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Tamazight NLP 24

For example, sickle-cell anemia is a human genetic disease that results from a single base difference within the coding region for the β-globin section of hemoglobin, causing a single amino acid change that changes hemoglobin's physical properties.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵍⴰⵏⴻⵎⴻ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⴱⵓⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴴⴰⵔ ⵉⵏⵉⴳⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵍⴰ ⴱⵢⵜⴰ ⴳⵍⵓⴱⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵍⵉⵎⵓⴳⵍⵓⴱⵉⵏ, ⴰⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏⵙ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⵎⵉⵏⵓ ⴰⵙⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵔⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵖⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵍⵉⵎⵓⴳⵍⵓⴱⵉⵏ.

Some DNA sequences are transcribed into RNA but are not translated into protein products—such RNA molecules are called non-coding RNA.

ⴽⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵯⵣⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⴷⵉⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵍ ⴰⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵍ ⵓⵔⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵢⵉⵏ, ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵔⵉⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵖⵎⴽⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵙⵎⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵓⵏ ⴽⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵏⵉⵢ.

An interesting example is the coat coloration of the Siamese cat.

ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴼⵔⴰⵔ ⴰⵜⵜⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵣⴰⴼ ⵉⵎⵓⵛⵛⴰ ⵏ ⵙⵢⴰⵎⵡⴰ.

But these dark hair-producing proteins are sensitive to temperature (i.e. have a mutation causing temperature-sensitivity) and denature in higher-temperature environments, failing to produce dark-hair pigment in areas where the cat has a higher body temperature.

ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⵃⴱⵛⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵍⵃⵎⴰ ( ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵍⵃⵎⴰ ) ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵍⵃⵎⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴼⴰⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵃⴱⵛⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵃⵎⵎⵓ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵛⵛ.

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, knowledge of Greek conceptions of the world deteriorated in Western Europe during the early centuries (400 to 1000 CE) of the Middle Ages, but was preserved in the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age.

ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵟⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵓⴽⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵢⵢⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵜ, ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴽⵯⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵢⵓⵏⴰⵢⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ (400 ⴰⵔ 1000 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ) ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵃⴹⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰ ⵢⵉⵙⵍⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⵖ ⴰ ⵢⵉⵙⵍⵎ.

Modern science is typically divided into three major branches that consist of the natural sciences (e.g., biology, chemistry, and physics), which study nature in the broadest sense; the social sciences (e.g., economics, psychology, and sociology), which study individuals and societies; and the formal sciences (e.g., logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science), which deal with symbols governed by rules.

ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⴱⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ, ⵍⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⴼⵉⵙⵉ), ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵔⵓⵏ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ; ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ) ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵔⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ; ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵉⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⵥⵉⵕ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜⵏ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⵓⵏⵏ.

New knowledge in science is advanced by research from scientists who are motivated by curiosity about the world and a desire to solve problems.

ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵣⴰⵍ ⵓⴼⴰⵜⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵏⵥⴻⵥⴷⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ.

In particular, it was the type of knowledge that people can communicate to each other and share.

ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵥⴰⵕⵙ ⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⴰⵜⵙⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵛⵛⵓⵔⵏ.

However, no consistent conscious distinction was made between knowledge of such things, which are true in every community, and other types of communal knowledge, such as mythologies and legal systems.

ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵣⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵓⵎⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏⵏ.

They even developed an official calendar that contained twelve months, thirty days each, and five days at the end of the year.

ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵙⵔⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⴷ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔ, ⴷ ⴽⵕⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⴳ ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⴳⵉⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ.

"For this reason, it is claimed these men were the first philosophers in the strict sense, and also the first people to clearly distinguish ""nature"" and ""convention."""

‘’ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⴳⴰⵣⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴼⴰⵡ ‘’ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰ’’ ⴷ ‘’ⵜⵎⵇⵇⴰⵏⵜ’’.

In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature to imitate nature (artifice or technology, Greek technē) was seen by classical scientists as a more appropriate interest for artisans of lower social class.

ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵥⵕⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴹⴼⵓⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ (ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵏⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ, ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵜ) ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔⵜ.

The theory of atoms was developed by the Greek philosopher Leucippus and his student Democritus.

ⵜⵜⵓⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵏⵓⵣⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⵍⵢⵓⵙⵉⴱⴱⵓⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵜⵓⵙ.

The Socratic method as documented by Plato's dialogues is a dialectic method of hypothesis elimination: better hypotheses are found by steadily identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions.

ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵓⵈⵕⴰⵟ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵜ ⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵡⵍⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏ ⵜⵚⴽⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⵏⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ: ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴳⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴳⴰⵍⵏ.

Socrates criticized the older type of study of physics as too purely speculative and lacking in self-criticism.

ⵉⴼⵔⵏ ⵙⵓⵈⵔⴰⵟ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵜ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵙ.

Aristotle later created a systematic programme of teleological philosophy: Motion and change is described as the actualization of potentials already in things, according to what types of things they are.

ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵔⵉⵚⵟⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵔⵣⴰⵏⵜ: ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵓⴳⴳⵯⵏ ⵏⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ.

The Socratics also insisted that philosophy should be used to consider the practical question of the best way to live for a human being (a study Aristotle divided into ethics and political philosophy).

ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵚⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉⵢⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵇⵇⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ (ⵜⴰⵣⵔⵡⵜ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ ⵜⴱⴹⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ).

Aristarchus's model was widely rejected because it was believed to violate the laws of physics.

ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⴳⵉ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵉⵙⵜⴰⵔⴽⵓⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵕⵥⵥⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ.

John Philoponus, a Byzantine scholar in the 500s, questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics, noting its flaws.

ⵉⴳⴰ ⵊⵓⵏ ⴼⵉⵍⵓⴱⵏⵓⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⴰⴱⵉⵣⴰⵏⵟⵉⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ 500 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ ⵉ ⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ, ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⴰⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ.

"Aristotle's four causes prescribed that the question ""why"" should be answered in four ways in order to explain things scientifically."

‘’ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵜ ⴰⵙⴷⵙⵉ ⴰⴷ ‘’ⵎⴰⵅ’’ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵅⴼ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ’’.

However, Aristotle's original texts were eventually lost in Western Europe, and only one text by Plato was widely known, the Timaeus, which was the only Platonic dialogue, and one of the few original works of classical natural philosophy, available to Latin readers in the early Middle Ages.

ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⵓⵛⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⴹⵕⵉⵚⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ ⵙ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵜ, ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴹⵕⵉⵚ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ, ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵎⵓⵔⵉⵢⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⴰⵟⵓⵏ. ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵓⵕⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵖⵔⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽⴽ.

Many Syriac translations were done by groups such as the Nestorians and Monophysites.

ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵖⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵓⵔⵢⴰⵍⵢⵢⵉⵏ ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵜⵜⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵏⵓⵙⵜⵓⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⵢⵏ.

"p. 465: ""only when the influence of ibn al-Haytam and others on the mainstream of later medieval physical writings has been seriously investigated can Schramm's claim that ibn al-Haytam was the true founder of modern physics be evaluated."""

‘’ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰ 465: ‘’ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⵜⴳ ⵉⴼⵓⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵛⴰⵕⴰⵎ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵎⴻⵎⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵍⵀⴰⵢⵜⵎ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵅⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵣⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⴰⴳⴳⵓ ⵙ ⵏⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵎⴻⵎⵎⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵣ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵛⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ’’.

Avicenna's canon is considered to be one of the most important publications in medicine and they both contributed significantly to the practice of experimental medicine, using clinical trials and experiments to back their claims.

ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵖⵔⵓⵛⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵉⵙⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴼⵉⴼⵖⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ, ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵡⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵜⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴰⴽⵓⵍⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.

In addition, classical Greek texts started to be translated from Arabic and Greek into Latin, giving a higher level of scientific discussion in Western Europe.

ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵓⵙⵓⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴹⵕⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵄⵔⴰⴱⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢⵜ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎ.

Manuscript copies of Alhazen's Book of Optics also propagated across Europe before 1240, as evidenced by its incorporation into Vitello's Perspectiva.

ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ‘’ⵍ ⴰⵀⵣⴰⵏ’’ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⴰⵇⵇⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1240, ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴼⴰⵡ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⵛⵛⵓⵔⵜ ⴳ ⴱⵉⵔⵟⵓ ⴼⵉⵜⵉⵍⵍⵓ.

The influx of ancient texts caused the Renaissance of the 12th century and the flourishing of a synthesis of Catholicism and Aristotelianism known as Scholasticism in western Europe, which became a new geographic center of science.

ⵢⵉⵡⵉ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵉⴹⵕⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 12 ⴷ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴽⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵕⵉⵚⵟⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵛⵓⵍⴰⵙⵜⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴷⵡⵍⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵊⵓⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵢ ⴰⵎⵢⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ.

A model of vision later known as perspectivism was exploited and studied by the artists of the Renaissance.

ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⴷ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⴰ.

This was based on a theorem that the orbital periods of the planets are longer as their orbs are farther from the centre of motion, which he found not to agree with Ptolemy's model.

ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵃⴱⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵓⵜⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵢⴰⴳⴳⵓⴳ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵟⵓⵍⵎⵉ.

He found that all the light from a single point of the scene was imaged at a single point at the back of the glass sphere.

ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵇⵉⴼⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵇⵉⴼⴼⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵡⵊⵊⴰ ⵏ ⵊⵊⴰⵊ.

Kepler did not reject Aristotelian metaphysics and described his work as a search for the Harmony of the Spheres.

ⵓⵔ ⵢⵓⴳⵉ ⴽⵉⴱⵍⵓⵕ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵜⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵕⵉⵙⵟⵓⵇⵔⴰⵜⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ.

"Galileo had used arguments from the Pope and put them in the voice of the simpleton in the work ""Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems"", which greatly offended Urban VIII."

‘’ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴳⴰⵍⵉⵍⵓ ⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵍⴱⴰⴱⴰ ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ’’ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ’’, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵍⵃⴰⴹⵕ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵜⴰⵎ’’.

Descartes emphasized individual thought and argued that mathematics rather than geometry should be used in order to study nature.

ⵉⴷⵓⵣ ⴷⵉⴽⴰⵔⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵡⵡⵏⴳⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ.

"This new science began to see itself as describing ""laws of nature""."

‘’ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵥⵕⵕⴰ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍ ‘’ⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ’’.

In the style of Francis Bacon, Leibniz assumed that different types of things all work according to the same general laws of nature, with no special formal or final causes for each type of thing.

ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⵏ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙ ⴱⵉⴽⵓⵏ, ⵉⴼⴰ ⵍⴰⴱⴱⵉⵏⵣ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵏⵜ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ, ⴰⴽⴷ ⴰⵍⴰⵃ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ.

"In Bacon's words, ""the real and legitimate goal of sciences is the endowment of human life with new inventions and riches"", and he discouraged scientists from pursuing intangible philosophical or spiritual ideas, which he believed contributed little to human happiness beyond ""the fume of subtle, sublime, or pleasing speculation""."

‘’ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⵉⴽⵓⵏ, ‘’ⴰⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵏⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴼⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ’’, ⵙⵡⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴹⴼⵓⵕ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴼⴽⵉ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ‘’ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵅⵏⴷⴷⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⵓⵏⴼⵓ’’.

Another important development was the popularization of science among an increasingly literate population.

ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ.

Enlightenment philosophers chose a short history of scientific predecessors – Galileo, Boyle, and Newton principally – as the guides and guarantors of their applications of the singular concept of nature and natural law to every physical and social field of the day.

ⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⴳⵯⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ-- ⴳⴰⵍⵉⵍⵓ, ⴱⵡⵉⵍ, ⴷ ⵏⵢⵓⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ-- ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵎⴷⵏⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵉⴽⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ.

"Hume and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed a ""science of man"", which was expressed historically in works by authors including James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar and William Robertson, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of modernity."

‘’ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⵀⵢⵓⵎ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⴼⴰⵡ ⵉⵙⴽⵓⵜⵍⴰⵏⴷⵉⵢⵏ ‘’ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ’’, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵉⵡⵍⵏ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵊⵉⵎⵙ ⴱⵓⵔⵏⵉⵜ, ⴰⴷⴰⵎ ⴼⵉⵔⵖⵙⵓⵏ, ⵊⵓⵏ ⵎⵉⵍⴰⵕ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⵔⴱⵔⵓⵜⵙⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴼⵔⴰⴽ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ’’.

Both John Herschel and William Whewell systematized methodology: the latter coined the term scientist.

ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵊⵓⵏ ⵀⵉⵔⵛⵍ ⴷ ⵡⵉⵍⵢⴰⵎ ⵡⵉⵡⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴳⵎⴰⵏⵜ: ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵓⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ.

"Separately, Gregor Mendel presented his paper, ""Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden"" (""Experiments on Plant Hybridization""), in 1865, which outlined the principles of biological inheritance, serving as the basis for modern genetics."

‘’ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ, ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⵊⵔⵉⵊⵓⵔ ⵎⵉⵏⴷⵍ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ‘’ⴼⵔⵉⵙⵓⵛ ⵓⴱⵔ ⴱⵉⴼⵍⴰⵏⵣⵉⵏⵀⵉⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ‘’(‘’ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵜⵜⵀⵉⵢⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵢⵏ’’), ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1865, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⵜⵉⵢ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⵓⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ.

The phenomena that would allow the deconstruction of the atom were discovered in the last decade of the 19th century: the discovery of X-rays inspired the discovery of radioactivity.

ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵕⵕⵥⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵏⵓⵣⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ 19: ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵉⵣⵏⵥⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵖⴱⴰⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵏⵥⴰⵔ.

In addition, the extensive use of technological innovation stimulated by the wars of this century led to revolutions in transportation (automobiles and aircraft), the development of ICBMs, a space race, and a nuclear arms race.

ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵢⵉⵡⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴽⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴷⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵍ (ⵜⵉⵀⵉⵔⵔⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵉⵏ), ⴷ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ (ICBM), ⴷ ⴰⵎⵃⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵏⵏⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵃⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵍⴼ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵡⵉⵢ.

The discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation in 1964 led to a rejection of the Steady State theory of the universe in favor of the Big Bang theory of Georges Lemaître.

ⵜⵉⵡⵉ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵥⵏⵥⴰⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1964 ⵙ ⵡⴰⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵉⵕⵚⵚⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⵔⴰⴷ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴱⴹⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵊⵓⵔⵊ ⵍⵉⵎⴰⵜⵔ.

Widespread use of integrated circuits in the last quarter of the 20th century combined with communications satellites led to a revolution in information technology and the rise of the global internet and mobile computing, including smartphones.

ⵢⵉⵡⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵉⵢⵢⴰⵕⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 20 ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵖⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⴼⵓⵏⴰⵜ ⵉⵛⵡⴰⵏ.

Both natural and social sciences are empirical sciences, as their knowledge is based on empirical observations and is capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers working under the same conditions.

ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵢⴰⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵏⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵖⵣⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵉⵏ.

For example, physical science can be subdivided into physics, chemistry, astronomy, and earth science.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴱⴹⵓ ⵉⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵏ ⵙ ⵉⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵏ ⴷ ⵍⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⴰⵍ.

Still, philosophical perspectives, conjectures, and presuppositions, often overlooked, remain necessary in natural science.

ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ, ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵉⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⴱⵔⴰⵣ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ.

It includes mathematics, systems theory, and theoretical computer science.

ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⵥⵉⵕ.

The formal sciences are therefore a priori disciplines and because of this, there is disagreement on whether they actually constitute a science.

ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ, ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ.

Engineering itself encompasses a range of more specialized fields of engineering, each with a more specific emphasis on particular areas of applied mathematics, science, and types of application.

ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⵉⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ. ⵇⵓⵍ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⴽⵍ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵙⵏ.

"he responded: ""Sir, what is the use of a new-born child?""."

ⵉⵔⴰⵔ: ‘’ⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⵉⵏⵓ, ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴱⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ?’’.

This new explanation is used to make falsifiable predictions that are testable by experiment or observation.

ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵇⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵊⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ.

This is done partly through observation of natural phenomena, but also through experimentation that tries to simulate natural events under controlled conditions as appropriate to the discipline (in the observational sciences, such as astronomy or geology, a predicted observation might take the place of a controlled experiment).

ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵏⴹⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵖⵍⵓⵍⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵓⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵜⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⵏⴹⴰⴼⵜ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ (ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵉ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵍⵊⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵢⴰ, ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵢ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ).

If the hypothesis survived testing, it may become adopted into the framework of a scientific theory, a logically reasoned, self-consistent model or framework for describing the behavior of certain natural phenomena.

ⵎⴽ ⵜⵏⵊⵎ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ, ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵖⵣⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⵏⵣⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏⴳ ⴰⴳⴰⵏⵣⴰ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵙ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ.

In that vein, theories are formulated according to most of the same scientific principles as hypotheses.

ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ.

This can be achieved by careful experimental design, transparency, and a thorough peer review process of the experimental results as well as any conclusions.

ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⴰⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴼⴰⵡⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵀⵍⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵇⵇⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵓⵙⴼⵍⵓⵜⵏ.

Statistics, a branch of mathematics, is used to summarize and analyze data, which allow scientists to assess the reliability and variability of their experimental results.

ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⵉ ⵓⵙⴳⵣⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵜⴳ ⵉⵏⴼⵍⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ.

It can be contrasted with anti-realism, the view that the success of science does not depend on it being accurate about unobservable entities such as electrons.

ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵍⵡⵉⵜ, ⴰⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⵉ ⵅⴼ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵄⴷⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵢⵉⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵏⵉⵢⵏ.

There are different schools of thought in the philosophy of science.

ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵖⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ.

This is necessary because the number of predictions those theories make is infinite, which means that they cannot be known from the finite amount of evidence using deductive logic only.

ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵍⵓ ⴷⴰⵢ.

Critical rationalism is a contrasting 20th-century approach to science, first defined by Austrian-British philosopher Karl Popper.

ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵎⵖⵣⴰⵏⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⵎⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 20, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵙⴰⵡⵉⵢ ⴰⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵉⵢ ⴽⴰⵕⵍ ⴱⵓⴱⵔ.

Popper proposed replacing verifiability with falsifiability as the landmark of scientific theories and replacing induction with falsification as the empirical method.

ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⵀⵓⴱⵔ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵔⵔⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵍⵜ ⵓⵔⵊⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵔⵊⴰⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎ.

Another approach, instrumentalism, emphasizes the utility of theories as instruments for explaining and predicting phenomena.

ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴷⵓⵣ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ.

Close to instrumentalism is constructive empiricism, according to which the main criterion for the success of a scientific theory is whether what it says about observable entities is true.

ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵜ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⴼⵔⵏ ⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵓⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵓⵖⵣⴰⵏ.

Each paradigm has its own distinct questions, aims, and interpretations.

ⴽⵓ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⵉⵙⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵥⴰⵕⵚ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ.

That is, the choice of a new paradigm is based on observations, even though those observations are made against the background of the old paradigm.

ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⵢⵏⵓ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴼ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵅⴼ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ.

Its main point is that a difference between natural and supernatural explanations should be made and that science should be restricted methodologically to natural explanations.

ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵇⵉⴼⴼⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵍⴰⵣⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰ, ⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⵅⵚⵚⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴱⵉⴷⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵔⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ.

That is, no theory is ever considered strictly certain as science accepts the concept of fallibilism.

ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵜⴳ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⵜⵓⵢⵜ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴰ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴳⵍⵜ.

New scientific knowledge rarely results in vast changes in our understanding.

ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏⵏⵖ.

Knowledge in science is gained by a gradual synthesis of information from different experiments by various researchers across different branches of science; it is more like a climb than a leap.

ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉⵍⴽⵉⵎⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍ.

"Philosopher Barry Stroud adds that, although the best definition for ""knowledge"" is contested, being skeptical and entertaining the possibility that one is incorrect is compatible with being correct."

ⵉⵙⴰⴷⴼ ‘’ⴰⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⴱⴰⵔⵉ ⵙⵜⵔⵓⴷ ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⴰⵎⵓⴼⴰⵢ ⵏ ‘’ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ’’, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵔⴷⵓ ⴷ ⵎⵔⵅⵉⵡⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵖⵣⵉⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⵓⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵣⴰⵏ’’.

This is especially the case in the more macroscopic fields of science (e.g. psychology, physical cosmology).

ⵎⴽⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉⵙⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵔⴰⴷ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵔⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵉⵢ).

Since that time the total number of active periodicals has steadily increased.

ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ, ⵉⵖⵍⵉ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵣⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⵓⴳⵏⴰ.

Although the journals are in 39 languages, 91 percent of the indexed articles are published in English.

ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴼⴼⵓⵖⵏ ⵜⵙⵖⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ 39 ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ, ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴳⵉⵙⵏ 91% ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴳⵔⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵜⵓⵔⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴼⴼⵓⵖⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉⵢⵜ.

Science magazines such as New Scientist, Science & Vie, and Scientific American cater to the needs of a much wider readership and provide a non-technical summary of popular areas of research, including notable discoveries and advances in certain fields of research.

ⵜⵉⵙⵖⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵇⵇⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵅⵚⵚⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵣⵍ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢ ⵉ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵉⵎⴷⵏⴰⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⴰⵣⵓⴼⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵎⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ.

Various types of commercial advertising, ranging from hype to fraud, may fall into these categories.

ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵔⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵖⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⴱⴰⴱⵏ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴳⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵅⵏⴷⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙⵜ.

Many scientists pursue careers in various sectors of the economy such as academia, industry, government, and nonprofit organizations.

ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵎⵙⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴷⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵣ.

"For example, Christine Ladd (1847–1930) was able to enter a Ph.D. program as ""C. Ladd""; Christine ""Kitty"" Ladd completed the requirements in 1882, but was awarded her degree only in 1926, after a career which spanned the algebra of logic (see truth table), color vision, and psychology."

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⵖⵢ ⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⴰⴷ (1930-1847) ⴰⴷ ⵜⴽⵛⵎ ⵙ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴷⴷⵓⴽⵜⵓⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵏ ‘""C. Ladd""; ⵜⵙⵎⴷ ⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜⵉⵏ ‘’ⴽⵉⵢⵜⵉ’’ ⵍⴰⴷ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵅⵚⵚⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1882, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵟⵓⵎⵉⵥ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵔ 1926, ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵊⴱⴰⵕ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⴳⵉⵏⵜ (ⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵜⴰⵔⴰⵜⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴹⵜ), ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴽⵯⵍⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⴽⵍⵉⵍⵙⵏⵜ’’.

In the late 20th century, active recruitment of women and elimination of institutional discrimination on the basis of sex greatly increased the number of women scientists, but large gender disparities remain in some fields; in the early 21st century over half of the new biologists were female, while 80% of PhDs in physics are given to men.

ⴳ ⵉⴳⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 20, ⵢⵉⵡⵉ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵃ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⴷⴼ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵖⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ; ⴳ ⵜⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵜⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 21 ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵉⵎⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵡⵜⵎⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ 80% ⵏ ⴷⴷⵓⴽⵜⵓⵔⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⵉ ⵉⵔⴳⴰⵣⵏ.

Membership may be open to all, may require possession of some scientific credentials, or may be an honor conferred by election.

ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵕⵥⵎ ⵜⵎⵙⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵜⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⵏⵉⵏ.

Science policy thus deals with the entire domain of issues that involve the natural sciences.

ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵟⵟⴰⵎⵥ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ.

Prominent historical examples include the Great Wall of China, completed over the course of two millennia through the state support of several dynasties, and the Grand Canal of the Yangtze River, an immense feat of hydraulic engineering begun by Sunshu Ao (孫叔敖 7th cent.

ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⴳⴰⴷⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵚⵚⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⵖⵓⵔ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⴷ ⵢⵉⴼⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵏⴽⵜ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵊⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵖⵍⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏⵖⵉⵜⵙⵉ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵇⵉⴼⴼⵉⵜ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵏⵣⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵀⵉⴷⵔⵓⵍⵉⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵙⵓⵏⵛⵓ ⴰ (7%).

Such processes, which are run by government, corporations, or foundations, allocate scarce funds.

ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⴷⴱⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵥⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ.

The government funding proportion in certain industries is higher, and it dominates research in social science and humanities.

ⴰⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵥⵕⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵢⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵏⵉⵜ ⵟⵟⴰⵎⵥ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ.

Many factors can act as facets of the politicization of science such as populist anti-intellectualism, perceived threats to religious beliefs, postmodernist subjectivism, and fear for business interests.

ⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⴰⴷⴼⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⵏⴳⵎ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⴷⵉⴷⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵍⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵍⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ.

An experiment is a procedure carried out to support or refute a hypothesis.

ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵓⵙ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵕⵥⵉ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ.

Experiments can raise test scores and help a student become more engaged and interested in the material they are learning, especially when used over time.

ⵣⵎⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⵡⵙⵏ ⴰⵎⵃⴷⴰⵕ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⵔⵓ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵙⵉ ⴰⵏⵣⴳⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵍⵎⴰⴷ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵣⵔⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ.

Experiments typically include controls, which are designed to minimize the effects of variables other than the single independent variable.

ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⵓⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴷⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵡⴰⴹⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ.

Researchers also use experimentation to test existing theories or new hypotheses to support or disprove them.

ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵎⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵙⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵕⵕⵥⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ.

If an experiment is carefully conducted, the results usually either support or disprove the hypothesis.

ⵎⴽ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴹⴼⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵜⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏⵖ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵕⵥⵥⴰ.

In medicine and the social sciences, the prevalence of experimental research varies widely across disciplines.

ⴳ ⵓⵙⵓⵊⵊⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ, ⵜⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ.

A single study typically does not involve replications of the experiment, but separate studies may be aggregated through systematic review and meta-analysis.

ⵓⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⴽⵛⵉⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⴰⵏⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ.

We may in this way eventually come to the truth that gratifies the heart and gradually and carefully reach the end at which certainty appears; while through criticism and caution we may seize the truth that dispels disagreement and resolves doubtful matters.

ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵖ ⵙ ⵓⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵏ ⵏⵍⴽⵎ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵣⵉⵡⵉⵣⵏ ⵓⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵏⵏ ⵜⵍⴽⴽⵎ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵍⴰⴼⵜ ⵉⵕⵚⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⴰⵃ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵏⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴻⵏⵣⵉⵣ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴼⵙⵙⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ.

"In this process of critical consideration, the man himself should not forget that he tends to subjective opinions—through ""prejudices"" and ""leniency""—and thus has to be critical about his own way of building hypotheses."

‘’ⴳ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴼ ⵓⵔⴳⴰⵣ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴷⴷⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ - ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ‘’ⵜⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵉⵏ’’ ⴷ ‘’ⵎⵔⵅⵉⵡⵜ’’- ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵏⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ’’.

Bacon wanted a method that relied on repeatable observations, or experiments.

ⵉⵔⴰ ⴱⵉⴽⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵍⴰⵙⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ.

For example, Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) accurately measured time and experimented to make accurate measurements and conclusions about the speed of a falling body.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⴳⴰⵍⵉⵍⵓ ⴳⴰⵍⵉⵍⵉ (1564-1642) ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵔⴰⵎ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⵍⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷⵏ ⵙ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵉⵜ.

In some disciplines (e.g., psychology or political science), a 'true experiment' is a method of social research in which there are two kinds of variables.

ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵔⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ), ‘’ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ’’ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ.

A good example would be a drug trial.

ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴷⵓⵀⴷⵓⵜⵏ.

The results from replicate samples can often be averaged, or if one of the replicates is obviously inconsistent with the results from the other samples, it can be discarded as being the result of an experimental error (some step of the test procedure may have been mistakenly omitted for that sample).

ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵔ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵍⴰⵙⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵎⴽ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵓ ⵙ ⵓⴼⴰⵡ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴼⵖⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵏⵙⵙⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⵍⵏ ⵜⵜ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴳⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵜ (ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⵇⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⴽⴽⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⴳⵍⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵜ).