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Tamazight NLP 24

The adaptive immune system provides a tailored response to each stimulus by learning to recognize molecules it has previously encountered.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵥⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⵜⵉⵎⵉⵍⵓⵙ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ.

Bacteria have a rudimentary immune system in the form of enzymes that protect against virus infections.

ⵜⴰⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵉⵍ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵔⴳⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ.

Jawed vertebrates, including humans, have even more sophisticated defense mechanisms, including the ability to adapt to recognize pathogens more efficiently.

ⵉⴷ ⵎⵎ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵃⵉⵡⴰⵛ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵥⵜ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⴹⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ.

Fixed action patterns, for instance, are genetically determined and stereotyped behaviors that occur without learning.

ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵣⴳⴰⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴽⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵍⵎⵓⴷ.

The community of living (biotic) organisms in conjunction with the nonliving (abiotic) components (e.g., water, light, radiation, temperature, humidity, atmosphere, acidity, and soil) of their environment is called an ecosystem.

ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ (ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓⵜⵏ) ⵙ ⵜⵙⵖⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷⴷⵉⵔⵏ (ⴰⵔ ⵉⴷⵉⵔⵏ) (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷ, ⵉⵣⵏⵣⵕ, ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵉ, ⵜⴰⵍⵓⵖⵉ, ⴰⵟⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵕ, ⴰⵙⵎⴻⵎ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ) ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵡⵏⴹⴰⵏ.

By feeding on plants and on one another, animals play an important role in the movement of matter and energy through the system.

ⵙⴳ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ.

The Earth's physical environment is shaped by solar energy and topography.

ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴷⵎⴽⴰⵍ.

Weather is the day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity, whereas climate is the long-term average of weather, typically averaged over a period of 30 years.

ⴰⵏⵣⵡⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵓ ⴰⴽⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵕ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵏⵣⵡⴰⵢ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵢⵓⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⴽⴽⴰ 30 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ.

As a result, wet environments allow for lush vegetation to grow.

ⵙ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴳⴳⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵡⴰⴼⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵎⵉⵏ.

Population growth during short-term intervals can be determined using the population growth rate equation, which takes into consideration birth, death, and immigration rates.

ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵡⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓ.

A biological interaction is the effect that a pair of organisms living together in a community have on each other.

ⵜⴰⵙⵇⵇⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ.

A long-term interaction is called a symbiosis.

ⵜⴰⵙⵇⵇⵏⵜ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙ.

There are different trophic levels within any food web, with the lowest level being the primary producers (or autotrophs) such as plants and algae that convert energy and inorganic material into organic compounds, which can then be used by the rest of the community.

ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴷⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵙⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ (ⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏ) ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵙⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵉⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ.

And those that eat secondary consumers are tertiary consumers and so on.

ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵉⵜⴻⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.

In some cycles there are reservoirs where a substance remains or is sequestered for a long period of time.

ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵎⵃⴹⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ.

The largest driver of warming is the emission of greenhouse gases, of which more than 90% are carbon dioxide and methane.

ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵉ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵖⵓⴼⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵓⴽⴰⵕⴱⵓⵏ ⴱⵓ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 90%.

Biodiversity affects the functioning of ecosystems, which provide a variety of services upon which people depend.

ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴹⵉⵚ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⴹⴰⵏⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵏⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ.

Traditionally, botany has also included the study of fungi and algae by mycologists and phycologists respectively, with the study of these three groups of organisms remaining within the sphere of interest of the International Botanical Congress.

ⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⴱⵍⴷⵉ, ⵜⵓⵎⵥ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴹⴼⵕ, ⴷ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴽⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵖⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ.

Medieval physic gardens, often attached to monasteries, contained plants of medical importance.

ⵜⵓⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⵣⵏⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⴰⵙⵜⵉⵔⵏ, ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⵏⴼ.

These gardens facilitated the academic study of plants.

ⵙⵙⵓⵀⵏⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ.

In the last two decades of the 20th century, botanists exploited the techniques of molecular genetic analysis, including genomics and proteomics and DNA sequences to classify plants more accurately.

ⴳ ⵉⵙⵉⵎⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 20, ⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜⴰⵏ, ⵙⴳ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵕⵓⵜⵓⵎⵢⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ.

"Modern botany traces its roots back to Ancient Greece specifically to Theophrastus (c. 371–287 BCE), a student of Aristotle who invented and described many of its principles and is widely regarded in the scientific community as the ""Father of Botany""."

"ⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵍⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵇⴷⵉⵎⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵜⵢⵓⴼⵔⴰⵙⵜⵓⵙ (371-287 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵔⴰⵡ ⵙⴳ ⴰⵕⵉⵙⵟⵓ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ""ⴱⴰⴱⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ""."

De Materia Medica was widely read for more than 1,500 years.

ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵔⴰ ⴷⵉ ⵎⴰⵜⵔⵉⴽⴰ ⵎⵉⴷⵉⴽⴰ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 1,500 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ.

In the mid-16th century, botanical gardens were founded in a number of Italian universities.

ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 16, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵟⴰⵍⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ.

They supported the growth of botany as an academic subject.

ⵓⵡⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵔⵙⵉ ⴰⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢ.

Throughout this period, botany remained firmly subordinate to medicine.

ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ, ⵜⵣⴷⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴳⵏⴼ.

Bock created his own system of plant classification.

ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⴱⵓⴽ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ.

The choice and sequence of the characters may be artificial in keys designed purely for identification (diagnostic keys) or more closely related to the natural or phyletic order of the taxa in synoptic keys.

ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴹⴼⵕ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵍⵥⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ (ⵜⵉⵙⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵢⵉⴽⵣ) ⵏⵖ ⵜⵣⴷⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵏⵓⴱⵜⵉⴽⵢⵉⵏ.

This established a standardised binomial or two-part naming scheme where the first name represented the genus and the second identified the species within the genus.

ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⴱⵓ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵥⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴳⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ.

Increasing knowledge of plant anatomy, morphology and life cycles led to the realisation that there were more natural affinities between plants than the artificial sexual system of Linnaeus.

ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⵢⵉⵍⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵡⴰⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵙⵉ ⴰⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵍⵉⵏⴰⵢⵓⵙ.

The work of Katherine Esau (1898–1997) on plant anatomy is still a major foundation of modern botany.

ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵜⵔⵉⵏ ⵄⵉⵙⵓ (1898–1997) ⴳ ⵓⴼⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ.

The concept that the composition of plant communities such as temperate broadleaf forest changes by a process of ecological succession was developed by Henry Chandler Cowles, Arthur Tansley and Frederic Clements.

ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵉⴼⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵎⴹⴼⵕ ⴰⵡⵏⴹⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵀⵉⵏⵔⵉ ⵜⵛⴰⵏⴷⵍⵕ ⴽⴰⵡⵍⵥ ⴷ ⴰⵕⵜⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⵙⵉⵍⵉ ⴷ ⴼⵔⵉⴷⵉⵔⵉⴽ ⴽⵍⵉⵎⵏⵜⵙ.

The discovery and identification of the auxin plant hormones by Kenneth V. Thimann in 1948 enabled regulation of plant growth by externally applied chemicals.

ⵜⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵀⵓⵕⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜⵜ V. ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ 1948 ⴰⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵛⵉⵎⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ.

20th century developments in plant biochemistry have been driven by modern techniques of organic chemical analysis, such as spectroscopy, chromatography and electrophoresis.

ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵃⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵛⵉⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 20 ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵃⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⴰⵛⵉⵎⵉⵢ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⴱⵉⴽⵜⵕⵓⵙⴽⵓⴱⵉ, ⴰⴽⵔⵓⵎⴰⵜⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵕⵓⴼⵓⵔⵉⵙⵉⵙ.

These technologies enable the biotechnological use of whole plants or plant cell cultures grown in bioreactors to synthesise pesticides, antibiotics or other pharmaceuticals, as well as the practical application of genetically modified crops designed for traits such as improved yield.

ⴷⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵥⵥⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵥⵥⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴱⵢⵓⵔⵢⴰⴽⵜⵓⵔⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴱⵉⵙⵜⵉⵙⵉⴷⵏ, ⴰⵏⵜⵉⴱⵢⵓⵜⵉⴽⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴼⵔⵏ, ⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵀⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ.

Modern systematics aims to reflect and discover phylogenetic relationships between plants.

ⵜⵔⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴼ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ.

As a by-product of photosynthesis, plants release oxygen into the atmosphere, a gas that is required by nearly all living things to carry out cellular respiration.

ⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵕⵥⵥⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵕ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⴰⵣ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵓⵏⴼⵓⵙ ⴰⵖⵔⵙⴰⵏ.

Historically, all living things were classified as either animals or plants and botany covered the study of all organisms not considered animals.

ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ.

"The strictest definition of ""plant"" includes only the ""land plants"" or embryophytes, which include seed plants (gymnosperms, including the pines, and flowering plants) and the free-sporing cryptogams including ferns, clubmosses, liverworts, hornworts and mosses."

"ⵓⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ""ⵓⵎⵖⴰⵢ"" ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ""ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴽⴰⵍⵏ"" ⴷⴰⵢ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵡ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵎⵥⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ (ⵉⵊⵉⵎⵏⵓⵙⴱⵉⵔⵎⵏ, ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴳⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵊⴷⴷⵉⴳⴰⵏⵏ) ⴷ ⵉⴽⵔⵉⴱⵜⵓⴳⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⵙⴱⴱⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵏⵙⵏ, ⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ, ⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰ, ⵉⵀⵓⵕⵏⵡⵓⵕⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵙⵏ."

The sexual haploid phase of embryophytes, known as the gametophyte, nurtures the developing diploid embryo sporophyte within its tissues for at least part of its life, even in the seed plants, where the gametophyte itself is nurtured by its parent sporophyte.

ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵎ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴱⴰ, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⴳⴰⵎⵜⵓⴼⵉⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵛⵜⵜⵛⴰ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵖⵉⵜ ⴱⵓ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵥⴹⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴱⵄⴷⴰ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵛⵜⵜⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵉⵜⵓⴼⵉⵜ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵖⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ.

Palaeobotanists study ancient plants in the fossil record to provide information about the evolutionary history of plants.

ⴷⴰ ⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⵖⵓⵣⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ.

This is what ecologists call the first trophic level.

ⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ.

Botanists also study weeds, which are a considerable problem in agriculture, and the biology and control of plant pathogens in agriculture and natural ecosystems.

ⴷⴰ ⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵓⴳⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ, ⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴽⵔⵣⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ.

The light energy captured by chlorophyll a is initially in the form of electrons (and later a proton gradient) that's used to make molecules of ATP and NADPH which temporarily store and transport energy.

ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵎⵥ ⵓⴽⵍⵓⵕⵓⴼⵉⵍ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵕⵓⵏⵏ (ⵖⵔ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍ ⵉⴱⵕⵓⵜⵓⵏⵏ) ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵇⵛⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ATP ⴷ NADPH ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵃⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ.

Some of the glucose is converted to starch which is stored in the chloroplast.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵍⵉⴽⵓⵥ ⵙ ⴰⴳⵯⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴱⵍⴰⵙⵜⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵣⴰⵡⵏ.

Unlike in animals (which lack chloroplasts), plants and their eukaryote relatives have delegated many biochemical roles to their chloroplasts, including synthesising all their fatty acids, and most amino acids.

ⴳⵜⵓⴳⴷⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ (ⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⴱⵍⴰⵙⵜⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵣⴰⵡⵏ), ⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴱⵢⵓⵛⵉⵎⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴱⵍⴰⵙⵜⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵣⴰⵡⵏ, ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⴹⵕⵥⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ.

Vascular land plants make lignin, a polymer used to strengthen the secondary cell walls of xylem tracheids and vessels to keep them from collapsing when a plant sucks water through them under water stress.

ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵃⴰⴳⵍⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⵎⵕ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵉⴳⵉⴷⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵊⵄⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⴼⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵃⴰⴳⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵔⴷⵍⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⵓⵎ ⵓⵎⵖⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵍⵍⴷ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ.

Others, such as the essential oils peppermint oil and lemon oil are useful for their aroma, as flavourings and spices (e.g., capsaicin), and in medicine as pharmaceuticals as in opium from opium poppies.

ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵜⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵜⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵏⵏⵄⵏⴰⵄ ⴷ ⵓⵣⴰⵜⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵎ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⴹⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵉⴹⴼⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⴼⴰⵔ (ⴰⵎ ⵍⴽⴰⴱⵙⵉⵙⵉⵏ), ⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴼⵢⵓⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵅⵛⵅⴰⵛ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⵢⵓⵏ.

For example, the pain killer aspirin is the acetyl ester of salicylic acid, originally isolated from the bark of willow trees, and a wide range of opiate painkillers like heroin are obtained by chemical modification of morphine obtained from the opium poppy.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵙⴱⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵃⵃⴰⴹ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵔ ⴰⵙⵉⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵍⵉⵙⵉⵍⵉⴽ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⴽⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵚⴼⵚⴰⴼ, ⴰⵔ ⵏⵏ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⴹⵏ ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴼⵙⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵃⵃⴰⴹ ⴰⴼⵢⵓⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵍⵀⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵛⵉⵎⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵔⴼⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵅⵛⵅⴰⵛ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⵢⵓⵏ.

Native Americans have used various plants as ways of treating illness or disease for thousands of years.

ⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵚⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴳⵏⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ.

Sugar, starch, cotton, linen, hemp, some types of rope, wood and particle boards, papyrus and paper, vegetable oils, wax, and natural rubber are examples of commercially important materials made from plant tissues or their secondary products.

ⵙⵙⴽⵔ, ⴰⴳⵯⵔⵏ, ⵍⵇⴹⵏ, ⵍⴽⵜⵜⴰⵏ, ⵍⵇⵏⵏⴱ, ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⴹ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴰⴱⵔⴷⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵔⵉⵇⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵜⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ, ⵛⵛⵎⵄ, ⴷ ⵍⴽⴰⵡⴰⵜⵛⵓ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵥⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏ.

Products made from cellulose include rayon and cellophane, wallpaper paste, biobutanol and gun cotton.

ⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⵉⵍⵓⵣ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵕⴰⵢⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⵍⵓⴼⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⵍⵖⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵔⵉⵇⵉⵏ, ⴰⴱⵢⵓⴱⵉⵜⴰⵏⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵍⵇⴹⵏ.

Some ecologists even rely on empirical data from indigenous people that is gathered by ethnobotanists.

ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵏⵚⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ.

Plants depend on certain edaphic (soil) and climatic factors in their environment but can modify these factors too.

ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵣⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵉ.

They interact with their neighbours at a variety of spatial scales in groups, populations and communities that collectively constitute vegetation.

ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⵊⴰⵕⵏ ⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵙⵔⴳⵍ ⴰⵎⵖⴰⵢⴰⵏ.

Gregor Mendel discovered the genetic laws of inheritance by studying inherited traits such as shape in Pisum sativum (peas).

ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⴳⵔⵉⴳⵓⵔ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉⵍ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴽⵓⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⴽⵓⵙⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⴳ ⴱⵉⵙⵓⵎ ⵙⴰⵜⵉⴼⵓⵎ (ⵊⵍⴱⴰⵏⴰ).

Nevertheless, there are some distinctive genetic differences between plants and other organisms.

ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.

The many cultivated varieties of wheat are the result of multiple inter- and intra-specific crosses between wild species and their hybrids.

ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴷⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⵔⴰⵣⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵇⵇⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵍⵇⵇⵎⵏ.

In many land plants the male and female gametes are produced by separate individuals.

ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⴰⵏⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⴱⵍⵖⵉⵡⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ.

The formation of stem tubers in potato is one example.

ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴱⴰⵟⴰⵟⴰ.

Apomixis can also happen in a seed, producing a seed that contains an embryo genetically identical to the parent.

ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵊⵕⵓ ⵓⴱⵓⵎⵉⴽⵙⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⴷ, ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ.

An allopolyploid plant may result from a hybridisation event between two different species.

ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵓⵎⵖⴰⵢ ⴱⵓ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵇⵇⵎ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ.

Some otherwise sterile plant polyploids can still reproduce vegetatively or by seed apomixis, forming clonal populations of identical individuals.

ⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵍⵉⴱⵍⵡⵉⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵣⴷⴰⴳⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵢⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵖⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⴽⵙⵉⵎⵉⵙ, ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵍⵖ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵓⵏⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ.

Common dandelion is a triploid that produces viable seeds by apomictic seed.

ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴱⵉⵙⵓⵏⵍⵉ ⴱⵓ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵔ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⵎⵉⵜⵉⴽ.

The sequencing of some other relatively small genomes, of rice (Oryza sativa) and Brachypodium distachyon, has made them important model species for understanding the genetics, cellular and molecular biology of cereals, grasses and monocots generally.

ⴰⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏ ⵛⵡⵉⵢ, ⵙⴳ ⵕⵕⵓⵣ (ⵓⵕⵉⵣⴰ ⵙⴰⵜⵉⴼⴰ) ⴷ ⵓⴱⵕⴰⵛⵉⴱⵓⴷⵢⵓⵎ ⴷⵉⵙⵜⴰⵛⵢⵓⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ, ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵓⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵓⴽⵓⵙⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ.

Spinach, peas, soybeans and a moss Physcomitrella patens are commonly used to study plant cell biology.

ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵉⵏⴰⵛ, ⵜⴰⵊⵍⴱⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⴱⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ.

Gene expression can also be controlled by repressor proteins that attach to silencer regions of the DNA and prevent that region of the DNA code from being expressed.

ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴱⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵡⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⴷⴷⵍ ⴰⵡⵏⵏⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵏⵉⴳⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏ.

Some epigenetic changes have been shown to be heritable, while others are reset in the germ cells.

ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵥⴰⵢ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵓⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵎ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ.

Unlike animals, many plant cells, particularly those of the parenchyma, do not terminally differentiate, remaining totipotent with the ability to give rise to a new individual plant.

ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ, ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴱⴰⵔⵓⵏⵛⵉⵎⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ, ⵇⵇⵉⵎⵏⵜ ⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵣⵎⵔⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⵎⵖⴰⵢ ⵓⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ.

The algae are a polyphyletic group and are placed in various divisions, some more closely related to plants than others.

ⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵎⵎ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵢⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵓⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴷⵉⴽⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ.

The Charophyte class Charophyceae and the land plant sub-kingdom Embryophyta together form the monophyletic group or clade Streptophytina.

ⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵕⵓⴼⵢⵜ ⴰⵙⵎⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵕⵓⴼⵉⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵓⵎⴱⵕⵢⵓⴼⵉⵜⴰ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵎ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙⵜⵔⵉⵃⵜⵓⴼⵉⵜⵉⵏⴰ ⴽⵍⴰⴷ.

Pteridophytic vascular plants with true xylem and phloem that reproduced by spores germinating into free-living gametophytes evolved during the Silurian period and diversified into several lineages during the late Silurian and early Devonian.

ⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵀⴰⴳⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵎⵏ ⴱⵜⵉⵔⵉⴷⵓⴼⵉⵜⵉⴽ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⴹ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵍⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴰⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵡⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⵓⵕⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵙⵉⵍⵓⵔⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴷⵉⴼⵓⵏⵉⵢ.

Their reduced gametophytes developed from megaspores retained within the spore-producing organs (megasporangia) of the sporophyte, a condition known as endospory.

ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵍⵖⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴳⵣⵍⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⵢⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵥⵏ ⴰⴳⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ (ⵎⵉⴳⴰⵙⴱⵓⵕⴰⵏⵊⵢⴰ) ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⴰⵢ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵉ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴷⵓⵙⴱⵓⵔⵉ.

The earliest known seed plants date from the latest Devonian Famennian stage.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴷⵉⴼⵓⵏⵉⵢ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ.

Chemicals obtained from the air, soil and water form the basis of all plant metabolism.

ⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵎⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ, ⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ.

Heterotrophs including all animals, all fungi, all completely parasitic plants, and non-photosynthetic bacteria take in organic molecules produced by photoautotrophs and respire them or use them in the construction of cells and tissues.

ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⴻⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ, ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ, ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵔⴰⵥⵉⵟⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵎⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⴼⴰⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵙⵓⵏⴼⵓⵙⵏⵜ ⵏⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵚⴽⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵥⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ.

Subcellular transport of ions, electrons and molecules such as water and enzymes occurs across cell membranes.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓ ⴰⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⴰⵖⵔⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵏⵏ, ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵕⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵎⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⵉⵎⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ.

Examples of elements that plants need to transport are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur.

ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵙⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⵓⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵏ ⴰⵏⵉⵜⵕⵓⵊⵉⵏ, ⴰⴼⵓⵙⴼⵓⵕ, ⴰⴱⵓⵜⴰⵙⵢⵓⵎ, ⴰⴽⴰⵍⵙⵢⵓⵎ, ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵖⴰⵏⵉⵣⵢⵓⵎ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵓⵍⴼⵓⵕ.

This compound mediates the tropic responses of shoots and roots towards light and gravity.

ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵕⵓⴱⵉⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⵉⵣⵖⴰ.

The natural cytokinin zeatin was discovered in corn, Zea mays, and is a derivative of the purine adenine.

ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵓⵙⵉⵜⵓⴽⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴽⵓⵕⵏ, ⵣⵢⴰ ⵎⴰⵢⵙ, ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ.

They are involved in the promotion of germination and dormancy-breaking in seeds, in regulation of plant height by controlling stem elongation and the control of flowering.

ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵖⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵕⵓⵥⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵎⵉ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴱⴹ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵖⵣⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵖⴰⵎⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴱⴱⴹ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ.

It was so named because it was originally thought to control abscission.

ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵏⴱⴱⴹ ⴳ ⵉⵄⴰⵢⴷ.

Another class of phytohormones is the jasmonates, first isolated from the oil of Jasminum grandiflorum which regulates wound responses in plants by unblocking the expression of genes required in the systemic acquired resistance response to pathogen attack.

ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵉⵍ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵀⵓⵕⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵊⴰⵙⵎⵓⵏⴰⵜⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⴰⵜⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵊⴰⵙⵎⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⴳⵔⴰⴷⵉⴼⵍⵓⵕⵉⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵄⵟⵟⵉⴱⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵥⵥⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵏⵏⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵜⵜⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵣⴱⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⵄⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵓⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴳⵏⴼ.

Non-vascular plants, the liverworts, hornworts and mosses do not produce ground-penetrating vascular roots and most of the plant participates in photosynthesis.

ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵃⴰⴳⵍⵓⵜⵏ, ⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⴰ, ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⵀⵇⴰⵕⵏⵉⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵀⴰⴳⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴽⵛⵛⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵙⵙⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ.

Cells in each system are capable of creating cells of the other and producing adventitious shoots or roots.

ⵜⵉⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵖⴷⴷⵉⵡⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ.

In the event that one of the systems is lost, the other can often regrow it.

ⵉⴳ ⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ, ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⵡⴰⵢⴹ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴳⵎ.

In vascular plants, the xylem and phloem are the conductive tissues that transport resources between shoots and roots.

ⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵃⴰⴳⵍⵓⵜⵏ, ⴰⵥⵟⵟⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⴹ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵍⵓⵡⵉⵎ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵟⵟⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵡⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵖⴷⴷⵉⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ.

Leaves gather sunlight and carry out photosynthesis.

ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ.

Angiosperms are seed-producing plants that produce flowers and have enclosed seeds.

ⵜⵉⵎⵖⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴰⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴰⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵊⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵉⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ.

Some plants reproduce sexually, some asexually, and some via both means.

ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴳⴰⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵇⵇⵓⵜ, ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵇⵇⵓⵜ, ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ.

Biological classification is a form of scientific taxonomy.

ⴰⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ.

While scientists do not always agree on how to classify organisms, molecular phylogenetics, which uses DNA sequences as data, has driven many recent revisions along evolutionary lines and is likely to continue to do so.

ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⴷⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ, ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴱⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴷ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ.

The nomenclature of botanical organisms is codified in the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) and administered by the International Botanical Congress.

ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ, ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ (ICN) ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ.

The scientific name of a plant represents its genus and its species within the genus, resulting in a single worldwide name for each organism.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⴰⵢ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵙⵉⵜ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵓⴷⵔ.

The combination is the name of the species.

ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ.

The evolutionary relationships and heredity of a group of organisms is called its phylogeny.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ.

As an example, species of Pereskia are trees or bushes with prominent leaves.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴱⵉⵔⵉⵙⴽⵉⵢⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⵯⵍⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⴽⵍⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵡⴰⴼⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ.

Judging relationships based on shared characters requires care, since plants may resemble one another through convergent evolution in which characters have arisen independently.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⵉⴱⴹⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵚⴽⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴷ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵉⵎⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴳⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ.

Only derived characters, such as the spine-producing areoles of cacti, provide evidence for descent from a common ancestor.

ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴼⵓⵖⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵔⵉⵣⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴼⵉⵍ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⵓⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵡⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴰⵔ.

The difference is that the genetic code itself is used to decide evolutionary relationships, instead of being used indirectly via the characters it gives rise to.

ⴰⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵉⴳⵍ ⵏ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⵔⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ.