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Tamazight NLP 24

Some of the most poignant criticisms of technology are found in what are now considered to be dystopian literary classics such as Aldous Huxley's Brave New World, Anthony Burgess's A Clockwork Orange, and George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four.

ⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵖⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵢⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵍⴰ ⵉⵇⵏⴹⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴷⵓⵙ ⵀⵉⴽⵙⵍⵉ, ⴷ ⴰⵏⵟⵓⵏⵉ ⴱⵓⵔⴳⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵣⵏⴱⵓⵄⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵙⵜ, ⴷ ⵊⵓⵕⵊ ⵓⵕⵡⵉⵍ.

"The late cultural critic Neil Postman distinguished tool-using societies from technological societies and from what he called ""technopolies,"" societies that are dominated by the ideology of technological and scientific progress to the exclusion or harm of other cultural practices, values, and world-views."

ⵉⵙⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵓⴼⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⴰⵏ; ⵏⵉⵍ ⴱⵓⵙⵜⵎⴰⵏ, ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜⵏ, ⵉⵖⵔⵉⴼⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵏⵏⴱⴹ ⵜⴷⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵄⵔⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵔⵏⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⵖⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⴷⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ.

Nikolas Kompridis has also written about the dangers of new technology, such as genetic engineering, nanotechnology, synthetic biology, and robotics.

ⵢⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏⵉⴽⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⴽⵓⵎⴱⵔⵉⴷⵙ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⵉⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴷⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴷ ⵔⵓⴱⵓ.

Another prominent critic of technology is Hubert Dreyfus, who has published books such as On the Internet and What Computers Still Can't Do.

ⴰⴼⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵀⵓⴱⵉⵔ ⴷⵔⴰⵢⴼⵓⵣ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴼⵙⵔⵏ ⴰⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴳ ⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵓⵔⵜⴰ ⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵙⴽⵔⵏ.

In his article, Jared Bernstein, a Senior Fellow at the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, questions the widespread idea that automation, and more broadly, technological advances, have mainly contributed to this growing labor market problem.

ⴳ ⵜⵎⴳⵔⴰⴷⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵊⴰⵔⵉⴷ ⴱⵉⵔⵏⵛⵜⴰⵢⵏ, ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴽⵯⵍ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵙⵜⵍⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⵣⵡⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⴰⵡ, ⴰⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ ⵢⵓⵡⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵍⴰⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵔⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⴼⴹⴹⵏ.

He uses two main arguments to defend his point.

ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⴰⵔ ⵖⴼ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ.

"Indeed, automation threatens repetitive jobs but higher-end jobs are still necessary because they complement technology and manual jobs that ""requires flexibility judgment and common sense"" remain hard to replace with machines."

ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵡⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⵎⵉⴳⵉⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵍⵙⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⵍⵏⵜ ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴼⵓⴽⴽⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵜⵓⵜⵎ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵃⵙⵙⵉ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ, ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⴻⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ.

"Technology is often considered too narrowly; according to Hughes, ""Technology is a creative process involving human ingenuity""."

ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵉⵏⵢⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵀⵢⵓⵣ “ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵜ ⵉⵜⵏⵏⴹⵏ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵉⵖⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵢⵜ.

They have often supposed that technology is easily controllable and this assumption has to be thoroughly questioned.

ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵉⵡⵀⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ, ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⴷⵓ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⴰⴷ.

Solutionism is the ideology that every social issue can be solved thanks to technology and especially thanks to the internet.

ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵜⴳⴰⵜ ⵉⴷⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵢⵢⴰ ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵏ: ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜ ⵏⴼⵙⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵍⵍⵓⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵍⴰⵏⵜⵉⵔⵏⵉⵜ.

Benjamin R. Cohen and Gwen Ottinger also discussed the multivalent effects of technology.

ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔ ⴱⵏⵢⴰⵎⵉⵏ ⵔ.ⴽⵓⵀⵏ ⴷ ⴳⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵜⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵉⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵎⵉ ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⵙⵉⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ.

The use of basic technology is also a feature of other animal species apart from humans.

ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵙⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵉⵡⴷⴰⵏ.

The ability to make and use tools was once considered a defining characteristic of the genus Homo.

ⵜⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴼⵔⵙⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵥⵍⵉ ⵜⵡⵙⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ.

"In 2005, futurist Ray Kurzweil predicted that the future of technology would mainly consist of an overlapping ""GNR Revolution"" of genetics, nanotechnology and robotics, with robotics being the most important of the three."

“ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 2005, ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵍ ⵓⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵔⴰⵢ ⴽⵓⵍⵣⵡⵉⵍ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵔ ⴳ “ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵏ GNR” ⵉⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵏⵓ ⴷ ⵔⵓⴱⵓ, ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵔⵓⴱⵓ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⴰⴷ.”

Humans have already made some of the first steps toward achieving the GNR revolution.

ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ; ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ “ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ GNR”.

Some believe that the future of robotics will involve a 'greater than human non-biological intelligence.'

ⵉⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⵙ ⵉⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵔⵓⴱⵓ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵎⵥ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉ.

"This future shares many similarities with the concept of planned obsolescence, however, planned obsolescence is seen as a ""sinister business strategy.'"

ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵇⵇⴰⴹ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ “ⵜⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰⵖⵜ”, ⵡⴰⵅⵅⴰ ⵀⴰⴽⴽⴰⴽ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵙⵉⵡ ⵖⵔ “ⵜⵇⴱⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴰⵖⵜ” ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵉⵅⵛⵏ.

Genetics have also been explored, with humans understanding genetic engineering to a certain degree.

ⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉ.

Others think that genetic engineering will be used to make humans more resistant or completely immune to some diseases.

ⵡⵉⵢⴹ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴱⵓ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⴳⵔ ⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴹⵓⵏⵉⵏ.

It is believed by futurists that nanobot technology will allow humans to 'manipulate matter at the molecular and atomic scale.'

ⵖⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵏⴰⵏⵓⴱⵓⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⵊ ⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵍⴽⵉⵎ.

"In this context, now obsolete, an ""engine"" referred to a military machine, i.e., a mechanical contraption used in war (for example, a catapult)."

“ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⴹⵓ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴷⵖⵉ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⵄⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓ “ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙ”, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ “ⵜⴰⵣⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉ ( ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵍⴷⵉ).”

The six classic simple machines were known in the ancient Near East.

ⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵙⴹⵉⵚ ⵉⴽⵍⴰⵙⵉⴽⵉⵜⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍⵏ, ⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵎⵎⵓⴹ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔ ⴰⵇⴱⵓⵕ.

The lever mechanism first appeared around 5,000 years ago in the Near East, where it was used in a simple balance scale, and to move large objects in ancient Egyptian technology.

ⵉⴱⴰⵢⵏⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵢ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 5000 ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴳ ⴰⴳⵎⵎⵓⴹ ⴰⵎⴰⵣⴷⴰⵔ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴱⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵙ ⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵛⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵚⵕ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ.

The screw, the last of the simple machines to be invented, first appeared in Mesopotamia during the Neo-Assyrian period (911-609) BC.

ⵉⴱⴰⵢⵏⴷ ⵓⴽⵎⴰⵎ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⴻⵍⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴼⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⴰⵛⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ (911-609) ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ.

As one of the officials of the Pharaoh, Djosèr, he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser (the Step Pyramid) at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630–2611 BC.

ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵔⵄⴰⵡⵏ, ⵣⵓⵙⵉⵔ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵉⴷ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵀⵢⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴷ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳ ⵣⵓⵙⵔ (ⴰⵣⴰⵎⵓⴳ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵕⵊⴰⵏⵉⵏ), ⴳ ⵙⴰⵇⴰⵕⴰ ⴳ ⵎⵉⵚⵕ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 2630-2611 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ.

Kushite ancestors built speos during the Bronze Age between 3700 and 3250 BC.Bloomeries and blast furnaces were also created during the 7th centuries BC in Kush.

ⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵍⴽⵓⵛⵢⵢⵓⵏ speos, ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴱⵔⵓⵏⵣⵉ ⴳⵔ 3700 ⴷ 3250 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ, ⵉⵎⴽ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⴰⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵕⵕⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 7 ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⵍⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃ ⴳ ⴽⵓⵛ.

Some of Archimedes' inventions as well as the Antikythera mechanism required sophisticated knowledge of differential gearing or epicyclic gearing, two key principles in machine theory that helped design the gear trains of the Industrial Revolution, and are still widely used today in diverse fields such as robotics and automotive engineering.

ⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵔⵅⵎⵉⵙ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ Antikythera, ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵉⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵔⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵔⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵡⵔⴻⵔⵔⴰⵢⵜ, ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵢⵓⵡⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵀⵢⵢⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⵙ ⵉ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⴰ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵔⵓⴱⵓⵢⴰⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵀⵉⵔⵔⵉⵜⵉⵏ.

The spinning wheel was also a precursor to the spinning jenny, which was a key development during the early Industrial Revolution in the 18th century.

ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵓⴳⵏⴷⵓⵣ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵏⴽⵜ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵉ ⵊⵉⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵏⴽⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵉⴽ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 18.

He described four automaton musicians, including drummers operated by a programmable drum machine, where they could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns.

ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵥⵓⵕⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵓ ⵓⴳⵏⵏⴰⴳ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⵏⵏⴳⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⵜⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵊⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵅⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵏⵏⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ.

Aside from these professions, universities were not believed to have had much practical significance to technology.

ⵉⴳ ⵏⵣⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ ⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ.

Canal building was an important engineering work during the early phases of the Industrial Revolution.

ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴱⴰⴷⵓⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ, ⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ.

He was also a capable mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist.

ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽ ⵉⴹⵓⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⴰⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ.

Smeaton also made mechanical improvements to the Newcomen steam engine.

ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵙⵎⵉⵜⵓⵏ ⴰⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ ⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵉ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⴳⴳⵯⴰ Newcomen.

Samuel Morland, a mathematician and inventor who worked on pumps, left notes at the Vauxhall Ordinance Office on a steam pump design that Thomas Savery read.

ⵚⴰⵎⵡⵉⵍ ⵎⵓⵕⵍⴰⵏⴷ, ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵜⴽⵢⵉⵏ, ⵢⵓⴷⵊⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⵉⵙ ⵏ ⴼⵓⴽⵙⵀⵓⵍ ⵓⵔⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏⵙ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⴽⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵔⴰⴳⴳⵯⴰⵓ, ⵉⵖⵔⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵙⴰⴼⵔⵉ.

Iron merchant Thomas Newcomen, who built the first commercial piston steam engine in 1712, was not known to have any scientific training.

ⴰⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵙ ⵏⵢⵓⴽⵓⵎⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⴳⴳⵯⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1712, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵣⵣⵔⵉ ⴽⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵏⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏ.

These innovations lowered the cost of iron, making horse railways and iron bridges practical.

ⵙⵙⴷⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ, ⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⵓⴷⵊⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵓⵖⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵢⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵍⴳⴳⵯⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ.

With the development of the high pressure steam engine, the power to weight ratio of steam engines made practical steamboats and locomotives possible.

ⵙ ⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵙⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⴳⴳⵯⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢ ⵢⵉⴷⵔ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵖⵔ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⴳⴳⵯⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵍⴼⵍⵓⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵓⴳⴳⵯⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵍⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ.

The Industrial Revolution created a demand for machinery with metal parts, which led to the development of several machine tools.

ⵜⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵜⵜⵔⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵖⵓⵔⵏ, ⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵓ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ.

Precision machining techniques were developed in the first half of the 19th century.

ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴱⵓⵖⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴳⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⵏⵖⴰⴷ ⴳ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵜⵓ ⵡⵉⵙⵙ 19.

"The United States census of 1850 listed the occupation of ""engineer"" for the first time with a count of 2,000."

ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵙⵉⵟⵟⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⴰⵙ 1850, ⵢⵓⵎⵣ ⴰⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵏ 2000.

In 1890, there were 6,000 engineers in civil, mining, mechanical and electrical.

ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1890, ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⵏⵏⴰⵖ 6000 ⵏ ⵓⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵓⵖⵔⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵡⵙⵎⵎⵓⴷⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵥⵥⴰⵕⵓⵕⵜ.

The foundations of electrical engineering in the 1800s included the experiments of Alessandro Volta, Michael Faraday, Georg Ohm and others and the invention of the electric telegraph in 1816 and the electric motor in 1872.

ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵕⵓⵕ ⴳ 1800, ⵜⵉⵔⵎⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⵉⵙⴰⵏⴷⵔⵓ ⴼⵓⵍⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⴽⵍ ⴼⴰⵔⴰⴷⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵊⵓⵕⵊ ⵓⵎ, ⴷ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⴳⵔⴰⴼ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵣⴰⵕⵓⵕⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1816 ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵕⵓⵕ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1872.

Aeronautical engineering deals with aircraft design process design while aerospace engineering is a more modern term that expands the reach of the discipline by including spacecraft design.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⴰⴼⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵢⵓⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵓⵎ.

Historically, naval engineering and mining engineering were major branches.

ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵢⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵓⵖⴰⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ.

As a result, many engineers continue to learn new material throughout their careers.

ⵜⴰⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵖⴰⵢⴰⵏ, ⵙⵙⵓⴷⵓⵏ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵍⵎⵎⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵜ ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓⵜ.

It is generally insufficient to build a technically successful product, rather, it must also meet further requirements.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⵇⴹⵉ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵜⵓⵜⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.

"Genrich Altshuller, after gathering statistics on a large number of patents, suggested that compromises are at the heart of ""low-level"" engineering designs, while at a higher level the best design is one which eliminates the core contradiction causing the problem."

“ⵉⵏⵏⴰ Genrich Altshuller ⴷⴷⴰⴳ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵖⴼ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵣⵉⴷⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ, ⵉⴷ ⵉⵣⵓⴳⴳⴰⵣ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⵓⵍⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ, “ ⵎⵉ ⵉⴳⵣ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ “, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵢⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴽⵙⵏ ⴰⵏⵏⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ.”

Testing ensures that products will perform as expected.

ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵎ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵇⴰⴷ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵜⵏ ⵏⴷⵎⴰ.

As well as the typical business application software there are a number of computer aided applications (computer-aided technologies) specifically for engineering.

ⵙ ⵜⵔⵏⵓⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵉⵏ, ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⴽⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵢⵉⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ (ⵜⴰⵜⵉⵇⵏⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵢⵉⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ), ⵙ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵉ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ.

It enables engineers to create 3D models, 2D drawings, and schematics of their designs.

ⴳⵓⵍⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ 3 ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⵖⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴱⵓ 2 ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵚⵟⵟⴰⵜⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⵎⴽⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.

Access and distribution of all this information is generally organized with the use of product data management software.

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵢⵉⵡⴹ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵓⵍ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵟⵟⵓⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴱⴷⴰⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ.

By its very nature engineering has interconnections with society, culture and human behavior.

ⵜⵍⴰ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵍⵖⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⴳⴷⵓⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ.

Engineering projects can be subject to controversy.

ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵏⵣⴰⵖ.

Engineering is a key driver of innovation and human development.

ⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⵎⴰⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴼⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ.

There are many negative economic and political issues that this can cause, as well as ethical issues.

ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⴷⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷⵜⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ.

Scientists may also have to complete engineering tasks, such as designing experimental apparatus or building prototypes.

ⵖⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵎ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ.

First, it often deals with areas in which the basic physics or chemistry are well understood, but the problems themselves are too complex to solve in an exact manner.

ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ, ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵎⴼⴽⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵍⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⵓⴷⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⴷⵜ.

The former equates an understanding into a mathematical principle while the latter measures variables involved and creates technology.

ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵔⵎⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽ ⵉⵎⴽⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵓⵎⴳⴳⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ.

A physicist would typically require additional and relevant training.

ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉ ⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⴰⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴷⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵜⵍ.

An example of this is the use of numerical approximations to the Navier–Stokes equations to describe aerodynamic flow over an aircraft, or the use of the Finite element method to calculate the stresses in complex components.

ⴰⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵖⴰⵢⴰⵏ, ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵎⵉⵍⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵉⴹⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⴰⴼⵢⵉⵔ ⵙⵜⵓⴽⵙ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍⵏⵜ ⴰⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⴰⵎⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵡⵓ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵜ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⵉⴷⵔ ⴳ ⵉⴼⵕⴹⵉⵚⵏ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ.

Engineers stress innovation and invention.

ⵙⵍⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵓⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴽⵍⵥⴰⵡⵏ.

Since a design has to be realistic and functional, it must have its geometry, dimensions, and characteristics data defined.

ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴰⵎⴰⵎⴽ ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵙⴽⵉⵔ, ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵜⵉ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵎ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ.

Thus they studied mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and mechanics.

ⵉⵎⴽⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵖⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵉⵣⵉⴽ ⴷ ⴽⵉⵎⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽ.

Modern medicine can replace several of the body's functions through the use of artificial organs and can significantly alter the function of the human body through artificial devices such as, for example, brain implants and pacemakers.

ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵙⴳⵏⴰⴼ ⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⴻⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴻⵍ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ; ⵜⵓⵥⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵜⵉⵡⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵍ.

Both fields provide solutions to real world problems.

ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵙⵙⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ.

"Engineering management or ""Management engineering"" is a specialized field of management concerned with engineering practice or the engineering industry sector."

ⵜⴰⵎⵀⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⴰ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⴰ, ⵜⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵜⵡⴰⵍⵜ.

Engineers specializing in change management must have in-depth knowledge of the application of industrial and organizational psychology principles and methods.

ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵉⵎⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵀⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴼⵍ, ⵔⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⴱⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ.

Artificial intelligence (AI) is intelligence demonstrated by machines, as opposed to the natural intelligence displayed by humans or animals.

ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ (ⵛⵜ) ⵉⴳⴰ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵙⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⵉⴷ ⴰⵎⵎ ⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴱⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⴷⴰⵔ.

AI research has tried and discarded many different approaches during its lifetime, including simulating the brain, modeling human problem solving, formal logic, large databases of knowledge and imitating animal behavior.

ⵓⵔⵎⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴹⵡ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴳ ⵢⴰⵎⵓ ⵡⵓⵏⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵓⵎⴳⵏ ⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱ, ⴷ ⵉⵍⴳⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴹⴼⵕⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ.

The traditional goals of AI research include reasoning, knowledge representation, planning, learning, natural language processing, perception and the ability to move and manipulate objects.

ⵙⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵖⴰⴷ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ,ⴷ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⵙ, ⴷ ⵓⵍⵎⵎⵓⴷ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⴽⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⴰⵜⴰⵎ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⵛⵜⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⴽⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ.

AI also draws upon computer science, psychology, linguistics, philosophy, and many other fields.

ⵜⵙⴽⵓⵜⵜⵓ ⴰⵡⴷ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⵍⵙⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵜ ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ.

"The study of mechanical or ""formal"" reasoning began with philosophers and mathematicians in antiquity."

ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵏⵉⴽ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⴼⵍⵙⴰⴼⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⵜⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ.

The Church-Turing thesis, along with concurrent discoveries in neurobiology, information theory and cybernetics, this led researchers to consider the possibility of building an electronic brain.

ⵜⵓⵡⵉⴷ ⵜⴷⵓⴽⵜⵓⵕⵜ ⵏⵜⵛⵓⵔⵛ ⵜⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴼⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴱⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰⵏⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵖⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ, ⵙ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⵉⴽⵟⵕⵓⵏⵉ.

Attendees Allen Newell (CMU), Herbert Simon (CMU), John McCarthy (MIT), Marvin Minsky (MIT) and Arthur Samuel (IBM) became the founders and leaders of AI research.

ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏⵡⵉⵍ (CMU), ⴷ ⵀⴰⵔⴱⵔⵜ ⵙⵉⵎⵓⵏ (CMU), ⴷ ⵊⵓⵏ ⵎⴽⴰⵔⵜⵉ ( ⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴰⵜⵛⵓⵙⵜⵛ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ), ⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⴼⵏ ⵎⵉⵏⵙⴽⵉ ( ⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴰⵜⵛⵓⵙⵜⵙ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ), ⴷ ⴰⵔⵜⵔ ⵚⴰⵎⵡⵉⵍ (IBM), ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ.

"AI's founders were optimistic about the future: Herbert Simon predicted, ""machines will be capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can do""."

ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵔⴼ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⴼⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ: ⵉⴷⵎⴰ ⵀⵔⴱⵔⵜ ⵙⵉⵎⵓⵏ “ⵇⴰⴷ ⵉⵖⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵖⵢ ⵓⵔⴳⴰⵣ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ”.

Progress slowed and in 1974, in response to the criticism of Sir James Lighthill and ongoing pressure from the US Congress to fund more productive projects, both the U.S. and British governments cut off exploratory research in AI.

ⵉⵥⵥⴰⵢ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1974, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵔ ⵉ ⵓⵣⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⵙ ⵊⵉⵎⵙ ⵍⴰⵢⵜⵉⵍ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⴽⵍ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵍⴽⵓⵏⴳⵔⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵥⵕⴼ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽ, ⵜⵙⴱⴷⴷ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵍⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴽ ⵜⵉⵏ ⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⴰⵔⵣⵣⵓ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴽⵉⵣ ⴳ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ.

By 1985, the market for AI had reached over a billion dollars.

ⴷⴷⴰⴳ ⵢⵓⵡⴹ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ 1985, ⵉⴳⵓⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴼⴹ ⵉⴳⵏⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⴷ ⴷⵓⵍⴰⵕ.

Faster computers, algorithmic improvements, and access to large amounts of data enabled advances in machine learning and perception; data-hungry deep learning methods started to dominate accuracy benchmarks around 2012.

ⵓⵡⵉⵏⴷ ⵉⵍⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⴰⵎⵙⵔⴱⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵍⴳⵓⵔⵉⵜⵎ, ⴷ ⵢⵉⵡⴹ ⵙ ⵉⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵙⵍⵎⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵔⵎⵎⵓⵙ; ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵎⵎⵓⴷ ⵉⵖⴱⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵖⴼ ⵉⵙⴼⵔⴰⵏⴻⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⴷⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⴰⵙ ⵏ 2012.

AI research divided into competing sub-fields that often failed to communicate with each other.

ⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⴰⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵖⴼ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵜⵎⵛⴰⵃⴰⴷⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⴳⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵡⴰⴹ.

The research was centered in three institutions: Carnegie Mellon University, Stanford, and MIT, and as described below, each one developed its own style of research.

ⵉⵙⵎⵙⵙⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⴱⴱⵛ ⵖⴼ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ: ⵜⴰⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵕⵏⵊⵉ ⵎⵉⵍⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵙⵜⴰⵏⴼⵓⵔⴷ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⵏⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵙⴰⵜⵛⵓⵙⵜⵛ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⵏⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⴽ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴼⵔⴰ ⴷⴷⴰⵡ ⴰⵙ, ⵜⴱⴱⵓⵖⵍⴰ ⴽⵓ ⵢⵓⵡⵜ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵔⵣⵣⵓ.

They called their work by several names: e.g. embodied, situated, behavior-based or developmental.

ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵎⴰⵡⵏ: ⵣⵓⵏⴷ, ⵜⴰⵎⵙⴽⴰⵔⵜ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵙⵖⴰⵔⴰ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⴼ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⵍⵉⵜ.

The shared mathematical language permitted a high level of collaboration with more established fields (like mathematics, economics or operations research).

ⵜⵓⴷⵊⴰ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵉⵛⵛⴰⵔⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵢⵉⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵔⴰⵏ (ⴰⵎⵎ ⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⴽⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵉⵔⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵉⵏ).

Nowadays results of experiments are often rigorously measurable, and are sometimes (with difficulty) reproducible.

ⴳ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴰⴷ, ⴷⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵎⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⴷⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ( ⵙ ⵛⵇⵇⵉⵢⵜ) ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ.

"These algorithms proved to be insufficient for solving large reasoning problems because they experienced a ""combinatorial explosion"": they became exponentially slower as the problems grew larger."

“ⵙⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎⴰⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵓⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎ ⴰⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔ, ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵎⵔⵔⵜⵏⵜ ⵙ “ⵓⵟⵟⵉⵇⵙ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵉⴷⴼ”, ⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵜⵥⵥⴰⵢ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴳⴳⴰⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏ.”

Among the things a comprehensive commonsense knowledge base would contain are: objects, properties, categories and relations between objects; situations, events, states and time; causes and effects; knowledge about knowledge (what we know about what other people know); and many other, less well researched domains.

ⵉⵏⴳⵔ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵖⵉⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵥ ⵜⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⵜ: ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⵔⵔⵓⵎⴰ, ⴷ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ; ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⵔⴰⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⵜⴰⵔ, ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ( ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵏⵙⵙⴻⵏ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵙⵙⵏⴻⵏ ⵡⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ), ⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⴱⴱⵛ.

For example, if a bird comes up in conversation, people typically picture a fist-sized animal that sings and flies.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⴳ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⴳⴹⵉⴹ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵎⵏⴰⵡⴰⵍⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵉⵎⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⵔ ⵙ ⵓⴽⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⵎⵉⵥⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵔⵉⵔ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍ.

Almost nothing is simply true or false in the way that abstract logic requires.

ⴰⵡⴷ ⵎⴰⵄⵍⵎ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⵣⴳⵍ ⵙ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴻⵜⵔ ⵡⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎ.

Research projects that attempt to build a complete knowledge base of commonsense knowledge (e.g., Cyc) require enormous amounts of laborious ontological engineering—they must be built, by hand, one complicated concept at a time.

ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⴱⴱⵛ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵏⴰⵖⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴽⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴳⴰⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵏⴰ ⵜⵓⵎⴳⵉⵏⵜ ( ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ Cyc), ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵓⴷⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵟⵓⵍⵓⵊⵉⵢ ⵉⵎⵔⴰⵏ - ⵉⵇⵏⴻⵏ ⵓⵙⴽⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ, ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⵔⵡⵉⵏ ⴽⵓ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵜ.

"They need a way to visualize the future—a representation of the state of the world and be able to make predictions about how their actions will change it—and be able to make choices that maximize the utility (or ""value"") of available choices."

“ⵜⵅⵚⵚⴰⵜⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴱⵔⵉⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵍ - ⴰⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵖⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⴳⵎⵏ ⵙ ⵎⴰⵎⵏⴽ ⵙ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵣⴰⵕⵙ - ⴷ ⵜⵉⵖⵉⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵔⵏⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵖⵙⵜ (ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ), ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ.”

This calls for an agent that can not only assess its environment and make predictions but also evaluate its predictions and adapt based on its assessment.

ⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⴳⴰⵍ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ, ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⴰⵡⴷ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵉⵎⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⵉ ⵖⴼ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ.

Classification is used to determine what category something belongs in, and occurs after a program sees a number of examples of things from several categories.

ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵥⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⵔⵓⵎⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴽⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵎⵉ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵊⵕⵓ ⴷⴰⵕⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⵔⵓⵎⴰ.

Computational learning theory can assess learners by computational complexity, by sample complexity (how much data is required), or by other notions of optimization.

ⵜⵖⵢ ⵜⵎⴰⴳⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵎⵎⵓⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵉⵏⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵛⵇⵇⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵟⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵛⵇⵇⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉⴼⵜ (ⴰⵙⴳⵯⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵜⵢⴰⵜⵜⴰⵔⵏ), ⵏⵖⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵙⵉⵙⵙⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ.

"Many current approaches use word co-occurrence frequencies to construct syntactic representations of text. """

“ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵏ ⴷⵖⵉ ⵉⴳⵍⵓⴳⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⴰⴽⵓⴷⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵔ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⵊⵕⵓⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴹⵕⵉⵚ.”

Modern statistical NLP approaches can combine all these strategies as well as others, and often achieve acceptable accuracy at the page or paragraph level.

ⵜⵖⵉ ⵜⵎⵢⴰⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⴰⵙⵏⵉⵍⵙ ⵜⵓⵔⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵜⵔⴰⵜⵉⵊⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵢⵢⴰⴹ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⴼⴼⵖ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⴷⵔⴳⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⴷⴷⴰⵔⵜ.

A modern mobile robot, when given a small, static, and visible environment, can easily determine its location and map its environment; however, dynamic environments, such as (in endoscopy) the interior of a patient's breathing body, pose a greater challenge.

ⵖⵉⵏ ⵉⴷ ⵔⵓⴱⵓ ⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵛⵜⴰⴳⵏ ⵉⴳ ⴰⵙ ⵜⵜⵓⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵥⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵡⵔⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ, ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵔⵓⵍⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵓⵖⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⴰⵕⴹⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵡⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵣⵓⵏⴷ (ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵇⵇⵍ ⴰⴳⵏⵙⴰⵏ), ⴰⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵜⴼⴽⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵓⵏⴼⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⴹⵉⵏ, ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⵥⵕⵜ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ.

For example, some virtual assistants are programmed to speak conversationally or even to banter humorously; it makes them appear more sensitive to the emotional dynamics of human interaction, or to otherwise facilitate human–computer interaction.

ⵙ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵢⵉⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵏⴳⵎⵏ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵍⵀⴹⵕⵜ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴹⵚⴰ, ⴷⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⴷⵊⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵎⵣⵔⵉⵜ ⵡⴰⵍⴰ ⵉ ⴷⵉⵏⴰⵎⵉⴽⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵃⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵎⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⴰⵔⴰ ⴳⵔ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ.

Can intelligent behavior be described using simple, elegant principles (such as logic or optimization)?

ⵉⵙ ⵏⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵙⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵉⵖⵉⵙⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⵏⵣⵉⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⴳⵏ (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰ ⵏⵖⴷ ⴰⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓ).

"Or do we use algorithms that can only give us a ""reasonable"" solution (e.g., probabilistic methods) but may fall prey to the same kind of inscrutable mistakes that human intuition makes?"

“ⵏⵖⴷ ⴷⴰ ⵏⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵍⵓⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⵎ ⴰⵖ ⵓⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵖⴰⵙ ⴰⴼⵙⵙⴰⵢ “ⴰⵎⵏⵍⵍⵉ” (ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⴽⵏ ⵉⵖⵉⵏ), ⵎⴰⴽⴰ ⵜⵖⵢ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⵜⴰⵏⵇⵇⵉⵜ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⴰⵖ ⵏⵏⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵉⵣⴳⴳⴰⵍⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵔⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵓⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ?”

"Stuart Russell and Peter Norvig observe that most AI researchers ""don't care about the strong AI hypothesis—as long as the program works, they don't care whether you call it a simulation of intelligence or real intelligence."""

ⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵙⵜⵉⵡⴰⵔⵜ ⵔⴰⵙⵍ ⴷ ⴱⵉⵜⵔ ⵏⵓⵔⴼⵉⵊ ⵎⴰⵙⴷ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ; ⵓⵔ ⵔⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵣⵎⵔⵏ - ⵙⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵙⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ, ⵏⵉⵜⵏⵉ ⵓⵔⵜⵏ ⵉⵀⵡⵡⵉⵍ ⵉⵙ ⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⵉⴷ ⴰⵙⵖⵍ ⵏ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵏⵖⴷ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰⵏⵜ.

The new intelligence could thus increase exponentially and dramatically surpass humans.

ⵉⵡⴰ, ⵜⵛⵢ ⵛⵛⵡⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵔⵏⵓ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵀⵍⵉ, ⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽ ⵏⵏⵉⴳ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ.