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Tamazight NLP 24

Supply is the relation between the price of a good and the quantity available for sale at that price.

ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵜⵉⵜ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵎⵏⵣⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰ.

Supply is typically represented as a function relating price and quantity, if other factors are unchanged.

ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⵏⵙⴻⵙ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵖⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ, ⵎⴽ ⵡⵡⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ.

Just as on the demand side, the position of the supply can shift, say from a change in the price of a productive input or a technical improvement.

ⴰⵎⵎ ⴰⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵜⵔ, ⴰⵙⴷⵖⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⴼⵍ, ⴰⴷ ⵏⵉⵏⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⴽⵛⵓⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵏⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⴰⵜⵉⴽⵉⵏⵉⵢ.

Market equilibrium occurs where quantity supplied equals quantity demanded, the intersection of the supply and demand curves in the figure above.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵏ, ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵃⵓⴷⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵜⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⴰ ⵙⵏⵏⵊ.

At a price above equilibrium, there is a surplus of quantity supplied compared to quantity demanded.

ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵍⵓⴼⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵏ.

The most obvious kinds of firms are corporations, partnerships and trusts.

ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⴽⵯ ⵉⴱⴰⵢⵏⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵏⵉⵇⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⵜ.

In perfectly competitive markets studied in the theory of supply and demand, there are many producers, none of which significantly influence price.

ⴳ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵣⵡⵔ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵓⵜⵔ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵡⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵜⴰⴳⴳⵯⵏ.

Common market structures studied besides perfect competition include monopolistic competition, various forms of oligopoly, and monopoly.

ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵣⵡⵔ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ, ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵉⵣⵡⵔ ⴰⵥⵕⴽⵡⴰⵛ, ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵉⴳⵓⴱⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵓⴱⵓⵍ.

Given its different forms, there are various ways of representing uncertainty and modelling economic agents' responses to it.

ⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵔⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉ.

In behavioural economics, it has been used to model the strategies agents choose when interacting with others whose interests are at least partially adverse to their own.

ⴳ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵚⵏⵉⵄⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵇⵇⵇⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵜⵔⴰⵜⵉⵊⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵙⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⴳⴳⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵙⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵎⵉ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⵙⵏ.

It has significant applications seemingly outside of economics in such diverse subjects as formulation of nuclear strategies, ethics, political science, and evolutionary biology.

ⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵙⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⴽⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⵏⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⵍⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵜⵔⴰⵜⵉⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⴽⵍⵉⵢⵉⵔⵜ, ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ.

It also analyses the pricing of financial instruments, the financial structure of companies, the efficiency and fragility of financial markets, financial crises, and related government policy or regulation.

ⴷⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⵥⵕⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ, ⵜⵉⵕⵡⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵍⵓⵖⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵏⵥⵕⴰⴼ, ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵥⵕⴰⴼ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵥⴰⵕⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ.

"Customers without knowledge of whether a car is a ""lemon"" depress its price below what a quality second-hand car would be."

ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵖⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵙⵙⵉⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴽ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵀⵉⵔⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ''''ⵍⵉⵎⵓⵏ'''' ⴷⴰ ⵙⵓⴳⴳⵓⵣⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵓⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵔⴳ ⵜⵀⵉⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ ⵉⴱⵓⴷⴰⵏ.

"Both problems may raise insurance costs and reduce efficiency by driving otherwise willing transactors from the market (""incomplete markets"")."

ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⵔⵓⵜ ⵙⵙⵓⴳⴳⵣⵏ ⵜⵉⵕⵡⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵀⵕⴰⴹ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵡⵓⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ (''''ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴷⵉⵏ'''').''

Information asymmetries and incomplete markets may result in economic inefficiency but also a possibility of improving efficiency through market, legal, and regulatory remedies, as discussed above.

ⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴷⵉⵏ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵔⵜⵉⵕⵡⵉ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵕⵡⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵏⵙⴱⴰⴱⵉⵏ, ⵜⵓⵣⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵍⵓⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜ ⵏⵥⵕⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴳⴰⵙ.

Public goods are goods which are under-supplied in a typical market.

ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵣⴰⵣⵏ ⵎⵉ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⵣⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ.

For example, air pollution may generate a negative externality, and education may generate a positive externality (less crime, etc.).

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵡⵓⵍⵓⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ ⴰⴹⵓⵚ ⵉⴱⴰⵡⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ, ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⴰⴹⵓⵚ ⴰⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵉ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏ (ⴰⴱⴽⴽⴰⴹ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ.).

In many areas, some form of price stickiness is postulated to account for quantities, rather than prices, adjusting in the short run to changes on the demand side or the supply side.

ⴳ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ, ⵉⵍⴰⵇ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⵖⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵛⴱⴱⵔ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⴽⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳⵏ , ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵣⴷⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⵓⵔⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ.

Examples of such price stickiness in particular markets include wage rates in labour markets and posted prices in markets deviating from perfect competition.

ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵙⵕⵚⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⴳⴳⵯⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵜⴰⴳⴳⵯⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵣⵡⵔ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ.

Such aggregates include national income and output, the unemployment rate, and price inflation and subaggregates like total consumption and investment spending and their components.

ⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴰ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ, ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴹⵅⵅⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⴳⴳⵯⵏ ⴷ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵉⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵇⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵔⵡ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.

This has addressed a long-standing concern about inconsistent developments of the same subject.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⴳⵓⵎ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵉⵜ.

Keynes contended that aggregate demand for goods might be insufficient during economic downturns, leading to unnecessarily high unemployment and losses of potential output.

ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵍ ⴽⵉⵢⵏⵙ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵓⵙⵓⵜⵔ ⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴽⴼⵓ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵥⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵢ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵢⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵕⵥⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ.

New classical macroeconomics, as distinct from the Keynesian view of the business cycle, posits market clearing with imperfect information.

ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⵔⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵓⵜ, ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⴽⵙⵓ ⵏ ⴽⵉⵢⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵔⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴷⵉⵏ.

The labour force only includes workers actively looking for jobs.

ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵢ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ.

Classical models of unemployment occurs when wages are too high for employers to be willing to hire more workers.

ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⴰ ⵓⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵕⴰⴹ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⴰⴱ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵢⵏ.

Large amounts of structural unemployment can occur when an economy is transitioning industries and workers find their previous set of skills are no longer in demand.

ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⵖⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵡⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⵏ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵉⵎⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⴱⵍⵍⵉ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴼⵓⴽⴽⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵙⵓⵍⵏⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⵜⵔⵏⵜ.

Money has general acceptability, relative consistency in value, divisibility, durability, portability, elasticity in supply, and longevity with mass public confidence.

ⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⴳⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ, ⵜⵉⴱⴹⵉⵏ, ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵣⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⴰⵎⵍⵎⴰⵎⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⵓⵍⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⵣⵜ.

"In the words of Francis Amasa Walker, a well-known 19th-century economist, ""Money is what money does"" (""Money is that money does"" in the original)."

''ⵙ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⴰ ⵡⵓⵍⴽⵔ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴷⵎⴰⵙ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 19, ''''ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ'''' (""Money is that money does"" ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ)''.

Its economic function can be contrasted with barter (non-monetary exchange).

ⵜⴰⵙⵖⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ( ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵙ ⵡⵔ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ).

When aggregate demand falls below the potential output of the economy, there is an output gap where some productive capacity is left unemployed.

ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵣ ⵓⵙⵓⵜⵔ ⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵇⵉⵎⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⵓⵔⵉ.

For example, unemployed home builders can be hired to expand highways.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵏⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⵅⴷⵎ ⵉⴱⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⵔⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵅⵉⵜⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⴷⴰⵏ.

The effects of fiscal policy can be limited by crowding out.

ⵖⵉⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵙⴰⵙⵜⵍⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ.

Some economists think that crowding out is always an issue while others do not think it is a major issue when output is depressed.

ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴷⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴰⵀⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⴰⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵍⴼ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ.

The latter, an aspect of public choice theory, models public-sector behaviour analogously to microeconomics, involving interactions of self-interested voters, politicians, and bureaucrats.

ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵯⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵣⵣⵓⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⵚⵏⵉⵄ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⵔⵓⵜ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ, ⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵉⵔⵉⴽⵔⴰⵜⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴳⵣⵎⵏ.

It also concerns the size and distribution of gains from trade.

ⵜⵥⵍⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⴷⵉ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵥⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ.

"It is often stated that Carlyle gave economics the nickname ""the dismal science"" as a response to the late 18th century writings of The Reverend Thomas Robert Malthus, who grimly predicted that starvation would result, as projected population growth exceeded the rate of increase in the food supply."

''ⴰⵔ ⴰⵀⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⵓⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⴽⴰⵔⵍⴰⵢⵍ ⵉ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ''ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵖⵉⵍⴼⵏ'''' ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 18 ⵏ ⵍⵇⵉⵙⵙ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵔⵓⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⵎⴰⵍⵜⵓⵙ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴱⵓⵀⵢⵢⵓⴼ, ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵉⵎⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵎⵍⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⴷⵓⵔⵜ.

The close relation of economic theory and practice with politics is a focus of contention that may shade or distort the most unpretentious original tenets of economics, and is often confused with specific social agendas and value systems.

ⵜⴰⵙⵇⵇⵏⵜ ⵉⵏⵢⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⴷⴰ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵍⵉⵙ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵖ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴽⵯ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵓⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵔⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ.

Some academic economic journals have increased their efforts to gauge the consensus of economists regarding certain policy issues in hopes of effecting a more informed political environment.

ⵉⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴱⵟⵟⵏⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⴰⵣ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵏⴷⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵔⴰⵜⵉⵊⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴼⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ.

Issues like central bank independence, central bank policies and rhetoric in central bank governors discourse or the premises of macroeconomic policies (monetary and fiscal policy) of the state, are focus of contention and criticism.

ⵉⵙⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵍⴱⴰⵏⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵍⴱⴰⵏⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵍⴱⴰⵍⴰⵖⴰ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵍⴱⴰⵏⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⴽⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ (ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵥⵕⴰⴼⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵏⵎⵙⴰⵙⵜⵍⵜ) ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵏⴽ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵉⵡⵉⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵖⴰⵏⵏ.

The field of information economics includes both mathematical-economical research and also behavioural economics, akin to studies in behavioural psychology, and confounding factors to the neoclassical assumptions are the subject of substantial study in many areas of economics.

ⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵢⵓⵎⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵚⵏⵉⵄⴰⵏⵜ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵟⵟⴼⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵙⵉⴽⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵚⵏⵉⵄ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷⴱ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⵡⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵢⵓⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵓⴱⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ.

"Joskow had a strong feeling that the important work in oligopoly was done through informal observations while formal models were ""trotted out ex post""."

'' ⵉⵍⴰ ⵊⵓⵙⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵍⵉⵄⵜⵉⴽⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵖⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵍⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵍⵖⴰⵏⵏ ""trotted out ex post""."

Another major theme is evolution, which explains the unity and diversity of life.

ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵖⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ.

His works such as History of Animals were especially important because they revealed his naturalist leanings, and later more empirical works that focused on biological causation and the diversity of life.

ⵜⵉⵡⵓⵔⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵙⴱⴰⵢⵏⴻⵏ ⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⴳⴰⵎⴰ, ⴷ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵏⵔⵎⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ.

Medicine was especially well studied by Islamic scholars working in Greek philosopher traditions, while natural history drew heavily on Aristotelian thought, especially in upholding a fixed hierarchy of life.

ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵢⴰⵣⵔⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵊⵊⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⵍⵎⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵅⴷⵎⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵔⵉⴽⵉⵏ, ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⴳⵎ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓ, ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴳ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵜⵓⴱⵢⴰ ⵉⵡⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ.

Investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to develop the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining.

ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵊⴰⵏ ⵙⵡⴰⵎⵎⵔⴷⴰⵎ ⵍⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵏⵜⵓⵎⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⴰⵊⵊⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵎⵉⴽⵔⵓⵙⴽⵓⴱⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵍⵓ.

Then, in 1838, Schleiden and Schwann began promoting the now universal ideas that (1) the basic unit of organisms is the cell and (2) that individual cells have all the characteristics of life, although they opposed the idea that (3) all cells come from the division of other cells.

ⵉⵎⵉⴽ, ⴳ 1838, ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰ ⵛⵍⴰⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵛⵡⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵜⵉⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷ (1) ⵜⴰⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ (2) ⵉⵙ ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴼⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ (3) ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵜⴷⴷⵓⵏⵜ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ.

Carl Linnaeus published a basic taxonomy for the natural world in 1735 (variations of which have been in use ever since), and in the 1750s introduced scientific names for all his species.

ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⴷ ⴽⴰⵔⵍ ⵍⵉⵏⴰⵢⵓⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵚⵏⵏⴼ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ 1735 (ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴰⵏⵏ), ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ 1750 ⵉⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵉⵙⵡⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵉ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰ.

Lamarck believed that these acquired traits could then be passed on to the animal's offspring, who would further develop and perfect them.

ⵉⵖⴰⵍ ⵍⴰⵎⴰⵔⴽ ⵉⵙ ⵖⵉⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⵎⴰⵥⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⵏⵜ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵉⵙⵎⴷ ⵜⵏⵜ.

"The basis for modern genetics began with the work of Gregor Mendel, who presented his paper, ""Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden"" (""Experiments on Plant Hybridization""), in 1865, which outlined the principles of biological inheritance, serving as the basis for modern genetics."

''ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴳⵔⵉⴳⵓⵔ ⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉⵍ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴽⴷⵏ ⴰⵔⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ, ''''Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden"" (ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵀⵊⵊⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ''’’), ⴳ 1865, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ, ⵉⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ.’’

A focus on new kinds of model organisms such as viruses and bacteria, along with the discovery of the double-helical structure of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953, marked the transition to the era of molecular genetics.

ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵎⵎⵙ ⵖⴼ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵓⵏⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵀⵉⵍⵉⴽⵡⴰⵢⴷ ⵏ ⴰ ⴷⵉ ⵉⵏ ⵙⵖⵓⵔ ⴷⵊⵉⵎⵙ ⵡⴰⵜⵙⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙ ⴽⵔⵉⴽ ⴳ 1953, ⵕⵛⵎⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉ ⵙ ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵍⵉⴽⵓⵍⵉⵔⵜ.

Finally, the Human Genome Project was launched in 1990 with the goal of mapping the general human genome.

ⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ, ⴰⵙⵖⵏⵓ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⵔ ⴳ 1990 ⴳ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ.

Life on Earth began from water and remained there for about three billions years prior to migrating onto land.

ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵣⵓⴳ ⵖⵔ ⴰⴽⴰⵍ.

The nucleus is made of one or more protons and a number of neutrons.

ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵖⵔⵎⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⵜⵔⵓⵏⵏ.

The atom of each specific element contains a unique number of protons, which is known as its atomic number, and the sum of its protons and neutrons is an atom's mass number.

ⴰⴼⵏⵓⵣ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⴰⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵢⵓⵎⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓⵏⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵏⴼⵏⵓⵣ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵓⵜⵔⵓⵏⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵏⵓⵣ.

Carbon, for example, can exist as a stable isotope (carbon-12 or carbon-13) or as a radioactive isotope (carbon-14), the latter of which can be used in radiometric dating (specifically radiocarbon dating) to determine the age of organic materials.

ⴰⴽⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵣⵓⵜⵓⴱ ⵉⵡⵔⵏ (ⴰⴽⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏ 12 ⵏⵖ ⴰⴽⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏ 13) ⵏⵖ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵣⵓⵜⵓⴱ ⵔⴰⴷⵢⵓⴰⴽⵜⵉⴼ (ⴰⴽⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏ 14), ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⴽⵓⴷⵜ ⵔⴰⴷⵢⵓⵎⵉⵜⵔⵉⴽ (ⵙ ⵓⵣⵍⴰⵢ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⴽⵓⴷⵜ ⵔⴰⴷⵢⵓⴽⴰⵔⴱⵓⵏ) ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵢⵎⵜⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵉⵏ.

Ionic bonding involves the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions, or between two atoms with sharply different electronegativities, and is the primary interaction occurring in ionic compounds.

ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⵢⵓⵏⵉⴽ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⴰⵍⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵙⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵏⵓⵣⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵍⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵣⵓⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⵉⵢⵏ.

Unlike ionic bonds, a covalent bond involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.

ⴳ ⵜⵎⴳⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⵉⵢⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⵜⴰⴽⴰⴼⵓⵍⵉ ⵖⴼ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵢⵓⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵏⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⴼⵏⵓⵣⵏ.

A ubiquitous example of a hydrogen bond is found between water molecules.

ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵍⵉⴽⵓⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ.

Water is important to life because it is an effective solvent, capable of dissolving solutes such as sodium and chloride ions or other small molecules to form an aqueous solution.

ⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵕⵡⴰⵏ, ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴼⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⴷⵢⵓⵎ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵍⵓⵔⵉⴷ ⵏⵖ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵍⵉⴽⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⴰⵎⵃⵍⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ.

Because the O–H bonds are polar, the oxygen atom has a slight negative charge and the two hydrogen atoms have a slight positive charge.

ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ O–Hⵉⵇⵓⵟⴱⵉⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵓⴼⵏⵓⵣ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵜⵜⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴼⵙⵙⵉ ⴷ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵏⵓⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⵜⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵉⴳⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴼⵙⵙⵉ.

Water is also adhesive as it is able to adhere to the surface of any polar or charged non-water molecules.

ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵍⵍⵖⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵥⴷⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ.

The lower density of ice compared to liquid water is due to the lower number of water molecules that form the crystal lattice structure of ice, which leaves a large amount of space between water molecules.

ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵄⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⵓⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⴽⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵏⵏⵎⵣⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⴷⵔⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵜⴳⵣⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ ⵓⴷⵍⵙⵉⵙ ⴰⴱⵉⵍⴰⵡⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵉⵙ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴼⴼⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴳⴰⵢ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⴳⵣⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ.

Thus, a large amount of energy is needed to break the hydrogen bonds between water molecules to convert liquid water into gas (or water vapor).

ⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵜⵔ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵢⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵕⵥⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵀⵉⴷⵕⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⴳⵣⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵍⵓⵍⵓⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵏⴱⴱⴰⵣ (ⵏⵖ ⵉⵔⴳⴳⵯⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ).

With the exception of water, nearly all the molecules that make up each organism contain carbon.

ⵙ ⵓⵙⵍⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⴷⵔⵓⵖ ⴷⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⵉⵣⴳⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴽⵓ ⵉⵎⵍⵉ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⴰⴽⵕⴱⵓⵏ.

For example, a single carbon atom can form four single covalent bonds such as in methane, two double covalent bonds such as in carbon dioxide, or a triple covalent bond such as in carbon monoxide (CO).

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⵜⵖⵢⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵕⴱⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵎⵣⵎⵎⵔⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ ⴰⵎ ⵜⵓⵎⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵎⵉⵟⴰⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵓⵎⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵎⵣⵎⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵢⵓⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵓⴽⵙⵉⴷ ⵍⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵓⵎⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵎⵎⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵕⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵜⵓⵎⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⴷ ⵍⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏ (CO).

A hydrocarbon backbone can be substituted by other elements such as oxygen (O), hydrogen (H), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S), which can change the chemical behavior of that compound.

ⵉⵥⴷⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴱⵓⵣⵄⵔⵓⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵍⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ(O), ⵍⵀⵉⴷⵕⵓⵊⵉⵏ (H), ⵍⴼⵓⵚⴼⵓⵕ (P), ⴷ ⵍⴽⴱⵔⵉⵢⵜ (S), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰⵢⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙ ⴰⴷ.

When two monosaccharides such as glucose and fructose are linked together, they can form a disaccharide such as sucrose.

ⵉⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵣⴷⴰⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵢⴰⵏⵙⴰⴽⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⵎ ⵍⴳⵍⵉⴽⵓⵥ ⴷ ⵍⴼⵔⴽⵟⵓⵣ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⵀⴰⵏ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵜⵛⵓⴽⴰⵔⵉⴷ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵙⵙⵓⴽⵕⵓⵙ.

These lipids are organic compounds that are largely nonpolar and hydrophobic.

ⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⴹⵔⵥⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⵢⵉⵏⵏ.

The glycerol and phosphate group together constitute the polar and hydrophilic (or head) region of the molecule whereas the fatty acids make up the nonpolar and hydrophobic (or tail) region.

ⴰⵔ ⵜⵚⴽⵓ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴳⵍⵉⵙⵉⵔⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵍⴼⵓⵚⴼⴰⴼⴰⵟ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ (ⵏⵖ ⵉⵖⴼ) ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢⵏⵉ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵎⵉ ⵜⵓⴹⵕⵉⵥⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⴹⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ (ⵏⵖ ⴰⵛⵡⴰⵍ).

Proteins are the most diverse of the macromolecules, which include enzymes, transport proteins, large signaling molecules, antibodies, and structural proteins.

ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵍⴰⵏⵣⵉⵎⴰⵜ, ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵢ, ⵜⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⴼⴽⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵜⵉⵏ.

The polarity and charge of the side chains affect the solubility of amino acids.

ⴰⵔ ⵜⴹⵓⵚ ⵜⵙⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵜⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵉ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵢ.

The primary structure consists of a unique sequence of amino acids that are covalently linked together by peptide bonds.

ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵣⵣⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⴰⵏⴼⵔⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴱⴰⴱⵜⵉⴷⵉ.

The folding of alpha helices and beta sheets gives a protein its three-dimensional or tertiary structure.

ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵏⴹ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵍⴼⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵢⵜⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵉ ⵍⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ.

The purines include guanine (G) and adenine (A) whereas the pyrimidines consist of cytosine (T), uracil (U), and thymine (T).

ⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵔⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏⵏ (ⴳ) ⴷ ⴰⴷⵏⵉⵏ (ⴰ) ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵎⴰ ⴱⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵜⵓⵙⵉⵙⵏ (ⵜ), ⴷ ⵓⵔⴰⵙⵉⵍ (ⵓ), ⴷ ⵓⵜⴰⵢⵎⵉⵏ (ⵜ).

A cell membrane consists of a lipid bilayer, including cholesterols that sit between phospholipids to maintain their fluidity at various temperatures.

ⵜⵓⵎⴰ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵜ ⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵍⵉⴱⵉⴷ ⴰⴱⵉⵍⴰⵢⵔ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵓⴽⵓⵍⵉⵙⵜⵉⵔⵓⵍ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵓⴼⵓⵙⴼⵓⵍⵉⴱⵓⴷ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴹⵓⴼ ⵜⴰⵃⵔⴰⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ.

Cell membranes are involved in various cellular processes such as cell adhesion, storing electrical energy, and cell signalling and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures such as a cell wall, glycocalyx, and cytoskeleton.

ⴷⴰ ⴽⵛⵛⵎⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵉⴳⴳⵣⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⵍⵜⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ, ⴰⵙⴰⵜⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵓⵙⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵍⵖⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ, ⴳⵍⵉⴽⵓⴽⴰⵍⵉⴽⵙ ⴷ ⵙⵉⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵍⵉⵜⵓⵏ.

"The Alberts text discusses how the ""cellular building blocks"" move to shape developing embryos."

"''ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵓⴹⵕⵉⵚ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⵉⵔⵜⵙ ⵖⴼ ⵎⴰⴽ ⵜⵜⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵏⵜ ''ⵜⵓⵙⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ''ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵉⵍⵖⵏⵜ ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⴳⵎⵎⴰⵏ.

Plant cells have additional organelles that distinguish them from animal cells such as a cell wall that provides support for the plant cell, chloroplasts that harvest sunlight energy to produce sugar, and vacuoles that provide storage and structural support as well as being involved in reproduction and breakdown of plant seeds.

ⵜⵉⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵏⴰ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵉ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⴽⵍⵓⵔⵓⴱⵍⴰⵙⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵥⵥⴰⴹⵏ ⴰⵣⵎⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵙⵙⴽⵯⴰⵔ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⴳⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⵉⴷⵉ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ.

According to the first law of thermodynamics, energy is conserved, i.e., cannot be created or destroyed.

ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵔⴼ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵉⵏⴰⵎⵉⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵖⵍⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵜⵉⵎ ⵜⵥⴹⴰⵕⵜ, ⵙ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵔ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵅⵍⴰ.

As a result, an organism requires continuous input of energy to maintain a low state of entropy.

ⴳ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ, ⵢⵓⵙⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⴰⵔ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵎⵥ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵜⵔⵓⴱⵢⴰ.

Usually, catabolism releases energy, and anabolism consumes energy.

ⴳ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵏ ⴰⵣⵎⴰⵔ, ⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⴱⵓⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵎⵓⵔ ⴰⵣⵎⴰⵔ.

The overall reaction occurs in a series of biochemical steps, some of which are redox reactions.

ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵢⵓⵛⵉⵎⵉⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴷⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵖⵓⵍⵉⵏ.

Acetyl-Coa enters the citric acid cycle, which takes places inside the mitochondrial matrix.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⴽⵛⵛⵎ ⴰⵙⵉⵜⵉⵍ-ⴽⵓⵡⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵙⵉⵜⵔⵉⴽ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵎⵥⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵔⵡ ⴰⵎⵉⵜⵉⴽⵓⵏⴷⵔⴰⵍ.

Oxidative phosphorylation comprises the electron transport chain, which is a series of four protein complexes that transfer electrons from one complex to another, thereby releasing energy from NADH and FADH2 that is coupled to the pumping of protons (hydrogen ions) across the inner mitochondrial membrane (chemiosmosis), which generates a proton motive force.

ⵢⵓⵎⴰ ⵓⴼⵓⵙⴼⵓⵔⵉⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⴽⵙⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵏⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙ ⵖⵔ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⴹ, ⴰⵔ ⵙⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⵣⵎⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵏⴰⴷⵀ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⴼⴰⴷⵀ2 ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⴳⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵎⴱⴰⵊ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ (ⴰⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵓⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ) ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⵓⵏⴷⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙⴰⵏⵜ (ⴽⵉⵎⵢⵓⵙⵎⵓⵣⵉⵙ), ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⵓⵏ ⴰⵣⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⴷⴽⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ.

If oxygen were not present, pyruvate would not be metabolized by cellular respiration but undergoes a process of fermentation.

ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⴳⴷⵎⵏ ⵉⴱⵉⵔⵓⴼⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵜⴰⵏ.

Fermentation oxidizes NADH to NAD+ so it can be re-used in glycolysis.

ⴰⵎⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴽⵙⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⴷⵀ ⵙ ⵏⴰⴷ+ ⴰⵔⴷ ⵢⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⵊⵉⴽⵓⵍⵓⵣⵉⵙ.

In skeletal muscles, the waste product is lactic acid.

ⴳ ⵜⴱⵓⵊⵊⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵙⵙⴰ, ⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⴽⵜⵉⴽ.

During anaerobic glycolysis, NAD+ regenerates when pairs of hydrogen combine with pyruvate to form lactate.

ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⵍⵓⴽⵓⵍⵉ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⵡⵓ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏⴰⴷ+ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵓⵏⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⴳⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⴱⵉⵔⵓⴼⵉⵜ ⵀⵃⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵉⵍⵖⵏⵜ ⵍⴰⴽⵜⴰⵜ.

During recovery, when oxygen becomes available, NAD+ attaches to hydrogen from lactate to form ATP.

ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔ, ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴳⵍ ⵏⴰⴷ+ ⵙ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵍⴰⴽⵜⴰⵜ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵉⵍⵖ ⴰⵜⴱ.

In most cases, oxygen is also released as a waste product.

ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵔ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵙ.

This is analogous to the proton-motive force generated across the inner mitochondrial membrane in aerobic respiration.

ⵉⵎⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⵣⵜ ⵉⴷⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⵓⵏⴷⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵓⵏⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ.

In autocrine signaling, the ligand affects the same cell that releases it.

ⴳ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵓⴽⵔⵉⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵣⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵏⵉⵜ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵕⵥⵥⵎ.

In eukaryotes (i.e., animal, plant, fungal, and protist cells), there are two distinct types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis.

ⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴰⵔⵉⵜⵓⵙ ( ⵜⵉⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ, ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ, ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⴰⵍⵏ), ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ: ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵜⵓⵣⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⵢⵓⵣⵜ.

After cell division, each of the daughter cells begin the interphase of a new cycle.

ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ, ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⴱⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ.

Both of these cell division cycles are used in the process of sexual reproduction at some point in their life cycle.

ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵉⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ.

Unlike the processes of mitosis and meiosis in eukaryotes, binary fission takes in prokaryotes takes place without the formation of a spindle apparatus on the cell.

ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⵓⵣⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵣⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴰⵔⵢⵓⵜ, ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⵢⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵔⵓⴽⴰⵔⵢⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⵖ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ.

Mendelian inheritance, specifically, is the process by which genes and traits are passed on from parents to offspring.

ⵜⵓⴽⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵉⵍⵢⴰⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵉⴳⴳⵣⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵜⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ.

The first is that genetic characteristics, which are now called alleles, are discrete and have alternate forms (e.g., purple vs. white or tall vs. dwarf), each inherited from one of two parents.

ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜⵜⵜⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⴰⵍⵉⵍ, ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⴼⴼⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵉⵏ, (ⵙ ⵓⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵊⵏⵊⴰⵕⵉ ⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⴳⵯⵣⵣⴰⵍ), ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⵓⵙⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵏ.

Mendel noted that during gamete formation, the alleles for each gene segregate from each other so that each gamete carries only one allele for each gene, which is stated by his law of segregation.

ⵉⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⵎⵉⵏⴷⵉⵍ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⵉⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵙⴱⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴳⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵔⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⵙⵉ ⴽⵓ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⵉⵜ ⵅⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵉ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵊⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵕⵛⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ.

The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain by covalent bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, resulting in an alternating sugar-phosphate backbone.

ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵡⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⴽⵍⵢⵓⵜⵉⴷⵏ ⴳⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⵉⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵙⵙⴽⵯⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵓⴽⵍⵢⵓⵜⵉⴷ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵓⵙⴼⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⴹ, ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴼⴼⵖ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵙⵙⴽⵯⴰⵔ-ⴰⴼⵓⵙⴼⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵄⵔⵓⵔ.