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Tamazight NLP 24

Bonding and bridging social capital can work together productively if in balance, or they may work against each other.

ⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵓⵇⵇⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴼⴽⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵉⴳ ⵎⵢⴰⵙⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⴹ.

The strengthening of insular ties can lead to a variety of effects such as ethnic marginalization or social isolation.

ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴷⴼⴼⵔⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵓⵙⴹⵓⵕⵕⴼ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵡⵍⵉⵡⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ.

"Germans threw themselves into their clubs, voluntary associations, and professional organizations out of frustration with the failures of the national government and political parties, thereby helping to undermine the Weimar Republic and facilitate Hitler's rise to power."""

"ⴳⵔⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵖⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵅⴰⵙⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⴰⵙⴱⵏⵏⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⴹⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴽⴰⴱⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵓⵡⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴷⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵢⴰⵎⴰⵕ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵀⵏ ⵉ ⵀⵉⵜⵜⵍⵉⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵍⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ".

They were very introverted in the Weimar Republic.

ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵙⴱⵏⴰⴱⴽⴰⵏ ⴱⵣⵣⴰⴼ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵢⵎⴰⵕ.

Robert Putnam, in his later work, also suggests that social capital, and the associated growth of public trust are inhibited by immigration and rising racial diversity in communities.

ⵕⵓⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⴱⵓⵜⵏⴰⵎ, ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓⵜ, ⴰⵍⵜⵓ ⵉⵖⵜⵙ ⴱⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵙⴱⵕⵉⴽⴽⵉⴹ ⵓⵣⵡⴰⴳ ⴷ ⵜⴳⴳⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ.

Lack of homogeneity led to people withdrawing from even their closest groups and relationships, creating an atomized society as opposed to a cohesive community.

ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⵉⴽⵢ ⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵇⵇⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳⵔⴰⵙⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵏ.

Human capital, a private resource, could be accessed through what the previous generation accumulated through social capital.

ⵉⵥⴰⴹⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵡⴹ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ ⵓⵙⵍⵉⴳ, ⵙⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ.

Even though Coleman never truly addresses Pierre Bourdieu in his discussion, this coincides with Bourdieu's argument set forth in Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture.

ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴷ ⴳⵍⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⵍ ⵙ ⴱⵢⵉⵔⴱⵓⵔⴷⵢⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⴳⴷⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵉⵎⵢⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵓⵏⵥⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵔⴷⵢⵓ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵍⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ, ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ.

Thus, it is the social platform, itself, that equips one with the social reality they become accustomed to.

ⵉⵡⴰ, ⵀⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵖⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴱⵏⴰⴷⵎ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵎⵢⴰⵔⵏ.

To illustrate this, we assume that an individual wishes to better his place in society.

ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⵓⵔⴷⵓ ⴱⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⴷⵎ ⵉⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ.

Is Civil Society an Adequate Theory?

ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⵉⵎ ⵜⵉⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵢⵓⴷⴰⵏ?

Typical examples are that criminal gangs create bonding social capital, while choirs and bowling clubs (hence the title, as Putnam lamented their decline) create bridging social capital.

ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴽⴽⴹⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⴽⵔⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵥⵓⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵓⵍⵉⵏⴳ (ⵙⵢⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ, ⵜⵙⵖⵉⵍⴼ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴱⵓⵜⵏⴰⵎ) ⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵔⴰⴳ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵎⴰⵜⵢ.

Aldrich also applies the ideas of social capital to the fundamental principles of disaster recovery, and discusses factors that either aid or impede recovery, such as extent of damage, population density, quality of government and aid.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵔⵓⵃ ⴰⵍⴷⵔⵉⵛ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵉⵡⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵡⵍ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴼⴹ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷⴰ ⴳⴷⴷⵍⵏ ⴰⵙⴷⵡⵍ, ⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⴷⵏ, ⵜⵉⴹⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ, ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵣⵉ.

People who live their life this way feel that these are norms of society and are able to live their lives free of worry for their credit, children, and receive charity if needed.

ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵇⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷⵉⵙⵍⴳⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴳⴳⵯⴷⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴻⵜⵜⵔⵏ ⵎⴽ ⵜ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵏⴰⵏ.

"All forms of ""capital"" were, for Marx, possessed only by capitalists and he emphasized the basis of labour in capitalist society, as a class constituted by individuals obliged to sell their labour power, because they lacked sufficient capital, in any sense of the word, to do otherwise."

ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵉⵏ ⵏ ''ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ'''', ⵖⵓⵔ ⵎⴰⵔⴽⵙ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴷⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵔⵉⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⴷⴳⴰⵔ, ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⴽⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷ ⴼⵖ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴱⵣⵣⴻⵣ ⴰⴷ ⵣⵣⵏⵣⵏ ⴰⴳⴳⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⵉⴽⴼⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵉⵏⵓⵎⴰⴽ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ, ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.

Portes mentions the donation of a scholarship to a member of the same ethnic group as an example of this.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⵔ ⴱⵓⵜⵉⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵜⵏⵉⵜ ⵏⵉⵜ.

Bonding and bridging sub-scales are proposed, which have been adopted by over 300 scholarly articles.

ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵇⵇⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⴷⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵎⵔⵏⵜ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⵖⵓⵔ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 300 ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ.

However, there is no one quantitative way of determining the level of cohesiveness, but rather a collection of social network models that researchers have used over the decades to operationalize social capital.

ⵎⴰⵛⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓⵏ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵟⵟⴰ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⴰⵓⵏⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵀⵍ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ.

Groups with higher membership (such as political parties) contribute more to the amount of capital than groups with lower membership, although many groups with low membership (such as communities) still add up to be significant.

ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ (ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⴽⴰⴱⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ) ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵎⵉ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵎⵉ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ (ⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ) ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵏⵓⵏ ⴷⵉⵖ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ.

How a group relates to the rest of society also affects social capital, but in a different manner.

ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴰⴽⵜ ⵓⵙⴰⴳⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵖⴼ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ.

Recognizing that one may not be able to influence the sympathy of others, persons seeking to belong may act to increase their own sympathy for others and the organizations or institutions they represent.

ⵙ ⵢⵉⴽⵉⵣ ⵏⵡⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵖⴼ ⴰⵎⵙⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ; ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵉⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴳⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵜⴳⵏⵙⴰⵙⵏ.

According to such authors as Walzer (1992), Alessandrini (2002), Newtown, Stolle & Rochon, Foley & Edwards (1997), and Walters, it is through civil society, or more accurately, the third sector, that individuals are able to establish and maintain relational networks.

ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵡⴰⵍⵣⵔ (1992); ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⴷⵔⵉⵏⵉ (2002), ⵏⵢⵓⵜⵓⵏ, ⵙⵜⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵔⵓⵛⵓⵏ, ⴼⵓⵍⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵡⴰⵔⴷⵣ (1997), ⴷ ⵡⵓⵍⵜⵔⴰ, ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⵖⵔⵉⵎ, ⵏⵖ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵓⴳⵔ ⵡⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ; ⴰⴳ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵏ ⵉⵏⵣⵎⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵔⵙⵏ ⴹⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⵥⴹⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰ.

Not only has civil society been documented to produce sources of social capital, according to Lyons' Third Sector (2001), social capital does not appear in any guise under either the factors that enable or those that stimulate the growth of the third sector.

ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉⵙ ⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⵖⵔⵉⵎ ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵍⵢⵓⵏ (2001); ⴰⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⴰⵢⴰⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵡⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴼⴼⵔⵏ ⴰⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ.

"The goal is to reintegrate those marginalised from the rewards of the economic system into ""the community."""

''ⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⴰⵡⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⴷⴼ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵎⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ''''ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ''''

"Alessandrini agrees, saying that, ""in Australia in particular, neo-liberalism has been recast as economic rationalism and identified by several theorists and commentators as a danger to society at large because of the use to which they are putting social capital to work."""

''ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏⴷⵔⵉ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ, '''' ⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ, ⴰⵏⵢⵓⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵍⵖ ⴷⵉⵖ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜ ⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵥⵉⵕⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵅⴼⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉ ⵖⴼ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ'''''.

In international development, Ben Fine (2001) and John Harriss (2001) have been heavily critical of the inappropriate adoption of social capital as a supposed panacea (promoting civil society organisations and NGOs, for example, as agents of development) for the inequalities generated by neoliberal economic development.

ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⵣⵖⵏ ⴱⵉⵏ ⴼⴰⵢⵏ (2001) ⴷ ⴷⵊⵓⵏ ⵀⴰⵔⵉⵙ (2001) ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵉⵜ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⴼⵔ ⵉⵊⵊⵓⵊⵓⵢⵏ (ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⵖⵔⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵍⵉⵣⵓ ⵉⵏ ⵊⵊⵉ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⴰⵍⵉⵜ) ⵉ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⴳⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⵓ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵢⵓⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵍ.

However, higher levels of social capital led to higher support for democracy.

ⵎⴰⵛⴰ, ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⴰⴽⵯ ⵢⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵡⵏ ⵡ ⵜⵡⵉⵣⵉ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⴰⵜⵉⵜ.

Careful evaluation of these fundamental factors often suggests that women do not vote at similar levels as men.

ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵜⴳ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴹⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷⴱ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵓⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵜⵜⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵖⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵔⴳⴰⵣⵏ.

Social capital offers a wealth of resources and networks that facilitate political engagement.

ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⴱⵖⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵥⴹⵡⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵍⴰⴹⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵖⵏ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ.

Women are more likely to organize themselves in less hierarchical ways and to focus on creating consensus.

ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵖⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵣⵎⴰⵔ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵓⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵜⵓⴱⵉⵢⴰ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⴰⵎⵎⵙⵏⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ.

For example, a person who is sick with cancer may receive information, money, or moral support he or she needs to endure treatment and recover.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷ ⵢⴰⵖ ⵓⴼⵓⵔⵔⴰⵢ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵎⵥ ⴰⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙ, ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⵓⵙⵔ ⴱⴰⵛ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⵉ ⵉⵛⵛ ⴰⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵊⵊⵉ.

Furthermore, neighbourhood social capital may also aid in buffering health inequities amongst children and adolescents.

ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ, ⴰⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵓⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵓⵎⵓ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴳⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵜⵔⵓⴳⵏ.

The relationships and networks that are maintained by an ethnic minority population in a geographical area where a high percentage of residents belong to the same ethnic group may lead to better health outcomes than would be expected based on other individual and neighbourhood characteristics.

ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵥⴹⵡⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⵜⵉⵜⵏⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵊⵢⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵎⴰⵏⵉ ⴳ ⵢⵓⵍⵓ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⴰⵉⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⵓⴳⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵜⵏⵉⵜ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⴼⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⵙⵓⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴱⴷⴷⵉ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⵓⵔⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.

For example, results from a survey given to 13- to 18-year-old students in Sweden showed that low social capital and low social trust are associated with higher rates of psychosomatic symptoms, musculoskeletal pain, and depression.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵙⴱⴰⵢⵏⴻⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵙⴳ 13 ⴰⵔ 18 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵙⵡⵉⴷ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴰⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵓⵙⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵖⵍⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴱⵙⵉⴽⵓⵙⵓⵎⴰⵜⵉⴽ; ⴰⵏⴳⴰⵥ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵓⵊⵊⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵍⴽⴰⴰⴱⴰ.

In one study, informational uses of the Internet correlated positively with an individual's production of social capital, and social-recreational uses were negatively correlated (higher levels of these uses correlated with lower levels of social capital).

.ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ, ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵔⵎⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓⵓⵜⵏ ⵓⴳⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔ (ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴰ ⵓⴳⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ).

This means that individuals can selectively connect with others based on ascertained interests, and backgrounds.

ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵉⵙ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵖⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.

This argument continues, although the preponderance of evidence shows a positive association between social capital and the Internet.

ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⴰ; ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵔⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵜ ⴳⵔ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉⵜ.

Recent research, conducted in 2006, also shows that Internet users often have wider networks than those who access the Internet irregularly or not at all.

ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ 2006, ⴷⴰ ⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⴹⵡⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ.

Other research shows that younger people use the Internet as a supplemental medium for communication, rather than letting the Internet communication replace face-to-face contact.

ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵄⵔⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⵔⵏⵉ, ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵊⵊⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⵙ ⵉⵖⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ.

They criticise Coleman, who used only the number of parents present in the family, neglected the unseen effect of more discrete dimensions such as stepparents' and different types of single-parent families.

ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵣⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵎⴰⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵔⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⴰⵛⵓⵏⵉⵏ, ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵜⵎ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵉⴱⵢⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴼⴼⵔⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⴹⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⵛⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵅⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⴱⴰⵜ.

Morgan and Sorensen (1999) directly challenge Coleman for his lacking of an explicit mechanism to explain why Catholic schools students perform better than public school students on standardised tests of achievement.

ⵢⵓⴳⵉ ⵎⵓⵔⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵙⵓⵔⵉⵏⵙⵏ (1999) ⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵡⵎⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵜ ⵉⴱⴰⵢⵏⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵎⴰⵖ ⴰⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵓⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴽⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴽⵉⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵢⵣⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵔⵜ.

It is found that while social capital can bring about positive effect of maintaining an encompassing functional community in norm-enforcing schools, it also brings about the negative consequence of excessive monitoring.

ⴷⴰ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵎⴽ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵡⵓⴹⵓⴼ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵖⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵣⵣⴳⵉⵔⵏ ⵉⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵏⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⴽⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵉⵡⴼⴰⵏ.

These schools explore a different type of social capital, such as information about opportunities in the extended social networks of parents and other adults.

ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ, ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵥⴹⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⵎⵜⵔⵓⴳⵏ.

The similarity of these states is that parents were more associated with their children's education.

ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.

Without social capital in the area of education, teachers and parents who play a responsibility in a students learning, the significant impacts on their child's academic learning can rely on these factors.

ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵎⵉ, ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⴰⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ, ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⴰⵏⵎⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴳⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⴰ.

"As Tedin and Weiher (2010) state, ""one of the most important factors in promoting student success is the active involvement of parents in a child's education."""

''ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜ ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵢⵀⵔ (2010); "ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵡⵓⵎⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵡ.''''

Supportive networks, as a form of social capital, is necessary for activating the cultural capital the newly arrived students possessed.

ⵉⵥⴹⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⵎⵓⵏ, ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵏⴰⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵎⵃⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵍⴽⵎⵏ.

Ethnic solidarity is especially important in the context where immigrants just arrive in the host society.

ⵜⴰⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷⵜ ⵜⵉⵜⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴷ ⵜⵜⴳⵓⵍⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⴰⴳ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⵓⴱⴳ.

Ethnic support provides impetus to academic success.

ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵃⵓⵔⵓⵛ ⵜⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷⵜ ⵜⵉⵜⵏⵉⵜ ⴰⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢ.

His main argument for classifying social capital as a geographical concept is that the relationships of people is shaped and molded by the areas in which they live.

ⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴽⵍⴰⵙⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵊⵢⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉ ⵉⴳ ⴰ ⵜ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔⵏ.

In his studies, he does not look at the individual participants of these structures, but how the structures and the social connections that stem from them are diffused over space.

ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⵙⵉⵡ ⵉⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵜⵜⵓⵣⵓⵣⵣⵓⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵥⴹⵡⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴷⴳⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔ.

Another area where social capital can be seen as an area of study in geography is through the analysis of participation in volunteerism and its support of different governments.

ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵉⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴰⵙⴱ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵢⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵅⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ.

There is a significant connection between leisure and democratic social capital.

ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵔⴰⵎⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵜⵉ.

In a later study, Kislev (2020) shows the relation between romantic relationships desire and singleness.

ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵓⴹⴼⵉⵕⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵍⴰ ⴽⵉⵙⵍⵉⴼ (2020) ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵃⵓⴳⵣ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵥⵕⴼⵔⴷⴰⵏⵉⵜ.

Similar results were revealed in a cross-sectional study run by Sarker in Bangladesh.

ⵜⵉⵢⴰⵡⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴳⴷⵉⵙⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵙⴰⵔⴽⵔ ⴳ ⴱⴰⵏⴳⵍⴰⴷⵉⵛ.

Epo did this by comparing the welfare outcomes of the entrepreneurs who both had access and no access.

ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵉⴱⵓ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵟⵕⵕⵃ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⴷ ⴰⵡⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⴷⴼ.

Group cohesiveness (also called group cohesion and social cohesion) arises when bonds link members of a social group to one another and to the group as a whole.

ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ (ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ) ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵜⵏ ⴳⵔⴰⵜⵙⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⵜ.

Cohesion can be more specifically defined as the tendency for a group to be in unity while working towards a goal or to satisfy the emotional needs of its members.

ⵜⵖⵉⵢ ⵢⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵎⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏⵖ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵢⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⵔⴰⴽ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ.

Its dynamic nature refers to how it gradually changes over time in its strength and form from the time a group is formed to when a group is disbanded.

ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵎⵉⴽⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵜⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵉⵔ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ.

This definition can be generalized to most groups characterized by the group definition discussed above.

ⴰⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵥⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵉⴳⴰⵙ.

In a study, they asked the group members to identify all their good friends and calculated the ratio of ingroup choices to outgroup choices.

ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ, ⵙⵙⵓⵜⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⵓⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⴰ ⵙⵉⵟⵟⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ.

Group cohesion is similar to a type of group-level attraction which, according to Hogg, is known as social attraction.

ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵍⴷⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ, ⵖⵓⵔ ⵀⵓⴳ, ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵍⴷⴰⵢ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ.

Lott and Lott (1965) who refer to interpersonal attraction as group cohesiveness conducted an extensive review on the literature and found that individuals' similarities in background (e.g., race, ethnicity, occupation, age), attitudes, values and personality traits have generally positive association with group cohesiveness.

ⵍⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵍⵓⵜ (1965), ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍⵏ ⴰⵍⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⵡⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ, ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵉⵖⵓⴱⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⴰⴼⵏ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴽⴰⴷⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵡⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵥⵖⵕ, ⴰⵙⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵏⵉ, ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ, ⴰⵡⴰⵜⴰⵢ), ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵡⵓⵔⴽⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ.

In addition, similar background makes it more likely that members share similar views on various issues, including group objectives, communication methods and the type of desired leadership.

ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ, ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵍ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵛⵛⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵇⵇⴰⴹ ⵉⵎⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵖⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ, ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵔⴰⵏ.

This is often caused by social loafing, a theory that says individual members of a group will actually put in less effort, because they believe other members will make up for the slack.

ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴳ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵕⵓⵎ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ, ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⴽⵓⵔⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⵓⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⴰ.

Most meta-analyses (studies that have summarized the results of many studies) have shown that there is a relationship between cohesion and performance.

ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⴷⴷⴼⵉⵔ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵢⵏ (ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵣⴳⵣⵉⵍⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ) ⴰⵔ ⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ.

When it is defined as task commitment, it is also correlated with performance, though to a lesser degree than cohesion as attraction.

ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵇⵇⵏⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴳⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⴷⴰⵢ.

However, some groups may have a stronger cohesion-performance relationship than others.

ⵎⴰⵛⴰ, ⵉⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵖⵉⵢⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⴰⵥⵜ-ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ.

There is some evidence that cohesion may be more strongly related to performance for groups that have highly interdependent roles than for groups in which members are independent.

ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵖⵉⵢ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵍⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵎⵢⴰⴳⴰⵍⵏⵉⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵎⵉ ⵓⴳⵍⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ.

Furthermore, groups with high performance goals were extremely productive.

ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ, ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵏ.

Members in cohesive groups also are more optimistic and suffer less from social problems than those in non-cohesive groups.

ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵜ ⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵎⵓⵜⴰⴼⴰⵢⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵏⵓⴽⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵉⵏ.

It was found that the masons and carpenters were more satisfied when they worked in cohesive groups.

ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵖⵙ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵙⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ.

One study showed that cohesion as task commitment can improve group decision making when the group is under stress, more than when it is not under stress.

ⵜⵎⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵖⵉⵢ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵣⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵉⵙⵉⵜⵜⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵜⵙⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵎⵎⵔⵡⵉ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ, ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵎⵎⵔⵡⵉ.

The study found that teams with low cohesion and high urgency performed worse than teams with high cohesion and high urgency.

ⵜⵙⵙⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵎⵉ ⵜⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⵍ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⴷⵔⵓⵙⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⵍ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ.

The theory of groupthink suggests that the pressures hinder the group from critically thinking about the decisions it is making.

ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵓⵎⵓⵔ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⴳⴷⴷⵍ ⵓⵥⵎⵎⵉ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⵖⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵜⴰⵙ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴰⵙⵉ.

Another reason is because people value the group and are thus, more willing to give into conformity pressures to maintain or enhance their relationships.

ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵃⵢⵢⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵔⵓⵍⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵥⵎⵎⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵍⵓⵜ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.

The degree of member liking was presumed to indicate group cohesiveness.

ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴰⴷⴷⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵍ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ.

According to the government-commissioned, State of the English Cities thematic reports, there are five different dimensions of social cohesion: material conditions, passive relationships, active relationships, solidarity, inclusion and equality.

ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵏⵇⵇⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⵜⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ, ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ: ⵜⵉⴼⴰⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔⵉⵏ, ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵏ, ⵜⵉⵡⵉⵣⵉ, ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⴳⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢⵜ.

These basic necessities of life are the foundations of a strong social fabric and important indicators of social progress.

ⴰⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⴰ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵟⵟⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ.

"The third dimension refers to the positive interactions, exchanges and networks between individuals and communities, or ""active social relationships""."

ⴰⵣⴰⵔⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵖⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵉⵏ, ⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵥⴹⵡⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ, "ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵏ''''.''

It also includes people's sense of belonging to a city and the strength of shared experiences, identities and values between those from different backgrounds.

ⵉⴽⵛ ⴳ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵎⵓ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ, ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ.

On a societal level Albrekt Larsen defines social cohesion 'as the belief—held by citizens in a given nation state—that they share a moral community, which enables them to trust each other'.

ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵎⵓⵍ ⴰⵍⴱⵉⵔ ⵍⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ''ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⵖⴰⵍ - ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ-ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ - ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵎⵙⴼⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⴳⵔⴰⵙⵏ.

Social formation is a Marxist concept (synonymous with 'society') referring to the concrete, historical articulation between the capitalist mode of production, maintaining pre-capitalist modes of production, and the institutional context of the economy (disambiguation).

ⴰⵙⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴽⵙⵉ (ⴰⴽⵏⵉⵡ ⵏ ''ⴰⵎⵓⵏ") ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵔⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵏⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢⵜ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⵎⴷⴳⴰⵔ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵎⵥⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴳⴰⵔⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⴰⵔⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ (ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵎⵖⵔⵉⵜ).

In the social sciences, social structure is the patterned social arrangements in society that are both emergent from and determinant of the actions of individuals.

ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ, ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷⵏ.

"It contrasts with ""social system"", which refers to the parent structure in which these various structures are embedded."

''ⵉⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ "ⵓⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ''; ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵎⵎⴰⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴷⴼⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ.''

It determines the norms and patterns of relations between the various institutions of the society.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵎⵓⵍ ⵉⵍⵉⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ.

It is also important in the modern study of organizations, as an organization's structure may determine its flexibility, capacity to change, etc.

ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵜⵉⵡⵔⵉ ⵏⵙ, ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⴼⵍ, ⵉⵜⵛⵉⵜⵉⵔⴰ.

On the meso scale, it concerns the structure of social networks between individuals or organizations.

ⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵎⵉⵣⵉ, ⵜⵥⵍⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵥⴹⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ.

"For example, John Levi Martin has theorized that certain macro-scale structures are the emergent properties of micro-scale cultural institutions (i.e., ""structure"" resembles that used by anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss)."

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ; ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⴷⵊⵓⵏ ⵍⵉⴼⵉ ⵎⴰⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵎ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵢⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏ (ⵙ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ''ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ'' ⵜⵔⵡⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⵜⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵉⴼⵉ-ⵙⵜⵔⴰⵡⵙ)''.

"Alexis de Tocqueville was supposedly the first to use the term ""social structure""."

''ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵍⵉⴽⵙⵉⵙ ⴷⵓ ⵜⵓⴽⴼⵉⵍ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ '' ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ''''.

One of the earliest and most comprehensive accounts of social structure was provided by Karl Marx, who related political, cultural, and religious life to the mode of production (an underlying economic structure).

ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵏⵇⵇⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⴽⵯⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵡⵉⵏ ⴽⴰⵔⵍ ⵎⴰⵔⴽⵙ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴳⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ (ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢⵜ).

Émile Durkheim, drawing on the analogies between biological and social systems popularized by Herbert Spencer and others, introduced the idea that diverse social institutions and practices played a role in assuring the functional integration of society through assimilation of diverse parts into a unified and self-reproducing whole.

ⵉⵎⵉⵍ ⴷⵓⵔⴽⴰⵢⵉⵎ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵉⵊⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵀⵉⵔⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⵙⴱⵉⵏⵙⵔ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ, ⵉⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴹⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⴰⵏⵙⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵏⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ.

Others follow Lévi-Strauss in seeking logical order in cultural structures.

ⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵍⵉⴼⵉ ⵙⵜⵔⴰⵡⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ.

The most influential attempts to combine the concept of social structure with agency are Anthony Giddens' theory of structuration and Pierre Bourdieu's practice theory.

ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⴽⵯ ⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴽⵉⵡ ⵏ ⴰⵏⵜⵓⵏⵉ ⴳⵉⴷⴷⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵢⵉⵔ ⴱⵓⵔⴷⵢⵓ.

Giddens's analysis, in this respect, closely parallels Jacques Derrida's deconstruction of the binaries that underlie classic sociological and anthropological reasoning (notably the universalizing tendencies of Lévi-Strauss's structuralism).

ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⴳⵉⴷⴷⵏⵙ, ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⴰ, ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⴼⵔⵣ ⵏ ⵊⴰⴽ ⴷⵉⵔⵉⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⴳⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵙⵓⵙⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵜⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ (ⵙ ⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏⴰ ⴰⴽⵯ ⵍⵎⵓⵢⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵉⴼⵉ ⵙⵜⵔⴰⵡⵙ).

This was studied by Jacob L. Moreno.

ⵉⵔⵣⴰ ⵍ. ⵊⴰⴽⵓⴱ ⵎⵓⵔⵉⵏⵓ ⴰⵢⴰ.

Sociobiology is a field of biology that aims to examine and explain social behavior in terms of evolution.

ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵙⵓⵙⵢⵓⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⵍⵉ ⵉⴼⴰⵙⵔ ⴰⵚⵏⵉⵄ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ.

Sociobiology investigates social behaviors such as mating patterns, territorial fights, pack hunting, and the hive society of social insects.

ⴷⴰ ⵜⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵜⵙⵓⵙⵢⵓⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵚⵏⵉⵄ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵡⵍ, ⵉⵎⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵏⴰⴹⵏ, ⵜⴰⴳⵎⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵍⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵅⵅⴰ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ.

It predicts that animals will act in ways that have proven to be evolutionarily successful over time.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵉⵙ ⵔⴰⴷ ⴳⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵏⵜⵎⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ.

Behavior is therefore seen as an effort to preserve one's genes in the population.

ⴰⵚⵏⵉⵄ ⵉⵀⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⵣⵜ ⵉ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵍⵊⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵔⴼ.