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Another engulfment of cyanobacterial-like organisms led to the formation of chloroplasts in algae and plants. | ⵢⵓⵡⵢ ⵓⵚⵕⴰⴹ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵍⴰⵙⵜⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵣⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ. |
In January 2016, scientists reported that, about 800 million years ago, a minor genetic change in a single molecule called GK-PID may have allowed organisms to go from a single cell organism to one of many cells. | ⴳ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵢⵔ 2016, ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 800 ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ GK-PID ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵎⵓⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴱⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵖⵔ ⴱⵓ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ. |
Various triggers for the Cambrian explosion have been proposed, including the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere from photosynthesis. | ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵟⵟⵉⵇⵙ ⴰⴽⴰⵎⴱⴰⵔⵉⵢ, ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⴳⵓⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵟⵎⵓⵙⴼⵉⵕ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ. |
Artificial selection is the intentional selection of traits in a population of organisms. | ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵅⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ. |
Proteins with valuable properties have evolved by repeated rounds of mutation and selection (for example modified enzymes and new antibodies) in a process called directed evolution. | ⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵏⵥⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ) ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⵎⵙⵡⴰⴷⵙ. |
Breeding together different populations of this blind fish produced some offspring with functional eyes, since different mutations had occurred in the isolated populations that had evolved in different caves. | ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⵓⵙⴳⵓⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴱⵓⴽⴰⴹ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵊⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ. |
Many human diseases are not static phenomena, but capable of evolution. | ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⴹⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵣⵎⵔⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏⵜ. |
It is possible that we are facing the end of the effective life of most of available antibiotics and predicting the evolution and evolvability of our pathogens and devising strategies to slow or circumvent it is requiring deeper knowledge of the complex forces driving evolution at the molecular level. | ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵏⵍⵍⴰ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵕⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵜⵉⴱⵢⵓⵜⵉⴽⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵜⵕⴰⵜⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵥⵢ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵅⵙⵙⴰ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵉⵄⵓⴱⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎⴰⵏ. |
He used evolution strategies to solve complex engineering problems. | ⵉⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⵙⵜⵕⴰⵜⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⵙⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵡⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏ. |
In some countries, notably the United States, these tensions between science and religion have fuelled the current creation–evolution controversy, a religious conflict focusing on politics and public education. | ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ, ⵍⵓⵎⴰⵕ ⵉⵡⵓⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ, ⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⵓⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵢⵓⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢ. |
The Scopes Trial decision of 1925 caused the subject to become very rare in American secondary biology textbooks for a generation, but it was gradually re-introduced later and became legally protected with the 1968 Epperson v. Arkansas decision. | ⵜⵙⵎⵏⵜⵍ ⵜⵖⵜⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵚⵉⵔⵉⴹ ⵏ ⵙⴽⵓⴱⵙ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1925 ⴳ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵙ ⵉⵎⵔⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵉⴷⵍⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵍⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵢⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⵓ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵔⴼ ⵙ ⵜⵖⵜⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵢⴱⵔⵙⵓⵏ v. ⴰⵕⴽⴰⵏⵙⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1968. |
Natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype. | ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵎⵉ ⴰⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵏⵓⵜⵉⴱ. |
Variation exists within all populations of organisms. | ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ. |
The environment of a genome includes the molecular biology in the cell, other cells, other individuals, populations, species, as well as the abiotic environment. | ⵜⵓⵎⵥ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵉⴷⵉⵔⵜ. |
Natural selection is a cornerstone of modern biology. | ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵥⵕⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ. |
The concept of natural selection originally developed in the absence of a valid theory of heredity; at the time of Darwin's writing, science had yet to develop modern theories of genetics. | ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵍⵓ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵉⵚⵃⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⴰ ⵜⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ. |
The classical arguments were reintroduced in the 18th century by Pierre Louis Maupertuis and others, including Darwin's grandfather, Erasmus Darwin. | ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵍⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 18 ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⴱⵢⵉⵔ ⵍⵡⵉⵙ ⵎⵓⴱⵉⵔⵜⵡⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ, ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴱⴱⴰⵃⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ, ⵉⵕⴰⵙⵎⵓⵙ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ. |
The success of this theory raised awareness of the vast scale of geological time and made plausible the idea that tiny, virtually imperceptible changes in successive generations could produce consequences on the scale of differences between species. | ⴰⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⴽ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵜⴰⵊⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⴷⵊ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵃⴹⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⵉⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ. |
"He was in the process of writing his ""big book"" to present his research when the naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace independently conceived of the principle and described it in an essay he sent to Darwin to forward to Charles Lyell." | "ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⴰ ""ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ"" ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴰⵍⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⵕⴰⵙⵍ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⴹ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵣⵏ ⵉ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵢⴰⵣⵏ ⵉ ⵛⴰⵔⵍⵣ ⵍⵉⵍ." |
In the 3rd edition of 1861 Darwin acknowledged that others—like William Charles Wells in 1813, and Patrick Matthew in 1831—had proposed similar ideas, but had neither developed them nor presented them in notable scientific publications. | ⴳ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 3 ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1861 ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴷ—ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⵛⴰⵔⵍⵣ ⵡⵉⵍⵍ ⴳ 1813, ⴷ ⵃⴰⵜⵔⵉⴽ ⵎⴰⵜⵢⵓ ⴳ 1831—ⵙⵙⵓⵎⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵙⵙⵏⴽⵉⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ. |
"In a letter to Charles Lyell in September 1860, Darwin regretted the use of the term ""Natural Selection"", preferring the term ""Natural Preservation""." | "ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴱⵔⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵛⴰⵔⵍⵣ ⵍⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵛⵓⵏⴰⵜⴱⵉⵔ 1860, ⵉⵙⴰⵡⵍ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⵔⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ""ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ"", ⵢⴰⴼ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ""ⴰⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ""." |
"However, natural selection remained controversial as a mechanism, partly because it was perceived to be too weak to explain the range of observed characteristics of living organisms, and partly because even supporters of evolution balked at its ""unguided"" and non-progressive nature, a response that has been characterised as the single most significant impediment to the idea's acceptance." | "ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎⴰ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴽⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵛⵡⵉⵢ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵓⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵃⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ, ⴷ ⴰⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵓⴳⵉⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ""ⴰⵔⴰⵙⵎⵏⵉⴷ"" ⴷ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵡⴰ ⴰⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ, ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⴽⴽⵛⵜ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ." |
With the early 20th century integration of evolution with Mendel's laws of inheritance, the so-called modern synthesis, scientists generally came to accept natural selection. | ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 20 ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵏⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ, ⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ. |
"J. B. S. Haldane introduced the concept of the ""cost"" of natural selection." | "ⵉⵙⵏⴽⴷ J. B. S. ⵀⴰⵍⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ""ⴰⵜⵉⴳ"" ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ." |
"However, natural selection is ""blind"" in the sense that changes in phenotype can give a reproductive advantage regardless of whether or not the trait is heritable." | "ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵀⴰⵜ ""ⵉⵄⵎⴰ"" ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵏⵓⵜⵉⴱ ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴼⴽⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⴷⵉⵜ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴼⵔⵙⵜ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵎⵉⴷ ⵓⵀⵓ." |
If the traits that give these individuals a reproductive advantage are also heritable, that is, passed from parent to offspring, then there will be differential reproduction, that is, a slightly higher proportion of fast rabbits or efficient algae in the next generation. | ⵉⵖ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵡⵉⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⴷⵉ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵎⵓⵜⵜⵓⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⴷⵉ ⴰⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⵢⵓⴳⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⴰⵍ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⴼⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵕⵡⵉⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ. |
This gives the appearance of purpose, but in natural selection there is no intentional choice. | ⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵅⴰⵙ. |
This gave dark-coloured moths a better chance of surviving to produce dark-coloured offspring, and in just fifty years from the first dark moth being caught, nearly all of the moths in industrial Manchester were dark. | ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⵓⵢⴰⴷ ⵉ ⵉⴼⵕⵟⴻⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⵢⵓⴼⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵇⵇⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴼⴽⵉⵏⴷ ⴰⵔⵔⴰⵡ ⵎⵉ ⵖⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⵎⵔ ⵓⴼⵕⵟⴻⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ, ⴷⵔⵓⵖ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵖⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⵟⴻⵟⵟⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⵛⵉⵙⵜⵔ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ. |
If an organism lives half as long as others of its species, but has twice as many offspring surviving to adulthood, its genes become more common in the adult population of the next generation. | ⵉⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵔⴰⴳ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⴳⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ. |
"A distinction must be made between the concept of ""survival of the fittest"" and ""improvement in fitness"". """ | ⵉⵅⵙⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⵉⵔⵢ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ "" ⵉⵖⵉⵎⵉ ⵉ ⵓⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵚⵍⵃⵏ "" ⴷ """ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵙⵙⵉ""". |
"Haldane called this process ""substitution"" or more commonly in biology, this is called ""fixation""." | ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵀⴰⵍⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⴰⴷ "" ⴰⵎⵙⴱⴰⴷⴷⴰⵍ "" ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⴽⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ""ⴰⵙⵜⵜⵎⵔ"". |
The probability of a beneficial mutation occurring on some member of a population depends on the total number of replications of that variant. | ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓⵏ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵏⴰⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵓⴹⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍ ⴰⴷ. |
"In this experiment, ""improvement in fitness"" depends on the number of replications of the particular variant for a new variant to appear that is capable of growing in the next higher drug concentration region." | "ⴳ ⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⴰⴷ, ""ⴰⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰⵏⵜ"" ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵏⴰⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⵓⵍⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⵓⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ." |
"Richard Lenski's classic E. coli long-term evolution experiment is an example of adaptation in a competitive environment, (""improvement in fitness"" during ""survival of the fittest"")." | "ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ E. ⴽⵓⵍⵉ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵕⵉⵛⴰⵕⴷ ⵍⵉⵏⵙⴽⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵃⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔ, (""ⴰⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰⵏⵜ"" ⵉⵡⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ""ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ"")." |
The uncommon disruptive selection also acts during transition periods when the current mode is sub-optimal, but alters the trait in more than one direction. | ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵔⵡⴰⵢ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴷⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵡⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵎⵓⵜⵢ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵔⵙⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⴷⵏ. |
Some biologists recognise just two types: viability (or survival) selection, which acts to increase an organism's probability of survival, and fecundity (or fertility or reproductive) selection, which acts to increase the rate of reproduction, given survival. | ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴷⴰⵢ: ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ (ⵉⵇⵉⵎⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵍⵢ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ, ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵍⵙⵉ (ⵜⵉⴱⵍⵙⵉ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵍⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⴽⵙⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵇⵉⵎⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ. |
In kin selection and intragenomic conflict, gene-level selection provides a more apt explanation of the underlying process. | ⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ, ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⴰⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ. |
Ecological selection is natural selection via any means other than sexual selection, such as kin selection, competition, and infanticide. | ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵡⵏⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵎⴰⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵢⴰⴷⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵡ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰⵜⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵃⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⵏⵖⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵅ. |
However, in some species, mate choice is primarily by males, as in some fishes of the family Syngnathidae. | ⵉⵎⵉⵍ, ⵖⵔ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⵉⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵙⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵏⴳⵏⴰⴷⵉⴷⴰⵜⵏ. |
Since the discovery of penicillin in 1928, antibiotics have been used to fight bacterial diseases. | ⵙⴳ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵏⵉⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1928, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵜⵉⴱⵢⵓⵜⵉⴽⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ. |
Genetic variation is the result of mutations, genetic recombinations and alterations in the karyotype (the number, shape, size and internal arrangement of the chromosomes). | ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜⵉⴽ ⵜⴰⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ, ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵖⵢⴰⵢⴰⵏ (ⴰⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵖⵏⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵯⵏⵙ). |
However, many mutations in non-coding DNA have deleterious effects. | ⵉⵎⵉⵍ, ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵏⴰⴳⵍⵉⵡⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉⵏ. |
Changes in these often have large effects on the phenotype of the individual because they regulate the function of many other genes. | ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜ ⵎⴰⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵏⵓⵜⵉⴱ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ. |
When such mutations result in a higher fitness, natural selection favours these phenotypes and the novel trait spreads in the population. | ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⴳⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵢⵓⵍⵉⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵏⵓⵜⵉⴱⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ. |
However, it is intrinsic to the concept of a species that hybrids are selected against, opposing the evolution of reproductive isolation, a problem that was recognised by Darwin. | ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵉⵅⵙⵙⴰ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵓⵍⵇⵇⵎ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⵉ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵉⵇⵕⵕⴰ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ. |
Phenotype is determined by an organism's genetic make-up (genotype) and the environment in which the organism lives. | ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵓⴼⵉⵏⵓⵜⵉⴱ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ (ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ) ⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⴷⵉⵔ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ. |
An example is the ABO blood type antigens in humans, where three alleles govern the phenotype. | ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵎⵏ ABO ⴳ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵏⵏⴱⴹⵏ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵏⵓⵜⵉⴱ. |
This process can continue until the allele is fixed and the entire population shares the fitter phenotype. | ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵣⴷⵉ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⴷ ⵉⵍⵓⴽⵏ ⵓⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵏⵓⵜⵉⴱ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ. |
Stabilizing selection conserves functional genetic features, such as protein-coding genes or regulatory sequences, over time by selective pressure against deleterious variants. | ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵜⵎⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵇⵇⵉⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⴹⴼⵕⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⵍⴷ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉⵏ. |
Some forms of balancing selection do not result in fixation, but maintain an allele at intermediate frequencies in a population. | ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵙ ⵖⵔ ⴰⵙⵜⵜⵎⵔ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⴰⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⵏ. |
Maintenance of allelic variation can also occur through disruptive or diversifying selection, which favours genotypes that depart from the average in either direction (that is, the opposite of over-dominance), and can result in a bimodal distribution of trait values. | ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵉⵢ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵔⵡⵉ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵃⵢⵢⴰⴷⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⴷⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵍⵍⴰⴱⵉⵜ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ), ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⴱⵓ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ. |
However, after a period with no new mutations, the genetic variation at these sites is eliminated due to genetic drift. | ⵉⵎⵉⵍ, ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⵛⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢ. |
The exact outcome of the two processes depends both on the rate at which new mutations occur and on the strength of the natural selection, which is a function of how unfavourable the mutation proves to be. | ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⵏⴰⴷ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵖⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ. |
The chance that such a reshuffle occurs between two alleles is inversely related to the distance between them. | ⴰⵣⵎⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵖ ⵙ ⵓⵣⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵅⴰⵍⴰⴼ. |
A strong selective sweep results in a region of the genome where the positively selected haplotype (the allele and its neighbours) are in essence the only ones that exist in the population. | ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵓⴼⵔⵉⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵎⵏⵉⴳ (ⴰⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⵊⴰⵕⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ) ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵡⴰⴹⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ. |
Background selection is the opposite of a selective sweep. | ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⴽⵕⵓⵡⵏⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵏⵉⵍ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵎⵙⵜⴰⵢ. |
"In the words of the philosopher Daniel Dennett, ""Darwin's dangerous idea"" of evolution by natural selection is a ""universal acid,"" which cannot be kept restricted to any vessel or container, as it soon leaks out, working its way into ever-wider surroundings." | "ⵏⵉⵍ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵍⵓⵙⵓⴼ ⴷⴰⵏⵢⵉⵍ ⴷⵉⵏⵉⵜⵜ, ""ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ"" ⵅⴼ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ""ⴰⵙⵎⴻⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ,"" ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵏⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵃⴰⴳⵍⵓ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵃⴰⴳⵍⵓ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴼⵉⵙⴰⵄ ⵉⵏⵏⵖⵍ, ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵙ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ." |
These conditions are: heritability, variation of type, and competition for limited resources. | ⵜⵉⴼⵉⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ: ⴰⵙⵓⴽⴽⵙ, ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵃⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ. |
Herbert Spencer and the eugenics advocate Francis Galton's interpretation of natural selection as necessarily progressive, leading to supposed advances in intelligence and civilisation, became a justification for colonialism, eugenics, and social Darwinism. | ⵉⵎⵣⵖ ⵀⵉⵕⴱⵔⵜ ⵙⵃⴰⵏⵙⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵉⵣⵎ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵍⵜⵓⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵢ, ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴰⵍⵉ ⵓⴼⵓⵍⵍⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⴰ, ⵢⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵉⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵄⴷⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵓⵔⵔⵢ, ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⴽⵙ, ⵜⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ. |
"The racial idea as the basis of our state has already accomplished much in this respect.""" | "ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵖ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ.""" |
The most prominent example of evolutionary psychology, notably advanced in the early work of Noam Chomsky and later by Steven Pinker, is the hypothesis that the human brain has adapted to acquire the grammatical rules of natural language. | ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵄⵓⵎ ⵛⵓⵎⵙⴽⵉ ⴷ ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵙ ⵙⵜⵉⴼⵏ ⴱⵉⵏⴽⵔ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⵓⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴳⵎ ⵜⴰⵊⵕⵕⵓⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ. |
"He observed that organisms (pea plants) inherit traits by way of discrete ""units of inheritance""." | "ⵢⵓⴽⵣ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ (ⵜⴰⵊⵍⴱⴰⵏⵜ) ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴽⵓⵙ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ""ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ""." |
Gene structure and function, variation, and distribution are studied within the context of the cell, the organism (e.g. dominance), and within the context of a population. | ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵖⵔⴰ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵏⴱⴹ) ⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ. |
Genetic processes work in combination with an organism's environment and experiences to influence development and behavior, often referred to as nature versus nurture. | ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵟⵟⵕⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ. |
The modern science of genetics, seeking to understand this process, began with the work of the Augustinian friar Gregor Mendel in the mid-19th century. | ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵎⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵙ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵀⵀⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵓⵚⵟⵉⵏⵉⵢ ⴳⵕⵉⴳⵓⵕ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 19. |
His second law is the same as what Mendel published. | ⴰⵣⵔⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵙⵔ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉⵍ. |
A popular theory during the 19th century, and implied by Charles Darwin's 1859 On the Origin of Species, was blending inheritance: the idea that individuals inherit a smooth blend of traits from their parents. | ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 19, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⵄⵜ ⵜⵛⴰⵕⵍⵣ ⴷⴰⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⴰⵙ ⵏ 1859 ⴳ ⵓⵥⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵡⴰⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵔⵡⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ: ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⴷⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴽⴽⵓⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⵡⴰⵢ ⵉⵡⵀⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ. |
"In his paper ""Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden"" (""Experiments on Plant Hybridization""), presented in 1865 to the Naturforschender Verein (Society for Research in Nature) in Brünn, Mendel traced the inheritance patterns of certain traits in pea plants and described them mathematically." | "ⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ""Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden"" (""ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵍⵇⵇⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ""), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1865 ⵉ ⵏⴰⵜⵓⵔⴼⵓⵕⵛⵓⵏⴷⵔ ⴼⵉⵔⵢⵉⵏ (ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ) ⴳ ⴱⵕⵓⵏ, ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵖⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵍⴱⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ." |
"William Bateson, a proponent of Mendel's work, coined the word genetics in 1905 (the adjective genetic, derived from the Greek word genesis—γένεσις, ""origin"", predates the noun and was first used in a biological sense in 1860)." | "ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⴱⴰⵜⵙⵓⵏ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵖⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉⵍ, ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1905 (ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ, ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵓⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵢⵉⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ—γένεσις, ""ⴰⵥⵓⵕ"", ⵜⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1860)." |
Over the next 11 years, she discovered that females only had the X chromosome and males had both X and Y chromosomes. | ⵉⵡⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ 11 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ, ⵜⵓⴼⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵡⵜⵎⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴰⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵎ X ⴷ ⵉⵡⵜⵎⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⴽⵔⵓⵎⵓⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ X ⴷ Y. |
James Watson and Francis Crick determined the structure of DNA in 1953, using the X-ray crystallography work of Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins that indicated DNA has a helical structure (i.e., shaped like a corkscrew). | ⵉⵙⵜⵉ ⵊⵉⵎⵙ ⵡⴰⵜⵙⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⴽⵉⵙ ⴽⵔⵉⴽ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ DNA ⴳ 1953, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜⴰⵍⵓⴳⵔⴰⴼⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵏⵥⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵕⵓⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏⴷⴰ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⴽⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵎⵓⵔⵉⵙ ⵡⵉⵍⴽⵉⵏⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵄⵜⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ DNA ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵍⴰⵍⵜ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴰⵔⵓⵜ). |
The structure also suggested a simple method for replication: if the strands are separated, new partner strands can be reconstructed for each based on the sequence of the old strand. | ⵜⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ ⵢⴰⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ: ⵉⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ, ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⵙ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵓ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ. |
In the following years, scientists tried to understand how DNA controls the process of protein production. | ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ, ⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵔⵎⵙⵏ ⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⴰⴹ DNA ⴳ ⵜⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏ. |
With the newfound molecular understanding of inheritance came an explosion of research. | ⵉⵊⵕⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵟⵟⵉⵇⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ, ⵙ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⴼⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ. |
One important development was chain-termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger. | ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⵏDNA ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1977 ⵙ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⴼⵔⵉⴷⵉⵔⵉⴽ ⵙⴰⵏⵊⵉⵔ. |
In his experiments studying the trait for flower color, Mendel observed that the flowers of each pea plant were either purple or white—but never an intermediate between the two colors. | ⵢⵓⴽⵣ ⵎⴰⵏⴷⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵇⵇⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵊⴷⴷⵉⴳ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵊⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵊⵍⴱⴰⵏⵜ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵥⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ—ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵙⵙⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ. |
Many species, including humans, have this pattern of inheritance. | ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ. |
When organisms are heterozygous at a gene, often one allele is called dominant as its qualities dominate the phenotype of the organism, while the other allele is called recessive as its qualities recede and are not observed. | ⵉⴳ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⴳ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⴰⵎⵏⴱⴷ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏⴱⴹⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴼⵉⵏⵓⵜⵉⴱ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵏⴰ ⵉ ⵓⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴽⴽⴰⵙ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⴳⴰⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰⵏⵜ. |
"Often a ""+"" symbol is used to mark the usual, non-mutant allele for a gene." | "ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ ""+"" ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⵣ ⵓⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ " |
One of the common diagrams used to predict the result of cross-breeding is the Punnett square. | ⵢⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⴰⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵍⴰⵇⴰⵢ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵏⵟ. |
Some genes do not assort independently, demonstrating genetic linkage, a topic discussed later in this article.) | ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵉⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉⵜ, ⴰⵢⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⴰⵍⵓⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵜ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⴳⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴳⵔⴰⴹ ⴰⴷ.) |
Another gene, however, controls whether the flowers have color at all or are white. | ⵉⵎⵉⵍ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵉⵏⴱⴹ ⴳ ⵉⵊⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵍⵓⵏ ⵎⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵏ ⵉⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ. |
Many traits are not discrete features (e.g. purple or white flowers) but are instead continuous features (e.g. human height and skin color). | ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵊⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⵊⵏⵊⴰⵕⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ) ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⴰⵏ.) |
The degree to which an organism's genes contribute to a complex trait is called heritability. | ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵉⵔⵙⵜ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⴽⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵙⴰ. |
DNA is composed of a chain of nucleotides, of which there are four types: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T). | ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵡⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵉⴽⵍⵢⵓⵜⵉⴷⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ : ⴰⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ (A), ⵙⵉⵜⵓⵣⵉⵏ (C), ⴳⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ (G), ⴷ ⵜⵉⵢⵎⵉⵏ (T). |
Viruses cannot reproduce without a host and are unaffected by many genetic processes, so tend not to be considered living organisms. | ⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⴰⵔⵡⵏ ⴱⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵏⴱⴳⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴹⴰⵚⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵀⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵏⴳ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ. |
This structure of DNA is the physical basis for inheritance: DNA replication duplicates the genetic information by splitting the strands and using each strand as a template for synthesis of a new partner strand. | ⴰⵥⵟⵟⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰ : ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵍⵙ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⴽⵓ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵏ. |
These DNA strands are often extremely long; the largest human chromosome, for example, is about 247 million base pairs in length. | ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⵉⴷⴷⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ 247 ⵏⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵏⵉⵙⵉⵍⴰⵏⵏ. |
DNA is most often found in the nucleus of cells, but Ruth Sager helped in the discovery of nonchromosomal genes found outside of the nucleus. | ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵡⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵕⵓⵟ ⵚⴰⵊⵉⵕ ⵜⵓⵡⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵏⴰⵣⵓⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⵔ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ. |
While haploid organisms have only one copy of each chromosome, most animals and many plants are diploid, containing two of each chromosome and thus two copies of every gene. | ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴽⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⴰⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎ, ⵀⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵓ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎⵏ, ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⴰⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴽⵉⵏⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎ. |
In humans and many other animals, the Y chromosome contains the gene that triggers the development of the specifically male characteristics. | ⵖⵓⵔ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴰⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎ Y ⴰⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵊⵉⵎⵓⵎ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵜⵎ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ. |
This process, called mitosis, is the simplest form of reproduction and is the basis for asexual reproduction. | ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵖⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴱⵟⵟⵓ, ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵡⵙⵢⴰⵏⵜ. |
Eukaryotic organisms often use sexual reproduction to generate offspring that contain a mixture of genetic material inherited from two different parents. | ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵓ ⵓⵖⵢⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵡⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⵓⵔⴽⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ. |
Some bacteria can undergo conjugation, transferring a small circular piece of DNA to another bacterium. | ⵜⵖⵢ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵍⵇⵇⴰⵎ, ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵢ ⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵇⵛⵓⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵔⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⴽⵜⵉⵔⵢⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ. |
In this way new combinations of genes can occur in the offspring of a mating pair. | ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⴻⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ. |
During crossover, chromosomes exchange stretches of DNA, effectively shuffling the gene alleles between the chromosomes. | ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵇⴰⵢ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵡⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵃⴰⵍⵉⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⴽⵕⵓⵎⵓⵥⵓⵎⵏ. |
The first cytological demonstration of crossing over was performed by Harriet Creighton and Barbara McClintock in 1931. | ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔ ⴰⵖⵔⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵇⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵀⴰⵕⵢⵉⵜ ⴽⵕⵉⵜⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴱⴰⵕⴱⴰⵕⴰ ⵎⴽⵍⵉⵏⵟⵓⴽ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1931. |
For an arbitrarily long distance, the probability of crossover is high enough that the inheritance of the genes is effectively uncorrelated. | ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵣⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ, ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵇⴰⵢ ⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵊⵉⵏⵓⵎⵏ ⵜⵓⴳⵉⵍⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵉⵎⵇⵡⵉ. |
The specific sequence of amino acids results in a unique three-dimensional structure for that protein, and the three-dimensional structures of proteins are related to their functions. | ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⵙⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⵎ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵣⴰⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴱⵕⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵉⵣⴰⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ. |
Protein structure is dynamic; the protein hemoglobin bends into slightly different forms as it facilitates the capture, transport, and release of oxygen molecules within mammalian blood. | ⴰⵥⵟⵟⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵎⵉⴽⵉ; ⴷⴰ ⵉⴽⵏⵏⵓ ⵓⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵀⵉⵎⵓⴳⵍⵓⴱⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵛⵡⵉⵢ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵀⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵥ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵔⵥⵥⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵇⵛⵕⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⵉⵊⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵎ ⵢⵉⴼⴼⴰⵏ. |