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Tamazight NLP 24

The first two are all prokaryotic microorganisms, or mostly single-celled organisms whose cells have a distorted or non-membrane bound nucleus.

ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵉⴷⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⵇⵇⴱⵓⵔ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵎⵉⵉⴼⵔⵖ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵣⴷⵉⵢⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⴼⵜ.

Halophiles, organisms that thrive in highly salty environments, and hyperthermophiles, organisms that thrive in extremely hot environments, are examples of Archaea.

ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵀⴰⵍⵓⴼⵉⵍ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⵖⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵔⵖⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵖⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵛⵢⴰ.

Cyanobacteria and mycoplasmas are two examples of bacteria.

ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵊⵏⵊⴰⵍⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵉⴽⵓⴱⵍⴰⵣⵎⴰ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ.

Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations.

ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⴽⵓⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⴹⴼⴰⵔⵏ.

Evolution occurs when evolutionary processes such as natural selection (including sexual selection) and genetic drift act on this variation, resulting in certain characteristics becoming more common or rare within a population.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ (ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵙⵉⵜ) ⴷ ⵓⴼⵔⵔⵓⵖ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ.

The scientific theory of evolution by natural selection was conceived independently by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in the mid-19th century and was set out in detail in Darwin's book On the Origin of Species.

ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵛⴰⵕⵍⵣ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵍⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⵕⴰⵙⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵍⴰⵚ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 19 ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ.

Thus, in successive generations members of a population are more likely to be replaced by the progenies of parents with favourable characteristics that have enabled them to survive and reproduce in their respective environments.

ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵏ ⵢⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵇⵇⵉⵎⵏ ⴳⴳⴰⴷⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵙⵏ.

The fossil record includes a progression from early biogenic graphite, to microbial mat fossils, to fossilised multicellular organisms.

ⴰⵔⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵖⵓⵣ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ, ⵙ ⵜⵖⵓⵣⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵎⵉⴽⵔⵓⴱⵉⵢ, ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵖⵓⵣⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵓ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ.

It sought explanations of natural phenomena in terms of physical laws that were the same for all visible things and that did not require the existence of any fixed natural categories or divine cosmic order.

ⵉⵔⵣⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵕⴱⴱⴰⵏⵉⵢ.

The biological classification introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1735 explicitly recognised the hierarchical nature of species relationships, but still viewed species as fixed according to a divine plan.

ⵉⵇⵔⵔⴰ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⵍⵉⵏⵢⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1735 ⵙ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵣⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵕⴱⴱⵉ.

These ideas were condemned by established naturalists as speculation lacking empirical support.

ⵜⵜⵓⵏⴽⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵜ.

"Partly influenced by An Essay on the Principle of Population (1798) by Thomas Robert Malthus, Darwin noted that population growth would lead to a ""struggle for existence"" in which favourable variations prevailed as others perished."

"ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴹⴰⵚ ⵛⵡⵉⵢⵢ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⴹ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵏⵥⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ (1798) ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵕⵓⴱⵉⵔⵜ ⵎⴰⵍⵜⵓⵙ, ⵉⵙⵏⵄⵜ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵙ ""ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ"" ⴳ ⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵎⵎⵓⵜⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ."

"Darwin developed his theory of ""natural selection"" from 1838 onwards and was writing up his ""big book"" on the subject when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him a version of virtually the same theory in 1858."

"ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ""ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ"" ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1838 ⵙ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵓ ""ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ"" ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⴳⵓⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵓⵣⵏ ⴰⵍⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⵕⴰⵙⵍ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1858."

Towards this end, Darwin developed his provisional theory of pangenesis.

ⴱⴰⵛ ⴰⵏⵏ ⵢⴰⵡⴹ ⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵟⵍⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ.

To explain how new variants originate, de Vries developed a mutation theory that led to a temporary rift between those who accepted Darwinian evolution and biometricians who allied with de Vries.

ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ, ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⴷⵉⴼⵔⵉⵙ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵅⴰⵍⴰⴼ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵟⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⴷⵉⴼⵔⵉⵙ.

The publication of the structure of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick with contribution of Rosalind Franklin in 1953 demonstrated a physical mechanism for inheritance.

ⴰⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⵏ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⴷ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵊⵉⵎⵙ ⵡⴰⵜⵙⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙ ⴽⵔⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵔⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵕⵓⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏⴷ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⴽⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1953 ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ.

"In 1973, evolutionary biologist Theodosius Dobzhansky penned that ""nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution,"" because it has brought to light the relations of what first seemed disjointed facts in natural history into a coherent explanatory body of knowledge that describes and predicts many observable facts about life on this planet."

"ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1973, ⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵢⵓⴷⵓⵙⵢⵓⵙ ⴷⵓⴱⵣⴰⵏⵙⴽⵉ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ""ⴰⵡⴷ ⵃⴰⵃ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ,"" ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴷⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵥⵕⵕⴰ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⴷⵜⵜ ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵓⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⴰⵍ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵥⵕ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵜⵍⵉ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ."

The complete set of observable traits that make up the structure and behaviour of an organism is called its phenotype.

ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵥⵕ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴽⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴼⵉⵏⵓⵜⵉⴱ.

For example, suntanned skin comes from the interaction between a person's genotype and sunlight; thus, suntans are not passed on to people's children.

ⵙⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⴷⴷⵓ ⵢⵉⵍⵎ ⴰⵎⵣⵓⵏⵣⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵖ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵜ; ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵜⵜⵓⵢ ⵓⵣⵏⵣⵍ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⴷⵏ.

DNA is a long biopolymer composed of four types of bases.

ⴰⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⵢⵓⴱⵓⵍⵉⵎⵔ ⴰⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏ.

Portions of a DNA molecule that specify a single functional unit are called genes; different genes have different sequences of bases.

ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵇⵛⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ DNA ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ; ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵙⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏ.

If the DNA sequence at a locus varies between individuals, the different forms of this sequence are called alleles.

ⵉⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ.

However, while this simple correspondence between an allele and a trait works in some cases, most traits are more complex and are controlled by quantitative trait loci (multiple interacting genes).

ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵎⴽ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵓⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⵙⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴷⵉⴽⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴱⴰⴹ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⵎⴽⵜⴰⵢⵉⵏ (ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ).

DNA methylation marking chromatin, self-sustaining metabolic loops, gene silencing by RNA interference and the three-dimensional conformation of proteins (such as prions) are areas where epigenetic inheritance systems have been discovered at the organismic level.

ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ DNA ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵓⴽⵕⵓⵎⴰⵜⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⵅⵔⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⵣⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵀⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵓⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ RNA ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⴱⵔⵢⵓⵏⵏ) ⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵎⴰⵎ.

For example, ecological inheritance through the process of niche construction is defined by the regular and repeated activities of organisms in their environment.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵓⴽⴽⵓⵙ ⴰⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵍⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ.

Despite the constant introduction of new variation through mutation and gene flow, most of the genome of a species is identical in all individuals of that species.

ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ.

A substantial part of the phenotypic variation in a population is caused by genotypic variation.

ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ.

Variation disappears when a new allele reaches the point of fixation—when it either disappears from the population or replaces the ancestral allele entirely.

ⴰⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵛⴽⴰ ⵉⵖ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵍⴽⵎ ⵓⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵙ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⵉⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵣⵣⴳⵓ—ⵉⴳ ⵢⵓⵛⴽⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⴹⵕ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ.

When mutations occur, they may alter the product of a gene, or prevent the gene from functioning, or have no effect.

ⵉⴳ ⵊⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ, ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵙⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵚ.

Extra copies of genes are a major source of the raw material needed for new genes to evolve.

ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⵖⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵎ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵓⵖⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ.

New genes can be generated from an ancestral gene when a duplicate copy mutates and acquires a new function.

ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⵉⵔⵡ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵍⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ.

The generation of new genes can also involve small parts of several genes being duplicated, with these fragments then recombining to form new combinations with new functions.

ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵎⵥ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵔⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ.

Recombination and reassortment do not alter allele frequencies, but instead change which alleles are associated with each other, producing offspring with new combinations of alleles.

ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴳ ⴰⵙⵏ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ.

The first cost is that in sexually dimorphic species only one of the two sexes can bear young.

ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵜⵖⵢ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵡⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵙⵢ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵏ.

Yet sexual reproduction is the more common means of reproduction among eukaryotes and multicellular organisms.

ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴳⴰⴷⵉⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ.

Gene transfer between species includes the formation of hybrid organisms and horizontal gene transfer.

ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵍⵇⵇⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵉⵜ.

Horizontal transfer of genes from bacteria to eukaryotes such as the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the adzuki bean weevil Callosobruchus chinensis has occurred.

ⵉⵊⵕⴰ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵉⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵜⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵛⴰⵕⵓⵎⵉⵙⵉⵣ ⵙⵉⵔⵉⴼⵉⵙⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⴼⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴱⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴷⵣⵓⴽⵉ ⴽⴰⵍⵓⵙⵓⴱⵕⵓⵛⵓⵙ ⵛⵉⵏⵉⵏⵙⵉⵙ.

Different traits confer different rates of survival and reproduction (differential fitness).

ⴷⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎⵉ ⴷ ⵜⴳⴰⴷⵉⵜ (ⴰⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓ ⴰⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ).

Consequently, organisms with traits that give them an advantage over their competitors are more likely to pass on their traits to the next generation than those with traits that do not confer an advantage.

ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ, ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵍⵉⵏ.

The central concept of natural selection is the evolutionary fitness of an organism.

ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ.

For example, if an organism could survive well and reproduce rapidly, but its offspring were all too small and weak to survive, this organism would make little genetic contribution to future generations and would thus have low fitness.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⴳ ⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵀⵢⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⵡ ⴼⵉⵙⴰⵄ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵉⴷⴷⵔ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⴽ ⴰⴼⵕⵕⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ, ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓ ⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵣⵏ.

Examples of traits that can increase fitness are enhanced survival and increased fecundity.

ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓ ⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ.

However, even if the direction of selection does reverse in this way, traits that were lost in the past may not re-evolve in an identical form (see Dollo's law).

ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴷⴰ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵛⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵡⵉⵜ (ⵥⵕ ⴰⵣⵔⴼ ⵏ ⴷⵓⵍⵓ).

The first is directional selection, which is a shift in the average value of a trait over time—for example, organisms slowly getting taller.

ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵏⵉⴷⴰⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⵙⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ—ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴷⴷⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ.

Finally, in stabilising selection there is selection against extreme trait values on both ends, which causes a decrease in variance around the average value and less diversity.

ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ, ⴳ ⵓⵣⵣⴳⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵟⵟⵓⵕⴼⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵢⵉⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⴳⵓⵣ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ.

This broad understanding of nature enables scientists to delineate specific forces which, together, comprise natural selection.

ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⵉ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ.

However, the rate of recombination is low (approximately two events per chromosome per generation).

ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⵉⴳⴳⵣ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ (ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓ ⴰⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵎ ⵉ ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ).

A set of alleles that is usually inherited in a group is called a haplotype.

ⵜⴰⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵢⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⴽⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵓⴼⵔⵉⴷ.

This drift halts when an allele eventually becomes fixed, either by disappearing from the population or replacing the other alleles entirely.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵓⵏⵏⵅⵜⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵣⴳⴰ ⵓⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ, ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵛⴽⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ.

The neutral theory of molecular evolution proposed that most evolutionary changes are the result of the fixation of neutral mutations by genetic drift.

ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵎⵔ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵡⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⴳⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵡⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵏⵅⵜⵎ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ.

However, a more recent and better-supported version of this model is the nearly neutral theory, where a mutation that would be effectively neutral in a small population is not necessarily neutral in a large population.

ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵍⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵡⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵔⴰⵡⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵕⵡⵉ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ.

The number of individuals in a population is not critical, but instead a measure known as the effective population size.

ⴰⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵣⵖⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵖⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⴰⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵉⵕⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ.

The presence or absence of gene flow fundamentally changes the course of evolution.

ⵉⵍⵉ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵔⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ.

This opposing-pressures argument was long used to dismiss the possibility of internal tendencies in evolution, until the molecular era prompted renewed interest in neutral evolution.

ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵍⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⴰⵍⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⴼ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ, ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴽⵉ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴼⵔⵓ ⴰⵙⵍⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⵔⴰⵡⵙⴰⵏ.

For instance, mutation biases are frequently invoked in models of codon usage.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜ ⵎⴰⴳ ⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵓⴷⵓⵏ.

Different insertion vs. deletion biases in different taxa can lead to the evolution of different genome sizes.

ⵉⵎⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴽⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ.

Contemporary thinking about the role of mutation biases reflects a different theory from that of Haldane and Fisher.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵀⴰⵍⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴼⵉⵛⵉⵔ.

Organisms can also respond to selection by cooperating with each other, usually by aiding their relatives or engaging in mutually beneficial symbiosis.

ⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴰⴷⵎⵔⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵢⵉⴷⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵖⵓⵔ.

Macroevolution refers to evolution that occurs at or above the level of species, in particular speciation and extinction; whereas microevolution refers to smaller evolutionary changes within a species or population, in particular shifts in allele frequency and adaptation.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⴰⵙ, ⵍⵓⵎⴰⵕ ⴰⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵛⵛⴽⵉ; ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ, ⵍⵓⵎⴰⵕ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵎⴹⴼⵕ ⵏ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ.

However, in macroevolution, the traits of the entire species may be important.

ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⴳ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ, ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏⵜ.

"A common misconception is that evolution has goals, long-term plans, or an innate tendency for ""progress"", as expressed in beliefs such as orthogenesis and evolutionism; realistically however, evolution has no long-term goal and does not necessarily produce greater complexity."

"ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⵣⴳⵍⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ""ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ"", ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵉⴷⵎⵓⵜⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ; ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⴰⵙⵓⵖⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓ ⴰⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ."

Also, the term adaptation may refer to a trait that is important for an organism's survival.

ⴰⵡⴷ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵄⵜ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵔⵙⵜ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ.

An adaptive trait is an aspect of the developmental pattern of the organism which enables or enhances the probability of that organism surviving and reproducing.

ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴳⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵥⴹⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴳⴰⴷⵉⵜ.

Other striking examples are the bacteria Escherichia coli evolving the ability to use citric acid as a nutrient in a long-term laboratory experiment, Flavobacterium evolving a novel enzyme that allows these bacteria to grow on the by-products of nylon manufacturing, and the soil bacterium Sphingobium evolving an entirely new metabolic pathway that degrades the synthetic pesticide pentachlorophenol.

ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴹⴼⵜ, ⵜⴰⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵉⵔⵉⵛⵢⴰ ⴽⵓⵍⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵙⵉⵜⵔⵉⴽ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵜⵛⵓ ⴳ ⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⴰⵙⴰⴽⵯⴰⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵓⴼⵍⴰⴼⵓⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⵓⵎ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⵉⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳⵎⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵢⵍⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⵓⵎ ⵙⴼⵉⵏⴳⵓⴱⵢⵓⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵉⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⴽⵉⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵏⵜⴰⴽⵍⵓⵔⵓⴼⵉⵏⵓⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵉⵙⵜⵉⵙⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵖⵔⵓⴼⵜ.

Consequently, structures with similar internal organisation may have different functions in related organisms.

ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ, ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵙ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵥⴰⵕⵙ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ.

However, since all living organisms are related to some extent, even organs that appear to have little or no structural similarity, such as arthropod, squid and vertebrate eyes, or the limbs and wings of arthropods and vertebrates, can depend on a common set of homologous genes that control their assembly and function; this is called deep homology.

ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵎⵎⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⵛⵡⵉⵢ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵕⵜⵕⵓⴱⵓⴷⵏ, ⵉⵙⴽⵉⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴼⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵜⵕⵓⴱⵓⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵓⵍ, ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⵏⴷⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ; ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⵎⴻⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵉⵄⵓⴱⵏ.

Examples include pseudogenes, the non-functional remains of eyes in blind cave-dwelling fish, wings in flightless birds, the presence of hip bones in whales and snakes, and sexual traits in organisms that reproduce via asexual reproduction.

ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵉⴱⵙⵓⴷⵓⵊⵉⵏⵏ, ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵄⵎⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⴼⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴹⴰⴹ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵏ, ⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵓⴽ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵖⵔⵉⵡⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵡⵙⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴰⴷⴰⵢⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵇⵇⵓⵜ.

One example is the African lizard Holaspis guentheri, which developed an extremely flat head for hiding in crevices, as can be seen by looking at its near relatives.

ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵇⵇⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵉⵢⵜ ⵀⵓⵍⴰⵙⴱⵉⵙ ⴳⵉⵏⵜⵓⵔⵉ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵅⴼ ⴰⵎⵣⵓⵔ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⴼⴼⵔ ⴳ ⵉⴱⵅⵙⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵏⵉⵥⵉⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⵖⵔ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ.

Another example is the recruitment of enzymes from glycolysis and xenobiotic metabolism to serve as structural proteins called crystallins within the lenses of organisms' eyes.

ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵢⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⵔⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⵉⵎⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵙⵙⴽⵯⵕ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵔⴼⵓ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⴽⵕⵉⵚⵟⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵍⵉⵏⵜⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ.

These studies have shown that evolution can alter development to produce new structures, such as embryonic bone structures that develop into the jaw in other animals instead forming part of the middle ear in mammals.

ⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⵔⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵖⵙⵙⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⴳⵊⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵥⵥⵓⵖ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵥⵥⴰⴳⵉⵏ.

These changes in the second species then, in turn, cause new adaptations in the first species.

ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ.

For instance, an extreme cooperation exists between plants and the mycorrhizal fungi that grow on their roots and aid the plant in absorbing nutrients from the soil.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵙⵍⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⵎⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵙ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ.

Coalitions between organisms of the same species have also evolved.

ⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ.

Here, somatic cells respond to specific signals that instruct them whether to grow, remain as they are, or die.

ⵖⵉⴷ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⴰⴷⵎⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⴳⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵓⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵎⵎⵓⵜ.

"There are multiple ways to define the concept of ""species."""

"ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⴽⴷ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ""ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ."""

Despite the diversity of various species concepts, these various concepts can be placed into one of three broad philosophical approaches: interbreeding, ecological and phylogenetic.

ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵍⵙⵓⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ: ⵜⵓⵇⵇⵓⵜ, ⴰⵢⴽⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ.

Despite its wide and long-term use, the BSC like others is not without controversy, for example because these concepts cannot be applied to prokaryotes, and this is called the species problem.

ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵓⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ, ⵉⴳⴰ BSC ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⵏⵙⵉ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵉ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ.

Gene flow may slow this process by spreading the new genetic variants also to the other populations.

ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵥⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.

In this case, closely related species may regularly interbreed, but hybrids will be selected against and the species will remain distinct.

ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ, ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵢⴰⵇⵇⵓⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵍⵇⵇⵎⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵇⵇⵉⵎⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵙⵜⵉⵏ.

Speciation has been observed multiple times under both controlled laboratory conditions (see laboratory experiments of speciation) and in nature.

ⵉⵜⵡⴰⴽⵣ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵙⵓⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⴰⵏ (ⵥⵕ ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴽⵯⵏⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ) ⴷ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ.

The most common in animals is allopatric speciation, which occurs in populations initially isolated geographically, such as by habitat fragmentation or migration.

ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵍⵓⴱⴰⵜⵔⵉⴽ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵊⵓⵖⵕⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵓⵖⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓ.

The second mode of speciation is peripatric speciation, which occurs when small populations of organisms become isolated in a new environment.

ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⵓⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ.

The third mode is parapatric speciation.

ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⵔⵡⵉⵙ.

Generally this occurs when there has been a drastic change in the environment within the parental species' habitat.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ.

Selection against interbreeding with the metal-sensitive parental population produced a gradual change in the flowering time of the metal-resistant plants, which eventually produced complete reproductive isolation.

ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵇⵇⵎ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵇⴷⴷⴰⵃ ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⵣⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵇⴷⴷⴰⵃ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵉⴷ.

This form is rare since even a small amount of gene flow may remove genetic differences between parts of a population.

ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⴽⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵜⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴽⴽⵙ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ.

This is not common in animals as animal hybrids are usually sterile.

ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵍⵇⵇⵎⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵢⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵔⵉⵢⵏ.

This allows the chromosomes from each parental species to form matching pairs during meiosis, since each parent's chromosomes are represented by a pair already.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⵓⵢⴰⴷ ⵉ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵜⵏ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⵓⵣ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰ.

Indeed, chromosome doubling within a species may be a common cause of reproductive isolation, as half the doubled chromosomes will be unmatched when breeding with undoubled organisms.

ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵏⵓⴹⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵔⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵎ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵣⴳⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⴹⵓⵜⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵖ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵏⵓⴹⵏ.

Nearly all animal and plant species that have lived on Earth are now extinct, and extinction appears to be the ultimate fate of all species.

ⵯⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵛⵛⴽⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⵉⵛⵛⴽⵉ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ.

Despite the estimated extinction of more than 99 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth, about 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described.

ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⵉⵛⵛⴽⵉ ⵙ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 99 ⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 1 ⵜⵔⵉⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷⵖⵉ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⴷⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵢⵉⴼⴹ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉ.

The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates from at least 3.5 billion years ago, during the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⴳⵉⵣⵏ ⵉ 3.5 ⵎⵍⵢⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵢⴰⵕⵛⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵕⴰ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵊⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵀⴰⴷⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵢⵓⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵉⵏ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ.

"Commenting on the Australian findings, Stephen Blair Hedges wrote, ""If life arose relatively quickly on Earth, then it could be common in the universe."""

"ⴷ ⴰⵅⴼⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵕⴰⵍⵢⴰ, ⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⵙⵜⵉⴼⵏ ⴱⵍⵉⵕ ⵀⵉⴷⴳⵙ, ""ⵉⴳ ⵜⴳⵎⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴼⵉⵙⵄ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴽⵯ ⵜⴰⵖ ⵉⵖⵣⵔ."""

Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.9 million are estimated to have been named and 1.6 million documented in a central database to date, leaving at least 80 percent not yet described.

ⵉⵙⵓⵜⵓⴳⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵙⴳ 10 ⵏ ⵉⵎⵍⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ 14 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ, ⵙⴳ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 1.9 ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⴰⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⴷ 1.6 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵙ ⴷⵖⵉ, ⵜⵇⵇⵉⵎ 80 ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ.

The common descent of organisms was first deduced from four simple facts about organisms: First, they have geographic distributions that cannot be explained by local adaptation.

ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵙⴳ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ: ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ, ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵉⴱⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵊⵓⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵙ ⵜⴽⵙⵙⵓⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵜ.

Fourth, organisms can be classified using these similarities into a hierarchy of nested groups, similar to a family tree.

ⵜⵉⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ, ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⴰⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⴽⵛⴰⵎⵏ, ⵟⵟⵕⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ.

This view dates back to an idea briefly mentioned by Darwin but later abandoned.

ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵜ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵣⴳⵣⵍ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ.

By comparing the anatomies of both modern and extinct species, palaeontologists can infer the lineages of those species.

ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵓⴼⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵛⵛⴽⴰⵏ, ⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵓⵣⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴷ.

More recently, evidence for common descent has come from the study of biochemical similarities between organisms.

ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵖ ⵉⴱⵢⵓⵛⵉⵎⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ.

The eukaryotic cells emerged between 1.6 and 2.7 billion years ago.

ⴼⴼⵖⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ 1.6 ⴷ 2.7 ⵎⵍⵢⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ.