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If such evidence is found, a new theory may be proposed, or (more commonly) it is found that modifications to the previous theory are sufficient to explain the new evidence. | ⵉⵖ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵡⴰⴼⴰ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵖⵉ ⴰ ⵜⵜⵙⵙⵓⵎⵔ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ, ⵏⵉⵖ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ, ⴰⵔ ⴰⵖ ⵉⵜⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵏⵥⵉ ⵉⵙⵀⵢⵢⵓⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵥⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵅ ⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ. |
For example, Newton's laws explained thousands of years of scientific observations of the planets almost perfectly. | ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⴼⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵙⵙⴼⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵜⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ. |
Since new theories might be more comprehensive than what preceded them, and thus be able to explain more than previous ones, successor theories might be able to meet a higher standard by explaining a larger body of observations than their predecessors. | ⵙ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵜⵍ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⵍⵉ ⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏⵉⵏ, ⴰ ⵜⵉⵜⵍⵉ ⵜⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ, ⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵓⴼⵓ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵔⵏⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⴰⵟⵟⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ. |
"Once a structurally complete and closed system of opinions consisting of many details and relations has been formed, it offers enduring resistance to anything that contradicts it""." | ⵅⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵖⴰ ⵉⵇⵇⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⴷⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵖⵔⵓⴼ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵓⵔⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ, ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵙⴽⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⴷⵓⵎⵏ ⵉ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵎⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⴳⴰⵍⴰⵏ. |
Its successes can shine but tend to be transitory. | ⴰⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵣⴰⵢⴷ ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⵖⵉ ⴰ ⵜⴷⵣⵔⵉ. |
"The method of the a priori – which promotes conformity less brutally but fosters opinions as something like tastes, arising in conversation and comparisons of perspectives in terms of ""what is agreeable to reason.""" | ⵜⵉⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵎⵏⴰⵡⴰⵍⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵉⴷⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⵍⵉ, ⵙ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⴹⵉⵜⵏ. |
That is a destination as far, or near, as the truth itself to you or me or the given finite community. | ⵖⵜⵜⴰⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵢⴰⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ ⵏⵉⵖ ⵜⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ, ⴰⵎ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉ ⴽⵓⵏⵏⵉ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⴽ ⵏⵉⵖ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉ ⵡⵎⵓⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵓⵙⴼⴽⵉ. |
From abduction, Peirce distinguishes induction as inferring, based on tests, the proportion of truth in the hypothesis. | ⴰⵔ ⵉⴼⵔⵔⵣ ⴱⵉⵔⵉⵙ ⴰⴽⴰⵎ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵟⵟⴰⵢ, ⵢⵓⵎⵥⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ, ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ. |
Oftenest, even a well-prepared mind guesses wrong. | ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵛⵡⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⵉⵣⴳⵍⵏ. |
"Peirce, Charles S. (1902), Carnegie application, see MS L75.329330, from Draft D of Memoir 27: ""Consequently, to discover is simply to expedite an event that would occur sooner or later, if we had not troubled ourselves to make the discovery." | ''ⴱⵉⵔⵙ, ⵛⴰⵔⵍⵙ (1902), ⵜⵉⵙⵏⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⴽⵔⵏⵉⵊⵉⵢⵜ (MS L75.329330) ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ 27: ⵙ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵎⵔⵅⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵍⴰ ⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵓⵣⵣⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⴽⴽⴰ, ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵏⴻⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵣⵣⵉⵡⵣ ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵅ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ.’’ |
"Consequently, the conduct of abduction, which is chiefly a question of heuretic and is the first question of heuretic, is to be governed by economical considerations.""" | ''ⴳ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵙⵉ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵚⵚⴹⵚⴰⵢⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵟⵟⵏⵥ, ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⵉⴳⵏ ⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ. |
The hypothesis, being insecure, needs to have practical implications leading at least to mental tests and, in science, lending themselves to scientific tests. | ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴳⵉ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵍⵙⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵃⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰ ⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵣⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⵍⵍⵉⵜⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ. |
"Einstein, Albert (1936, 1956) One may say ""the eternal mystery of the world is its comprehensibility.""" | ''ⵉⵏⵛⵟⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⵍⴱⵉⵕⵟ (1936-1956) ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵏⵉ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵓⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴱⴷⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⴰⵏⵛⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ. |
These assumptions from methodological naturalism form a basis on which science may be grounded. | ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵓⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⴱⵉⴷⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ. |
His observations of science practice are essentially sociological and do not speak to how science is or can be practiced in other times and other cultures. | ⵜⴰⵏⵏⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ. |
"He opens Chapter 1 with a discussion of the Golgi bodies and their initial rejection as an artefact of staining technique, and a discussion of Brahe and Kepler observing the dawn and seeing a ""different"" sunrise despite the same physiological phenomenon." | ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ 1 ⵙ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵖⵓⵍⵊⵉ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴳⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙⴳ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵓⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴻⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⴱⵔⴰⵀⵉ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴱⵍⵔ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴹⴰⴼ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴼⴰⵡⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵥⵕⵕⴰⵏ ''ⴰⵎⵢⵉⵏⴰⵡⵏ'' ⵏ ⵉⵏⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵜ ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵙⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ. |
In essence, he says that for any specific method or norm of science, one can find a historic episode where violating it has contributed to the progress of science. | ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⴳ ⵊⴰⵊ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴼ ⵜⴰⵅⵔⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵢⵉⵡⵙ ⵜⵉⵕⵕⵥⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ. |
The postmodernist critiques of science have themselves been the subject of intense controversy. | ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵖⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ. |
Models, in both science and mathematics, need to be internally consistent and also ought to be falsifiable (capable of disproof). | ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⴷⴷⵖ, ⴳ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵊⴰⵊ ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵔⵊⴰⵏ (ⵜⵥⴹⴰⵕ ⵉ ⵜⵕⵓⵥⵉ). |
For example, the technical concept of time arose in science, and timelessness was a hallmark of a mathematical topic. | ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⴰⵜⵉⵇⵇⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵖ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵛⵛⵃⴰⵃⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ. |
Eugene Wigner's paper, The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences, is a very well-known account of the issue from a Nobel Prize-winning physicist. | ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵓⵊⵉⵏ ⴼⵉⵊⵏⵕ, ⵜⵉⵕⵡⵉ ⴰⵔⵖⵡⵥⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵖ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵖ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵢⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵖⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵓⴱⵍ. |
In Proofs and Refutations, Lakatos gave several basic rules for finding proofs and counterexamples to conjectures. | ⴳ ⵉⴼⵔⵔⵣⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ, ⵉⴼⴽⴰ ⵍⴰⴽⴰⵜⵓⵙ ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴱⴰⵛ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵔⵣⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵣ |
This may explain why scientists so often express that they were lucky. | ⵎⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵎⴰⵅⵅ ⵍⵍⵉⵖⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵖ ⵜⵓⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵃⵢⴰⵏⵏ |
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. | ⵎⴰⵀⵡⴰⵀ ⵏⵊ: ⵍⵓⵔⴰⵏⵙ ⵉⵔⵍⴱⴰⵓⵎ ⵉⵎⵛⵛⵔⴽⵏ. |
"This is what Nassim Nicholas Taleb calls ""Anti-fragility""; while some systems of investigation are fragile in the face of human error, human bias, and randomness, the scientific method is more than resistant or tough – it actually benefits from such randomness in many ways (it is anti-fragile)." | « ⵎⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵓ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏⴰⵙⵉⵎ ⵏⵉⴽⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵟⴰⵍⴱ ⴽⴰⵍⵍⵙ » «ⴰⵙⵏⴽⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵓⴽⴹ” ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴳⴳⵓ ⴽⵓⴽⴹⵏ ⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵓⵔⵎⵉⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵖⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⵔⵡⴰⵢ, ⵎⴰⵛ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵎⵓ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵚⴰⵃⴰ ⵖ ⵓⵎⵔⵡⵉ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵓⴽⵜⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ. |
These unexpected results lead researchers to try to fix what they think is an error in their method. | ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵏⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵜⴰⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵊⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⴰⵍⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷ ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵔⵎⵉⴷⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⵙⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ. |
A scientific theory is an explanation of an aspect of the natural world and universe that has been repeatedly tested and verified in accordance with the scientific method, using accepted protocols of observation, measurement, and evaluation of results. | ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵖ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⴳⵉⵣ ⵔⵣⵣⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⴷ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴱⵔⵓⵜⵓⴽⵓⵍ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵏⵥⴹⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵜⵍ ⵏⵥⵕ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ. |
Established scientific theories have withstood rigorous scrutiny and embody scientific knowledge. | ⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵓⵜⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ. |
"Stephen Jay Gould wrote that ""...facts and theories are different things, not rungs in a hierarchy of increasing certainty." | ⵢⵓⵔⴰ ⵙⵜⵉⴼⵏ ⵊⴰⵢ ⴳⵓⵍⴷ ⵎⴰⵙ « ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⴳⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵖ ⵜⵙⴽⵯⴼⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⴷⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ. |
The meaning of the term scientific theory (often contracted to theory for brevity) as used in the disciplines of science is significantly different from the common vernacular usage of theory. | ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ( ⵍⵍⵉ ⵏⵏ ⵉⵃⵛⴰⵏ ⵖ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ) ⵎⴽ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⴰⵡⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵖ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵉⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵖ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ. |
In everyday speech, theory can imply an explanation that represents an unsubstantiated and speculative guess, whereas in science it describes an explanation that has been tested and is widely accepted as valid. | ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵢⴰⵙⵜ, ⵜⵥⴹⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵟⵟⴼ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴽⴰ ⵏⵇⵇⴷⵔ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵟⵟⴰⴼ ⵉⵏⴰⴳⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⵛ ⵖ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵏⵚⵚⵃⵓⵜ ⵏⵣⵍⵓⵣⵓⵜ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⴷⴰⴷ. |
Some theories are so well-established that they are unlikely ever to be fundamentally changed (for example, scientific theories such as evolution, heliocentric theory, cell theory, theory of plate tectonics, germ theory of disease, etc.). | ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵏⵜ ⴰⵔ ⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵏⵜ ⵢⴰⵊⵊ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ (ⵙ ⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵜⵉⵎⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⴰⴽⵜⵓⵏⵢⵢⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵅⵛⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ). |
Scientific theories are testable and make falsifiable predictions. | ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵍⴰⵇⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⵍⵏ. |
The defining characteristic of all scientific knowledge, including theories, is the ability to make falsifiable or testable predictions. | ⴷ ⵜⴼⵉⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴳⵍ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵔⵉⵎ. |
It is well-supported by many independent strands of evidence, rather than a single foundation. | ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⵍⵜ. |
"The theory of biological evolution is more than ""just a theory""." | ‘’ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ''ⵓⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵜ''. |
This provides evidence either for or against the hypothesis. | ⵖⵉⴷ ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏⵙⵡⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⴰⵢⴷⴷⵖ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏⵖ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴰⴷ. |
This can take many years, as it can be difficult or complicated to gather sufficient evidence. | ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⴽ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⵓ ⵏⵖ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵡⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵢⵓⴷⴰⵏ. |
The strength of the evidence is evaluated by the scientific community, and the most important experiments will have been replicated by multiple independent groups. | ⴰⵔ ⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵉⵜⴳ ⵉ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵍⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ. |
In chemistry, there are many acid-base theories providing highly divergent explanations of the underlying nature of acidic and basic compounds, but they are very useful for predicting their chemical behavior. | ⴳ ⵓⴽⵉⵎⵉ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵉⵕⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵃⵉⵎⴹⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵃⵉⵎⴹⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⴼⵓⵍⴽⵉ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⴽⵉⵎⵉⵜ. |
Acceptance of a theory does not require that all of its major predictions be tested, if it is already supported by sufficiently strong evidence. | ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵃⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰ ⵓⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵇⵇⴰⵃ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ, ⵎⴽ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵓⴳⵔⴰ. |
Solutions may require minor or major changes to the theory, or none at all if a satisfactory explanation is found within the theory's existing framework. | ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵍ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵎⴽ ⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⵣⴰ ⵏ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ. |
If modifications to the theory or other explanations seem to be insufficient to account for the new results, then a new theory may be required. | ⵎⴽ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵖ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵢⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴱⵉⴷⴷ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵃⵜⴰⵊ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ. |
This is because it is still the best available explanation for many other phenomena, as verified by its predictive power in other contexts. | ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ, ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ. |
After the changes, the accepted theory will explain more phenomena and have greater predictive power (if it did not, the changes would not be adopted); this new explanation will then be open to further replacement or modification. | ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵉⵍⵏ, ⵇⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⵏ (ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⵉⵔⵜ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ); ⴷ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵃⵜⴰⵊⵊⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴷⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓⵜⵏ. |
For example, electricity and magnetism are now known to be two aspects of the same phenomenon, referred to as electromagnetism. | ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵖⵉⵍⴰ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵍⴽⵀⵕⵓⵎⵉⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵙⵉ. |
This was resolved by the discovery of nuclear fusion, the main energy source of the Sun. | ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵡⵉⵢ, ⴰⵖⴱⴰⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴰⴳⵊⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵜ. |
By omitting from special relativity the luminiferous aether, Einstein stated that time dilation and length contraction measured in an object in relative motion is inertial—that is, the object exhibits constant velocity, which is speed with direction, when measured by its observer. | ⵙⴳ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵜ, ⵉⴱⴷⵔ ⵉⵏⵛⵟⴰⵢⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵅⵅⵉⵜⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴷ ⵜⴱⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵇⵓⴹⴻⴹ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵙ- ⵙ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⴽ ⵏⵏⵉⴹⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵔⵉⵔⵔⵉ ⴰⵔⵎⵙⵉⴽⵍ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵔⵉⵔⵔⵉ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ, ⴰⵙⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵏⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵜ. |
Einstein sought to generalize the invariance principle to all reference frames, whether inertial or accelerating. | ⵉⴷⴷⴰ ⵉⵏⵛⵟⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢ ⴰⵔⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍ ⵅⴼ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⴰⵜⵉ ⴰⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍ, ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵔⵎⵙⴽⵉⵍ ⵏⵖ ⵢⵓⵣⵣⵍⴰⵏ. |
"Even massless energy exerts gravitational motion on local objects by ""curving"" the geometrical ""surface"" of 4D space-time." | ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵎⴰⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵙⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵎⵍⴷⴰⵢ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ''ⵉⵃⵓⴷⵔⵏ'' ''ⴰⵣⵓⵔ'' ⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍ 4ⴷ ⴰⵣⵎⵣ. |
However, scientific laws are descriptive accounts of how nature will behave under certain conditions. | ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵣⵔⴼ/ⴰⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⵟⵟⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ. |
A common misconception is that scientific theories are rudimentary ideas that will eventually graduate into scientific laws when enough data and evidence have been accumulated. | ⵙⴳ ⵉⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⴼⴼⵖ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵙⵍⴳⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳ ⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⴳⵓⵎⵏ. |
Both theories and laws could potentially be falsified by countervailing evidence. | ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵊⴰⵏⴻⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏⵙ ⵜⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵔⵔⴰⵣⵏ. |
First-order logic is an example of a formal language. | ⴷ ⵓⵎⵥⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵜ. |
The phenomena explained by the theories, if they could not be directly observed by the senses (for example, atoms and radio waves), were treated as theoretical concepts. | ⵙ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ, ⵎⴽ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵏⵙⵏⵉⵖⵙ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵢⴰⴼⴰⵜⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ/ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⴰⴼⵏⵓⵣⵜⴰⵙⵙⵡⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴹⴹⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵡⴰⵢ), ⵜⵓⵖⴰ ⵜⵏⵜ (ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ) ⵜⵜⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵏ. |
"The phrase ""the received view of theories"" is used to describe this approach." | “ⴷⴰ ⵏⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ “ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⴽⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ “ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⴰⴷ’’. |
One can use language to describe a model; however, the theory is the model (or a collection of similar models), and not the description of the model. | ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵙⵓⵍ ⴷ, ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ (ⵏⵉⵖ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ) ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ. |
The model parameters, e.g., Newton's Law of Gravitation, determine how the positions and velocities change with time. | ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏⵜ ⵍⴱⴰⵕⴰⵎⵉⵜⵔⴰⵜ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⵜⵏ, ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵜⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵏⵓⵣⵖⴰ, ⴷ ⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵜⵜⵎⵣⵉⵔⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ. |
"The word ""semantic"" refers to the way that a model represents the real world." | ‘’ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ''ⴰⵏⴰⵎⴽ'' ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ''. |
"Engineering practice makes a distinction between ""mathematical models"" and ""physical models""; the cost of fabricating a physical model can be minimized by first creating a mathematical model using a computer software package, such as a computer aided design tool." | ⴷⴰ “ ⵜⴱⴹⴹⵓ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴷⴰⴳⵜ ⴳⵔ “ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵏⵓⵏⵜ “ ⴷ “ ⵉⵣⵓⵔⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⵇⵜ “, ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵇⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴰⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⴽⵎⴰⵎ ⵙ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴽⵉⵏⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵉⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴽⵉⵏ. |
Certain assumptions are necessary for all empirical claims (e.g. the assumption that reality exists). | ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴷⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⵣⴰⵣⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⵙⵓⵜⵔⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵏ (ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⴰⵎⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ). |
This may be as simple as observing that the theory makes accurate predictions, which is evidence that any assumptions made at the outset are correct or approximately correct under the conditions tested. | ⵉⵥⴰⵕ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵡⵀⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⵏⵏⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷⵏ, ⵡⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵏⵥⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵉⴷⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏⵉⵖ ⵍⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, ⴳ ⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵜⵓⵍⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⵉⵎⵏ. |
The theory makes accurate predictions when the assumption is valid, and does not make accurate predictions when the assumption is not valid. | ⴷⴰ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵜⵥⵉⵕⵜ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⴳ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⵔⴷⵓ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ, ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉ ⵓⵎⵔⴷⵓ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ. |
"The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) and online Wiktionary indicate its Latin source as assumere (""accept, to take to oneself, adopt, usurp""), which is a conjunction of ad- (""to, towards, at"") and sumere (to take)." | ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵜⴰⵔ ⵓⵎⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣ ⵓⴽⵙⴼⵓⵔⴷ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵡⵉⴽ ⵅⴼ (OED) ⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉⵜ ⵖⵔ ⴰⵙⴰⴳⵯⵎ ⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵔⴷⵓ (“ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ”), ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⴼⴽ ⵉ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵜⵙⵙⴳⵎⵉ, ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵎⵣⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⴳⵔ (“ⵖⵔ”, “ⵙ” ⴷ (ⵙⵓⵎⵉⵔⵉ). |
"The term was originally employed in religious contexts as in ""to receive up into heaven"", especially ""the reception of the Virgin Mary into heaven, with body preserved from corruption"", (1297 CE) but it was also simply used to refer to ""receive into association"" or ""adopt into partnership""." | ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵉⵔⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵥⵓⵕ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ « ⴰⵙⵏⴱⴳⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ », ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ « ⴰⵙⵏⵓⴱⴳ ⵏ ⵎⵔⵢⴰⵎ ⵍⵄⴰⴷⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ, ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵃⴹⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ », (1297) ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵓⵍⵉ ⵏ « ⴰⵙⵏⴱⴳⵉ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ » ⵏⵉⵖ « ⴰⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⵜ ». |
Confirmations should count only if they are the result of risky predictions; that is to say, if, unenlightened by the theory in question, we should have expected an event which was incompatible with the theory—an event which would have refuted the theory. | ⵉⵍⴰⵇ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵉⵟⵟⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴷⴷⵉⴷⵏ ⵅⵙ ⵎⴽ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵜⴰⵢⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵉⵜⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵙⵙⵏⵥⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ, ⵜⵓⵖⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵇ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴷⵎⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵣⵣⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ - ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵏⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵏⵜ. |
A theory which is not refutable by any conceivable event is non-scientific. | ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵔ ⵏⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵉⵏⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴳⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷⵜ ⵙ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴳⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏⵜ. |
Some genuinely testable theories, when found to be false, might still be upheld by their admirers—for example by introducing post hoc (after the fact) some auxiliary hypothesis or assumption, or by reinterpreting the theory post hoc in such a way that it escapes refutation. | ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎ, ⵉⴳ ⵜⵏⵜ ⵏⵓⴼⴰ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ, ⵖⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⴼⵏⵜ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵖⵉⴼⵙⵏⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵣⴰⵖⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵙⵓⵙⵎⵏⵜ- ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵉⴳ ⵏⵙⵙⵏⴽⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ (ⴹⴰⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ), ⵏⵉⵖ ⵉⴳ ⵏⵓⵍⵙ ⴰⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴽⵜⴰⵎⵜ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⴰⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵉ ⵓⴼⵔⴰⵏ. |
"Popper summarized these statements by saying that the central criterion of the scientific status of a theory is its ""falsifiability, or refutability, or testability""." | ⵉⵣⴳⵣⵍ ⴱⵓⴱⵔ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ «ⴰⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ «ⵎⵉ ⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵔⵊⴰⵏ, ⵏⵉⵖ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉ ⵏⵉⵖ ⵉⵔⵉⵎ. |
"Several philosophers and historians of science have, however, argued that Popper's definition of theory as a set of falsifiable statements is wrong because, as Philip Kitcher has pointed out, if one took a strictly Popperian view of ""theory"", observations of Uranus when first discovered in 1781 would have ""falsified"" Newton's celestial mechanics." | ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵎⵣⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵏ ⴱⵓⴱⵔ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵅⵙ ⴰⵟⵟⴰⵚ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳ ⵓⵔⵊⴰⵏ ⵡⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍ, ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴼⵉⵍⵉⴱ ⴽⵉⵜⵛⵉⵔ, ⵎⴽ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵥⵕⵕⴰ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵟⵟ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⴱⵔ, ⵀⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵉⵖⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⵏⵓⵙ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1781 ⵇⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵙⵙⵏⵜⵍ ⵉ « ⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵜⵓⵏ’’. |
"Fecundity: ""A great scientific theory, like Newton's, opens up new areas of research…." | ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵏⵢⵓⵜⵓⵏ, ⵜⴰⵏⵏⵓⵕⵥⵎⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ. |
At any time, it raises more questions than it can currently answer. | ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ, ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵏⵇⵇⵉⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵛⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵇⵇⵙⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⴽ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⵖⵉ. |
Like other definitions of theories, including Popper's, Kitcher makes it clear that a theory must include statements that have observational consequences. | ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵏⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵡⵉⵏ ⴱⵓⴱⵔ, ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⴽⵉⵜⵛⵉⵔ ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵉⵍⴰⵇ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵉ. |
It may be set out on paper as a system of rules, and it is the more truly a theory the more completely it can be put down in such terms. | ⵜⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⵔⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ, ⴷ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴽⵓⴷⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵉⵔⵎⵏ ⴰⴷ. |
"The specific mathematical aspects of classical electromagnetic theory are termed ""laws of electromagnetism,"" reflecting the level of consistent and reproducible evidence that supports them." | ⴷⴰ ⵏⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉ « ⵉⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏⵜⵉ-ⴰⵎⵉⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵚⵉ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ » ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⵙⵏⵜⵉ-ⴰⵎⵉⵖⵏⴰⵟⵉⵚⵉ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵍⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵙⴷⵓⵙⵏ. |
An example of the latter might be the radiation reaction force. | ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⵥⵏⵥⵕ. |
A scientist is a person who conducts scientific research to advance knowledge in an area of interest. | ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵜⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵉⵜ. |
Scientists of different eras (and before them, natural philosophers, mathematicians, natural historians, natural theologians, engineers, and others who contributed to the development of science) have had widely different places in society, and the social norms, ethical values, and epistemic virtues associated with scientists—and expected of them—have changed over time as well. | ⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ (ⵡⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⵙⵏ, ⵉⴼⴰⵢⵍⴰⵙⵓⴼⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵣⴰⴳⵏ, ⵓⵍⴰ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵡⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ) ⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⴼⴰⵍⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⴼⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ-ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵜⵓⴷⵎⴰ ⵙⴳ ⴷⵉⵙⵏ- ⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ. |
Many proto-scientists from the Islamic Golden Age are considered polymaths, in part because of the lack of anything corresponding to modern scientific disciplines. | ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⵖ ⴰⵢⵉⵙⵍⵎ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵍⴱⵉⵍⵓⵎⵜⵔⴰⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴷⵡⴰⵍ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ. |
Propositions arrived at by purely logical means are completely empty as regards reality. | ⵉⵙⵓⵎⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵍⴽⴽⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ. |
Descartes was not only a pioneer of analytic geometry but formulated a theory of mechanics and advanced ideas about the origins of animal movement and perception. | ⵓⵔ ⵉⴼⴽⵉ ⴷⵉⴽⴰⵕⵜ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵙⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵕⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ. |
He provided a comprehensive formulation of classical mechanics and investigated light and optics. | ⵉⴼⴽ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⴰⵇⵇⴰⵍⵉⵏ. |
He discovered that a charge applied to the spinal cord of a frog could generate muscular spasms throughout its body. | ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⵏⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴽⵜⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙ ⵙ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵖⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵓ ⵉⵣⵎⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵔⵓ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵖⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴱⴱⴰⵊⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴳⴳⴰ. |
Lazzaro Spallanzani is one of the most influential figures in experimental physiology and the natural sciences. | ⵍⴰⵣⴰⵔⵓ ⵙⴱⵍⴰⵏⵣⴰⵏⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵉⵙⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵔⴰⵎⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴳⴰⵎⵉⵏ. |
However, there is no formal process to determine who is a scientist and who is not a scientist. | ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔⵜ ⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵙⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵜ ⵉⴳⴳⵉⵏ. |
A little over half of the respondents wanted to pursue a career in academia, with smaller proportions hoping to work in industry, government, and nonprofit environments. | ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴹⴼⵓⵕⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢⵏ, ⴰⴽⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵖⵙ ⴳ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⴽⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⵟⵟ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵏⴰⵟⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵔⵣⴰ. |
They exhibit a strong curiosity about reality. | ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵙⵙⵓⴼⵓⵖⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ. |
Some scientists have a desire to apply scientific knowledge for the benefit of people's health, the nations, the world, nature, or industries (academic scientist and industrial scientist). | ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵔⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵏⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ, ⵏⵖ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ (ⴰⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⴽⴰⴷⵉⵎⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏ). |
These include cosmology and biology, especially molecular biology and the human genome project. | ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵙⵙⵓⵏⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⴰⵏⵜ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵢⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ. |
The figure included twice as many men as women. | ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵟⵟⵓⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵖⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴰⵍ. |
Relevant phenomena include supernova explosions, gamma ray bursts, quasars, blazars, pulsars, and cosmic microwave background radiation. | ⵙⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵙⵓⴱⵉⵔ ⵏⵓⵖⴰ, ⴷ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵏⵥⵔⵏ ⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵇⵇⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴽⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵓⵣⵏⵥⵕ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵕⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴹⴹⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⴷⵉⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⵔⴰⵏ. |
Astronomy is one of the oldest natural sciences. | ⵜⴰⵙⵟⵔⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ. |
In the past, astronomy included disciplines as diverse as astrometry, celestial navigation, observational astronomy, and the making of calendars. | ⴳ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵟⵕⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ ⵉⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⴰⵢ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵡⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⴼⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵟⵔⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵉⵙⵉ. |
Observational astronomy is focused on acquiring data from observations of astronomical objects. | ⵜⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵟⵕⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵙⵉ ⵅⴼ ⵢⵉⵎⵥ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵢⵍⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵀⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵜⵕⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉⵏ |
These two fields complement each other. | ⴷ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⴷⴷⵖ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵙⵎⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⴹ . |
"Based on strict dictionary definitions, ""astronomy"" refers to ""the study of objects and matter outside the Earth's atmosphere and of their physical and chemical properties,"" while ""astrophysics"" refers to the branch of astronomy dealing with ""the behavior, physical properties, and dynamic processes of celestial objects and phenomena""." | ‘’ⵅⴼ ⵓⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵓⵇⵊⵉⵔ'' ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ''ⴰⵙⵜⵕⵓⵏⵓⵎⵉ'' ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵏⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵉⵢ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵉⵎⴰⵡⵉ, ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⵍ ''ⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵎⵉⵜ. |
Some fields, such as astrometry, are purely astronomy rather than also astrophysics. | ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵙⵇⵇⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵉⵡⵜ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵜⵕⵓⵏⵉⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ. |
From these observations, early ideas about the motions of the planets were formed, and the nature of the Sun, Moon and the Earth in the Universe were explored philosophically. | ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⵥⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⴰⴳ ⴷ ⵓⵛⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⴼⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴳⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵉⵖⵣⵡⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ. |
A particularly important early development was the beginning of mathematical and scientific astronomy, which began among the Babylonians, who laid the foundations for the later astronomical traditions that developed in many other civilizations. | ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⵉⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⴱⴰⴱⵉⵍⵉⵢⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣⵏ ⴳ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵉⵏ. |
Greek astronomy is characterized from the start by seeking a rational, physical explanation for celestial phenomena. | ⵜⵥⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵙⵏⵉⵜⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵓⵏⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵡⵉⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⵓ ⴰⵎⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⵉ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵏⴰ. |