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Tamazight NLP 24

The Mandate of Heaven was often invoked by philosophers and scholars in China as a way to curtail the abuse of power by the ruler, in a system that had few other checks.

ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⴱⴷⴰⵔ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵉⵏⵡⴰ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴰⴱⵓ ⵙⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵜⵉⴹⴰⴼ.

Notably, the dynasty lasted for a considerable time during which 31 kings ruled over an extended period of 17 generations.

ⵙ ⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⵯ, ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⴰ ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵏⵏⴱⴹ 31 ⵏ ⵓⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ 17 ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ.

As time went on, however, the rulers' abuse of the other social classes led to social unrest and instability.

ⴳ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ, ⵉⴷ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⴽⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵔⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵔⴳⴳⵉⴳ.

They created the Mandate of Heaven to explain their right to assume rule and presumed that the only way to hold the mandate was to rule well in the eyes of Heaven.

ⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⴰⵣⵔⴼ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵥ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵉⵡⴰ ⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵍⴰⵡⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵓⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⴰⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵟⵟⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ.

However, in order to appease some of the citizens, they allowed some Shang beneficiaries to continue governing their small kingdoms in compliance with Zhou rules and regulations.

ⵎⴰⵛⴰ, ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵀⴷⴷⵏⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵔⴰⵏ, ⵓⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵏⴳ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴷⵀⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵍⴷⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵡⵇⵇⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴳⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⴹⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵣⵀⵓ.

They also excelled in shipbuilding, which, coupled with their discovery of celestial navigation, made them excellent mariners.

ⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵚⴽⵓ ⴰⵖⵔⴱⴰⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ, ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴱⵃⵔⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⵢⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵏ ⵢⵓⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵏ ⵉⴱⵃⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴼⴰⵢⵏ.

Most of these works are commentaries on the progress and political movement of the dynasty.

ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⴼⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ.

Their works primarily stressed the importance of the ruling class, respect, and their relationship with the lower class.

ⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⵅⵉⵜⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔ, ⴰⵡⵇⵇⵔ, ⴷ ⵜⵙⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⴽⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔ.

Within these districts were administrators who were appointed by the government, in return, they had to maintain their allegiance to the main internal government.

ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⴰ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵓⵖⴰⵍⵉⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⴱⴰⵢⵄⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰ!ⴳⵏⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ.

Finally, when the Zhou dynasty's power decreased, it was wiped out by the State of Qin, which believed that the Zhou had become weak and their rule unjust.

ⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ, ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴼⵏⵥ ⵓⴷⴰⴱⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵀⵓ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵖⵓⴱⴰ ⵙⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵏ ⴽⵉⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵣⵀⵓ ⴰⵓⵍⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵖⴷⵉⵎⵜ.

During this reformation, administrative changes were made and a system of legalism was developed which stated that the law is supreme over every individual, including the rulers.

ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵚⴰⴹⵓⴼ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵚⴰⴹⵓⴼ ⵢⵓⵜⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵓⵎⴷⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵓⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹ.

The establishment of the Han dynasty marked a great period in China’s history marked by significant changes in the political structure of the country.

.ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ ⵏ ⵀⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵜⴰⴽⵙⵡⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵉⵏⵡⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵕⵛⴰⵎ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ.

A major purpose was to establish justification for the transference of the Mandate of Heaven through these five dynasties and thus to the Song dynasty.

ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵔⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵎⴰⵜⵜⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴷⴼⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵏⴳ.

They also held considerably more territory than any of the other Chinese states that had existed conterminously in the south.

ⵎⵛⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⴰ ⵃⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵛⵉⵏⵡⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ.

The brutal behavior of Zhu Wen and the Later Liang was a source of considerable embarrassment, and thus there was pressure to exclude them from the Mandate.

ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎⵢⴰⵔⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵣⵀⵓ ⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵍⴰⵟⵕ ⵍⵉⵢⴰⵏⴳ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵖⴱⴰⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴰⴳⴰⵥ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ.

However, Kublai Khan was the only indifferent ruler when he claimed the Mandate of Heaven over the Yuan Dynasty since he had a sizable military and was part of the Khitan people, as with many others from the same background since they did not have the same traditions and culture as their Chinese adversaries.

ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ, ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⴳⵓⴱⵍⴰⵢ ⵅⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹ ⴽⴰ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵢⵡⵉⵏ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵜⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵓⵡⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵓⴷⴼⵔⵉⵔ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵖⵔⴼ ⵏ ⵍⵅⵉⵜⴰⵏ, ⵎⵛⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⴽⴽⵓⵙ ⵉⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵖⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵡⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵖⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵏⵡⵉⵢⵏ.

It was solely politics from beginning to end and an attempt from the emperor to maintain a favorable act towards Heaven.

ⵜⵓⵖⴰ ⵜⵜ ⴷⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴽⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵟⵟⴼ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵜⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵜ ⵎⵏⵉⴷⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵢⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ.

The Right of Rebellion is not coded into any official law.

ⴰⵣⵔⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵡⵡⴰⵖⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵔⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵡⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱ.

"Since the winner is the one who determines who has obtained the Mandate of Heaven and who has lost it, some Chinese scholars consider it to be a sort of Victor's justice, best characterized in the popular Chinese saying ""The winner becomes king, the loser becomes outlaw"" (Chinese: “成者爲王，敗者爲寇”)."

"ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵔⵏⴰⵡ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⵓⵎⵥⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⵉ ⵎⵉ ⵜⴷⴷⴰ, ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵏⵡⵉⵢⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜ ⵜⵜⵃⴰⵙⴰⴱⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴼⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⴽⵜⵓⵔ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵣⵉ ⴰⵎⴷⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⵏⵡⵉⵢ "ⴰⵎⵔⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵜⵜⵜⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴷ ⴰⴳⵍⵍⵉⴷ, ⴰⵎⵕⵕⵥⵓ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⴼⴼⵖ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵣⵔⴼ" ( ⵜⴰⵛⵉⵏⵡⵉⵜ: “成者爲王，敗者爲寇”)."

The kingdom of Silla is also said to be adopted the Mandate of Heaven, but the earliest records are from Joseon Dynasty, which made the Mandate of Heaven an enduring state ideology.

ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴷⵊⵓⵣⵢⵓⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵖⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ.

The later and more centralized Vietnamese dynasties adopted Confucianism as the state ideology, which led to the creation of a Vietnamese tributary system in Southeast Asia that was modeled after the Chinese Sinocentric system in East Asia.

ⵜⵉⴳⵍⴷⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵜⵏⴰⵎ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⵎⵙⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴽⴰⵏⴼⵓⵛⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵜⴰⴷⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵜⴰⵎⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⴰⵙⵜⴰ ⵏⴷ ⵓⵏⵥⵓⵍ ⵓⴳⵎⵉⴹ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵛⵉⵏⵡⵉⵢ ⴳ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵎⵓ.

In later times, this need was obviated because the Imperial House of Japan claimed to be descended in an unbroken line from the Japanese sun goddess, Amaterasu.

ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⵄⵟⵟⵕⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⴰ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴱⵉⵔⵢⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵢⴰⴱⴰⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴳⴳⵣ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⴱⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵛⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴱⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ, ⴰⵎⴰⵜⵉⵔⴰⵙⵓ.

Even after the Meiji Restoration in 1868, when the emperor was placed back in the center of the political bureaucracy, the throne itself had very little power vis-à-vis the Meiji oligarchy.

ⴰⵡⴷ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⵊⵉ ⴳ 1868, ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵏⴽⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵉⵔⵓⴽⵔⴰⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⴷⴰⴱⵓ ⵙ ⵉⵖⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴰⴱⵓ ⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵉⴳⴰⵔⵛⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⵊⵉ.

Media studies is a discipline and field of study that deals with the content, history, and effects of various media; in particular, the mass media.

ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵙⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵢⵜ, ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵉⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ.

Media studies in Australia was first developed as an area of study in Victorian universities in the early 1960s, and in secondary schools in the mid 1960s.

ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⵢⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⴽⵜⵓⵔⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ 1960, ⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1960.

In secondary schools, an early film studies course first began being taught as part of the Victorian junior secondary curriculum during the mid 1960s.

ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵜⵙⵙⵏⴰⵜⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⵉⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰⵜⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1960.

It has since become, and continues to be, a strong component of the VCE.

ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵉⴳⴰ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉ ⵙⵉ ⵉ.

Media studies does not appear to be taught in the state of New South Wales at a secondary level.

ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵥⵓⵍ.

Harold Innis and Marshall McLuhan are famous Canadian scholars for their contributions to the fields of media ecology and political economy in the 20th century.

ⵉⴳⴰ ⵀⴰⵔⵓⵍⴷ ⵉⵏⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵛⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⴽⵍⵓⵀⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵙⴷⴰⵡⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵏⴰⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴽⵓⵍⵉⵊⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 20.

Carleton University and the University of Western Ontario, 1945 and 1946 prospectively, created Journalism specific programs or schools.

ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵔⵍⵜⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵜⵉⵔⵏ ⵓⵏⵜⴰⵔⵢⵓ, ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴳ 1945 ⴷ 1946, ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ.

Today, most universities offer undergraduate degrees in Media and Communication Studies, and many Canadian scholars actively contribute to the field, among which: Brian Massumi (philosophy, cultural studies), Kim Sawchuk (cultural studies, feminist, ageing studies), Carrie Rentschler (feminist theory), and François Cooren (organizational communication).

ⴰⵙⵙ ⴰ, ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⵍⴽⵉⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵔ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ, ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰ, ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵙⵏ: ⴱⵔⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵓⵎⵉ (ⴰⴼⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴼ, ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ), ⴽⵉⵎ ⵙⴰⵡⵛⵓⴽ (ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵔ), ⴽⴰⵔⵉ ⵔⵉⵏⵜⵛⵔ (ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⵜⵉⵜ) ⴷ ⴼⵔⵓⵏⵙⵡⴰ ⴽⵓⵔⵉⵏ (ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴰⵙⴷⵓⵙⴰⵏ).

A medium is anything that mediates our interaction with the world or other humans.

ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴽⵯ ⵉⵙⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵖⵜ ⵏⵏⵖ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ.

McLuhan says that the “technique of fragmentation that is the essence of machine technology” shaped the restructuring of human work and association and “the essence of automation technology is the opposite”.

ⵉⵙⵙⵉⴷⴻⴷ ⵎⴽⵍⵓⵀⴰⵏ "ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵔⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵛⵉⵏⵉⵏ" ⵜⵙⵉⵍⵖ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵙ "ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵟⵓⵎⴰⵜⵉⴽ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍⵜ".

The characteristic of all media means the “content” of any medium is always another medium.

ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵉⵙ ⴷ "ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵢⵜ" ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵀⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰⵍⵜ.

If the electric light is used for Friday night football or to light up your desk you could argue that the content of the electric light is these activities.

ⵎⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵕⵓⵕ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵜⵡⵊⵊⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴹⴰⵕ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵎⵡⴰⵙ ⵏⵖ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⴽ ⵜⵖⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵉⴷ ⵀⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵥⵥⴰⵕⵓⵕ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ.

It is not until the electric light is used to spell a brand name that it is recognized as medium.

ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵙⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵕⵓⵕ ⵉ ⵓⴳⵎⵎⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ.

The effect of the medium is made strong because it is given another media “content”.

ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵓⴹⵓⵚ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙ ⵉⴷⵓⵙ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ "ⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⴹ" ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ.

Hot media are low in participation and cool media are high in participation.

ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⵉⵔⵖⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⴳⵓⵣⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵢⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴷⵔⴰⵡⵜ.

Communication University of China, formerly known as the Beijing Broadcasting Institute, that dates back to 1954.

ⵜⴰⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵛⵛⵉⵏⵡ, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵓⵣⵣⵔ ⴳ ⴱⴱⵉⴽⵉⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1954.

Bourdieu's analysis is that television provides far less autonomy, or freedom, than we think.

ⴰⵚⵍⴰⴹ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵔⴷⵢⵓ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵍⵉⴼⵉⵣⵢⵓⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ , ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ, ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵜⵉⵖⵉⵍ.

Within the field of Film Studies, again, both Frankfurt and Berlin were dominant in the development of new perspectives on moving image media.

ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉⵎⴰ, ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⴳ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴽⴼⵓⵔⵜ ⴷ ⴱⵔⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵜⵍⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵏⴳⵎⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵍⴰⴼⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵏ.

One of the early publications in this new direction is a volume edited by Helmut Kreuzer, Literature Studies - Media Studies (Literaturwissenschaft – Medienwissenschaft), which summarizes the presentations given at the Düsseldorfer Germanistentag 1976.

ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵥⵕⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⵀⵉⵍⵎⵓⵜ ⴽⵔⵢⵓⵣⵔ, ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⴰ - ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ (Literaturwissenschaft – Medienwissenschaft), ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵣⵣⴳⵣⵍⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵏⵉⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵖⵏⵜ Düsseldorfer Germanistentag ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1976.

The German Institute for Media and Communication Policy, founded in 2005 by media scholar Lutz Hachmeister, is one of the few independent research institutions that is dedicated to issues surrounding media and communications policies.

ⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⴳ ⴰⵍⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⴹ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ 2005 ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⵍⵓⵜⵔⵣ ⵀⴰⵛⵎⵉⵙⵜⵔ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵜⵍⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵡⴰⴹ.

Medienwissenschaften is currently one of the most popular courses of study at universities in Germany, with many applicants mistakenly assuming that studying it will automatically lead to a career in TV or other media.

ⵜⴰⴳ Medienwissenschaften ⴷⵖⵉ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵍⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⵛⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⴰⴽⴷⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⴳⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵏⵏⵉⵛⴰⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⴼⵣⵢⵓⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.

It offers a five-year integrated programme and a two-year programme in Electronic Media.

ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⴰⵙⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⵉⵏ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵟⵕⵓⵏⵉⵢⵏ.

Whereas communication sciences focuses on the way people communicate, be it mediated or unmediated, media studies tends to narrow the communication down to just mediated communication.

ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵔⵏⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵜⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ , ⵙⵡⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵜⴳⵉ, ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵖⵔ ⴰⵙⵏⵢⵓⵎⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰ ⴰⵏⴳⴰⵔ ⴷⴰⵢ.

Communication sciences (or a derivative thereof) can be studied at Erasmus University Rotterdam, Radboud University, Tilburg University, University of Amsterdam, University of Groningen, University of Twente, Roosevelt Academy, University of Utrecht, VU University Amsterdam and Wageningen University and Research Centre.

ⵉⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⴹ (ⵏⵖ ⵉⵏⴰⴼⵓⵖⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ) ⴳ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵔⴰⵙⵎⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵕⵓⵜⵔⴷⴰⵎ, ⵜⴰⵙⴷⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵔⴰⴷⴱⵓⴷ, ⵜⴰⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴱⵓⵔⴳ, ⵜⴰⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⵜⵉⵔⴷⴰⵎ, ⵜⴰⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴳⵔⵓⵏⵉⵏⴳⵏ, ⵜⴰⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵏⵜⵉ, ⵜⴰⴳⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵕⵓⵣⴼⵍⵜ, ⵜⴰⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵜⵉⵅⵜ, ⵜⴰⵙⴷⴰⵡⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵓⵡ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵙⵜⵉⵔⴷⴰⵎ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴰⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⵏⵉⵏⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ.

University of the Punjab Lahore is the oldest department.

ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵏⵊⴰⴱ ⵍⴰⵀⵓⵔ ⵜⵥⵓⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ.

Media Studies is now taught all over the UK.

ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⵍⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵔⴰ ⴷⵖⵉ ⴷⴳ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ

However, the focus of such programs sometimes excludes certain media—film, book publishing, video games, etc.

ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ, ⵀⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳ ⵛⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ - ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵎⵏ, ⵜⵥⵕⵉⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ, ⵜⵔⵓⵔⴰⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⴷⵢⵓⵜⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ.

This is partly thanks to the acquisition of Professor Siva Vaidhyanathan, a cultural historian and media scholar, as well as the Inaugural Verklin Media Policy and Ethics Conference, endowed by the CEO of Canoe Ventures and UVA alumnus David Verklin.

ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵍⴼⴹⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵛⵡⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵎⵄⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴰⵎⴷ ⵙⵉⴼⴰ ⴼⴰⵢⴷⵢⴰⵏⴰⵜⴰⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵏⵎⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴼⵉⵔⴽⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵥⵥⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵡⵛⴰ ⵓⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼ ⴰⵎⵣⵣⴳⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵓⵙⵔⵜ ⴽⴰⵏⵓ ⴼⵉⵏⵜⵓⵔⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴰⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵍⵉⴼⵓⵔⵏⵉⵢⴰⴷⴰⴼⵉⴷ ⴼⵉⵔⴽⵍⵉⵏ.

A media studies major at Radford still means someone concentrating on journalism, broadcasting, advertising or Web production.)

ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵖⴰⵙⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵔⴰⴷⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⵀⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵖⵎⵙⴰ , ⴰⵡⵓⵡⵡⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵡⵣⴰⵢ, ⴰⵙⵓⵙⵙⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵡⵉⴱ.)

Bergson contrasted an open society with what he called a closed society, a closed system of law, morality or religion.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵏⴰⴳⴰⵍ ⴱⵉⵔⴳⵙⵓⵏ ⴰⵓⵏ ⵉⵕⵥⵎⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⵏⵏ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⴼ, ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴷ.

"Soros, George, ""The Age of Fallibility,"" Public Affairs (2006)."

"ⵙⵓⵔⵓⵙ, ⵊⵓⵔⵊ'''' ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍⵏ,'''' ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵢⵣⵉⵏ (2006).

Totalitarianism forced knowledge to become political which made critical thinking impossible and led to the destruction of knowledge in totalitarian countries.

ⵜⴱⵣⵣⴻⵣ ⵜⵟⵓⵟⴰⵍⵉⵜⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ; ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵔⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵡⵣⵖⵉ ⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵅⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵟⵓⵟⴰⵍⵉⵟⴰⵔⵢⴰ.

In the closed society, claims to certain knowledge and ultimate truth lead to the attempted imposition of one version of reality.

ⵏ ⵡⴰ,ⵓⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⵏⵏ, ⵉⴼⵓⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵣⵣⴻⵣ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ.

Because the electorate's perception of reality can easily be manipulated, democratic political discourse does not necessarily lead to a better understanding of reality.

ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵡⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵙⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵇⴷⴷⵛ ⵙ ⵜⵍⵎⴹⵉ; ⵉⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⴰⵜⵉ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵖⵏⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⴼⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ.

Popper however, did not identify the open society either with democracy or with capitalism or a laissez-faire economy, but rather with a critical frame of mind on the part of the individual, in the face of communal group think of whatever kind.

ⵎⴰⵛⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⴱⵓⴱⵔ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵕⵥⵎⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴷⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⴰⵜⵉⵜ ⵏⴼ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵊⵊ-ⵙⵙⴽⵔ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⵖⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷ; ⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴱⵉⵄⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ.

Regulatory colleges are legal entities charged with serving the public interest by regulating the practice of a profession.

ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵏⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⴼⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⵍⵍⴼⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⵣⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ.

For example, no worker in Ontario may work in a compulsory trade without membership in the Ontario College of Trades.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵡⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵜⴰⵔⵢⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵏⴰⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵜⴰⵔⵢⵓ.

For Weber, sociology is the study of society and behavior and must therefore look at the heart of interaction.

ⵖⵓⵔ ⵡⵉⴱⵔ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵙⵓⵙⵢⵓⵍⵓⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵚⵏⵉⵄ ⵉⵡⴰ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵏⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴽⵏⵓ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵖⵜ.

"The term is more practical and encompassing than Florian Znaniecki's ""social phenomena"", since the individual performing social action is not passive, but rather active and reactive."

''ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ''ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ'', ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵣⵣⴳⵉⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵓⵡⴷⵉⵔ, ⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳ.''

This is also considered alternative means when secondary consequences have ended.

ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴰⵙⴱ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵎ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵎⴷⵏⵜ ⵜⵍⴽⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ.

If the student chooses not to do well in college, they know that it will be difficult to get into law school and ultimately achieve the goal of being a lawyer.

ⵎⴽ ⵉⴼⵔⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵜⴳ, ⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⵛⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ; ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⴹ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵙⵜⴰⵏ.

Value Relation is divided into the subgroups commands and demands.

ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴱⴹⴰ ⵖⴼ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ-ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵜⵔ ⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ.

These demands have posed several problems even legal formalism has been put to the test.

ⵜⵓⵜⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰ ⵙⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵥⵕⴰⵙⵉⵍⵖ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⴼ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⴼⵓⵙ.

To the extent that there are many religious firms competing against each other, they will tend to specialize and cater to the particular needs of some segments of religious consumers.

ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⵜⵜⵃⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵉⵙⴳⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⴰⵍⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵔⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵙⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵛⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴷⴰⵏ.

It is well known that strict churches are strong and growing in the contemporary United States, whereas liberal ones are declining.

ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵎⵍⵉⵃ ⵉⵙ ⴷⵓⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⴰⵛⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵖⵔⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴳⵉⴷⵉⵢⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ, ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⴳⴳⵡⵏ ⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉⵢⵏ.

Affectual action (also known as emotional actions): actions which are taken due to 'one's emotions, to express personal feelings.

ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵔⴰⴽⵜ (ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴼⵔⴰⵢⵉ): ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍ "ⵜⵓⴼⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴱⵏⴰⴷⵎ, ⵜⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵡⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⴰⵏⵏ.

In uncontrolled reaction there is no restraint and there is lack of discretion.

ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵖⵓⵏ ⵡⵍⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵜⴳ.

When aspirations are not fulfilled there is internal unrest.

ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵡⴹⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵅⵙⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵙⴰⵏⵏ.

A common example is behavioral and rational choice assumptions.

ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵓⵚⵉⵏⵄ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵍⵍⵉ.

These six concepts were identified by Aristotle and are still the topic of several talks.

ⵉⵥⵍⵢ ⴰⵕⵉⵙⵟⵓ ⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵚⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵏ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ.

Micrological theories of economy consider acts of a group of individuals.

ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⴽⵕⵓⵍⵓⵊⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ.

By doing this it causes providers to be competitive and therefore creates order in the economy.

ⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⴽⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⴷⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵉⴹⵕⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵖⵏⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴳ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ.

Rational choice theory although increasingly colonized by economist, it does differ from microeconomic conceptions.

ⵜⵓⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵏⵍⵍⵉⵢ ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵢ ⵙ ⵜⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵔⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵙⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⵏⴳⴰⵔⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⵣⵎⴰⵏⵜ.

Traditional actions: actions which are carried out due to tradition, because they are always carried out in a particular manner for certain situations.

ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵇⴱⵓⵔⵉⵏ: ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⵣⴳⵉⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵣⵣⴳⵉⵔⵏⵜ ⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴷⵉⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵏⵜⵜⵏⵉ.

A custom is a practice that rests among familiarity.

ⴰⵣⵔⴼ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵜⵉⵏ.

A habit is a series of steps learned gradually and sometimes without conscious awareness.

ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵙⴱⵖⵔⵏ ⵢⵓⵥⴻⵥⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⴼⵔⴽ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴽ.

The idea of Cooley's looking glass self is that our sense of self develops as we observe and reflect upon others and what they may think of our actions.

ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵊⵊⴰⵊ ⵏ ⴽⵍⵓⵏⵉ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴽ ⵏⵏⵖ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵏⵙⵏⵉⵖⵉⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵏⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵉⵎ ⵖⴼ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵓⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵖ.

"Social capital is ""the networks of relationships among people who live and work in a particular society, enabling that society to function effectively""."

"ⴰⵢⵜⵍⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ" ⵉⴳⴰ "ⴰⵥⵟⵟⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵇⵇⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⴳⵔ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵕⵡⵉ".

In the first half of the 19th century, de Tocqueville had observations about American life that seemed to outline and define social capital.

ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ19, ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵟⵓⴽⴼⵉⵍ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⴽⵣ ⴰⵢⵜⵍⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ.

The community as a whole will benefit by the cooperation of all its parts, while the individual will find in his associations the advantages of the help, the sympathy, and the fellowship of his neighbours.

ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⴱⴰⵙ ⵡⴰⵓⵎ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⴱⴰⵕⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰ ⴱⵏⴰⴷⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⴱⵖⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵙⵉ, ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵙⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⴷⵓⴽⵍⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⵊⴰⵕⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ.

"In the words of Stein (1960:1): ""The price for maintaining a society that encourages cultural differentiation and experimentation is unquestionably the acceptance of a certain amount of disorganization on both the individual and social level."""

"ⴳ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ (1960:1): ""ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⴱⵖⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴱⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ"".

All of these reflections contributed remarkably to the development of the social capital concept in the following decades.

ⵓⵡⵙⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵉⵎⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵡⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵕⵛⴰⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵏⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰ.

Robert D. Putnam (1993) suggested that social capital would facilitate co-operation and mutually supportive relations in communities and nations and would therefore be a valuable means of combating many of the social disorders inherent in modern societies, for example crime.

ⵉⵖⵜⵙ ⵕⵓⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⴷⵉ ⴱⵓⵜⵏⴰⵎ (1993) ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵀⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵇⵇⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴽⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴱⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵥⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴱⴽⴽⴰⴹ.

"Nan Lin's concept of social capital has a more individualistic approach: ""Investment in social relations with expected returns in the marketplace."""

"ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵏ ⵍⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ:""ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵇⵇⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴷⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴷⵣ.""

The term capital is used by analogy with other forms of economic capital, as social capital is argued to have similar (although less measurable) benefits.

ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵙⵏⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵖⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵖⴰⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ (ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵓⵡⴹⵏ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ).

Robison, Schmid, and Siles (2002) reviewed various definitions of social capital and concluded that many did not satisfy the formal requirement of a definition.

ⵕⵓⴱⵉⵙⵓ, ⵙⵛⵎⵉⴷ, ⴷ ⵙⵉⵍⵉⵙ (2002) ⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵙ ⴱⵍⵍⵉ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵓⵔ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏⵜ ⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵜⴼⴰⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ.

They propose that social capital be defined as sympathy: the object of another's sympathy has social capital; those who have sympathy for others provide social capital.

ⵖⵜⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵙⵉ: ⴰⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ; ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵉ ⵡⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵖⵓⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⴰⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ.

Social capital is also distinguished from the economic theory social capitalism.

ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵉⵀⵔⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ.

"It ""creates value for the people who are connected, and for bystanders as well."""

""ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⵉ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵉⴽⵍⵏ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ.""

"According to Robert D. Putnam, social capital refers to ""connections among individuals – social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them."""

"ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵕⵓⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⴷⵉ. ⴱⵓⵜⵏⴰⵎ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵖⵔ "" ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⴳⵔ ⵡⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ - ⵉⵥⵟⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴳⴳⵓ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴳⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴼⵖⵏ.""

This is seen in lower levels of trust in government and lower levels of civic participation.

ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴳⵓⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴳⵓⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵜ.

Putnam also suggests that a root cause of the decline in social capital is women's entry the workforce, which could correlate with time restraints that inhibit civic organizational involvement like parent-teacher associations.

ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⴱⵓⵟⵏⴰⵎ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⵓⵣ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵟⵟⵓⴹⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵇⵇⵓⵔⴰⵔⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵙⴽⵔⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⴽⵓⴷⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴳⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⴱⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ.

Fukuyama suggests that while social capital is beneficial for development, it also imposes cost on non-group members with unintended consequences for general welfare.

ⵉⵖⵜⵙ ⴼⵓⴽⴰⵢⴰⵎⴰ ⴱⵍⵍⵉ ⵡⵅⵅⴰ ⵉⴱⵖⵔ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵏⴼⵍⵉⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⵀⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴱⵣⵣⴻⵣ ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵉⵥⴰⵥⵓⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵉⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵜⵜⵍⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴷⵎⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜ.

This dimension focuses on the advantages derived from the configuration of an actor's, either individual or collective, network.

ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴱⵖⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵓⵜⵉⵏ, ⵢⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ, ⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉⵜ.

This is best characterized through trust of others and their cooperation and the identification an individual has within a network.

ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵉⵙ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉⵜ.

Research by Sheri Berman and Dylan Riley, as well as economists Shanker Satyanath, Nico Voigtländer, and Hans-Joachim Voth, have linked civic associations to the rise of fascist movements.

ⵉⵣⴷⵉ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵛⵔⵉ ⴱⵉⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴷⵢⵍⴰⵏ ⵔⵉⵍⵉⵢ, ⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵛⴰⵏⴽⵔ ⵙⴰⵜⵢⴰⵏⵜ, ⵏⵉⴽⵓ ⴼⵡⵉⵊⵍⴰⵏⴷⵔ, ⴷ ⵀⴰⵏⵙ -ⵊⵓⵡⴽⴰⵢⵎ ⴼⵓⵜⵀ, ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵛⵉⵢⵏ.

The negative consequences of social capital are more often associated with bonding vis-à-vis bridging.

ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜ ⵎⴰⴳ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵜⵜⵍⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⵏⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵣⴷⴷⵓⵢ.