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Tamazight NLP 24

In measurement the number of standard units which is equal to the observation is counted.

ⴳ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵚⵚⵉⵟⵏⵜ ⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ.

Scientific instruments were developed to aid human abilities of observation, such as weighing scales, clocks, telescopes, microscopes, thermometers, cameras, and tape recorders, and also translate into perceptible form events that are unobservable by the senses, such as indicator dyes, voltmeters, spectrometers, infrared cameras, oscilloscopes, interferometers, geiger counters, and radio receivers.

ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵎⵎⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴹⴰⴼⵜ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⴰⵜⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵥⵉⵢⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵙⵔⴰⴳⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵙⴽⵓⴱⴱⴰⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⴰⵜⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵔⵖⵉ, ⴷ ⵍⴽⴰⵎⵉⵕⴰⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴼⵉⴼⵉⵏ, ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵖⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵣⵎⵓⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⴰⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰⵜⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵓⵛⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵍⵜⵎⵉⵜⵔ.

For example, it is not normally possible to check the air pressure in an automobile tire without letting out some of the air, thereby changing the pressure.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵍⴰⵇ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵡⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵍⴰⴽⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵀⵔⵔⵉⵜ ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵓⵔⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ, ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⵉⵡⵔ.

For example, in the twin paradox one twin goes on a trip near the speed of light and comes home younger than the twin who stayed at home.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵏⵉⵡ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴷⴷⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵏⵉⵡ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⵢⵓⴷⴷⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴷⵡⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵏⵉⵡ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵡⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ.

"Quantum mechanics: In quantum mechanics, which deals with the behavior of very small objects, it is not possible to observe a system without changing the system, and the ""observer"" must be considered part of the system being observed."

''ⴽⴰⵏⵜⵓⵎ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ: ⴳ ⴽⴰⵏⵜⵓⵎ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵣⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴰⵏⵏⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ, ⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ''ⵓⵏⴹⴰⴼ'' ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ’’

Human perception occurs by a complex, unconscious process of abstraction, in which certain details of the incoming sense data are noticed and remembered, and the rest forgotten.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵜⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⴰⴽⵜ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵖⵉⵎⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⴽⵜⵜⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴼⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵜⵜⵓ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ.

"Later when events are remembered, memory gaps may even be filled by ""plausible"" data the mind makes up to fit the model; this is called reconstructive memory."

''ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⴰⵙⵔⴰ ⴳ ⴷ ⵏⴽⵜⵢ ⵉⵣⵎⵓⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴽⵜⵉⵜ ''ⵉⵖⵣⴰⵏ'' ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ''.

In psychology, this is called confirmation bias.

ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵜⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵓⵜⵜⵓⵢ ⴳ ⵜⴽⵍⵉⵙⵏⵜ.

For example, let us suppose that an observer sees a parent beat their child; and consequently may observe that such an action is either good or bad.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⴷⵊ ⴰⵜ ⴰⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵉⵏⵉ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵏⴹⴰⴼⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵥⵕⵕⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⴰⵔⴱⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵃⵍⵉ.

"Research is ""creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge""."

''ⵉⴳⴰ ''ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ'' ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⴰⵏⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ''

To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole.

ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵥⵍⵉⵢ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵔⴰⵎⵉⵏ, ⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⵕⵕⴰ.

This material is of a primary-source character.

ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵎ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵖⴱⴰⵍⵓ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ.

In experimental work, it typically involves direct or indirect observation of the researched subject(s), e.g., in the laboratory or in the field, documents the methodology, results, and conclusions of an experiment or set of experiments, or offers a novel interpretation of previous results.

ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵔⵎ, ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ ⵏⵖ ⴰⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣ, ⴷ ⵓⵏⵜⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵙⴼⵍⵓⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⴼⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ.

The degree of originality of the research is among major criteria for articles to be published in academic journals and usually established by means of peer review.

ⵜⴰⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴷⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⴼⵔⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴳⵔⴰⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵇⵇⵔⵉⵏⵏ.

This research provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature and the properties of the world.

ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⵏⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ.

Scientific research can be subdivided into different classifications according to their academic and application disciplines.

ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⴱⴹⵓ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙⵜⵉⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵙ.

Humanities scholars usually do not search for the ultimate correct answer to a question, but instead, explore the issues and details that surround it.

ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵙⵉⴳⴳⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵣⴳⵉⵍⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵓⵙⵇⵙⵉ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵓⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏ.

Historians use primary sources and other evidence to systematically investigate a topic, and then to write histories in the form of accounts of the past.

ⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵣⴻⵣⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵖⴱⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⴽⵎ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ, ⵉⵍⵎⵎⴰ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵎⵉⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ.

The research will have to be justified by linking its importance to already existing knowledge about the topic.

ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵙ ⵓⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ.

Generally, a hypothesis is used to make predictions that can be tested by observing the outcome of an experiment.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵃⵟⵟⵓ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵜ.

This careful language is used because researchers recognize that alternative hypotheses may also be consistent with the observations.

ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⴷⵜ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵣⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ.

As the accuracy of observation improves with time, the hypothesis may no longer provide an accurate prediction.

ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ, ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ.

"Artistic research has been defined by the School of Dance and Circus (Dans och Cirkushögskolan, DOCH), Stockholm in the following manner – ""Artistic research is to investigate and test with the purpose of gaining knowledge within and for our artistic disciplines."

‘’ⵜⵜⵓⵏⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⵙⴳ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴽⴰⵣ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⵔⴽ ⴳ ⵙⵜⵓⴽⵀⵓⵍⵎ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⴰⴷ: ‘’ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵣⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ’’.

Artistic research aims to enhance knowledge and understanding with presentation of the arts.

ⴷⴰ ⴽⴽⴰⵜⵏⵜ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ.

"According to artist Hakan Topal, in artistic research, ""perhaps more so than other disciplines, intuition is utilized as a method to identify a wide range of new and unexpected productive modalities""."

ⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕ ⵀⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⴱⴰⵍ, ⴳ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵓⵕⵉ, ‘’ⵄⵏⵉⵖ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴷⵎⵉⵏ’’.

Background research could include, for example, geographical or procedural research.

ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵊⵖⵔⴰⴼⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵎⴰⵅⴼⴰⵏ.

The literature review identifies flaws or holes in previous research which provides justification for the study.

ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵇⵓⴹⴻⴹ ⵏⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴱⴰⵢⴷⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵜⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵛⵓⵛⵛⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ.

The research question may be parallel to the hypothesis.

ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ.

The researcher(s) then analyzes and interprets the data via a variety of statistical methods, engaging in what is known as empirical research.

ⵉⵍⵎⵎⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⵓⵎⵔⵣⵓ ⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵉⵙⴼⴽⴰ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵎⵜⴰⵢⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⴷⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵏⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ.

"However, some researchers advocate for the reverse approach: starting with articulating findings and discussion of them, moving ""up"" to identification of a research problem that emerges in the findings and literature review."

''ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⴳⴰⵍ: ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⴼⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵎⵓⵜⵢ ⵙ ''ⵓⵙⵡⵜⵜⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴹⵀⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⴰ''.

Qualitative research is often used as a method of exploratory research as a basis for later quantitative research hypotheses.

ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⴱⴱⵛ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⵏⵛⵜⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵛⴽⴰⵏ.

Quantitative research is linked with the philosophical and theoretical stance of positivism.

ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⵏⵛⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉ ⵙ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵉⵥⵉⵕ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰ.

Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory or being able to estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest.

ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⵏⵛⵜⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵍⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ.

If the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants.

ⵎⴽ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴹⴰⴽⴰⴷⵉⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⵔⴰⵡⵏ.

Secondary data is data that already exists, such as census data, which can be re-used for the research.

ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵏⵉⴽ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵊⴷ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ.

This method has benefits that using one method alone cannot offer.

ⵙ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵉⴼⴽ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⵡⴰⴹⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ.

Non-empirical research is not an absolute alternative to empirical research because they may be used together to strengthen a research approach.

ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵉⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵜⵜⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ.

The management of research ethics is inconsistent across countries and there is no universally accepted approach to how it should be addressed.

ⵜⴰⵎⵀⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵥⴹⵉ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⵖⵣⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ.

Regardless of approach, the application of ethical theory to specific controversial topics is known as applied ethics and research ethics can be viewed as a form of applied ethics because ethical theory is applied in real-world research scenarios.

ⵙ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵔⴰ ⵜⴳⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴹⴼⵓⵕ, ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⴽⴽⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵎⵖⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵙⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵙⴳ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵙⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵊⴰⵊ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⴰⵔⵢⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ.

Research ethics is most developed as a concept in medical research, the most notable Code being the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki.

ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵏⴰⴼ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⵔⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵓⵍⵖⵓ ⵏ ⵀⵉⵍⵉⵏⵙⴽⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1964.

Meta-research concerns itself with the detection of bias, methodological flaws, and other errors and inefficiencies.

ⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵍⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵔⴰⵢⵜ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍ ⵓⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⵇⵓⴹⴻⴹ.

Periphery scholars face the challenges of exclusion and linguicism in research and academic publication.

ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵏⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴱⴰⵢⴹⴰⵕⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⴰⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢ.

For comparative politics, Western countries are over-represented in single-country studies, with heavy emphasis on Western Europe, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.

ⵙ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴷⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ, ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴽⵍ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⴷ ⴽⴰⵏⴰⴹⴰ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵍⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵏⵢⵓⵣⵉⵍⴰⵏⴷⴰ.

Studies with a narrow scope can result in a lack of generalizability, meaning that the results may not be applicable to other populations or regions.

ⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵏⵢⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵍⴰⵃ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵎⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ.

Usually, the peer review process involves experts in the same field who are consulted by editors to give a review of the scholarly works produced by a colleague of theirs from an unbiased and impartial point of view, and this is usually done free of charge.

ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵏ ⵜⵜⵛⴰⵡⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵉ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⴷⴰⴽⵯⵍ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵎⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵏⵏⴰⵏ.

For instance, most indigenous communities consider that access to certain information proper to the group should be determined by relationships.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴳⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴰⵍⴽⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ.

The system varies widely by field and is also always changing, if often slowly.

ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣ, ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⴰⴱⴷⴰ, ⵎⴽ ⵢⴰⵖ ⵙⵍⵃⵉⵍ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ.

These forms of research can be found in databases explicitly for theses and dissertations.

ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴷⵓⴽⵜⵓⵔⴰ.

The kinds of publications that are accepted as contributions of knowledge or research vary greatly between fields, from the print to the electronic format.

ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵎⵣⵉⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⴼⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴼⵕⵕⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵔⴰⵢ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ, ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⴳⵣ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⴰⵍⵉⴽⵜⵔⵓⵏⵉⵢ.

Business models are different in the electronic environment.

ⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵍⵉⵍⴽⵜⵔⵓⵏⵉⵢⵜ.

Many senior researchers (such as group leaders) spend a significant amount of their time applying for grants for research funds.

ⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵏⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ) ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵜⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵥⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⴱⴱⵓⵛⵏ.

The scientific method is an empirical method of acquiring knowledge that has characterized the development of science since at least the 17th century (with notable practitioners in previous centuries).

ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵜ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵎⵥ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 17 (ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ).

These are principles of the scientific method, as distinguished from a definitive series of steps applicable to all scientific enterprises.

ⵡⵉⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ.

A hypothesis is a conjecture, based on knowledge obtained while seeking answers to the question.

ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵇⵙⵉ.

There are difficulties in a formulaic statement of method, however.

ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴱⴰⵢⴹⴰⵕⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵔⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ.

"The term ""scientific method"" emerged in the 19th century, when a significant institutional development of science was taking place and terminologies establishing clear boundaries between science and non-science, such as ""scientist"" and ""pseudoscience"", appeared."

''ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ''ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ'' ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 19, ⴷⴷⴰ ⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓ ⴳ ⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴼⴼⵓⵖⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⴰⵏⴰⴼⴰⵡ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ''ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ'' ⴷ ''ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏⵓⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ''.

Gauch 2003, and Tow 2010 disagree with Feyerabend's claim; problem solvers, and researchers are to be prudent with their resources during their inquiry.

ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵣⵉⵔⵉⵢ ⵊⵓⵜⵛ 2003 ⴷ ⵜⵓ 2010 ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴼⴰⵢⵔⴰⴱⵏⴷ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵔⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⴹⴼⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⴷⴰ ⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.

Philosophers Robert Nola and Howard Sankey, in their 2007 book Theories of Scientific Method, said that debates over scientific method continue, and argued that Feyerabend, despite the title of Against Method, accepted certain rules of method and attempted to justify those rules with a meta methodology.

ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼ ⵔⵓⴱⵔⵜ ⵏⵓⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵀⴰⵡⴰⵔⴷ ⵙⴰⵏⴽⵉ, ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2007 ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ, ⵎⵖⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴼⴰⵢⵔⴰⴱⵏⴷ ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵣⵡⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ, ⵉⵔⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵢⴰⵔⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⴽ ⵉⵎⵛⴰⵛⵛⵓⴹⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜ.

The ubiquitous element in the scientific method is empiricism.

ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ.

The scientific method counters claims that revelation, political or religious dogma, appeals to tradition, commonly held beliefs, common sense, or currently held theories pose the only possible means of demonstrating truth.

ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙⵙ ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵡⵛ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵉⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⴼⵉⴽⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ.

From the 16th century onwards, experiments were advocated by Francis Bacon, and performed by Giambattista della Porta, Johannes Kepler, and Galileo Galilei.

ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙ 16 ⵙ ⵓⴼⵍⵍⴰ, ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙ ⴱⵉⴽⵓⵏ, ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⵜ ⵊⵢⴰⵎⴱⴰⵜⵙⵉⴽⴰ ⴷⵉⵍⴰ ⴱⵓⵔⵜⴰ, ⵢⵓⵀⴰⵏⵙ ⴽⵉⴱⵍⵔ, ⴷ ⴳⴰⵍⵉⵍⵓ ⴳⴰⵍⵉⵍⵉ.

As in other areas of inquiry, science (through the scientific method) can build on previous knowledge and develop a more sophisticated understanding of its topics of study over time.

ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ, ⵜⵣⵎⵔ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ (ⵙⴳ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ) ⴰⴷ ⵜⵚⴽⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵣⵔⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ.

"This model can be seen to underlie the scientific revolution.: """

‘’ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ''.

One conjecture might be that a new drug will cure the disease in some of the people in that population, as in a clinical trial of the drug.

ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏⴰ ⵉⵊⵊⵓⵊⵓⵢⵏ ⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⴰ, ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔ.

These predictions are expectations for the results of testing.

ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ.

The difference between expected versus actual indicates which hypothesis better explains the resulting data from the experiment.

ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉⵏ.

Depending on the complexity of the experiment, iteration of the process may be required to gather sufficient evidence to answer the question with confidence, or to build up other answers to highly specific questions, to answer a single broader question.

ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵜⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ, ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵢⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵇⵙⵉ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵙⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ, ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵇⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ.

"X-ray diffraction patterns of DNA by Florence Bell in her Ph.D. thesis (1939) were similar to (although not as good as) ""photo 51"", but this research was interrupted by the events of World War II."

ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ''ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵏⵣⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⵉⵎ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵡⵉⵢ ⴷⴰⵔ ⴼⵍⵓⵔⵏⵙ ⴱⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⴷⴷⵓⴽⵜⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ (1939) ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ''ⵜⵡⵍⴰⴼⵜ 51'' (ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵃⵍⵉ), ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⴷⴷⵖⵉⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉ ⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ''.

"June 1952 — Watson had succeeded in getting X-ray pictures of TMV showing a diffraction pattern consistent with the transform of a helix.: """

''ⴳ ⵢⵓⵏⵢⵓ 1952, ⵉⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵡⴰⵟⵚⵓⵏ ⴳ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵎⵥ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵍⴰⴼⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵣⵏⵥⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵔⴰⵜⵙⴰ ⵏ (TMV) ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵍⵀⵉⵍⵉⴽⵙ''.

This prediction was a mathematical construct, completely independent from the biological problem at hand.

ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⵉⵥⵍⵉ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ.

"DNA is not a helix."""

''ⴰⵃⵉⵎⴹ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵡⵉⵢ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵀⵉⵍⵉⴽⵙ''.

For example, the number of strands in the backbone of the helix (Crick suspected 2 strands, but cautioned Watson to examine that more critically), the location of the base pairs (inside the backbone or outside the backbone), etc.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵥⴷⵢ ⵏ ⵀⵉⵍⵉⴽⵙ (ⵉⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⴽⵔⵉⴽ ⴳ 2 ⵉⴼⴰⵍⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵣⵣⴰⵖ ⵡⴰⵟⵙⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵎⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴱⵀⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵔⵉⵜ), ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴷⴷⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ (ⴳ ⵊⴰⵊ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴷⵢ ⵏⵖ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵥⴷⵢ), ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ.

"But Wilkins agrees to do so only after Franklin's departure.: """

ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵡⵉⵍⴽⵏⵣ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵅⵙ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⴷⴷⵓ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴽ ⵍⵉⵏ''.

He and Crick then produced their model, using this information along with the previously known information about DNA's composition, especially Chargaff's rules of base pairing.:

ⵉⵍⵎⵎⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⴽⵔⵉⴽ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵉⵎⴹ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵡⵉⵢ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵍⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵛⴰⵕⵊⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏ.

For significant or surprising results, other scientists may also attempt to replicate the results for themselves, especially if those results would be important to their own work.

ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵍⴽⵎⵜ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⴰⵢ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵙⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵎⴽ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.

Peer review does not certify the correctness of the results, only that, in the opinion of the reviewer, the experiments themselves were sound (based on the description supplied by the experimenter).

ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⴼⵙⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵖⵣⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵣⴷⴷⵉⴳⵏⵜ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ (ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⴱⴰⴱ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ).

These methodological elements and organization of procedures tend to be more characteristic of experimental sciences than social sciences.

ⴷⴰ ⴼⵔⵔⵖⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴼⵉⵔⵙⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ.

"The elements above are often taught in the educational system as ""the scientific method""."

ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴱⴷⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ''ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ''.

For example, when Einstein developed the Special and General Theories of Relativity, he did not in any way refute or discount Newton's Principia.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵍⵍⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⵉⵏⵛⵟⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵡⵉⵜ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵇⵙ ⴳ ⴱⵔⵉⵏⵙⵢⴰ ⵏⵢⵓⵜⵓⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ.

The systematic, careful collection of measurements or counts of relevant quantities is often the critical difference between pseudo-sciences, such as alchemy, and science, such as chemistry or biology.

ⴰⵔ ⴱⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⴷⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵔⵊⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵍⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵍⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ.

Uncertainties may also be calculated by consideration of the uncertainties of the individual underlying quantities used.

ⵏⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵖⵥⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵇⵇⵍ ⵙ ⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵖⵥⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵡⵍⵉⵡⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵛⵜⵏ ⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ.

"The operational definition of a thing often relies on comparisons with standards: the operational definition of ""mass"" ultimately relies on the use of an artifact, such as a particular kilogram of platinum-iridium kept in a laboratory in France."

''ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⴰⵡⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴷⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⴰⵏⵉⵙⵎⴰⵏ: ⴰⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⴰⵙⵡⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ''ⴰⴳⵓⴷⵉ'' ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵔⵉⵣⴰⵏⵜ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴽⵉⵍⵓⴳⵔⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵍⴱⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏ-ⵉⵔⵉⴷⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⵎⵃⴼⵓⴹ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵎ ⴳ ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵚⴰ.

Scientific quantities are often characterized by their units of measure which can later be described in terms of conventional physical units when communicating the work.

ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵙⴼⵉⵔⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴽⵜⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴼⵔⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵎⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⵢ ⵉⵍⴽⵎ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ.

It took thousands of years of measurements, from the Chaldean, Indian, Persian, Greek, Arabic, and European astronomers, to fully record the motion of planet Earth.

ⵜⵉⵡⵉ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ, ⵙⴳ ⵉⵜⵔⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⴽⵉⵍⴷⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵍⵀⵏⵓⴷ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⵉⵙⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵢⵓⴰⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵕⵓⴱⴱⵉⵢⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ, ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵣⵎⵎⴻⵎⵏ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⵉⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ.

The observed difference for Mercury's precession between Newtonian theory and observation was one of the things that occurred to Albert Einstein as a possible early test of his theory of General relativity.

ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴽⵓⵔⵉ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵊⵕⴰⵏ ⵉ ⴰⵍⴱⵔⵟ ⴰⵏⵛⵟⴰⵢⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵏⵣⵓ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⵓⵜ.

Scientists are free to use whatever resources they have – their own creativity, ideas from other fields, inductive reasoning, Bayesian inference, and so on – to imagine possible explanations for a phenomenon under study.

ⴰⵔ ⵜⴼⵊⵊⵉⵊⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ-ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⵣⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴱⴰⵢⵣⵉ, ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ- ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵡⵡⵍⴼⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ.

Scientists often use these terms to refer to a theory that is following the known facts but is nevertheless relatively simple and easy to handle.

ⴰⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⴽⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴹⴼⵓⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵜⵔⵅⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵀⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴳⴳⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ.

It is essential that the outcome of testing such a prediction be currently unknown.

ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ.

If the predictions are not accessible by observation or experience, the hypothesis is not yet testable and so will remain to that extent unscientific in a strict sense.

ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵜ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⵏⵉ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⴷⵖⵉ, ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵅⴼ ⵎⴽⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴳⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵓⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷ.

This implied that DNA's X-ray diffraction pattern would be 'x shaped'.

ⵎⴰⵏ ⵢⴰ ⴷⴰⵔⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵉⵎⴹ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵡⵉⵢ ⵙ ⵉⵣⵏⵥⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵏⵉⵢⵏ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ''ⵓⵏⵓⵖ ⵏ (x).

Sometimes the experiments are conducted incorrectly or are not very well designed when compared to a crucial experiment.

ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵣⴳⵍⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵅⵚⵚⴰ ⵎⴽ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵖⵜⴰⵙⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵏⴷⵉ.

This technique uses the contrast between multiple samples, or observations, or populations, under differing conditions, to see what varies or what remains the same.

ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⴻⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⴷⴷⵖ ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵏⵙⵙⵉⴼⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵉⵔⴱⴱⴰⵄ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴷⴷⵓⵖⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ, ⵃⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ.

Factor analysis is one technique for discovering the important factor in an effect.

ⴰⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴻⵜⵇⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⴳⵓ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵓⴹⵉⵚ.

Even taking a plane from New York to Paris is an experiment that tests the aerodynamical hypotheses used for constructing the plane.

ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵢⵓⵙⵉ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵏⵢⵓⵢⵓⵔⴽ ⵙ ⴱⴰⵔⵉⵣ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵔⵎⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⵚⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵜ.

Franklin immediately spotted the flaws which concerned the water content.

ⵉⵥⵕⴰ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⴽⵍⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵉⵎⵍⴰⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ.

Failure to develop an interesting hypothesis may lead a scientist to re-define the subject under consideration.

ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⴽ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵓⵔⵙⵔⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵥⵕⴰⵏ.

Other scientists may start their own research and enter the process at any stage.

ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴽⵛⵛⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ.

Crucially, experimental and theoretical results must be reproduced by others within the scientific community.

ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵖⵜⴰⵙⵜ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴼⵖⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵊⴰⵊ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ.

The better an explanation is at making predictions, the more useful it frequently can be, and the more likely it will continue to explain a body of evidence better than its alternatives.

ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵢⵓⴼ ⴰⵙⵔⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴽⴰ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ, ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉ ⵏⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵜⵏ ⵢⵓⴼⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴽⴽⵉⵙⵉ.

Scientific models vary in the extent to which they have been experimentally tested and for how long, and in their acceptance in the scientific community.

ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵎⵣⵉⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵡⵜⵜⵓ, ⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ.