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Tamazight NLP 24

The bases are divided into two groups: pyrimidines and purines.

ⴱⴹⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ : ⵉⴱⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⴷⵉⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏⵏ.

DNA is replicated once the two strands separate.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴰⴷⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⴱⴹⵓⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ.

A chromosome is an organized structure consisting of DNA and histones.

ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴽⵔⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵀⵉⵙⵜⵓⵏⵏ.

In prokaryotes, the DNA is held within an irregularly shaped body in the cytoplasm called the nucleoid.

ⵖⵔ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⴽⴰⵔⵢⵓⵜⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⵓ ⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⵉⵜ ⵎ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵏⵉⴽⵍⵢⵓⴷ.

The genetic information stored in DNA represents the genotype, whereas the phenotype results from the synthesis of proteins that control an organism's structure and development, or that act as enzymes catalyzing specific metabolic pathways.

ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⵡⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵏⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴽⵎⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ.

Under the genetic code, these mRNA strands specify the sequence of amino acids within proteins in a process called translation, which occurs in ribosomes.

ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵢⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⵓ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵖⵍⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵕⵉⴱⵓⵥⵓⵎⵏ.

Sequencing and analysis of genomes can be done using high throughput DNA sequencing and bioinformatics to assemble and analyze the function and structure of entire genomes.

ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴰⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴼⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ.

The genomes of prokaryotes are small, compact, and diverse.

ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⴽⴰⵔⵢⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵏ, ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵣⵏ, ⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ.

There are four key processes that underlie development: Determination, differentiation, morphogenesis, and growth.

ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ : ⴰⵥⵍⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ.

Stem cells are undifferentiated or partially differentiated cells that can differentiate into various types of cells and proliferate indefinitely to produce more of the same stem cell.

ⵜⵉⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⴳⴳⴰⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴱⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⵉⴷⵉⵢⵏⵜ ⴰⴱⴷⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰⴳⴰⵏⵜ.

Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, also occurs during morphogenesis, such as the death of cells between digits in human embryonic development, which frees up individual fingers and toes.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓ ⵓⴱⵓⴱⵟⵓⵥ, ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⴰⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⴰⵡⵙⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⴹⵓⴹⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵍⵎⵢⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴹⵓⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴼⴷⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴹⴰⵕⵏ.

These toolkit genes are highly conserved among phyla, meaning that they are ancient and very similar in widely separated groups of animals.

ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⵣⵓⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ.

Hox genes determine where repeating parts, such as the many vertebrae of snakes, will grow in a developing embryo or larva.

ⴷⴰ ⵙⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵀⵓⴽⵙ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙⵉⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵟⵟⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵖⵔⵉⵡⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵙⵍⵎⵢⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⴽⴽⴰ.

A toolkit gene can be expressed in a different pattern, as when the beak of Darwin's large ground-finch was enlarged by the BMP gene, or when snakes lost their legs as Distal-less (Dlx) genes became under-expressed or not expressed at all in the places where other reptiles continued to form their limbs.

ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⴰⵡⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵖⵔ ⵓⵖⵏⴱⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵅⵅⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ BMP, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵣⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵖⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⴷⵉⵙⵜⴰⵍ-ⵍⵉⵙ (Dlx) ⵓⵔ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵉⵏⵉⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵓⵍⵍ ⴳ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵃⵔⵓⵔⴷⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.

This perspective holds that evolution occurs when there are changes in the allele frequencies within a population of interbreeding organisms.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵏⵉⵢ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵇⵇⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ.

When selective forces are absent or relatively weak, allele frequencies are equally likely to drift upward or downward at each successive generation because the alleles are subject to sampling error.

ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵃⵍⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ, ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴼⵔⵖⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵙ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵏⴳⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵉⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓ ⵓⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵉⵏ.

Reproductive isolation also tends to increase with genetic divergence.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵃⴰⵕⴰⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⵡⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ.

When a lineage divides into two, it is represented as a node (or split) on the phylogenetic tree.

ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⴱⴹⵓ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵅⴼ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎ ⵜⵙⵔⵔⵉⴼⵜ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ) ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ.

Within a tree, any group of species designated by a name is a taxon (e.g., humans, primates, mammals, or vertebrates) and a taxon that consists of all its evolutionary descendants is a clade, otherwise known as a monophyletic taxon.

ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⵓⵜ, ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⴳⵉⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ) ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⴽⵍⴰⵢⴷ, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏⵏ.

A species or group that is closely related to the ingroup but is phylogenetically outside of it is called the outgroup, which serves a reference point in the tree.

ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⴼⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⵓⵜ.

Based on the principle of Parsimony (or Occam's razor), the tree that is favored is the one with the fewest evolutionary changes needed to be assumed over all traits in all groups.

ⵉⴳ ⵏⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵙ ⴰⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⵙⵉⵎⵓⵏⵉⵢ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴰⵎⵙ), ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵍⵓⵜ ⵜⵓⴼⵓⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵅⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ.

Based on this system, each species is given two names, one for its genus and another for its species.

ⵉⴳ ⵏⴷⴷⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵏⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵢⴹ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⵙ.

Biologists regard the ubiquity of the genetic code as evidence of universal common descent for all bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes.

ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⴱⵥⵥⵄ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵓⴳⵍ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⴰⵎⵍⵜⴰⵖ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵍ ⵉⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵜⵏ, ⵉⴷ ⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ.

Later, around 1.7 billion years ago, multicellular organisms began to appear, with differentiated cells performing specialised functions.

ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 1.7 ⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ, ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵢⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵙ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ.

Land plants were so successful that they are thought to have contributed to the Late Devonian extinction event.

ⵎⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵏⴰ ⵉⵙ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴰⵖⵉⵣ ⵉⵣⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴷⵉⴼⵓⵏⵉⵢ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ.

During the recovery from this catastrophe, archosaurs became the most abundant land vertebrates; one archosaur group, the dinosaurs, dominated the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods.

ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵄⴷⵔⵉⵇ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵡⴰⵕⴽⵓⵚⵓⵕⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⴳⴳⵄⴱⵓⴱⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ; ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵕⴽⵓⵚⵓⵕⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵢⵏⴰⵚⵓⵕⵏ, ⵜⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⴰⵊⵓⵕⴰⵙⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵕⵉⵟⴰⵚⵉ.

Bacteria inhabit soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, and the deep biosphere of the earth's crust.

ⵜⴷⴷⵔ ⵍⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ ⴱ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⵟⵟⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵖⴰⵏ, ⴰⴼⵔⴰⴹ ⴰⵙⴼⵍⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵎⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴱⵓⴹ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ.

Archaea constitute the other domain of prokaryotic cells and were initially classified as bacteria, receiving the name archaebacteria (in the Archaebacteria kingdom), a term that has fallen out of use.

ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵍⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ, ⵜⵓⵙⵢ ⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ ( ⴳ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ), ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ.

Archaea and bacteria are generally similar in size and shape, although a few archaea have very different shapes, such as the flat and square cells of Haloquadratum walsbyi.

ⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴷⴷⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵀⴰⵍⵓⴽⴰⴷⵔⴰⵜⵓⵎ ⵡⴰⵍⵙⴱⵢⵉ.

Archaea use more energy sources than eukaryotes: these range from organic compounds, such as sugars, to ammonia, metal ions or even hydrogen gas.

ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⴰⵔ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ : ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⵏⴰⴼⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⴽⴽⵯⴰⵔ, ⵙ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⵢⴰ, ⵙ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵇⴷⴷⴰⵃ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴰⴳⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵊⵉⵏ.

The first observed archaea were extremophiles, living in extreme environments, such as hot springs and salt lakes with no other organisms.

ⴰⵔⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵥⴰⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵟⵟⵓⵕⴼⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵖⴱⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵔⵖⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵍⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴷⵏ.

Archaea are a major part of Earth's life.

ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵔⴽⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ.

Five of these clades are also collectively known as protists, which are mostly microscopic eukaryotic organisms that are not plants, fungi, or animals.

ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵙⵜⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ, ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ.

Most protists are unicellular, which are also known as microbial eukaryotes.

ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵙⵜⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ, ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⵏ.

Dinoflagellates are photosynthetic and can be found in the ocean where they play a role as primary producers of organic matter.

ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵉⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵊⵉⵍⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵚⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵏⴰⴼ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵏⴰⴼⵜ.

Ciliates are alveolates that possess numerous hair-like structure called cilia.

ⵜⴳⴰ ⵎ ⵉⵃⴱⵉⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵃⴰⴳⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵥⴹⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵡⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵃⴱⵉⵔⵔⴰⵏ.

The excavates are groups of protists that began to diversify approximately 1.5 billion years ago shortly after the origin of the eukaryotes.

ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵣ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵙⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 1.5 ⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ.

Stramenopiles, most of which can be characterized by the presence of tubular hairs on the longer of their two flagella, include diatoms and brown algae.

ⵉⵙⵜⵕⴰⵎⵉⵏⵓⴱⵉⵍⵙ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵢⵓⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵊⵄⴱⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵊⵊⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼⵏ, ⵉⴷⵢⴰⵜⵓⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴷⵎⵎⴰⵏⵏ.

The rhizarians comprise three main groups: cercozoans, foraminiferans, and radiolarians.

ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵓⵕⴰⵢⵥⴰⵕⵢⵓⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ : ⴰⵙⵉⵕⴽⵓⵣⵡⴰⵏ, ⴰⴼⵓⵕⴰⵎⵉⵏⵉⴼⵕⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵕⴰⴷⵢⵓⵍⴰⵕⵢⴰⵏ.

Algae comprise several distinct clades such as glaucophytes, which are microscopic freshwater algae that may have resembled in form to the early unicellular ancestor of Plantae.

ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵓⵣⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴳⵍⵓⴽⵓⴼⵉⵜⵏ, ⴷ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⵕⵓⵙⴽⵓⴱⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⴰⴳⵏ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵔⵡⵉⵙ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴱⵍⴰⵏⵜⴰ ⵉⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ.

Land plants (embryophytes) first appeared in terrestrial environments approximately 450 to 500 million years ago.

ⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵅⵍⴰ (ⵉⵃⵛⵍⴰⴼⵏ) ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴽⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 450 ⴰⵔ 500 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ.

In contrast, the other three clades are nonvascular plants as they do not have tracheids.

ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵃⵓⵔⵙⵉⵜⵏ.

They tend to be found in areas where water is readily available.

ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵜⵉ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵀⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ.

Most nonvascular plants are terrestrial, with a few living in freshwater environments and none living in the oceans.

ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴽⴰⵍⵏ, ⵉⴷⴷⵔ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍ.

Gymnosperms includes conifers, cycads, Ginkgo, and gnetophytes.

ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵜⵉⵃⴷⵔⵉⵏ, ⵉⵙⵉⴽⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ, ⴰⵊⵉⵏⴽⵓ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⵜⵔⵓⵊⵉⵢⵏ.

They do so through a process called absorptive heterotrophy whereby they would first secrete digestive enzymes that break down large food molecules before absorbing them through their cell membranes.

ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⵜ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵔⵥⵥⵎⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵕⵥⴰⵏ ⵉⵇⵛⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵓⵔⵜⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵎⵓⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵍⵉⵅⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⴰⵙⴰⵏⵜ.

Fungi, along with two other lineages, choanoflagellates and animals, can be grouped as opisthokonts.

ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ, ⵟⵟⵕⴼ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵙⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵉⴽⵡⴰⵏⵓⴼⵍⴰⵊⵉⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ, ⵎⴰⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵙⵜⵓⴽⵓⵏⵜⵙ.

Multicellular fungi, on the other hand, have a body called mycelium, which is composed of a mass of individual tubular filaments called hyphae that allows for nutrient absorption to occur.

ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵄⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ, ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵉⵙⵉⵍⵢⵓⵎ, ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵊⵄⴱⴰ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⵓⵎⵏ ⵓⵜⵜⵛⵉ.

With few exceptions, animals consume organic material, breathe oxygen, are able to move, can reproduce sexually, and grow from a hollow sphere of cells, the blastula, during embryonic development.

ⴷ ⵉⵙⵍⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵜⵜⵓ ⴰⵙⴽⵏⴼⴰⵏ, ⵓⵏⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ, ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ, ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⴰⵔⵡ, ⵜⴳⵎⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵉⵅⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ, ⴰⵔⵉⵎⴰ, ⵉⵡⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏ.

Animals can be distinguished into two groups based on their developmental characteristics.

ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵜⵉ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⴳ ⵏⵙⵏⵏⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ.

In protostomes, the blastopore gives rise to the mouth, which is then followed by the formation of the anus.

ⴳ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎⵏ, ⵉⴱⵍⴰⵙⵜⵓⴱⵓⵔⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵖⴷⴰⵏ.

The bodies of most animals are symmetrical, with symmetry being either radial or bilateral.

ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⴽⵙⵉⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵢⵉⴽⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵔⴰⵏ.

Finally, animals can be distinguished based on the type and location of their appendages such as antennae for sensing the environment or claws for capturing prey.

ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ, ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵜⵉ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏⵉⵍ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⴹⵕⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵅⴱⴰⵛⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵥ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵎⵔ.

The majority (~97%) of animal species are invertebrates, which are animals that neither possess nor develop a vertebral column (commonly known as a backbone or spine), derived from the notochord.

ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ (~97%) ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ ⵓⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ (ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵡⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵡⵜ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵜⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵡⵜ.

Many invertebrate taxa have a greater number and variety of species than the entire subphylum of Vertebrata.

ⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ ⴰⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ.

More than 6,000 virus species have been described in detail.

ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 6,000 ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉ.

When not inside an infected cell or in the process of infecting a cell, viruses exist in the form of independent particles, or virions, consisting of the genetic material (DNA or RNA), a protein coat called capsid, and in some cases an outside envelope of lipids.

ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵙⵜ ⵢⵓⴹⵏⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵖⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵢⵓⵏⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ (DNA ⵏⵖⴷ RNA), ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴽⴰⴱⵙⵉⴷ, ⴷ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉ ⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵔⴰⴼⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴹⵕⵥ.

The origins of viruses in the evolutionary history of life are unclear: some may have evolved from plasmids—pieces of DNA that can move between cells—while others may have evolved from bacteria.

ⵏⵜⵍⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ : ⵉⵖⵢ ⴽⵔⴰ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵓⵍⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴱⵍⴰⵙⵎⵉⴷⵏ -- ⵉⵇⵛⵔⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵜⵜⵢ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ -- ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ.

Viruses can spread in many ways.

ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵖⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ.

Norovirus and rotavirus, common causes of viral gastroenteritis, are transmitted by the faecal–oral route, passed by hand-to-mouth contact or in food or water.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵜⵜⵓⵢ ⵏⵓⵕⵓⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵕⵓⵜⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵣⵡⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵅⴷⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵚⵕⵎⴰⵏ, ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵣⵔⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵡⵓⴳⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵜⵜⵛⵉ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ.

The shoot system is composed of stem, leaves, and flowers.

ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵛⵓⵟ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵖⴰⵎⵓ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵊⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ.

The direction of water movement across a semipermeable membrane is determined by the water potential across that membrane.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵥⵉⴹⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵛⵡⵉⵢ.

Most plant seeds are usually dormant, a condition in which the seed's normal activity is suspended.

ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴹⴰⵡ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵡⵏⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ.

Imbibition is the first step in germination, whereby water is absorbed by the seed.

ⵉⵙⵙⵡⵉ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵖⵉ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵙⵙⵓⵎⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ.

These monomers are obtained from the hydrolysis of starch, proteins, and lipids that are stored in either the cotyledons or endosperm.

ⴷⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵓⵎⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴳⵯⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵍⵉⴷⴰⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴽⵓⵜⵉⵍⴷⵓⵏⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴹⵓⵙⴱⵉⵔⵎ.

Their flowers are organs that facilitate reproduction, usually by providing a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs.

ⵉⵊⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵓⵀⴰⵏⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵍⵖⵉⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵍⴰⵢ.

Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower on a different individual of the same species.

ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵙⴳⵣⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵜⴽⴽⵯⴰⵕ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵊⴷⴷⵉⴳ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵢⴹ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴷⵉⵢ ⵓⵅⵓⵍⴼⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵓⵡⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ.

These changes may be affected by genetic, chemical, and physical factors.

ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴹⴰⵚⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⵓⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⴽⵓⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵉⵏ.

The photoreceptor proteins relay information such as whether it is day or night, duration of the day, intensity of light available, and the source of light.

ⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴹⵓⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⴹ, ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵥⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⴳⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ.

Many flowering plants bloom at the appropriate time because of light-sensitive compounds that respond to the length of the night, a phenomenon known as photoperiodism.

ⴷⴰ ⵕⵥⵥⵎⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵊⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴹ, ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵕⵡⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ.

Animals can be classified as either regulators or conformers.

ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵜⵉ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ.

In contrast, animals such as fishes and frogs are conformers as they adapt their internal environment (e.g., body temperature) to match their external environments.

ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⴰ ⵎⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵛⵛⵉⵛⴽⵉⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ( ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ) ⴱⴰⵛ ⴰⴷⴷ ⵢⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ.

Mice, for example, are able to consume three times more food than rabbits in proportion to their weights as the basal metabolic rate per unit weight in mice is greater than in rabbits.

ⵉⵖⵔⴹⴰⵢⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵛⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⴰⵍ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵎⵉⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⵣⵎ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⴰⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⵖⵔⴹⴰ ⵢⵓⴳⵔ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵡⵜⵓⵍ.

However, the relationship is non-linear in animals that swim or fly.

ⵉⵎⵉⵍ, ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵡⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵄⵓⵎⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍ.

At low flight speeds, a bird must maintain a high metabolic rates to remain airborne.

ⴳ ⵉⵙⵙⴷⵔⵉⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵍⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⴳⴳⵓⵣⵏ, ⵉⵅⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵃⴹⵓ ⵓⴳⴹⵉⴹ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⵢⵖⴰⵎⴰ ⴰⵢⵜⵢⴰⵙⴰⵢ.

Finally, freshwater animals have body fluids that are hyperosmotic to fresh water.

ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ, ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⴰⴳⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⵉⵃⵔⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵓ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⴰⴳⵏ.

If an animal were to consume food that contains an excess amount of chemical energy, it will store most of that energy in the form of lipids for future use and some of that energy as glycogen for more immediate use (e.g., meeting the brain's energy needs).

ⵉⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵔ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⵓⵜⵜⵛⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵙⵎⴽⵜⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵛⵉⵎⵉⵢⵜ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵃⴹⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴹⵕⵥ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵖⵔ ⴷⴰⵜ, ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵍⵉⴽⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⴷⵖⵢⴰⵏ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⴷⵉⵡⴰⵊⴱ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵜⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖ).

In addition to their digestive tracts, vertebrate animals have accessory glands such as a liver and pancreas as part of their digestive systems.

ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⴰⵎ, ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⵉⵡⵍⵙⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵏⴽⵕⵢⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴼⴰⵍⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⴰⵎ.

Upon leaving the stomach, food enters into the midgut, which is the first part of the intestine (or small intestine in mammals) and is the principal site of digestion and absorption.

ⴳ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵅⴷⵉⵍ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⴽⵛⵛⵎ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵚⵕⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵚⵕⵎⴰⵏ, (ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵚⵕⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵉⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵥⵥⴰⴳⵉⵏ) ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⴰⵎ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⵎⵎ.

Gas exchange in the lungs occurs in millions of small air sacs; in mammals and reptiles these are called alveoli, and in birds they are known as atria.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵣⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵍⵢⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵛⵛⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ; ⴳ ⵜⵎⵥⵥⴰⴳⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵃⵔⵓⵔⴷⵏ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵛⵏⴱⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ, ⴷ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴹⴰⴹ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵣⴳⵉⵏ.

These enter the lungs where they branch into progressively narrower secondary and tertiary bronchi that branch into numerous smaller tubes, the bronchioles.

ⴷⴰ ⵜⴽⵛⵛⵎ ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵃⵓⵔⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴽⵕⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵢⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⴰⵔ ⴱⵟⵟⵓⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵄⴱⴰ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⵃⵔⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ.

There are two types of circulatory systems: open and closed.

ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵎⵏ: ⵜⴰⵎⵕⵥⵓⵎⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵇⵇⵓⵏⵜ.

Circulation in animals occur between two types of tissues: systemic tissues and breathing (or pulmonary) organs.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵔⵓ ⵓⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵥⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ: ⵜⵉⵥⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⴼⵓⵙ ⵏⵖⴷ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ).

In birds and mammals, the systemic and pulmonary systems are connected in series.

ⴳ ⵉⴳⴹⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵥⵥⴰⴳⵉⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵏⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵡⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ.

Skeletal muscle contractions are neurogenic as they require synaptic input from motor neurons.

ⵉⴽⵔⴰⵔⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵙⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵙⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ.

The contraction produced can be described as a twitch, summation, or tetanus, depending on the frequency of action potentials.

ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵔⴰⵔⵔⴰⵎ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⴳⴰⴳⴰⵢⵜ, ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴱⵓⴽⵔⵓⵙ, ⵉⴳ ⵏⵙⵏⵏⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵚⴹⴼⵕ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵉⴹⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ.

The mechanisms of contraction are similar in all three muscle tissues.

ⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵔⴰⵔⵔⴰⵎ ⴳ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⵓⵥⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵙⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ.

Other animals such as mollusks, and nematodes, possess obliquely striated muscles, which contain bands of thick and thin filaments that are arranged helically rather than transversely, like in vertebrate skeletal or cardiac muscles.

ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵖⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵙⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⵖⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴼⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵎⵓⵏⴹ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵉⵜ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵖⵙⵙⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵙⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵍ.

They can transmit or receive information at sites of contacts called synapses.

ⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵙⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⴰⵎⵍⴰⵇⵇⴰⵢ ⴰⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎ.

Cells such as neurons or muscle cells may be excited or inhibited upon receiving a signal from another neuron.

ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵃⵕⵕⴰⵛⵏⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵙⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵎⵥⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵍⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.

In vertebrates, the nervous system consists of the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which consists of nerves that connect the CNS to every other part of the body.

ⴳ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵓⵏⴳⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ (CNS), ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵏⵍⵉ ⴷ ⴱⵓⵅⴷⴷⵓ, ⴷ ⵓⵏⴳⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎ ⴰⴳⵍⴰⴳⴰⵍ (PNS), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵍⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ.

The PNS is divided into three separate subsystems, the somatic, autonomic, and enteric nervous systems.

ⵉⴱⴹⴰ ⵓⵏⴳⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎ ⴰⴳⵍⴰⴳⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ, ⴰⵏⴳⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎ ⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔⵜⵉⵔⴰⵜ, ⴰⵏⴳⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵚⵕⵎⴰⵏ.

The sympathetic nervous system is activated in cases of emergencies to mobilize energy, while the parasympathetic nervous system is activated when organisms are in a relaxed state.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴼⵓ ⵓⵏⴳⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎ ⴰⵙⴰⵎⴱⴰⵜⵉⴽ ⵉⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵜⴽⵓⵔ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴼⵓ ⵓⵏⴳⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⵍⵓⵎ ⴰⴱⴰⵕⴰⵙⵉⵎⴱⴰⵜⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵙⴳⵓⵏⴼⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ.

Nerves that exit directly from the brain are called cranial nerves while those exiting from the spinal cord are called spinal nerves.

ⵉⵣⵍⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⴰⵏⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵣⵍⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⴳ ⴱⵓⵅⴷⴷⵓ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵣⵍⵍⵓⵎⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵏⵏ.

In humans specifically, the major endocrine glands are the thyroid gland and the adrenal glands.

ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ, ⵜⵉⵡⵍⵙⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵕⵟⴻⵟⵟⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵍⵙⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵎⴼⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵍⵙⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵥⵍⵉⵏ.

Hormones can be amino acid complexes, steroids, eicosanoids, leukotrienes, or prostaglandins.

ⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵀⵓⵕⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ, ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵔⵡⵉⴷⵏ, ⵉⴽⵓⵙⴰⵏⵡⵉⴷⵏ, ⵉⵍⵓⴽⵓⵜⵔⵉⵢⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⴱⵕⵓⵙⵜⴰⴳⵍⴰⵏⴷⵉⵏⵏ.

They produce haploid gametes by meiosis.

ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⴼⴰⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⴱⵍⵖⵉⵡⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵎ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⵢⵢⵓⵥ.

In most cases, a third germ layer, the mesoderm, also develops between them.

ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵉⵍ ⴰⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ, ⴰⵙⵎⵉⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵙⵏ.

Gastrulation occurs, whereby morphogenetic movements convert the cell mass into a three germ layers that comprise the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⴳⴰⵙⵜⵕⵓⵍⴰⵙⵢⵓⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵕⴼⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⴳⵓⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵙⵎⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴽⵜⵓⴷⵉⵕⵎⵏ, ⴰⵎⵉⵙⵓⴷⵉⵔⵎ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴷⵓⴷⵉⵔⵎ.

Cellular differentiation is influenced by extracellular signals such as growth factors that are exchanged to adjacent cells, which is called juxtracrine signaling, or to neighboring cells over short distances, which is called paracrine signaling.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴹⴰⵚ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵖⵔⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵎⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵟⵟⵕⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵊⵓⴽⵙⵜⵔⴰⴽⵔⵉⵏⵜ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵢⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵣⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵍⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵍⵉ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵔⴰⴽⵔⵉⵏ.