud services companies. Broadcom now hopes to combine VMware’s multi-cloud offerings and Broadcom’s software portfolio. VMware’s offerings include data centre management, digital infrastructure tools and multi-cloud services. If consummated, Broadcom’s acquisition would be ‘among the largest in the history of the technology industry, second only to Microsoft’s proposed US$75 billion purchase of games maker Activision Blizzard.’
However, according to public filings by both companies, the FTC issued Second Requests for information on 11 July 2022. As at September 2022, the FTC has not commented on its investigation. The EU has indicated that it will be launching a potentially lengthy antitrust investigation into the deal after receiving concerns from some opponents, including existing VMware clients.
Regulators will likely be concerned with, and seek assurances from Broadcom over, tying or bundling arrangements with customers (e.g., exclusivity or loyalty agreements), retaliation against customers for doing business with Broadcom competitors and price increases. Broadcom will likely argue that the proposed acquisition is not a merger between two competitors and that it will not lead to price increases, negatively affect innovation or undermine price or quality competition.
On 24 February 2022, the DOJ challenged in US district court UnitedHealth Group’s US$13 billion proposed acquisition of Change Healthcare. UnitedHealth is the largest healthcare company by revenue and owner of the largest health insurance company in the United States. Change is the leading source of key technologies to UnitedHealth’s health insurance rivals. It also has access to sensitive data about UnitedHealth’s rivals in the relevant product market for the sale of commercial health insurance to national accounts and large group employers – markets that the complaint contends satisfy the ‘hypothetical monopolist’ test.
The DOJ alleged that UnitedHealth’s acquisition of Change would give UnitedHealth access to this data and control over Change’s technologies, thereforw allowing UnitedHealth to co-opt its rival insurers’ competitive strategies and raise their costs and deny or delay their access to products, services and improvements supplied by Change. It also alleged that UnitedHealth and Change are the two largest, competing vendors in the relevant product market of first-pass claims editing solutions in the United States, with a combined market share of at least 75 per cent; therefore, according to the complaint, the proposed acquisition would lead to a presumptively anticompetitive market concentration and give UnitedHealth a vertically integrated monopoly.
On 19 September 2022, the district court ruled in UnitedHealth’s favour and approved its acquisition of Change, but ordered the companies to divest the only Change business with ‘direct competitive overlap’ with UnitedHealth – its ClaimsXten unit that provides first-pass claims-editing technology – to private equity firm TPG Capital, as proposed by the companies.
The court’s ruling delivers a ‘blow to enforcer efforts to contest so-called vertical tie-ups connecting companies at different points of the supply chain’ and also indicates that the judge ‘was persuaded that concerns of horizontal overlap between [competitors] were completely overriden by plans to sell ClaimsXten to TPG’, contrary to the government’s general stance against divestitures and consent decrees in problematic transactions. In a statement following the court’s decision, Assistant Attorney General (AAG) Kanter said the DOJ is ‘reviewing the opinion closely to evaluate next steps.’
In January 2022, Microsoft Corporation announced plans to buy Activision Blizzard, Inc. for around US$70 billion. Activision is the game developer of the popular Call of Duty, World of Warcraft, Candy Crush and Guitar Hero franchises.
The proposed acquisition has come under the scrutiny of several regulators, including the FTC and the UK Competition and Markets Authority (CMA). Regulators will likely ‘focus on the combination of [Activision’s] gaming portfolio with Microsoft’s consoles and hardware systems’ and on whether Microsoft’s ownership of Activision could harm rival gaming companies, such as Sony, by limiting their access to Activision’s biggest games.
The FTC is also examining the deal ‘with an eye to the combined companies’ access to consumer data, the game developer labour market and the deal’s impact on those workers who have accused Activision of discrimination and a hostile workplace.’ In a 9 June 2022 letter to Senator Elizabeth Warren, FTC Chair Lina Khan confirmed that the agency is investigating the proposed deal, with a focus on its potential impacts on Activision workers. Given the allegations of sexual harassment and discrimination lobbed against Activision, as well as the recent unionisation of some of its video game testers, the FTC may focus on whether any non-compete clauses or non-disclosure agreements also violate antitrust or consumer protection laws.
Microsoft has attempted to ‘assuage’ these potential regulatory concerns by recently stating that it ‘would stop using non-competes or confidentiality clauses to bar workers from talking about discrimination or harassment as part of a settlement or separation deal’. It also announced a labour neutrality agreement with regard to employees that are interested in joining a union, which would apply to Activision after the acquisition. As at September 2022, the FTC’s investigation is ongoing.
On 16 February 2021, the DOJ issued Second Requests to Salesforce and Slack in connection with their US$27.7 billion merger. The merger would make the Slack collaboration tool the interface for Salesforce Customer 360 to compete with Microsoft’s similar product.
After a five-month investigation, the DOJ announced that it had completed its review and that it would not challenge the acquisition. The DOJ likely had concerns about Salesforce competitors’ future ability to use Slack’s messaging service or Salesforce illegally obtaining competitor information through Slack. It may have also had concerns that Salesforce could cross-sell Slack by requiring that any user of its software also use Slack’s messaging service, which could have stymied entry for new workplace messaging competitors. The parties closed the transaction on 21 July 2021.
The DOJ’s challenge to this transaction could further suggest that the agencies will be interested in non-horizontal mergers in the tech space, and that it could use Second Requests proactively to better understand the general nature of competition in those sectors.
In 2020, the European Commission and the DOJ investigated Google’s US$2.1 billion proposed acquisition of Fitbit. Although the European Commission cleared the transaction in December 2020, the DOJ continued to scrutinise the proposed merger. On 14 January 2021, Google announced that it closed the transaction even though the DOJ continued to investigate the transaction.
There has been limited information about the DOJ’s investigation into the Google/Fitbit transaction, but it is possible that the merger investigation may have been tied to the DOJ’s ongoing lawsuit against Google’s allegedly anticompetitive conduct. That the DOJ has not made any announcements about this transaction could also portend that it may have had difficulty defining a relevant product market or articulating theories of harm in a non-horizontal merger.
On 5 November 2020, the DOJ challenged Visa’s proposed US$5.3 billion acquisition of Plaid, alleging that Visa is a monopolist in online debit transactions and that the acquisition represented Visa’s attempt to acquire a nascent, innovative competitor. In its complaint, the DOJ described the two-sided nature of online debit platforms: they facilitate online transaction between merchants on one side and consumers on the other. Although the DOJ recognised that Plaid was not a direct competitor, it argued that the relevant market for online debit transactions included both online debit services (e.g., those that Visa traditionally offers) and pay-by-bank debit services (e.g., those that Plaid offers). On 12 January 2021, the parties terminated the agreement.
On 25 November 2020, the DOJ challenged and required a settlement in the proposed US$7.1 billion merger of Intuit and Credit Karma. Credit Karma operates a personal finance platform that offers free services such as credit monitoring, financial management and digital do-it-yourself (DDIY) tax preparation services. Intuit offers tax preparation, accounting, payroll and finance solutions to individuals and small businesses.
The complaint alleged that Intuit and Credit Karma are direct competitors in the relevant product market of the development, provision, operation and support of DDIY tax preparation products. Under the terms of settlement, filed simultaneously with the complaint on 25 November 2020, the parties agreed to divest Credit Karma’s tax business to Square, Inc. for US$50 million. With the divestiture, the transaction between Intuit and Credit Karma closed on 3 December 2020.
The DOJ’s challenge and subsequent settlement with the parties highlights how the US Antitrust Agencies might allow divestitures to other growing, digital platforms, such as Square, to support some of their nascent product offerings, such as Cash App, which was starting to develop a tax preparation offering.
On 30 November 2020, the FTC filed a suit to block CoStar Group, Inc.’s US$587.5 million acquisition of RentPath Holdings. CoStar operates listing sites such as Apartments.com and ApartmentFinder.com, whereas RentPath operates listing sites such as Rent.com and ApartmentGuide.com.
The FTC alleged that the acquisition would significantly increase concentration in the already highly concentrated markets for internet listing services advertising for large apartment complexes, which the FTC defined as the relevant product market. The FTC argued that CoStar and RentPath were head-to-head competitors and that the five-to-four merger would bring together the top-two internet listing services for large apartment complexes. A month after the FTC filed its complaint, on 29 December 2020, CoStar and RentPath terminated their merger agreement.
The FTC’s suit in this transaction could suggest two trends:
On 20 August 2019, the DOJ challenged in US district court Sabre’s US$360 million proposed acquisition of Farelogix, alleging that Sabre, a dominant provider of airline booking services, was attempting to eliminate a ‘disruptive’ competitor. The US district court disagreed, reasoning that the DOJ failed to define adequately a relevant market and that therefore, Sabre did not compete with Farelogix because Sabre is a two-sided platform that interacts with airlines and travel agencies, whereas Farelogix interacts with airlines and is not a two-sided platform. After the UK CMA challenged the transaction, the parties agreed to terminate their merger agreement in April 2020.
The US district court’s decision shows that after Ohio v. American Express, the US Antitrust Agencies will face difficulties in challenging mergers of digital platforms where the proposed relevant product market does not include both the buy and sell sides of the platform. Even if both platforms were two-sided, however, the anticompetitive effects of a merger between two-sided platforms would need to ‘reverberate . . . to such an extent as to make the two-sided . . . platform market, overall, less competitive.’
From 2019 to 2021, the US Antitrust Agencies focused increasingly on acquisitions of nascent competitors. As seen in the government’s complaints in Visa/Plaid, Intuit/Credit Karma and Sabre/Farelogix, the agencies raised these concerns in digital industries because, they argue, these markets are more likely to gain increased market share by being a favoured platform through enhanced network effects and economies of scale. The US Antitrust Agencies have also identified creative ways to challenge mergers, such as in Visa/Plaid, by bringing allegations under Section 2 of the Sherman Act, which prohibits the wilful acquisition or maintenance of monopoly power, monopolisation or attempted monopolisation.
Between 2021 and 2022, the US Antitrust Agencies have turned their enforcement attention to conglomerate acquisitions (Microsoft/Activision and Broadcom/VMware) and acquisitions raising concerns about how an acquirer could misuse an acquiring entity’s data to harm competitors (United Healthcare/Change). The investigations the US Antitrust Agencies have initiated in the past year and the recent suit to block Facebook’s acquisition of Within show the challenges the US Antitrust Agencies face with defining the relevant market under the existing Merger Guidelines.
Perhaps more notably, the volume of enforcement against technology companies is not what many speculated it would be under FTC Chair Khan and AAG Kanter. If the US Antitrust Agencies publish new Merger Guidelines in 2023, technology companies could continue to see increased scrutiny and continued investigations and challenges that are broader and more creative in scope and reach.
Recent DOJ and FTC enforcement actions suggest that the US Antitrust Agencies may continue to demand structural remedies with upfront buyers and divestitures of entire business units; however, the US Antitrust Agencies have expressed a strong preference for litigating a case instead of pursuing remedies.
AAG Kanter has noted that divestitures may be an option only in exceptional circumstances, but also acknowledged that divestitures could be appropriate where ‘business units are sufficiently discrete and complete that disentangling them from the parent company in a non-dynamic market is a straightforward exercise, where a divestiture has a high degree of success.’ His statements and his use of ‘non-dynamic’ suggests that remedies in technology mergers or acquisitions may face more intense scrutiny than in previous administrations.
Merging parties, especially in technology and digital platforms, should expect that the US Antitrust Agencies will not support many proposed divestitures and should consider alternatives in advance of structuring a transaction, such as a fix-it-first solution. As seen during the past year, in the face of challenges by US authorities, several merging parties involved in digital or technology mergers (e.g., Visa/Plaid and CoStar/RentPath) abandoned their transactions.
From 2019 to the first half of 2022, the US Antitrust Agencies were active in technology and digital market merger enforcement. They continued to focus on both horizontal and vertical mergers across the technology and digital sectors, and they continued to focus on transactions involving innovative competitors.
One dominant principle in the US government’s effort to promote competition in the technology sector is ensuring internet platforms do not ‘push out would-be rivals’ and ‘scoop up intimate personal information that they can use for their own advantage.’ The White House has also called for ‘clear limits on the ability to collect, use, transfer and maintain . . . personal data, including limits on targeted advertising’ and discriminatory algorithms, to address the alleged ‘harms caused or magnified’ by technology platforms.
Looking forward, with the White House Competition Council, FTC Chair Kahn and AAG Kanter at the helm of antitrust policy in the United States, this merger enforcement trend will likely continue. In addition, the White House and Congress continue to turn their attention to competition and data access and privacy in the technology sector. Technology companies should continue to monitor the changing legislative landscape, which could impose new rules on acquisitions by large technology companies, and the release of new Merger Guidelines, which are slated to target new and creative ways to enforce antitrust laws in digital markets.
Technology companies and digital platforms should anticipate more scrutiny in the form of voluntary access letters, requests for additional information and documentary material, longer periods to negotiate divestitures and other remedies (if even given the opportunity) and potential reviews of past acquisitions. Technology companies should also expect more cohesion in antitrust enforcement across the federal government, including more coordination across agencies (in relation to issues such as labour) and increased coordination with foreign competition agencies on these issues.
Editor’s Note: Before beginning any new exercise program, consult your doctor. Stop immediately if you experience pain. | https://www.aljazeeranewstoday.com/united-states-tech-mergers/ |
The public sector has played two roles in promoting the growth of information and communication technologies (ICT): (1) making markets more competitive, efficient, accountable, and transparent and (2) ensuring equitable access for all. This has enabled the private sector to lead the rollout of and investment in ICT. This same approach should be pursued with broadband development. The role of government should be to enable, facilitate, and complement market development, rather than to substitute government decisions for market forces and public sector investment for private investment.
Due to broadband’s importance, however, there have been calls to view broadband as a public good in order to ensure affordable universal access and spread the benefits across the full range of economic sectors.* In a technical sense, public goods are nonrivalrous (that is, one person’s use does not diminish another person’s ability to use it) and nonexcludable (people cannot be stopped from using it). Examples include free over-the-air radio and television and national defense. However, some argue that broadband is not a pure public good, as broadband access is excludable, as demonstrated by the unevenness of broadband deployment, even within the same country. Some may also argue that broadband is not a public good since it is also rivalrous—one person’s use can diminish another’s use if the network is congested. See Atkinson (2010). Based at least partially on a public goods analysis, some countries have taken more direct action to promote broadband development, establishing initiatives and strategies where the government intervenes more directly to promote, oversee, and universalize their broadband markets. This was particularly the case in the wake of the economic crisis of 2008, as many governments came to see broadband networks and services as a way to preserve and enhance their economies. In 2009, for example, countries with different economic philosophies included broadband in their economic stimulus plans (for example, Australia), which indicated that they were no longer averse to making strategic investments. By 2011, however, such policies were being increasingly called into question as government debt levels rose, in some cases dramatically, forcing austerity programs and corresponding cuts in government spending on a wide range of priorities, including broadband.
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2.1.1 Defining the Challenges: Barriers to Broadband Growth
As policy makers and regulators consider approaches to stimulating and promoting broadband development, it is important to recognize the full scope of the challenges that must be addressed. These challenges tend to be multilayered and involve stimulating the supply of broadband infrastructure and encouraging demand for broadband applications and services, as discussed in chapter 6. On the supply side, the problem is not as simple as just building more networks; as operators roll out their broadband business plans, issues of cost, service quality (data speeds), and technology choice will also play important roles in decisions about how best to bring access to a nation’s citizens. Even then, just building more networks or providing access to all will not guarantee success. Governments may need to support broadband development by encouraging demand for broadband in those limited instances where the private sector does not generate useful and relevant applications, services, and content. In sum, governments must think of broadband as an ecosystem, holistically, with supply and demand components, if they are to maximize their chances for broadband development success.f
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2.1.1.1 Supply: Reaching Unserved and Underserved Users
In considering policies and strategies to promote broadband development, one important goal is to ensure that access is available to the widest possible user base. This means that networks need to be built out to reach as many people as possible. But facilitating broadband supply presents at least two significant issues. First, some areas in virtually every country have no meaningful access to broadband services at all. This problem is most pronounced in developing countries, which have seen less investment in the construction of networks outside metropolitan areas. This situation has improved in recent years with the spread of wireless networks, but some areas still lack network coverage. Second, some areas have networks in place, but these networks are not capable of supporting broadband speeds and services. These areas will need to be upgraded, either through the construction of high-speed wireline networks or through advanced wireless networks (3G or 4G, services). In many developing countries, where wireless penetration can far exceed wireline penetration, upgraded wireless networks capable of providing true broadband speeds are expected to be the main supplier of broadband services.
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2.1.1.2 Demand: Lowering the Barriers to Adoption
Improving the availability of broadband networks only addresses one impediment linked to broadband development. Even with networks in place and accessible, there are likely to be barriers due to lack of demand. This problem involves people who have access to broadband network(s), but are unable or unwilling to obtain service. Addressing lack of demand is important because low adoption rates will leave networks underutilized. This has at least two implications. First, from a network externalities standpoint, fewer users reduce the economic and social utility of the networks. Where relatively few people can communicate online, the network externalities are reduced since there is a smaller number of potential customers for businesses to serve. This further means that there may be fewer local businesses and consumers offering broadband-enabled services and applications, such as video streaming services (for example, Hulu+), voice and video communications (for example, Skype), and download services for a variety of applications such as software and e-books.
Second, low adoption and use will undermine the business case of any network—even those built with public funds. Fewer users mean that networks are correspondingly higher cost or that their costs are spread over a smaller user base, making them relatively more expensive to build and operate. Thus it is important for the overall goal of improving broadband development for governments to focus on developing policies that not only facilitate and encourage the building of broadband networks, but also ensure that as many people as possible can and do use them. Barriers to adoption vary and will likely not be the same in all countries, but some broad categories are identifiable. In studies conducted to identify barriers to Internet and broadband adoption, the primary reasons respondents cite for not subscribing to broadband services can be grouped into four main categories: (1) broadband is not relevant; (2) equipment or service is too expensive; (3) individuals lack training in or are not comfortable using broadband Internet services; and (4) broadband is not available (Pew Internet and American Life Project 2010; EUROSTAT 2009). This is not to say that demand inhibitors are exactly the same in all countries. The factors seen as impediments to adoption in some countries may be less of a factor in other countries, due to different social and cultural histories and experiences as well as different socioeconomic conditions (Hernandez, Leza, and Ballot-Lena 2010, 4). Figure 2.1, which presents survey data collected from nonadopters of Internet services in Brazil and the United States, shows how some factors are more important than others.*Respondents in the United States, for example, see digital literacy as a much bigger problem than respondents in Brazil, who consider high cost to be a larger issue. Therefore, each country must analyze and address the demand-reducing factors on a case-by-case basis and tailor solutions to the individual problems.
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2.1.2 Developing Country-Specific Solutions
No “one-size-fits-all” approach will guarantee greater broadband deployment and adoption in every country. Political and economic conditions vary, and each country is endowed with different technological resources. Some countries have a relatively well-developed wireline telephone network that could support broadband deployment, while others have widely deployed cable television networks that might be able to provide a measure of facilities-based competition from the start. In yet other countries, various regulatory, political, economic, or other barriers to entry may prevent potential competitors from offering broadband services or building broadband networks.
This variance makes it unwise to propose a uniform solution to promote broadband development. In some cases, the challenge will be to create incentives so that widespread networks can be used to offer broadband services. In other countries, the main challenge may be to find ways to educate potential users about the benefits of broadband and train them to use broadband applications and services. As a result, each country will have its own unique circumstances that will drive policy and investment decisions. However, the key objective for governments is to pursue policies that will create an enabling environment that will foster broadband development.
Important lessons can be learned from those countries that have pursued broadband development policies (Box 2.1).* The experiences of the countries surveyed in Kim, Kelly, and Raja (2010), for example, may provide good approaches that could be adapted for use in many countries. First, the focus in those countries has been on improving the incentives and climate for private investment, a policy that even highly resource-constrained countries might be able to follow (and many have successfully attained with mobile telephony). Many of the policies and programs that have been developed support private sector investments and call for specific, limited, and well-justified public funding interventions only in exceptional circumstances. In particular, governments that are trying to promote the growth of underdeveloped markets should avoid policies and regulations that may reduce private sector investment.
Box 2.1Public Sector’s Role in Fostering Broadband Development: Key Lessons
- Government should focus on maximizing competition, including removing entry barriers and improving the incentives and climate for private investment.
- Government should provide for specific, limited, and well-justified public funding interventions only in exceptional circumstances (for example, where governments are trying to promote growth of underdeveloped markets).
- Government funding or policy should not compete with or displace private sector investment.
- Government should maintain a level playing field for competition by avoiding favoring one company (or type of company, for example, telephony vs. cable) over another.
- Subsidized networks should be open access (that is, they should offer capacity or access to all market participants in a nondiscriminatory way).
- Government may need to regulate dominant providers to avoid market concentration or other adverse impacts on overall market competition.
- Government should eliminate barriers to content creation and refrain from blocking access to content, including social networking sites, or restricting local content creation.
Source: Telecommunications Management Group.
Government funding or policy should not have the effect of “crowding out” private sector investment. For example, governments can encourage private investments in many cases without direct subsidies, such as by developing passive infrastructure—ducting, towers, and cable conduits,which can significantly cut costs and create minimal market distortions (OECD 2008; Qiang 2009). Public investments should be considered only when no or insufficient private investments are expected for a significant period. Furthermore, to maintain a level playing field for competition even with public investments, governments should seek to avoid favoring one company (or type of company, for example, telephony vs. cable) over another. For example, if and when governments intervene to increase network availability, it may be necessary to ensure that subsidized networks are open access, meaning that network operators offer capacity or access to all market participants in a nondiscriminatory way. Nonetheless, there may be cases where a dominant provider may need to be appropriately regulated to avoid market concentration or other adverse impacts on overall market competition.
Developing countries in particular will also need to identify ways to leverage limited resources to maximize impact, prioritizing programs based on demand and market evolution, rather than shying away from policy reform altogether. For most developing countries, the most effective approach to promoting broadband development is likely to involve a mix of approaches and policies that rely on private sector investment, coupled with regulatory reform that will promote efficient and competitive markets (which will also increase private sector investment). Direct government intervention should be limited to those cases where markets may not function efficiently (for example, providing service to high-cost areas) or where larger social goals are clearly identified (for example, providing digital literacy training). The basic principle remains the same: governments should only intervene based on sound economic principles, where the benefits of intervention outweigh the costs. For example, particularly at the initial stage of broadband market development, there may be a need for aggressive government policies to generate demand, expand networks, and reach underserved areas and communities. | https://ddtoolkits.worldbankgroup.org/broadband-strategies/policy-approaches/introduction-policy-approaches |
Organizational performance requires continuous innovative planning processes to enhance product development and resource management. In the analysis of a multinational computer company that manufactures and sells hardware and software devices, this report exposes innovation readiness using innovation diagnostic diamonds (IDD). IDD is an important tool that facilitates the analysis of organizations’ innovation readiness and guides in designing new procedures to enhance market competition. IDD analysis tool measures an organization’s innovation readiness using four parameters, namely, market, innovation, strategy, and resource indices.
From the IDD analysis, the computer company had the highest score in innovation, followed by strategy, resources, and market with scores of 9, 8, 7, and 6 respectively. In this perspective, the organization must focus on incorporating the consumers in product development to improve its market competition and growth.
Introduction
The innovation plan describes a structured approach for assessing factors that influence business activities in a given industry and the adoption of strategic steps to increase the success rate of growth initiatives of an organization. Organizations enhance their market performance through the innovation of new feature products, which significantly influence their competitive advantage, increase market share, and facilitate sustained growth (Cimatti & Campana, 2016).
The process involves exploring new opportunities and focusing on the development of high-quality product features. Firms adopt different strategies in enhancing their innovative capabilities. Innovation diagnostic diamond (IDD) is one of the sophisticated tools for research analysis and ideation utilized by corporate managers in developing innovation processes. It focuses mainly on four elements, namely, strategic processes, market segment, innovation, and organization’s resource potential. Assessment of these four factors highlights the dimensions of the innovation process and reveals institutional factors that stipulate the capabilities required to manage innovation across the organization.
Fathali (2016) argues that the innovation strategy of an organization is influenced by resource availability and the adoption of advanced technology in production, which have a positive impact on the overall organizational market share and profitability. Therefore, this report analyses the innovation readiness of a computer company using the IDD framework and provides recommendations on how to improve its innovative performance.
Strategy Index
From the IDD analysis (Appendix B), the diagram indicates the organization’s score of 8 on strategy from the ten-question items. It is therefore apparent that the organization has adopted a successful approach to strategy development through observation of the formal process requirements. The adherence to a formal approach in product development is a critical factor that significantly influences the success of a product in the market (Robbins & O’Gorman, 2016).
Thus, the adoption of formal processes guides the organization’s steps of product development through the implementation of best practices that help understand the target market, opportunities, threats, and regulations essential in successful product commercialization. The organization has a robust business plan that guides its business activities in the industry. The analysis indicates clear and high organization’s attention towards customer analysis, assessment of suppliers’ influence in production, competitor response, government regulations, the presence of alternatives, and development of projected cost requirement for product commercialization processes.
However, the analysis shows that the organization has not focused on sourcing additional technical support in product development from other firms and has significantly failed to assess the threats of alternative technological innovations within the industry. This challenge of strategic planning indicates that the organization has focused its efforts on product differentiation strategy, an approach that is essential in distinguishing organization’s products from competitors’, enhancing customer loyalty, brand recognition, and competitive advantage in the market. The company’s products are non-compatible with other firms’ products thus reducing market competition.
Therefore, based on the high score in the analysis, the company has achieved a high level of innovation readiness in strategic development, an important factor in its success in continued product commercialization processes. In this view, the high score in strategy index indicates that the organization has been successful in its processes of innovative planning and product quality improvements.
Market Index
The company has the lowest score in the market index on the IDD analysis. The cumulative score on market parameters is 6. From the low score, it is evident that the company has a relatively low effort focused on exploring and understanding the industry market. Market analysis is an essential component in identifying and understanding the different factors that affect product consumption.
Rocca, Moscatelli, Perna, and Snehota (2016) hold that involvement of consumers in the product development helps organizations to focus innovation on consumer needs, which is essential in establishing customer-centric value based on business activities. As a result, great input on examining consumer needs is significant in the development of a value-addition and market competitive product. The low score on market index details that the company has less focus on involving the consumers in product development. The specific areas of focus explored in assessing consumer needs include value-addition, product pricing, customer perception, and opportunities for product utility.
Despite the significance of understanding customer needs in the business industry, the company has failed to improve its focus on customer adoption strategies of the new product, clear customer processes of product evaluation, product compatibility with the large market existing systems, and evaluation of customers’ potential to adopt the new product. These factors of customer assessment are significant in enhancing new product market success. In this view, the company has limited its focus on established customers with high loyalty on the product brand and low interest in product penetration to new customers in the market.
Based on the market index and the challenge of low market penetration processes, it is evident that the customers face high switching costs in assessing the value of the new product development while the company experiences low success in new product commercialization. Overall, the average low score of the market index parameter indicates that the company has adopted an inflexible strategic approach, which is ineffective in addressing innovation readiness towards consumer needs.
Innovation Index
Technological innovation is an essential element in service delivery, development of high-quality product features, business growth, and sustainability. From the IDD analysis, the company has the highest score of 9 in the innovation index compared to the other three elements from the ten-question item. This high score indicates that the company has concerted efforts in ensuring product improvement and industry diversification.
According to Atalay, Anafarta, and Sarvan (2013), innovation significantly contributes to the improvement of the company’s overall business performance through continuous enhancement of the production processes. The adoption of advanced technology significantly contributes to the development of products with high-quality features, which consequently lead to the alteration of consumer needs and market orientation. In this view, the high score implies that the company has placed sufficient efforts in the adoption of advanced innovative technology for new product development, which enhances the product and product-line improvement and expansion.
However, the company faces technological challenges of non-compatible product features due to the ineffective customer-centric innovation process. Customer involvement in product development is a flexible element essential in promoting innovation, a significant factor in the development of high-quality products. The flexibility approach promotes product compatibility and improves consumer satisfaction while encouraging stiff industry competition and expansion of market share. Therefore, based on this understanding of the significance of customer involvement, it is apparent that the company has invested insufficient efforts to promote customer involvement in product development, resulting in negative effects on its market position. However, innovation-readiness in the innovation index is high, an element that has influenced its leadership in the industry.
Resource Index
The company’s resource analysis involves the evaluation of assets available for use in the production and accomplishment of goals. In the IDD analysis, the company has an overall score of 7 in the resource index. This score signifies that there are moderate efforts that the company has placed in acquiring the necessary resources required for new product development. High resource investment is essential in encouraging product diversification.
The company has invested in acquiring skilled staff, physical resources, and a strong financial position. Xie, Huang, Peng, and Zhuang (2016) argue that high resource capacity promotes the growth and expansion of an organization by influencing its product research, development potential, and production capacity. Therefore, the score on resource index shows that the company has slightly adequate resources available that significantly enhances product diversification leading to customer satisfaction and a large market share.
However, the company faces challenges of ineffective strategy for sourcing external expert support for product development, inadequate supply of competencies for innovation full commercialization, and insufficient business support programs from the country governing body. The main factor contributing to these challenges experienced by the company is inflexible policies.
Restrictive policies limit the exchange process flexibility of resource sourcing that hinders the development of better performing products to much customer needs. However, an organizational policy amendment is necessary in order to promote access to these services. From the analysis, it is evident that the company has placed focus on ensuring the availability of the relevant product development resources to facilitate the sustenance of its business activities. Thus, the company’s resource index in innovation readiness is moderate indicating significant flexibility on product and market diversification that significantly enhances its business establishment and expansion.
Recommendations
The fundamental concept of improving an organization’s innovative planning relates to the improvement of the four elements of innovation planning.
- In the innovation index, the company should strive to maintain a high score by effectively enhancing the adoption of its advanced technologies.
- In the strategic index, the company should improve its score by adequately assessing the threats of alternative technologies and exploring collaborative product development from complimentary partners.
- In the resource index, the management must adopt policy adjustment to allow external sourcing of competencies, expert assistance, and exploration of government programs in innovation to enhance its resource capacity.
- In the market index, the company should target low-end customers through the adoption of a customer-centric strategy to promote product understanding, acceptance, compatibility, and product evaluation. Additionally, cost leadership is significant in targeting low-end consumers and promoting overall innovation readiness and market expansion.
Conclusion
Innovative planning is an essential process that enhances the company’s’ competitive edge, growth, and expansion. IDD analysis is an important tool for assessing a company’s innovative capacity based on four major indices, namely, market index, innovation index, resource index, and strategy index. From the analysis, the company has the highest score in innovation followed by strategy, resource, and market indices scoring 9, 8, 7, and 6 in that order.
The company has adopted a product segmentation strategy thus scoring the least in the market index. The segmentation strategy implies that the company does not focus on customer-centric production processes that target extensive market share and growth. Therefore, a policy change is necessary to accommodate the end-user in product development to improve its competitive advantage and overall market growth.
References
Atalay, M., Anafarta, N., & Sarvan, F. (2013). The relationship between innovation and firm performance: An empirical evidence from Turkish Automotive supplier industry. Social and Behavioural Sciences, 73(1), 226-235. Web.
Cimatti, B., & Campana, G. (2016). Modern industrial product development and organizational impact. The International Journal of Organizational Innovation, 8(3), 7-382. Web.
Fathali, A. (2016). Examining the impact of competitive strategies on corporate innovation: An empirical study in automobile industry. International Journal of Asian Social Science, 6(2), 135-145. Web.
Robbins, P., & O’Gorman, C. (2016). Innovation process: Do they help or hinder new product development outcomes in Irish SMEs? Irish Journal of Management, 35(1), 88-103. Web.
Rocca, A., Moscatelli, P., Perna, A., & Snehota, I. (2016). Customer involvement in new product development in B2B: The role of sale. Industrial Marketing Management 58(1), 45-57. Web.
Xie, E., Huang, Y., Peng, M., & Zhuang, G. (2016). Resources, aspirations, and emerging multinationals. Journal of Leadership and Organization Studies, 23(2), 144-161. Web.
Appendices
Appendix A: IDD Indices
Table 1: Strategy Index.
|Questions||Yes||No||Unsure|
|a) Do you have a formal, written business plan for your innovation?||√|
|b) Have you fully assess the bargaining power of your customers?||√|
|c) Have you fully assed the bargaining power of your suppliers?||√|
|d) Have you fully assessed the threat of alternative technologies to your innovation?||√|
|e) Have you fully assessed the reaction of competitors to your innovation?||√|
|f) Have you explored potential complimentary partners able to assist you?||√|
|g) Have you considered existing or anticipated government regulations?||√|
|h) Have you secured all necessary compliances and authorizations?||√|
|i) Have you undertaken a risk assessment in light of potential threats?||√|
|j) Have you completed a comprehensive financial model for the innovation?||√|
|Total score||8||1||1|
Table 2: Innovation Index.
|Questions||Yes||No||Unsure|
|a) Do you have a formal process for new product development?||√|
|b) Is the generation of new innovations a major focus of your firm?||√|
|c) Could you fully develop the prototype technically without outside assistance?||√|
|d) Has the innovation been independently tested or evaluated?||√|
|e) Have you consulted an intellectual property lawyer or patent attorney?||√|
|f) Does your innovation have legally protectable patents in-place or pending?||√|
|g) Do you use confidentiality agreements before showing your ideas to others?||√|
|h) Do you have previous experience of commercialization of your innovations?||√|
|i) Do you actively involve customers in developing new innovations||√|
|j) Do you actively involve employees in developing new innovations?||√|
|Total||9||1||0|
Table 3: Resource Index.
|Questions||Yes||No||Unsure|
|a) Do you already have the technological resources to create a prototype?||√|
|b) Do you have the competencies to fully commercialize the innovations?||√|
|c) Do you have an experienced project management team to work on the idea?||√|
|d) Do you know how to find external expert assistance if required?||√|
|e) Are staffing resources adequate for the future development of the idea?||√|
|f) Are physical resources adequate for the future development of the idea?||√|
|g) Are financial resources adequate for the future development of the idea?||√|
|h) Have you explored government assistance programs (e.g COMET, START)?||√|
|i) Have you identified sources of venture capital financing for the innovation?||√|
|j) Do you have a management board to provide guidance and advice?||√|
|Total||7||1||2|
Table 4: Market Index. | https://business-essay.com/computer-companys-innovation-plan/ |
Direct action by an implementing authority (such as a Rural Energy Agency or national utility) to provide or take part in the provision of electricity directly, rather than by funding, incentivizing or facilitating provision by others.
Grid extension is often directly provided, but direct provision may also be used for mini-grids and standalone systems.
Direct provision sits naturally with a public delivery model where all the elements along the supply chain are undertaken by public entities. Where the public sector wishes to take on only some roles along the chain, a public-private partnership may be more appropriate. Direct provision through a purely private model is difficult to envisage.
Direct provision may be on a national concession monopoly basis, with oversight and control being through the organisational hierarchy (though a transparent regulatory system would still be best practice). Where direct provision is applied to only one part of electricity access and or to only some elements of the supply chain, it is important that the regulatory basis is clear so that other market participants can understand it and so that any potential threat to them is reduced.
Private finance is unlikely to be used to fund direct provision, though it will probably be used in the private elements of a public-private partnership arrangement including direct provision (and could be leveraged by the direct provision elements).
Some form of public funding is very likely to be involved in direct provision, though since this may be within the public sector it may be implicit rather than through explicit grants or subsidies. Direct provision may also draw on cross-subsidies and hence on charges on existing users to subsidise provision to new users.
National energy planning will establish the optimum mix of technologies to meet electrification needs across the country, but not how they are best provided. Direct provision will often take place within existing structures, however, Institutional restructuring may be needed to provide a focus for provision – eg by a Rural Energy Agency – and capacity building or technical assistance for this new organisation may be merited. Direct provision may also be accompanied by measures such as demand promotion and technology adoption.
Direct provision will generally use existing institutions, capabilities and systems and where these are strong may bring advantages. By drawing on these strengths it can bring economies of scale (eg through bulk purchasing). However, this will often be accompanied by entrenched ways of working and be inflexible and slow moving. Direct provision also has the potential to bring in other participants (for instance by offering standalone system providers a simple way to distribute their products), but carries the risk of distorting and crowding others out of the energy access provision.
Reorganising and reassigning responsibilities between government departments, agencies, utilities and other organisations charged with managing the sector and delivering electricity access.
In many countries, the national electricity utility has historically been the sole provider of electricity and responsible for all electrification efforts. The motivation for institutional reform is generally some combination of poor performance or inefficiency of existing institutions (often the national utility) and a wish to accelerate extension of electricity access, to introduce new forms of electricity provision, to bring in new (often private) funding and investment or to create greater transparency and accountability.
The experience of structural change to the electricity industry in many countries has highlighted some key lessons. Orthodox approaches to organisations are often unsuitable, and no one industry structure appears to be significantly better than others. A structure compatible with the objectives of electricity distribution in developing countries, and with the local context and planned approach to electrification is needed. Energy sector restructuring has a significant political dimension, but restructuring can still fail even if there is support from government at a high level. It has also been noted that indecision and uncertainty regarding the format of a restructured utility can have serious negative consequences.
advising the relevant Government department(s) on policy issues in rural electrification; and managing any rural electrification programmes implemented with Government support.
Regulator– electricity regulatory agencies display a range of effectiveness depending upon their structure and official remit, and particularly their degree of independence. The presence of an electricity (or energy) regulatory law is a key factor in determining the role of a regulatory agency; with such a law established, the agency can provide independent enforcement but otherwise will be seen as an arm of Government during the preparation of such regulation. Whether or not the regulator is an autonomous agency or the sector ministry will clearly have a direct bearing on its level of independence (practical and/or perceived) and hence its likely impact. The mode of financing the regulatory agency is also an important factor in determining its cost-effectiveness; a regulator that is funded by a licence fee obligation or a line item in customers’ electricity bills clearly has a different status to one that is supported with a budget allocated by Government. It is important however to accept that each institutional structure must take account of specific local conditions and must be viewed within this context.
National electricity utility – over recent years, there have been several examples of national utilities in developing countries adopting a new approach to their operations, mainly through division into different operational units, and/or through privatisation. These reforms have mainly involved the unbundling of vertically integrated government utilities into three separate segments for generation, transmission and distribution. The main drivers for such change have been to improve quality of service, improve connectivity, improve reliability, reduce losses, attract private capital investment into the sector, and so enhance overall sector efficiency. When considering the privatisation of one or more of the resulting units, it is important for the government to assess in advance the likely impact, and to determine the most relevant options for tariffs. Some of the key objectives for such reform will include making the sector financially viable and able to perform without subsidies; increasing efficiency; improving commercial performance; meeting the increasing demand for electricity and the broader area coverage; improving the reliability and quality of electricity supply; attracting private sector capital and entrepreneurs and taking advantage of export opportunities.
Institutional reform will have an impact on all approaches to electrification and the associated technology categories. For grid extension, existing institutions have extensive experience of practices that may no longer be most appropriate for electrification in more areas. New practices may be required to increase levels of efficiency in order to make further grid extension a viable option, new expertise and knowledge may be needed to support adoption of new forms of electricity provision, and cultural change may be needed to achieve increased focus on supplying new users alongside serving existing customers. Mini-grids, whether isolated or integrated with the grid, require different support structures to be effective, reliable and commercially viable. Stand-alone systems again offer a different approach to the aims of electrification, with the satisfaction of basic needs being the principle driver, rather than a full power service. This too requires a different institutional perspective, skills and understanding that can only be delivered through the reform of existing support structures.
The institutions originally established to deal with power generation and supply were almost exclusively public sector, centred upon the national electricity utility. With the increasing cost of reaching more remote areas, the need for upfront investment has become a serious constraint to network expansion. Rural electrification also raises new challenges regarding the need for more intensive community interaction and closer management of the local operations. Consequently, the resources that can more readily be offered by the private sector – including the scale of investment and commercial management in order to make sufficient returns – are increasingly required. There is a growing need for private models and public-private-partnerships, which face the barrier of public institutions that have experience of a single method of providing access to electricity. The reform of these institutions, taking account of private sector interests, can thereby create opportunities for partnerships that will bring mutual benefits to all involved.
Establishment of either or concessions or licenses for electricity provider implies a wish to bring in private or public-private electricity provision. Setting up these arrangements will require competent institutions with responsibility for managing them, and institutional restructuring is a likely response to this need and a first step in establishing new legal arrangements for electricity provision.
government and those with vested interests in the sector will carry greatest credibility with potential new electricity providers and investors. Subsequent changes and adjustments to regulatory frameworks will be the responsibility of the regulator.
An institutional structure convincing to private sector businesses and investors is key to attracting private finance. It is also through this institutional structure that the interests of users are protected and the portion of funding provided by users set. The institutional structure also governs how any grant/subsidy, cross-subsidy, tax exemptions and guarantee arrangements are set up and implemented.
The institutions charged with managing the sector and delivering electricity access will also be responsible for designing and managing non-financial interventions. One key element of institutional change will be to match the capabilities of staff to new requirements. Training to familiarise staff with new approaches, and to transfer the new skills required to provide the associated support will be an important requirement for any lasting reform process (and, if fulfilled adequately, will also incur a significant cost due to the large size of the institutions involved and the broad range of their activities – this should be budgeted in advance to set clear expectations). A first step in this process will be to educate staff regarding the need for reform, to convince them of the benefits, and so secure ownership and commitment to the change process. In the case that existing staff are unable or unwilling to adapt their approach, or when new skills are required to support modern demands, then the recruitment of new staff should be considered to establish the target capacity). Having raised the awareness and understanding of staff, they will become more receptive to the transfer of skills, equipping the institution with sufficient capacity to move forward, with minimum disruption.
The main benefit from institutional reform is to improve the operation and therefore the efficiency of current organisations involved with the expansion of electrification and to align them with new models and approaches to electrification. The electricity industry has usually been centered upon a national power utility, whose focus has been exclusively on grid-extension. With the increasing cost of electrification to remote areas, alternatives to the central grid have become more relevant, but the utility is often not structured in a way that can consider and react to these alternatives. The reform of the utility, and related state structures, can increase the ability of the sector to consider and react more positively to new electrification approaches.
An immediate disadvantage from such reform is the impact of change. Such change is often disruptive and will initially require additional resources to introduce unfamiliar systems and there may be significant costs associated with new infrastructure and systems. There will also be the need to support capacity building for operators who have been involved with previous systems, and possibly the introduction of new staff to enable sustainable reform processes. Given these costs it is important to be sure that institutional restructuring is necessary and not just a distraction from the real challenges of extending electrification. However it is usually a one-off, upfront cost to put changes into effect; this can then be compensated over time from the improved efficiencies and more cost-effective output.
Reform of laws and regulations governing the generation, distribution and sale of electricity, and of related processes and procedures.
Because electricity is such an essential service, most countries have some regulation of who may provide and sell electricity, and on what terms, to protect both providers and users. Often these have in the past been based on the assumption that electricity will be provided through a national gridsystem. As new options for electricity provision emerge, regulatory reform may be needed to enable their implementation, to create incentives for private and public sector power utilities to provide electricity, both through the extension of electricity networks and decentralized power provision, and to protect users.
Regulation of the grid system is generally well established. Reform may be required in order to allow for privatisation and introduction of private finance, creation of grid connected distribution systems or introduction of grid connected mini-grids or Independent Power Plants. Regulatory reform may also be needed to allow and incentivize isolated mini-grids. Standalone systems have in the past generally been unregulated, but as these become a more significant element in electricity provision, reform may be undertaken to bring them under regulatory control and to create incentives for their supply. In particular it may be necessary in order to allow pay-as-you-go arrangements to be established.
Within a public delivery model, regulatory reform will generally be a matter of improving efficiency and transparency. Reform is likely, however, be fundamental to allowing private and public-private partnership models for electricity delivery. The regulatory structure which is the outcome of this reform will form the basis of the development of these models and how they deliver electricity access.
The current regulatory framework must be the stating point for any reform. In many cases this will be a monopoly (nation-wide concession) for the national utility. The fundamental requirement to allow private sector participation is to make it legal. This may achieved simply by change in the law allowing all to generate and sell electricity, but authorities generally wish to maintain some level of oversight, over larger mini-grids at least, and so require their operators to be licensed. Alternatively, concession areas may be established, creating local monopolies for which electricity businesses can compete, with the terms of the concession agreement setting out the concessionaires rights and obligations. Standalone system providers are not usually covered by any utility monopoly (since it is the means of accessing electricity rather than electricity itself which they are selling), but as they become a more significant element in electricity provision, and particularly to allow pay-as-you-go arrangements, their regulation may be appropriate. Regulatory reform will be required to introduce such regulatory approaches, or to transition between one approach and another according to experience under local conditions.
Regulatory reform is also central to establishing regulation of prices and tariffs. Appropriate price/tariff regulation is important to to protect users and incentivize suppliers. To see further information on different forms of price/tariff regulation, please go to the Uniform Price/Tariff and Individual Price/Tariff category descriptions.
The most usual motives for regulatory reform are to allow and encourage private, commercial, investment in electricity provision and to protect users and limit the requirement for user financethrough price/tariff regulation. Reform to financial and tax regulation may also be needed to allow pay-as-you-go arrangements and to establish any tax exemptions. While grants, subsidies and guarantees are less directly linked to regulatory reform, it is important that they be aligned with the regulatory framework established.
restructuring is needed to manage the regulatory framework being established. Both the regulatory framework and the institutional structure should be aligned with government policy and targets. Capacity building or technical assistance may be needed where the key actors involved do not have the expertise needed to design the regulatory framework.
Regulatory reform is an essential pre-requisite to many National Electrification Approaches. Its main disadvantages are the costs and resources used in reform, and the risk that the regulatory system designed may not, in practice, support the intended objectives and that over-regulation may hamper rather than assist improvements in electricity access.
Establishment of Government policy for the expansion of electrification and definition of targets for achievement of electricity access provision over a defined timeframe.
There is widespread experience across the world of the positive impact of relevant targets within a broader policy for access to electricity. Existence of a clear policy and targets provides a foundation for implementation, offering installers and financiers clear guidance on the government’s commitment to electrification and regarding the types of electricity provision required; this brings certainty to the market and hence encourages sustainable investment in this area. While policy sets out the overall direction of the national approach to electrification, targets provide clear and quantified objectives. Targets may be set in terms of capacity/volume of electricity supplied or of numbers of household, businesses and community facilities provided with electricity access and levels of electricity access provided. They may be blind to the means used for provision or relate to specific technologies or to renewable versus fossil-fuelled electricity. Any targets should include clear timescales to allow progress to be monitored.
Establishing targets in law is an important step in increasing their credibility and longevity. While most targets currently adopted around the world lack clear enforcement mechanisms or penalties, a number of countries are setting legally-binding targets. Making targets binding in law helps reassure investors in the expansion of electrification that a local market will continue to exist in the future. Furthermore, legally binding targets are harder to repeal and therefore may be less vulnerable to changes in the political climate. Overall, the track record for jurisdictions with aspirational targets is varied. In contrast, the track record for jurisdictions with binding targets is considerably stronger.
In the past targets have been set mainly in terms of generating capacity (MW), output (MWh) and numbers of (grid) connections. This approach is becoming increasingly outdated in a changing electricity landscape as it ignores off-grid forms of access and focusses on supply rather than the applications supported by electricity, with the ongoing development of low-energy appliances. Instead, it is suggested that, in line with the SE4All Multi-Tier Tracking Framework, targets should be formulated in terms of numbers gaining electricity access and levels of access achieved.
Governments increasingly recognise the benefits of adopting a portfolio approach to any renewable energy deployment, including the use of local renewable resources for electrification. Targets that are exclusive to selected technologies can be introduced to support their specific deployment, in particular when they are most suitable in terms of resource availability (e.g. solar electricity generation targets in Dubai). Such targets can also give investors confidence and catalyse development of the market for these selected technologies. In addition, technology-specific targets can support the diversification of the energy mix to increase energy security. As a result, technology-specific targets have significantly increased in recent years. By encouraging the simultaneous development of a range of different electrification options, policy makers are enabling more diversified electricity supply sectors to emerge and to grow.
Under a public delivery model, government policy and targets effectively act as instructions to those managing electricity provision. Under private or public-private partnerships targets may be made obligatory through concession and licensing arrangements, but care should be taken in establishing onerous business-specific obligatory targets since these may discourage investment, even while the government commitment to electrification embodied in policy and targets can encourage it.
Any targets established by Government authorities should be in line with other regulatory measures. Any provisions made to grant licences or concessions, or any framework in place for electrification through a monopoly provider, must be accounted for in order for electrification targets to be realistic within the constraints of agreements already reached. Licence holders and concessionaires often have clear limits specified for the number of increased connections that they are able to deliver. Any policy or targets must be aligned with such agreements, and include clear justification (including the source of any additional installation capacity) if targets are set above the limits already in place for suppliers engaged through existing regulation.
One of the main purposes for setting targets is to direct financial resources. At the same time, one of the factors to take into account when setting targets is the availability of finance – from the public purse, from users’ willingness-to-pay and from private investment. In order to have sufficient confidence for investment in any market, financiers will usually require some clear policy commitment. The definition of targets related to such electrification policy has great value since such quantification provides a much clearer definition of the size of the market and thereby the potential returns for investors. This level of clarity, with policy commitments backed up by target levels of electricity access, means greater certainty and therefore increased willingness to invest.
Any policy that includes a framework for expansion of electrification by specific means (whether grid, mini-grid or stand-alone systems) will provide a foundation for the increased involvement of installers and financiers. Potential end-users will also become aware of such commitments and policy and targets will thereby increase awareness of the opportunity for electrification. Targets and policy for greater access to electricity thus feed directly into provision of market information for businesses, awareness raising and demand promotion. Government policy also forms the starting point for any direct electricity provision and for institutional restructuring and regulatory reform through which the policy will be delivered. Technical assistance may be needed to support policy and target setting.
Targets can have a number of positive functions at different stages of the policy-making process (i.e. formulation, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation). They serve an important guiding and knowledge function at the policy formulation stage, where they can bring consistency across different policy spheres and reveal data requirements and discrepancies. They can also enhance the transparency of the policy-making process by providing a common information base to all stakeholders, thereby fostering public support. At the policy implementation stage, targets signal political commitment, indicate long-term investment and innovation trends, improve coordination and motivate stakeholders to take action. At the monitoring and evaluation stage, targets can help measure the effectiveness of various policies and measures, and provide an opportunity for review, adaptation and continuous improvement. One potential disadvantage is the cost in terms of staff time from the institution responsible for policy and target setting. This relates initially to determining an effective target level, which requires research into the costs and benefits of expanded electricity supplies as well as clear understanding of the local issues that will determine user demand, ownership and likely take-up. But also, having established the desired level for target-setting, the type of approach (from voluntary commitments to legal obligations) must be determined according to relevant policy frameworks. This may require further policy preparation or adaption and hence additional institutional resources. Finally, the enforcement of any targets will add to the capacity needs and may require the definition of a new function within an existing authority, or the establishment of a new body to perform this role. Whichever approach is adopted, there is a substantial capacity requirement.
Rules or guidelines for suppliers and installers (of products and services related to electrification) that ensure safety, compatibility and that performance meets user expectations. Technical standards apply to the performance of equipment installed, while quality standards also relate to the overall customer service experience.
A common cause of the failure of rural electrification initiatives is sub-standard quality, whether of system components, project design or the management of installation. The rapid influx of low cost, sub-standard components is a major problem in many markets in developing countries, where lower quality rural electrification projects lead to a wide range of related concerns. These may include reduced system output, less reliable operation, greater need for maintenance and replacement parts, higher life-time system costs (which require higher prices or tariffs), and lower overall customer satisfaction. Without such standards user confidence may be eroded, with users being reluctant to purchase products or services when they are unsure of what performance they will provide.
Wherever possible technical standards should be based on international standards. It may seem attractive to set nationally-specific standards, but these will discourage private providers from entering the market and increase costs of equipment. The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) maintains and publishes guidelines for the development of national standards. In the future, these are expected to cover issues including system commissioning, maintenance and disposal, measurement of technical performance, new technology storage systems, and applications with special site conditions. For solar products, Lighting Africa provides the generally accepted standards and approves products. Government regulators in developing countries are increasingly aware of the need for such guidance, and are adopting international standards for a growing range of products for electrification.
Interaction with the likely users of standards during their preparation is important to gauge the real requirements and to judge the potential for practical implementation. If quality/technical standards are set at an unattainable level using the resources currently available, then suppliers are likely to group together to form a “black market” of sub-standard systems, protecting each other from any external investigation. For this reason, the standards authorities must understand the realistic customer expectations under local conditions and gear any standards preparation to ensuring that such levels are met or exceeded. Consultation with the range of stakeholders involved with the supply of the relevant systems – including producers, installers, service providers, and end-users – should be undertaken in the early stages of standards development to ensure that the local context is fully-accounted for.
The greatest challenge for the relevant authorities is not the preparation or even the adoption of standards by the related industry, but rather their enforcement. In broad terms, there are three main approaches to the enforcement of standards for electrification expansion, namely 1) permitting and certifying, 2) targeted inspections, and 3) sanctions and penalties. A combination of these approaches, based upon the local systems, culture and experience, will usually be required to ensure compliance.
For all forms of electricity, the first requirement is safety. For grid systems, and for any grid-connected distribution systems or mini-grids, this is followed closely by technical compatibility – a grid system can only operate if all parts of it are compatible with each other. Most grid systems are designed to give a high level of performance, but sadly many in developing countries are unreliable and provide poor quality electricity, with variations in voltage and frequency leading to damage to users’ equipment. Key questions for isolated mini-grids are whether they aim to provide a grid-equivalent electricity supply, or a lower level of service (eg to power lighting and a small number of low-powered appliances per user), and whether they should be technically compatible with the grid system (facilitating subsequent grid-connection). For standalone systems, standards relate to the level of electricity provided and also, particularly for solar-based systems, to duration (hours/day) and life (especially battery life).
by national regulators and stipulated clearly upfront).
Within a public delivery model, particularly where there is a single national utility, standards may be set relatively informally and be treated as internal documents. One of the challenges of bringing in other, private and public-private providers is the need to formalise and make widely available these standards.
Technical and Quality Standards may be imposed and enforced through the conditions set for concessions and licenses. Making standards part of regulation is the strictest imposition. In an unregulated context, general legislation must be used, or voluntary standards established through industry associations may be more appropriate. The cost implications of standards should be recognised when prices or tariffs are being set – and price/tariff regulation can be one mechanism for enforcement of standards, with discounts being required if agreed quality standards are nor achieved.
Standards have direct impact on costs, for instance allowing low-cost distribution systems or service drops can reduce the cost of grid extension and mini-grids, and this should be borne in mind when they are being set. At the same time standards can make users more willing to pay charges as they have greater confidence in receiving what they are paying for, and this in turn will strengthen private investors willingness to provide finance. If donor or government funds are involved (eg as grants, subsidies or tax exemptions), then quality standards can be made a condition for the disbursement of funds.
Regulatory reform can provide a practical mechanism for introducing appropriate quality/technical standards. Institutional reform and capacity building (including setting up test facilities and training standards officers) may well be needed to support establishment and enforcement of new standards and well-targeted technical assistance which draws on experience and lessons learned elsewhere may help with this process. Raising users’ awareness of standards is a further critical step in ensuring that standards are applied in practice and don’t just exist on paper. The use of appropriate new technology for remote electrification applications will be dependent upon technical standards. On the one hand out-dated or inappropriate standards may exclude adoption of new technologies which could provide electricity at lower cost. On the other, a lack of relevant standards may mean that market forces drive the implementation of the lowest cost versions of available technologies which, almost invariably, will be of lower quality than required to meet customer needs.
The great benefit of introducing quality/technical standards for electrification expansion is to ensure safety and that users receive services and systems that provide electricity at the expected level, consistency and duration. While capital costs may be higher, maintenance and replacement costs should be reduced. It will also enhance user confidence in the remote electrification services provided, and hence increase demand and so support investment and creation of a market that will become sustainable over a shorter space of time. The reduced rate of disposal of redundant systems also brings environmental benefits from a lower negative impact of waste goods and materials.
The counter-argument is that standards serve to exclude lower-cost products and that users should be given the choice – but this relies on a high level of user awareness and understanding of technical issues, and ability to value quality differences, which can only be expected in a mature and sophisticated market. On a more practical level, it is the cost and expertise needed to establish standards and the resources and expenditure to enforce them which pose the most significant barrier to their adoption and effective implementation.
Advice and practical support on any aspect of electrification provided by external experts.
Technical assistance spans all aspects of electricity access provision, and may be used to support policy makers and regulators; those designing and implementing intervention programmes; and electricity access providers. The forms of technical assistance in greatest demand are usually advice on regulation and procurement of electricity provision, technical and engineering support; business and financial advice; legal and compliance advice; and market scoping, development and community engagement. Developers have indicated that such assistance can have great value by helping them to take projects through their development life cycle to reach financial closure.
Advisory services – these may come in the form of written instructions/guidance or direct intervention during practical application on the ground. Based upon the extensive experience of electrification elsewhere, experts in this field are in a good position to provide advice to project developers and implementers, government and financiers. The aim is to provide these local stakeholders with the results from experience – to ensure that they do not take routes that have been tried and failed elsewhere. Such support may be at a strategic level to determine the most relevant areas of priority in the target country, and/or at the practical level to ensure that experience from elsewhere is taken into full account, and positive results can be achieved more directly.
Target recipients – the target group for technical assistance often consists of project developers who are aiming to establish new electricity businesses. However, support is also required by other stakeholders who may otherwise be unfamiliar with the needs of electrification in remote areas. Such bodies include financiers (public and private), government, regulators and product/service providers who need to adapt to the local conditions, priorities and drivers in rural communities.
Community engagement – despite all of the knowledge and experience that can be provided through technical assistance, much of this will add little value if local conditions and context are not taken into account. Although much may be written about the situation in towns and villages in developing countries, one message is the most important, namely: everywhere is different. So the solution or approach that was successfully adopted elsewhere for the provision of electricity may not – or rather, probably will not – lead to the same results in a different community. For this reason, the practical technical assistance needs should be discussed with community members and leaders prior to specifying the format of such assistance. Only then can interventions with the highest value be determined.
Institutional restructuring – implies that current institutions and their responsibilities are not well aligned with the latest challenges of electricity provision, and therefore that technical assistance may be particularly beneficial.
Regulatory Reform – electrification has been predominantly based upon the central grid structures that are driven by the national electricity utility. Regulations have consequently been prepared to cater for this framework. Elsewhere in the world, this model has been replaced with a greater focus on decentralised solutions that can be more cost-effective, particularly when connecting remote areas. Using the experience gained from elsewhere, technical assistance can help to reform current regulations, enabling them to address a combination of remote grid-extension, mini-grids and stand-alone systems, thereby allowing more rapid progress to the use of modern technology options.
Policy/Target-Setting – the preparation of policy and defining relevant targets are important developments that will guide the nature of electrification expansion, determine the rate of appropriate new connections, and ultimately determine the success of related efforts. Such processes have been implemented for many years in countries and so there are many sources of international skills and experience that will assist countries to prepare effective policy and define relevant targets. The provision of technical assistance can achieve the transfer of this knowledge and so help achieve positive outcomes sooner.
Quality/Technical Standards – technical assistance can help to transfer the skills and experience from countries that have developed effective technology and service standards, bring to developing countries the approaches required to ensure the application of appropriate systems and technologies for electrification. Without such standards, suppliers are likely to install low-cost and inefficient systems, thereby undermining the creation of any sustainable market. Technical assistance can help countries to invest in the preparation of standards that will provide a solid foundation for the expansion of cost-effective power supply.
Capacity Building/Awareness-Raising – technical assistance differs from capacity building and awareness raising in that technical assistance involves directly undertaking activities on behalf of those being supported, whereas capacity building’s aim is to build the skills and understanding of stakeholders to enable them to undertake activities on their own behalf. There is clearly a high degree of commonality between the two approaches and they are often undertaken in concert.
Technology Development/Adoption – technologies that can meet the needs of local users, based on the supply of local resources, are needed to enable affordable access to electricity in remote areas. There is great experience of technology development internationally, and technical assistance to transfer appropriate technology can provide swift progress towards the best available systems for the needs of targeted communities. The efficient identification, development and implementation of appropriate electrification technologies is likely to be achieved much more quickly if relevant technical assistance can be provided.
The great benefit of carefully targeted technical assistance is that actors in the target countries are empowered to deliver and maintain electrification initiatives without having to experience the trial and error that is usually associated with any new venture. Such assistance can transfer the skills and experience from operators who have many years of experience with electrification programmes and can therefore help to direct the local players to achieve the most cost-effective results. Duplication of irrelevant or unsuccessful initiatives can be avoided, thereby reducing the costs to project implementers and increasing the likelihood of achieving successful results.
One potential disadvantage of (poor) technical assistance is that it could lead to adoption of standard solutions without adequate consideration of the specific context and circumstances . Another is that, unlike capacity building, technical assistance does not leave a legacy of expertise, so unless accompanied by capacity building is most suitable for one-off activities which are unlikely to be repeated. Finally there is the potential for technical assistance to be misdirected. Care must therefore be taken with the selection of experts to provide technical assistance in order to avoid recommendations to uninformed local stakeholders that will simply not achieve the required electrification results in an effective or efficient manner. Any such external experts must therefore be required to identify and engage with the key local stakeholders in order to understand the current situation, the interests and expectations of the target local community(ies), and the values that they associate with different types of service. Only once the desired outcomes are clearly understood can any technical assistance provide substantive and value with lasting results.
Capacity building refers to increasing the knowledge, skills and understanding of stakeholders involved in electrification, often through training. Awareness raising, as part of capacity building, refers to educating stakeholders about opportunities, benefits and issues related to increased electrification.
Extending electricity provision in any developing country will involve a wide range of actors, including power generators and distributors, standalone system providers, policy-makers, regulators, installers, financiers and users. All of these groups require sufficient capacity in terms of skills and understanding to enable the process of electrification to be fulfilled successfully. Building this capacity is therefore a key requirement. A donor-funded project can bring the immediate benefits of electricity to a remote community, but without the training to equip local people with the capability to operate, service, and maintain the systems installed, the initially positive results from such an intervention will be short-lived. This is equally true for the processes and systems around electricity provision – without sufficient knowledge of the options policy makers are unlikely to be able to design effective regulatory structures and intervention programmes; without technical and business skills electricity providers will not deliver quality, cost-effective, sustainable electricity access; without awareness of electricity options and their uses and limitations, users will not be able to effectively secure its benefits, and will not create the political will to drive electrification. Training and awareness raising are therefore key to lasting positive impact.
by the user). The limited experience of successful electrification expansion in many developing countries means that input from international sources, appropriately modified to account for the national context, can have great value in raising the awareness of stakeholders, learning the lessons from elsewhere, avoiding mistakes and thereby facilitating a cost-effective electrification process.
Training – the most common route for transferring skills to build capacity of relevant stakeholders is through engagement with experts who can explain and demonstrate the details of the actions required. Such training is often undertaken with groups of individuals who have similar roles, perspectives and needs. This allows one trainer to reach several recipients, but also enables interaction between participants, which can raise new perspectives and issues to resolve. To be effective, such training must have a clear goal with measurable outputs so that the participants can assess their comprehension of the issues and their ability to implement the new skills. With respect to electrification expansion, the requirements of the target groups must be clearly determined in advance and the relevant training components and structure designed accordingly.
Practical application – capacity building is unlikely to be successful if new principles and processes are learned about through knowledge transfer and classroom instruction alone. Whilst this can lead to greater understanding of the issues in the short-term, such information is unlikely to be retained without application in a work context. There is need for the recipients to use their newly acquired skills under the observation of experts/instructors, to gauge their effectiveness and to adjust their approach as necessary. Any efforts to increase the capabilities of key actors for electrification expansion should therefore anticipate a sufficient timeframe to ensure that such skills are fully integrated into the outlooks and performance of stakeholders concerned.
Since capacity building can be applied in all areas of activity related to national electrification activities, each of the other NEA categories can be impacted to some degree. However, there are some categories where capacity building may have a significant effect, such as those indicated below.
one of the most frequently identified constraints on mini-grid and standalone system businesses is the lack of staff with the technical skills to install, operate and maintain the equipment. As these businesses start up and enter new markets it is impractical for them to train the staff they need themselves, and a government-led programme of training in coordination with industry associations, academic and technical institutions can give a significant boost to off-grid elements of electrification.
Where there is a move from a purely public to private or public-private models, it will be necessary to grow the rather different skills needed in this context. For public-private partnerships in particular, there is often initially a significant difference in perspectives, interests and desired outcomes. For this reason, it is important to build capacity and understanding on both sides of the different views and approaches in order to establish reach agreement on the best approach to increased electrification.
For a regulatory structure to work smoothly, both the regulators implementing it and the electricity providers governed by it must understand it well. It is therefore important when developing a regulatory structure to ensure that staff a trained in both the principles underlying it and its practical application, and that information on it is made readily available to electricity providers.
of business skills training focussed on electricity can be a major benefit to electrification efforts. The appropriate structuring of prices or tariffs is a particular issue that requires a clear understanding of the issues, experiences and results elsewhere, and the preferences of the local stakeholders. Building capacity to understand how prices or tariffs can be structured to cross-subsidise electrification while balancing the needs and interests of different users is critical to establishing a financially viable electrification programme. Local financiers also often lack awareness of the electricity sector and the opportunity it offers them, making them reluctant to lend to both electricity businesses and users, and to place a high price on lending into an area where they feel uncertain of the risks. Capacity building and awareness raising in the financial sector can do much to lower this barrier.
Institutional Restructuring – to accommodate the increasing move from centralised grid extension to decentralised electricity connections, institutions dealing with electricity supply, transmission and distribution have been reformed over several years. This experience, including the lessons learned and subsequent measures taken, will be relevant to developing countries that are currently undergoing a similar transition. This aspect of capacity building will be important to build the capabilities amongst officials that will take responsibility for such restructuring measures.
Regulatory Reform – in the same way that institutions must adapt to the new environment for electrification, existing regulations must also be reformed. Regulators are likely to have experience of the conditions necessary for centralised grid expansion, but will be much less familiar with the regulations that are most appropriate for e.g. mini-grids and stand-alone systems in remote areas. Building the capacity of regulators, and the associated government officials in this respect will be essential for effective development of this market.
Quality/Technical Standards – although the standards set in any country for power supply must reflect the national perspective, there is extensive international experience with the application of standards. National and international standards bodies have been established to address this issue. Raising awareness of such international experience, and transferring skills and understanding regarding the factors to take into account when setting quality/technical standards for electrification, can have great value.
Technical Assistance – technical assistance differs from capacity building and awareness raising in that technical assistance involves directly undertaking activities on behalf of those being supported, whereas capacity building’s aim is to build the skills and understanding of stakeholders to enable them to undertake activities on their own behalf. There is clearly a high degree of commonality between the two approaches and they are often undertaken in concert. Awareness-raising, training and associated measures will often be resisted due to a lack of local resources. International development institutions or national governments can address this constraint by including provision for appropriate capacity building within technical assistance programmes.
The advantages of well-targeted capacity building, including raised awareness, is that previously-constrained operators in the electrification sector can be equipped with new skills that enhance their performance and so achieve more successful results. If executed efficiently, any training processes can ensure that recipients are aware of the most recent experience and approaches regarding electrification, and have the capability to apply these measures in their own local context. This will usually lead to increased efficiency of operations in terms of cost-effectiveness, greater impact, reduced timeframes and successful outcomes. A lack of such capacity can limit the potential benefits from intended access to electricity in remote areas.
The only disadvantage related to capacity building is the cost and the time required to complete the relevant transfer of skills and experience. Often this will rely on international sources of expertise, which will be associated with significant charges for the transport of relevant experts to recipient countries, and for their time involved with the instruction of target recipients. Other negative impacts can result from the selection of inappropriate trainers to deliver relevant courses – a mismatch between the skills/experience of the trainer and the needs/expectations of the participants can lead to little value from such interaction. Trainers must also be made clearly aware in advance of the local conditions, customs and approaches in order to make any international capacity-building process worthwhile.
Making available information useful to a business that is considering entering an electricity market.
This may include information on government policies and targets, the regulatory framework, institutional stakeholders, energy resources available for electricity production, demand and willingness to pay for electricity access, current levels of access (including extent of the grid system and plans for its extension) and electricity providers already active in the market. With this information an electricity provider can judge the prospects of building a sustainable, profitable business. Making the information openly available will lower the transaction costs of market entry for new electricity businesses, since it removes the need for each to go through the process of gathering the information for themselves, and thus make the market more attractive.
Breadth of Information – the energy source and the physical potential for electricity generation are rarely the deciding factors in investment decisions aimed at new connections. Instead, the most relevant considerations for practitioners are national policies, regulations and market size. Most practitioners consider a combination of physical and non-physical factors, but give more weight to policy and regulatory factors and to the ability to develop local marketing networks. This is due to the higher perceived project risk from factors such as access to target communities (is grid extension or decentralised generation most cost-effective?) than from, for example, the levelised cost of solar radiation. Therefore, an opportunity assessment focused only on the availability of energy resources will not meet the needs of potential operators. This must include consideration of broader market issues to be of any value.
Format of market information– the level of detail (granularity) of the information provided is important, since if this is inadequate it will be of little use. It is also vital that information is made available in one place (eg a single on-line portal), and that it is consistent and can be linked together - so that, for instance, the proximity of generating resources and demand centres can be determined. It has also been found that raw data is much more useful to potential project implementers than is processed data. Developers often see only marginal benefits in outputs from processed data (such as maps of target locations) since they have concern over the assumptions and specifications used in creating such outputs. These criteria are unlikely to be fully-aligned with a developer’s findings from a specific location. Consequently, practitioners generally prefer using their own assumptions, value choices, and scenarios within any opportunity assessment – only then can they fully trust the outputs of any model that makes use of the data. Market information should therefore focus on the provision of basic details that reflect the conditions, rather than including any estimates based on this data.
Currency– regular updating of market information is critical to its continued relevance, particularly for the entry of potential private sector operators into a new market. Details of policies and regulations may need to be updated even more regularly than physical factors, since there is an expectation of regular changes in the priorities and targets of government and related institutions. To provide such market information will require a dedicated organisation or a dedicated platform hosted by a relevant organisation that provides links to the most up-to-date sources. This should enable the close monitoring of relevant physical and non-physical factors, including policies and regulations that can become quickly outdated quickly. Maintaining up-to-date information sources will be crucial to stimulate stakeholder uptakes of any market details made available.
The information needed will depend on the form of technology. In making information available, the focus should therefore be on those technologies expected to play a significant part in national electrification. Information on the current and planned extent of the grid system (and the intended timing of extension) will be particularly important for other electricity providers.
Provision of market information is most valuable for private delivery models, and may be relevant in a public-private context.
Under a concession arrangement, relevant information may be provided through a concession bidding process, and open access information is therefore most likely to be valuable in a licensed or unregulated market context. Information on the regulatory system is an important element of market information provision.
For the private sector to consider any form of investment in electrification, they will need to have access to market information that provides a sufficiently confident assessment of the potential for returns on investment in this market. This includes the potential demand for electricity from newly-connected users, any constraints to operations (such as policy obligations for suppliers, regulations, limited access to energy resources) and any financial charges – or other related costs - that will be applied to electricity supply services. The development of a business plan, which will provide the foundation for any private sector involvement in the electrification market of a country, will only be possible if the private operator has sufficient access to market information – the capacity to generate such information is therefore critical to the cost-effective expansion of electrification.
Regulatory reform – reform of regulations (or the introduction of new, additional laws that require compliance and potentially cause increased costs to any suppliers) must be carefully monitored by any business that is already providing electricity services, or is planning to do so. The availability of relevant market information regarding the status of current regulation and any reforms that are planned or are likely during the term of any envisaged business investment, is a critical factor for any potential investor in the expansion of electricity supply.
Quality/Technical Standards – the existing or planned standards that apply to a market will determine the ultimate cost of the products and/or services supplied. New standards are increasingly under consideration to improve the reliability of systems involved with electricity connections. This will have a direct bearing on the costs to suppliers, who will be obliged to increase the quality of their products, and potentially source components from greater distances. Such increased cost of supply is likely to impact the level of returns that a business can expect from the market for new electricity connections, and thereby cast doubts over the commercial viability. Clear details of any enforced standards related to electrification in the country concerned are therefore needed by suppliers – both before and during their operations on the ground. This market information will provide a valuable input for such businesses and help to determine the prospects for increased investment.
National Energy Planning – There is considerable overlap between the information needed for national energy planning and that required by potential electricity providers. The plan itself may provide on source of market information, but as discussed above the raw data behind it will be more useful to prospective electricity providers, and this information will need to be updated to maintain its accuracy and relevance.
The great advantage of having reliable market information is that any business can plan accurately, responding directly to user needs and providing a return on investment that will be sufficient to secure continued, and ideally expanded, operations. For increased electrification into rural areas, such information is an essential part of attracting suppliers and financiers. Without sufficient details of the target market, the uncertainties involved in such intervention are simply too great, leading to a risk profile that is untenable for any potential investors. The advantage of providing this information centrally is that it avoids the costs to businesses considering entering the market of each gathering it separately – a cost which may well be so great that it prevents businesses from entering the market at all.
The main disadvantage is the costs and resources needed to collate the information and maintain it. If information is not sufficiently accurate, detailed and reliable to meet businesses’ needs, it will be of no use to them and this expenditure will have been wasted. There is also the danger than details available for one location may be inappropriately extrapolated to other user-groups, thereby providing a misleading impression of the business constraints and potential. Market information may also be skewed by the perspective and/or interpretation of the information provider, or the information may be incomplete, lacking essential details that will be critical for accurate business development decisions. Therefore, any market information related to electrification demand in remote areas must to be viewed within the context that it is prepared and supplied.
Promotional and support measures implemented to encourage the demand-side opportunities that are enabled by electricity access, and so stimulate increased power consumption.
Demand-side costs of electrification – after grid extension, or the installation of a decentralised mini-grid, or the purchase of a stand-alone system, the end-user is still faced with the need to make a final connection from the source of power to the point of use. This will mean that the user must make arrangements for wiring and sometimes the installation of controls or switches within the dwelling or business concerned. The user will also need to know about the range of relevant electrical appliances that are available, and particularly the power demand associated with each of them. These demand-side issues all have cost implications that may present a barrier to electricity access. Government funding and/or private sector financing mechanisms should therefore be considered to facilitate this final connection process and purchase of appliances and hence support the required increase in electricity demand.
Beyond increased awareness – there is certainly a need to inform the user of a range of issues that relate to new electricity access. This includes education related to the safe and cost-effective use of electricity for personal lifestyle improvements, the costs involved for supply and maintenance, and the opportunities presented by access to electricity. But the demand promotion goes beyond simply raising user awareness. Building upon an increased understanding of electricity supply as a foundation, the user must be given support to maximise the advantages associated with electricity access. This involves providing the resources necessary to grow the market for activities based upon electricity use, with lasting benefit for the communities involved.
Opportunities for productive use – in addition to the personal benefits associated with e.g. improved lighting, television/radio and charging of mobile phones, the new access to energy could have potential for productive use that can generate additional income. Users need to be informed about such opportunities, starting with simple applications such as the refrigeration of drinks for sale, the use of a sewing machine, or a hair-cutter, which can all form the basis of early stage economic activity. Wide uptake of such opportunities within a community can lead to significant economic development, with a resulting increase in purchasing power, and growth of electricity demand. Support for the development of such productive activities, in the form of access to finance and/or technical assistance may be required to maximise the potential for productive use.
Demand promotion can support electrification across Technologies, Delivery Models and Legal Basis and Price/Tariff Regulation approaches. However, there are some categories where capacity building interact most closely.
Demand growth is important to achieve economic sustainability for electricity businesses, and demand promotion programmes will thus support private finance of electrification. For users, availability of finance will often be a major constraint. There may be costs to the user that are associated with the final technical arrangements for distribution of power within the recipient household, office or operation. Appliances to enable electricity consumption will also be needed. This presents a market opportunity for the private sector, which can offer financial loans with appropriate payback arrangements that increase the affordability of the additional purchases required by new users. Grants or subsidies may be justified to support demand-side measures that will provide electricity access, and the associated basic services, for the target users. Different forms of grants and/or subsidies should be considered to help overcome the financial barriers on the demand-side, in order to facilitate the supply of electricity at a level that will reflect user needs, and help to bring the related social and economic benefits to the target communities.
Technical Assistance – for businesses that now have access to electricity, technical assistance will be extremely useful to help the growth of income-generating activities. The conversion of business operations from dependence upon traditional fuel sources to the use of newly available power, and the addition of processes that were previously unviable without access to electricity can now be implemented. External advice regarding these new measures will help businesses to maximise the efficiency and opportunity for the productive use of electricity. This form of demand promotion will bring direct economic development.
Capacity Building/Awareness Raising - there is certainly an overlap between demand promotion and awareness raising, though awareness raising is not limited to demand promotion since it can also be applied to policy makers, or raising potential energy providers’ awareness of the market, or making finance providers aware of associated lending opportunities. At the same time demand promotion extends beyond building increased awareness amongst users to include taking additional action and providing support to facilitate the growth of electricity use.
The main advantage of demand promotion activities is that they increase the use of electricity for positive results, maximising the potential benefit to users from their new access to electricity, while also increasing the economic viability of electricity provision. Users are made familiar with the range of opportunities related to electricity access, and are equipped with the skills and resources required to reap the consumer benefits, as well as to develop income-generating activity that can allow broader economic development. The disadvantage of demand promotion is that it will incur a cost to the public sector, or a risk for private financiers, without certainty of the ultimate impact. Inappropriate demand promotion can encourage electricity use for applications that are not the most appropriate for new users. This presents a difficult position for public and private sector financiers to provide justification of their efforts, though the benefits should become more evident over time with the increased rate of economic development in the target community(ies).
The process of engineering, demonstrating, and bringing into use a new means of electricity provision, or adoption of a technology in use elsewhere and its adaptation to local conditions.
Technology match – for successful investment into expanded electrification, the key risks must be addressed. Financial and political risks will be key concerns, and the technology risk must also be considered. This does not necessarily relate to the correct operation of the technology, since most electricity generation, transmission and distribution systems to be used will already be well tried and tested elsewhere. However, there is a risk associated with matching the availability of local energy resources to the technology introduced. For distributed electrification systems, whether mini-grids or stand-alone, renewable energy resources will often be the principle fuel source though hybrid systems may also require diesel fuel. Careful assessment of resource availability is therefore required in advance of any technology selection. This will relate to the natural conditions (such as solar radiation intensity, wind speeds, and water flow rates) but also supply chains associated with biofuels and with any diesel fuel needed for hybrids or back-up systems.
Technology transfer – there have been, and continue to be, many programmes driven by industrialised countries that aim to use in developing countries those technologies that have been effectively demonstrated. This brings the advantage of reducing the risk for of trying to implement technologies for electrification that will not function in a way to achieve cost-effective power supplies to remote areas. The transfer of familiar technologies from an industrialised country may also bring the benefit of reduced costs for the recipient country since the provider can generate a new demand for technology that has saturated the market in its country of origin, and thereby justify reduced prices. However, this process of technology transfer can bring longer-term disadvantages to the developing country involved since any replacement of parts, maintenance or operations management may have to be sourced from the country of origin, which will lead to significant costs. For this reason, policy makers should consider the longer-term impact of technology transfer before accepting any systems for electrification that cannot be supported locally.
Capital vs operational costs – the choice of technology to be developed for remote electrification (whether grid extension, mini-grids or stand-alone systems) must take account of the quality of service, the social and environmental impact, but most importantly the cost implications for users. One fundamental issue is the choice of renewable energy technology or systems using fossil fuels (such as diesel or coal). The capital costs associated with renewable energy technologies can often present a critical barrier to potential users. This is despite the fact that the running costs will be minimal since the energy source is often freely available. Users often do not bear the upfront investment costs of electricity generation from fossil fuels, but may underestimate the longer-term financial obligation that is involved. Independent authorities, including the government, should seek to inform users and investors of the cost implications of technology development, and the likely affordability to the target customers. Introducing innovative financing mechanisms to offset the upfront costs of renewable energy technologies over a period of time is likely to bring great long-term benefit for end-users, as well as for the environment.
context. Most people, wherever they live, want to feel significant and to be perceived as worthwhile. It follows, therefore, that an image of being modern is important to the success of any technology for electrification. People must believe that a technological device brings with it a degree of sophistication which can elevate the user’s social status as well as meet a basic human need. Any technologies introduced to bring electricity to previously unserved communities must take account of this fact if they are to achieve local acceptance.
New technologies may sit within a technology category (eg grid extension, mini-grid or standalone) or may span more than one category (eg an advance in electricity storage which could benefit both isolated mini-grids and standalone systems).
The private sector will often bring forward new technologies, but they may be reluctant to implement them at scale because of the inherent risk. Private-public partnerships may provide a vehicle to bring in new technology, with the private sector providing the technology know-how while the public sector bears the additional technology risk. Adoption of technologies already demonstrated elsewhere and their adaptation for local use may be undertaken by the public or private sector alone.
One reason for offering a concession is to support new technology development. In general, however, there is no particular association between new technology and any particular regulatory structure.
One of the main purposes in the medium term of adopting new technology is to drive down prices or tariffs, but initial demonstration projects may require a higher return on investment and (in the absence of specific grants or subsidies) this should be recognised in agreed prices/tariffs.
Private financiers are in principle interested in investing in new technologies, but may require higher rates of return and/or grants and subsidies to do so. In the medium term new technology should reduce electricity costs and hence user finance.
the same technical standards may impose additional costs on remote users that mean the electricity supply will become unaffordable. Whilst the safety of supply must be maintained in all cases, other standards (such as the availability of electricity 24/7, or the complexity of control systems) may not be required and could thereby help to reduce electricity cost, hence increasing the level of access to remote areas.
Direct Energy Access Provision – the focus for technology development, and in particular the financial implications, will have direct impact on the provision of energy access for remote communities. Appropriate technologies are required to meet the energy needs of target customers, at a price that is affordable. Only with knowledge of acceptable pricing will technology developers be able to introduce the systems that can provide increased energy access on a sustainable basis for the communities concerned.
The advantages of appropriate technology development are widespread, with the main result being the application of affordable systems that meet the needs of the target users. This will require an approach that maximises the use of local resources, including labour, thereby increasing local economic value and income generation opportunities for local people. The implementation of appropriate technology will satisfy the current customer demands and generate increasing interest in the supply of more power to fuel growing numbers of applications and associated job-creation. Technology development that is effectively targeted at local needs can therefore motivate local economic development and lead to a sustainable market for a growing range of electricity supply systems.
Disadvantages from technology development for electrification occur if the introduction of new systems is misaligned to the interests and profile of the target customers. In this case, technologies may at one extreme be considered as second-rate solutions for access to electricity and so generate little demand. At the other extreme, systems may be introduced that are too advanced for local needs and unaffordable for the target market. Alternatively they may, in practice, fail to deliver the performance they were planned to achieve, resulting in electricity which is both unreliable and uneconomic. In either case, this will bring frustration to the local communities and possible the rejection of any attempts to provide access to electricity. To avoid this new technologies should always be demonstrated at pilot scale in the local context before being implemented at scale.
Bringing together information on costs and performance of electricity technologies with data on energy access needs, preferences and willingness to pay and the availability of energy resources for electricity generation, on a geospatial basis to determine how needs can best be met.
The purpose of national energy planning is to compare the viability and costs of building and operating new, centralised electricity generation and extending the existing grid, with those of local generation and a mini-grid distribution system, or of standalone systems. Which of these is more appropriate in each location depends on a complex relationship between levels of demand, costs of electricity transmission and distribution, availability of energy resources and the capital and operating costs of different forms and scales of electricity generation. National Energy Planning allows the optimum mix of technologies to be established, and hence identifies those technologies which should be the focus of any NEA and on which resources should be concentrated.
National Energy Planning helps to establish the technologies most suitable for electricity provision but establishing the most appropriate delivery model is then a further exercise.
National Energy Planning enables policy makers to assess the overall funding needed for electrification and where this will most effectively be directed. It also provides information on users’ willingness to pay and hence allows the mix of private finance, grants and subsidies and other public funding and user finance needed to be estimated, and so provides valuable information to support design of financial interventions. If the resulting Plan, and the data on which it is based is made available, it can support private investment by acting as a source of market information.
National energy planning can act as the basis for policy and target setting and provide a source of market information. The data and analysis needed to support national energy planning is complex and capacity building or technical assistance may therefore be needed to support the planning process. Because demand forecasting is a key element of energy planning, it will be important to incorporate the impact of any demand promotion initiatives into national energy plans.
National energy planning provides assessments of the optimum technology mix needed to meet national electricity access needs and the funding needed to deliver it. It supports development of policies and targets and design of NEAs, and provides a source of market information to bring in private investment. Its main disadvantage is the level of detailed (locationally granular) information and the complexity of the analysis needed.
This page was last modified on 30 July 2018, at 17:56. | https://energypedia.info/wiki/National_Approaches_to_Electrification_%E2%80%93_Non-Financial_Interventions |
Brussels, BELGIUM — The Computer & Communications Industry Association (CCIA Europe) today hosted a webinar looking at the potential impact on the European economy of the proposed EU Regulation on foreign subsidies today. Speakers were:
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Christophe Hansen, Member of the European Parliament and Rapporteur of the proposal
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Alexandre Bertuzzi, Case Handler Officer, DG Competition, European Commission
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Nicole Kar, Partner, Linklaters
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Benoît Durand, Partner, RBB Economics and author of a recent study on the proposal
The panelists discussed the European Commission’s proposal for a Regulation ‘’on foreign subsidies distorting the internal market’’ introduced in May 2021. The Commission believes that the existing rules in state aid, merger control, antitrust and public procurement do not fully address the distortive effects of foreign subsidies. The new rules would give the Commission broad powers to investigate and address the potentially distortive effects of foreign subsidies in the EU.
MEP and Rapporteur Christophe Hansen said:
“This proposal is, and will be, one of the most important instruments for our trade policy.” “I support the overall aim and design of the proposal.”
’Given that this regulation will undeniably entail administrative burdens for all parties involved we need, nevertheless, to avoid that it becomes bogged down to procedures and turns into a paper tiger.”
“We have to be careful that without adequate resources for implementation this instrument could rapidly lead to excessive administrative burden for the Commission, augment red tape for foreign and European companies and, ultimately, hamper investment in the internal market without actually moving the needle on counteracting distortive foreign subsidies.’’
‘’I see this regulation as the opportunity for the EU to double-down on its commitment to advance multilateral and plurilateral solutions for distortive subsidies.”’
Partner at RBB Economics and author of a recent study on the proposal, Benoît Durand said:
“The European Commission’s proposal creates significant new risks for all firms doing business in the Single Market. The broad approach can be expected to seriously discourage foreign investment in the EU – even if that investment involves no subsidy and results in no distortion – to the detriment of Europe’s economic recovery.”
Partner, Linklaters, Nicole Kar said:
“The measures have potentially wide ranging implications for auction processes, effectively adding an additional process to EU merger review and which will handicap some bidders and create an ‘un-level’ playing field tilted toward PE and European companies.”
“There are wider and longer term impacts too given that EU companies increasingly benefit from various Member States’ authorised aid measures. They could therefore become targets of third country measures aimed at disciplining the effects of EU’s ‘foreign subsidies’ in third countries’ markets.”
“The EU’s trading partners may go further than simple retaliation against the EU to compensate for their eventual losses in trade in services and investments (e.g. raising tariffs or creating barriers to services trade and investment). They may enact similar protection, even ones specifically targeting EU companies. This could become a regulatory race ‘to the bottom’ with spill-over effects world-wide.”
Alexandre Bertuzzi, Case Handler Officer, DG Competition, European Commission said:
“The proposal strikes the right balance between the need to target those foreign subsidies that are most distortive for the internal market, and the need to ensure a streamlined process that will continue to attract foreign investment to the EU. It builds on familiar pre-existing concepts, ensuring a level playing field and predictable regulatory environment for businesses. In particular, notifications of large concentrations will in most cases come on top of other prior notifications which are already required today and have aligned timelines thereby leading to no delays compared to today’s situation.”
CCIA Vice President & Head of office, Christian Borggreen said: | https://ccianet.org/news/2022/01/ccia-hosts-event-on-eu-foreign-subsidies-proposal/ |
The Government of Belize launched Phase II of BIOFIN in mid-October, as the program moves into the important stage of implementing finance solutions in the small Caribbean nation. Belize’s economy and population rely heavily on nature and significant parts of the GDP are derived from sectors such as tourism, agriculture, fisheries and forestry. It also possesses fragile ecosystems such as large intact tracts of forest and richly diverse coral reefs.
The BIOFIN Phase II Country Implementation Strategy was launched at the event and aims to provide direction for implementing identified finance solutions contained within the Biodiversity Finance Plan and achieve the national vision for biodiversity within the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP).
“The Government and people of Belize have long recognized the importance of Belize’s natural resources as the foundation “brick and mortar” of Belize’s development,” said Minister of the Environment Dr. Omar Figueroa at the event.
"The success of phase two implementation is hinged on our ability to foster mutually beneficial arrangements between the private and public sectors, and our ability to truly, sustainably maximize the potential of our resources,” he said.
BIOFIN began in Belize in 2016, through the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Fisheries, the Environment, Sustainable Development and Immigration. The first phase saw the completion of the four BIOFIN assessments; the Policy and Institutional Review, the Biodiversity Expenditure Review, the Financial Needs Assessment and the Development of the Belize Biodiversity Finance Plan.
It was found that Belize spent $BZ302 million (US$150 million) (over a 5-year span) on biodiversity-related activities with an estimated need of BZ$70.3 million (US$ 35 million) to implement Belize’s NBSAP (over a ten-year period).
It was also estimated that fully achieving Belize’s NBSAP would result in 51% compliance with Global Aichi Targets. Therefore it was estimated that fully achieving the Global Aichi targets would cost BZ$138.5MN (US$ 68.5 million). However, further investigation revealed that much of the expenditure recorded during that period related to biodiversity was not aligned with NBSAP targets and priorities.
Several finance solutions have been identified and are underway or planned for implementation to bridge this finance gap for biodiversity in Belize.
An example is the scaling up of the country's Environmental Funds (EF). The EF’s financial resources are mainly obtained from donors which may include, national and international NGOs, private foundations and other bilateral donors and multilateral donors.
As the main financial vehicle for protected areas; the Protected Areas Conservation Trust receives funding from conservation fees paid by overnight visitors, a commission from cruise ship passenger taxes and/or allocated portion of Debt for Nature Swap-financing.
BIOFIN is working a finance solution that suggests optimization strategies including legal, institutional and governance practice standards of EFs in Belize.
Some recommendations include; Alignment of Strategic Plans with NBSAP Targets, procurement of funding from potential resource partners with mutual targets to national NBSAP, development of Resource Mobilization Strategies and Action Plan (RMSP) in-line with EF’s Strategic Plan, consideration to the role of asset management in resource mobilization when developing the RMSP and national funds should have written investment policy statement that clearly defines the EFs investment goals, risk appetite and ethical considerations for investing.
Additionally, BIOFIN is piloting the development of a biodiversity investment tracking tool to measure public and private biodiversity expenditure and impact on national targets. This tool was developed for the government of Belize and partners to track investments in biodiversity and environmental management via key performance indicators aligned with defined national environmental and socio-economic priorities.
It provides Belize with an opportunity to improve the way in which management assesses the impacts of investments, and in so doing, contributes to an improvement in evidence-based delivery, efficiency and effectiveness in the long-term.
Other finance solutions planned include Debt for Nature Swaps, Tax subsidies to financial institutions engaged in green debt-financing, crowdfunding and pooling donation revenues from willing parties and individuals for the financing protected areas, biodiversity offsets and carbon market development among others.
At the event key sector representatives were present. These included representatives from private and public sectors such as agriculture, tourism, fisheries, forestry and the Belize Development Foundation.
A participant from the Sugar Industry highlighted the need to align their environmental plan with the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action plan. This was also expressed by a representative of the Belize Pesticide Control Board who stressed the need to synergize and coordinate activities that are beneficial for biodiversity conservation In Belize.
It is envisioned that BIOFIN in Belize will add great value by facilitating the process of providing decision-makers in environmental management, finance and planning with economic information about the value and trade-offs among different policies and investment choices, including evaluating how valuable ecosystem services may be affected by changes in ecosystems and how they can provide increased revenue to the Belizean economy. | https://www.biofin.org/news-and-media/belize-big-biodiversity-and-big-ambition-biodiversity-finance |
Ample natural resource revenues create both opportunities and challenges for a sovereign to transform its natural resources into well-managed financial assets. Hence, inter-temporal smoothing of revenue and consumption/investment moves to the center stage of macroeconomic policies. The questions arising from natural resource wealth accumulation are becoming more pressing for many countries, given the need to achieve intergenerational equity in a context where commodity prices may not continue their upward trajectory of the past decade. Addressing these questions requires a flexible sovereign asset-liability management (SALM) framework that integrates various macroeconomic and financial trade-offs with the aim of containing financial risk to the sovereign balance sheet. The framework and policy advice aims to guide policymakers across different institutions in weighing those trade-offs.
Background
1. The International Monetary Fund’s (IMF) Monetary and Capital Markets Department has been providing significant technical assistance (TA) in the area of natural resource wealth management. IMFTA focuses on managing the trade-offs between enhancing the returns on investment at acceptable levels of risk; ways of direct and indirect hedging of natural resource revenues; and the appropriate management of long-term liabilities in the context of ample asset accumulation. As demand for integrated asset-liability management (ALM) in natural resource-rich countries is on the rise, a comprehensive framework to guide future TA, and IMF policy advice more broadly became warranted to ensure consistency of policy advice both in TA provision and IMF surveillance. The distinguishing element of ALM in this context is that management of assets and liabilities is coordinated based on the whole sovereign balance sheet, including the central government, the central bank, and other public sector entities involved in exploitation and management of the natural resource(s). These could include state-owned enterprises, regional governments, or sovereign wealth funds (SWFs). Wealth management in this context requires reconciling various objectives under a comprehensive ALM framework that takes account of various options to manage risk and return.
2. In the context of the IMF’s externally-financed TA, module four of the Topical Trust Fund on Managing Natural Resource Wealth provides funding for TA on investment strategies for natural-resource wealth, including strategic asset allocation (SAA), risk management framework, and governance aspects of managing and investing natural resource wealth. This guidance paper complements this type of TA. The paper covers key elements on the sovereign balance sheet, including official reserves and other pools of financial assets, as well as debt and other contingent liabilities management issues facing the sovereign in the context of ample natural resource wealth.
3. The paper discusses issues related to SALM from the perspective of natural-resource rich economies, yet the conceptual framework presented is flexible enough to incorporate a wide range of trade-offs facing the policymaker with broader applicability for other countries, including those with large current account surpluses and ample fiscal reserves. The different trade-offs are discussed with reference to country examples, and the case of Norway is showcased throughout the analysis as a model to illustrate the different stages in the process of accumulating and investing natural resource wealth. Norway was chosen as a model case given its successful history of managing natural resource wealth and the governance structure of its SWF. The case study of Norway is narrated in the blue boxes throughout the paper.
4. This work was completed with financial assistance from the donors to the TTF-MNRW, including Australia, the European Union, Kuwait, the Netherlands, Norway, Oman, and Switzerland. The paper incorporates input from the TTF-MNRW donors, as well as government officials impacted by the issues presented in the paper.
5. The structure of the document is as follows: Section 2 presents the main elements of the sovereign balance sheet and defines the scope of the paper; Section 3 discusses the asset side of the sovereign balance sheet, presenting the investment objectives and strategies for different types of asset pools; Sections 4 briefly presents the main elements of sovereign liability management, before turning to the heart of the paper in Section 5 to analysis the linkages and interactions between the different elements on the balance sheet and discuss risk management considerations in an integrated framework. Section 6 is dedicated to governance and risk management issues of SWFs, and Section 7 concludes with the main policy recommendations.
Sovereign Assets, Liabilities, and Salm Framework
6. Sovereign assets and liabilities can be narrowly defined in terms of financial assets on the government’s balance sheet, including contingent liabilities.1 This definition includes foreign exchange reserves, public sector debt, and where possible, contingent liabilities. For analytical purposes (and considerations of ALM), the balance sheet of the government and the central bank could be consolidated to understand how the two institutions’ financial exposures interact with one another. A more comprehensive view of the sovereign balance sheet could be based on an economic rather than a financial perspective, accounting for the underlying inter-temporal objective of the sovereign and including future income and expenditures (Table 1). For the purposes of this paper, the narrower definition of the financial balance sheet will be adopted given the focus on financial wealth management. The application of the SALM framework in Section 5 will incorporate elements of the “economic” balance sheet, such as future imports and future flows from natural resources extraction.
Stylized Economic-Risk Balance Sheet of the Sovereign
Stylized Economic-Risk Balance Sheet of the Sovereign
|Assets||Liabilities|
|Present Value of Incomes:||Present Value of Nondiscretionary Expenses:|
|Taxes||Social and economic development|
|Fees||Economic development|
|Seniorage||Government administration|
|Balances:||Balances:|
|Cash||Monetary base|
|Currency reserves||Government debt|
|Investments (pension and wealth funds)||In domestic currency|
|In foreign currency|
|Government-owned enterprises||Pension liabilities|
|Infrastructure|
|Real estate|
|Natural resources|
|Other assets|
|Contingent claims (explicit and implicit):|
|Guarantees to banks and nonbanks|
|Guarantees on retirement income|
|Guarantees on social welfare|
|Net worth|
|Net financial worth|
Stylized Economic-Risk Balance Sheet of the Sovereign
|Assets||Liabilities|
|Present Value of Incomes:||Present Value of Nondiscretionary Expenses:|
|Taxes||Social and economic development|
|Fees||Economic development|
|Seniorage||Government administration|
|Balances:||Balances:|
|Cash||Monetary base|
|Currency reserves||Government debt|
|Investments (pension and wealth funds)||In domestic currency|
|In foreign currency|
|Government-owned enterprises||Pension liabilities|
|Infrastructure|
|Real estate|
|Natural resources|
|Other assets|
|Contingent claims (explicit and implicit):|
|Guarantees to banks and nonbanks|
|Guarantees on retirement income|
|Guarantees on social welfare|
|Net worth|
|Net financial worth|
7. The decision to consume, save, or invest the revenues from natural resource wealth is based on a number of factors including the country’s level of development, population growth and characteristics, and the economy’s absorptive capacity. The fiscal framework governs the pace of public spending and guides the transformation of natural resource wealth into financial or physical assets. Box 1 sheds light on some of these elements (see IMF 2012 for detailed analysis).
Saving and Investment Decision in the Context of Natural Resource Wealth
A nation can save either in financial assets (by accumulating claims on other countries) or in domestic assets that increase consumption possibilities in the future. These domestic assets could be either physical assets, such as infrastructure, or increased human capital in the form of better health care or education. When a country transforms wealth in the form of natural resources into savings for future generations, it is thus, in principle, faced with a choice between accumulating financial assets and/or accumulating other forms of wealth.
In general, many poorer, resource-rich countries have been constrained in their access to credit, so many profitable investments in, for example, education, healthcare, or infrastructure have not been undertaken. When income and consumption are already at low levels, reducing consumption to finance investments to foster growth is often not an option. In this way, a combination of constrained credit and low income can lead to a poverty trap.
In principle, increased revenues from natural resources can be a way of breaking out of this trap by channeling some of the extra revenues into domestic investments to promote growth. To the extent that such investments have been constrained in the past, these domestic investment opportunities will often yield higher returns than alternative investments in foreign financial assets.
However, there are several factors that will constrain the optimal level of such domestic investments:
First, it should be noted that—by definition—one dollar of increased exports from the resource sector in a country has to be matched by a combination of
Reduced exports from other sectors of the economy; and/or
Increased imports; and/or
Increased claims on other countries in the form of an accumulation of financial assets.
Thus, if the government decides not to accumulate assets in a fund, the result must be either increased net imports or increased net accumulation of financial assets by the private sector. These effects will be brought about by changes in prices, wages, and equilibrium exchange and interest rates. Increased net imports will have to come about through real exchange rate appreciation which will have to be reversed when resource income falls, leading to risk of Dutch disease problems. Accumulation of financial assets in a fund helps reduce this risk.
Second, it should be noted that even if many domestic investments may seem profitable on an individual basis, the sum of all projects might be considerably less profitable. This is because of the effect of the investments on equilibrium prices, wages, and exchange and interest rates as described above.
Third, while projects may be profitable for society as a whole, they may erode government finances over time. This is because the costs of these investments typically are borne by the government, while the benefits accrue to the private sector. If mechanisms for sharing the returns from such investments with the government in the form of taxes and user tariffs are weak, the optimal level of such investments may be lower.
All of these issues should be addressed in a unified framework that assesses optimal domestic investment levels within a broader macroeconomic context, including longer-term growth and fiscal sustainability issues.
8. On the asset side, resource-rich economies often accumulate “excess reserves” beyond precautionary motives. This reflects the fact that the process of extracting and selling natural resources often represents a transformation of nonrenewable natural resource wealth into financial assets, in which case, the country is building “strategic reserves” rather than excess reserves for precautionary motives. Sound management of these strategic reserves, thus, becomes an important issue for resource-rich countries, including the establishment of dedicated savings funds with a mandate to optimize return on these financial assets.
9. Liabilities on the sovereign balance sheet typically include public debt, explicit pension liabilities, and often implicit contingent liabilities. These liabilities may have significant impact on the resilience of the sovereign balance sheet in the face of adverse shocks. At the same time, they may be difficult to monitor and manage, especially contingent liabilities, since they are often not reported in government accounts.
10. From the risk-return perspective, it is suboptimal to optimize isolated balance sheets rather than the consolidated sovereign balance sheet. Although separate asset-liability objectives and strategies might be optimal for each institution (e.g., ministry of finance and central bank) in terms of local risk-return profiles, it may not be the case from the sovereign balance sheet perspective. Mismatches in the financial characteristics of sovereign assets and liabilities may expose the sovereign balance sheet to a wide range of risks, including interest rate and exchange rate risks. Although challenging, close coordination among institutions involved in the management of sovereign assets and liabilities is desirable to better manage risks, with appropriate legislation and policy guidelines.
11. In practice, a partial SALM framework can be adopted to identify and manage financial risks to the sovereign. Many countries implement partial SALM without identifying an explicit form of the sovereign balance sheet or establishing SALM objectives. For instance, the authorities may implement debt management or reserve management strategies by matching the currency mix and duration for at least some part of these portfolios in order to reduce currency and interest rate risks across the sovereign balance sheet (e.g., Canada, New Zealand, and Mexico).
12. These issues are especially relevant for resource-rich countries. Many countries build up various forms of funds to address macroeconomic challenges connected with inflows of resource revenues. This will in itself raise issues about appropriate coordination with monetary policies and reserve management, as well as coordination with debt management. Furthermore, the resources themselves can be viewed as part of the sovereign balance sheet in a larger sense. The SALM framework can be usefully employed to address these issues.
Aspects of Asset Management
13. Resource-rich countries face significant challenges in transforming their natural resource wealth into well-managed financial assets with equitable intergenerational distribution. With limits to the absorptive capacity of the economy, the volatility and lumpiness of revenue flows constrain macroeconomic policy choices to save, invest, or spend these resources. Box 1 discusses some aspects of these macroeconomic choices. The subsequent policy question is how to optimize return on assets once a decision to save and invest has been made.
14. The rest of Section 3 will discuss the different investment objectives of the sovereign that are influenced by the nature of the liability on the sovereign balance sheet; risk-return considerations; and the different types of sovereign funds. Section 4 will provide a brief overview of liability management considerations that are relevant for the discussion, before Section 5 elaborates the coordination of sovereign asset and liability management in an integrated framework.
A. Investment Objectives
15. Investment objectives for funds and other pools of assets, including those based on natural resource revenues, should be clearly articulated. This is a necessary first step towards formulating an investment strategy. The investment objectives will reflect the policy objective of the assets in question and should take into account any explicit or implicit liabilities associated with them. For instance, volatile commodity prices require smoothing the impact of revenue volatility on the government budget and investing in safer and more liquid assets. On the other hand, building assets to meet future or contingent liabilities would require a longer-term investment strategy with higher returns.
16. The investment objectives will typically distinguish longer-term investments from the existing foreign reserves pool. Foreign reserves have to be available to the central bank for monetary policy purposes and will typically be managed with an objective of preserving nominal value and keeping reserves liquid. In the event countries accumulate reserves in excess of those needed to meet external obligations and for monetary policy purposes, an investment strategy that boosts returns on excess reserves is often employed, including defining an investment tranche of reserves or establishing a dedicated fund with a mandate to increase returns given a moderate risk profile (Box 2).
Reserve Management
Central bank reserves have the primary purpose of facilitating balance of payment (BoP) transactions, supporting the implementation of monetary policy, and providing liquidity during a crisis. To fill this role, the primary objective of reserves management is to keep reserves liquid while minimizing the opportunity costs of holding them. In practice, reserves that need to be immediately available to the central bank are held in short-maturity instruments issued by high-rated governments in one of the major international reserve currencies.
The composition of international reserves, from an SALM perspective, should be derived from the type of shocks that they are meant to offset. Typically, a portion of highly liquid reserves is determined through an assessment of the potential liquidity needs, based on BoP stress tests and past interventions. Also, countries that have limited international market access may structure their reserves so that they match the currency composition of their future imports. In countries where reserves provide coverage for short-term debt, the currency composition should match the currency composition of their short-term debt.
Many central banks have reserves over and above the level needed for monetary policy purposes in the short term (see IMF 2011 for a comprehensive discussion on reserve adequacy and metrics). To minimize the opportunity cost of reserve accumulation, excess reserves can be invested with somewhat less emphasis on the need for liquidity and with a view to improving returns subject to reasonable risk. Relevant assets could include longer-maturity fixed-income instruments (to pick up a term premium), fixed-income instruments issued by lower-rated issuers (to pick up a credit premium, but usually still investment grade rating), or fixed-income instruments that are less liquid (to pick up a liquidity premium). There is also an increasing trend to include nonfixed income, particularly equities, in the investment tranche. Of course, many assets will be exposed to all these risk factors simultaneously. The risk factor approach outlined in Appendix I is, then, a useful tool to keep track of the overall exposure to different risk factors across all assets in the portfolio.
17. There are mainly five types of SWFs based on stated policy objectives: (i) stabilization funds, which are set up to insulate the budget and the economy from volatile commodity prices (usually oil); (ii) savings funds, which are intended to transfer wealth (e.g., nonrenewable assets transformed into diversified financial assets) across generations; (iii) development funds, which allocate resources to priority socioeconomic projects, such as infrastructure; (iv) pension reserve funds, which target pension and/or contingent-type liabilities on the government’s balance sheet; and (v) reserve investment corporations, which are intended to reduce the negative carrying costs of holding reserves or to earn higher return on ample reserves while the assets in the funds are still counted as reserves (e.g., China). For each of these different SWF types, there will be different investment objectives and, hence, different optimal investment strategies.2 The following section will discuss the different types of funds in more detail.
Strategic Asset Allocation for Sovereign Wealth Funds
SAA refers to a portfolio of financial assets that meets a pre-specified investment objective. The SAA is an allocation that maximizes expected investment return subject to a set of risk parameters, taking into account the uncertainty of flows in and out of the fund, and effectively captures the fund owner’s trade-off between long-term risk and return. The SAA captures the largest component of portfolio risk (Figure 1), as shown by Brinson and others (1986). More recent analysis also supports this result. Ibbotson and Kaplan (2005) show that asset allocation explains about 90 percent of the variability of a fund’s return over time, but it explains only 40 percent of the variation of returns among funds, which points to the importance of the choice of an optimal portfolio.
SWFs can be broadly categorized as stabilization and savings funds.1 The purpose of a stabilization fund is to stabilize a country’s budgetary and fiscal policies by isolating them from volatile government revenue linked to an underlying commodity. In contrast, while savings funds also receive contributions from the excess government revenue, their purpose is to transfer resource wealth across generations. Thus, resources of savings funds are not expected to be used for other purposes in the short to immediate term. As a potential source of budget revenue in the short to medium term, stabilization funds have an investment horizon that is broadly reflective of an underlying commodity price cycle. Funds for future generations have a much longer horizon that results in much greater risk-bearing capacity of the funds.
To meet the investment objective of providing liquidity during down cycles, stabilization funds typically invest in less risky instruments (e.g., high-grade fixed-income) meeting not only the funds’ objective of capital preservation over a short- to medium-term horizon, but ensuring high liquidity. Savings funds have a much greater risk tolerance for inter-temporal income volatility and, as a result, are in a position to invest in riskier and less liquid assets (e.g., public and private equity, and alternative investments). Figure 2 illustrates how investment horizons affect extreme outcomes.
While serving different objectives, stabilization and savings funds can be managed jointly. When managed within the same fund structure, the difference in appropriate SAA for the two funds could be achieved by allocating the fund between liquid and longer-term tranches in accordance with both objectives. If the size of the fund is such that most of the resources could be used for stabilization purposes, it would be prudent to start with investing the entire fund with a capital preservation objective in mind. As the fund grows in size, it could start diversifying into higher-risk assets, consistent with a longer-term objective.1 Here we categorize all long-term SWFs, including pension reserve funds and reserve investment corporations, as savings funds.
18. The time horizon of investments is an important determinant of investment objectives. As SWF assets grow, their objectives may change to hedge risks originating in different components of the sovereign balance sheet. For example, a SWF may originally be set up as a stabilization fund to smooth fiscal revenue or sterilize foreign currency inflows in a natural resource exporting country. As the assets in the SWF continue to grow beyond the level needed for the purpose of stabilization, the government may carve out a portion of the assets, revisit the objectives, and redesign the structure of the SWF to broaden its objective and related investment mandate. Ultimately, the accumulation of financial resources in a SWF should be strongly linked to the government’s overall fiscal surplus; otherwise there is an expansion of the sovereign balance sheet leveraged by new debt. This situation would undermine the stabilization objective of a SWF, given the procyclicality of market access by resource-rich countries.
19. The explicit or implicit liabilities of an SWF will guide the optimal asset allocation. For asset pools set up to cover explicit liabilities—for instance a pension fund—the growth of liabilities over time provides the relevant benchmark for the return on assets. Moreover, other properties of the liabilities will be important for asset allocation decisions. For instance, the net present value of future pensions in a defined benefit system will depend on the interest rate. Lower interest rates increase today’s value of future pensions and, thus, the liabilities of the pension system. A prudent asset allocation would imply matching the interest rate sensitivity of the assets with that of the liabilities, so that the solvency of the system is as stable as possible through periods of changing interest rates.
20. Most SWFs do not have explicit liabilities, but they will usually have some implicit liabilities in the form of expected future transfers to the fiscal budget. However, from the perspective of an integrated sovereign balance sheet, expected future transfers are the primary purpose of the SWF. Thus, the projected time profile of these transfers will provide important guidance for the fund’s investments. A good understanding of these liabilities is necessary for setting an investment strategy.
Case Study: Norway
When the first deposits to the Norwegian Government Pension Fund—Global were made in 1996 (at the time called the Government Petroleum Fund), the expected time horizon of investments was unclear. The economy had just come out of a deep recession, and the prospects for government finances were changing rapidly due to strong growth in the mainland economy and increasing revenues from the oil sector. At that time, it was thought prudent and sensible to invest the Fund under the same guidelines as were used for investing the currency reserves of the central bank, with an emphasis on high-rated liquid, sovereign bonds. Updated long-term forecasts for government finances were presented in the long-term program document in 1997. The baseline scenario in that document foresaw a significant accumulation of government assets in the subsequent years, with government net assets growing past 100 percent of non-oil GDP circa 2010 and reaching around 150 percent of GDP in 2020. The actual growth of government assets has been even higher than the baseline scenario from 1997. With the new projections for the size of the GPFG, it was clear that the investment horizon would be several decades. This prompted the first major review of the investment strategy of the GPFG fund, leading to an increase in the equity portion of the GPFG from 0 to 40 percent in 1998.
21. At the outset, it is important to establish solvency of a fund with fixed, explicit liabilities. For instance, in an environment in which public pension funds are underfunded and have assets with a shorter duration than their liabilities, some institutions (particularly in the United Kingdom) have put in place a program of systematically increasing asset duration as yields increase from current levels (and funding ratios improve)—this ensures that underfunding is not locked in. Put differently, institutions should be careful not to blindly close down a duration gap at the expense of future solvency.
22. The investment strategies of any pool of assets must be supported by an appropriate governance structure. This is essential to set risk tolerance and to have proper monitoring and reporting of risk and returns. There must also be sufficient robustness in the governance structure to allow for a consistent implementation of investment strategies over time. Further aspects of governance and risk management of SWFs are covered in Section 6.
B. Investment Strategies for Various Pools of Sovereign Assets
23. Once the investment objectives for a particular pool of assets have been clarified, the next step in formulating an investment strategy is to set an appropriate risk tolerance. This is challenging for several reasons: “risk” is a complex concept, and the risk of an investment strategy cannot be fully captured by one single number or indicator. It is necessary to have a broader approach and to use several indicators to assess the riskiness of a particular strategy. Moreover, there is no right level of risk because there is no right level of risk aversion. For sovereign assets, setting an investment strategy requires some way of ascertaining the risk tolerance of the (political) bodies that are designated as stewards of these assets. As the relevant risks may be difficult to capture by simple indicators, this is often a challenge in itself.
24. The most common indicator of risk is volatility of returns. This may be a useful indicator of risk, as most investors would be concerned about variation and unpredictability of returns. It is, however, not the only relevant measure of risk. It also has significant limitations as a measure of risk, because it implicitly assumes that returns are normally distributed. In reality, asset returns are generally not normally distributed—large losses occur much more frequently than one would expect based on an assumption of normally distributed returns. Measures of risk that are based on volatility should therefore be interpreted with great care.
Case Study: Norway
Since 2007, the Norwegian Ministry of Finance has published an annual report to parliament, which discusses investment returns in the previous year and sets out strategy options for the future.1 In this context, risk and return issues are presented to Parliament and illustrated using both a forward-looking model-based approach and historical simulations.1 The reports are available on http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/fin/Selected-topics/the-government-pension-fund/hoyremeny--statens-pensjonsfond/report-to-parliament-on-the-managemento.html?id=698212.
25. For sovereigns, a more relevant approach to risk is defining it as the probability of failing to meet some predetermined policy objective. For a SWF set up to transfer wealth to future generations, it may be misleading to think in terms of “safe” low-volatility fixed-income instruments and “risky” higher-volatility equities. Short-term volatility is not the most relevant indicator of risk in this case. Higher expected returns from equities will make it more likely that the fund will be beneficial to future generations. Locking in very low or even negative expected real returns in a fixed-income portfolio would not be in the interest of future generations—in this sense, it is a risky strategy since it makes it unlikely that the principal objective of passing wealth on to future generations will be met. The same argument can be made for assets invested to meet future liabilities in a defined benefit scheme. If the investment strategy locks in low returns in a fixed-income portfolio, the risk that future liabilities will not be met becomes high. This strategy is thus risky, even if the assets are “safe.”
Risk targeting versus return targeting
26. One important aspect of strategy formulation is the choice of risk targeting versus return targeting. It is generally assumed that there is a positive relationship between risk and expected return. As long as the relationship between risk and expected return is constant, risk targeting and return targeting are equivalent approaches. For any level of risk, there is one (optimal) expected return and vice versa; so to target, for instance, a real return of 4 percent, or a risk level corresponding to an equity portion of 60 percent, would result in the same portfolio, assuming that a 60 percent equity portion yields an expected return of 4 percent.
Case Study: Norway
In Norway, the Ministry of Finance, as formal owner of the assets of the GPFG, sets the mandate for the operational manager, Norges Bank Investment Management (NBIM). NBIM is a separate asset management unit within the Central Bank of Norway. The mandate prescribes the asset allocation for the GPFG by setting a benchmark allocation and sets limits for deviations from this benchmark. In this way, the overall risk level of the GPFG is determined directly by the formal owner. The overarching guideline for the ministry’s work on asset allocation has been to find an investment strategy to maximize expected returns given a moderate level of risk. The actual interpretation of “moderate” risk is given implicitly by parliament by expressing consent to any major changes in the strategy for the GPFG before the ministry implements them.
27. However, the relationship between risk and expected return is not generally stable. In principle, risk and return targets will work very differently when the relationship between risk and expected return changes. In a strict risktargeting system, this shift in the risk/return relationship is translated into higher/lower expected returns. If returns are targeted, however, more risk has to be taken to keep expected returns constant in the face of a deteriorating risk/return relationship. This implies that more risk is added as the return per unit of risk falls. In the factor framework outlined in Appendix I, this can be interpreted as increasing the exposure to systematic risk factors when the expected returns to these factors are lowest. In this sense, a pure volatility-targeting approach may be pro-cyclical.3 Instead, measures of risk premia rather than volatility could be used to guide the investment strategy.
28. The choice between risk and return targeting may have important implications for the governance structure of the fund. In a situation where the owner of the fund sets the risk level directly through setting the SAA, the process leading up to the allocation should in itself ensure that the strategy is consistent with the risk preferences of the government as owner. However, where asset allocation is delegated to a manager with a mandate to achieve a specific (or minimum) level of expected returns, risk in principle becomes an endogenous variable. It is therefore important to ascertain that the risk required to meet the return objective is indeed within the risk tolerance of the owner.
29. In any case, a clear and well-designed investment process is necessary, along with clear channels of oversight and communication between owners and managers of the fund. Managers will normally be closer to the financial markets in which assets are invested and will have valuable information to inform the choice of risk or set a reasonable level of expected return. This, in itself, is an important argument for delegation in asset management. Managers should have a right and obligation to dissent if they identify inconsistencies in the owner’s estimates of risk and expected return. It is also important that the governance structure of the fund allows for a sufficiently long-term mandate for fund management. In addition, clear communication to the public about the objectives of the fund and related investment strategy and risks are important, given that both realized risk and return outcomes may fluctuate significantly over time (Box 4).
An Example of Historical Simulations—Norway
One way of illustrating the risk of an investment strategy is to use actual, historical returns on various assets and calculate the return the strategy would have yielded over the relevant period. The Norwegian Ministry of Finance has regularly published data for risk and return for a hypothetical Government Pension Fund—Global (GPFG) established in 1900 (rather than in 1996). The historical simulations below are calculated on the basis of annual real rates of return for the period from 1900 to 2012.
The strategic benchmark portfolio of the GPFG is assumed to consist of 60 percent equities and 40 percent bonds, distributed across a large number of countries and currencies. The charts below illustrate the return such a portfolio would have had for the period from 1900 to 2012.
Reorganizing annual data to look at rolling 15-year averages of real returns yields a striking picture: the actual, historical real return for this portfolio was around 4 percent, close to the assumed long-term average return for the GPFG. However, there were long periods with significant deviations from this long-term average. The governance framework around a fund must be robust enough to handle such deviations if an investment strategy with these fluctuations around long-term average returns is to be sustained.
It is also instructive to decompose portfolio returns into equity and bond returns, respectively. The second chart shows the trajectory of asset values on a logarithmic scale with an index value of 1 in 1900. For the entire period as a whole, the performance of the equity markets was significantly better than the bond markets. But the trajectory of real returns to fixed-income instruments has varied considerably over time. Over the entire period, the real return was around 1½ percent per annum. However, the accumulated real return over the first 85 years of this period was close to zero, while the return over the last 30 years was around 6½ percent per annum. This reflects the erosion of purchasing power through high inflation after the two world wars and in the mid-1970s, and repricing of bonds through lower yields in the subsequent period. While historical simulations are useful as a tool to illustrate past outcomes, great care must be taken when using past performance as a guide to future returns. Observed historical returns will be very dependent on the choice of observation period, and even long samples may not be representative.
30. Modeling tools, such as stochastic simulation, are often used for risk analysis. With a model of this kind, one can simulate the return paths of alternative investment strategies and assess the probabilities of accumulated returns being over or below a certain level over some specified investment period. However, these types of models will have to rely on some assumptions on the probability distribution of asset returns and will only give meaningful results if these assumptions are realistic.
Case Study: Norway
The Norwegian Ministry of Finance has developed a stochastic simulation model that is used to illustrate risk and return properties of different asset allocation strategies. The model gives probability distributions for returns of various investment strategies based on expected returns, risks, and correlations for various asset classes. The model allows for regime switching and “fat tails” (i.e., probability distributions with a higher occurrence of extreme outcomes than in the standard normal distribution). The results of the model have been used as part of the material given to parliament as a basis for evaluating proposed changes to the strategy of the GPFG, for instance when it was decided to increase the equity portion of the GPFG from 40 to 60 percent in 2007.
31. In addition, historical simulation is a useful tool. This approach is based on back-testing a specific investment strategy using historical return data for various assets. With this approach one can answer questions such as, “How would this strategy have performed during the recent financial crisis?” or “How many years of the last 100 would this strategy have yielded negative real returns?” This has the advantage of not putting restrictions on the probability distribution of returns, because actual return data are used. These results may also be more easily and intuitively explained to policymakers and the general public when strategy is communicated. However, one should be careful not to predict future returns only by extrapolating history. For communication, it is also helpful to emphasize long-term rolling returns, for instance over a 10- or 20-year horizon, such as was done in the case of Australia’s Future Fund.
Stabilization funds
32. Stabilization funds are set up by natural-resource rich countries to insulate the budget and economy from volatile commodity prices (usually oil). They will usually be governed by rules stipulating under what circumstances allocations and withdrawals from the fund should be made. For instance, there could be certain oil price thresholds that trigger inflows to and outflows from the fund to the government budget. Thus, the expected time horizon of the investments in the fund would be comparatively short (depending on the threshold values), and the actual time horizon as unpredictable as the oil price itself. Caution is needed when setting price-contingent rules, given the volatility of commodity prices.
33. For asset pools of this type, the primary emphasis should be on liquidity for easy access to funds on short notice. The nature of these types of funds is very similar to the nature of regular central bank reserves. For a resource dependent economy, a sharp fall in the price of the main export could potentially trigger a BoP crisis. Thus, the circumstances under which central bank reserves would be needed are typically very similar to those under which there would be withdrawals from a stabilization fund. It is, therefore, natural that the optimal investment strategies for these types of funds are similar to those of ordinary central bank reserves. In practice, the investment strategies of stabilization funds are very similar to those of central bank currency reserves.
Savings funds
34. Savings funds are intended to transfer wealth (e.g., nonrenewable assets transformed into diversified financial assets) across generations. They are often formed when the assets of a stabilization fund or central bank reserves grow beyond what is reasonably needed as a buffer for managing price volatility of natural resources in the short and medium term.
35. The long-term aspect of savings funds requires an approach to investment strategy that is fundamentally different from that of stabilization funds. The emphasis should be on assets that are capable of generating returns to protect and enhance the purchasing power of assets over the longer term. Issues of liquidity and short-term volatility in returns have lower priority. Experiences with investment strategies for SWFs are discussed in Box 5.
Changes in Investment Strategies Over Time
It is normal for investment strategies of savings funds to change over time. These changes may have several justifications:
An increase in the size of the fund relative to the size of the economy may in itself increase the ability and willingness to adopt strategies that give higher volatility in short-term returns but higher expected returns over time.
A longer time horizon for the fund’s investments can have the same effect, but it also increases the importance of adopting strategies that protect against the effects of inflation on the purchasing power of the fund over time.
It may be difficult to gauge the true willingness of political bodies to accept investment risk. A prudent approach may be to increase risk levels only when experience shows that there is some tolerance for short- and medium-term fluctuations in value.
The capacity of the management organization to manage more complex assets and strategies may be constrained. It will then be prudent to let strategies develop gradually in line with increased experience and capacity.
In practice, many funds have had a gradual development of investment strategies for their SWFs: Norway made its first investments in high-grade government bonds in 1996. A 40 percent allocation to equities was introduced in 1998, and the following years saw several changes in strategy, including adding emerging markets and lower-grade fixed-income instruments. The equity portion was gradually increased to 60 percent from 2007, and the first investments in real estate were made in 2010.
Timor-Leste started with a pure bond portfolio in 2005, and in 2012, the Petroleum Fund Law was amended to allow for up to 50 percent allocation to equities. The operational target is 40 percent, in addition, a wider portfolio of bonds and other assets is allowed.
Chile’s PRF was established in 2006 with a portfolio of government bonds and money market instruments, but the strategy was changed in 2012 to include a 15 percent allocation to equities and a 20 percent allocation to corporate bonds.
In general, the changes in strategy follow a pattern of gradually moving from nominal, liquid assets like high-grade government bonds to less liquid, real assets. This reflects the SWFs’ gradually increased capacity to pick up a liquidity risk premium and to accept higher volatility of returns in the short term. It may also reflect increases in the investment horizon and concerns about the possible effects of inflation on the purchasing power of funds over the longer term.
36. As financial assets grow in size, the savings aspect will become more pronounced, and this should gradually be reflected in changes to the investment strategy. Savings funds should be fully integrated with the government budget and may fulfill a stabilization role and a savings role simultaneously. While all SWFs will have a gradual development of investment strategies over time, these shifts are particularly pronounced for saving funds, since the investment objectives change as the funds grow in size.
37. Integrating savings funds into the government budget process requires instituting a transparent rule-based system for the transfer of resources from the fund to the budget. Typically countries institute fiscal rules to regulate the inflow and withdrawal of resources, often in the form of either nonresource balance rules or resource price-based rules. To enhance credibility in an uncertain environment over commodity price volatility, fiscal anchors and associated targets should be flexible and focus on procedural rules rather than fixed numerical targets. For example, Chile’s framework identifies the fiscal variable to be targeted (structural balance). In Timor-Leste, the Petroleum Fund Law sets out a rules-based approach for withdrawals, where withdrawals can be increased under certain circumstances within a transparent process.4
Case Study: Norway
The investment strategy of the GPFG has evolved gradually over time. From a pure bond portfolio in 1996, concentrated on high-graded liquid sovereign bonds, the fund has gradually increased the exposure in equities to 60 percent, and credit bonds have been introduced as well as emerging market assets. The GPFG is in the process of building up a real estate portfolio of 5 percent of the fund.
38. For many resource-rich economies, savings funds have become a significant part of the sovereign balance sheet over the last decade, due to generally high commodity prices. The optimal investment of these assets should not be analyzed on a stand-alone basis, but rather in the context of the sovereign balance sheet as a whole. Aspects of SWF investing in a SALM framework are covered in Section 5.
Development funds
39. Development funds allocate resources to priority socioeconomic projects, such as infrastructure. Their funding can come from a variety of sources, including cash transfers from government, privatization revenues, bond issuance, or combinations of these.
40. Development funds vary considerably with respect to mandates and investment activities and pose important challenges to public finance management. Their mandates may be linked to the development of different sectors of the economy, and their portfolios are less commercially driven and typically focus on investments such as specific infrastructure projects, energy supply, development of key industries, or funding for small enterprises. For some funds, investing assets in domestic and/or international financial markets is a way to finance their primary development activities. In other cases, the investment activities themselves are the main focus of operation, for instance, in the form of managing ownership stakes in strategically important industries. From the perspective of sound public finance management, it is important to integrate the activities of development funds into the government budget.
41. Nevertheless, there are some general principles for sound management of such funds. These include an appropriate governance system with a clear, well-defined mandate that is coordinated with fiscal policy strategies. The investment activities must reflect the nature of explicit and implicit liabilities. Typically, these liabilities will consist of future disbursements to the development projects in a fund’s portfolio. Thus, it is necessary to build the investment strategy on a thorough analysis of future withdrawals from the fund to make sure that sufficient cash will be available when needed. When development projects to be financed by the fund have a significant import content, it may also be appropriate to invest in a way that matches future foreign currency needs.
42. In a SALM context, it is of particular importance to be aware of any contingent liabilities stemming from the operations of a development fund. These contingent liabilities may arise, for instance, if the fund is allowed to issue guarantees for private funding of projects. They may also arise if a project is undertaken as a joint venture, and the joint venture partner in the project turns out to be unable or unwilling to meet its obligations, giving the development fund a larger than anticipated role in the project. The risk of these types of contingent liabilities must be carefully managed through appropriate rules and regulations on the activities and permitted instruments of the fund, and through appropriate reporting.
Pension reserve funds
43. Several resource-rich countries have explicitly linked the investment mandate of their savings funds to specific contingent liabilities, such as pensions. These funds seek to build assets to cover an identified liability, often related to an aging population. An aging population is a cause of future economic vulnerability and expenditure, often related to entitlements that were funded by a pay-as-you-go system resulting in high economic and social cost. A prudent response to such challenges is to accumulate assets now, so as to offset the projected higher liability related to sustaining pensions and social welfare in the future. This approach can be found, for example, in Australia, Chile, and New Zealand, all resource-rich countries. Depending on the macroeconomic framework, these assets can often be invested abroad, so that they can be disinvested and used for imports when the domestic population comes of age.
44. The optimal investment strategy for this class of funds depends on the nature of the liabilities it is meant to cover. Typically, such funds are used to pre-fund expenditures commitments well into the future, with little or no call on funds in the short and medium term. This implies a long time horizon for investments and relatively high tolerance for assets with high volatility in returns and/or low liquidity. The appropriate investment strategy will thus be to harvest risk premiums that reflect the high risk-bearing capacity. The New Zealand Superannuation Fund, for instance, has an equity portion of 75 percent in its reference portfolio, reflecting the fund’s long time horizon and ability to absorb volatile returns in the short and medium term.
Some Aspects of Liability Management
45. The primary objective of issuing government debt is to ensure financing of the budget at the lowest possible cost subject to an acceptable level of risk.5 The core of the optimization problem for debt issuance is the trade-off between low cost and various forms of risk. When yield curves are upward sloping, rolling over short-term debt can be cheaper than financing at the longer end of the maturity spectrum, but refinancing risks will also be higher. Concentrating borrowing in a few liquid benchmark loans will increase liquidity and lower issuing costs, but it also implies the risk of having to refinance large loans at the same time.
46. The trade-offs can be viewed from a self-insurance perspective, in which higher expected borrowing costs can be seen as an insurance premium against adverse liquidity events. In this way, the analysis of optimal borrowing strategies is closely linked to other insurance and risk factors related to the sovereign balance sheet.
47. In resource-rich countries, large foreign exchange flows may impact liability management decisions in a number of ways. Currency composition of debt is an important aspect of risk management and may also have significant macroeconomic implications. With debt denominated in foreign currency and revenues primarily in domestic revenue, foreign borrowing exposes the government to the risk of adverse movements in exchange rates. A notable exception is resource-rich countries, where a significant portion of government revenues are in foreign currency. In this case, borrowing in foreign currency may offset foreign exchange risk on the asset side.
48. Emerging and low-income countries often face higher borrowing costs when borrowing in local currency. Domestic financial markets may not be deep enough to facilitate a government borrowing program, and the credibility and liquidity of domestically issued instruments is typically insufficient to attract international investors.
49. However, a domestic debt market contributes to financial deepening and stability. Local-currency debt instruments are generally considered to be the “risk-free” investment alternative in the domestic economy, fulfilling an important role as a store of value and as a reference price for other financial assets. They may also be used as collateral in money market transactions. A well-functioning and liquid market for government bonds may have significant positive externalities and is usually a prerequisite for the development of a domestic capital market. A well-functioning domestic bond market can reduce risk to the sovereign balance sheet; the ability to borrow in domestic currency and to manage risk using money market instruments will give government (and private participants) more flexibility in ALM operations. Therefore, even resource-rich countries may consider issuing sovereign debt for reasons other than deficit financing.
Linkages and Interactions
50. The discussion of ALM in the previous sections analyzed issues primarily at the level of individual pools of sovereign assets and liabilities. In this section, we outline a more holistic approach by considering linkages and interactions across assets and liabilities in the context of a partial SALM approach.
A. Sovereign Asset-Liability Management Framework
51. An integrated SALM framework is a holistic approach that aims to minimize vulnerability of government finances in the face of potential shocks.6 The main objective of sovereign liability management is to ensure financing of the budget at the lowest possible cost subject to an acceptable level of risk. In contrast, sovereign asset management aims to ensure that cash balances meet commitments and maximize the purchasing power of long-term capital given a moderate level of risk. The basic idea of the SALM approach is to choose the size and characteristics of sovereign assets and liabilities to meet macroeconomic and developmental objectives, while preserving positive sovereign financial net worth, subject to acceptable costs and risks. It also entails, inter alia, monitoring and quantifying the impact of movements in exchange rates, interest rates, inflation, and commodity prices (Figure 3).
52. From a portfolio perspective, the SALM approach could help detect sovereign risk exposures. Although the concepts of ALM and a balance sheet are commonly understood by financial institutions and companies, sovereigns also face risks that may be similar to those in the private sector. However, risk management practices and tools in the case of sovereigns differ from the private sector in complexity and precision. Foreign reserves are a major component on the asset side, while public debt is a major claim on the liability side (for some countries, monetary base or pension liabilities are also relevant). As the management of sovereign assets and liabilities are entrusted to different institutions with their own risk-return considerations and strategies, an integrated risk management framework that takes into account the risk characteristics of both assets and liabilities would be more effective in managing risk and providing simple natural hedges. It can also lead to higher risk-adjusted returns on assets and/or lower financing costs.
53. While it may not be explicitly recognized, many countries apply at least partial SALM concepts. Examples include matching currency of central bank reserves with government external debt, setting guidelines for holdings of public pension funds affecting the choice of their debt instruments, or managing the levels of government cash balances for debt repayment.
54. The SALM approach will typically involve several institutions that should have some degree of autonomy. The main institutions involved will normally be the government (represented by a ministry of finance) and the central bank. Other institutions may include government pension funds, SWFs, and other managers of government-related assets. These institutions usually have a high degree of operational independence to pursue specific objectives. A challenge in applying the SALM framework is to institute coordination mechanisms while respecting the integrity of each institution. In practice, this is usually done through information sharing, the establishment of coordination committees, or setting mandates and regulations for government asset managers.
55. Resource-rich economies face particular challenges in managing financial assets. Prudent management of revenues from nonrenewable sources will often require building up financial assets in the public sector. This poses a number of challenges in investment strategy, governance, and risk management, in addition to macroeconomic policy issues. SWFs have become common practice in many of these countries, and ought to operate in close coordination with other government institutions. SWF assets—and the returns they generate over time—can have a significant effect on public finances, monetary conditions, external accounts, and balance sheet linkages with the rest of the world. By influencing public sector wealth, SWFs have an important role in macroeconomic and fiscal management, and should be integrated in monetary and fiscal policy frameworks.
B. SALM Application
56. Many governments apply a partial SALM approach, in which several elements of the sovereign balance sheet are considered simultaneously, even in the absence of a comprehensive or formal framework. In these cases, governments often determine specific debt management or reserve management strategies that reduce certain exposures and overall balance sheet vulnerabilities. The main financial assets and (explicit) liabilities to consider include government funds, central bank reserves, and public debt.
57. Many of the SALM issues discussed in this paper can be analyzed as liquidity risk management in some form and addressed in an insurance framework. Liquidity risk will in practice be an important risk factor on the government balance sheet. The most valuable assets that the government holds (like the right to tax its citizens) are illiquid by nature. Balance sheet management is, to a large extent, a question of making sure that liquidity is available to meet cash demands on the government. Periods of tight liquidity in global markets may occur rarely, but are severe when they do occur. For this reason, there is generally a willingness to pay, in the form of lower expected returns, to hold liquid assets. Conversely, investors that are able and willing to live with lower liquidity in their portfolios should expect higher returns over time (but large losses in times of tight liquidity). This can be thought of as buying or selling insurance against a liquidity event occurring. In this paper, this trade-off appears in a number of guises:
Should countries have a higher exposure to illiquid assets in their SWF portfolios to get higher returns over time, at the cost of suffering losses if and when a liquidity event occurs?
Should countries build high reserves to reduce the risk of loss in output during a financial crisis, even if there is an opportunity cost to holding those reserves?
Should countries build up liquid reserves with excess revenues rather than repaying debt, even if the cost of servicing debt is higher than expected return on reserves?
Should countries faced with an upward-sloping yield curve try to contain costs, borrowing at the short end of the curve, or pay a maturity premium to avoid rollover risk over periods of tight liquidity?
58. The rest of this section will discuss SALM issues in the context of resource-rich countries, although the analysis is applicable in a wide range of situations. The focus will be on providing an overview of the various trade-offs facing the sovereign with practical examples and policy guidance. The discussion will explore links between the main financial assets and liabilities (reserves, savings funds, pension liabilities, and public debt) on the sovereign balance sheet. Subsections G and H will touch on some of the implicit liabilities, such as future imports.
C. Government Assets and Central Bank Reserves
59. A fundamental issue from the SALM perspective is the link between central bank reserves and other pools of sovereign assets. Central bank reserves and other assets, such as SWFs, constitute the main financial assets on the sovereign balance sheet. Countries with structural current account surpluses, due to natural resource revenues or other factors, will experience growth in reserves. At some point, when reserves are ample, the issue of how to invest “excess” reserves will surface. This is not just an investment strategy issue, but also requires a reassessment of the appropriate institutional set-up to separate and manage two pools of assets.7
60. Countries have adopted different approaches in this area. Some countries with large reserves have carved out parts as a basis for a SWF (e.g., China). Others have divided central bank reserves into separate investment tranches and co-managed the investment tranche with the SWF (Botswana, Norway). In yet other countries, central bank reserves have not been used to form a separate fund, but excess reserves are managed by the central bank in higher-yielding assets with higher risk/longer time horizons (Hong Kong). In designing the investment framework, some basic questions should be addressed, including (i) an assessment of excess reserves; (ii) the investment strategy; and (iii) an appropriate institutional arrangement to support the implementation of that investment strategy.
Assessing ample reserves
61. A growing stock of official reserves, beyond precautionary purposes, could trigger an assessment of reserve adequacy and of whether assets should be invested differently. The adequacy of official reserves should be assessed before other institutional arrangements, or change in the investment strategy, should be considered. From a crisis prevention perspective, the most relevant indicator for emerging market economies is the ratio of international reserves to short-term external debt. For countries with uncertain access to international markets, a simple benchmark is the one that targets the coverage of short-term external debt of all residents and in all instruments and currencies measured by remaining maturity. This means that a country with a balanced current account and no capital flight will have sufficient reserves to cover its obligations for a full year even if it is cut out of external capital inflows. Countries may want to go beyond standard metrics to build additional buffers, especially in cases of running current account deficits, high levels of short-term public domestic debt, derivative positions of the public sector, and weak banking systems. However, at some point, the cost of carrying excessive reserves would outweigh the benefit, and other investment strategies should be considered.
62. The cost of maintaining excess reserves may usefully be addressed in an insurance framework. On the one hand, reserve assets can help reduce the probability and cost of a crisis in terms of output loss. On the other hand, the typically low return of these assets implies an opportunity cost of holding them. This is a parallel framework to the factor-based investment framework discussed in Appendix I, and it is also useful in discussing the issue of optimal debt levels in a situation with increasing reserves (Section D).
Investment strategies for excess reserves
63. In some cases, the size of central bank reserves may warrant investment strategies that are similar to those of long-term savings funds. However, the limited tolerance for reporting losses, combined with marked-to-market accounting standards, may limit the risk and the size of the investment portfolio on central banks’ balance sheets. These are factors that may make it appropriate to carve out reserves to manage under other institutional arrangements, for instance in a SWF. Similar to the case of Norway, the Central Bank of Botswana and the Hong Kong Monetary Authority created separate investment accounts for excess reserves. The Central Bank of Botswana established a separate investment tranche for its reserves—the Pula Fund, which was formally launched in 1993—in view of the growing size of reserves derived from mining revenues. The objective of the Pula Fund was to ensure that Botswana’s national savings are deployed to support long-term development of the economy by diversifying income away from commodities into global financial assets. The fund can also be tapped to finance priority domestic investment projects, taking account of the country’s absorptive capacity of investments. The Bank of Botswana maintains a liquidity tranche equivalent to six months of imports. Should the holdings of this tranche fall below the target, the first line of defense would be macroeconomic policy adjustment, followed by a withdrawal from the Pula Fund based on specific criteria. Similarly, there would be rebalancing in favor of the fund should the reserves in the liquidity tranche exceed the target. The HKMA separates foreign reserves into two portfolios, the Backing Portfolio and the Investment Portfolio. Assets in the Backing Portfolio are invested in highly liquid and short-term U.S. dollar-denominated fixed-income securities. Assets in the Investment Portfolio are invested in a more dynamic way, including investment in equities.
Case Study: Norway
In Norway, the central bank (Norges Bank) has established a separate investment tranche for its reserves that are managed by the bank’s investment arm, NBIM, which also manages the country’s SWF, GPFG. The investment guidelines set by the board of the Norges Bank for this part of the reserves are broadly equivalent to the guidelines set by the ministry of finance for the GPFG.
Institutional issues
64. Several factors should be considered before setting up a SWF to manage excess reserves. The building of a new institution is a considerable investment in time and human capital in many countries and will only be a reasonable approach if excess reserves are judged to persist for some time. Therefore, it is necessary to review the origins of the ample reserves, the longevity of these sources, and the other assets and liabilities of the sovereign to make a judgment as to whether it is appropriate to set up a SWF as a separate institution.
65. With excess reserves managed by a SWF, the issue of coordination with central bank reserves becomes important. Providing liquidity during a BoP crisis is the objective of a country’s official foreign currency reserves and not that of a typical SWF. Contingent calls for liquidity support could potentially prevent the SWF from pursuing a long-term investment horizon and holding less liquid assets, thus undermining the objective of setting up a separate fund. If the SWF needs to provide BoP support, a clear policy and supporting rules and procedures should be established consistent with that purpose. This promotes transparency and accountability of the SWF.
66. Some countries set up guidelines for assets in SWFs to be used for BoP purposes. For example, the Pula Fund in Botswana has agreed on trigger points that allow the funds to be drawn down in the event that macroeconomic policy adjustments have proved insufficient to stabilize the reserve level in the Liquidity Portfolio. In the case of Korea Investment Corporation, assets are qualified as reserve assets and could be used for BoP purposes. Typically, commodity funds also result in disbursements when commodity prices are weak and, thus, tend to support BoP needs even when there is no explicit mandate to do so.
D. Optimal Debt Levels with Government Financial Assets
67. A common issue in the context of ample government revenues is how to optimize government debt levels. It is an issue of particular relevance for many countries in the early stages of natural resource extraction; they will often have an existing stock of debt, when resource revenues come on stream, and may even increase debt to finance investments in exploration and development of resource extraction facilities. When resource revenues materialize, they must decide how to allocate any financial savings between repayment of debt and building up of financial assets.
68. The core of this issue is a balance sheet optimization problem. The net financial assets of the government may not be affected by the decision on debt repayment strategies, but the size of the balance sheet will be. Faster repayment of debt shrinks the sovereign balance sheet relative to a strategy of accumulating financial assets in an SWF, while the magnitude and pace of asset accumulation will depend on the generation of fiscal surpluses. The issue is relevant primarily for the choice between accumulating foreign assets and repaying external debt. For domestic debt, other issues come into play as discussed below.
69. This optimization problem can also be considered in an insurance framework. On the one hand, building up financial assets would provide more flexibility in the execution of fiscal policy. In particular, it would provide financial resources during a crisis, when other sources of funding may be scarce. On the other hand, the risk-adjusted return on financial assets will, in most cases, be lower than the cost of servicing the debt. This net loss coming from building reserves, rather than repaying debt, can be thought of as an insurance premium against situations where government policies would be constrained by lack of immediate access to funds, for instance to respond to a financial crisis, a sudden drop in commodity prices, or weak external demand for the country’s main export commodity. In this context, a sufficient build-up of financial assets to fend against external shocks would be warranted before reducing external debt.
70. The effects of asset accumulation on debt servicing costs should also be considered. As reserves and other pools of sovereign assets grow, the resilience of the economy in the event of adverse shocks increases. This may have a positive effect on credit ratings and the costs of servicing debt, making the “insurance premium” for building financial assets lower. A dynamic approach to assessing the pros and cons of reserve accumulation and investment strategies of financial assets versus debt repayment may, therefore, result in a somewhat higher preference for reserve accumulation at the early stages of natural-resource extraction. For instance, in August 2012 Moody’s indicated the possibility of upgrading the sovereign rating of Angola on the basis of reduced vulnerability to shocks after the establishment of a fiscal stabilization fund to cushion the impact of external shocks on the government finances.
71. The debt profile and asset management capacity will also influence the decision and pace of optimal debt repayment. Long-dated loans, for instance, imply less refinancing risk. Low-income countries that have been granted concessional debt may be better off accumulating financial assets with higher expected returns compared with the low cost of debt service, essentially making the insurance premium negative. Furthermore, the institutional capacity and cost of setting up reserve management should be considered. When the institutional capacity to manage significantly larger reserves in a prudent way is lacking, debt repayment can be an optimal strategy for improving the net asset position of the government until the capacity for asset management is improved.
72. Coordination of asset allocation strategies with debt characteristics may be useful to control and reduce risk. When a government chooses to build international reserves as an alternative to repaying (external) debt, the risks and costs of this strategy can be reduced by coordinating asset and debt characteristics. When the composition of assets reflects liabilities with respect to, for instance, currency composition and duration, risks associated with currency and interest rate movements are reduced.
73. Some countries have opted to shrink their debt stock or reduce balance sheet risk and carrying cost by matching the composition of assets and liabilities. Prompted by negative income results in 2004 and 2005 as a result of both the carrying cost and currency revaluation, the Central Bank of Mexico used excess reserves to repay loans from the Inter-American Development Bank and the World Bank, in essence shrinking the overall balance sheet. In Denmark, exchange rate movements caused large fluctuations in the value of external debt and foreign currency reserves.
Between 1992 and 2001, coordinated management of external debt and reserves took place at quarterly meetings of the Danish Ministry of Finance and Dansmark Nationalbank, where the decisions on currency exposure were taken on an aggregate basis. This reduced net valuation adjustments to external debt and foreign reserves. In 2001, the authorities decided to move towards maintaining only exposure to the euro in both portfolios, eliminating the need for close coordination.
E. Domestic Debt in an SALM Framework
74. Resource-rich countries typically do not face a financing need that warrants issuing domestic debt. However, there could be other objectives, also in the context of ensuring against future shocks, which motivate the sovereign to issue debt domestically to develop a domestic debt market while accumulating foreign assets. Expanding the sovereign balance sheet in this form will depend on the cost of domestic debt and the return on accumulating additional financial assets. It is important in this trade-off to bear in mind the institutional framework and capacity to manage growing financial wealth and sound debt management principals. Where such capacity is lacking, the authorities may opt for less debt accumulation, while building capacity.
75. In parallel with the issuance of government debt, central banks may issue their own debt instruments to manage domestic liquidity. Both types of debt are typically close substitutes, requiring close coordination between the monetary and fiscal authorities to maintain liquidity in both segments and reduce financing costs. Countries try to mitigate some of these problems through a clear market segmentation approach: The central bank issues instruments with relatively short maturity, while the government finances itself at longer maturity. This approach also helps build a full “risk-free” yield curve in domestic currency, off which other instruments can be priced to aid the development of the domestic bond market. This approach requires close coordination between the government and the central bank.
76. An alternative approach is to centralize debt issuance with the government and use treasury instruments for liquidity management. In Brazil, increasing sterilization costs and negative central bank capital in 1999–2000 led to adopting a fiscal responsibility law (2000), incorporating central bank debt into public debt, and prohibiting central bank issuance of its own debt instruments. This enabled the treasury to determine the characteristics of government bonds in the domestic debt market, and the central bank to use those bonds for monetary policy implementation. As a result, quasi-fiscal costs of monetary and foreign exchange management are transparent and effectively transferred to the national budget every six months.
F. Domestic Pension Funds in an SALM Framework
77. Many countries face implicit or explicit pension liabilities that should be integrated into the government financial management framework with an appropriate investment strategy. There may be implicit government guarantees of private pensions or direct liabilities of a public pension system that remain off-balance sheet. Either would require additional government funding to secure pension payments in the event of significant investment losses. In these cases, an actuarial assessment of accrued liabilities could be calculated. In other situations, government pension expenditures may be policy-dependent universal old-age support where the timing and present value of expenditure is at the government’s discretion. Identification and valuation of these liabilities is, therefore, an important issue from a SALM perspective. The liabilities will typically have a very long time horizon, often running several decades into the future. In a defined benefit system, the net present value of liabilities will, thus, be highly sensitive to changes in the discount rate used to convert future outflows into present liabilities. Historically, long-duration, fixed-income instruments have formed an important part of the investment strategy for funds linked to such liabilities.
78. At the same time, there may be important links to the rest of the sovereign balance sheet that need to be addressed. These funds often hold significant investments in domestic government bonds due to regulatory and prudential requirements and because government bonds are typically among the few long-dated investment options available to match the time horizon of pension liabilities. This often raises the issue of investment diversification on the balance sheet of pension funds, especially as bond yields have been very low in recent years, raising concerns over pension funds’ ability to meet their long-term liabilities. In a low interest rate environment, significant holdings of government bonds make it challenging for funds to achieve the returns needed to meet future pension obligations.
79. The Pension Reserve Fund (PRF) in Chile provides a good example to illustrate these issues. The PRF was established in 2006 in response to Chile’s new demographic scenario and the growth of the state’s obligations arising from the government guarantee of basic old-age pensions. The PRF’s principal objective is to generate resources to finance part of the fiscal pension liabilities. Given the size and timing of the liabilities it is designed to finance, the PRF has a medium to long-term investment horizon, with an SAA that has included equity (15 percent) and corporate bonds (20 percent) since 2012. Before 2012, the PRF had a more conservative SAA policy, emphasizing high levels of liquidity and low credit risk and volatility.
80. From a SALM perspective, diversifying pension funds’ investment portfolios may have implications for the consolidated government balance sheet. Broadening the investment mandate of pension funds to riskier assets will result in diverting resources away from the government debt market. From an integrated balance sheet perspective, this implies increasing the size of the general government balance sheet by financing increased exposure to risky assets through higher gross debt. This may have significant implications for the overall robustness of the government balance sheet in the face of adverse shocks.
81. When the issue is international diversification of the assets, even more factors must be considered. In the case of a small economy, a significant switch from domestic to foreign assets for a large domestic pension fund will affect capital flows (in both directions) with implications for exchange rates and monetary policy operations. For instance, increased demand by pension funds for foreign currency to acquire foreign assets will force the central bank to consider whether it should sterilize the effects of the pension fund's demand for foreign currency through drawing down its own currency reserves or accept the associated exchange rate movement stemming from the pension fund's transactions. To the extent that increased currency exposure in the pension fund is offset by lower central bank reserves, there may be consequences for the resilience of the overall balance sheet in the face of adverse shocks as pension fund assets typically will be less liquid than central bank reserves. On the other hand, expected returns may well be higher. For the sovereign balance sheet this is, again, an example of how risk and expected return must be assessed at an aggregate balance sheet level rather than at the level of each individual institution.
82. Coordinating issues should be resolved by providing an appropriate investment mandate for the pension fund. There are important reasons for giving pension funds operational independence in the execution of investment strategies analogous to the case of the SWF discussed below. At the same time, there are legitimate reasons for coordinating the investment strategies of government pension funds with ALM in other government institutions. This coordination will normally best be achieved by setting investment guidelines for the pension fund which reflect the effects of pension fund management on other parts of the government balance sheet.
Case Study: Norway
The GPFN in Norway was established as part of a funded public pension scheme in the 1960s. At the time, the government had a financing requirement which in part was covered by government bond purchases by the fund. Later, in the 1970s, the funding of the scheme was discontinued, and the scheme was put on a pay-as-you-go basis. However, the assets of the fund were kept as government funds and reinvested over the years, but without any formal links to the pension system. Under a reform of the organizational structure of the fund in 2006, it was decided to reduce the balance sheet of the fund and cancel parts of the claims on government, essentially deleveraging the sovereign balance sheet.
G. Future Imports as an Implicit Liability
83. Countries with high revenues from natural resources will often have twin surpluses— both government budget surpluses and current account surpluses. Thus, the accumulation of assets in an SWF does not only reflect financial savings for the government, but also savings for the country as a whole. In this context, future imports may be considered as an implicit liability for the SWF. When looking at the overall economy, the role of current account surpluses is to finance imports at some point in the future. In situations where the SWF assets represent the bulk of a country’s total claims on the rest of the world, those assets will also be an important source of financing for future imports, with some implications for how assets are managed.
84. Considering future imports as implicit liabilities goes beyond the SALM analysis in a strict sense. Future imports are not liabilities for the sovereign balance sheet as only a portion of these goods and services will be imported and consumed directly by the government sector. Nevertheless, considering future imports as an implicit liability will reflect the macroeconomic role of a SWF set up to reinvest foreign currency income from resource extraction. This function could be reflected in the performance metrics used to measure returns of the SWF. If the ultimate objective of the SWF in a macroeconomic sense is to finance future imports, the relevant metric for its value is the development in the international purchasing power of the portfolio, measured as real return in a basket of currencies corresponding to import weights. In practice, many funds report real return figures in which nominal returns in international currency are deflated, using international inflation in some form (Ghana, Norway, Singapore, and the United Arab Emirates).
Case Study: Norway
The real returns of the GPFG are calculated using nominal returns in the currencies of the portfolio deflated by a weighted average of inflation in the benchmark currencies of the fund.
85. If purchasing power parity holds, import patterns should not be an important consideration in determining the geographical distribution of assets. The basis for expecting international purchasing power parity to apply is the “law of one price,” which states that similar products, traded internationally, will have similar prices in different countries (calculated in a common currency). If the price difference were disproportionately large, the cheapest products would begin to outcompete the most expensive. Over time there would be a trend towards price equalization. The larger the initial price difference, the stronger the competition from the cheapest products, and the stronger the price-equalization trend. International purchasing power parity will continue to be a reasonable approach, as long as the law of one price applies to a wide range of goods and services that are traded internationally. And if this is the case, the geographical distribution of assets will not, in itself, affect the purchasing power of those assets.
86. In practice, purchasing power parity may be a reasonable assumption for a long-term investor. The deviations from parity may be significant in both the short and the medium term. If, however, exchange rates tend to return to stable equilibrium levels, exchange rate risk will be relatively smaller for long-term investors. Some SWFs are set up with withdrawal rules that imply annual transfers to the government budget, in principle, indefinitely. This implies less vulnerability to exchange rates at a particular time in the future and that the average level of exchange rates over longer periods will be more important for the SWFs total international purchasing power. International purchasing power parity means that the exchange rates can be expected, on average, to be close to their long-term equilibrium levels over the relevant investment period for the SWF.
87. For equity investments, it is also unclear how one should properly define geographical distribution and currency exposure. In traditional financial theory, a market-weighted portfolio gives the best balance between expected returns and risk. This portfolio will give exposure to a representative share of the traded productive capacity of the global economy. It will comprise ownership interests in companies with operations in many countries. Accordingly, it is less meaningful to assign a geographical association or currency to the companies on the basis of the location of their head office or where they are listed.
88. If the implicit liability for an SWF is future imports, buying a representative share of the productive capacity that will produce those imports becomes a reasonable hedging strategy. This argument links back to the issue of relevant risk discussed in Section 3. While equities may seem risky in the sense that their market value fluctuates, they may represent a good hedge— and thus reduce risk—if the implicit liabilities of the SWF are future imports of goods and services.
H. Natural Resources in a SALM Framework
89. The SALM framework can usefully be extended to the analysis of nonfinancial assets, such as natural resources. The net present value of the government’s cash flows from such resources constitutes an asset on the sovereign balance sheet. In this context, the issue is whether there are implications for the optimal management of other assets and liabilities in having natural resource assets on the sovereign balance sheet. Specifically, transforming the natural resource to a financial asset would smooth the overall volatility of the sovereign balance sheet, as the present value of the natural resource in the ground is derived from commodity prices, which typically exhibit higher volatility than that of income-producing financial assets.
90. Income volatility is a major challenge for most resource-rich countries. Countries have different strategies for coping with this volatility, but in a growing number of countries, various forms of buffer or stabilization funds have become a central part of volatility management. Some countries (e.g., Mexico) have, from time to time, also used financial instruments (options or forward contracts) to put a “floor” under resource revenues or reduce their overall volatility.
91. The design of the system for “total government take” (TGT) will have a large influence on the level of income volatility.8 In this respect, income volatility can be seen as a policy variable, where countries choose optimal volatility levels based on risk preferences and capacity, as well as assessments of expected returns.
92. The issue of optimal design of a system for TGT can usefully be evaluated in a SALM framework. The TGT system will not only determine the division of revenues between the government and private sector companies in the extractive sector, but also the division of risks. In general, when government shifts risk to private sector companies through reliance on TGT elements like royalties that have low correlation with profitability, government must also compensate companies through higher expected returns—and thus a higher share of the overall resource rent— to keep the risk/return trade-off sufficiently attractive for them. Conversely, a government that is prepared to take more risk through the TGT system should expect to get a higher share of the resource rent. In a SALM framework, the value of holding liquid reserves in a buffer fund increases if it allows the government to rely more on TGT elements, like profit taxes that provide more volatile revenues but a higher share of the resource rent over time.
93. Some countries with SWFs and petroleum reserves have chosen to exclude petroleum-related assets from the portfolios of their SWFs. The argument for this is that the government’s total petroleum price risk will be unnecessarily high through financial investments in this sector, since the value of the SWF will be correlated with the value of the government’s revenues from oil and gas and the level of activity in the economy in general.
94. Other countries have chosen not to exclude petroleum-related investments from their pools of financial assets. The Norwegian Ministry of Finance published an analysis of the issue in 2009 (see Norwegian Ministry of Finance, 2009). The ministry noted that, given the investment strategy of the GPFG and the characteristics of the Norwegian petroleum wealth, the effects on oil price risk of excluding oil- and gas-related assets from the GPFG would be negligible. In the ministry’s view, the analysis of the issue did not provide grounds for changing the current investment strategy, which entails a broad and well-diversified exposure to the world’s equity and bond markets across various countries and sectors. The effect of excluding a large portion of the equity market would be a significant increase in the weight of the other sectors (where the financial sector is still the largest sector). Somewhat less exposure to the price of oil would be achieved, but there would be greater exposure to other sectors and risk factors. In practice, these risk factors (e.g., liquidity) could be more correlated with other parts of the sovereign balance sheet. In addition, many petroleum companies are in the process of transforming themselves into broader based energy companies, with significant investments in new and renewable sources of energy. Excluding large, listed petroleum companies will also reduce exposure to these parts of the energy sector.
95. Both approaches may be warranted, depending on specific country circumstances. Among petroleum producing countries, there is great variation in the role petroleum plays in the national economy and as part of the sovereign balance sheet. For countries with SWFs, there are also significant differences with respect to investment strategies and with respect to the size of the SWF relative to the domestic economy. When a SWF functions as an effective buffer against volatility in oil prices, that, in itself, will be a significant risk-reducing measure, which may reduce the benefits of alternative risk-reduction strategies.
96. In any case, it would be a recommended practice for resource-rich economies to integrate the analysis of natural resource assets in an SALM framework. This is of particular importance in situations in which countries have both substantial resource assets and large financial reserves and in which the resource sector is a significant part of the national economy. An explicit analysis of possible implications of resource wealth for optimal management of other assets (and liabilities) could provide a valuable tool to mitigate risks and improve the overall resilience of the economy and the sovereign balance sheet.
Governance and Risk Management of SWF
A. SWF Governance Structure
97. The legal framework of an SWF should include a clear ownership structure, management responsibility, and an investment mandate. In most cases, the SWF manger is acting on behalf of the beneficiary and legal owner, which is often the central government, and operates under conditions prescribed by the owner.9 In other cases, the SWF is the legal owner of the assets under its management.
98. It is useful to distinguish between governing bodies and supervisory bodies in the organization of SWFs. The authority to invest is delegated from the top of the governance system through the various governing bodies down to the individual (internal or external) asset managers. The delegation implies a gradual increase in the granularity of regulations as one moves down the system. Each governing body should establish a supervisory body to assist in supervising the governing body directly below. The role of the supervisory body is to verify that the supervised unit is acting in accordance with the regulations set by the governing body immediately above it in the governance structure.
99. It is also helpful to distinguish between those bodies that are internal to the organization and those that are external. While the internal bodies are part of the legal structure of the SWF, external bodies are (or belong to) other legal persons who have a clearly defined role in managing the SWF, for instance as owner or external auditor (Figure 4).
100. In a generic SWF set-up, we can distinguish between five governing bodies at different levels:
The owner of the SWF is the central government. The parliament adopts the laws that establish the legal structure of the fund and, thus, the legal basis for its operations. Depending on the general division of roles and responsibilities between the parliament and the executive branch of government, the parliament may also have a role in determining the appropriate aggregate risk level of the fund.
In most cases, the full government (i.e., the cabinet or the council of ministers) or the minister of finance will be carrying out the functions of the owner of the SWF. This role implies inter alia the task of setting a mandate for the investment organization within the general framework provided by the parliament.
The executive board is the highest governing body inside the legal structure of the management organization. It sets internal rules and regulations (e.g., investment guidelines) within the mandate and legal constraints set by the owner. It also appoints the chief executive officer (CEO) of the investment organization.
The CEO is the administrative head of the investment organization. He/she is responsible for day-to-day operations within the guidelines set by the board.
The individual managers (internal and external) operate within risk limits set by the CEO and his/her staff. Normally, the CEO will delegate the running of the investment department to a chief investment officer (CIO) that operates within the investment guidelines, with each level down in the hierarchy having a narrower investment mandate up to the individual manager level.
101. The governing bodies have supervisory bodies working for them to verify that the level immediately below operates within the rules and regulations that have been set for it. This will typically include:
In most countries the auditor general is established by the parliament to audit and control the activities of the executive branch of government. In this context, one of its roles will be to verify that the ministry of finance (or other body acting as formal owner) operates within the laws and regulations laid down by the parliament and that reports to the parliament are correct and relevant.
The external auditor will usually be appointed by the governing body representing the owner (often the ministry of finance). The auditor audits the accounts of the SWF and verifies that the fund is managed within the rules and regulations set by the owner. The external auditor can also, on an ad hoc basis, perform other control activities, for instance assessing the quality of the internal control system.
The internal auditor is appointed by and reports to the executive board. The internal auditor supports the board in supervising the management of the SWF and verifying that internal regulations are adhered to.
The compliance unit is a tool for the CEO to verify that all activities are in compliance with the rules and regulations governing the SWF’s operations.
Case Study: Norway
The governance structure of the GPFG follows this generic structure with one exception: Since the manager is the central bank, it is the Supervisory Council of the bank that appoints the external manager, not the ministry of finance.
102. This setup supports a clear division of roles and responsibilities between the different governing bodies. If supervisory bodies are charged with supervising several governance levels simultaneously, there is a risk that the governing body receiving the audit report from this supervisor will also be seen as responsible for addressing any shortcomings detected by the auditor, regardless of at which level in the governance structure the shortcoming exists. This risks blurring the division of roles and responsibilities and preventing sufficient delegation in the governance chain. When— due to practical considerations—one supervisory body does supervise more than one other governing body, care should be taken to ensure that any negative side effects are minimized.
103. The actual set-up of SWFs varies from country to country due to differences in political institutions. For instance, the nature of the relationship between the parliament and the ministry of finance in the governance structure will depend on the general relationship between the legislative and executive branches of the government. In a parliamentary system, the interactions between the two branches of the government may be different from a system in which the two branches are elected separately. However, there are common principles that are essential to well-governed SWFs. The legitimacy of an SWF’s operations is underpinned by a solid legal basis and the establishment of a chain of governing bodies from the legislature down to the individual asset managers with accountability at each level.
104. The differences in political institutions may also affect the structuring of supervisory bodies. In particular, the role of the auditor general and the coordination of audit processes between the auditor general and an external (private) auditor for the SWF is an important issue. Several options are available, including separating the functions of auditing the body charged with exercising ownership of the SWF (usually the ministry of finance) and the auditing of the SWF activities, or establishing a joint audit between the auditor general and a private sector external auditor. The complexities of auditing SWFs with extensive foreign investments would often, in any case, make it useful—in an appropriate formal arrangement with the auditor general—to draw on the resources of a private sector external auditor with experience in auditing other asset managers.
105. There must be a clear and transparent division of roles and responsibilities between the different governing bodies to achieving accountability and legal certainty. Both regulatory gaps and overlaps in duties and responsibilities should be avoided. In particular, care must be taken to distinguish between the owner and the manager of SWF assets. The central government is the owner of the SWF’s assets on behalf of the people. The duties of the owner are normally vested in a governing body below the parliament, usually the ministry of finance, although other bodies, like a board of trustees or guardians, could fill this role. These governing bodies are outside the legal structure of the asset management organization. In this respect, they can be regarded as principals, with the management organization being the agent in the operational asset management.
106. It can also be useful to distinguish between the government’s role as owner of the asset management institution and its role as owner of the managed assets. When SWFs are managed as a pool of assets, for instance by a central bank, there is a clear distinction between the SWF as a pool of managed assets and the institution in charge of the operational management of those assets. This distinction between management organization and managed assets can also be useful when a single-purpose institution is set up to manage SWF assets. In this regard, clarity about roles and responsibilities and a clear accountability framework would help protect professional asset managers of the SWF from political pressure.
107. There is an important distinction between a corporation with paid-in capital, managing what is formally its own assets, and an asset management company, where managed assets constitute a liability to the central government as owner of the SWF. There may be advantages and disadvantages to both approaches.10 By setting up a SWF as a fund management entity, the SWF could usefully serve as manager of different portfolios under separate mandates. For instance, a separate portfolio for stabilization purposes could be established alongside a savings portfolio with a more long-term investment horizon.
B. Risk Management for SWFs
108. There must be appropriate delegation of investment decisions from the owner to the asset manager and within the management organization. Asset management is highly skill-intensive, and proper delegation to professional staff is required for successful implementation of investment strategies. Delegation also serves to focus the attention of each governing body on the issues that are critical for success at its level in the governance system. While a sound and robust strategy is necessary for successful management of the SWF, there must be flexibility in the implementation of the strategy to deal with changing market conditions. In many cases, this will require faster decision-making processes than a highly centralized system could provide.
109. At the same time, the governance structure must allow the owner to determine the appropriate aggregate level of risk. While investment professionals can make qualified statements about the relationship between risk and expected return in financial markets, financial theory in itself cannot provide a definitive answer on the appropriate level of risk for the SWF. This level depends on the level of risk aversion of the ultimate beneficiaries of the SWF—the people. This implies that the level of risk should be set by a process which allows political bodies like the parliament and/or the ministry of finance to establish at least broad guidelines for the appropriate level of risk for the SWF’s investments.
110. In this respect, the formulation of the investment mandate by the owner is a key decision. The investment mandate forms the basis for the investment process and can take several forms, depending on the level of delegation from the owner to the manager. In the most delegated form, the mandate empowers the manager to determine the SAA himself, often under the restriction of minimizing risk for an explicitly stated return objective. A less delegated approach is to set explicit benchmarks for each eligible asset class and weigh them together to form an overall benchmark portfolio with explicit limits on allowed deviations from the benchmark (active management). An intermediate approach is to set out broad intervals for allocations to various asset classes and give quantitative and/or qualitative regulations on risk.
Case Study: Norway
For the GPFG, the ministry of finance, as the owner, has set a relatively detailed mandate for the central bank’s management of the fund. The mandate specifies allocation to various asset classes and sets benchmarks and risk limits, as well as requirements for risk management.
111. The formulation of the mandate will determine whether the asset manager should focus on absolute or relative returns. An absolute return objective gives the manager responsibility for the absolute returns of the portfolio over time, which in principle would align the incentive structure of the asset manager with the interest of the owner, provided that the return objective is consistent with a level of risk that is acceptable to the owner. However, while there is a positive correlation between risk and expected return, there is no correlation between risk and actually realized returns over the short and medium term. The governance structure, therefore, must be robust enough to tolerate potentially substantial deviations from the stated return targets for long periods of time. With a benchmark and risk limits set by the owner, there is more direct control over SAA from the owner’s side. The fluctuations in returns over time will then, to a large extent, be attributable to the asset allocation decisions made by the owner through setting the benchmark, rather than to the investment decisions made by the manager within the given mandate. The focus of the manager in this structure would be not on the absolute returns, but on the returns relative to the benchmark.
112. Guidelines for internal and external reporting must be integrated into the governance framework. A good system of internal reporting is necessary for good risk management and accountability at the different levels of governance. At the same time, transparency in the form of good external reporting will increase the legitimacy of the SWF and provide disciplinary pressure on the manager.
Basic principles
113. The approach to risk management should build on the same principles as the rest of the governance system. This implies a framework for risk management characterized by clearly delegated mandates, defined roles and responsibilities, accountability, transparency, and professionalism. The scope of risk management should cover all material aspects of risks affecting investment operations and should include financial (e.g., credit, market, and liquidity risks), operational, and reputational risks.
114. A SWF needs to have a strong risk management culture, in which senior management is engaged in developing and enforcing the risk management process. Adherence to high standards in risk management with sound operational controls and systems are necessary to meet the objectives of the SWF and to preserve legitimacy domestically. It will also be seen by the international community and markets as necessary in achieving the aim of preserving international financial stability, as well as maintaining a stable, transparent, and open investment environment. This risk management process would typically consist of the following components:
Risk policies and procedures: a set of written principles that are endorsed by the board of directors (BoD), implemented by the CEO, and disseminated within the institution.
Risk identification: the process by which a SWF defines the nature of the risk it faces and an essential part of the risk management process.
Risk measurement: a measurement methodology that allows comparison across the different dimensions of risk and enables risk considerations to be factored into performance measurement and investment management decisions.
Risk monitoring: the operational process by which the SWF ensures that it operates within its defined risk policies and procedures.
Risk reporting: typically refers to an internal reporting process.
Risk verification and audit: the component of the risk process that ensures the risk management systems and techniques are effective.
115. In assessing appropriate risk levels, it is helpful to distinguish between risks that are rewarded or desirable and risks that are not. As discussed above, various forms of market risk are rewarded through positive expected returns. The so-called consequential risks, such as operational and legal risks, are the risks that inevitably arise as a result of being in the financial/investment management industry.
116. The owner or the governing body of the SWF typically determines risk objectives. Broad risk principles are generally established within the law governing the SWF or by the owner of the fund. Consistent with the SWF’s overall objective(s) (i.e., whether the fund serves the objective of economic stabilization, saving for future generations, or other), the owner of the fund would need to formulate and articulate consistent risk tolerance parameters, such as the fund’s investment horizon and its overall risk tolerance. Risk tolerance exemplifies the hypothetical line between acceptable and unacceptable investment outcomes and should reflect the fund’s ability to take risk in the operating environment. Subsequently, the risk tolerance is translated into a quantifiable risk measure that could be expressed as a shortfall probability, the probability of not achieving a certain return target or worst case outcome at a certain confidence level.11
117. The operational investment management must be carried out by investment professionals. It should be delegated from the owner to the fund, which would implement the asset management function through internal and/or external portfolio managers with clearly defined operational mandates. The choice between internal and external managers will usually reflect costs and access to relevant skills. There are large economies of scale in fund management, so larger funds may find it cost efficient to develop internal management to cover most of their needs. For smaller funds, the issue is often whether sufficient skilled labor is available to build competent internal management at a cost that is competitive with external management. Similarly, resource-rich developing countries may face human-resource constraints in managing investment operations, suggesting the need to delegate investment to external managers. In this context, it is also relevant to consider important principal-agent problems that arise when fund management is outsourced, which calls for a minimum level of oversight and capacity by the owner to supervise the manager. For developing countries with limited oversight capacity, it would be advisable to start by a simple and transparent benchmark for SAA and avoid unnecessary risk-taking or sophisticated risk-management strategies.
Case Study: Norway
For the GPFG, the focus is on returns relative to the benchmark set by the owner. The board of the central bank has set quantitative regulations on the acceptable level of operational risk within the bank, including for the management of the GPFG. In Norway, the investment management arm of the central bank, NBIM, manages both the GPFG, under a mandate from the ministry of finance, and the investment tranche of the central bank’s own reserves, under a separate mandate given by the board of the bank.
118. Unlike financial risks, operational risks will not be rewarded, so the objective of operational risk management is to mitigate (residual) risks to an acceptable level. While exposure to financial risks leads to greater volatility in the market value of investment assets, but is expected to lead to higher returns over time, operational risks could potentially lead to significant losses of principal or even to the failure of the firm.12 Operational risk is largely endogenous to the SWF. Apart from external events, such as natural catastrophes, it is linked to the business environment, nature, and complexity of investment activities, the processes and systems in place, and the quality of the management and of the information flows. Operational risks cannot be completely avoided or eliminated, and even if operational risk has no expected return, there will be costs associated with reducing it. There is, thus, a trade-off to be made between the cost of accepting risk and the cost of mitigating it, which should be made explicit in risk policy documents and is often based on an impact and likelihood analysis.
119. The most important operational risk management tool is appropriate internal organizational structure with clear segregation of duties. The organizational structure should be designed to achieve appropriate segregation of duties between execution of portfolio transactions and operations, including compliance monitoring, performance measurement and reporting, and settlement and accounting. This could be achieved by setting up separate departments with the head of each department reporting directly to the CEO, who would then delegate specific and clearly defined roles and accountabilities to each group and position. To support reporting and enforce segregation of duties, the framework should include reliable information technology systems, parts of which access to should be limited to only the people with the appropriate authorization (e.g., in the back office). Public disclosure of the SWF’s approach to its risk management policies and key actions related to governance and the soundness of its operations helps in reassuring domestic and international stakeholders that the SWF adheres to a high standard of managing operational, regulatory, and reputational risks.
Conclusion
120. The paper analyzed the various investment and liability management decisions facing the policymaker, presenting a conceptual framework for an integrated SALM framework with the aim of minimizing vulnerabilities on the sovereign balance sheet. The paper also analyzed and illustrated the evolution of these decisions, focusing on relevant country examples.
121. Given the variety of country circumstances, a number of broad guiding principles can be distilled from the analysis of the interlinkages across elements of the sovereign balance sheet, particularly:
In cases where reserve adequacy assessment points to ample reserves, there is merit in carving out a portion for long-term investment strategies in dedicated savings funds, taking account of the appropriate institutional framework and coordination mechanism.
Optimizing the sovereign balance sheet should take into consideration the stage of asset accumulation. Expanding the sovereign balance sheet by allowing reserve accumulation and building financial wealth would be advisable during the early stages of extraction, while a policy of reducing sovereign debt would become more appropriate in situations where the cost of external debt is high and/or the carrying cost of reserves exceeds the self-insurance benefit and alternative arrangements for investing reserves are not feasible.
Although resource-rich countries typically do not face a financing need that warrants issuing domestic debt, there could be other objectives that motivate the sovereign to issue debt domestically, including developing a domestic debt market, while accumulating foreign assets. Expanding the sovereign balance sheet in this form will depend on the cost of domestic debt, the return on accumulating additional financial assets, institutional capacity to manage growing financial wealth, and sound debt management principals.
The structure and nature of contingent and implicit liabilities should inform the investment objectives and strategies of sovereign assets. This will be reflected in the type of savings fund and associated investment horizon, mandate, and risk profile.
Sovereign funds should favor a clear mandate and legal structure, transparent governance, and appropriate and clear delineation of responsibility between the owner of the fund and its management. Clarity about the fund's investment mandate and managers’ accountability should also be ensured. | https://www.elibrary.imf.org/view/journals/007/2014/078/article-A001-en.xml |
Student’s Comment/Additional Requirement: The assignment I would like you to write is a literature review of the organic food market from a marketing perspective. It is about making connections between the texts I have given you. It is not enough to simply summarize them, you must also make links between them. The texts that I have provided you with as attachments are the references that must be included in the text. All the texts have been approved by my project manager so it is very important that they are there. I am a Master’s student in Marketing at the University, this is a very serious and important job for me.
Sample Solution/Assignment Answer
Supervised Biobio project
Student Name
University
Date
Contents
Market Objective of Agro food sector 6
Current Situation OF agro food Sector 6
Market offerings and distribution function 7
Marketing strategies and programs 8
Introduction
The agro-food industry can be described as the sector that includes all operations in industrial production units relating to the processing, the preservation, the preparation and the packing of agricultural and food products.
The Canadian agri-food sector extends from primary agriculture, aquaculture, food, fish, and drink production through a variety of industries. Canada has gained a global reputation as a source of healthy and high-quality goods for our passionate and hard-working manufacturers, processors and supply chain partners. (Tanumihardjo et al., 2020). International investors can rely on the abundant Canadian agricultural product base, its innovative research networks and a collaborative environment funded by governments, universities, health institutions and industry through robust regulator and food inspection systems to enable manufacturing of world class processed foods.
The regulatory framework of Canada, globally recognised, ensures world-class standards and clean, reliable high quality goods. So in many cases the authorisation for use in Canada leads, in other markets, to quicker acceptance.
Opportunities / Threats
- The large Canadian agricultural and agri-food infrastructure has already been used by foreign investors. It provides a new, complex and interconnected supply chain that is sustainable (Bronson et al., 2019). It is a complex and robust mechanism that continually adapts to changing market requirements, changes in technology and globalisation.
- Certain food-related disorders, for example obesity, diabetics and celiac patients, may be a new niche in the industry as these customers may also expand the business.
- Companies supplying Agro-Food equipment are continually innovating to reduce costs in their manufacturing processes.
- Increased exports occur in certain industries, such as beef, due to domestic demand slowdown.
Threats
- Commercial globalisation has contributed to the creation of new players, including Brazil, Argentina, Chile and New Zealand, on the international stage. This makes the world agro-food markets more sustainable.
- Prices for energy, raw materials and production factors have been extremely volatile in recent years, which has impacted the agro food industry by raising the cost of production.
- The industry has a lot of market rivalry, mostly between high-sales brands, ads and proprietary brands. brands are also involved.
- The acquisition by international companies of Catalan companies to merge marketing systems leads to the gradual disappearance of the Catalan family enterprises of the third and fourth generation. These acquisitions are difficult for main Catalan businesses, as decision-making ability for the agricultural and food sectors is therefore lost in Catalonia.
- Distribution and the predominance of own labels are very concentrated. This ensures that the industry faces problems such as heavy competition and a lack of negotiation with major retail chains.
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PESTEL Analysis is a strategic framework used to assess the outside environment of businesses by breaking down political, economic, social, technological, environmental and legal opportunities and risks (Bacentti et al., 2015).
Political Factor
When you look at political factors, you see how government policy and actions interfere with the economy and other factors that could influence a company. These are as followsPolitical Factor
When you look at political factors, you see how government policy and actions interfere with the economy and other factors that could influence a company. These are as follows:
- Tax Policy
- Trade Restrictions
- Tariffs
- Bureaucracy
Economic Factor
Economic factors take account of the various economic aspects and how your business could have an impact on each area. The Central Banks and other government agencies normally measure and report these economic indicators. The following are included:
- Council on Economic Growth
- Council of Interest
- Council Exchange
- Unemployment rates for inflation
Socio- Cultural
The study of PESTEL also includes social variables that contribute to social cultural and demographic patterns. The determination of consumer behaviour is based on social expectations and strain. The following factors need to be taken into account:
- Cultural aspects and insights
- Knowledge of health
- The Council for Populations
- Career attitudes of age distribution
Technical Factor
Innovation in the industry as well as innovation in the overall economy are due to technological factors. Not up to date with the latest market developments can be very detrimental to operations. The following are technological factors:
- Technological incentives for R&D activity automation
- The rate of technological change
Environmental Factor
The ecological effects on industry are environmental factors. With severe weather becoming more popular, companies need to plan how they will adapt. The following are the main environmental factors:
- Conditions of weather
- Temperature
- Change in climate
- Contamination
- Natural catastrophes (tsunami, tornadoes, etc.)
Legal Factors
The distinction between policy and legal considerations in the PESTEL analysis is always unclear. Legal factors relate to legal forces that determine what can or cannot be done by a company. The relationship between company and government involves political considerations. Political and legal considerations will collide as public bodies implement legislation and policies that influence how companies function. The following are the legal factors:
- Licenses & Permits for Industry Regulation
- Intellectual property rights in labour law
Market Objective of Agro food sector
THE AGRI-FOOD INDUSTRY is Canada’s largest manufacturing industry. It is the major contributor to global innovation and development, contributes over $110 bn to the Canadian gross domestic product (GDP), employs 2.3 million people, exported nearly $56 billion and imports $44.5 billion of goods. A global leading agricultural production and agri-food export base is an advantage that foreign investors can rely on with proven operations in Canada. Canada produced almost 88 million tonnes, and in 2017 it is the fifth-largest exporter of agricultural products, with grain, fuel oilseeds and specialty crops.
In more than 40 countries and over US $41 billion or more, over half of global GDP Canada has preferential markets access. The agreement includes preferential access to the North American and European countries with the NAFTA and the Comprehensive Economic and Trade Convention of the European Union of Canada (CETA). Canada also participates in CPTPP, which includes ten additional economies, including Japan and Australia, as part of the Comprehensive and Progressive Trans Pacific Partnership Agreement. These trading agreements permit Canadian investors to benefit from integrated global agri-food supply chains and to exploit new export markets.
Market Strategy 2021
Agriculture Canada says in its 2020-21 plan, which sets the next year’s goals, “will continue to help the industry to seize market opportunities and sustain or enhance access to foreign markets through, among other things, through the negotiation and implementation of trade agreements, by promoting Canadian agro-food products, and by overcoming or mitigating market barriers.”
Agriculture Canada expects to develop a policy for more “gender research” to resolve gender differences in the agro-food value chain over the next five years.
Agriculture Canada is also committed to extending this gender-based analysis to all trade agreements and ‘explores using specific calls for programme applications to promote proposals for groups that are underrepresented working in this sector.
The Food Policy for Canada, supported by $134 million in funding, will also be introduced over the next year in order to “create a more coordinated approach to food system opportunities and food issues in Europe.”
The Agr0-Food Table set an ambitious objective of $85 billion in agriculture, food, and seafood exported up to the year 2025 after analysing international and domestic developments and growth opportunities (a 32 per cent rise from $74.6 billion in 2017). In recognising the value of the Canadian industry, we agreed to set a domestic market target of $140 billion by 2025 for the sales of farm and food-processing goods (27 percent up from $110 billion by 2017). These growth goals would make Canada a world leader in value-added markets by reclaiming previous domestic losses.
Methodology
In the research methodology and the need to incorporate the economics of the distribution of food into the relationship structure and its social, structural and political influences. A methodological approach linked to the selection of the level of geographic study, that is, the urban sphere – the space and level at which the problems of the African food crisis have to be observed – meets the needs for a complete understanding (Watts et al., 2005). Since food distribution is not merely a matter of technology, it is here that the various disciplinary methods are rearranged and assembled into a formal conception framework that combines technological and economic aspects.
Current Situation OF agro food Sector
COVID-19 has brought about a major world economic downturn and serious disruptions to trade. Due to a rapid decrease in economic activity, the provision and demand for agriculture and food products have become unpredictable with social distancing measures and the major challenges faced by tourist, retail and restaurant industries. But, in spite of continuing work scarcity, the agricultural sector in Canada’s exports have been very resilient with food processing and crop shipments and work-market activity, which have significantly outperformed most economic sectors. (Fernandez et al., 2020). The FPT Ministers of Agriculture held their first of 2 virtual meetings at the annual conference of the Central, Provincial and Territorial (FPT) Ministers of Agriculture. Ministries gathered electronically and take the key decisions to make sure that we are able to meet the challenges posed by the pandemic and sectoral growth in our agriculture and agri-food sectors. The contribution of women and men in the sector will be an essential element in the recovery of economy as COVID-19 continues to affect the economy of Canada and presents ongoing challenges for the agricultural and agri-food sector. The industry has proven to be extremely resilient and adapted to enormous changes.
Strength
- Fertile, rich soil, plenty of fresh water and immense natural resources.
- Canadian consumers’ cultural and culinary diversity provides countless niche markets and encourages creative food products developed.
- The world-class regulatory and food inspection framework most trustworthy and globally recognised to monitor standards and healthy nutritious high-quality goods.
- A network of research establishments that produce state of the art technology and products.
- The promotion of invention, cultivation and manufacture of various products with demonstrated benefits in health is a public, private and academic cooperation.
Market offerings and distribution function
A little before, a marketing scheme was said to have two distinct dimensions. The institutions, organisations and firms participating in a market are one factor and the second is the role played by those involved. Kohls and Uhl6 have categorised agricultural and food marketing functions under three sets of marketing functions.
A. Exchange Functions
- Buying
- Selling
B. Physical Functions
- 3. Storage
- 4. Transportation
- 5. Processing
C. Facilitating Functions
- 6. Standardisation
- 7. Financing
- 8. Risk Bearing
Regarding brand management
As suppliers of their raw materials, food manufacturers will have special expectations of agriculture, including:
Quality: Food producers aim to create a profitability company by differentiating certain goods that have value for customers In order to create a profitable sector. The manufacturers then mark the product to allow customers to recognise the differentiated product (Winter, 2003). Hostellers will then generate customer loyalty to these brands. Only through consistent delivery of high quality is usually established brand loyalty.
Cost: Cost will come next to quality. The food industry is able to identify the least cost source at any given quality standard with an expanded capacity to scan the planet for raw materials. The food producer needs to stop producing agricultural products in the country in which he/she manufactures or markets.
Product differentiation: the food sector must constantly innovate in competitive brand marketing to produce innovative goods that are not the same as their own products or rivals. Traditionally, the reach of creativity has been processed.
Aspects of health: We have already mentioned that healthy eating can become a priority for consumers in more sophisticated food markets. Farmers would also have to know whether they are growing in the health connotations. It is important to take into account two aspects of health. The food can interest consumers themselves, i.e., low fat, low sugar or low salt. It would be a mistake to assume that health problems are limited to the more advanced food markets or the richer sectors of the population.
Marketing strategies and programs
The Canadian agro-food sector extends from primary agriculture, aquaculture, food, fish, and drink production through a variety of industries. Canada has gained a global reputation as a source of healthy and high-quality goods for our passionate and hard-working manufacturers, processors and supply chain partners(Souiden et al., 2019). With the population of the world forecast to expand up to 10 billion by 2050, the increasing world demand for protein offers enormous opportunities. We may take advantage of these opportunities but it will not be easy. The industry faces intensive competitive stresses in both the world and domestic markets, requiring Canadian innovation leadership, an agile regulatory framework and infrastructure to protect our role as a preferred supplier to high value markets.
There are always three factors in the success of a given marketing board:
- Its contribution to effective and orderly marketing
- Reduced intermediary ability to exploit margins at the detriment of suppliers and consumers
- Producer-focused monopoly power generation
The interests of the farmer are to get the best return from the output, which is typically the maximum price for unlimited amounts. Manufacturers want the farmer to sell it at affordable yet profitable rates at a lower cost and better quality. Traders and retailers want a producer or farmer’s high quality and stable supply at reasonable prices. Consumers want to buy goods of high quality at low prices.
Budget Breakdown
By 2020, Canada will be one of the top five competitors to feed the diverse global customer in the agricultural and food industry that has been recognised as the best-confident, competitive and trusted supplier of clean, sustainable, high-quality agri-food products (Greenville et al., 2019). Our supply chain will be leading in digital and technology, and we are a favourite protein supplier in the world.
Conclusion
Agriculture is an essential component of intelligent development. It is critical to the independence of every state that it can feed its people themselves. Ontario has resources which have enabled the creation of a healthy, nutritious, and reliable food sector of the world class. There is no need to underestimate the potential to feed local people from local sources. Agriculture has very unique locational relations and is a complex sector. Some plants can only be cultivated in particular places, where a number of variables such as soil, humidity, temperature and topographies have to be combined. When agricultural activities lose these areas, it also loses the opportunity to grow crops requiring the specific combination of factors. The public needs to recognise that farmland is a non-renewable resource that requires effective methods of management. The decision-makers must weigh the effects of the decision and analyse it for Ontario in the long-term loss before they allow land to go out of production.
References
Tanumihardjo, S.A., McCulley, L., Roh, R., Lopez-Ridaura, S., Palacios-Rojas, N. and Gunaratna, N.S., 2020. Maize agro-food systems to ensure food and nutrition security in reference to the Sustainable Development Goals. Global Food Security, 25, p.100327.
Bacenetti, J., Duca, D., Negri, M., Fusi, A. and Fiala, M., 2015. Mitigation strategies in the agro-food sector: the anaerobic digestion of tomato puree by-products. An Italian case study. Science of the Total Environment, 526, pp.88-97.
Billen, G., Le Noë, J. and Garnier, J., 2018. Two contrasted future scenarios for the French agro-food system. Science of the Total Environment, 637, pp.695-705.
Notarnicola, B., Salomone, R., Petti, L., Renzulli, P.A., Roma, R. and Cerutti, A.K. eds., 2015. Life cycle assessment in the agri-food sector: case studies, methodological issues and best practices. Springer.
Fernandez-Mena, H., Gaudou, B., Pellerin, S., MacDonald, G.K. and Nesme, T., 2020. Flows in Agro-food Networks (FAN): An agent-based model to simulate local agricultural material flows. Agricultural Systems, 180, p.102718.
Winter, M., 2003. Geographies of food: agro-food geographies making reconnections. Progress in Human geography, 27(4), pp.505-513.
Watts, D.C., Ilbery, B. and Maye, D., 2005. Making reconnections in agro-food geography: alternative systems of food provision. Progress in human geography, 29(1), pp.22-40.
Souiden, N., Chaouali, W. and Baccouche, M., 2019. Consumers’ attitude and adoption of location-based coupons: The case of the retail fast food sector. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 47, pp.116-132.
Bronson, K., Knezevic, I. and Clement, C., 2019. The Canadian family farm, in literature and in practice. Journal of Rural Studies, 66, pp.104-111.
Greenville, J., Kawasaki, K., Flaig, D. and Carrico, C., 2019. Influencing GVCs through agro-food policy and reform. | https://universalassignment.com/projet-supervise-biobio-plan-assignment-solved/ |
About UsExecutive Editor:
Publishing house "Academy of Natural History"
Editorial Board:
Asgarov S. (Azerbaijan), Alakbarov M. (Azerbaijan), Aliev Z. (Azerbaijan), Babayev N. (Uzbekistan), Chiladze G. (Georgia), Datskovsky I. (Israel), Garbuz I. (Moldova), Gleizer S. (Germany), Ershina A. (Kazakhstan), Kobzev D. (Switzerland), Kohl O. (Germany), Ktshanyan M. (Armenia), Lande D. (Ukraine), Ledvanov M. (Russia), Makats V. (Ukraine), Miletic L. (Serbia), Moskovkin V. (Ukraine), Murzagaliyeva A. (Kazakhstan), Novikov A. (Ukraine), Rahimov R. (Uzbekistan), Romanchuk A. (Ukraine), Shamshiev B. (Kyrgyzstan), Usheva M. (Bulgaria), Vasileva M. (Bulgar).
Sociological Science
Introduction
The Russian Federation has been a member of the WTO since 22 August 2012 and this event cannot be clear assessment, the opinions of experts and analysts are very contradictory. Becoming a member of the WTO, Russia has committed itself to eliminate all government programs aimed at eliminate subsidies on exports and imports. The WTO's agreements permit members to take measures to protect not only the environment but also public health, animal health and plant health. However, these measures must be applied in the same way to both national and foreign businesses. In other words, members can't use environmental protection measures as a means of disguising protectionist policies. Assumed gradual reduction of import duties on most industrial goods, extended on a period from 3 to 7 years. This period is a necessity for the implementation of protection and incentives for domestic producers.
The report of the European Commission, dedicated to trade and investment barriers faced by European business, says that Russia, despite the entry into the WTO, retained series of protectionist measures, "most of them are inconsistent with the obligations of the WTO" .
Subsidies are the most powerful tools of trade policy for many developed and developing countries. Providing certain subsidies, governments support their producers, making their products more competitive, which undoubtedly has an impact on international trade in goods data.
As a result of such influence the price of subsidized goods advantages obtained primarily in the domestic market against foreign goods, in this case, in fact subsidizing becomes an economic barrier to entry into the market of the subsidizing country. Providing subsidies foreign state may lead to the fact that domestic products cannot compete with foreign in its domestic market, as subsidies will allow foreign companies to offer products at lower prices.
In the WTO rules the use of subsidies for the engineering and other industrial products are established by Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures (ASCM), the provisions of which are binding on all members of the organization without reservations and exemptions. This agreement defines the scope of subsidies and countervailing measures, given clear definition of subsidies, their classification in according to affect trading conditions and the legitimacy of applying the rules of countervailing measures and countervailing investigations, and challenging the legality of the use of subsidies in the system of dispute resolution in those cases where the use of subsidies has a negative impact on trade.
Concept of subsidies used in Russia is quite different from the concept used in the WTO. In world practice, this concept is much broader and includes almost all types of direct and indirect financial support to producers and economic operators.
Under Article 1 of the ASCM, formed signs grant the article says that "the subsidy exists when:
For the purpose of this Agreement, a subsidy shall be deemed to exist if:
1) there is a financial contribution by a government or any public body within the territory of a Member (referred to in this Agreement as "government"), i.e. where:
(i) a government practice involves a direct transfer of funds (e.g. grants, loans, and equity infusion), potential direct transfers of funds or liabilities (e.g. loan guarantees);
(ii) government revenue that is otherwise due is foregone or not collected (e.g. fiscal incentives such as tax credits)(1);
(iii) a government provides goods or services other than general infrastructure, or purchases goods;
(iv) a government makes payments to a funding mechanism, or entrusts or directs a private body to carry out one or more of the type of functions illustrated in (i) to (iii) above which would normally be vested in the government and the practice, in no real sense, differs from practices normally followed by governments;
or
(a)(2) there is any form of income or price support in the sense of Article XVI of GATT 1994;
And (b) a benefit is thereby conferred."
Particularly the important of the agreement on subsidies adopted in the WTO is that the management of subsidies provided to the ASCM, applies only to specific subsidies. The main symptom of specificity subsidies - the limited access of enterprises to obtain subsidies when not all businesses and manufacturers can get it, and as a result created artificial competitive advantage for individual producers.
Ways to adapt this restriction can be quite varied enough to comply with certain specific, clear conditions in the provision of this type of subsidy: should be objective criteria to receive it applied automatically, regardless of the international status of the manufacturer.
For example, the use of tax incentives to industrial enterprises, the number of employees does not exceed 100 persons, without limitation sectors in which these benefits can be applied, and then such exemption will not be a specific subsidy. However, the application of such rules does not give a clear answer, Article 2 of the ASCM allows taking into account additional factors such as the actual subsidy by a limited number of enterprises or imbalances in the allocation of subsidies, taking into account the real structure of the economy brand.
Specific subsidies are also recognized, the provision of which is limited to certain geographical regions except for the differences associated with the use of the actual level of the tax system, which may be different in the subjects of a federal state. However, if we can prove that the level of regional taxes in any region of the Russian Federation, and is lower than in other areas, such as the grant will not be specific. The most important tool to support export-oriented engineering enterprises can be called complex compensatory measures. Countervailing measures can be imposed on the goods in respect of which foreign states used special subsidies and subsidized supplies of these products cause injury to domestic producers. The main purpose of a package of compensatory measures is to combat unfair price competition.
According to the WTO rules, compensatory measures are introduced in the form of fees for up to 5 years to eliminate the cost advantage caused by the use of a specific subsidy of imported goods. This measure may be extended as a result of its revision. However, in contrast to the anti-dumping measures , countervailing action measures should be discontinued in the event of termination of the subsidy of goods in respect of which compensation measures were introduced.
The WTO Agreement does not regulate the actions of companies engaged in "dumping". Its focus is on how governments can or cannot react to dumping - it disciplines anti-dumping actions, and it is often called the "Anti-dumping Agreement". For the introduction of compensatory measures is necessary to conduct compensatory investigation in which you want to prove the existence of three factors:
- Subsidizing foreign manufacturers;
- Material damage caused to the domestic industry, or threat of material damage or a significant slowdown of the industry development;
- A causal link between the subsidized imported goods and the damage caused to the domestic industry.
Compensatory measures can be administered for any imported goods, which is the same from the standpoint of consumers in relation to goods produced by domestic producers who are suffering from subsidized imports. By the same goods, as usually understood goods that is identical goods on all grounds, that is subject of the investigation, or without of such a product another product which has characteristics similar to the characteristics of the product which is the subject of the investigation.
The common form to apply the compensation measures perform price undertakings which actually represent an agreement between the authority to investigate and foreign producer or exporter of the delivery of the goods at the price fixed price is not below a certain level at which the export will not cause injury to domestic producers and countervailing duties.
In addition, based on our investigation of the compensation requirement may be made to the representatives of a foreign state to cease subsidizing this product, which consequently lead to removing the loss.
Increased levels of protectionism and the use of prohibited measures to stimulate domestic producers in crisis of an economic development is rather frequent measure among WTO members. For example, at different times, many countries have launched a program to protect their own producers, the mechanism of action which can be called "clunkers" - is clearly prohibited by the WTO measure if it involves cars only domestic production.
All variety of measures to protect the manufacturers can be divided into several groups:
1. Measures directly acting on the costs of enterprises producing engineering products.
- Reduced tax rates (income tax, promotion of R & D)
- Changes to the schedule of payment of taxes to individual companies
- Reduction of import duties on raw materials and components
- Cancellation of export duties for exporters
- Subsidies to exporters
- Subsidies for the purchase of raw materials
- Subsidies on loans to retool
- Direct funding
2. Measures affecting producers indirectly through financial instruments, government programs and government guarantees:
- Encouraging consumers (buyers subsidize domestic goods)
- Public procurement
- Protective duties
3. Measures to promote the creation of an efficient infrastructure to ensure steady demand for machinery:
- Allocation of funds to educational institutions for training for engineering enterprises
- Financing and co-financing of businesses, consumers, domestic engineering products
In SCM introduced classification of subsidies depending on the extent of their impact on trade. Was originally incorporated division of subsidies into the following categories, as a way to resolve:
1. WTO prohibited subsidies, the meaning of which is linked by law or in fact as a single or multiple conditions export performance or the use of domestic goods instead of imported:
- Increase in import duties;
- Direct subsidies to exporters;
- Subsidies for the purchase of domestic goods.
Permissible WTO subsidies whose use may lead to the application of certain countermeasures by other members, under the conditions stipulated in the SCM:
- Any subsidies, grants (excluding R & D funding) provided by discrete manufacturers. If the importing country domestic products proves that these subsidies have caused the harm, it can be counteracted by compensatory measures.
2. Permitted WTO and subsidies in respect of which do not apply as compensatory measures , and other countermeasures envisaged ASCM . :
- Funding for research and development,
- Measures that affect all producers equally
- Reduction of import duties on raw materials
- Cancellation of export duties
There are plenty of examples of measures to support the legalization of manufacturers of engineering products under the WTO rules and regulations:
- Funding of the research and development, including through military orders
- Provide tax breaks
- Funding / create the necessary infrastructure
- Provide concessional lending
- Implementing measures to support not at the federal and at the regional level
- Technical regulations
- Establishment of a special "tax schedule" (tax arrears, penalties and other payments to the budgets of various levels) for individual companies.
Furthermore, the measures that are associated with conditions that may affect cost producers usually require minimal adaptation of WTO requirements. Despite the fact that direct subsidies to exporters are not allowed under the WTO rules, there are several possible ways of legalizing the subsidy:
1. Spread subsidy for all industrial companies included in the specific list of "strategic partners of the state" regardless of international status.
This will help to attract foreign capital, localization of components, increasing production and import of technology. However, if the list will be formed from exporting companies are at risk of complaints from other countries or national producers.
2. Replace subsidy to exporters direct for subsidy of R & D funding provided, in fact, the same exporters (not more than 75 % of the total cost).
Many of the WTO members, are using technical regulation to protect their own economic interests. Actions WTO members concerning technical regulation regulated :
- Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade. This agreement will extend and clarify the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade reached in the Tokyo Round. It seeks to ensure that technical negotiations and standards, as well as testing and certification procedures, do not create unnecessary obstacles to trade.
- Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures. This agreement concerns the application of sanitary and phytosanitary measures - in other words food safety and animal and plant health regulations.
When somebody use technical barriers as a protection of producers there is the one important condition: preventing the use of technical barriers as a mean of discriminating against certain countries as a mean of restricting the development of international trade. So that if the measure is really helpful it is necessary to improve legislation on technical regulations: develop a new law "About Standardization"; make changes to the Federal Law "About maintenance of unity of measurements", in order to simplify introduction of new tools and measurement, measurement tools replace the ones out of date.
Among the possible measures to support Russian exporters of engineering products can be identified such a measure as conducting market research target the global market of engineering and advice for the development of Russian production of the relevant products in the most promising export destinations .
Many of the WTO members use the support of their exporters such as an insurance of an export credit. In our country, founded and operates the Russian Agency for Insurance of Export Credit and Investment. The services of this agency are a real tool to support exporters of engineering products need to make. Some changes in the organization's activities, namely to increase the limits of export credit insurance machine builders to increase coverage to 100%, reduce the insurance premium to the minimum level.
Not inconsistent with WTO rules and is a measure of support export-oriented engineering enterprises as consolidation efforts within the industry itself. Currently, the country has established and active Russian public organization "Russian Engineering Union". This organization is ready to provide methodological, counseling and legal assistance for machine-building enterprises organizational and help with the cooperation with foreign partners, with the Ministry of Industry of the Russian Federation to provide partial reimbursement of the interest rates on loans, deferred payment or recovery of value added tax, as well as the examination of the lack of production on the territory of the Russian Federation of many goods .
One of the most important measures to support domestic exporters, according to First Deputy Chairman of Committee on Industry of the State Duma V.V. Gutenev, is the recognize the laws "State strategic planning" and "The basis of public-private partnerships in the Russian Federation", the adoption of which significantly affect the imperfection of Russian legislation in the industrial sector. In order to provide the the decision of a number of financial, economic, innovative, technological and social problems it is necessary to modify the federal legislation in the tax, customs, educational and social fields.
Measures to support the Russian machine-building enterprises of export-oriented products should be systemic and consistent the legal authority. Currently under development and improvement of a set of measures of state support for domestic engineering , their adaptation to the new conditions and new challenges.
2 . Ministry of Economic Development. Foreign economic information portal. URL: http://www.ved.gov.ru/mdb/database/, (date of access: 15.11.2013)
3 . Application of the principles and provisions of the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade of the World Trade Organization in the development and application of technical regulations and standards URL: http://expert.gost.ru/MAP.php?ID=TR/HTML/TR_WT_0001.html (date accessed : 15.11.2013)
4 . Russian Agency for Insurance of Export Credit and Investment JSC "EXIAR" official site URL: http://www.exiar.ru/prodserv/ (date of access: 15.11.2013)
5. Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures of the WTO URL: http://www.wto.ru/ documents .asp?f = sogl&t=13(date of access: 15.11.2013)
6. Russian Engineering Union, the official website URL: http://www.soyuzmash.ru (date of access: 15.11.2013)
Fokina D.A., Belyakova G. Y. THE ADAPTATION OF MEASURES TO STIMULATE AN EXPORT ENGINEERING TO THE WTO RULES. International Journal Of Applied And Fundamental Research. – 2014. – № 2 –
URL: www.science-sd.com/457-24521 (16.12.2019). | http://science-sd.com/457-24521 |
Researchers at The Australian National University are using deep learning and NVIDIA technologies to better understand the progression of Parkinson’s disease.
Currently it is difficult to determine what type of Parkinson’s someone has or how quickly the condition will progress.
The study will be conducted over the next five years at the Canberra Hospital in Australia and will involve 120 people suffering from the disease and an equal number of non-sufferers as a controlled group.
“There are different types of Parkinson’s that can look similar at the point of onset, but they progress very differently,” says Dr Deborah Apthorp of the ANU Research School of Psychology. “We are hoping the information we collect will differentiate between these different conditions.”
Dr Apthorp said the research will measure brain imaging, eye tracking, visual perception and postural sway.
From the data collected during the study, the researchers will be using a GeForce GTX 1070 GPU and cuDNN to train their deep learning models to help find patterns that indicate degradation of motor function correlating with Parkinson’s.
The researchers plan to incorporate virtual reality into their work by having the sufferers’ wear head-mounted displays (HMDs), which will help them better understand how self-motion perception is altered in Parkinson’s disease, and use stimuli that mimics the visual scene during self-motion.
“Additionally, we would like to explore the use of eye tracking built into HMDs, which is a much lower cost alternative to a full research eye tracking system and reduces the amount of equipment into a highly portable and versatile single piece of equipment,” says researcher Alex Smith.
New Research: Video Games Help Children’s Psychological and Academic Development
New research suggests that video games have a positive effect on children‘s development.
Thirteen researchers from Columbia University and Paris Descartes University found that elementary-age children who played video games for five or more hours per week – about 20 percent of the children surveyed – had fewer psychological problems and higher overall academic performance than their peers who did not play video games. In fact, the game players were described by teachers as better students, both academically and in social adjustment.
Part of the School Children Mental Health Europe project, the report analyzed the video game usage, academic performance, and behavior of nearly 3,200 European children between the ages of six and 11. Observations and data collected by parents and teachers were also considered to help guide researchers.“I think what we’re seeing here is the evolution of gaming modern society. Video games are now a part of a normal childhood,” Katherine Keyes, one of the 13 authors of the study, told U.S. News. “What we’re seeing here is that kids who play a lot of video games are socially integrated, they’re prosocial, they have good school functioning and we don’t see an association with adverse mental health outcomes.”
As the research concludes, video games provide educational, social, and psychological benefits for children.
You can read the entire study online in the journal Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology.
An Introduction to Virtual Reality
What is Virtual Reality? Virtual Reality is a set of computer technologies which, when combined, provide an interface to a computer-generated world, and in particular, provide such a convincing interface that the user believes he is actually in a three dimensional computer-generated world. This computer generated world may be a model of a real-world object, such as a house; it might be an abstract world that does not exist in a real sense but is understood by humans, such as a chemical molecule or a representation of a set of data; or it might be in a completely imaginary science fiction world.
A key feature is that the user believes that he is actually in this different world. A second key feature of Virtual Reality is that if the human moves his head, arms or legs, the shift of visual cues must be those he would expect in a real world. In other words, besides immersion, there must be navigation and interaction.
1. Computer mediated sensing
Different kinds of VE technology support different modes of interaction.
- One kind of VE technology employs subjective immersion, in which the user interacts as if using an ordinary desktop computer system. The user views the system from the usual close but remote position and interacts through standard or special-purpose input or control devices such as keyboards, mouse controls, trackballs, joysticks, or force balls. Three dimensions are represented on 3D displays through the use of simulation software employing perspective, object rotation, object interposition, relative size, shading, etc.
- The other kind of VE technology uses spatial immersion. The user is required to get inside the virtual space by wearing special equipment, typically at least a helmet mounted display that bears sensors to determine precise helmet position within the VE system’s range, in order to interact with the simulated environment. The user is thus immersed in a quasi-3D virtual space in which objects of interest appear to exist and events occur above, below, and around in all directions toward which the user turns his or her head.
Here follows a description of the typical hardware needed to run a virtual reality system. It will later be discussed whether it’s advisable to maintain all of these components when trying to implement a VE on a PC. What is important here is to focus on a standard architecture, as it is usually described in literature.
Virtual Reality is often used as comprehensive term to describe the use of 3-D graphics displays to explore a computer generated world. This interaction between man and machine can happen according to different styles that are representing the actual possibility and potential of the technology. The different styles of interaction depend upon the way the virtual environment is represented. We can identify at least six interaction styles that refer to the way the simulated/virtual environment is represented: desktop, projected, immersive, Cave, telepresence, augmented.
1) Desktop VR
The most popular type and is based upon the concept that the potential user interacts with the computer screen without being fully immersed and surrounded by the computer-generated environment. The feeling of subjective immersion can be improved through stereoscopic vision (i.e., CrystalEyes) and operative action with interface can be guaranteed via pointing devices (mouse, joystick) or typical VR peripherals such as Dataglove. Desktop VR is used mainly in games but professional application are currently widely diffused. Example of professional application domains come from general industrial design, engineering, architecture and the visualisation of data streams. The main benefit of desktop VR is its limited cost and less involving use of interacting technology, as a matter of fact according to different scenarios of use it might be more appropriate a less “invasive” device such as a CRT monitor than a wired HMD. It seems that desktop VR is particularly successful with the inspection of sample objects as opposed to immersed VR where the best exploitation is with the exploration of spaces. Up to date CAD/CAM systems slowly shifted in their performance towards the quality of VR interaction when they allowed the user to manipulate 3-d objects as if they were real.
2) Projected VR
This is technological solution often seen in VR-Art shows and in VR leisure applications. It is based upon the overlapping of the image of the real user on the computer generated world. That is to say that the user can see his image overlaid the simulated environment. A special movement tracking device can capture the movements of the user and insert them so that they can cause actions and re-actions in the virtual world.
3) Immersive VR
With this type of solution the user appears to be fully inserted in the computer generated environment. This illusion is rendered by providing HMD, with 3-D viewing and a system of head tracking to guarantee the exact correspondence and co-ordination of user’s movements with the fee-back of the environment.
4) CAVE
Cave is a small room where a computer generated world is projected on the walls. The projection is made on both front and side walls. This solution is particularly suitable for collective VR experience because it allows different people to share the same experience at the same time. It seems that this technological solution is particularly appropriate for cockpit simulations as it allows the views from different sides of a imaginary vehicle.
5) Telepresence
Users can influence and operate in a world that is real but in a different location. The users can observe the current situation with remote cameras and achieve actions via robotic and electronic arms. Telepresence is used for remote surgical operations and for the exploration/manipulation of hazardous environments (i.e., space, underwater, radioactive.
Virtual Reality is the product of a trick. The VR system tricks the user into believing that the Virtual Environment by which he feels himself surrounded is the actual, real environment. This is made possible by several different devices, each with its own technology, which produce each a specific aspect of the VE, relevant for a specific sense. We will discuss hardware relevant for the three senses which are to be immersed in the VE: sight, touch and hearing.
6) Augmented
This VR solution is an invasive strategy towards reality. As a matter of fact user’s view of the world is supplemented with virtual objects and items whose meaning is aimed at enriching the information content of the real environment. In military applications for instance vision performance is enhanced by providing the pictograms that anticipate the presence of other entities out of sight.
2. VR market analysis
In the Information Technology trend, Virtual Reality has been identified as one of the most promising development areas. As it happens with all the innovative applications this new technology is not excluded from the generation of problems and concerns regarding its implementation in operative working domains. Yet we are witnessing a constant improvement in marketing perspective of both quality of applicative VR systems and receptiveness of potential customers. This is due to mainly three reasons: (1) the decrease of the cost of VR systems and devices (2) the constant improvement of performance reliability of the technology, (3) the extremely valuable economic benefits derived from VR use in its various forms and purposes (training, simulation, design). So we can affirm the consolidation of a class of technology that can positively be stated as “virtual reality” and appraised like any other novel high tech industry. This technology has been confidently adopted in a number of markets, and has the potential to penetrate in many more.
The VR market is at present immature, without any clear market leaders or clear segmentation of activities. In a recent paper prepared for the European Commission’s IT Policy Analysis Unit (DG III/A.5) on VR, PVN (Belgium) estimates a market of $570 million (MECU 483) by 1998. This figure includes both hardware and software. The bad news for Europe is that it is forecast to have only $115 million (MECU 97) of that market, a poor third behind the USA and Japan.
A study into telematics applications of virtual environments, carried out by Sema Group (F), Fraunhofer IAO (D) and MIT’s Research Laboratory for Electronics (USA) for the Commission’s DG XIII/C in 1994, predicted a market evaluation of “roughly MECU 400 – MECU 500 by 1998” with a growth rate “very high, approaching 70-80% per year”. What is perhaps less disputed is that the major market activity is in entertainment equipment.
Frost & Sullivan’s 1994 VR market report stated that about 250 companies existed in the USA and only 25 in other countries which claim to make even part of their revenue from VR. Of these, no one firm earned more than $10 million (MECU 8.4) from VR alone. A recent Financial Times Report listed four types of commercial VR company – software companies, component manufacturers, system companies and ‘other industry participants’. As might be expected, the vast majority of such companies are US-based. Only two European company, Superscape and Division of the UK, is listed under software companies and only one European Company, Virtuality, is listed under component manufacturers.
Although this listing was not ranked and was definitely not exhaustive, most activity does seem to be taking place in the USA. The wider availability of venture capital and the tendency of small firms to ‘spin off’ from others may account in part for this.
According to the recent (Jan. 96) Business Communications Company, Inc. report “RGB-175/The Virtual Reality Business”, by 1996, more than 300 companies will settle sales for about $255 million worth of VR products and services and behind this figures lay as VR customers many multinational brands of military and medical products. By 2000, the VR industry will be posting annual sales of over $1 billion and reaching an annual average growth rate (MGR) of 33%.
In July of 1996 Ovum, the UK market research company published another survey on Virtual Reality (VR) markets: ‘Virtual Reality: Business Applications, Markets and Opportunities. Ovum expects the ‘killer application’ of VR to be in 3D interfaces to the Internet, used for promoting products and services on the World Wide Web (WWW). It predicts that in the next five years, VR will be widely used as a GUI (graphical user interface) for standard business software, thus replacing icon-based GUIs for such applications as database, business systems and networked management software. According to the survey, a large proportion of companies polled indicated that they would use PC based VR training applications for their employees.
Regarding the present uptake of VR in business, the report concludes that ?companies are finding virtual reality an important source of competitive advantage? and that ?although some companies are taking their time to evaluate VR, which is slowing down the speed of market lift-off, many are reporting significant benefits and are increasing their use of VR technology.? It explains this expected increase in uptake by saying that ?In many cases, companies have made cost savings of over US$1 million. They have experienced faster time to market, fewer mistakes than when using CAD technologies, greater efficiency in working methods and improved quality in final products.?
The report predicts that the VR market will grow from US$134.9 million in 1995 to just over US$1 billion by the year 2001 and that the largest growth sector will be in the software sector with a 58 per cent annual growth in this period.
Another significant finding of the report is that the business market for VR in 1995 represented 65 per cent of the total, with entertainment applications accounting for only 35 per cent. VR is normally seen to be of major significance to the games market?. it is not known whether, and how, the authors distinguish between entertainment and ?the entertainment business?.
The Ovum survey foresees a radical shift in how companies will be using VR between now and the year 2001. Today the majority of VR applications are in design automation: virtual prototyping, interior design and ergonomics, and architectural and engineering design. Expensive, workstation-based systems currently dominate, accounting for 43 per cent of the market. By 2001, however, PC-based VR technology will account for 46 per cent of the business market, where most of the applications will be non-immersive, using computer screens instead of headsets.
Virtual Reality Market Forecasts by Application ($ millions, constant 1995 )
|1994||1995||2000||AAGR% 1995-2000|
|Instructional & Developmental||70||95||355||31|
|Design & Development VR||25||30||150||40|
|Entertainment VR||60||110||500||35|
|Medical Treatment VR||10||20||50||20|
|Total||165||255||1055||33|
|Source: Business Communications Company, Inc., GB-175, The Virtual Reality Business, 1996|
Applicative domains and major marketing areas
At the current state of the situation all marketing experts converge on the fact that the major market activity is entertainment equipment: leisure technology uses account for the largest VR market value, and are foreseen to continue growing at a 35% AAGR to the year 2000 (see table). The critical mass in marketing terms will be reached with high-scale produced single-user entertainment VR system, this will be the propelling force pushing the market growth from a current 1995 value of $110 million to $500 million by year 2000.
Home and entertainment
The great market expansion is expect for site- based entertainment. This expectation is based upon the evaluation two factors: the low saturation, and dramatic decrease of prices. This phenomena will allow VR technology to be used by all facets of society, including commercial/industrial, the government, military, and university and secondary schools at a stage not comparable with any previous existing situation. A great role will also be covered with in the support to education in general, for instance the instructional and developmental market is expected to widen its share from a $95 million 1995 market figure to $355 million by 2000, resulting in an AAGR of 31%. The dimension of this increase will affect technical/engineering colleges and universities, and the “developmental” VR includes spending on advanced, but as yet non-commercial applications, along with pure science and research systems not included in the other categories.
Industrial and Scientific Design
Applications of design and development VR market are in engineering, architecture and chemical design and development a constant shift will bring performance of CAD/ CAMM application to the standards of Virtual Reality applications . This market will grow from a 1995 market value of $30 million, to $150 million by 2000, reaching an AAGR of 40%. Medical treatment VR market will also sustain growth. The 1995 market value of $20 million is projected to reach $50 million by 2000, reaching a 20% AAGR.
The searching for common standards
Current VR products employ proprietary hardware and software. There is little doubt that incompatibility between different systems is restricting market growth at present. It is probable that as the market matures, certain de facto standards will emerge, perhaps when major players become involved. It is probable that the VR market will follow the route of the real-time financial information markets which found that adopting an open systems approach did not damage sales, as had been feared, but helped encourage the growth of the marketplace. According to the IMO – Information Group at Policy Studies Institute, London (August 95 – VIRTUAL REALITY: THE TECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATIONS), “in the future an open systems approach will emerge for VR as well”. At that point, the market is likely to expand considerably.
However, the cost of VR equipment is falling rapidly. For example, headgear prices have already fallen from hundreds of thousands of dollars to $200 (ECU 169), and basic VR software packages are available commercially for $100 (ECU 85), or can be downloaded from the Internet. Simple VR games software is available in the USA for $70 (ECU 59).
3. VR in Europe
The seminal efforts that gave rise to VR took place in the US. Funding from EC organisations has been slower in coming than in the US, where the Office of Naval Research, National Science Foundation, and Advanced Research Projects Agency now fund VR research and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration has been a long-time developer. This situation is perhaps attributable to the large cost associated with VR until quite recently. However the importance of VR is clearly understood in Europe and progress is now going forward across the entire spectrum of virtual reality, with special emphasis on industrial and commercial applications.
Europe encompasses various countries and cultures, and acceptance of the importance of VR has not been uniform. Interest by British Aerospace, the presence of the parallel processing company Inmos (makers of the Transputer), and early funding by the Department for Trade and Industry are cited by UK researchers as factors that drove research in the UK in the mid-to-late 1980s. This resulted in technology transfer that has produced several successful commercial efforts. More recently, German laboratories and institutions have become active in applying immersion technology to a broad range of applications. France has several of Europe’s leading research institutions for machine vision, robotics, and related technologies that affect VR, but has been less active in developing systems that provide interactive immersion. Most other West European countries have some VR R&D.
In the last two years, the EC organised several events to evaluate VR as a topic for the next research initiative. Recently EC presented one study titled: “Telematics applications of VE – The use of Virtual Environment Techniques in the Application of Telematics to Health Care, Transport, Training and the Disabled and Elderly”. This study was the third activity in a row starting with a workshop in March 1993 in Brussels in which was tried to make some kind of a status report and start the process of gathering recommendations on how to incorporate VR in future EC programmes. The second activity was a small report creating the basis for a larger study, which finally was carried out by a team from Fraunhofer Institute, SEMA Group and MIT.
The “Telematics Application” shows a small section on VE technologies, VE applications (generic use of VE technological capabilities, evaluation of the market) and treats then each of the mentioned fields (Education/Training, Transport, Health Care, and Elderly and Handicapped) and finishes of with potential actions for the TAP programme. In the health area the reports states: “In effect, the objective is to validate the 3-D approaches of VE, and evaluate their benefits for future health care systems. In parallel, other projects aimed at providing basic building blocks for future uses in VE- based medical applications are also of interest. They concern digital and computational models of the human body or critical organs”. The report stresses the use of VE in minimally invasive surgery, surgical decision support and training of surgeons, doctors and students. It also finds a use in evaluation of human interfaces and other factors in the design of critical components of new health care facilities.
EC funded projects/working groups relevant to VREPAR
The European Strategic Program for Research and Development (Esprit II) funded a handful of ongoing VR projects. Glad-in-Art is developing a glove-exoskeleton interface system to manipulate virtual objects, while SCATIS intends to integrate room acoustics into virtual worlds, and Humanoid concentrates on the development and simulation of virtual humans.
The call for proposals for Esprit III did not include a specific VR component. However, VR was explicitly mentioned within the basic research and multimedia components (two of the seven program areas). Between the funded studies we remember FIVE (Framework for Immersive Virtual Environments).
Other VR projects deal with Virtual Environment on Multi-Modal Interfaces (MIAMI and VETIR). VETIR deals with the use of virtual environment technologies in motor disabilities’ rehabilitation technology Initiative for Disabled and Elderly People.
4. Medical Applications of VR
Three important aspects of virtual reality systems offer new possibilities to medical treatment:
- How They Are Controlled
Present alternate computer access systems accept only one or at most two modes of input at a time. The computer can be controlled by single modes such as pressing keys on a keyboard, pointing to an on-screen keyboard with a head pointer, or hitting a switch when the computer presents the desired choice, but present computers do not recognize facial expressions, idiosyncratic gestures, or monitor actions from several body parts at a time. Most computer interfaces accept only precise, discrete input. Thus many communicative acts are ignored and the subtleness and richness of the human communicative gesture are lost. This results in slow, energy-intensive computer interfaces. Virtual reality systems open the input channel: the potential is there to monitor movements or actions from any body part or many body parts at the same time. All properties of the movement can be captured, not just contact of a body part with an effector.
Given that these actions are monitored, why can the user control more in the virtual world than in the real world? In the virtual environment these actions or signals can be processed in a number of ways. They can be translated into other actions that have more effect on the world being controlled, for example, virtual objects could be pushed by blowing, pulled by sipping, and grasped by jaw closure. Proportional properties such as force, direction, and speed could become interchangeable allowing the person with arthritic joints to push something harder, without the associated pain, by simply moving faster. They could be filtered to achieve a cleaner signal. Actions can be amplified thus movement of the index finger could guide a tennis racket. Alternately movements could be attenuated giving the individual with large, poorly controlled movement more precise control of finer actions.
- Feedback
Because VR systems display feedback in multiple modes, feedback and prompts can be translated into alternate senses for users with sensory impairments. The environment could be reduced in size to get the larger or overall perspective (without the “looking through a straw effect” usually experienced when using screen readers or tactile displays). Objects and people could show speech bubbles for the person who is deaf. Sounds could be translated into vibrations or into a register that is easier to pick up. Environmental noises can be selectively filtered out. The user with a spinal cord injury with no sensation in her hands could receive force and density feedback at the shoulder, neck, or head.
For the individual multimodal feedback ensures that the visual channel is not overloaded. Vision is the primary feedback channel of present-day computers; frequently the message is further distorted and alienated by representation through text. It is very difficult to represent force, resistance, density, temperature, pitch, etc., through vision alone. Virtual reality presents information in alternate ways and in more than one way. Sensory redundancy promotes learning and integration of concepts.
- What Is Controlled
The final advantage is what is controlled. Until the last decade computers were used to control numbers and text by entering numbers and text using a keyboard. Recent direct manipulation interfaces have allowed the manipulation of iconic representations of text files or two dimensional graphic representations of objects through pointing devices such as mice (Brownlow, 1989). The objective of direct manipulation environments was to provide an interface that more directly mimics the manipulation of objects in the real world. The latest step in that trend, virtual reality systems, allows the manipulation of multisensory representations of entire environments by natural actions and gestures. This last step may make accessible valuable experiences missed due to physical or sensory impairments. These experiences may include early object-centered play, and early independent mobility.
In virtual environments we can simulate inaccessible or risky experiences, allowing the user to extract the lessons to be learned without the inherent risk. Virtual reality systems can allow users to extend their world knowledge.
According to an assessment on current diffusion of VR in the medical sector, gathered by the Gartner Group, forecast of VR future in this area are quite promising. Within the medical application its strategic relevance will increase and gain importance. It is envisaged that by year 2000 despite possible technological barriers, virtual reality techniques will be integrated in endoscopic surgical procedures. VR will affect also the medical educational strategy for students as well as experienced practitioners, who will increasingly be involved in immersive simulated techniques. It is expected that these educational routines can become of routine by year 2005.
VR has been until now widely underused, probably because of prohibitive hardware costs, nevertheless this technology is pushing forward new challenges and advances that will materialise by year 2000. The medical use of VR will take place mainly in four domains:
- teaching: VR will reproduce environments or special conditions that will enable to educate medical personnel.
- simulation: VR will mix video and scanner images to represent and plan surgical intervention, effects of therapy.
- diagnostics: it will be possible to forecast the effects of complex combinations of healing treatments.
- therapy: A valuable exploitation of VR in the medical sector is seen with interest in the therapy of psychiatric/psychological disorders such as acrophobia, claustrophobia, nyctophobia, agoraphobia, eating disorders, etc. Therapeutic techniques will include practices that will allow the patients to reproduce and master problem environments.
For a more detailed description of the use of VR in health care you can read the paper: VR in Health Care: A Survey
5. Issues to be solved
Although the technology is mature enough to have different applications, there are key issues to be resolved for its use for practical applications.
- costs: The product seem to be “a solution in search of a problem”. As with early computer graphics products, the entry-level costs are relatively prohibitive. A complete VR environment, including workstations, goggles, body suits, and software, is in the range of KEcu 70.000 to KEcu 1.000.000.
- lack of standard and reference parameters: The hyperbole and sensational press coverage associated with some of these technologies have led many potential users to overestimate the actual capabilities of existing systems. Many of them must actually develop the technology significantly for their specific tasks. Unless their expertise includes knowledge of the human-machine interface requirements for their application, their resulting product will rarely get beyond a “conceptual demo” that lacks practical utility.
- human factors: The premise of VE seems to be to enhance the interaction between people and their systems. It thus becomes very important to understand how people perceive and interpret events in their environments, both in and out of virtual representation of reality. We must address issues of human performance to understand how to develop and implement VE technology that people can use comfortably and effectively. Fundamental questions remain about how people interact with the systems, how they may be used to enhance and augment cognitive performance in such environments, and how they can best be employed for instruction, training, and other people oriented applications.
6. Conclusion
The marketing situation of VR is very fluid, this means that the technology while being ready for professional applications is not at the stage of settling definite standards and definite reference points in all perspectives, including possible leading manufacturers, compatibility specifications, performance levels, economical costs and human expertise. So standing the situation it is heavily characterised by uncertainty.
This uncertainty should not be confused with lack of confidence on the promising outcomes of the technology, but instead with the rapid mutation and evolution that characterises all information technology markets. For what concerns the project these reflections sound as warning in the adoption of solutions that need to be considered as a short term answer to a contingent problem. A special concern must be raised to a continuos chase of the last up to date technological product release.
In the general aim of the project we take advantage of the capillary diffusion of the PC based technology and to the best associated hardware and software devices available that can ensure both reliability and availability in different domains independently of the different constraints posed by geographical location.
Global Impact: How GPUs Help Eye Surgeons See 20/20 in the Operating Room
Editor’s note: This is one in a series of profiles of five finalists for NVIDIA’s 2016 Global Impact Award, which provides $150,000 to researchers using NVIDIA technology for groundbreaking work that addresses social, humanitarian and environmental problems.
Performing ocular microsurgery is about as hard as it sounds — and, until recently, eye surgeons had practically been flying blind in the operating room.
Doctors use surgical microscopes suspended over a patient’s eyes to correct conditions in the cornea and retina that lead to blindness. These have limited depth perception, however, which forces surgeons to rely on indirect lighting cues to discern the position of their tools relative to sensitive eye tissue.
But Joseph Izatt, an engineering professor at Duke University, and his team of graduate students are changing that. They’re using NVIDIA technology to give surgeons a 3D, stereoscopic live feed while they operate.
“This is some of the most challenging surgery there is because the tissues that they’re operating on are very delicate, and particularly valuable to their owners,” said Izatt.
Duke is one of five finalists for NVIDIA’s 2016 Global Impact Award. This $150,000 grant is awarded each year to researchers using NVIDIA technology for groundbreaking work that addresses social, humanitarian and environmental problems.
Two Steps Beyond Standard Practice
Standard practice for optical microsurgery is to send the patient for a pre-operation scan. This generates images that the surgeon uses to map out the disease and plan surgery. Post-operation, the patient’s eye is scanned again to make sure the operation was a success.
State-of-the-art microscopes go one step further. They use optical coherence tomography (OCT), an advanced imaging technique that produces 3D images in five to six seconds. Izatt’s work goes another step beyond that by taking complete 3D volumetric images, updated every tenth of a second and rendered from two different angles, resulting in a real-time stereoscopic display into both microscope eyepieces.
“I’ve always been very interested in seeing how technology can be applied to improving people’s lives,” said Izatt, who has been working on OCT for over 20 years.
His team is using our GeForce GTX TITAN Black GPU, CUDA programming libraries and 3D Vision technology to power their solution. Rather than having to do pre- and post-operation images to gauge their success, surgeons can have immediate feedback as they operate.
3D Images at Micrometer Resolution
A single TITAN GPU takes the stream of raw OCT data, processes it, and renders 3D volumetric images. These images, at a resolution of a few micrometers, are projected into the microscope eyepieces. CUDA’s cuFFT library and special function units provide the computational performance needed to process, de-noise, and render images in real time. With NVIDIA 3D Vision-ready monitors and 3D glasses, the live stereoscopic data can be viewed by both the surgeon using the microscope and a group observing the operation as it occurs—a useful training and demonstration tool.
“The current generation of OCT imaging instruments used to get this type of data before and after surgery typically takes about five or six seconds to render a single volumetric image,” said Izatt. “We’re now getting those same images in about a tenth of a second — so it is literally a fiftyfold increase in speed.”
Thus far, Izatt’s solution has been used in more than 90 surgeries at the Duke Eye Center and the Cleveland Clinic Cole Eye Institute. Out in the medical market, companies are still competing to commercialize real-time 2D displays. Izatt estimates his team’s 3D solution will be ready for commercial use in a couple years.
“The most complex surgeries right now are done in these big centers, but some patients have to travel hundreds or thousands of miles to go to the best centers,” said Izatt. “With this sort of tool, we’re hoping that would instead be more widely available.”
The winner of the 2016 Global Impact Award will be announced at the GPU Technology Conference, April 4-7, in Silicon Valley.
Healthcare Industry Turns to Video Games to Treat MS
The video game industry continues to pave the way for advancements outside of entertainment. Now, a creative new partnership between technology and pharmaceutical giants is reimagining medical imaging, and with it, tackling an incurable and unpredictable central nervous system disease that affects 2.3 million people globally.
Microsoft recently teamed up with Novartis AG to develop AssessMS to treat those suffering from multiple sclerosis (MS). The new program, which uses the Microsoft Kinect’s motion-tracking and camera technology, allows researchers to analyze important data regarding the patient’s physical symptoms, such as gait and dexterity, by recording their movements.
Imprecise measurements and inconsistent assessments of patients’ movements currently complicate patients and doctors’ ability to evaluate the severity of MS symptoms and make informed choices about care and treatment options. These medical difficulties carry over into the pharmaceutical industry, making new drug trials challenging and costly.
Microsoft and Novartis believe their new program can change this calculus by offering more refined data. As patients perform simple body movements and gestures in front of the Kinect motion-sensing camera, doctors are able to evaluate precise information to evaluate the degree of impairment.
So far, prototypes have run hundreds of tests with patients in three of the top MS clinics in Europe. If the system shows promise, Novartis hopes to pursue the clinical validation process and seek regulatory approval.
This new system marks a break with previous games-based treatment options. Previously, doctors and patients primarily used games such as the Nintendo Wii Balance Board to help people with MS improve their balance. However, as several recent studies have found, games can help patients improve motor skills and visual acuity, sharpen short-term memory, reduce depressive symptoms, and relieve chronic pain, all difficulties common among people with MS.
“This is really super-interesting work,” Tim Coetzee, chief advocacy, services, and research officer at the National MS Society in the U.S. told Bloomberg. “The problem we are trying to solve in MS cries out for tools like this one where it is about being able to give the physician some consistent approach to measure the evolution of the disease.”
With these new advancements, the video game industry has the potential to revolutionize healthcare. As studies and tests continue to improve and evolve, researchers and game companies alike are working together to discover new treatments – even cures – to some of today’s biggest medical challenges.
GPU-Accelerated Supercomputer Targets Tumors
A team of researchers from the Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf (HZDR) research lab in Germany are using the Titan Supercomputer at Oak Ridge National Laboratory to advance laser-driven radiation treatment of cancerous tumors.
Recently, doctors have been using beams of heavy particles, such as protons or ions, to treat cancer tumors. These beams can deposit most of their energy inside the tumor, while at the same time leaving the healthy tissue unharmed. Unfortunately, these beams are generated by large particle accelerators, which make the treatment cost prohibitive for many patients.
The German lab is developing a new therapeutic approach using high-powered lasers instead of inconvenient and expensive particle accelerators.
HZDR researcher Michael Bussmann explains in a recent blog post that they are only able to run such complex simulations because his team has access to GPU-accelerated supercomputers.
The team does all of its calculations on Titan’s Tesla GPUs at a rate 10 to 100 times faster than what is possible on CPU-only machines. “We no longer think of simulations in terms of CPU hours but rather frames per second,” Bussmann said, describing the effect this speed-up has had on the team’s research.
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Mis en ligne le 2011-10-31
Mongolia’s government is emphasising its plans to diversify from reliance on mining-related revenues and investment in the hope that the development of the manufacturing and agricultural sectors will create a more advanced industrial base.
With the Oyu Tolgoi copper mine alone set to account for one-third of Mongolia’s GDP by 2020, the reliance on the booming mining industry has raised fears of “Dutch disease”, a term describing cases in which the financial benefits of a resource boom lead to a hollowing out of other sectors.
“It is important to have a good mining industry,” Prime Minister Sükhbaataryn Batbold told Bloomberg in March. “But it is a tool of moving many other things forward. What we want to focus on [is] creating jobs in many other industries. We’d like to focus now on value-added products.”
In September the Ministry of Finance issued MNT300bn ($234.6m) worth of Mongolian bonds to support the wool and cashmere sector. Of the funds to be raised, MNT150bn ($117.3m) will go towards developing small and medium-sized enterprises, MNT100bn ($78.2m) is to support the producers of wool and cashmere products, and MNT50bn ($39.1m) will go to herders who sell camel and sheep wool to domestic factories.
The deputy minister for food, agriculture and light industry, Kh. Zoljargal, told local media in mid-September that MNT108bn ($84m) in bonds had already been sold, adding that the money would be distributed to businesses in the form of loans through commercial banks.
In 2009 the cashmere industry provided jobs and income for a third of the country’s population of 2.6m, supplying about 20% of the global market. However, an oversupply of goats is negatively affecting biodiversity and undermining herding livelihoods. A further challenge has been overdependence on demand from China, which has historically bought around two-thirds of the country’s cashmere exports, though often through back-door deals that have led to suppliers selling their products for prices far below market value.
While prices rose around 50% year-on-year in April for Mongolian cashmere derived from the Khentii and Sukhbaatar regions, according to data from Australian wool exporter G Schneider, industry leaders say profits could be much higher on the back of strong competition from legitimate buyers in China and Europe.
According to the Mongol Cashmere Association (MCA), current annual revenues of around $180m are dominated by sales of raw cashmere, which makes up 80% of exports. If the country had the capacity to refine all of its cashmere before exporting it, profits could rise to between $480m and $520m. The MCA also said in May that the government’s plan to raise MNT100bn ($78.2m) in financing for the sector could lead to the addition of around 1800 jobs for the industry.
On October 10 the prime minister thanked farmers and other agriculture workers on behalf of the government for the biggest harvest in the country’s history, with 433,400 tonnes of wheat, 191,500 tonnes of potato and 97,200 tonnes of vegetables having been produced. The agriculture ministry reported in July that 160,000 stockholders were breeding approximately 43m livestock.
The positive results in agricultural output come as plans to establish an agricultural raw materials exchange are gathering pace. Set to start work in January 2012, the proposed exchange is hoped to do away with middlemen and allow herders to deal directly with buyers of their goods and products, with the aim of ensuring fair prices for both and also improving product quality.
Although the agriculture sector is showing signs of development, the UN Industrial Development Organisation stressed in a February report that it is equally important for the government to maintain a focus on manufacturing, which employed just 48,000 Mongolians in 2008. The UN body suggested there should be regular dialogue between the public and the private sectors, with the government providing support in the form of credits, improved infrastructure, and training and education initiatives. | http://acfm-mongolie.over-blog.com/article-mongolie-des-changements-dans-l-exploitation-des-ressources-87658198.html |
Capital market development in Brazil is a key policy issue going forward to foster savings, investment and absorptive capacity in a context of prospects for sizable capital flows in the medium term. During the last decade, Brazil has achieved substantial progress in capital market development. The menu of available financial instruments has been expanded, market infrastructure has been reformed and strengthened, and a diversified investor base has been built. Nonetheless, Brazil’s capital markets are still facing a number of challenges including prevalent short-term indexation, investors’ risk aversion to long-term fixed rate bonds, still low liquidity in the secondary market, and managing the role of BNDES. A shift to a lower yield curve environment should continue to gradually take place. But further progress will require continued policy effort to assure macro stability and financial sector reforms to promote the development of longer-term private finance.
I. Introduction
Financial development is important for fostering economic growth and stability. This is a feature of the development process that has been extensively documented in the literatures (see Levine).1 One of key components in this process is capital market development. For example, deepening the long-term local bond market facilitates the reduction of currency and maturity mismatches on corporations’ balance sheets. This also creates alternatives to bank financing that can support efficiency and stability. From investors’ point of view, deep and liquid capital markets increase the supply of differentiated assets facilitating investment choices. Perhaps most importantly for emerging markets (EMs), the macroeconomic and financial dislocations experienced following the crises in the late 1990s have led to increased efforts in these countries to develop local capital markets.
Capital market development in Brazil is a key policy issue going forward to foster savings, investment and absorptive capacity in a context of prospects for sizable capital flows in the medium term. Brazil’s savings and investment levels as a share of GDP are still low by international standards. As such, deepening capital markets would be important for increasing incentives for savings and allocating these efficiently to investments. Deep and liquid capital markets could also help bolster resilience to capital flows by developing greater absorptive capacity.
This paper reviews the state of play in Brazil and steps for further development. It starts by taking stock of the current status of local capital markets in Brazil, including in terms of size, investor base, maturity structure, both for the public and private sector. It then discusses what the key challenges are, and policy options for further development.
II. Brazil’s Capital Markets—Issues and Status
A. Short-Term Maturity and Low Turnover
Brazil’s capital market remains focused on short term instruments. Most financial contracts among residents are indexed to the overnight interest rate, although there has been a gradual trend towards increasing duration in the recent years. This largely short term structure reflects long-standing fundamental factors, including a legacy of past high inflation that typically is associated with a more short–term focus for investing. Moreover, the flatness of the yield-curve—a reflection of the high level of short-term interest rates and degree of indexation of debt holders—contribute to a low secondary market turnover ratio, constraining overall market development (see Figure 1).
B. Equity Market
Brazil’s equity market has grown rapidly in terms of both market capitalization and transaction volumes. Total equity market capitalization was about 55 percent of GDP in 2011 with a diversified investor base including individuals, institutional investors, financial institutions, and foreign investors. This growth has been fueled by a combination of strong market performance and a steady increase in the total quantity of shares. The introduction of the Novo Mercado (“New Market”), which encouraged corporations to adopt higher standards for corporate governance, transparency, and minority shareholder protection, as pre-requisites for listing, has also contributed to further market development.
Despite these gains, the Brazilian equity market still has a small number of listings. Following a record 76 offerings (IPO and follow on) in 2007, the number of offerings in the past three years has stabilized at lower levels (see Figure 2), in part reflecting weak global financial conditions. The growth in market capitalization and the number of listed companies has slowed in the recent years. Cross-country comparisons show that the number of listed companies is still lower than in advanced economies and Brazil’s peers in Asia. Indeed, the share of the top 10 companies’ in market capitalization has remained over 50 percent in the recent years, showing limited diversification of issuer base, in line with the experience in several other EMs (see Figure 3).
More specifically, industry composition in the stock exchange is concentrated in a few sectors. The major equity index (Bovespa) has large weights in basic materials and energy, which are sensitive to the global economic cycle. In contrast, industrial and technology sector take a much smaller share (2 percent level) than in other countries (over 20 percent). This concentration is likely a reflection of the key role in Brazil—including in recent growth dynamics—of the commodity sector (see Figure 4).
Foreign investors are significant players in the equity market. Indeed, foreigners are majority investors, especially, in public offering market. Most non-resident investors are domiciled in the U.S. and Europe, introducing an important link between the offering market and conditions overseas (see Figure 5). In August and September 2011, for example, there was no share issuance—several public offerings were canceled or postponed due to investors’ concerns on contagion risks from the euro zone. Cross-country analysis also shows that foreigners’ share in market capitalization has been higher than in other large emerging economies (see Figure 6).
Local institutional investors in Brazil—pension funds and mutual funds—have been less active in the equity market. For instance, mutual funds’ asset allocation has been concentrated in safe and liquid assets such as government bonds and repo transactions. Pension funds, whose return target is typically set to achieve a certain spread over the rate of inflation in the context of a high short-term interest rate environment, tend to invest in inflation-linked bonds rather than equities. As such, lower interest rates and rising valuations in the equities, if supported by fundamental improvements in corporate prospects, could attract a greater number of companies to go public.
C. Government Bond Market
There has been substantial progress in the development of the government bond market. Key steps include a lengthening of the yield curve, reduction in external exposure and diversification of the investor base. This has been supported by improved macroeconomic conditions, foreign investors entering the fixed rate segment of local currency government debt, and well designed microstructure reforms regarding issuance policy and auction process. As shown below, the government bond market has become more resilient to various risk factors.
Market risk: the share of fixed rate bonds and inflation linked bonds has increased while the issuance of floating and FX rate linked bonds has decreased.2 The combined ratio of fixed rate and inflation liked bonds increased to around 70 percent in 2011 from 12 percent in 2003. The reduction in the public sectors’ exposure to changes in short-term interest rate and FX variation has improved the risk profile of public debt (see Figure 7).
However, extending the maturity of public debt has proved a challenge. The average maturity of fixed rate government bonds has remained under 2 years while that of all government bonds is just over 3 years (see Figure 8). This may reflect the legacy of gradual macro stabilization, wherein private investors continue to prefer shorter term variable rate debts or indexed instruments. Indeed, most domestic investors swap their exposure to fixed rates for variable rates in the DI futures market with foreign investors traditionally taking the opposite position. As such, foreign investors have provided important liquidity to fixed rate bonds. However, this could create volatility in case of a sudden exit of these investors from the market.3 Indeed, the experience during the crisis highlighted the need to develop depth in the investor base for fixed rate bonds. Increased risk aversion in both global and domestic markets led investors to reduce their demand for fixed-rate bonds with net outflows during the crisis period (see Figure 9).
Refinancing risk: the concentration ratio of short-term debts—especially less than 1 years—has improved gradually. The percentage of government debts with less than 12 month maturity decreased from 39.3 percent in 2004 to 21.9 percent in 2011. Also, the share of debts with maturity between 1 and 3 years has shown the same pattern, resulting in more balanced maturity distribution in the bond markets.
Investor base: participation by different investors in the government bond market has grown more diversified. Of the various actors in this market, banks tend to invest in relatively shorter term bonds to match their short-term liability. Pension funds and insurance companies prefer hedging long-term inflation risks by investing more in inflation linked bonds. Non-residents concentrate their direct exposure to fixed rate instruments, but with maturity less than 3 years. Mutual funds, which tend to be more sensitive to high frequency changes in financial market conditions, have demonstrated a greater preference for floating rate bonds (see Figure 10).
D. Private Bond Market
The private bond market remains much smaller than that for the government. The outstanding issuance of corporate bonds has risen to almost 10 percent of GDP in 2011, but the market is still very concentrated in short duration rates, with a limited investor base and less diversified issuers. This suggests that the private fixed income market is not a significant long-term financing source for non-financial corporations.
Indexation: Around 90 percent of private bonds are linked to the DI rate, resulting in little incentive for active trading. The share of fixed rate bonds still remains very low at about 1 percent of total private bonds, suggesting that investors remain reluctant to take interest and credit risk in the private corporate sector. Moreover, prime corporations may have relatively little incentive to issue relatively costly long term debt given that they have access to long term financing from BNDES, indeed at lower than market rates of interest in many cases.
Investor base: about 70 percent of private bonds were purchased by banks in 2011. Their participation has increased further recently partly because they have faced constraints in expanding consumer loans given increased risk and higher cost in the sector, and therefore have sought alternative higher-yield investment instruments. Liquidity in the secondary market is very limited as many banks tend to hold private bonds until maturity. Retail investors’ participation remains low (see Figure 11).
Securitized instruments are rapidly growing, albeit from a very low base. The most active instrument is the FIDC (Asset Backed Securities), used to securitize a variety of assets including trade receivables and loans, as well as expected revenues in infrastructure projects. CRIs (Mortgage Backed Securities) are used to securitize mainly loans related to sale of real estate. This product has been one of the fastest growing instruments in Brazil. This is partly due to the product’s relatively low starting point, as well as the high marginal funding needs of the real estate sector—a sector that has been growing strongly, partially related to large housing needs in Brazil.
The small size of the private bond market also constrains its role. One of important benefits of a developed private bond market is that it can act as an alternative funding source when corporations’ access to overseas markets is limited or in the face of a domestic bank credit crunch. The disruption in the global money and credit markets in 2008 led to a liquidity squeeze for Brazilian corporations and financial firms. However, issuance of private bonds decreased during the crisis period (see Figure 12), reflecting in part the difficulties in efficient pricing and relatively short track records for borrowers. This was a sharp contrast to the experience in other emerging markets such as Korea and Chile where the deeper private bond market served as a buffer, providing an alternative source of funding during the crisis (see Figure 13 and 14).
E. Role of BNDES
BNDES has traditionally had an important role in the Brazilian financial system, but its size has doubled in the post-Lehman period. BNDES has typically been a major source of long-term financing for industry and infrastructure. During the crisis, it played an important counter-cyclical role as private bank credit fell off sharply in 2009 during the height of the Lehman related global tensions. However, it has been accompanied by a doubling of the size of BNDES’ balance sheet from 7½ percent of GDP in 2007 to over 15 percent of GDP in 2011 (almost 10 percent financial system lending) (see Figure 15).
III. Key Policy Challenges and Options
Overcoming the current challenges and fostering further capital market development will require efforts across a broad policy front. Significant efforts to realize this crucial agenda are underway and could be deepened further. A sine qua non is to continue to further entrench the important and hard-won gains on macro stability that Brazil has achieved in the last years, including on the fiscal responsibility and inflation targeting frameworks. This continued predictability will further anchor the economy and facilitate a shift from shorter to longer term horizons for investment planning and the structure of finance. Raising savings rates should also contribute to gradually reduce Brazil’s high interest rate structure.4 Continued efforts to build fiscal savings and raise productivity by focusing on infrastructure, logistics, and human capital could help a virtuous circle boosting growth potential, underpinned by a dynamic equilibrium of higher investment and higher saving rates.
A. Issuers’ Side: Enhance Supply and Attractiveness of Long-Term Instruments
The authorities have made continuous efforts to build benchmarks at different points along the yield curve. The aim of this strategy is to further develop the interest rate term structure in the local currency, which would allow better pricing and liquidity of bonds issued both by the government itself and by the private sector. To this end, the authorities have increased the average maturity of the outstanding debt and smoothed its maturity profile. Moreover, in March 2012, the National Treasury carried out the first auction of fixed rate bonds due in January 2023, which will be the new 10-year benchmark fixed rated bond in the domestic market.
The authorities have also led some policy initiatives to encourage investors to adopt new references moving away from short-term indexation. For example, the main securities exchange (BM&F Bovespa) introduced reference rates for 3 and 6 months aiming at extending the reference rate for investors. In February 2012, the National Treasury undertook securities exchange operations with Extramercado Funds5 in order to adjust their portfolio. The investment policy of these funds has been adjusted such that they must be referenced to one of the Anbima Market Indices (IMA). The exchange operations resulted in a redemption of R$ 61 billion in securities linked to Selic overnight rate (LFT) and an increase in fixed rate and inflation-linked bonds. A similar exchange program was also conducted with the Government Severance Indemnity Fund (FGTS) as well, resulting in a redemption of R$ 38 billion in the floating rate bonds. More broadly, there may be a case for trying to lead the market development by issuing longer term debt, albeit initially at a relatively high cost, in order to jump-start the market transformation process towards a better developed yield curve.
Additional efforts are underway to further increase the attractiveness of capital market investment in Brazil. The income tax exemption was extended to foreign investors’ investments in long term corporate bonds and infrastructure bonds.6 The private sector is also keen on this policy agenda. The private capital markets association (Anbima) launched a “New Fixed Income Market” project to facilitate long-term financing operation. This proposal includes a set of measures aiming to support secondary market liquidity that include standardization of issues and the plan for a liquidity improvement fund as well as liquidity guarantee fund.7 This proposal has been showing moderate progress. Cemig, one of Brazil’s major power generators and BNDESPar, the holding company of BNDES, issued corporate bonds under the guidelines of this project.8 Some mutual fund managers have started taking Anbima’s bond indices—especially inflation-linked bond indices—as benchmarks for their investment funds.
B. Investors’ Side: Boost Potential in Mutual Funds
Brazil has the largest mutual fund industry in Latin America, and indeed is large also by international standards. Nevertheless, the mutual fund industry has been concentrated on short-duration and highly liquid assets, resulting in its being a minor contributor to the growth in the capital markets. In particular, the asset allocation to equity is much lower than in other countries (see Figure 16).
This environment could change if the downward shift of yield curve continues. Anecdotal evidence suggests that institutional investors are becoming more sensitive to changes in financial market conditions and therefore are increasingly interested in higher-return generating assets and more sophisticated styles in fund management. Indeed, the fall in the short term interest rate since last August appears to have been gradually affecting investors’ behavior. Clients’ requests for daily liquidity have decreased at the margin. These behavioral changes have resulted in mutual funds’ reducing their asset allocation into repo transactions and increasing their exposure to corporate bonds (see Figure 17). Indeed, simple regression analysis on the relationship between flows to different categories of mutual funds and changes in interest rates suggests that the downward shift in the yield curve could lead to some reallocation of assets away from DI linked instruments (see Figure 18).
C. Changes in the Role of BNDES
BNDES lending could be well-targeted to areas where there are market failures or significant externalities, such as lending to SMEs and long-term projects, including for infrastructure. BNDES has traditionally provided significant financing to large strategic companies in Brazil, notwithstanding that these have recourse to alternate sources of financing. Recently, its resource distribution has shifted at the margin toward its more traditional development banking operations. The share of infrastructure increased to 40 percent in 2011 from 31 percent in 2010 while the share of industry decreased to 32 percent—though given the substantial increase in BNDES lending, the absolute levels of credit for industry have increased. (see Figure 19). Looking further ahead, BNDES could gradually shift toward promoting the development of long-term capital markets, including by playing a role in standardization and market making (e.g., co-financing of infrastructure projects with the private sectors) in the long-term financing market.
IV. Conclusions
During the last decade, Brazil has achieved substantial progress in capital market development. The menu of available financial instruments has been expanded, market infrastructure has been reformed and strengthened, and a diversified investor base has been built. This was a high-priority agenda for the authorities, and the reforms were introduced in close cooperation with market participants.
Nonetheless, challenges remain and the continued development process will need careful management. Despite the country’s great potential (e.g., large size of economy, sound fiscal management, and large mutual fund industry), Brazil’s capital markets are still facing a number of challenges. These include still prevalent short-term indexation, investors’ risk aversion to long-term fixed rate bonds, still low liquidity in the secondary market, and managing the role of BNDES. A shift to a lower yield curve environment should continue to gradually take place. But further progress will require continued policy effort to assure macro stability and financial sector reforms to promote the development of longer-term private finance. (see Figure 20). It will also require close monitoring, to avoid a build-up of risks that could be engendered by the search for yield as the yield curve shifts down. | https://www.elibrary.imf.org/view/journals/001/2012/224/article-A001-en.xml |
The key challenge before us today is the competitiveness of various sectors of the economy. The experience of last 60 years has shown that there are areas which were over regulated, like telecom, after being deregulated, have started to show signs of competitiveness.
Similarly, there are examples, which have proved that if there is no regulation, they can perform even better, e.g. the story of IT sector is a case in point.
The challenge before us is how to promote competitiveness at the firm level, which would create newer and better products, which will create newer and bigger markets. Generally, we have lower innovation capability due to poor business and governance conditions and low educational standards and mediocre infrastructure. These are mainly due to market failure in these areas.
In economic sectors like infrastructure and business, there is no justification for having controls for so many years, which bred inefficiencies into the system. This raises particular challenges for the diffusion of technologies and competitiveness. We need to quickly overcome this.
Basically, market failure occurs when markets do not bring about economic efficiency. Government intervention occurs when markets are not working optimally, i.e. there is a Pareto sub-optimal allocation of resources in a market/industry.
The main problem is the absence of clearly defined property rights in the market. When property rights are not clearly defined, market failure is likely because producers and consumers may not be held accountable.
Both, the Intellectual Property law and the competition policy are supposed to correct market failure in the pursuit of economic efficiency. However, tension between the objectives and instruments of the two systems occurs when the correction of one form of market failure creates another.
Some of the major concerns of competition policy in regard to IP rights relate to the market power that is given by granting of such rights, and the harmful effects that it may cause to consumers by allowing prices to be set higher than are needed to secure cost-effective production.
However, harm to competition should not be viewed from the mere existence of exclusive rights granted by IP law. In fact, the protection may encourage rivals to invest in developing alternatives or substitutes.
So, rather than undermining contestability, it may stimulate it and channel it in directions that can be socially beneficial. Take the case of 'copyright.' Though it gives a far weaker protection than other forms of intellectual property rights, notably patents, it does not preclude independent creation of functionally similar material. In the case of patent rights, however, where conditions of grant are much more stringent than copyright because threshold of originality is higher compared to copyright, protection might start a race to get the first patent which may lead to inefficient allocation of resources leading to market failure.
The inefficiency occurs because the private reward from accruing monopoly profits outweighs the social gain from accelerating the innovation process.
Many provisions of intellectual property law help address this issue. For example, disclosure norms in patent registration requires inventors to fully describe their invention, thereby, helping reduce the cost of subsequent innovators to build on the advances in technology already made.
Intellectual property laws must, therefore, involve some balancing between the incentives to invest in creative effort and the incentives for disseminating material that is the subject matter of intellectual property protection.
Balancing between providing incentives to invest in innovation on one hand and for efficient diffusion of innovation on the other is central to the interface between competition policy and intellectual property laws.
It is essential that the terms of this balance be clearly set out in the intellectual property laws themselves, so that rights owners and users can be certain about the scope and content of the grants being made. However, in real life situations, other policy instruments like competition policy come handy to deal with any imbalance between the two objectives.
In several countries, abuse of IPRs is covered under competition law to ensure the required balance. Drug industries are inducing competition concerns and are facing tough regulations and directions, particularly in US and Europe.
The Federal Trade Commission -- the US anti-trust regulator -- a few years back advised pharma firm GSK, the merged group, to divest one of their products because the merged group would have a dominant position in treatment for a disease. Consequently, Smithkline sold the product, meant to combat irritable bowel syndrome, to Alizyme, a biotechnology company.
Furthermore, the British and the American governments have opened a talk to combat drug barons to crack down on cartels. The arrangement could render British companies vulnerable to punitive damages of the type given against Microsoft recently
However, the British Competition Act forbids the disclosure of the commercially sensitive information without the consent of the company concerned.
On the other hand, the European pharmaceuticals industry is accusing European governments of stifling the sector's competitiveness by implementing shortsighted policies to control the prices of new medicines. They say that they are at a disadvantage to their US competitors.
European companies have, under the new competition rules, a lot more freedom to reach exclusive deals for the sale and distribution of products. The European Commission has removed the need for companies to notify and gain approval for so called vertical agreements between suppliers and distributors, franchisees and industrial partners as long as they fulfill certain criteria.
The new policy means that companies with a market share of less than 30% will be exempt from competition rules that prevent them making potentially anticompetitive deals over distribution.
However, companies involved in the distribution agreements will not be allowed to fix the price at which their products are resold, although they can set maximum and recommended prices. The commission also outlaws so-called non-competitive agreements, requiring the distributors to resell only the brands of one supplier for more than five years.
In India, creating and maintaining competitive markets, therefore, should be the first important objective of economic policy. Through its effect on innovation, the IP system could be a vital factor in shaping and supporting the competitive process.
The government's recent effort, through various IP legislations, to facilitate an environment where IP rights are clearly defined, makes firms accountable for disclosure of their innovation. It makes tech transfers and innovation promotion occur spontaneously, and in those cases where they do not occur spontaneously, how to develop obligations and incentives for tech suppliers and recipients to engage with one another -- be a change agent.
IP laws do put an obligation and incentive on firms to innovate continuously else they face the threat of entry by firms in the competitive markets that are emerging in several sectors of our economy, telecom and IT being the most important one, and pharma and biotech is fast moving in that direction.
This new era in India presents both challenges and opportunities. The new development process requires more knowledge and new entrepreneurial innovation-driven spirit to compete in an environment of intensified global competition.
The opportunities arise from the possibilities of modernization of traditional business practices offered by new technologies. The way the industrial era in the west had replaced the agriculture era, the same way the traditional manufacturing activity has to give way to the new way of doing business.
Knowledge and other intangible factors will have to replace capital and labor accumulation as the source of economic growth, ushered in by the introduction of IP rights. This is expected to produce results via a larger contribution of the total factor productivity through vigorous interplay of market forces
To achieve 12% manufacturing growth is not difficult if we are able to introduce competition in high technology-intensive industries whose spillover effects will be potentially great for employment generation. It is an issue before us, which will partly determine the speed with which we shift from the technology absorption to the technology creation stage.
It would also determine the type of investment we need to make. The absorptive capacity of our economy would depend on the availability of a skilled labor force, with up-to-date skills and the flexibility to adapt to new technologies and new management styles, where firms reach a level of absorptive capacity that will allow them to attract FDI because FDI can be a powerful source of technology transfer and trade expansion.
China illustrates the application of a number of policy principles outlined above. It built on strengths, first in attracting FDI for cheap mass production and then manufacturing to move up the value chain (Le Novo's tie up with IBM) to establish gradually an indigenous R&D capability, exploited change agents, such as local communities, top universities, high tech institutes, diasporas, launched pilot operations, e.g. technoparks along the coast.
The framework of IP legislations has laid the ground for innovation-driven manufacturing, and would thus prevent any potential market failure on account of unclear property rights in sectors like pharma, biotech, IT, agrochemicals.
All we need now is effective tools of competition policy based on sound principles of competition. Unfortunately, the enactment of the Competition Act 2002 due to legal challenge in the courts has made the Act operational only partially.
As a result, there is policy vacuum as far as competition policy for the country is concerned. This reflects the distrust of market forces. The Act is designed to regulate the operation and activities of combinations, a term, which contemplates acquisition, mergers, joint ventures, take-overs or amalgamations.
The Act mandates that no person or enterprise shall enter into a combination, which causes or is likely to cause an appreciable adverse effect on competition within India and such a combination shall be void. The Act has so far become operative only partly and the Competition Commission of India has not yet been constituted fully.
The actual impact of the Act will be known only after its substantive provisions viz. sections 3 to 6, come into force.
The government should 'ensure free and fair market process' and should 'facilitate easy movement of goods and services' by adopting rules and regulations so that trade and commerce within the country is free and unhindered. VAT is a big step forward towards a single market for the country.
Another issue is of separation of policy from regulation and operation like in electricity and telecom. In the case of IP policy for sectors like pharma, biotech, agro and food, separation of policy-making, regulation and operation functions becomes imperative to avoid conflict of interests. In the absence of it, IPR laws would give rise to situations of market failure.
However, the delicate balancing of interests of rights holders and the public interests should not be thwarted by government actions. The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India has failed to ensure interconnection among service providers due to an ambiguity in the law. Consequently, growth in telecom services has been accompanied with an increase in inter-network congestion and poor quality of service.
In the case of copyright, the balancing reflects an effort to see that the economic rights of authors or creators do not interfere with the public's need for access to information.
This balancing inevitably involves imposing restrictions on competition. Some of these restrictions arise from the very rights conferred.
For example, restrictions on adaptations of existing works may impede the free flow of ideas. Restrictions on adaptations of artistic works may impede artistic ideas. In addition, and perhaps uniquely in respect of copyright, the exclusive rights granted are often tempered or qualified by a number of exceptions.
These include compulsory licensing schemes, which effectively prohibit refusal of supply, but instead, compensate the rights holder with equitable remuneration and also include defenses to infringement on public policy grounds (e.g. fair use of a reasonable portion of material for study or news reporting where use is not subject to any remuneration to the rights holder).
As a result, the Copyright Act, in its provisions, already takes account of the community's interest in competitive markets. But there are concerns about restrictions relating to market segmentation.
The restrictions on parallel importation can give copyright owners power to control distribution channels. In short, one can identify several areas, which may put restriction on competition, e.g. parallel importing, copyright in packaging and labeling, statutory licenses, collecting societies.
These issues could best be left for competition policy to address. By setting out a clear framework of property rights in the competition policy, government will increase the ease with which intellectual property can be traded, most visibly through assignments and licenses.
This, in turn, would increase the likelihood that technology will gravitate towards those best placed to use it which would create a means for those who are best placed to advance technology, to have access to the existing base of proprietary knowledge by means of contract.
A well-functioning system of intellectual property rights, therefore, encourages efficiency both in the production and in the allocation of knowledge and resources. Restrictions on the ability of rights owners to enter into such arrangements could prevent the deployment of efficient means of working, and reduce both the return to innovators and the incentive value of the IP system.
Competition policy would allow such efficiency-enhancing arrangements to proceed, while deterring those that do not serve a useful social purpose.
The relationship between the objectives of the intellectual property laws on one hand and competition policy on the other is, therefore, complex and multifaceted. There are many complementary elements: the intellectual property system promotes innovation, which is a key form of competition; and competition policy, by keeping markets open and effective, preserves the primary source of pressure to innovate and diffuse innovations.
To sum up, we need to identify areas and enterprises that are our strengths. For example, in biotech, pharma, IT and automotive components manufacturing we need to design and develop realistic policies, which promote innovation at the firm level deriving the benefits of the spillover-effect of global R&D that has started in India in the last 5 years.
With a reasonable local innovative basis, spillover effect may provide long-term benefits to our manufacturing competitiveness. Pharma and biotech sector and IT and automotive components are a good example of innovative policy support from the government in recent years. Our large scientific pool developed in the last 60 years is proving to be useful in supporting the local innovative basis.
This could form the basis for robust manufacturing in the next decade. The framework of legislations, which existed so far, has laid solid foundations of industrial economy. To go to the next level, the government has put in place new framework of legislations, patent legislation being the most recent one, to suit the requirements of the knowledge economy.
These are expected to promote most needed innovations in each sector.
It would be of crucial importance to see how government is able to achieve separation of policy making from regulation and service providing in the field of IP. This would require providing autonomy to IP offices as service provider like in other countries and vesting regulatory function in respect of price fixing and regulation of market power with an independent regulator to let the firms in key sectors like pharma and biotech benefit from these legislations.
We need to understand whether the strategies followed by government with regard to country's transition to knowledge millennium is bearing fruit and how corporates integrate IP policies in their overall profitability and balance sheets.
This will be useful for a better understanding of the political economy of change and improved government action.
Dr Aditya Trivedi is Director, Abu-Ghazaleh Intellectual Property, India. He looks after the public affairs and, market development issues in IP practice. Prior to this, he was with the FICCI handling intellectual property policy issues and public outreach programmes. The views expressed are personal and do not reflect the opinion of the organisation. | http://inhome.rediff.com/money/2006/sep/12guest1.htm |
Mr Willie Drennan (The Ulster Folk): I am not too sure how I got roped into this. It is because I came in late, I suppose. I will do my best, and I will keep it brief; how does that sound?
The potential of the creative industries in Northern Ireland cannot be overestimated. I think that it is fair to say that for everybody. At this time, with our economic situation, the development of the creative industries is crucial, and I hope that the Government understands the potential there.
The second term of reference is to identify the key challenges currently facing the sector. I think that we are all agreed that there is a lack of funding and a great concern that the funding will be drastically cut. There was a bit of a debate here, because we are all from different sectors, about how that should manifest and what the priorities are. There was a bit of a debate about the idea of a hub or centre of excellence, as opposed to individual artists on the ground, through which everything could transmit out. We came to a consensus that there can be great value in something like the Metropolitan Arts Centre (MAC), for instance, if it is working with the community and there is consciousness of that. There also needs to be a balance of funding going through the hub so that the individual artists on the ground or the small entrepreneurs are not negatively affected.
The third term of reference is about investigating whether gaps exist in current policies. Certainly, there was a feeling that we are at a disadvantage in Northern Ireland as far as tax credits go. There should be financial incentives for research and development. There was general agreement that there needs to be investment in education and an awareness that, through research and development, there is great potential a few years down the road for our young people to make a career within the creative industries. A strategy needs to be put in place to that effect.
There seems to be a lack of incentives — such as tax credits — for the creative arts here in Northern Ireland when compared with the South or other parts of the UK. Someone brought up the point that VAT is not included on tickets for venues down South. I am not too sure whether we confirmed the effect of that, but those are the sorts of incentives that we would like the Government to consider.
I suppose that I have already covered the fourth term of reference about comparing policies and strategies in Northern Ireland with other UK regions.
The fifth term of reference is about examining the extent and effectiveness of the collaboration and co-ordination between the industry and others. That is something that we all felt strongly is greatly lacking. To have more opportunity for networking and the opportunity to work in cross-genre, multimedia forms is essential here. To have the creative industries working outside the arts — working with entrepreneurs, science and other fields of industry — is very important as well. In other words, collaboration is crucial, and we hope that it could be considered as part of a strategy.
The sixth term of reference is about considering the creative industries at sub-sector level in respect of any funding and support available. This is where the idea of prioritising comes in, and that generated a fair bit of debate. There is a concern among some of us that prioritising could mean that there could be a form of elitism, which could be detrimental to certain artists in the field. My way of thinking is that it depends on whether you are prioritising different sectors or prioritising strategies. I think that it all goes back to the fact that there needs to be a strategy. My personal point, which I think that most people seemed to take on board, is that there is far too much bureaucracy and that more incentives need to be given to the private sector and more responsibility needs to be put on that sector so that we can cope with the changes in our funding.
Mr Stephen Stewart (Green Inc Film and Television): I hope that I can remember all this, because there was quite a heated debate here, which was good.
Fundamentally, we are all agreed that there is huge potential here and that it needs more support. The big debate at the table was on whether it should be commercially driven support or pure artistically driven support. I think that the conclusion was that we need to separate the two but that both are equally important. It is really important that we support the cultural side, the pure artistic side and everything else, but it is also really important that we drive the economy and allow it to help all the other sectors.
I will go through the various points, and I am trying to decipher my notes. We decided that, in order to work out the potential, some sort of economic measurement needs to be done so that the Government can then prioritise what is commercial. There is clearly some commercial benefit to be had from the pure artistic side through festivals, support or big events. Again, there was a big debate at the table about whether the pure arts is too Belfast-centric, because there is clearly potential outside Belfast as well.
Key challenges are really much the same. The point was made that pure arts should not shy away from economic value. There is a culture of pure artistic people not wanting anything to do with anything that is in any way commercial. That would be helped if they did not shy away. Some of the challenges were that people who are involved in the arts at a real grass roots level did not have any entrepreneurial skills. There should maybe be some sort of training so that, if they choose to become commercially minded, they have the skills to do it, but they should not necessarily be forced to become commercial. One of the challenges raised was that there does not seem to be joined-up thinking, even at a council level, for example, from different Departments. In order to grow the arts sector, you need the travel sector to work well and so on, and those things do not seem to be joined-up enough.
Do gaps exist in the support? I think that we all agreed that tax credits to attract artists would help. They clearly work. Again, as I said, entrepreneurial skills as part of a university course would help. One of the other things put forward was that it is worth recognising the freelance nature of the industry. Government tends to be driven by people who work on a pay-as-you-earn (PAYE) basis and have jobs for life or a job for a year, whereas we recognise that people in the creative industry tend to have project-based work, so it could be six weeks of work or six months of work. Support should not always just be given for jobs that are going to become PAYE. I think that everybody at the table thought that there should be easier access to funding. It is just too bureaucratic. Some people at the table declared that they did not go after funding because it was just not worth the effort. That clearly should be addressed, because the funding is there to be used.
Comparing UK policies, overall, we felt that we should promote the package of Northern Ireland, which includes everything, be it the Titanic — we had a big debate about the Titanic — arts, music, or the Giant's Causeway. That created debate about whether it should be all-Ireland, because the outside world sees us as Ireland, comes to Ireland and does not differentiate between the two countries.
One other point put forward was that Scotland is far better than us about beating the drum about itself. Clearly, they have had many years to create that situation and build a tourist industry, but we felt that our politicians need to get in, be it to London or Europe, and beat the drum of Northern Ireland and the potential that exists here. We are a highly educated, English-speaking and very creative country.
As regards the point about government, industry and academia, more connection is needed to consolidate, because the various sectors do not know what the others do. In my own industry, the television industry, we only began to meet up with people from the other digital sectors about a year ago, and everything is joined-up now.
In the area of funding and prioritising, the issue that came up was the administration being too heavy. It is fair to say that we decided that prioritising exports was probably a way to go. Northern Ireland needs to look to the outside world, because that is how we are going to grow in the way that other countries, such as Scotland, do. To do that, we could prioritise exports. Those exports might include an arts festival or some other sort of festival that is being done here or they may be on a digital, film or television level. That is how we are going to grow.
Ms Francesca Biondi (Community Arts Partnership): Stephen was saying how important it is to have a holistic approach to support the whole creative sector. There is a need to recognise that there are different sub-sectors with different realities and needs. However, there should be a holistic approach. I want to mention how community arts can play a big part in nurturing talent here. We have talented artists who will decide to have a career in the creative industries or the different sub-sectors. Community arts is really important in supporting talent in Northern Ireland through informal pathways.
Dr Colm Murphy (University of Ulster): I will whiz through these, because we also made some of the points that were made at the other tables.
In answer to question one about the potential of the creative industries, we agreed that there is huge potential. There is a huge amount of creativity here in Northern Ireland, but there is not enough recognition of that, both on a commercial basis or in society recognising the craftsperson or artist as having a strong or important role. That is something that could be reinforced by policy.
A lot of people in the business are self-employed and have to do everything in what are almost like one-person industries. Again, there needs to be recognition of that. Sometimes in the formal structure of how the sector is recognised, a lot of grants and so forth are built around people who are involved in limited companies or bigger operations. The self-employed just do not have that scale, and that has to be recognised.
We identified three different potentials, all of which need to be addressed separately in policy. First, from the point of view of developing and promoting tourism, we talked about how successful craft trails have been elsewhere and the idea of introducing more of them here. Secondly, in regards to exports, we were all agreed that the indigenous market for our crafts and creative industries is just too small and is already saturated. In addition, the point is that, locally, people do not necessarily put a premium price on creative products, whereas, internationally, other markets do. That is another incentive for going out and reaching into those export markets.
With regards to the indigenous market, people felt that it is too small for the sector itself, but there is potential for growth there as well, which should not be underestimated. To develop for the export market, you would need to develop the indigenous market first and to build up your experience there. To develop the export market, sales teams are needed to go out and sell, because the people creating the creative produce or service do not necessarily have the time or the expertise or skills base to do it. Again, if there was assistance for them with direct sales, it would be very helpful. We had a discussion about branding and about how other sectors do that, such as with the Kilkenny brand and so forth. We discussed the merits of doing that and of putting networks of people together.
That sums up our discussion of point 1 about potential. Some of our discussions overlapped the different points, so I will try to condense them.
Point 2 was about the key challenges that face the sector. As I said, because the local market is too small, it must be export-driven. There is a lack of investment in world-standard skills. In the craft industries in particular, it takes almost a lifetime to build up the skills that are required, and sometimes that is not recognised in policy. Skills need to be constantly updated, and that is not funded, nor is it recognised that that is a very important part of the creative industries.
There is a lack of global ambition to go out and do things, and there is a lack of resources and expertise in marketing to support that. The point was also made that we need to stop the sector from being too Belfast-centric. There was criticism that a lot of the agencies, because they are based in Belfast, seem to have a Belfast-centric approach to developing the sector, and much of the sector that exists outside Belfast feels that it is being excluded from development.
Point 3 was about the gaps in policy. Again, we identified the lack of training and upskilling and the importance of developing skills, not only craft skills but the types of skills linked to marketing and branding. The second gap is in microfinance. Again, the consensus around the table was that people in the creative industries do not want to become what we call "grant entrepreneurs". They do not want to be chasing grants all the time. They want to develop as craft businesses. However, we said that there was a need for what we class as seed financing to develop sales and so forth. That has been missing due to people falling underneath the thresholds that are required by Invest Northern Ireland because they operate on too small a scale. Furthermore, some of the grants that were available were for the wrong type of thing; they might have been for leadership development or management development or whatever, whereas what people needed was grant aid to develop craft skills or seed funding to develop sales skills or to employ a direct sales team. Such funding was not available. There seems to be a gap in provision in that regard. We spoke about how difficult it is for some of the crafts people to develop their skills in the first instance and that they have to invest in going to workshops in London and that kind of thing. The geographical position of Northern Ireland is a factor.
Point 4 was about analysis of policy elsewhere. We took a quick look at that, and we felt that Scotland seems to have extremely good policies for the development of the sector. The Republic of Ireland has policies that could be used here or adapted and learned from.
Point 5 was about collaboration. There was a consensus around the table that there was not only very little cohesion between funders but between individuals in the sector. The point was made that people sometimes had an attitude that they were in silos and did not necessarily always want to share information with what they would consider as rivals. If the sector were to grow internationally, they would have to get out of those silos.
People praised the Arts Council and said that it had some very good programmes, particularly now that some of the funding is being given on a three-year plan, which people felt was a much better way of doing it. However, there was a feeling that there was duplication between the agencies and that the need for more joined-up thinking could be looked at.
Point 6 was about prioritising particular sectors. Again, there were mixed views on that. I think that, in general, we felt that, yes, there probably was a need for prioritisation if there were a couple of sectors that needed a huge amount of investment. However, that had to be balanced with continuing to support the smaller people, because you never know where the good sectors will come from or the sectors that are going to grow. Therefore, you have to get the balance right between the two things. That is, I think, a fair summary. Thank you. | http://www.niassembly.gov.uk/assembly-business/official-report/committee-minutes-of-evidence/session-2011-2012/march-2012/inquiry-into-maximising-the-potential-of-the-creative-industries-stakeholder-event/ |
N. Economics: Scientific and technological progress, investment policy, management.
N. Economics: Scientific and technological progress, investment policy, management.
The state is forced to pay for them with national wealth, gold reserves, foreign assets of the state bank. At the same time, the hryvnia exchange rate falls and the chances of achieving its convertibility decrease. Even in the domestic financial market, hard currency beats the hryvnia, it is dollarized.
In order to characterize the financial condition of the state, it is very important to track and analyze the domestic public debt. It characterizes the financial relations within the country between the state on the one hand and businesses and individuals – on the other. In essence, domestic debt is the debt of the state to the population and groups of enterprises. It is due to the fact that the state budget lent them funds for state needs.
In form, these funds are not borrowed from the population and enterprises, but from the state bank, which stores the funds of enterprises and the population and forms a loan fund from them, the funds of which are used to lend to the state. But this does not change the essence, because they have to return the money to their owners, regardless of who kept them and who disposed of them.
Due to the deficit of the state budget, the excess of its expenditures over revenues, part of the expenditures have to be covered by borrowed funds, which leads to an increase in domestic public debt.
Domestic public debt and the state budget deficit are not so innocent for businesses and individuals. State social programs are limited, the state bank slows down the issuance of funds, there is uncertainty in the reliability of deposits and savings, there is an excessive issuance of banknotes, that is, more and more money is printed, which creates a trade deficit and inflation.
Consideration of the financial system shows that the transition to a market economy urgently requires its recovery, the establishment of the normal functioning of this system at all levels, the stabilization of money circulation, along with other areas of market relations.
List of references
Emelyanov AS, Besedin VF. Kozub VM Economics of investment in scientific and technological progress. – K.: Nauk, dumka, 1988 .– 311 pp. Ermoshenko NN Economics: Scientific and technical progress, investment policy, management. – K.: Nauk, dumka, 1990 .– 184 pp. Zhilyaeva N. The golden rule of investment // Economy and life. – 1992. – No. 1. – P. 7. Zotov MS Improving the investment process // Vopr. economy. – 1985. – № 4. – P. 83-93.Itkin OF Economic mechanisms of innovation and investment activities and restoration of main pipelines of Ukraine. – K.: Scientific World, 2002. Kameneva O., Novoselov M., Rabina A. Banks have become the vanguard of free prices // Kommersant. – 1991. – № 47. – P. 14. Korotkova MS Monetary and credit problems of stabilization of the national economy // Money and credit. – 1991. – No. 3. – P. 59-67. Krupka Ya. D., Lytvyn BM Improving the methodology of accounting for investment activities and construction production. – K.: Ekon. Dumka, 1998. Krupka Ya. D., Lytvyn BM Investment business plan. – K., 1997. Liven O. Foreign capital in Ukraine needs to be attracted more actively // Kommersant Ukrainy. – 1993. – No. 9. – P. 13.Lvov Yu. L. Fundamentals of economics and business organization. – SPb.: GMP "Formica" 1992. – 382 pp. Nemchinsky AB, Zaikin P. Economic justification of investments in the conditions of the formation of market relations. – M .: Stroyizdat, 1991 .– 152p.
04/23/2011
Innovative investments: sources of financing. Abstract
The success of economic activity in the field of innovation has recently become increasingly dependent on the degree of involvement of credit resources of banking institutions in the system of financial support of reproduction processes
The intensification of innovative activity of enterprises in a market economy is primarily associated with the search for sources and forms of investment that should ensure a balance between innovation costs and financial opportunities.
The success of economic activity in the innovation sphere has recently become increasingly dependent on the degree of involvement of credit resources of banking institutions in the system of financial support of reproduction processes.
Thus, banks become one of the participants in the innovation process, providing not only its financing, but also communication between all participants – the state, investment and innovation funds, scientific and technical institutions and consumers. However, the existing lending mechanisms and excessively high interest rates in Ukraine do not promote the inflow of financial resources into innovation.
At the same time, the real current situation is such that long-term loans, which should be the main levers for stimulating innovation activity of economic entities, represent a dangerously small share in the total volume of credit investments in the national economy.
Among the significant factors limiting long-term innovative lending are the following: high interest rates on bank loans; high credit risk, interest rate risk, unbalanced liquidity risk; mainly current and short-term nature of bank liabilities; low liquidity of collateral that can be transferred to secure an innovative loan; banks’ interest in lending to business operations with fast cash flow; limited possibility of refinancing in the NBU.
One of the promising sources of funding for innovation in enterprises, such as the chemical industry, can also be the funds of foreign investors. their use has a number of advantages over loan capital and other types of financial and credit security. Thus, in contrast to loans and credits, without increasing the external debt of the state, they contribute to obtaining funds for the development of production, attracting the interest of a foreign investor. The export of profits earned by investors through their contributions and participation in production is much less dangerous than the repayment of interest-bearing loans.
An important tool to stimulate the development of production is the provision of state guarantees on foreign credit lines, which greatly facilitates the entry of enterprises into the capital market. There are two diametrically opposed views on government guarantees for foreign loans:
without such guarantees it is impossible to support domestic production due to the weakness of the banking system of Ukraine; it is necessary to abandon foreign loans altogether or impose a moratorium on them until the economic and political situation stabilizes.
Government guarantees provide easier access to credit, so they are a form of business subsidy. The amount of this subsidy can be estimated based on the reduction of the company’s cost of paying interest on a bank loan. In case of non-repayment of the loan by the enterprise, the amount of the subsidy is equal to the amount of budget costs for its repayment and maintenance. Such cases in a market economy are virtually ruled out through the use of bankruptcy proceedings.
That is, at first glance, the provision of state guarantees in obtaining loans or state aid for their servicing does not violate the market mechanism: the state simply helps companies to obtain credit on market terms. However, from the economic point of view, this means financing projects that would not have been implemented without the participation of the state due to high costs or lack of reliability. With limited credit, this leads to the replacement (displacement) of profitable investments.
Thus, state intervention creates certain obstacles to the financing of more profitable projects and, consequently, distorts the conditions of competition and reduces the overall efficiency of the national economy.
The provision of state guarantees is usually based on an accepted system of priorities. Selective support for certain sectors of the economy leads to changes in relative prices and, consequently, in the structure of production, which as a result of such intervention ceases to correspond to consumer priority.
The experience of industrialized countries shows that the provision of state guarantees, compared to other forms of subsidies, is appropriate only when the guarantees on the market remain those companies that have a chance to maintain their profitability for a long time.
Providing state guarantees, compared to other forms of subsidies to enterprises, has two important advantages:
the state gets the opportunity to provide support to enterprises without the use of budget funds; for enterprises, the need to repay loans becomes an incentive to make the most efficient use of borrowed funds.
However, the reality in Ukraine is that government-guaranteed loans not only do not have these benefits, but even pose a serious economic problem related to government debt.
At least 11 institutions are involved in the guarantee procedure (the Ministry of Economy, Finance, Foreign Economic Relations and Trade, the State Property Fund, the agent bank, the National Agency, the sectoral departments of the Cabinet of Ministers, the central executive body of the relevant industry, an independent organization). carries out price expertise, other institutes).
Increasing the number of participants in the examination increases the cost of its implementation, but does not increase the degree of validity of the choice of innovative project.
One of the most important arguments in choosing innovative projects is their compliance with the priority areas of foreign credit and economic development. Thus, there is still no deep economic justification of priorities based on the analysis of comparative advantages and real possibilities of their use, as well as trends in the development of subsidized industries in other countries.
Most often, the priority is associated with the need to use existing production potential, ie follows from the past, rather than focusing on 123helpme.me the future. All this increases the likelihood of excluding effective projects. However, the wording "separate, extremely important objects" can serve as a basis for any subjective decision. | http://rhazichem.com/n-economics-scientific-and-technological-progress-investment-policy-management/ |
A second group that Huntington (1998) presents what is what is called the ‘faculty club’. These are people sharing similar values with respect to research and education. They are neither wealthy and nor privileged as compared to the elite group. However, the faculty group have the power of wielding better influence when it comes to social issues as they use their connections with educational institutions and research centres. For instance, the global cultural concepts in the case of environmentalism, feminism, anti-smoking are propagated by these members. Non-Governmental organizations are a form of a global cultural group again.
Almost all people globally will not be able to sympathize with the work carried out by most of these NGOs. Non-governmental organizations are leading the issues that are raised by the ‘Faculty club’. For example, the exploitation of indigenous populations over the world was seen to be one of the issues for which the NGOs attempted to collect global consensus. It is through this form of work that common elements of thinking when it comes to other’s spaces and land are understood. Transnational workers also play a significant role in global culture, as they bring to their newer social world, the elements of culture from their older social world. For example, software engineers who are Indian and who are in the Silicon Valley strongly unite some global cultural sentiments such as giving importance to family, self-development etc.
Local culture that is differentiated from global culture has its roots in more well defined shared set of customs and beliefs (Tomlinson, 1999). The understanding of local culture in the 20th century led to the better insights on how to handle the diversifications. Culture created self-identifiable groups according to the research works of anthropologists of that time. According to these anthropologists, people in these groups are so socially coherent that there could be a large amount of adjustment needed for them to even vibe with others. The term cultural shock was invented in the 20th century to refer to the phenomenon of how normal people within a culture would perceive the differences of the other culture. Local culture in this case was a knowledge system that was inherited from ancestors. This form of culture was characterized by the following things. | https://www.educationren.com/ao-zhou-guan-li-xue-lun-wen-dai-xie-jiao-yuan-ju-le-bu/ |
Since the establishment of the FAO Representation in the Republic of the Gambia in 1978, the main function of the office has been to assist the Government to develop policies, programmes and projects in order to reduce hunger and malnutrition, help develop the agriculture, fisheries and forestry sectors and to use their environmental and natural resource in a sustainable way. These functions are achieved through advocacy and awareness creation, disaster prevention and management initiatives and implementation of field programmes and projects in collaboration with government and other partners such as donors, NGOs, civil society organisations, and research institutions.
FAO’s role in the Gambia also covers key thematic areas within the United Nations Development Assistance Framework (UNDAF) a framework through which all UN Agencies collaborate with the Government and other development partners. The country office maintains a dynamic presence and collaboration in the Gambia, and enjoys a cordial and mutually beneficial relationship with the Government. In effect, the Representation reports to three line Ministries namely: the Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Fisheries and Water Resources as well as the Ministry of Forestry, Wild Life and the Environment.
The Representation also enjoys an excellent working relationship with the other UN Agencies and donors, public and private sector organisations, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), key international development partners, civil society organisations and local communities to enhance agricultural production and strive to ensure food security.
In line with its global mandate and the food security needs of the Gambia, FAO implements different projects, supporting and providing funding and technical assistance to food security programmes, capacity-strengthening interventions as well as emergency assistance. | https://www.fao.org/gambia/fao-in-gambia/en/ |
Strengthening capacity for health policy systems research in Nigeria
Health Policy Systems Research (HPSR) is still relatively new and evolving in Nigeria, but is already regarded as a priority research need, having been included in the National Strategic Health development Plan as one of the eight priority areas that aim to utilize research to inform policy and programs, improve health and contribute to the global knowledge platform. Currently, there is limited use of research findings by policymakers and communities, which is partly explained by inadequate and insufficient capacity to produce and use HPSR. With the growing interest from government, civil society, and international organizations, the challenge now lies in meaningfully engaging key audiences – government, private sector players, academia and media – to share insights, collaborate and problem-solve together to drive policy and bring HPSR (and research in general) outcomes forward.
To engage and connect key audiences to share insights, collaborate, and problem-solve together to drive improved and strengthened capacities for HPSR leadership in Nigeria. The convening also afforded the opportunity to identify gaps, opportunities, advocacy strategies/tools, and relevant stakeholders for increasing participatory leadership for HPSR at national and sub-national levels in Nigeria.
The convening was a 2-day virtual participant-driven unconference that combined different formats to enable effective participation and interrogation of issues. Formats included plenary sessions, with attendant breakout sessions, panel discussions led by seasoned practitioners, academics, and policymakers vast in the field of HPSR with adequate Question and Answer sessions after each panel discussion. | https://healthsystemsglobal.org/event/strengthening-capacity-for-health-policy-systems-research-in-nigeria/ |
The importance of data for policy making, interventions and impact assessment gained impetus at the AVPN India Policy Forum (IPF) 2018. With different layers of data being produced in India through national surveys, administrative and cell-phone data, there is immense scope to not only measure policy outcomes but also evaluate existing policies and identify gaps. Such an approach will help reduce the time frame that is normally required to implement, assess and amend a policy.
Hosted in New Delhi, on 5 December, the IPF sought to understand the use-case for real data in education, skills & livelihoods and nutrition outcomes and guide policymakers to use data for better policy implementation. With more than 92 delegates across India, the event provided a platform to empower the community on two fronts: (1) explore strategies to support state and district-level policymakers in making data-driven decisions; (2) identify ways to develop the data infrastructure on a national level.
Data can catalyse champions of change
While the role of data in the decision-making process was recognised way back in 2012 or before, this approach has picked up speed in recent time. In India, evidence-based policymaking through data gained prominence due to the efforts of National Institute for Transforming India better known as NITI Aayog, a government public policy think-tank. NITI Aayog started using real-time district level data for its Aspirational District Programme. “Real-time data encourages policymakers to be responsive, which translates into good administration and effective governance”, says Mr.Amitabh Kant, CEO of NITI Aayog. Underdeveloped districts are ranked across key social indicators in real-time and reported on the champions of change dashboard. This form of data is used in Dhenkanal district in the state of Odisha to reduce maternal and infant deaths and improve the child sex ratio by 30 percent. Citing such examples of leveraging data to make social impact, Mr.Kant urged the social investment community to support the government in its endeavour to build a robust data regime in the country and establish a partnership in improving the key human development indicators.
Capacity building is fundamental to data management
In order to drive evidenced-based change, there is a need to build the capacity of policy stakeholders who deal with field-level data on a day to day basis. These policy-stakeholders collect primary data from the community but lack basic knowledge on what constitutes as accurate data. This was reiterated by Mr.Rai Mahimapat Ray, the District Magistrate and Deputy Commissioner of Ranchi district, who highlighted the need to develop the skills of Anganwadi workers, Auxiliary Nurse Midwife Workers and ASHA workers (AAA workers); all of whom are frontline workers in implementing the early childhood care and maternal policies in India and also critical players in collecting data relating to nutrition. An initiative of a similar kind was carried out through a collaborative effort amongst Kaivalya Education Foundation, Edelgive Foundation and the government of Maharashtra. The partnership provided coaching workshops and supported cluster and block level officers in using data for decision-making process.
Cross-sector participation is needed to build a resilient data infrastructure
Being a diverse country with multiple level of governance, India has a large volume of data flowing in and out of the system. Private players can lend their expertise in supporting the Aspirational Districts programme by enhancing the capacity of stakeholders in data management and collection, and working with government officials in districts to identify gaps in policy implementation. On the other hand, academic institutions like Brookings India can essay the role of third-party evaluators by evaluating the data collected to ensure unbiased results. Voluntary organisations are also critical stakeholders in complementing the work of policy stakeholders in data collection. With the government’s willingness to partner with multi-sector organisations, the policy landscape reflects an earnestness to effect change. The ball is now in the social investors’ court to take up these actionable opportunities and collaborate on policy initiatives.
To further such ongoing partnership efforts, AVPN launched APFx to inspire delegates to collaborate across sectors and identify various policy initiatives in need of different types of resources. Using this platform, policymakers can feature actionable policy initiatives that are ready for cross-sector engagement from the wider AVPN membership. APF invites foundations, NGOs and the policy sector to list their public-private initiatives on APFx.
Mapping out the road ahead
Data collection and assessment are difficult endeavours, but for a subcontinent like India with 543 parliamentary constituencies, these will be mammoth tasks. Nonetheless, there is scope for strategic collaboration between policy stakeholders and the social investment community to bring about a systemic change. AVPN seeks to help each player identify their strengths and align their vision to achieve a common goal. In turn, we hope that this will foster lasting relationships between the social investment community, civil society organisations and policymakers, thereby catalysing positive and transformative outcomes.
View more India Policy Forum resources on the Recap page. | https://avpn.asia/blog/improving-policy-decisions-byte-byte-reflections-avpn-india-policy-forum-2018/ |
Anthropology is vital for building back better
When the news broke in 2020 that scientists had raced ahead with efforts to create vaccines for COVID-19, policymakers and voters around the world cheered. No wonder: the development of these vaccines is a triumph for 21st century medical and computer science, raising the chances that the world will beat the pandemic.
However, in 2021 it has emerged that there is a catch: quite apart from the fact that distribution of the vaccine has proved to be lamentably—and dangerously—inequitable, not least because of the structures of the global political economy, vaccination even in some rich countries is turning out to be difficult. The reason? Culture—as defined by the web of half-acknowledged rituals, symbols, ideas, spatial patterns, and social affiliations that shape humans, wherever they live. Most notably, in places such as the United States, there has been so much vaccine resistance—or “hesitancy,” to use the polite euphemism—that it has undermined efforts to stop the pandemic.
And while some jurisdictions—such as France—have managed to overcome initial vaccination hesitancy (at least to some degree), the fact that there even are such battles illustrates a crucial, but oft-ignored, point about policymaking today. Effective responses to fast-moving (or even slow-moving) challenges require more than reliance on so-called hard sciences, such as medical research or the powers of big data. You need “soft” science too, to understand human behavior and culture.
Or to put it another way, it is a profound mistake to try to solve public policy problems today just by relying on one set of intellectual tools, deployed with tunnel vision. You need lateral vision, to appreciate the wider human context and how elements that lie outside your model, big data set, or scientific trial could affect what is happening. Culture, as defined above, matters, along with environmental and political systems—and not just the pieces of our cultural systems that we openly notice (the “noise”) but also the pieces we tend to ignore because they are embarrassing or familiar or too complex to discuss (the “silence”).
We need lateral vision to deal not only with pandemics but also with a host of other issues around economic development and policymaking—climate change, pensions, and so on. Trying to devise effective policy purely on a technical basis, such as with a narrowly bounded economic model or with engineering science, is akin to walking through a dark wood at night looking only at a compass dial. No matter how technically brilliant your tool might be, if your eyes are fixed on it alone, you will trip over a tree root. Context matters.
How can policymakers adopt that lateral vision? I would suggest that one way to do this is to borrow some ideas from a field I trained in, before becoming a financial journalist: cultural anthropology. This might sound odd to some policymakers, given the discipline’s often rather dusty, exotic image—its adherents viewed as academic versions of Indiana Jones who spend their time traveling to remote locations to study colorful rituals that seem far removed from 21st century economic challenges.
However, this stereotype is not just wrong—it also creates a gigantic missed opportunity. Yes, anthropologists are dedicated to studying human culture, in all its glorious spectrum of difference. But they do not do this in a patronizing manner (unlike the early 19th century anthropologists, who had a deplorably racist, sexist, and imperialist bent). Instead 21st century anthropologists believe that it is important to study different cultures, with respect, because that process not only yields empathy for strangers, which is crucial in a globally integrated world, it also helps us understand our own cultures better—wherever we initially hail from. It is a win-win.
After all, as the Chinese proverb goes: “A fish cannot see water.” People cannot clearly evaluate the underlying cultural assumptions they have absorbed from their surroundings unless they step back and compare them to those of others—or jump out of the fishbowl. Immersing yourself in the lives of others and tasting a little culture shock, as anthropologists do, gives you a more objective sense of your own society’s strengths and flaws—and “social silences.” As an added bonus, peering at other cultures can introduce you to new ideas and ways of solving problems. Last but not least, since anthropologists tend to take a worm’s-eye view (that is, look at things from the bottom up, in a holistic way), taking a good look at other cultures offers a different vantage point than bird’s-eye (that is, top-down) analyses.
This sounds abstract. But consider for a moment what might have happened if policymakers had adopted an anthropologist’s lens when COVID-19 erupted. To some extent, Western governments and voters would not have been so badly tripped up if they had known more about the spread of epidemics in other cultures. Assuming that diseases such as SARS, Ebola—and COVID-19—were problems exclusive to the other side of the world, Wuhan, or to people who seemed so “weird” or “exotic,” led to dangerous complacency. Nor would Western governments have had so much hubris about their own health care systems. Looking at the way the West developed medicines, conveyed health care messages, and promoted public health with an insider-outsider eye would have made it easier to see the shortcomings.
An anthropologist’s mindset could have helped Western governments import valuable lessons from other regions. Take masks. Anthropologists working in Asia have long argued that the efficacy of masks does not rest simply on physical factors—how fabric can stop germs—the act of putting one on is a powerful psychological prompt that reminds people to change their behavior and signals a person’s commitment to protecting a social group, which is crucial in a pandemic. This suggests that policymakers grappling with a pandemic should use every signal possible to encourage people to embrace this practice, even if it flies in the face of Western ideas about individualism. But this is not what initially happened in some places. In the United Kingdom, for example, the government discouraged mask wearing early on, and even after it later changed tack, the prime minister, Boris Johnson, shunned masks in public. Although that stance eventually changed, policymakers in Britain (and elsewhere) might have paid more attention to consistent messaging if they had known more about the Asian experience.
Similarly, governments should have recognized earlier the importance of cultural context when trying to disseminate health care messages and change behavior, since people rarely think about risk the way scientists do. Anybody who knew anything about Ebola in West Africa in 2014 understood this point well, since the disease was beaten—after earlier missteps—only when the messaging became more sensitive to cultural context and behavioral science was blended with anthropology, medical science, and computing. To cite one example, when global health groups initially built centers to treat Ebola victims in 2014, these featured opaque walls, which made it impossible for victims’ families to see what was happening to their loved ones, and messages about Ebola were presented in terms that local people could not understand. When the messaging became more sensitive and the walls of treatment centers were redesigned to be transparent, compliance with doctors increased. Listening to local voices is crucial.
Some of these lessons about the need to be culturally sensitive have been adopted with COVID-19. Although vaccination messages were initially presented almost exclusively through the voice of scientists, for example, governments in the United States and Europe have (belatedly) realized that these “elite” messages do not resonate with some people and have switched to community voices. But this lesson now needs to be applied to numerous other policy challenges too. Climate change is perhaps the most important example. Unless governments and scientists can present environmental messages in ways that resonate in different cultures, with the right incentives, they will not rally voter support for green policies or persuade people to embrace behavioral changes, let alone motivate them to collaborate for the good of others. Top-down models of green policies are not enough: you need a worm’s-eye view as well, with empathy for people’s lives, to build a just transition and avoid a backlash against green reforms.
Consider attitudes toward renewable energy. In the eyes of Western urban elites, it seems self-evident that energy sources such as wind and solar are morally superior to fossil fuels such as coal. However, these privileged urbanites live far from rural locations that could be blighted by the construction of wind turbines. Nor do they suffer the loss of identity (and livelihood) that can occur in a coal mining town when the local mine shuts down or the economic hardship of poor people when the cost of transportation rises. Empathy is needed for effective strategies to fight climate change, as well as awareness that most ordinary citizens do not see the world the way engineers and economists do.
Don’t get me wrong: I am not saying that economists, doctors, computer scientists, and financiers should jettison their tools, nor that cultural anthropology is a magic wand that imparts wisdom. Like all intellectual traditions, the discipline has shortcomings, most notably that its insights can be hard to scale, and since it is mostly a qualitative, not quantitative, lens on the world, the messages can be difficult to communicate. Defining culture can seem like chasing soap in the bath: it is everywhere, but nowhere.
The key point is this: if we ignore the cultural and environmental context of people’s lives, we all suffer. Conversely, if we incorporate it into our analysis, we can create more effective policy tools, with better checks and balances. The key is to combine computer, medical, economic, and financial science with social sciences and blend a worm’s- and bird’s-eye view. This will help us study both the noise in our lives and the silence—and build back better.
Opinions expressed in articles and other materials are those of the authors; they do not necessarily represent the views of the IMF and its Executive Board, or IMF policy. | https://www.imf.org/Publications/fandd/issues/2021/12/Listening-social-silence-Gillian-Tett |
Business anthropology is a fast-evolving field. Social sciences such as sociology, psychology, and anthropology each have a unique set of constructs and theories for studying human behavior and each brings special insights to understanding business. Anthropologists are skilled in observing and learning from the rich interaction of social beings in their environment. With methods based in techniques for first-hand observation and interviewing of participants, and with theoretical knowledge gleaned from studying human societies across the world, anthropologists are the social scientists uniquely situated by training to analyze the social milieu and group-patterned interaction in any human setting. Simply, business anthropology is the use of anthropological constructs, theory, and methods to study its three subfields: organizations, marketing and consumer behavior, and design. Organizational anthropology is the study of complex organizations from an anthropological perspective to solve organizational problems or better understand the nature and functioning of the organizational form within and across organizations. In marketing and consumer behavior anthropology’s methods allow one to get close to consumers and understand their needs, while anthropology’s theoretical perspectives allow one to understand how human consumption plays out on the world stage. In the design field anthropologists use their methods to observe and learn from the detailed interaction of social beings in the designed environments in which we all live. They use their theoretical perspectives to develop a holistic analysis of the rich data to develop new products and evaluate and improve existing ones whether they be refrigerators or office buildings. The field of business anthropology is difficult to define because the moniker “business anthropology” is a misnomer. This field, as most anthropologists practice it, is not limited to work in for-profit businesses. Business anthropologists work with for-profit organizations, but also non-profit ones, government organizations and with supranational regulatory bodies. In addition to working for a business, an organizational anthropologist might be working in a non-profit hospital to improve patient safety, a design anthropologist might be working for an NGO to develop a less fuel-intensive cooking system for refugee camps and an anthropologist in marketing might be working in a government agency to develop ways to advertise new vaccines.
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Ann T. Jordan
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Daniel Ginsberg
Anthropological skills and perspectives are of use in many professional contexts, and in a few industries, the value of anthropology is generally accepted: historic preservation, public health, and user experience research are prominent examples. As a result, a vibrant community of “practicing,” “professional,” “public,” and “applied” anthropologists has taken root in a variety of non-academic settings. The relationship between academia and professional practice is sometimes difficult, however, as some practitioners feel stigmatized or excluded by academics, while others inhabit professional spaces where academic anthropology is largely irrelevant. While anthropologists often speak of a “divide” or “split” between academic and practicing anthropology, this view overlooks the fact that much work in the discipline maintains a presence both inside and outside of higher education institutions. Not only do anthropologists often form collaborative partnerships among members with diverse professional commitments, but individual anthropologists may simultaneously maintain both academic and non-academic affiliations, and they may move among professional spheres over the course of their career. If we are to reach a full understanding of the profession, we must move beyond a simplistic “academic/practitioner” dualism to consider these diverse professional contexts and work-life trajectories.
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Eric Montgomery and Elizabeth Drexler
The early 21st century has seen the largest protests for social justice in the history of the U.S., including the Women’s Marches of 2016–2020 as well as the Movement for Black Lives. Meanwhile, the Farmers’ Protest in India constitutes the largest and most expensive protest in the history of the world. Cases of state and political violence and genocide around the world have been addressed in transitional justice processes and peace agreements or commemorated in various forms. And yet, even as individuals and groups mobilize for peace and justice, violence and oppression continue to proliferate around the world. What we identify as the anthropology of peace and justice encompasses the empirical analysis, theoretical engagement, and practical advocacy of anthropologists across the subfields. These anthropologists work to identify, conceptualize, and study individual and collective engagement with violence, oppression, injustice, and efforts to make change, seek justice, and establish sustainable peace. Anthropological theory and methods are well suited to capture emergent, ongoing, and innovative struggles for justice that occur in a range of social, cultural, political, and institutional realms drawing on collective cultural and symbolic actions. Today’s anthropologists engage with issues of violence, conflict, inequality, and struggles for justice and equity. We highlight theoretical, methodological, analytic, and ethnographic elements that distinguish anthropological approaches to peace and justice studies from other disciplines that examine this domain. Anthropologists engaging immigrant rights, movements for racial justice, indigenous rights, climate justice, gender equity, the Fight for $15, Occupy Wallstreet, gun violence, and issues of authoritarian rule and neoliberalism (market-oriented principles and government deregulation) in the era of globalization continue to build this vibrant and expanding area of anthropological concern.
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J.A. English-Lueck and Miriam Avery
Anticipatory anthropology can be variously seen as a mode of inquiry that occupies the space between the disciplines of applied anthropology and future studies. Philosophically, the anticipatory approach has deep roots in applied anthropology since the purpose of studying human experience is to improve the quality of human life in the future. Traditional anthropological approaches to data collection and analysis, however, have been much more focused on past life or present experiences. In the mid-20th century, anthropologists began to employ more explicit future orientations, paralleling efforts in other social sciences to make sense of the post-World War II milieu. Prominent anthropologist Margaret Mead was in the forefront of that effort. People engaged in cultural forecasting, thinking about human futures, resist making predictions. Prediction assumes that one cultural path will create the future, but anthropologists recognize human agency, and people’s ability to choose and make different futures. Academic or practicing anthropologists who actively consider future actions and consequences anticipate alternatives for various possible futures. These anthropologists map the implications of that flow logically or emotionally from observable practices. In the 1960s and 1970s, a cohort of scholars began to develop methodologies for exploring possible cultural futures. During the same period, an interdisciplinary endeavor, the emerging field of future studies, began to produce a body of literature, a series of conferences, and international organizations. While a minority were interested in the long-term survival of the species, most futures research was focused on near or midterm futures, ranging from five to thirty years into the future. Anthropologists made unique contributions to this larger body of future studies. Much of the literature generated in classic future studies was based on North American or European perspectives, often from an elite point of view. The logic of forecasting was largely quantitative and based on a set of assumptions that could be deeply culture bound. Anthropologists sought to decenter the presumption that the future could only be made by elite actors in developed and democratic nations. Anthropologists deliberately sought out non-elite people of diverse backgrounds, tapped into their imaginations, and delved into the choices they would make to shape the future. Research in anticipatory anthropology has been closely associated with the emerging field of user experience, as both sets of scholars seek to understand the consequences of technological change on ordinary people. Drawing on notions from cognitive anthropology, anthropologists who employed a futures orientation posited that individual cultural actors imagined different futures and acted to create or avoid those projections. If you asked people about the futures they hoped for and the futures they feared, they would reveal the underlying affective logic that shaped those visions. Much of the work in anticipatory anthropology has involved discerning the impacts of emerging technologies on social life. As interest in the anthropology of science and technology has grown, academic scholars and practitioners used the techniques of anticipatory anthropology to reveal both the intended and unintended consequences of technological use on social life. In particular, the interests of anticipatory anthropologists have converged with self-identified design anthropologists, since both look at present behaviors to imagine the future use of a service, product, architectural form, or landscape. In addition, the global social problems of environmental degradation and resource use, which so captivated the imaginations of futurists in the late 20th century, continue to be of concern. Sensitively documenting and forecasting the impacts of climate change, global disruption, automation, and biotechnologies on vulnerable populations comprised some of the emerging frontiers of anticipatory anthropology that will call to a new generation of scholars and practitioners.
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Derek Newberry and Eric Gruebel
Since at least the 1930s, anthropologists have been conducting research on the dynamics and features of leadership and organizational development. After a period of dormancy lasting from the middle of the century to the end of the 1970s, work in the field has taken off. Drawing on two of anthropology’s defining features—the ethnographic method and the culture concept—scholars working within the field have provided an alternative and productive approach to a subject studied across a range of disciplines. As is the case throughout anthropology, no one definition of culture serves as the universal touchstone for the anthropological study of organizations. Still, anthropologists working within the field commonly reject any notion of culture as static, uniform, or fully bounded within an organization. Unlike in the traditional management scholarship, there are few explanatory frameworks on effective leadership or organizational functioning in the anthropological literature. This different emphasis is a byproduct of the larger trend toward reflexivity over the last two decades, in which anthropologists have increasingly challenged both the concept of “culture” itself and attempts to develop broad theoretical frameworks. For anthropologists of organizations, this shift has created a division between more academically oriented scholars who produce small-scale ethnographies that resist generalization and applied anthropologists who have created more practical, method-focused guides to the field. At the same time, academics and practitioners in fields like design-thinking and industrial-organizational psychology have developed their own, anthropologically informed approaches and theories for understanding leadership and cultural change in organizations. Entering the third decade of the 20th century, it remains to be seen whether the field will continue down this divided path or instead reconnect with its roots in broad cultural theory, leading to greater efforts to synthesize practical, academic, and interdisciplinary approaches to develop new theoretical frameworks.
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Riall W. Nolan
International development is one of humanity’s most important global undertakings, but it is also a “wicked problem” characterized by uncertain and shifting priorities, disagreements, and unexpected outcomes. Created during and in the aftermath of World War II, the development industry of the early 21st century is large, complex, and highly influential. It is also relatively opaque to outsiders and largely independent of normal means of democratic control. Anthropology has been involved in development from colonial times, but particularly so since the 1950s, and anthropologist practitioners have made several important contributions to development planning and implementation. The discipline’s influence overall, however, has been overshadowed to a large degree by other disciplines, such as economics, which still remains dominant in the industry. Anthropological influence has waxed and waned over the years, both as a response to development policies and priorities, and as a response to changes within the discipline itself. Anthropological analyses of development, as well as detailed development ethnographies, have helped people inside and outside the industry understand why and how development efforts succeed and fail, and indeed, how to define success and failure in the first place. At the same time, anthropologists have enhanced our appreciation of the role of language, power, and agency in the development process. In the future, anthropology is likely to become more important and influential in development work, given the growth of disciplinary trends favoring practice and application and renewed focus within the development industry on poverty eradication.
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Christine Miller
Design anthropology and the factors that converged to facilitate its emergence are examined. Design anthropology has been alternately described as a “fast-developing academic field” and “distinct style of knowing” (Otto and Smith), “an emerging transdisciplinary field” (Miller), and “as a distinct subfield of interdisciplinary research” (Clark). These descriptions have in common an agreement that design anthropology is a distinct form of knowledge production that integrates design and anthropological practice and theory that is supported by a growing network of proponents, both academic and practitioner. Design anthropology’s origins have been traced to several factors: the emergence of the participatory design movement in Scandinavia toward the end of the 1990s, the introduction of ethnography in design in the late 1970s, and the earlier influence of the work of designer and educator Victor Papanek in the early 1960s. In the United States, it is often categorized as a subdiscipline of business anthropology. Within Europe and Scandinavia, it is accepted as a field in its own right with a “distinct style and practice of knowledge production.” In spite of these differences and amidst the creative tension resulting from the convergence of anthropological and design methods, concepts, theory, and practice, design anthropology has emerged as a new form of naturalistic inquiry that is based on rigorous empirical research and critical inquiry, a transdisciplinary field that is intentionally interventionist, participatory, and transformative. Design anthropology reflects shifting attitudes and changing modes of engagement in its parent fields. Within anthropology, the concept of an interventionist, transformative, and future-oriented practice runs counter to deeply embedded attitudes around passive observation research and ethics. Likewise, in design where craft, “doing,” and “making” have dominated, there is a renewed surge of interest in more scholarly-based design research, emphasizing empirical research and a designerly version of theoretical reflection. Theory in design has traditionally been related to various aspects of form. Design theory is also “made through” design. Johan Redström refers to this form of theory as “transitional theory,” “a kind of design theory that is inherently unstable, fluid, and dynamic in nature.” This conceptualization of theory is similar to the grounded theory approach in the social sciences in which theory emerges from original data and is developed from the ground up. Beginning with a summary of the conditions and forces that engendered the emergence of design anthropology, the field is described as evolving in ways that are provoking change in traditional forms of design and anthropology. Beyond the influence on its parent disciplines, design anthropology represents an evolving trajectory of emerging fields that open to the possibility of imagining, designing, and co-creating sustainable futures based on social justice and virtuous cycles of growth.
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Maryann McCabe and Rita Denny
Consumer research, an emergent field in applied anthropology, examines relationships between producers and consumers as mediated by the marketplace. The anthropological purpose of consumer research is to discover cultural meanings of products and services in people’s everyday lives and to identify societal practices and discourses that inform and perform these meanings. While consumer research is inspired by and draws on traditional anthropological theory, it has also made theoretical contributions to anthropology, including consumption practices as crafting identity, consumption activities generating and maintaining social relationships, and the transformative power of consumer goods instigating cultural change. Anthropologists engaged in consumer research work in three primary areas: (1) market-making to assist organizations in defining the environments in which they operate; (2) branding to differentiate an organization’s products and services from those of competitors by attaching to the brand a symbolic meaning from the lived experience of consumers; and (3) innovation to guide business growth by analyzing consumer practices, as well as client and other stakeholder suppositions about the nature of the problem to be solved. Anthropologists in consumer research not only represent consumer voices but are also mediators of stakeholder interests. Change occurs at minimal scale by reframing problems for clients and affecting how clients address target audiences through marketing and advertising strategies, communications, or innovation; and at broader scale, by simultaneously contesting cultural ideologies (e.g., gender, personhood, ethnicity) perpetuated by business practices.
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Elisabeth Schober, Camelia Dewan, and Johanna Markkula
Goods moved on board container ships constitute 70 percent of all world cargo by economic value, which makes container ships vital things in the broader agglomeration of contemporary global capitalism. These vessels are in themselves also containers of other forms of value: they on occasion store, move, and disperse noneconomic forms of social worth. Building on the insights of critical logistics studies and coupling them with anthropological insights on value, the article proposes an ethnographic “life-cycle” approach to the study of container ships that broadens maritime anthropology to encompass contemporary forms of seaborne capitalism. With the container vessel functioning as a connecting device between different “sited” fieldwork experiences in shipbuilding, shipping, and shipbreaking, such a collaborative effort can bring the larger system of maritime transportation into focus. Furthermore, when viewed through the value-within-life-cycle prism, the container ship may present itself not as an object that has a singular form but rather one that is made up of a multitude of ships that come in and out of being. By describing it as a gestalt—a dynamic material assemblage that is more than the sum of its parts—attention is paid here to how highly dependent the container ship is on geographical and social context, on ever-shifting layers of value attributed to it, and on the multifarious meaning-making among the workers laboring around it.
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Sally Babidge
Water governance refers to the material and regulatory control of water and waters. It involves questions such as who makes decisions about water and how; at what scale such decisions are made in relation to different waters; and who and which water or ecosystem benefits. Classical work in anthropology considered how irrigation practices may have given rise to the development of state forms, and in response to early-21st-century privatization regimes, anthropologists have considered how different groups have challenged the apparent global dominance of commodity values and water as property. Infrastructures for water distribution in urban areas (such as systems of canals, pipes, and faucets), and considerations of the sociocultural effects of hydrological unit delineation and definition (e.g., groundwater or river “basins”) have become key sites for the ethnographic investigation of water governance, emerging forms of personhood, and societal inequalities. The diversity in anthropologies of water unsettles generalized models in global regimes of water governance. The anthropology of water governance and ownership considers the context and contingencies of water and power. It reveals the global dominance of markets, rights, and technical approaches to water management, such as the case of “private water” in Chile, in which water markets have failed to provide equity and environmental health, but also how certain groups avoided complete privatization of water under this extreme example. Ethnographic studies of the cultural organization of resource scarcity over topographically complex and remote terrain, such as that of irrigators in the Andean cordillera, express the diversity of human innovation at the intersection of politics and ecology. In arid South Eastern Australia, basin plans that treat water as a unit of calculation and economic trade place social and ecological relations in peril. Infrastructures of development provide a narrative of unsettled state and development ideologies, and the problem of groundwater management reveals governance challenges in the face of unstable, unknown, and invisible material. Anthropological studies of water contribute to knowledge of earth’s diverse humanity, knowledge practices, and ecologies. Researchers propose that water governance might engage with human differences articulated at multiple scales, as well as in understanding water’s material agency and waters as dynamic, especially in an ever-changing climate.
Article
Franz Krause
Water is key to human life, both biophysically and socioculturally. Having long been regarded in anthropology as a circumstantial backdrop to human society and culture, water—alongside other nonhuman substances and beings—has received growing attention as a material with specific potentials and histories in the 21st century. This research explores the fundamental connectivity and relationality of water, through which social relations and hydrological flows are often two sides of the same coin, shaping and transforming each other. Watery materiality is frequently characterized by movement and instability, defying control but also intersecting with other social and material processes to create ever new arrangements. Water practices, infrastructures, and experiences participate in the formation and transformation of spaces and landscapes, and may inspire novel theoretical insights on meaning-making, kinship, learning, and space, among other topics. Water’s valuation and the tensions that arise regarding how to govern it emerge in part from its material properties. Ongoing discussions explore the links between these properties, water infrastructures, unequal distribution, and political power. Watery materiality is not a single thing, but has multiple manifestations, including saltwater, ice, and humidity. Some scholars therefore propose studying water and materiality in terms of various forms of wetness or amphibious processes. Research into water and materiality suggests that the material world consists of open processes rather than of fixed objects, and that water’s multiple manifestations and flows actively participate in shaping human lives.
Article
Nickolas Surawy-Stepney and Carlo Caduff
Cancer is a relatively new subject for the discipline of anthropology, but scholarship on the topic has already yielded a distinct and important body of literature. In biomedical terms, cancer can be thought of as the wide range of conditions characterized by the uncontrolled (and ultimately pathological) proliferation of cells. It is a disease that is responsible for the deaths of millions of people worldwide each year. As such, it is the focus of a vast number of discourses and practices in multiple areas, ranging from scientific research and media discussion to health insurance and government regulation, to name just a few. Anthropologists concerned with cancer typically use the methodology that is a hallmark of the discipline, long-term ethnographic fieldwork, in order to investigate these discourses and practices. This involves conducting participant observation among doctors, patients, nurses, family members, scientists, politicians, policymakers, and pharmaceutical representatives. Cancer is examined as a lived experience, revealing the numerous ways that local, regional, national, and transnational histories and politics shape the embodied realities of disease. Anthropologists also investigate the regimes of risk and statistical analysis to which bodies are subjected and the technologies around cancer, such as methods of screening or vaccination that aim to prevent it and the different ways in which these and other interventions and technologies fit into—or push uneasily against—the local words in which they are implemented. Anthropologists aim to look beyond the problem as simply one of biology and medicine, instead investigating cancer as pervasive within multiple dimensions of social, cultural, political, and economic life. Anthropological studies displace the prominent biomedical notion that cancers are the same in diverse locations and reveal the incoherence and intractability of cancer as an object. In paying close attention to this object in varied settings, anthropologists offer a critical account of discourses and practices that destabilize and decenter some of the assumptions on which global oncology is based.
Article
Kerry B. Fosher and Eric Gauldin
Cultural anthropologists work with US military organizations in a wide variety of employment situations and roles. Some who work full-time within these organizations conduct research on personnel or teach in schools, holding roles and doing work similar to anthropologists in academia. Others are external consultants, providing advice and research in ways similar to practicing anthropology in other sectors. Others work in less common capacities, such as providing scientific advising, conducting analysis, or designing and administering programs. Most forms of engagement or employment with military organizations are controversial within the discipline of anthropology. The controversy is an important source of caution and critique. However, it sometimes masks the complexity of the work and context. Few large institutions are truly homogenous. The several million uniformed and civilian personnel who work in US military organizations have diverse, often conflicting perspectives on important issues and varying degrees of agency to effect or resist change. Consequently, the opportunities and constraints anthropologists have to affect the institution depend heavily on not only their specific roles but also on where they work within the institution and who their colleagues are. The broad range of the roles and positions anthropologists hold in military organizations, coupled with the complexity of the work context, create challenges for developing ethical and practical guidelines. Practicing anthropologists in this sector must collaborate with colleagues to interpret and meet disciplinary professional standards for ethics, transparency, and quality. The work context and controversy also create challenges for building and maintaining an identity as an anthropologist. As is the case with practicing anthropology in all sectors, anthropological work with US military organizations also has broader implications for the discipline. Connections to powerful institutions, such as corporations or government entities, always bring with them legitimate concerns about how the biases and intentions of the institutions might reshape the field. There are also significant questions about how colleagues can assess ethical decision making and evaluate the work of those employed in nontraditional roles and settings. In addition, the field continues to grapple with how anthropologists practicing in this sector can communicate most effectively what they learn about military organizations back to the discipline.
Article
Gideon Singer
What is electronic waste? E-waste is both a by-product of manufacturing processes and the disposal of end-point devices in our digital infrastructure—the mountains of televisions, microwaves, video game consoles and handhelds, Christmas lights, and so on which are often visualized in news reports and popular media. However, digital garbology reveals an alarming assemblage of additional externalities resulting from the hyper consumption of electronic devices and even digital services requiring significant amounts of physical and social resources to operate (such as Facebook, Netflix, and bitcoin). Consequently, digital worlds are neither more nor less material than the worlds that preceded them. And yet, digital media is often perceived as immaterial because of a growing disconnect between people and the wires, power sources, and data centers that enable them to access digital worlds. Anthropologists practicing digital garbology have a critical role to play in helping to counteract the socioecological consequences of the world’s fastest growing waste stream empathetically and strategically. Waste is a quintessential anthropological topic because it crosscuts the subfields of archaeology, linguistic anthropology, biological or physical anthropology, and sociocultural anthropology. The digital is also becoming an essential topic for 21st-century anthropologists looking to interpret and design the interactions people have with social media, surveillance technology, geographic information systems (GIS), and Self-Monitoring Analysis and Reporting Technology (SMART). Anthropological archaeologists have increasingly integrated archaeological and ethnographic methods to make contributions to policy, public perceptions, and behavioral interventions concerning consumption, discard, recycling, and reuse. However, it is only in the last decade, from 2010 on, that anthropology and closely related disciplines have begun paying attention to electronic waste. Digital garbology, a synthesis of digital anthropology and garbology, is a novel and essential framework for practicing anthropology in the 21st century. Digital garbology helps to identify and recommend strategies for confronting uneven, and often unjust, distributions of e-waste onto marginalized communities. Furthermore, digital garbology encourages anthropologists to support community-based actions such as organizing repair cafés, participating in local government, banding with activists to challenge multinational corporations, and drawing attention to the blind spots in environmental, economic, and social discourse concerning waste produced by digital technologies.
Article
Judith Freidenberg
The physical movement of a human being from his or her place of birth to another locality, a process that occurs over time as well as space, is usually known as migration. Together with fertility and mortality, migration helps track population changes. Migration also helps capture the political mood of a country, as migrants are perceived as either as threats or welcome additions. Anthropologists tend to think about migration from the perspective of two paradigms: immigration and mobility. For the immigration paradigm, human movement is an exceptional occurrence; for the mobility paradigm, human movement is innate to the human condition and therefore constant. Neither paradigm considers the migration experience as an interactive process that engages movers and nonmovers alike, which is the focus of a proposed third paradigm. The domains of research, practice, and policy reflect these framing paradigms, alone or in combination. By working on the interstices between these domains, anthropology could contribute to a transdisciplinary field of migration studies.
Article
Wendy Gunn
Design anthropology is a dynamic interdisciplinary field of scholarship, research, and practice. Rather than a concern with highlighting divergences between design and anthropology, design anthropology is concerned with convergences and confluences in design and anthropology. One of the main aims of this emerging field is to link social and material practices of designing to the affects and effects that design processes and practices have on people who engage with different kinds of design outputs. Design anthropology in Europe has emerged in and through collaborations across universities and public and private sectors. The emerging field of design anthropology in Europe is expanding and has been influenced and continues to be influenced by developments in design anthropology internationally. Researchers in this field carry out research and collaborate with research partners both in Europe and globally. The field is characterized by conceptual reconfigurations, disciplinary dialogues, interdisciplinary research, multidisciplinary teams, and transdisciplinary practices involving collaborative methodologies and mixed methods, and engagement with public and private partners. Collaboration can occur offline, online, or a mixture of both, depending upon the research being carried out. Central issues are to identify anthropological methodologies and theoretical concepts that would support future-making practices in a diversity of design processes and practices; attune different kinds of design processes towards engagement with communities of practice; contribute to the design and critique of emerging technologies; enhance existing products, services, or experiences, strategies, and policies; and further develop aspects of visual and sensorial ethnography whereby designing is the process of collaborative research inquiry.
Article
Mary Odell Butler
Evaluation anthropology is an organic synthesis of evaluation and anthropology in which each reinforces the other. Anthropology contributes the theory of culture as a primary mode of human adaptation, ethnography, and a methodology that is sensitive to the context embeddedness of human activity. The evaluation side adds the rigorous science needed to evaluations to be credible to decision makers. These include analyses and conclusions in evidence that can be linked to evidence and to develop a rationale that permits evaluation users to reconstruct the arguments underlying conclusions. Program evaluations are concerned with the value of human interventions in achieving important social goals. They form the evidence base for maintaining, changing, or eliminating programs, decisions that affect communities, careers, finances, and the welfare of both staff and clients. There are special ethical concerns in evaluations because of the risk to program staff providing value information about their agencies and programs. Confidentiality is critical because programs are a “small world” in which opinions and speech mannerisms can permit identification by those who work in the same or similar programs. Thus, evaluators must be cautious about the use of quotes, position descriptions, and attributions to avoid professional damage to program staff and clients. Program evaluation has become an important field for practicing anthropologists. Anthropologists who wish to do evaluations should network with other anthropologists doing evaluations as well as organizations that employ evaluators, read and attend seminars on evaluation theories and methods, and consider adding skills such as network analysis, economics, and decision theory that will add to their value as members of evaluation teams.
Article
Lauren A. Hayes
Scholars studying the anthropology of work have traditionally been interested in questions of power, class, inequality, moral economy, and the transformations brought about by global capitalism. To address these larger questions, workplace ethnography gives attention to both interactional and systemic level analysis, making linguistic methods a powerful tool for studying both talk at work and institutional discourse. Language has many social functions within the workplace, from the organization of tasks and goals to the ways people navigate relationships and perform identity. Linguistic theoretical and methodological perspectives are applied to the study of power and gatekeeping practices in institutional settings, performance of identity and gender at work, and inequalities related to race, ethnicity, and perceptions of accent. Linguistic practices in the neoliberal global economy are also an economic resource to be managed, regulated, scripted, and marketed, as part of the reflexive project of worker self-improvement. Language is also a form of labor itself in global customer service interactions, accent-reduction training, and contexts of tourism. Thus, workplace ethnography and language study complement each other, and linguistic methods and theory may be applied to major questions in the field of anthropology of work.
Article
Susan Squires
Applied anthropology is increasing an alternative to academic anthropological contributing to innovations in a broad range of products and services including technology, office equipment and furniture, business organization, breakfast foods, automobiles, hand sanitizers, communication media, medical equipment, smartphones, and much, much more. When applied anthropologists began to work in business organizations, they first called themselves industrial anthropologists and, later, organizational anthropologists. The first industrial and organizational anthropologists were based in the academy. However, in the 1990s a growing number of anthropologists also began to be employed at private businesses, including the Palo Alto Research Center (PARC), IDEO, E-Lab, GVO, and even General Motors. There they were instrumental in applying the theory and methods of anthropology to potential innovation. At these companies , many of early applied anthropologists became accidental innovators as a consequence of their role working in teams composed of differing disciplines. It was the anthropologist on the team who was responsible for contributing research-based insights that framed, directed, and/or inspired creative idea. In the process of conducting research on a problem, these anthropologists stumbled across new ways to frame issues and uncovered insights leading to novel solutions: innovation. As the value of applied anthropology has been recognized, and employment of anthropologists has expanded, specializations have emerged. No longer does the title of organizational or business anthropologist always provide an appropriate or sufficient level of description for many anthropologists although both continue to be used. New labels, such as design anthropologist, user experience researcher, and marketing and digital anthropology, have been created to distinguish among applied anthropologists working in differing sectors. Organizational anthropologists have continued to contribute to our understanding of organizational culture. Design anthropology is used primarily by anthropologists working in product and technology industries. Digital anthropologists study human interactions in virtual/digital spaces, or investigate how digital technology is impacting society. Marketing anthropologists have been in advertising and marketing for decades, and there is a substantial body of scholarly literature generated from this work. Despite the different titles these anthropologists hold, from design to marketing, the value of the theoretical and methodological contributions of anthropology are the key underpinning of their research. The innovations that have resulted from the work of these anthropologists cannot be underestimated. The theories and methods of anthropology, applied by anthropologists, provide a perspective that takes a unique in-depth systems approach that can map interconnections, challenges, and assumptions and open up wider landscapes. The true innovation anthropologists contribute to innovation is anthropology itself.
Article
Fredy Rodríguez-Mejía
Since the field’s early years, anthropology has been concerned with processes of teaching and learning. While early anthropological works were comparative in nature—examining schooling systems around the world in relation to those in US society—scholars gradually began to focus more on educational issues in the US. Efforts to bring together the works of scholars of pedagogy and anthropologists slowly morphed into what we now call “educational anthropology” or “anthropology and education.” In tracing the history of the relationship of anthropology and education, scholars have examined how different historical moments have shaped anthropology’s development as a profession, discipline, and specialization. Different publications have focused on exploring anthropology’s transformation following World War II. Funding from organizations such as the Rockefeller Foundation and the Carnegie Corporation contributed to the growth of anthropology as a discipline and profession and helped bolster its role as an academic specialization. The growth of social mobilization in the 1960s, which highlighted issues of inequality, racial discrimination, and political crises, also contributed to a growth in students majoring in anthropology to study these issues. The rise in undergraduate and graduate students in anthropology further helped to increase the establishment of anthropology departments across the United States and the allocation of public funding to improve pedagogical approaches. In the same vein, educational anthropology contributed to the examination of teaching/learning processes but also looking at education in relationship to broader social issues (e.g., inequality, culture, gender, identity). Since the 1980s, the development of educational anthropology has occurred in parallel with other academic efforts to improve instructional approaches. The scholarship of teaching and learning for instance, has focused on exploring different pedagogical approaches in higher education with the purpose of improving teaching methodologies to enhance student learning. Some of these approaches include active learning, engaged learning, and service learning. In the realm of innovative educational approaches, community service learning has focused on establishing long-term partnerships between universities and communities. Such collaborative settings exhibit an overlap with undergraduate anthropological approaches to education, helping to introduce students to the intricacies of social issues as they are experienced in actual communities. | https://oxfordre.com/anthropology/search?btog=chap&f_0=keyword&q_0=anthropology |
Facebook's mission is to give people the power to build community and bring the world closer together. Through our family of apps and services, we're building a different kind of company that connects billions of people around the world, gives them ways to share what matters most to them, and helps bring people closer together. Whether we're creating new products or helping a small business expand its reach, people at Facebook are builders at heart. Our global teams are constantly iterating, solving problems, and working together to empower people around the world to build community and connect in meaningful ways. Together, we can help people build stronger communities — we're just getting started.
Facebook is seeking a highly organized, motivated, and detail-oriented professional to join our Public Policy team based in our Sydney office. The person will combine a passion for technology's potential to create opportunity and to connect the community in a safe and responsible manner, with deep knowledge of the political and regulatory dynamics in New Zealand and Pacific Islands. You will work on issues related to the Internet and Facebook's mission of giving people the power to build community and bringing the world closer together. In this role, you will be responsible for understanding Facebook’s policies and business priorities, being able to communicate those to policymakers, NGOs, civil society and other stakeholders, and providing input into the development of regulation of the internet sector – with the goal of furthering the company’s mission. Additionally, you will collaborate with colleagues across the business and the globe, engage with trade associations and third party groups. The successful applicant will become part of a team that is dealing with some of the most interesting public policy challenges of our times including privacy, safety, freedom of expression and growth of the digital economy. This position will be based in Sydney and report to the Public Policy Director.
RESPONSIBILITIES
- Monitor the political and regulatory environment in New Zealand and Pacific Islands, identify and evaluate the impact of legislative, regulatory and industry proposals, risks and opportunities to the company
- Work with policymakers, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and private sector organizations on issues of safety, security, content policy and other technology-relevant public policy concerns
- Represent Facebook in meetings and public events with policymakers and stakeholders
- Assist in the development and management of Facebook's policies on particular issues or product areas
- Work with cross functional teams across product, legal, marketing and communications across the company to ensure that Facebook products and programs are advancing external understanding around key policy issues
- Respond to questions and consultations from external stakeholders on relevant policy issues
MINIMUM QUALIFICATIONS
- 8+ years of experience in related areas of public policy such as legislation and/or government relations and advocacy
- Keen understanding of political systems and relevant policy and civil society institutions as well local understanding of the context in New Zealand and Pacific Islands
- Excellent judgment, communication and persuasive skills
- Ability to drive and manage multiple projects and campaigns simultaneously
- Ability to think, plan and execute resourcefully and creatively in a dynamic environment
- Interest in emerging technologies and passion for Facebook
Facebook is committed to providing reasonable accommodations for qualified individuals with disabilities and disabled veterans in our job application procedures. If you need assistance or an accommodation due to a disability, you may contact us at . | https://www.recruit.net/job/policy-manager_sydney-nsw_jobs/E73CBB09451CD965 |
International advocacy has a long history, reaching back centuries to abolitionism and early women’s rights movements (Drucker, 1981; Limoncelli, 2006; Miers, 1998). Yet as a subject of scholarly inquiry in international relations, international advocacy only began attracting significant scholarly attention in the 1990s. As the end of the Cold War freed policymakers from continually balancing East-West power, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) found increasing success in lobbying for new global policies. NGOs fomented policy change at the World Bank, drove the creation of the World Commission on Dams, and persuaded states to sign the Ottawa Convention banning landmines (Anderson, 2000; Charnovitz, 1996; Davies, 2013; Fox & Brown, 1998).
Keck and Sikkink’s (1998) Activists beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics was a landmark effort to explain and theorize this new international phenomenon. They advanced what became known as the boomerang theory of transnational advocacy. According to the theory, transnational advocacy networks form when local activists are blocked (often by their local or national government) in their efforts to change local policies or practices and respond by reaching out to international NGOs for assistance. These international NGOs rally the support of foreign governments or international institutions, which apply pressure to the actors causing the blockage. Advocacy thus flows in a local-international-local pattern.
While Keck and Sikkink’s theory had broad implications, scholars applying their work often used it in a narrow way, leading to a number of limitations and lacuna in the literature on transnational advocacy. First, most scholars focused on NGOs as the primary actors in international advocacy; thus, the study of transnational advocacy networks became the study of transnational networks of NGOs. Second, local activists initiating the boomerang were often assumed to be located in the low- and middle-income countries of the global South, while their international partners were assumed to be based in the high-income countries of the global North. The local-international-local pattern that Keck and Sikkink posited was thus reduced to a South-North-South pattern, in which transnational advocacy occurred as well-meaning Northern actors sought to aid oppressed or marginalized Southern populations, embedding a distinct power dynamic. Third, different definitions of transnational advocacy were used depending on whether the actors were from the global North or the global South. Northern NGOs were described as engaging in transnational advocacy when they addressed international policy issues or worked across borders, even if they undertook that advocacy alone, whereas Southern NGOs were described as engaging in transnational advocacy primarily when they engaged with international partners.
In 2017, a group of scholars convened to begin addressing these research challenges, assisted by funding from the International Studies Association. We acknowledged that the aforementioned limitations had empirical roots in the central role played by Northern NGOs in international politics in the 1990s and early 2000s. However, we also observed that these assumptions no longer reflected empirical realities and were actively hindering scholars’ ability to recognize and explain a new wave of advocacy on international issues, much of it being led by Southern actors. The dialogue begun in 2017 culminated in the publication of Beyond the Boomerang: From Transnational Advocacy Networks to Transcalar Advocacy in International Politics in March 2022.
Drawing on research we conducted in places like Brazil, Mexico, and Vietnam, the volume offers two key observations about how advocacy has changed since the development of the boomerang theory (Pallas & Nguyen, 2018; Rodrigues, 2016; Starobin, 2018). First, structural changes at the global level have limited Northern NGOs’ influence with policymakers and reduced their access to partners in the global South (Heiss & Chaudhry, 2018; Heiss & Kelley, 2017; Uhlin, 2016). For example, the increasing autonomy of national branches of international NGOs like Greenpeace Brazil and the rise of national organizations like the China Civil Change Action Network provide alternative partners and sources of policy expertise that resonate more with their national government (Henry & Sundstrom, 2022; Rodrigues, 2022). Increasingly authoritarian governments have also limited national organizations’ access to foreign funding as a quiet means of closing civil society space without directly attacking constitutional rights to freedom of association or expression. Without support from abroad, many organizations must cease operation, as witnessed by the demise or relocation of groups in Egypt, Ethiopia, Russia, Cambodia, Hungary, and India, to name a few (Chaudhry & Heiss, 2022).
A trend of opening access to international organizations has accompanied the trend of closing civil society space at home. While some advocacy campaigns have been forced to operate at more local levels by the lack of international partners, other campaigns have found success at global levels by engaging with intergovernmental organizations such as the United Nations. For example, even traditionally closed organizations like the Asian Development Bank have developed formal institutional mechanisms to collaborate with civil society organizations and NGOs (Uhlin, 2022).
Reduced international NGO access to national organizations and governments has been accompanied by an additional structural effect. The development of South-South networks has limited Southern NGOs’ need for Northern assistance. Previously, Northern NGOs served as coordinators of international networks and as subject matter experts, sharing information and expertise with Southern counterparts. They have also often claimed to be the primary representatives of Southern voices. South-South networks have replaced Northern NGOs in each of these roles. Networks like the Latin American Network for Fair, Democratic, and Sustainable Cities (RLCJDS) coordinate monitoring and advocacy (Appe, 2022). The Dhaka-based Southern Voice created a “digital knowledge hub” to compile research from Africa, Asia, and Latin America about the social and economic effects of COVID-19. Such networks also seek to articulate a Southern perspective in international conversations, sometimes specifically countering the language and approaches of Northern NGOs (Appe, 2022).
Second, the agency and identity of advocates has changed. Southern NGOs have improved their organizational capacity and are increasingly able to use local political systems to resist or modify the implementation of global policies in their countries (Pallas & Nguyen, 2022; Rodrigues, 2022). In so doing, they are often allied with a new cast of advocates, including government actors and businesses (Henry & Sundstrom, 2022; Starobin, 2022).
In Vietnam, for example, high-capacity local NGOs in the HIV/AIDS sector successfully used inside lobbying tactics to reform the policies of international donors and technical agencies funding HIV/AIDS work in Vietnam (Pallas & Nguyen, 2022). NGOs in Thailand have used a similar approach to lobby the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Malaria, and Tuberculosis to continue its funding for work in that country (Pallas and Stewart, forthcoming). In Brazil, local NGOs using outside lobbying tactics succeeded into drawing international attention to the environmental impacts of the Brazilian oil industry without any Northern assistance; when foreign NGOs later joined the effort, they did so in a horizontal, peer role, rather than as senior partners (Rodrigues, 2022).
We also have witnessed an increase in the diversity of actors engaged in advocacy on international issues. From Mayan beekeepers to Buddhist monks to Maasai chiefs to crowdsourced platforms like Avaaz, nonstate actors take on a greater range of organizational forms, sizes, issues, and resources (Cloward, 2016; Hall, 2017; Starobin, 2018). While not all of these actors intend to be international advocates, they are affected by international politics and policies and so respond to them. In so doing, they shape the global dialogue around policies and their implementation across scales and locations in more complex fashions than imagined previously.
Based on these data, we determined that contemporary advocacy in international politics is better conceptualized as transcalar than as transnational. Transcalar advocacy describes efforts to change the policies or practices of other actors when those efforts transcend different levels or “scales” of action, such as the municipal, national, regional, or global. The term discards assumptions that local advocacy must cross national borders or enlist international partners to affect the content or application of global policy. It also discards the assumption that advocacy depends on NGOs as initiators or key partners.
As a result, the concept captures a much fuller picture of contemporary advocacy, involving a wider variety of initiating actors, partners, and targets. It also recognizes the wide variety of directions in which influence can flow, including North-South, South-North, and South-South. Mayan beekeepers partnering with local businesses to use the Mexican courts to target a multinational corporation are doing transcalar advocacy (Starobin, 2022). So too are Chinese NGOs partnering with their national government to affect global agreements on climate change (Henry & Sundstrom, 2022) and Masai chiefs working to complete the implementation global norms against female genital mutilation in Kenya (Cloward, 2022).
To explain how advocacy can take such diverse forms, we developed a new theory of activism that models campaign formation as a sequence of strategic decisions. In each campaign, activists need to make interdependent decisions about scale of operations, their target, the type of advocacy, and potential partners. In practice, organizations may not take a linear approach to these choices, but modeling the decisions as a sequence helps illustrate the ways decisions are contingent.
First, activists must select a scale of action, such as local, national, regional, or global, for their campaign. For example, activists working on climate change can choose to target municipal policies on local industrial emissions or the global standards countries set under the Paris Accord’s Nationally Determined Contributions.
Next, activists must choose the targets of their advocacy, such as governments or private actors (e.g., businesses or even NGOs). For example, activists wanting to make vaccinations against COVID-19 more accessible could target the manufacturer Pfizer to push for discounted rates for poorer countries, the United Nation’s COVAX program to adjust distribution plans to prioritize countries with the least access to vaccines or the government of Canada to provide more funding for vaccines to COVAX. Some of these targets, however, may be more or less accessible, depending on the scale of action the activists have chosen.
Activists also need to decide if they wish to work within existing institutions for change, via inside advocacy, or protest from outside of the system for more dramatic change. Inside strategies often go unnoticed by the general public, while outside strategies, like the trucker convoy protests in Ottawa against mask and vaccine mandates, can attract significant media attention. Activists may also leverage some institutional actors against others using the court system, for instance, to force a change in the policies or behavior of other state actors.
Finally, activists also need to decide if they want to work alone or with partners and, if they want partners, which partners to choose and how to collaborate with them. While we observe the growth of public-private partnerships such as the Forest Stewardship Council (Henry & Sundstrom, 2022) and of regional networks like the Latin American Network for Fair, Democratic and Sustainable Cities (Appe, 2022), increasingly activist groups also work independently, only seeming to collaborate inadvertently because they share similar targets or goals.
Based on these empirically grounded observations about the changing nature of global architecture and nonstate agency, we developed several predictions for likely future activism and advocacy campaigns. First, Southern-based and Southern-directed advocacy will increase as more states arrive at middle-income status. Middle-income states are more likely to have high-capacity advocacy organizations staffed by well-educated professionals who choose advocacy work out of a sense of passion or calling rather than in response to a scarcity of formal-sector jobs. Moreover, restrictive state environments for NGOs, like in Vietnam or China, can accelerate the development of such highly capable NGOs by concentrating resources in a smaller number of organizations.
Second, we expect activists to choose partners designed to enhance the appeal of their message to the key audiences at the scale they have chosen. Thus, Chinese climate change activists lobbying on global policy choose to partner with the Chinese government (Henry & Sundstrom, 2022), whereas activists in Rio de Janiero, seeking to challenge the national oil company Petrobras’ pollution of the Baia de Guanabara, partnered with national environmental NGOs, labor unions, and professional associations located in Brazil (Rodrigues, 2022). The result will be campaigns that look very different from the expectation of the boomerang model that the primary partners of local activists will be large international NGOs. Advances in global communication will also make it easier for activists to find partners with similar strategies and outlooks, limiting the need for compromise and negotiation. Thus, we also expect to see less marketing and reframing of local causes on the part of activists seeking to attract international partners to their causes (c.f. Bob, 2005).
Third, the reduction in access to national NGOs will encourage international NGOs to engage in more footloose campaigns lacking a clear national basis. The forerunner of such efforts is The International Campaign to Abolition Nuclear Weapons, which never gained much traction in the two countries where the campaign was initiated, the United States and the United Kingdom, yet scored a major international victory in 1996 when the International Court of Justice determined that the use of, or threat of use of, nuclear weapons was illegal.
We predict that the empirical data on transcalar advocacy will continue to accumulate, as new coalitions of activists lobby local and international policymakers or enlist national and subnational government agencies as partners in their advocacy activities. The boomerang pattern of advocacy may continue to persist in certain instances, but will increasingly give way to more locally informed and locally managed efforts to shape the content, implementation, or impact of global policies and pressures: a new era of transcalar activism.
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Anthropology originated in the colonial brush between Western people and colonized non-Western peoples, as Europeans tried to understand the beginnings of discernible cultural diverseness. Today anthropology is a planetary subject, and anthropologists study all types of societies.
In the United States, where anthropology was foremost defined as a subject, the field is traditionally divided into four sub-fields: cultural anthropology, archeology, lingual anthropology, and biological anthropology. In Europe, the subject originated as ethnologyand was originally defined as the survey of societal organisation in non-state societies, subsequently redefined as societal anthropology. Socio-cultural anthropology is considered anthropology proper in most of Europe, and in the parts of the universe that were influenced by the European tradition.
Anthropology is the survey of worlds, yesteryear and nowadays. To understand the full expanse and complexness of civilizations across all of human history, anthropology draws and physiques upon cognition from the societal and biological scientific disciplines every bit good as the humanistic disciplines and physical scientific disciplines. A cardinal concern of anthropologists is the application of cognition to the solution of human jobs. Historically, anthropologists in the United States have been trained in one of four countries: sociocultural anthropology, biological/physical anthropology, archeology, and linguistics. Anthropologists frequently integrate the positions of several of these countries into their research, instruction, and professional lives.
Sociocultural Anthropology
Sociocultural anthropologists examine societal forms and patterns across civilizations, with a particular involvement in how people live in peculiar topographic points and how they organize, govern, and make significance. A trademark of sociocultural anthropology is its concern with similarities and differences, both within and among societies, and its attending to race, gender, category, gender, and nationality. Research in sociocultural anthropology is distinguished by its accent on participant observation, which involves puting oneself in the research context for drawn-out periods of clip to derive a first-hand sense of how local cognition is put to work in coping with practical jobs of mundane life and with basic philosophical jobs of cognition, truth, power, and justness. Subjects of concern to sociocultural anthropologists include such countries as wellness, work, ecology and environment, instruction, agribusiness and development, and societal alteration.
Biological ( or Physical ) Anthropology
Biological anthropologists seek to understand how worlds adapt to diverse environments, how biological and cultural procedures work together to determine growing, development and behaviour, and what causes disease and early decease. In add-on, they are interested in human biological beginnings, development and fluctuation. They give primary attending to look intoing inquiries holding to make with evolutionary theory, our topographic point in nature, version and human biological fluctuation. To understand these procedures, biological anthropologists study other Primatess ( primatology ) , the dodo record ( palaeoanthropology ) , prehistoric people ( bioarchaeology ) , and the biological science ( e.g. , wellness, knowledge, endocrines, growing and development ) and genetic sciences of life populations.
Archeology
Archeologists study past peoples and civilizations, from the deepest prehistoric culture to the recent yesteryear, through the analysis of stuff remains, runing from artefacts and grounds of past environments to architecture and landscapes. Material grounds, such as clayware, rock tools, animate being bone, and remains of constructions, is examined within the context of theoretical paradigms, to turn to such subjects as the formation of societal groupings, political orientations, subsistence forms, and interaction with the environment. Like other countries of anthropology, archeology is a comparative subject ; it assumes basic human continuities over clip and topographic point, but besides recognizes that every society is the merchandise of its ain peculiar history and that within every society there are commonalties every bit good as fluctuation.
Linguistic Anthropology
Linguistic anthropology is the comparative survey of ways in which linguistic communication reflects and influences societal life. It explores the many ways in which linguistic communication patterns define forms of communicating, formulate classs of societal individuality and group rank, form large-scale cultural beliefs and political orientations, and, in concurrence with other signifiers of meaning-making, equip people with common cultural representations of their natural and societal universes. Linguistic anthropology portions with anthropology in general a concern to understand power, inequality, and societal alteration, peculiarly as these are constructed and represented through linguistic communication and discourse.
Addressing complex inquiries, such as human beginnings, the past and modern-day spread and intervention of infective disease, or globalisation, requires synthesising information from all four subfields. Anthropologists are extremely specialized in our research involvements, yet we remain Renaissance mans in our observations of the human status and we advocate for a public anthropology that is committed to conveying cognition to wide audiences. Anthropologists collaborate closely with people whose cultural forms and processes we seek to understand or whose living conditions require betterment. Collaboration helps bridge societal distances and gives greater voice to the people whose civilizations and behaviours anthropologists study, enabling them to stand for themselves in their ain words. An occupied anthropology is committed to back uping societal alteration attempts that arise from the interaction between community ends and anthropological research. Because the survey of people, past and present, requires regard for the diverseness of persons, civilizations, societies, and cognition systems, anthropologists are expected to adhere to a strong codification of professional moralss.
Employment
Anthropologists are employed in a figure of different sectors, from colleges and universities to authorities bureaus, NGOs, concerns, and wellness and human services. Within the university, they teach undergraduate and graduate anthropology, and many offer anthropology classs in other sections and professional schools such as concern, instruction, design, and public wellness. Anthropologists contribute significantly to interdisciplinary Fieldss such as international surveies and cultural and gender surveies, and some work in academic research centres. Outside the university, anthropologists work in authorities bureaus, private concerns, community organisations, museums, independent research institutes, service organisations, the media ; and others work as independent advisers and research staff for bureaus such as the Centers for Disease Control, UNESCO, the World Health Organization, and the World Bank. More than half of all anthropologists now work in organisations outside the university. Their work may affect constructing research partnerships, measuring economic demands, measuring policies, developing new educational plans, entering little-known community histories, supplying wellness services, and other socially relevant activities. You will happen anthropologists turn toing societal and cultural effects of natural catastrophes, just entree to limited resources, and human rights at the planetary degree. | https://studyhippo.com/anthropology-is-the-academic-study-of-humanity-sociology-essay-2041/ |
- Product Description
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have been touted as change agents capable of including the ''weaker sections'' as well as empowering them. This book analyzes the NGO-initiated interventions – as exemplified by Gram Vikas, an Indian non-profit organization – aiming for social inclusion; as well as critically examines these interventions'' connection to empowerment in rural Orissa, India. The study sets out to delineate the significant social characteristics that contribute to social exclusion in five case study villages, followed by an analysis of the different forms of power and empowerment which surface in the findings. Finally, a critical discussion is presented concerning the link between socially inclusive measures and transformative empowerment. The research findings underline the importance of intersectionality for NGOs for when they devise their development projects and programmes. In addition, another crucial finding emerges: socially inclusive measures do not automatically guarantee transformative empowerment. This book is aimed at academics, students, all parties involved in international development cooperation, as well as everyone interested in this current topic. | https://www.clickoncare.com/from-included-to-empowered |
Springer Nature's Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) Programme aims to connect the researchers who are tackling the world’s toughest challenges with the practitioners in policy and business who desperately need those insights to achieve their goals in improving the world, by making our publishing activities more visible to our key communities through a variety of channels. Earlier this year we launched our SDG16 hub, focused on peace, justice and strong institutions.
In honor of International Day for the Eradication of Poverty (October 17) we reached out to some of our authors, editors, and researchers, asking them to reflect on how we can end poverty and how they are helping in the ongoing mission to achieve SDG 1, and how we, as a scholarly publisher, are helping to contribute to these goals by publishing and distributing their research. In this interview we hear from Dr Fred Ssewamala and Dr Mary McKay.
Our innovative, interdisciplinary research, develops and tests economic empowerment and social protection interventions aimed at improving livelihoods and long-term developmental impacts for children and adolescent youth impacted by poverty and health disparities in low-resource communities. Our team has increasingly adopted “combination interventions,” realizing that no single intervention can address our mission of reducing poverty and improving health outcomes on its own. With a package of economic empowerment initiatives at the center of our work, we layer on additional proven interventions to address mental health (Multiple Family Groups) and education (STEM) recognizing that education, mental health resources and savings are keys to lifting families out of poverty. Currently, we are implementing several studies globally: Suubi4Her, Suubi+Adherence-R2, and the Kyaterekera Project. The Suubi4Her study examines both the impact and costs associated with an innovative combination intervention that aims to prevent HIV risk behaviors in communities heavily impacted by HIV/AIDS. By promoting financial stability through matched savings accounts and financial literacy trainings and addressing mental health through family strengthening, Suubi4Her strives to reduce the risk of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs) for this vulnerable demographic. Additionally, the Suubi+Adherence-R2 study examines the long-term impact of the Suubi+Adherence intervention (youth savings accounts paired with peer support and vocational training) on HIV viral suppression by tracking the original cohort of Suubi+Adherence participants. Lastly, the Kyaterekera project leverages a combination of economic empowerment, vocational skills training, and HIV Risk Reduction (HIVRR) sessions, to reduce new incidences of sexually transmitted infections and HIV among women engaged in sex work in Uganda. All these projects are aimed at reducing poverty and improving health and mental health outcomes.
Yes, our asset-based youth programs in Sub-Saharan Africa (Uganda, Kenya and Nigeria), Asia (Thailand and Mongolia), and South America (Argentina) directly influence the health, education, and overall, long-term development of the nation’s youth. In the short-term, there is a direct economic benefit of our projects in under-resourced regions like southern Uganda. For example, one of our early studies (Bridges to the Future) provided an initial deposit of US$15 per child for every account opened, with an end result of more than $20,000 entering the region’s financial institutions. In a region where average monthly earnings are less than10 dollars, this small initial contribution led to further economic growth, as children’s caregivers became more familiar with financial institutions, they opened accounts as well. That money can now be used for loans, credit, and liquidity—it can drive development.
Our research approach to address poverty is multifaceted. We utilize combination interventions that interweave protective mechanisms like matched youth saving accounts (YSAs), vocational skills training and microenterprise workshops, financial literacy trainings, HIV risk reduction sessions, group counseling meetings, and strengthened school curriculums, which place a strong emphasis on science, technology, engineering and mathematics education (STEM). Combination interventions address the issue of poverty in a holistic manner. They take into account the various socioeconomic factors that play a role in creating poverty, while also looking at, and building, the strengths of each family in order to improve their livelihood.
It is our goal to widely disseminate our findings via different avenues so that we can collectively work to reduce poverty and improve health outcomes in low-resourced communities. We plan to continue to work with students and our global partners to publish from the collected data. Capacity building is also at the forefront of our goals, both for our current and incoming cohort of trainees globally, as well as for our team members in Uganda. We can all learn from one another, and we would like to focus on bi-directional learning and supporting each other.
We have had some initial success in working with policymakers to introduce our evidence-based ideas in local legislation. For example, we have met with policymakers at both the local and national levels, including Members of Parliament, to advocate for policies that would create asset-building tools housed at formal financial institutions for every child in Uganda. In doing so, we take our peer-reviewed manuscripts and translate them into clear, concise policy briefs and recommendations based on our study results. These meetings were made possible because of the relationships and trust our team has cultivated through years of working in local communities, through regular meetings with both stakeholders and local leadership.
We believe that it is incredibly important for researchers to make a societal impact from their work. Our collaborative research thus far has influenced service organizations, policymakers, and community stakeholders by advancing the understanding of the link between individuals, families, and communities to their external environments. We have accomplished this through extensive and strong collaborations with families, churches, schools, health clinics, non-profit organizations, government and private agencies. For example in our SMART Africa study in Uganda, the research team organized a set of meetings with head teachers (the equivalent of school director in Uganda), teachers, religious leaders, parent-teacher association (PTA) members, parent peers and community health workers since the onset of the study. By including stakeholders across the field in each of these sectors, our innovative work has shown significant improvement in family savings, and improved health and mental health outcomes within the community. These findings have been widely disseminated in reputable journals.
I would like to see more commitment from the both the international and local funders in terms of resources, support and policy initiatives to address poverty globally and locally. In addition, having policymakers use some of our evidence-based research to include child savings accounts in new legislation would be critical to raise many families out of poverty.
About Fred Ssewamala and Mary M. McKay
Mary M. McKay is the Neidorff Family and Centene Corporation Dean of the Brown School. She continues the School’s legacy of creating vital knowledge, initiating social change, and preparing leaders to address social and health challenges both locally and globally. With over 200 publications, Dean McKay brings a wealth of critical scholarship and leadership in the areas of poverty, mental health and the health-prevention needs of poverty-impacted youth and families. | https://www.springernature.com/gp/researchers/the-source/blog/blogposts-communicating-research/importance-of-interdisciplinary-research-in-reducing-poverty/19729462 |
South Africa can break its cycles of violence by investing in supporting children and caregivers.
The annual campaign of 16 Days of Activism against Gender-Based Violence that kicked off on 25 November will temporarily sustain the focus on South Africa's need to reduce and prevent gender-based violence.
Getting this right depends on numerous factors, including a collective understanding of how different forms of violence, visible and invisible, intersect and reinforce one another and what individuals, institutions and companies can do to prevent it. It also requires acknowledging why past efforts have failed, and identifying concrete steps to achieve our goals.
Several of the multisectoral 'clinics' convened during the Presidential Summit on Gender-based Violence and Femicide on 1 and 2 November addressed these issues. Gender-based violence can't be considered in isolation from other forms of violence. A growing body of research shows how they are connected and reinforce one another.
Recent findings from a 30-year study involving South Africans born in the Soweto-Johannesburg area in 1994 reveal important facts. The study covers the nature of violence, its impact on human development, and what it will take to prevent and break cycles of violence.
Gender-based violence can't be considered in isolation from other forms of violence
Results showed that 87% of the study cohort, both boys and girls, were exposed to four or more forms of violence, such as physical, sexual, emotional and substance abuse, by the age of 18. This increased their likelihood of becoming a victim or perpetrator - or both - of further violence. It also confirmed what many other studies have shown: that experiences of violence in childhood are not only common but also cumulative.
It is not only that violence begets violence. Experiences of violence significantly influence a range of other outcomes. Suffering violence in childhood increases the likelihood of unemployment, school dropout, substance abuse, and dependence on a social grant. In short, violence is a strong contributing factor to many of the challenges that hamper South Africans' wellbeing and national development.
At the summit, President Cyril Ramaphosa acknowledged that South Africa needs to pay more attention to preventing gender-based violence. At the same time, in early November, some provincial departments of social development were reducing funding for social services that are crucial safety nets and key to preventing violence. Examples are after-school care programmes, soup kitchens and parent-support initiatives.
Barriers to human development
(click on the graphic for the full size image)
What is the solution? All South Africans must contribute to removing sources of harm and inequality and healing woundedness, by intentionally growing an ethic of mutual care, respect, and inclusion.
This understanding of violence prevention - developed by the multi-sectoral Violence Prevention Forum and endorsed by two 'clinics' convened during the presidential summit - holds that preventing and responding to violence are two sides of the same coin. How we respond to cases can determine whether someone experiences more or less violence in future.
For example, suppose a teacher or a clinic sister becomes aware of a child or a patient in a difficult relationship. Their response, whether kind or uncaring, can affect that person's decisions, what they disclose, and whether they're likely to experience further violence.
A strong resourcing plan from Treasury, the private sector and civil society must be developed
The discussions at the summit also acknowledged that numerous structural factors stand in the way of effective violence prevention in South Africa. The government is stretched and lacks capacity. Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) are not as well connected as they could be, and their services are not assured because of resource challenges. The research community isn't adequately supporting policymakers and implementers. And the private sector is unclear about its role in violence prevention.
Agreement was reached on a set of five resolutions that, if implemented, will contribute to a safe and healthy society. First, a strong resourcing plan from National Treasury, the private sector and civil society for prevention must be developed. Treasury must work with departments and experts to identify and ring-fence funds in a way that considers the long-term nature of prevention and the need for sustainability.
Second, we need processes to enable the scale-up of evidence-led programmes. Among them are parenting interventions that have significant potential for inter-generational impact on social norms, are context relevant and whose implementation is well resourced and supported. A costing model for evidence-led parenting programmes has been developed, and an existing network of service providers creates the opportunity for scaling up.
Third, South Africa must invest time and resources in developing and supporting local efforts and enable NGOs and government services to be linked up and mutually supportive. Fourth, we need a large-scale three-year multisector-led national communication campaign to showcase a universally shared understanding of violence prevention, and to build a hopeful and healing South African narrative.
We must generate evidence of what works, even if what we find challenges our existing beliefs
Last, we must develop programmes and interventions to prevent violence, and identify what's working and where there are gaps at national, provincial and local levels. Here, evidence is our guiding tool: we must keep learning and generating evidence of what works, even if what we find challenges our existing beliefs.
South Africa has one of the highest murder rates in the world. Over 7 000 people were murdered in the second quarter of 2022 alone. The knee-jerk temptation is to respond by investing more in policing. This is misguided. Without resolving the top leadership crises identified in the 2012 National Development Plan as a start to improving police professionalism, increasing spending on a compromised and weak police service isn't the answer.
The roots of gender-based and other forms of violence are deep and extensive. Our efforts to address this must be equally comprehensive, coordinated and far-reaching. Devoting time, expertise and resources to preventing children from experiencing violence, and nurturing their development, is key to breaking intergenerational cycles of violence.
These efforts offer the additional benefit of positively shaping human and social development, and creating environments less tolerant of, and more resistant to, violence. | https://allafrica.com/stories/202212070035.html |
MDRC’s mission is to conduct primary research to identify public policies and programs that improve the lives of individuals and families with low incomes. MDRC designs promising new interventions, studies existing programs, and provides technical assistance to help practitioners build better programs. With an annual budget of about $66 million, a staff of more than 300 people, and offices in New York City, Oakland, Washington, and Los Angeles, MDRC seeks to provide reliable, nonpartisan evidence to its partners in the public and private sectors.
About the Opportunity
MDRC is seeking a Senior Research Associate with expertise in culturally responsive evaluation and in qualitative or mixed methods. This opportunity involves working with MDRC colleagues on research projects and on organization-wide initiatives, and with external communities and constituencies. It involves leading interdisciplinary teams in one or more of MDRC’s core areas of work: family well-being, child development, pre-kindergarten to grade 12 education, postsecondary education, youth development, criminal and juvenile justice, employment and income security, economic mobility, housing, and communities. Examples of current research can be found here.
The Senior Research Associate will bring expertise in qualitative research methodology, with experience applying the principles of culturally responsive research or evaluation to new and ongoing research projects. Candidates should have knowledge and understanding of research designs; communication, organizational, and analytical skills; the ability to lead and manage research projects involving external partners that include communities served or affected by the research; and interest and experience in explaining, teaching, or mentoring about both qualitative research methods and culturally responsive evaluation.
Areas of Leadership
- Research project development, study design, and analysis: Conduct qualitative or mixed methods empirical research on policies and programs, centering culturally responsive approaches in one or more policy areas such as family well-being, child development, pre-kindergarten to grade 12 education, postsecondary education, youth development, criminal and juvenile justice, employment and income security, economic mobility, housing, and communities. Develop research proposals and build a portfolio of new projects funded through public and private grants and contracts. Analyze data, synthesize findings, and disseminate results to research participants and communities, policymakers, practitioners, researchers, and funders.
- Thought partnership: Contribute to ongoing organizational commitments to diversity, equity, inclusion, and antiracist practices. Contribute to building team cultures that meld insights from both qualitative and quantitative research. Engage with MDRC leaders and working groups, such as the MDRC Equity Collaborative and Implementation Research Group, to support learning throughout the organization about culturally responsive evaluation, qualitative methods, and mixed methods
- Outreach and relationship building: Develop and foster relationships with funders, government agencies, nonprofit organizations, and communities to support and participate in program evaluation and technical assistance projects.
Key Qualifications
● Mission and Values Alignment
Required: Demonstrated commitment to developing and sharing rigorous, nonpartisan, credible evidence on the effectiveness of programs and policies affecting people with low incomes and reducing inequities in social, educational, and economic institutions and systems.
● Applied Research Expertise
Required: Ph.D., Ed.D., or equivalent with research expertise as evidenced through publications, presentations, and overall body of work. Expertise and experience in: culturally responsive applied or field-based research that provides insight into racial or social equity, research design, qualitative methods, and implementation/process research. Demonstrated ability to conduct research with an understanding of the lived experiences of participants, program staff, and research staff.
Preferred: Knowledge of research designs for causal inference and mixed methods. Publications and presentations about research on programs and policies in areas of education, public policy, sociology, anthropology, public health, or related fields.
- Capacity Building
Required: Relationship-driven, effective communicator and leader with strong interpersonal skills, desire to work in a team-oriented environment, and ability to collaborate with research team staff who have varied levels of experience. Ability to translate research and solicit feedback to and from an array of audiences. Demonstrated ability to build relationships with external constituents including funders, the research community, policymakers, practitioners, and participants.
Preferred: Experience with developing organizational capacity and providing guidance and expertise in qualitative research design and methods, project management, client relationships, and research publication preferred.
- Program or Field Experience
Preferred: Direct experience working in nonprofit or public social or human service programs or education settings (e.g., as a volunteer, service provider, manager, administrator, or board member).
● Grants & Contracts Experience
Preferred: Experience applying for competitive research grants or contracts from various funding sources (e.g., federal government agencies, philanthropic organizations). Experience directing or managing research grants or contracts from various funding sources.
Location: The position is ideally based in MDRC’s offices in New York City, DC, Oakland, or Los Angeles, but location is flexible. Some travel will be required at least quarterly to the NYC office and conferences.
Compensation & Benefits: The salary range for this role is $125-160k. Salary will be determined based on candidate’s credentials and qualifications. Comprehensive benefits and relocation assistance offered.
MDRC is an Equal Opportunity/Affirmative Action employer. No qualified applicant, employee, intern, volunteer, or apprenticeship trainee will be discriminated against on the basis of his, her, or their race (including traits historically associated with race, including but not limited to hair texture and protective hairstyles), color, national origin (including physical, cultural or linguistic characteristics), marriage to or association with persons of a national origin group, tribal affiliation, membership in or association with an organization identified with or seeking to promote the interests of a national origin group, name that is associated with a national origin group, accent, language use, immigration status, citizenship, possession of a driver’s license issued to persons unable to prove their lawful presence in the United States, and other definitions under California or other states’ laws, ancestry, creed, religion, religious creed (including religious dress and grooming practices), age, citizenship, veteran and/or military status, sex (including pregnancy, childbirth, breastfeeding, or related medical conditions), sexual orientation, gender, gender identity (including transgender status), gender expression, gender transitioning or perceived gender transitioning, marital status or civil partnership/union status, physical or mental disability (actual or perceived), medical condition (including cancer and genetic characteristics), genetic information, protected medical leaves (requesting or being approved for leave under the Family and Medical Leave Act) or similar state family medical leave laws, domestic violence victim status, political affiliation, or any other basis prohibited by applicable federal, state or local law. Legal work authorization is required. To request a reasonable accommodation during any stage of MDRC's employment process due to a disability, please contact [email protected].
MDRC’s dedication to Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion exceeds compliance requirements. We believe that recruiting and retaining a diverse workforce of all backgrounds and perspectives improves the quality and relevance of our research, as well as the daily experiences of our staff. By fostering an equitable culture of inclusivity and belonging, we seek an environment in which staff feel welcomed, valued, and engaged in their work. | https://axistalentpartners.applytojob.com/apply/Fshf5BaIeu/Senior-Research-Associate-MDRC |
ETC is a not-for-profit organisation whose 36 professional staff work worldwide to support people-centred development in rural and urban settings. Its focus areas include sustainable agriculture and food security, energy and health. ETC supports and advise governments, NGOs, bilateral and multilateral development agencies and the private sector to facilitate change that benefits the poor. ETC works together with hundreds of partner organisations on all continents and hosts a number of national and global programmes and network organisations. ETC also works in the Netherlands to support citizens, farmers and the government to translate policies into practice with the goal of enhancing the vitality of the Dutch countryside.
Services
Energy
ETC aims to enhance people’s access to energy in rural and peri-urban areas. It focuses on business development support, gender mainstreaming and strengthening technical capacity and skills. Part of ETC’s approach is to bring multiple stakeholders together to promote a shared responsibility for energy access. These stakeholders include government organizations, NGOs, community based organisations, local entrepreneurs, international companies, financial institutions, researchers, multilateral organizations and donor agencies.
Agriculture
ETC focuses on sustainable use of natural resources (land, water, forest, biodiversity) through people-centred approaches. The organization aims for institutional change through multi-stakeholder approaches and supports capacity building, action research and advisory activities that enhance livelihoods of people living in rural areas. ETC works with a wide range of Southern and Northern-based partners including government institutions, research institutions, non-governmental organisations, civil society organisations, farmer organisations, multilateral organisations and donor agencies. Biocultural diversity is a new field of ETC that links (agro) biodiversity, rights-based approaches and cultural diversity.
Health
ETC aims to contribute to equitable and high-quality public health services in low and middle income countries. It offers short and medium term consultancy services to governments, NGOs and the private sector and combines technical advice with interventions aimed at strengthening the local capacities of its clients. ETC focuses on Performance Based Financing, Impact Evaluation in SRHR and health sector performance.
Rural Development
ETC is not only active in development cooperation abroad. In the Netherlands, its goal is to contribute to sustainable actions of citizens, businesses and government. ETC’s work in rural areas in the Netherlands benefits from our experiences in the South. The organization implements projects where it acts as the link between the practices of farmers and field parties on the one hand and the policies of governments and sometimes large companies on the other hand. ETC encourages interaction and exchange between these parties that is stimulating and inspiring for all. This helps to build confidence in each other for bringing about the desired, durable change. | https://www.devex.com/organizations/etc-international-33568 |
We review and summarise existing research to make it more easily accessible so its insights can be understood and applied more widely. Our approach is objective and we are clear about what evidence there is and where there are gaps.
Castleford Roman Festival, Wakefield Council. Photo: Sarah Zagni
Our research themes
As a research centre, our primary role is to review and synthesise existing research to make its findings more accessible via a series of research digests. This means a wider audience, including those working in the cultural sector and policymakers, can easily access relevant insights from a range of academic studies.
Our research reviews are focused around the following core themes:
- The role of arts, culture, heritage and screen in the context of COVID-19
- Culture, health and wellbeing
- Cultural participation
- Community, place and identity
In 2020 and 2021 our research is focusing on two themes: culture, health and wellbeing, and the impact of Covid-19.
Engaging with our research reviews
Our research reviews are shaped in consultation with practitioners, researchers and policymakers so they are as useful and relevant as possible.
There are a number of ways you can contribute to this process, including sharing your knowledge and research priorities via surveys, interactive workshops and policy round tables. This helps us to develop research review questions that we can find answers to in the literature.
Once we have drafted a research digest, it is reviewed and commented on by an expert in that area of research and practice so that our own methods can be appraised and remain as transparent as possible.
We publish reviews on our resource hub, share them in newsletters and host webinars where the findings and recommendations for future research can be discussed from a variety of perspectives. We also share any policy recommendations with relevant funders and policy makers.
Finally we review our digests annually to take into account any relevant new research, and we welcome your input at any stage if you feel we have missed any key literature.
Collaborate fund – now live
We are investing £200,000 in our Collaborate Fund to support pioneering research collaborations between cultural sector practitioners and academic researchers to explore questions of cultural value.
We will support 15-20 research partnerships over the next four years with grants of between £5k-£20k. Click the button below to find out more. | https://www.culturalvalue.org.uk/research/ |
We conduct micro-level quantitative research in a range of countries, with a focus on developing policy-relevant academic research and academic-relevant policy research. Our main tools include econometric techniques employed on large-n datasets, often collected by us or under our instruction, and behavioral experiments conducted in the field. We regularly engage with anthropologists, psychologists, political scientists and researchers from other disciplines, which significantly benefits our data collection, our research output and our policy advice.
There are three Research Programs at ISDC: Behaviour, Peacebuilding and Welfare.
Behavior
ISDC’s Research Program on Behavior analyzes how people, households and groups cope with major shocks to lives and livelihoods. We study how experiencing these shocks and the challenges they create shape choices, preferences and coping strategies, and how the behaviors associated with these phenomena contribute to wellbeing at the individual and household levels, as well as how they aggregate through society as a whole. Human development faces its toughest challenges in settings characterized by multiple shocks. At the same time, understanding of how people behave under such conditions has been hard to achieve, with learning often inhibited by the sheer complexity of a situation that can give rise to multiple, simultaneous, shocks. Providing understanding in such contexts is the foundation stone of research in this program. Such evidence is needed, both, in academic debates and for the design and implementation of effective interventions that support households facing these shocks. How positive behaviours can be fostered in extreme adversity, and how these behaviours can result in better wellbeing outcomes are key questions that motivate our research. Our work on underpinning behavioral responses in such settings support agencies in designing interventions; our work on impact evaluations, in turn, helps to create evidence on the performance of interventions operated in some of the most challenging environments.
Peacebuilding
ISDC’s Research Program on Peacebuilding brings together robust quantitative and qualitative methods with insights drawn from behavioural sciences and development economics, as well as those from the more traditional peace and international studies literatures. The Program aims to tackle real world questions on how to build peace, mitigate violence and avoid violent forms of conflict resolution. We take the “practical scholar” perspective on these matters, seeking to contribute knowledge to developing positive peace in the real world, as well as contributing to broader policy and academic debates. Our work considers all stages of the conflict cycle, focusing on what can be done to prevent war from breaking out; on what can be done to ensure violence is reduced during active conflicts and that they are resolved peacefully; and on what can be done to ensure a long-term positive peace in the aftermath of violence; and what are the consequences of sustained conflict on human development. We work across a range of scenarios and conflict types. In particular, we are interested in peace negotiations and processes; impact evaluations of pro-peace interventions; and on the role that development economics and behavioural sciences can play in delivering these outcomes and on refining the processes and interventions that are designed to deliver these outcomes. The Program works across the world, with work on-going in Europe, Latin America, the MENA Region, Sub-Saharan Africa and Central Asia.
Welfare
The Research Program on Welfare at ISDC focuses on the intersection between humanitarian emergencies, fragility, and conflict on one hand and economic and nutritional well being on the other. Food and nutritional security remains one of the main challenges hindering the achievement of zero hunger, and it is becoming increasingly clear that countries that are affected by multiple shocks including climatic, economic, and conflict-related have the highest share of households who suffer from chronic malnutrition and food insecurity. Hence, the programme builds on the state of the art approaches in designing studies both experimentally and quasi-experimentally to understand how households cope with shocks and how humanitarian and development programmes can help alleviate vulnerable households from poverty and strengthen their resilience and food and nutritional security. We aim to do so by embedding our research design within existing programmes and taking into account contextual elements to understand and disentangle the mechanisms and pathways of this relationship. We collect primary households survey data, and make use of other publicly available secondary data sources (including large data). Applying both qualitative and quantitative methods (including machine learning), we strive to produce findings and lessons that feed back into local and national programmes, as well as recommendations that are relevant for global policymakers, practitioners and stakeholders that can be applied in similar settings. | https://isdc.org/themes-and-regions/ |
© 2018 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Keywords: Knowledge translation, Policymakers, Researchers, Workshop, Capacity enhancement
Citation: Uneke CJ, Sombie I, Uro-Chukwu HC, Mohammed YG, Johnson E. Promoting evidence informed policy making for maternal and child health in Nigeria: lessons from a knowledge translation workshop. Health Promot Perspect. 2018;8(1):63-70. doi: 10.15171/hpp.2018.08.
Canada Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) defines knowledge translation (KT) as “a dynamic and iterative process that includes synthesis, dissemination, exchange and ethically sound application of knowledge to improve the health of people, provide more effective health services and products and strengthen the health care system”.1 KT has been described as a complex multidimensional phenomenon, consequently, a call has been made on the need for better comprehension of its processes including the mechanisms, methods, measurements, and factors influencing it from individual and contextual perspectives.2 KT is the meeting ground between research and practice-the two fundamentally different processes that KT has knit together via relationships that can be described as communicative.3KT process is by no means simple because of the involvement of a wide range of interactions between those who produce knowledge (research evidence) and those in position to use knowledge for policymaking. These interactions may vary in the nature and complexity depending on level and extent of engagement of both parties and particularly depending on the needs of the knowledge user in question.1,4 Available reports have indicated that successful engagement between policymakers and researchers is anchored on collaborations, networking and some forms of informal relationships between them.3,5
In Nigeria, effective policy informed by research evidence is of utmost priority in maternal, newborn and child health (MNCH). Maternal and child health outcome in Nigeria is reportedly poor. Available reports indicate that each year in Nigeria the recorded deaths of newborns, infants and children are above 1 million, the report also showed that in each year up to 50 000 maternal deaths are recorded in Nigeria every year and this is largely attributed to weak health systems.6,7 In many low and middle income countries (LMICs) including Nigeria, it is increasingly recognized that research evidence is vital to the formulation of effective policies that can strengthen the health systems.8,9 Findings from some previous studies have shown that effective health policy development process can be facilitated by the use of research evidence which can inform the direction and content of a policy decision.10-13 There are many potential challenges related to research use in MNCH policymaking and these challenges also affect other aspects of evidence-informed health policymaking process.
Nevertheless, the wide spread failure in most LMICs to uptake many of the high quality research especially in MNCH can be attributed to the lack of capacity of research teams to undertake KT.14 For this reason, getting research evidence into policy remains a daunting task.15,16 If research teams lack the capacity for KT, they will find it extremely difficult to raise MNCH knowledge users’ awareness of research findings in order to facilitate the use of those findings to improve maternal and child health outcomes.
This is imperative to MNCH research especially in LMICs, because it has been established the implementation of health interventions designed to impact positively on health outcomes is not necessarily dependent on knowledge that is newly created.1 A research team with robust KT competence will be able to inspire MNCH stakeholders to use relevant research evidence in the policymaking process and this is usually achieved through regular contact and extensive dialogue between the researchers and policymakers.14 In connecting the purity of science with the pragmatism of policy, it is imperative to address the mutual mistrust often existing between policymakers and researchers and institute platforms that will encourage rapport and informal relationships, these can facilitate the evidence to policy link.3,17 KT skill is therefore of paramount importance to an MNCH research team as it will enable the team to carefully consider the expectations and policy information needs of policymakers, this can help improve quality of research evidence and transformation of evidence into policy and practice.18,19
Available reports in Nigeria, indicate that research evidence rarely gets into the policymaking process.8,18 One of the main contributory factors is the lack of KT capacity enhancement mechanisms. There are clear differences between the researchers and the policymakers and some of them are associated with lack of trust and mutual respect for each party, the differences in career requirement and path, the disposition towards information etc.19 The persistence of these differences is affecting the process of getting research evidence into policy. It is further compounded by the lack of platforms or forum that will bring researchers and policymakers together to consider issues around research-to-policy-to-practice link.20,21
In this report, we present the outcome of a training workshop designed to enhance the capacity of an MNCH implementation research team (IRT) to effectively undertake KT and to promote evidence informed policymaking and improve maternal and child health outcomes in Nigeria.
This study employed a “before and after” design, modified as an intervention study as described in previously.22 The study was designed as a three-day KT training workshop organized into fifteen modules including: integrated and end-of-grant KT; KT models, measures, tools and strategies; priority setting; managing political interference; advocacy and consensus building/negotiations; inter-sectoral collaboration; policy analysis, contextualization and legislation. A 4-point Likert scale pre-/post-workshop questionnaires were administered to evaluate the impact of the training, it was designed in terms of extent of adequacy; with “grossly inadequate” representing 1 point, and “very adequate” representing 4 points.
The workshop took place in November 2016 in Bauchi the capital of Bauchi State located in the northeastern Nigeria. The improvement of the health of women of child bearing age and children is a topmost agenda in the Nigerian State of Bauchi, because maternal and child health outcomes in the State are among the poorest in Nigeria. According to available report, the maternal mortality ratio (MMR) in Bauchi is 1540 per 100 000 live births, while the infant mortality rate (IMR) is 78 per 1000 live births.23 A total of 45 individuals took part in the workshop. Table 1 presents the profile of the attendees. These included members of Bauchi State MNCH IRT, members of the project management team, project steering committee, State primary health care development agency (SPHCDA) staff, Ministry of Health (MOH) staff, health board members of Federation of Muslim women association of Nigeria (FOMWAN), officials of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and Local government authority (LGA) health personnel. The IRT is undertaking an implementation research in which edutainment strategy is employed as a tool for the improvement of access to quality maternal and child health care in rural areas of Bauchi State.
The workshop was developed as a 3-day training event. The workshop package consisted of 15 modules, designed to enhance the KT competence of the IRT and other stakeholders closely associated with the research undertaken by the IRT. Five modules were taught each day (Tables 1-3). The workshop consisted of lecture sessions and group work sessions. Power-point presentation was used for the teachings and handouts were provided for participants on each module treated. Focus group discussions, dialogues, question/answer sessions and group work were held.
A pre-workshop questionnaire was administered before the commencement of the training each day. The questions contained in the pre-workshop questionnaire were designed to evaluate the extent of participants’ initial knowledge/understanding of the modules. At the end of each day’s training a similar questionnaire was given to the participants to evaluate the post workshop understanding of the modules taught.
The data collection questionnaires used for the pre/post workshop assessment were designed as structured questionnaires. They scale, number of items, title of domains, and scoring mode were modified from the evaluation tool by Johnson and Lavis24 and the Canadian Health Services Research Foundation (CHSRF) (http://www.chsrf.ca/other_documents/working_e.php). Our choice of the self-assessment tool of CHSRF was because several previous studies showed that the tool is very useful and reliable in the evaluation of health stakeholders’ capacity to use evidence from research for policymaking and practice.25-27 The questionnaires were pre-tested and validated in our previous evidence-to-policy training workshops for policymakers and other stakeholders in the health sector and found to be relaible.28-30, The final version of the validated questionnaire was used for the present study.
We employed the Johnson and Lavis24 method in the analysis of the completed questionnaires, which stipulates the use of mean rating (MNR). Details of the methods is provided in our previous studies.28-30, The percentage differences in the MNR of the pre-workshop and post-workshop were calculated and used as indicator of the extent of improvement in the participants knowledge after the training.
A total of 45 individuals participated in the workshop. Of these 28.9% were females. Up to 19 participants were from the ministry of health and its associated agencises including, State primary health care development agency 4 (8.9%), ministry of health 6 (13.3%) and the Local government area health unit 9 (20%) (Table 1).
The outcome of the analysis of the pre-workshop and post-worshop questionnaire showed remarkable increase in understanding of the modules taught, as demonstrated by noteworthy improvement the percentage mean ratings. The range of the mean of pre-workshop understanding of the modules was 2.04-2.94, but the range of the mean of the postworkshop understanding was considerably higher at 3.10–3.70 on the Likert scale of 4 points. The range of the mean percentage increase in participants knowledge/understanding of the modules taught was from 13.3%–55.2%.
In Table 2, the mean rating percentage improvement for the modules were: Introduction to health policy & health systems (24.0%-37.5%); Introduction to knowledge translation (integrated KT & End-of-Grant KT) (35.0%-55.2%); Research priority setting (32.9%-45.5%); Leadership capacity development & managing political interference (13.3%-31.7%); Getting research into policy and practice (19.9%-45.6%).
In Table 3, the mean rating percentage improvement for the modules were: KT models and measures (26.7%-32.2%); Research evidence in health policy making and health policy implementation (17.8%-28.5%); Health policy advocacy, demand creation, consensus building and negotiations (19.1%-24.5%); KT tools and strategies for stakeholders and end users engagement (24.9%-34.9%); Policy formulation and implementation process (25.1%-38.4%)
In Table 4, the mean rating percentage improvement for the modules were: Policy review, analysis and contextualization (24.8%-34.5%); Inter-sectoral collaboration in policymaking & implementation (19.6%-37.3%); Knowledge dissemination, exchange & management (20.1%-25.6%); Health policy monitoring, evaluation and performance assessment (18.3%-22.1%); Introduction to policy legislation (28.9%-31.3%).
The findings of the present study suggest that a KT training workshop has the potential to serve as a vital platform to improve the understanding and skill of researchers and policymakers regarding evidence to policy process. The workshop brought together both researchers and policy makers and afforded them the opportunity to interact and considers issues around MNCH research-to-policy link. This type of capacity enhancement forum has been shown to be very critical to the process of bridging the gap between research and policy/practice.8,9 According to Haines and colleagues,14 in order to enhance research finding uptake into policy and practice, it is imperative to strengthen mechanisms and platforms that can promote the systematic interactions between researchers and policymakers. Furthermore, Choi et al31 argued that researchers and policymakers will appreciate their differences better (in terms of their career paths, goals, disposition to evidence etc), if greater number of collaborative opportunities are created for them to interact, and will improve evidence to-policy link.
In this study we introduced 15 modules into the workshop curriculum. The topics were carefully designed to enable participants to have a better understanding of the non-linear but rather complex process of getting evidence into policy and practice. It is well established that uptake of evidence into mainstream policy/decision making is a very complex nonliner process frequently involving political and other forms of interferences and influences.32 Furthermore, Green and Bennett33 argued that at all levels, political, social and economic factors strongly influence who makes policies, how and where the policies are made. Consequently, the understanding of KT process cannot be complete without taking into consideration intertwined sets of influences such as leadership and governance; policy contextualization; priority setting; advocacy/consensus building, etc.
We incorporated a module on inter-sectoral collaboration because KT can never become impactful without intersectoral collaboration. The scarcity of resources is a major factor that necessitates intersectoral collaboration in order to avoid unnecessary waste of resources in policymaking and implementation. Intersectoral collaboration is critical to KT because certain elements of collaborative efforts such as having similar objectives/goals, resource interdependence, leadership that is facilitative are among the key KT success factors.1,34
Another crucial component of the KT workshop was the module on stakeholders and end users engagement. We included this module because of the need for the IRT to be equipped with skill for stakeholders engagement which is critical to KT. According to CIHR,1 one of the most important elements in KT is that it promotes active engagement of knowledge users by researchers and provides them the platform to collaborate as equal partners. This arrangement has in many instances resulted in the execution of research that are more relevant to the needs of policymakers and greatly facilitated their uptake in policymaking.1
Thus, to achieve KT, it is imperative for researchers to understand that every stage of research process presents a very valuable opportunity for them to partner with the policymakers. The CIHR noted that the research stages where stakeholders’ engagement is imperative include the development of research questions, identification of methods, development of data collection instruments and tools, data collection and analysis, interpretation of findings and dissemination.1 These were emphasized in this study during the workshop.
Emphasis were also placed on policy legislation and managing political interference during the training because of the strategic role both issues play in the KT process. According to Clarke,35policy legislation is very critical in the translation of policy objectives into action, and this is because policy legislation can make provision for the use of sanctions and incentives to facilitate policy implementation and compliance. The importance of understanding the legislative process in KT process cannot be overstated because it is imperative for policymakers and researchers participating in policymaking to have adequate knowledge of legislative requirements that guide policymaking and policy implementation.35
The module on managing political interference was incorporated into the KT training workshop because of the important role political context plays in the policymaking process. A previous report, described the policymaking process as highly political because the competing and conflicting interests, values and ideologies of the key actors involved in the process.33 Prewitt36 in his book ‘Winning the Policy War’ argued for a metaphoric change of terminology from evidence-based policy to evidence-influenced politics because of the critical role played by politics in the policymaking process. The Overseas Development Institute (ODI), had in a previous report described the process of getting research evidence into policymaking and practice as purely political from start to finish.37 Understanding the role politics plays in the policymaking process is therefore critical to the success of KT.
The post workshop assessment showed percentage increase ranging from 13.3% to as high as 55.2% in the understanding of all the modules. This clearly suggests that the workshop had a remarkable impact in terms of improving the understanding of the participants regarding KT. A number of similar previous training workshops that brought together researchers and policymakers as participants resulted in significant improvement in the understanding of the participants regarding evidence to policy process.38-40 The strategies we employed in the training workshop including completion of pre/post-workshop questionnaires and group works have been shown to facilitate knowledge enhancement.41
Among all the modules taught, result showed the highest percentage improvement in participants’ understanding of the integrated KT (iKT) and end-of-grant KT (eKT) module (35.0%-55.2%). This clearly suggests that prior to this workshop, the understanding of the participants regarding the meaning and core principles of KT, models of KT and iKT/eKT was inadequate. This outcome is encouraging as it suggests that the IRT of Bauchi State Nigeria will be more likely to adapt the KT principles and practices for better implementation of their research project and engage the policymakers through out the various stages of their research to facilitate uptake of the evidence in policy development. According to Tchameni Ngamo and colleagues,42 adequate understanding of KT will enable a research team to give attention to policymakers needs throughout the research process thereby enhancing the impact of the policy.
In this study we used the self-assessment method to assess the impact of the workshop. Although this technique has some merits, its weakness and limitation lie in the fact that it is difficult for an individual to provide an accurate and unbiased self-assessment of one’s deficiencies in knowledge and skill.43 Self-assessments have also been described as highly subjective, not very reliable and cannot easily be validated.44 Secondly, the evaluation period was rather too short (only 3 days) to ascertain the true impact of the training workshop. A follow-up of the IRT and monitoring of their implementation research activity over a period of time is necessary to ascertain their employment of the KT strategies learnt from the training. These limitations notwithstanding, the study has shown that a KT training workshop has the potential of improving the understanding and knowledge of both researchers and policymakers regarding evidence-formed policymaking process. We recommend similar KT training workshop for IRTs in low income settings.
Ebonyi State University Research Ethics Committee (UREC) provided approval and ethical clearance for the study. The UREC guideline which stipulates voluntary participation, obtaining of informed consent, maintenance of anonymity of participants and the confidential treatment of all participant related information were strictly adhered to. The study informed consent form was signed by participants after completing it.
No competing interest is declared by authors.
The design, development and execution of this study were undertaken by all authors. The manuscript was drafted by CJU, various inputs were made by all other authors. The final manuscript was approved by all authors.
The International Development Research Centre (IDRC) Canada provided funding support to this study through the West African Health Organization (WAHO) (Reference: IDRC 107892_001). We thank the researchers, policymakers and other Nigeria MNCH stakeholders who took part in this investigation. | https://hpp.tbzmed.ac.ir/FullHtml/HPP_5278_20170610172444 |
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Our partners are testing innovative interventions and savings tools to help people build emergency savings that can put them on a path to financial security. | https://www.savingsproject.org/about/ |
Mental health problems have been increasingly recognised as one of the most significant health concerns (PDF) for children and adolescents in developed countries. According to the World Health Organization, depression and anxiety disorders are two of the top five causes of overall illness for children and adolescents in Europe. In many cases, development of symptoms starts before a child's 14th birthday.
The impacts can be severe and long-lasting. Mental health issues, including depression, are one of the leading causes of suicide among adolescents. The risk for developing depression or anxiety disorders can also be greater for children from disadvantaged (PDF) or challenging backgrounds.
Despite the difficulties associated with depression and anxiety disorders for individuals, they can be treated. Early diagnosis and access to treatment are crucial in ensuring effectiveness. But not only are they treatable, they are also preventable. Accordingly, policymakers and practitioners alike are increasingly looking for evidence on interventions that might be effective in preventing the development of anxiety and/or depression in children.
However, a review of the available evidence by RAND Europe researchers from the European Platform for Investing in Children, shows that the quality of existing evaluations can make drawing conclusions about 'what works' difficult.
Available evaluations seem to vary greatly in their design, making it hard to draw comparisons between studies and build a convincing evidence base. The review also raised questions around the use of control groups and the occurrence of biases in evaluations, which will significantly impact study results.
There is still a lot that is unknown in terms of what could help prevent the development of depression and anxiety in children.Share on Twitter
Because of these issues, there is still a lot that is unknown in terms of what could help prevent the development of depression and anxiety in children. For example, approaches that use some element of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) are common, but it is not known which approach might work better than another, or for what reasons. Neither is it clear if CBT approaches are more effective than non-CBT based approaches.
Another question that may need to be answered is at what age it is best to expose children to such interventions. There is some evidence that suggests the younger, the better. But other studies show no difference by age in the outcomes of a particular intervention.
Additionally, there are certain aspects which simply remain under-researched. Little knowledge exists as to what works regarding vulnerable children. This is of concern, given that they might be more likely to develop symptoms. Also, it is not yet known if it makes any difference whether initiatives are delivered at a distance (e.g. virtually or over the phone) or in person. There is also hardly any evidence regarding the difference in outcomes based on gender.
There are some areas however, where the evidence is more conclusive. For example, it shows that longer, ongoing interventions can be more effective than one-off projects in which children can participate. Furthermore, the evidence suggests that interventions aimed at a specific target group yield better results than initiatives that are aimed at children in general.
Given the importance of the topic, a stronger evidence base would be welcomed by all. Future research could aim to include long-term evaluations, be more rigorous in nature, and include more diverse samples of children. If these limitations are tackled, policymakers and practitioners will have a better understanding of 'what works,' and in what context.
Michaela Bruckmayer is an analyst at RAND Europe in the area of home affairs and social policy and conducts research for the European Platform for Investing in Children.
Commentary gives RAND researchers a platform to convey insights based on their professional expertise and often on their peer-reviewed research and analysis. | https://www.rand.org/blog/2021/02/what-works-in-preventing-the-development-of-depression.html |
From Bloomsday theatrics in Dublin to poetry séisiúns in Cork.
# spoken-word - Sunday 18 March, 2018
'This country has been so unloved. People go on about 800 years of oppression, it's 800 years of rejection'
Poet Colm Keegan’s latest collection is an exploration of self and society.
# spoken-word - Wednesday 9 August, 2017
A Maze in Cork, a Firestorm in Clare and a VR party in Offaly: Culture Night is back
This Friday 22 September, towns and cities across Ireland will be transformed for the 12th edition of Culture Night.
# spoken-word - Sunday 14 May, 2017
'I think people understanding that they aren't alone in their torment has a healing element to it'
Canadian poet Shane Koyczan speaks to TheJournal.ie about art, healing, and his latest work.
# spoken-word - Thursday 20 October, 2016
"Art's job is to question the status quo, not to ever accept it" - Spoken word and social change
A spoken word festival will be held across multiple venues in Dublin this week.
# spoken-word - Monday 11 April, 2016
We crammed into a Dublin basement for a poetry 'slam' - here's what happened
Spoken word performances are gaining in popularity.
The 33rd Dáil
Week One: Ructions over the geographical spread of ministries and party in-fighting.
# spoken-word - Thursday 15 October, 2015
"There are a lot of dead poets on tea towels in tourist shops - this is about live poetry"
Ireland’s a hotbed of activity in the spoken word and poetry worlds, as this new event proves.
# spoken-word - Thursday 16 October, 2014
Meet the people making poetry cool again in Ireland
Lingo Festival takes place in Dublin this weekend.
# spoken-word - Saturday 30 June, 2012
11 unlikely people who have won Grammys
We were surprised to hear that Hillary Clinton has one… as have Alvin and the Chipmunks. | https://www.thejournal.ie/spoken-word/news/ |
About this event:
[30.04.19] The Institute of Contemporary Arts presents the first UK exhibition dedicated to the American writer Kathy Acker (1947–1997), and her written, spoken and performed work.
Acker is an exceptional figure in late-20th-century Western literature who moved between the avant-garde art and literary scenes of New York, San Diego, San Francisco, Paris and London. Her work traversed the intersections between conceptual art and poetry of the 1960s and 70s, the postmodernist linguistic deconstructions of the 1980s, and the nascent posthuman aesthetics of the 1990s. Through her prolific writing, Acker developed experimental textual methodologies as she distorted language, hybridised fiction and autobiography, introduced maps, drawings and diagrams, and ‘plagiarised’ the work of other authors.
I, I, I, I, I, I, I, Kathy Acker addresses ‘Kathy Acker’ as a still-unfolding cultural force, focusing on the uniquely diverse and disruptive character of the author’s work and persona. This polyvocal and expansive project combines an exhibition with a programme of performances, screenings and talks. Key aspects of her work are presented, while also highlighting her influence on artists and writers working today, particularly those occupying an area of contemporary practice that traverses the written and spoken word, performance and digital media, and who share deep connections to Acker’s methodologies and her politics of literature.
I, I, I, I, I, I, I, Kathy Acker will run from 30 April – 4 August. A full programme of participants and activity will be announced in April. | https://www.trebuchet-magazine.com/events/2019/04/i-i-i-i-i-i-i-kathy-acker/ |
In Renée Watson and Ellen Hagan's stunning new book, the authors introduce readers to two budding activists who challenge the status quo at their school.
In Watch Us Rise (Bloomsbury, Feb. 2019; Gr 8 Up), Renée Watson and Ellen Hagan introduce readers to Jasmine and Chelsea, two teens who attend a progressive high school in Amsterdam Heights, New York City. Finding that their school’s clubs reinforce the status quo, the two start “Write Like a Girl,” a club that reflects their interests and voices, supported by performances and guerilla art events. They also host a blog, focused on women’s issues and unheralded female artists and activists. Featuring potent prose and poetry pieces on topics ranging from beauty magazines to “What It Be Like: on being a girl,” the blog soon goes viral. Pushback and attacks from classmates and the school’s administration follow, but as the book’s title suggests, nothing can stop these young feminists who are about to change the conversation, and ultimately, the culture of their school. Introduce Watch Us Rise by reading aloud one of the above mentioned poems…and buzz about this thought-provoking title is guaranteed to follow.
As Jasmine states in Watch Us Rise , “We want to talk about issues that matter to us, and we need a space to do it.” Your book, which addresses topics from family and friendships to shaming and racism, offers just that for these characters. As a collaborative work, how did you decide on your focus and discover the arc of the book?
Renée Watson: We knew right away that we wanted to write a book about girls who are budding activists and artists. Ellen and I have worked together in arts education organizations for several years and we know young women like Jasmine and Chelsea. We wanted to represent the young people we’ve come to care about. Time and time again, we’ve mentored students who just want someone to listen to them. They care deeply about what’s happening in their world and they have a lot to say.
Each setback and accomplishment pushes the plot forward and every time something challenging happens to Jasmine and Chelsea we see them figuring out how they will respond. When thinking about the arc of the story, it was important for us to layer the novel with both the personal and the political. Simultaneously while the girls are discovering what it means to be a feminist, an activist, they are also dealing with personal family issues, relationships, and their own insecurities.
You each write in the voice of one of the characters. Tell us a little about them.
RW: One of the things I love most about Jasmine is that she really likes herself. She is a fat, dark-skinned girl who loves to act in the theater club. She is confident but she has to constantly reaffirm herself because of the stereotypes and assumptions people have about her. In part, her story is about putting all the things she’s been taught about activism and standing up for oneself into practice. Jasmine’s a daddy’s girl and has learned a lot about the importance of community organizing from her father. Over the course of the novel, the lessons from him aren’t just theory anymore. She has to push herself out of her comfort zone—and grief—to fight for what she believes in.
Ellen Hagan: Chelsea is full of energy and fire. It was so much fun writing her because she really took over the story, and had these ideas and visions for how she wanted the world to be for young people—and she pushed ahead to make those things happen. She is unafraid of confrontation and is bold in a way that surprised me. Chelsea finds a home in writing and creating work that addresses the larger world, and she’s complicated, too. She wants to look and be beautiful, even if that means sometimes falling into society’s ideas about what beautiful is. She’s simultaneously raging against the systems that she also subscribes to—trying to figure out her place in the world and how she wants to present herself. To me, that’s what makes her relatable and brave.
As you delve into these characters and the challenges they face as daughters, young women, feminists, and as people of color, we see them push back on stereotypes and labels from inside and outside their communities–the teacher who encourages Jasmine to explore a stereotypical role assigned to black female actors–but also from their peers.
RW: We wanted Jasmine and Chelsea to have agency. We didn’t just want things to happen to them, we wanted them to make things happen. But of course, they’re teens so we needed to think about ways teens can be active in taking a stand. We believe artistic expression is one way. This means that Jasmine and Chelsea use poetry and theater to respond to sexist subway ads, street harassment, and the fashion industry. It means they have difficult conversations with teachers, parents, and each other when micro (and macro) aggressions happen.
The anchor in all of this is their friendship. They lean on each other and learn from each other. In many ways, their friendship gives them the courage to push back and speak up.
Your characters reveal themselves to readers in many ways, but so powerful are the segments that feature the written and spoken word. I’m wondering if you can discuss that, and your relationship to the spoken word?
RW: Poetry is my first love. I grew up reading and writing poetry in my journal (and still do). As a teaching artist, I’ve taught poetry to young people here in the United States and also internationally. I’ve seen students who don’t see themselves as writers or who have struggled with reading really gravitate to spoken word poetry. I have witnessed firsthand how poetry brings teens together, how it affirms and heals, and challenges and celebrates.
For Jasmine, a budding actress, I wanted to explore the notion of a girl who is good at being on stage as someone else, who is comfortable taking someone’s words and bringing them to life, but not so comfortable writing and sharing her own words. Writing what’s in her heart and actually saying it out loud on a stage is both terrifying and freeing for her. Over the course of the novel, we see Jasmine standing in her own truth, saying her own words.
EH: In high school, I went to an incredible summer arts program that introduced me to a wide range of poets that have shaped my writing life. We read June Jordan, Naomi Shihab Nye, and Nikky Finney, to name a few. And then I discovered Sapphire and Sandra Cisneros and was in awe of how they used poetry to explore their identity and their womanhood, to activate and rise up. Poetry helps me distill and process the world in a unique way, so it will always be essential to me as a writer.
Chelsea is saved over and over by poetry. Her journal is the space that she returns to throughout the novel— it’s a place for her to explore her emotions and navigate the kind of woman, artist, and activist she wants to be. She oscillates between confidence and vulnerability; I loved the chance to explore what that looks like in poem form.
Early in the book Chelsea pokes fun at educators unwilling to go beyond the “canon” to consider contemporary classics from the poetry of Lucille Clifton to Rebecca Skloots’sThe Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks to Ta-Nehisi Coates’s Between the World and Me. As young readers, did you feel the same?
EH: Absolutely! What was considered the “literary canon” didn’t speak to me in high school, and even in college I would get into heated discussions with classmates about what the “canon” was, and who ended up in it. It was dominated by white (predominantly male) writers and they did not represent me. It made me think about who was getting published and who was publishing them. Very early on, I sought out women and writers of color who quickly became my literary canon: Nikki Giovanni, Sonia Sanchez, Lee Smith, Gayl Jones, Gloria Naylor, and Dorothy Allison.
My contemporary poetry and YA list would include: Fatimah Asghar, Aracelis Girmay, Elizabeth Acevedo, Kamilah Aisha Moon, José Olivarez, Natalie Diaz, Renée Watson, and Hieu Min Nguyen to name just a few of the many brilliant folks that move and inspire me. Young people should be reading widely and challenging what’s being taught in their schools if it doesn’t include a diverse reading list.
You are both active promoting the arts and writing, particularly with teens and through I, Too Arts Collective. I'm wondering if you could speak to those connections and how they inform your work.
RW: One of the motivations behind launching I, Too Arts Collective was because I really wanted to live what I teach. I am always encouraging young people to stand up for what they believe, to take artistic risks, to make a difference in their local community. Knowing that the Harlem brownstone of Langston Hughes was not a space for writers or a museum, I couldn’t just keep venting about it and waiting for someone else to do something. I wanted to create what I didn’t see—a place that honors the legacy of Langston Hughes and builds on it by providing poetry workshops for teens, literary events for adults, and space for the community to gather. It’s been an inspiring journey and my experience with the young people who participate in our programs absolutely impacts my writing.
EH: I’ve worked as a teaching artist and an administrator in arts education since I moved to New York City in 2001, starting with the Community~Word Project and DreamYard. Teaching writing and performance to young people and watching them bond over the issues they care about: identity, politics, love, traditions, pop culture, and so on, has been transformative, thrilling work. The more we connect with one another, the more we break boundaries and shut down stereotypes—this is the real work of community building.
I feel that Watch Us Rise is doing this work; it’s getting the conversations started. How do we create the kind of art that pushes us towards a more just world? That our characters are doing just that together makes it all the more powerful. | https://www.schoollibraryjournal.com/story/reviews/watch-us-rise-interview |
Prior to the romantic period, art (and, more specifically, artistic writings) was something that was separated by class. Largely due to the lack of access to texts, a small group of people could actually read and write texts, thus limiting the audience and perspective of each piece of writing. There was an emphasis on things like advanced language and specific structure as opposed to subject matter and the ability to form pieces in whatever way the author chooses too. Writing, therefore, was almost a science. There was a right and wrong way to make art.
Writers like Woodsworth and Burns were able to change this perspective. Thanks in large part to the creation of the printing press, literature became more accessible to the general public and, in turn, literacy rates increased. This increase in accessibility allowed for a new perspective to form on the art of writing. Poetry written by prominent men about their lifestyles was not relatable to the new audience of literature, and therefor there came the need for a change in pace. Woodsworth and Burns are two authors that recognized this change and it can be seen in their works. For example, In Burns’s To a Mouse, the author describes how he nearly killed a mouse “wi’ murdering paddle.” This ‘paddle’ is a plough, and the situation described in the poem is when Burns is ploughing a field and nearly kills this mouse. By describing a situation in which he is ploughing a field, Burns is demonstrating a relatability to the common people. Both Burns and Woodsworth saw this as an importance in the field of poetry. As stated in Woodsworth’s Preface to Lyrical Ballads, the primary goal of poetry “was to choose incidents and situations from common life.” He goes on to describe how it is important to use “language really used by common men.” Both of the authors’ works contain language that is not as complex as other poets. They use slang words and other commonalities found in language to, once again, appeal to the common reader.
The work of Woodsworth and Burns was revolutionary and it truly challenged the way in which art was scene. Nowadays, art in all forms is not required to fit a certain format. In fact, the breaking of expectations is a celebrated aspect of respected works. It demonstrates an acceptance of asking questions and challenging the status quo. Take, for example, The Beatles. Now, I am not proclaiming that Woodsworth and Burns are “The Beatles of poetry”. I just want to call to attention the change in perspective on how art is viewed and who can view it. Prior to The Beatles, songs on the radio were typically under 3 minutes in length and songs were appreciated as individual pieces. Due to their popularity, The Beatles were able to change the general perspective on music as an artform. They created high-production albums with orchestral parts; they wrote songs like Hey Jude that was a radio hit that has a total length of over 7 minutes; they even created entire genres such as psychedelic rock and metal music with songs like Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds and Helter Skelter. Again, I am not trying to say Woodsworth/Burns and The Beatles are one in the same. I just want to call to attention how the ability to challenge the status quo an change how art is scene is something to be respected and celebrated, in all fields. | https://psubritlit2.net/2020/03/02/woodsworth-burns-and-a-changing-perspective-on-art/ |
Alushka Rajaram, winner of Slamalamadingdong in August, performs ‘Dear People’ at Slamalamadingdong.
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Alushka Rajaram is a Melbourne based poet who has only recently hit the spoken word scene. She was born in South Africa and spent her teenage years trying to fit into the coastal life of Frankston in Victoria. Her work reflects on her African heritage and struggles with being an immigrant. Although new to performing, she hopes to continue using spoken word as a platform for self expression and to insight conversation around contemporary social justice issues.
DISCLAIMER: This is not a review from a person qualified, or even asked to give one. Just my unreliable impressions of a night of great poetry.
I want to tell you about the August 16 LA MAMA POETICA NIGHT because I was uplifted – I got three poetic inspirations as I whistled my bike back home.
First off, it was a great pleasure to sit back in the arms of four accomplished poets. You knew that they would not let you fall and you could really get wrapped up in their works. I felt glad to live in the city and amongst the people that nurture them.
Alana Kelsall read her poems sitting down. At first she pretended she was going to recline full length. I got a mental picture of Titian’s ‘Venus of Urbino’ (the pose, not the being naked). Being read to from a bed or a couch would have suited her poems: they flowed easily and simply, relaxed and in a manner that might lull a child to sleep. But her imagery is evocative, dreamy and perceptive. I particularly remember and liked her poems about a woman who wasn’t a Bond girl – which played vividly in my mind like a Bond movie. In fact the Bond imagery irked me a bit whilst I was hearing it, but now I think it was very clever and wonder how she managed it. And one about Wallis Simpson. She is a person I’ve only known about through one sentence remarks in the press “the American divorcee who captured the heart of a king…” but who, after Alana’s poem, I was glad to know a lot better.
Sam Ferrante’s spot was a complete contrast. She was energetic, animated and emotional, and she used the whole stage: dropping paper sheets of her poems around the place, climbing an imaginary ladder to a bunk bed and taking off and putting on her boots. Her stand outs for me were her first poem written from the perspective of her six year old self – her portrayal is vivid and convincing and made me think her kid self is within easy reach of he
Roshelle Fong performing ‘Lucy Liu’ at Melbourne Spoken Word’s White Night showcase in February, 2016.
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It is a wintry Melbourne night with light rain and we are gathered on the front lawn of a Coburg house late one evening. We are here for ‘immersive theatre, house party and good times’. We are grouped as we arrive as ‘family’ or ‘friends’. There is mulled wine, dhal and rice for the hungry, and an air of relaxed anticipation. A man in a Priest’s collar comes to welcome us to the ‘wake’ of a dear departed young friend. It is director Scott Wings.
We are led towards the back of the property, the path lined by the cast all dressed in black and bearing candles. They utter warm, mock-sombre words of welcome, ply us with tissues and usher us into the back yard where we gather around a brazier. We are welcomed by a man in loincloth and ochre, Indigenous performer Neil Morris, whose clap-sticks and language remind us lovingly where we are and on whose land we stand.
We ‘friends’ proceed to a series of acts in various chambers beginning with the mourning-room of the ‘Widow’ Mollie Yang, strewn thick with tissues and grief. We are bade ‘get out’, but we understand that these are the words of the inconsolable, so we stay with the Widow as her sorrows find expression.
There follow for us six spoken word performances by different artists in different, curated spaces, as our fellow audience members who are ‘Family’ concurrently experience a similar number of different shows.
Some are moving, some jarring, some endearing, or all three at once. All are carefully crafted and powerful in their own way, each created by an individual writer and incorporated into the show to form a more-or-less cohesive whole.
We ‘Friends’ are invited to pile into a bedroom and hear poet Arielle Cottingham’s shocking piece ’16 years’, which she reveals the appalling year-by-year public objectification experienced by a girl at the hands of anonymous men as she grows up. “I’m too young for this!”, the refrain. The s
Nour Abouzeid, the winner of Slamalamadingdong in July, performing ‘Lest We Forget’ in the second round.
f you like the video, click the like button, share it and subscribe to our channel for a video of poetry around Melbourne every week.
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Nour Abouzeid is a generation Y Muslim Australian who has been frustrated with the world and has a lot to say. Having always enjoyed English and poetry, coupled with his love for hip-hop and conscious lyrics, spoken word poetry became for him the ideal artistic medium to fight misconceptions, challenge the status quo and try to assert with pride a Muslim identity.
Loud and outspoken, he is a regular on the Melbourne Slam scene, and has performed at many community and youth events and fundraisers in both Melbourne and Sydney. In addition to working closely with many local artists (including Luka Lesson and Omar Musa), he has also performed along side acclaimed international performers such as Amir Sulaiman, Mark Gonzales, Liza Garza, Sarah Kay, Phil Kaye and Boonaa Mohamed. He has also had the chance to perform in open mics in the UK and the USA, including the famous Nuyorican poets’ cafe in New York City.
In 2009 He was a finalist in the Melbourne Writer’s Festival Poetry Idol and in 2010 he became the Victorian State Champion in the Australian Poetry Slam and was again a state finalist in 2011, 2012, 2014 and 2015. In 2012 Nour was selected as part of the Melbourne Slam Team that competed against New Zealand in the Trans-Atlantic Slam. In addition to performing he has run performance workshops including being part of a project headed by the national gallery of Victoria.
When he’s not doing that or his day job, he enjoys photography and collecting sneakers and Lego sets.
Ahead of Candy Royalle’s show alongside her band, The Freed Radicals, at The Toff on August 14, Director Benjamin Solah asked Candy a few questions about performing, collaborating, diversity and political spoken word. You’ve been to Melbourne a few times before to perform. What do you like most about performing down here? How does it differ from other places? Well the truth is I love any reason to come to Melbourne – I just love it. It has a more real vibe than Sydney I feel – it doesn’t feel as gentrified in some ways (though I know gentrification is a huge problem in Melbourne too). Audiences are always warm and passionate and such great supporters of my work.
You’re known for unapologetically raising political questions whilst also using quite beautiful and stark images and metaphor with your spoken word? Why do you think that’s important and what advice would you give to other poets wanting to raise political questions whilst also maintaining artistic craft in your work? Sometimes I write a piece that is a political rant because I just need to get it off my chest, and also the audience likes a bit of a political anthem as it were, and I think that’s okay. But no one wants to go see a performer perform 60 or 90 (or even 15) minutes of what feels like a political beating over the head. So in order for the message to get across without an audience feeling preached to, we need to make it nuanced and beautiful and almost not obviously political at all. Doing this by telling stories is a great way to present political ideas to people – through arresting human stories infused with metaphor and beauty. | https://melbournespokenword.com/2016/08/ |
Idil Ali is a proud Somali woman whose work spans writing, spoken word, and community organising.
Through language, pace and sometimes dramatic movements, Idil weaves stories of displacement, identity, community and resistance.
Her performances intend to explore, experiment and pay homage
to her people and her self.
Idil is a Youth Practitioner at Drummond Street, and supervises VoiceFest -an actively inclusive music & arts festival for young people. Her work is centred in community autonomy, resistance and freedom.
Idil writes for herself and shares for anyone who resonates. Her rhythmic, honest and sometimes snarky poetry has featured at Afrohub, Fem&ist festival, NGV, MPavillion, Ferdydurke and Yirramboi First Nations arts festival. She appeared last year at SacredEdge on a panel about Intersectionality. This year returns to share her story and perform as a Spoken Word artist.
Idil was the feisty one on the Intersectionality panel (where gender, race and culture meet) in 2018. This year she returns in a fuller role, to perform her spoken word and share her inspiring story with us all. | http://unitingqueenscliff.org.au/Queenscliff-Point_Lonsdale_UCA/Artists,_Musicians,_Presenters/Entries/2019/2/13_Idil_Ali.html |
Poetry is having a major moment. We seem to turn to it, to need it most when the world’s leaders debase language and thereby thought and action. And yet within the world of poetry, a division exists, an aesthetic line in the sand, between written word and spoken word writers. One side sees spoken word as lacking complexity and brevity, while the other judges the written form as boring, elitist, and unattractive.
I’d listen to the words of my drafts filling my empty subleased room with a cluster of sounds, sharp consonants and swinging vowels. I’d feel the rhythm bouncing off the walls and drum beats echoing within my head.
Until recently, I was on one side of this unnecessary divide. As a self-categorized page poet I distanced myself from what I saw as the hype around spoken word. I felt that my poems existed only on the page. Their voice, their persona, was given to them by all of their individual readers — professors, classmates, friends. Reading them in public, performing them, would feel wrong, would change their nature and at the same time contain too much of me, my physical being. They would fall short of their innermost meaning.
Still, I did in fact read my poems out loud. In solitude, using my voice as a detective, I analyzed my verses and discovered passages that needed revision. I’d listen to the words of my drafts filling my empty subleased room with a cluster of sounds, sharp consonants and swinging vowels. I’d feel the rhythm bouncing off the walls and drum beats echoing within my head.
When, suddenly, my voice fell flat, emotionless, and echoed without depth, no bass drum, the vowels standing still, I knew something was wrong. My heart beat went on, but the words did not go in unison with it. That part, I knew, would need to be rewritten.
Reading my pieces out loud has always played an important role in the creation and revision of my poems. Only with all my senses can I fully understand my work. Only then can I locate what it needs, where its strengths and weaknesses lie.
However, in my mind the words I recited in my bedroom stood entirely apart from the boisterous performances I associated with open mics. This summer, I left my comfort zone and participated in a spoken word seminar. In a little village in the Austrian Alps, under the guidance of British novelist and poet Lucy English, I delved into the strange world that I had tried so hard to avoid. I was curious to finally discover the reasons for the popularity of open mic stages and poetry slams, the strategies they employed to make literature accessible to a wide and breathing audience, and where I might fit into this genre that had frightened me for years.
In a safe space, a close circle of 12 seminar colleagues, all coming from different backgrounds — some engineers, some marketing strategists, some literature students like me — I was asked to create a new poem for the purpose of the class. We did not get any input on how to go about writing for spoken word, so I dug into my brain like an archeologist to find the story I needed to tell, just as I do when creating a new page poem. My first attempt to read this poem out loud in class immediately taught me that, if I was intending to perform a work and bring it to life, my usual toolbox would not be sufficient. I would have to touch its very origins, rethink my concept of poetry, lock away my page creations in one vault and start filling another with this new alien.
The spontaneity and playfulness of this genre that had always frightened me had turned into a gift of freedom. I enjoyed the quick dive through spoken waters; I found it thrilling to become a part of my verbal creation.
Spoken word is a short episode, a one-time experience. Page poetry, on the other hand, is a lasting engagement. When performed on stage, the audience cannot simply reread a crucial line to understand its deeper meaning. So, if a performance poet includes inter- or intra-textual references, paradoxes, and half rhymes, they ought to be precise, strategic — all following a clear thread. Otherwise, the audience will be lost in clouds of words, all bursting into rain, leaving no story to follow but only shaken reflections in puddles. These and many more structural details made me aware of the complexity and the power of spoken word and its distinctly different character than page poetry.
The seminar was set to culminate in a filmed performance of me reading the first poem I had written specifically to be spoken out loud. As I worked toward that goal, I realized more than ever before that speech is far more than a controlled vibration of our vocal chords. Suddenly, I had to use my hands, my arms, my legs, my feet, all of my body — thoughtfully, carefully. I had to consider pausing, speeding up, looking up or down or at the audience, smiling, crying, breathing — and I had to methodically implement what I was organically feeling into my performance.
It felt surprisingly good to recite my written words in my own personal voice. The spontaneity and playfulness of this genre that had always frightened me had turned into a gift of freedom. I enjoyed the quick dive through spoken waters; I found it thrilling to become a part of my verbal creation. I also enjoyed the democracy of this genre, the welcoming and accepting atmosphere where there is no need to be published, but only the need to say something, to hear something, to give and to receive. Most importantly, I found myself changed when I returned to my first — and maybe everlasting — love, the medium of the page, now seeing it with new eyes and ready to test its boundaries and get down to the core of what makes a poem work so beautifully when it stays on the page.
After my endeavor, I can conclude that there is no need for written poetry to compete with its spoken sibling. What is complex and has to be reread on the page is translated onstage by gestures and inflection; what is expressed in unfamiliar and challenging word choices on paper is conveyed with repetitions and pauses. Spoken word and page poetry are two entirely different genres, with their own rules and strategies, their own audience and their own agenda. They are as different as novel and drama, as apple and pear. We do not have to choose; we can embrace both forms for their unique abilities and qualities. We can create a sustainable coexistence for poetry on paper and poetry spoken out loud, to guarantee that our poetic expressions will always have a right to be read, and heard, and seen.
Lisa Schantl is an Austrian graduate student of English and American Studies at the University of Graz who has a background in philosophy and media sciences. She spent the 2017/18 academic year abroad in the United States at Montclair State University, New Jersey, where she had the opportunity to follow her passion for online and print publishing. Her journalistic work has appeared in the music magazines Music-News and PARADOX as well as in The Montclarion, and her creative work in The Normal Review and Frankfurter Bibliothek. She launched Tint — The ESL Writers Journal as a platform for the diverse voices of non-native English writers around the world. | https://larbpublab.com/age-of-poetry/ |
There are many different writing and citation styles, each with the goal of making it easier to understand reported research and share useful resources. For guidance on a particular style, see the Purdue OWL pages or the Library's guides. For some quick examples of MLA citations and annotated bibliography entries, see below.
The Modern Language Association (MLA) citation style is most common in the humanities. The eighth edition is new for 2016.
MLA Formatting and Style Guide from the Online Writing Lab (OWL) at Purdue University
Citing Archival Materials in MLA
Book
Ontiveros, Randy J. In the Spirit of a New People: The Cultural Politics of the Chicano Movement. New York UP, 2014. This book analyzes the journalism, visual arts, theater, and novels of the Chicano movement from 1960 to the present as articulations of personal and collective values. Chapter 3 grounds the theater of El Teatro Campesino in the labor and immigrant organizing of the period, while Chapter 4 situates Sandra Cisneros’s novel Caramelo in the struggles of Chicana feminists to be heard in the traditional and nationalist elements of the Chicano movement. Ontiveros provides a powerful and illuminating historical context for the literary and political texts of the movement.
Journal article
Alvarez, Nadia, and Jack Mearns. “The benefits of writing and performing in the spoken word poetry community.” The Arts in Psychotherapy, vol. 41, no. 3, July 2014, pp. 263-268. ScienceDirect, doi:10.1016/j.aip.2014.03.004. Spoken word poetry is distinctive because it is written to be performed out loud, in person, by the poet. The ten poets interviewed by these authors describe “a reciprocal relationship between the audience and the poet” created by that practice of performance. To build community, spoken word poets keep metaphor and diction relatively simple and accessible. Richness is instead built through fragmented stories that coalesce into emotional narratives about personal and community concerns. This understanding of poets’ intentions illuminates their recorded performances. | https://libguides.csun.edu/math/citing |
280 S. Columbus Dr., Room 319
Bio:
I am a painter, poet, dancer, curator, and educator from the South Side of Chicago. In my art and collaborations across platforms, one medium inspires another, forging connections across traditional boundaries through rhythm, the metaphor and synchronicity. I use rhythm to curate my multi-discipline performances and creative arts events. I work for Illinois Humanities Envisioning Justice as a teaching Artist, gear toward creating programming that is responsive to the school to prison pipeline and the youth's experience with violence. Growing up on the South Side, I excelled in a historic style of dancing known as Chicago footwork, a local tradition rooted in the history of house music and My Grandmother gifted me with poetry at a young age. Over time, my love of dancing mixed with my love of painting, and I began to use dance in my paintings as a symbol for movement, action, and change. Narrating with my spoken word poetry in gallery shows, murals, and diverse events over the last several years, I have exhibited painted portraits of local dancers battling and overcoming historic and contemporary struggles.
Currently I am a Resident Artist at the South Side Community Art Center, Curator and the Production Assistant at Luxe B Studio producing weekly events and developing a multifaceted arts Internship program, A Links Hall Co-Missioned Artist and am in my final year of Graduate School at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago Master of Fine Arts Painting and Drawing.
Image Details: | https://www.saic.edu/events/b%E2%80%99rael-ali-thunder |
Community Arts Council collaborates with poet Sonya Littlejohn on creative workshops focusing on wildfire experiences.
Let me tell you a story.
Since the wildfires, I have been searching. Pulled by a will to feel centred, to record and understand, I have turned to my notebook, composing to match the visions of ash, upheaval, and renewal that marked me. I listened intently, to the ground, the smoke, the nerves, the voices of my friends. Out of these poured streams of emotion and colour, needing a place to settle and call home.
When you least expect it, the collective consciousness responds and brings together the elements in such a way as to create the fulfillment of desire. One afternoon I invited poet Sonya Littlejohn to meet me at the Community Arts Council office. She came and delivered the idea I’d been searching for, just like that… A Fire Anthology. A soul-knowing ‘yes’ lit up my heart, setting in motion a chain of events that lead us to this point.
It begins like this: Throughout June, with Sonya as our guide, our first series of three workshops, entitled 1001 Recipes for Ashes, will gather the stories that emerged from a summer of fire. We will create a welcoming space in which you can share. Why? Perhaps filmmaker Sarah Polley says it best: “Stories are our way of coping, of creating shape out of the mess.”
Our goal is to create a beautiful book, an embodiment of recovery and a document filled with diverse perspectives, teachings, longings, and a rainbow of emotion.
Sonya’s passion for teaching and facilitating the writing process evolved with WordPlay, a Vancouver Poetry House initiative where, “Contemporary active poets give relevance and immediacy to poetry in the classroom.”Sonya empowered young writers through WordPlay’s focus on experimentation and self-expression. Sonya explains, “The work with WordPlay solidified my role as a writer by owning the ability to perform and teach.”
The craft came to Sonya at an early age, inked like the first clicks of a new typewriter on a fresh page. Blessed by a mother’s keen guidance, she quickly began reading and before long was writing. She shares visions of writing stories that paired with her early drawings. “In my mind, the stories were epic,” says Sonya, “but probably they were only a few words.” In grade 7, she encountered Loyd Csizmadia’s vivid and energetic teaching style. “He gave a liveliness to language that other teachers who were more serious didn’t,” Sonya remembers. She would have him for English several times throughout high school. Mr. Csizmadia had an irreverent way of working with the curriculum, she explains, and he opened his students’ eyes to the creative potential in language and grammar. Eventually, Sonya moved on to study Canadian Anthropology at UBC, and then remained in Vancouver, carving out a life as a poet and spoken word artist.
Sonya has now returned to the Cariboo. She, too, listened intently to the community around her, eliciting the desire to compile the impacts wildfires have had. Our work here is an experiment. What happens when thousands of people face a collective experience like this? Maybe something beautiful, Sonya explains: “The community spirit of supportiveness and care many saw triggered during the fires and evacuations was something hopeful I experienced. It stretched from the center of the fires out as far as the rest of the world.” This series of workshops will centre on vivid imagery. “I intend to guide the participants with imagery of the home and our natural surroundings, to explore the ideas of safety, support, and stewardship as we move forward recognizing what we passed through and what may be on the other side.”
So here we are, the editors of the anthology. We are seeking reflective essays, poetry, art, and photographs. We want your stories, experiences, and reflections of community care and co-operation, resilience, mental journeys, physical journeys. Tell us of loss, challenges to status quo, fears, threats, promises, and plans for future seasons. “This is all grounds for poetry,” Sonya points out.
Whether or not you are a writer, we want to ensure you we can hear your story. We seek to offer these workshops to writers, storytellers, oral historians, lyricists, and visual artists who were affected, and who wish to connect in community around this common experience. Get in touch with us. Come to the workshops, held at the Central Cariboo Arts Centre on Saturday, June 2, Wednesday, June 13, and Saturday, June 23. We are grateful for the support of the City of Williams Lake and the Cariboo Regional District via the Central Cariboo Arts and Culture Society, the BC Arts Council, and the Province of BC. It is my honour to walk this path in partnership with Sonya. It will be my honour to witness you and the unfolding of your story.
Venta Rutkauskas is the co-ordinator for the Community Arts Council of Williams Lake (CACWL). See williamslakecommunityartscouncil.com to learn more about CACWL & local artists. | http://www.thegreengazette.ca/1001-recipes-for-ashes/ |
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