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1,500 | Adware | Adware or advertising-supported software is any software package which automatically plays, displays, or downloads advertisements to a computer after the software is installed on it or while the application is being used. Some types of adware are also spyware and can be classified as privacy-invasive software. Application Advertising functions are integrated into or bundled with the software, which is often designed to note what Internet sites the user visits and to present advertising pertinent to the types of goods or services featured there. Adware is usually seen by the developer as a way to recover development costs, and in some cases it may allow the software to be provided to the user free of charge or at a reduced price. The income derived from presenting advertisements to the user may allow or motivate the developer to continue to develop, maintain and upgrade the software product. Conversely, the advertisements may be seen by the user as interruptions or annoyances, or as distractions from the task at hand. Some adware is also shareware, and so the word may be used as term of distinction to differentiate between types of shareware software. What differentiates adware from other shareware is that it is primarily advertising-supported. Users may also be given the option to pay for a "registered" or "licensed" copy to do away with the advertisements. Adware can also download and install PUPs. Well-known adware programs/programs distributed with adware 123 Messenger 180SearchAssistant 888bar Adssite Toolbar AOL Instant Messenger Antivirus 200 Family Bearshare Bonzi Buddy BlockChecker Burn4Free ClipGenie Comet Cursor Crazy Girls Cydoor Daemon Tools - (Software comes bundled with the "Daemon Tools WhenUSave Toolbar" but can be unchecked during installation) Direct Revenue DivX DollarRevenue Ebates MoneyMaker ErrorSafe Evernote Ezula FaceGame.exe FlashGet Gamespy Gamevance Gator Gool.exe Kazaa Limewire (on some music downloads) Messenger Plus! Live - (Software comes bundled with adware, but can be unchecked during installation) MessengerSkinner Micro Antivirus Mirar Toolbar Oemji Toolbar PornDigger! RealPlayer Smiley Central TagASaurus TopMoxie Tribal Fusion Videothang Viewpoint Media Player VirusProtectPro WeatherBug WhenU WinAce (now with MeMedia AdVantage) WinFixer Winzix Wolfenstein enemy territory XXX Shop online XXX Toy Zango Zango Toolbar Zwinky The Eudora e-mail client is a popular example of an adware "mode" in a program. After a trial period during which all program features are available, the user is offered a choice: a free (but feature-limited), an ad-supported mode with all the features enabled, or a paid mode that enables all features and turns off the ads. Prevention and detection Programs have been developed to detect, quarantine, and remove spyware. As there are many examples of adware software that are also spyware or malware, many of these detection programs have been developed to detect, quarantine, and remove adware as well. Among the more prominent of these applications are Ad-Aware, Malwarebytes' Anti-Malware and Spybot - Search & Destroy. These programs are designed specifically for spyware detection and will not detect viruses. Almost all commercial antivirus software currently detect adware and spyware, or offer a separate spyware detection package. The reluctance to add adware and spyware detection to commercial antivirus products was fueled by a fear of lawsuits. Kaspersky, for example, was sued by Zango for blocking the installation of their products. Zango software and components are almost universally detected as adware nowadays. See also Computer insecurity Hosts file External links Anti-Spyware Coalition | Adware |@lemmatized adware:15 advertising:3 support:3 software:13 package:2 automatically:1 play:1 display:1 download:2 advertisement:4 computer:2 instal:1 application:3 use:2 type:3 also:6 spyware:8 classify:1 privacy:1 invasive:1 function:1 integrate:1 bundle:3 often:1 design:2 note:1 internet:1 sit:1 user:6 visit:1 present:2 pertinent:1 good:1 service:1 feature:5 usually:1 see:3 developer:2 way:1 recover:1 development:1 cost:1 case:1 may:5 allow:2 provide:1 free:2 charge:1 reduced:1 price:1 income:1 derive:1 motivate:1 continue:1 develop:3 maintain:1 upgrade:1 product:3 conversely:1 interruption:1 annoyance:1 distraction:1 task:1 hand:1 shareware:3 word:1 term:1 distinction:1 differentiate:2 primarily:1 advertise:1 give:1 option:1 pay:2 register:1 license:1 copy:1 away:1 install:1 pup:1 well:2 know:1 program:7 distribute:1 messenger:3 adssite:1 toolbar:5 aol:1 instant:1 antivirus:4 family:1 bearshare:1 bonzi:1 buddy:1 blockchecker:1 clipgenie:1 comet:1 cursor:1 crazy:1 girl:1 cydoor:1 daemon:2 tool:2 come:2 whenusave:1 unchecked:2 installation:3 direct:1 revenue:1 divx:1 dollarrevenue:1 ebates:1 moneymaker:1 errorsafe:1 evernote:1 ezula:1 facegame:1 exe:2 flashget:1 gamespy:1 gamevance:1 gator:1 gool:1 kazaa:1 limewire:1 music:1 downloads:1 plus:1 live:1 messengerskinner:1 micro:1 mirar:1 oemji:1 porndigger:1 realplayer:1 smiley:1 central:1 tagasaurus:1 topmoxie:1 tribal:1 fusion:1 videothang:1 viewpoint:1 medium:1 player:1 virusprotectpro:1 weatherbug:1 whenu:1 winace:1 memedia:1 advantage:1 winfixer:1 winzix:1 wolfenstein:1 enemy:1 territory:1 xxx:2 shop:1 online:1 toy:1 zango:4 zwinky:1 eudora:1 e:1 mail:1 client:1 popular:1 example:3 mode:3 trial:1 period:1 available:1 offer:2 choice:1 limited:1 ad:3 enable:2 turn:1 prevention:1 detection:5 detect:5 quarantine:2 remove:2 many:2 malware:2 among:1 prominent:1 aware:1 malwarebytes:1 anti:2 spybot:1 search:1 destroy:1 specifically:1 virus:1 almost:2 commercial:2 currently:1 separate:1 reluctance:1 add:1 fuel:1 fear:1 lawsuit:1 kaspersky:1 sue:1 block:1 component:1 universally:1 nowadays:1 insecurity:1 host:1 file:1 external:1 link:1 coalition:1 |@bigram aol_instant:1 instant_messenger:1 external_link:1 |
1,501 | Hanover,_New_Hampshire | Hanover is a town along the Connecticut River in Grafton County, New Hampshire, United States. The population was 10,850 at the 2000 census. It is known as the home of Dartmouth College. Hanover borders the towns of Lyme, Canaan, and Enfield, New Hampshire; Norwich, Vermont; and the city of Lebanon, New Hampshire. Norwich and Hanover share the first and one of the few inter-state school districts in the nation. In 2007, CNN and Money magazine rated Hanover the second best place to live in America. http://money.cnn.com/galleries/2007/moneymag/0707/gallery.BPTL_top_100.moneymag/2.html retrieved on July 17, 2007 The primary settlement in Hanover, where over 75% of the town's population resides, is defined as the Hanover census-designated place (CDP) and contains the areas around Dartmouth College and the intersections of New Hampshire Routes 10, 10A, and 120. Hanover is one of a small number of towns that travellers must pass through while hiking the Appalachian Trail. The town is also the home of the US Army Corps of Engineers Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory (CRREL). History Dartmouth College's Baker Memorial Library is a prominent feature at the center of Hanover Hanover, New Hampshire, was chartered in 1761, and its first inhabitants arrived in 1765. At one point in its history, the southwest corner of Hanover was known as Dresden, and in the 1780s, Dresden was one of a group of neighboring New Hampshire communities that briefly defected to Vermont, when the Republic of Vermont was independent. For a time, Dresden was the capital of the Republic. Dartmouth This status was short-lived after various political posturing. The Western Rebellion As a result, Vermont rejected the communities' defections, and they were returned to New Hampshire in the US. One remnant of this era is that the name "Dresden" is still used in the Dresden School District, an interstate school district serving both Hanover and Norwich, Vermont. Hanover has been home to Dartmouth College since 1769. Etymology "Hannover," as it was spelled in the charter, was named either after a local parish in Connecticut or after the House of Hannover, in honor of the reigning British king, George III. retrieved October 25, 2008 While it is possible that the name "Dresden" derived from the city in Germany, it is more likely derived directly from the old Sorbian word drezg ("forest") or Drezd'ane, for an inhabitant of a forest. The settlers in the riverside forest, an appellation fully compatible with that of the early inhabitants of the Hanover Plain. Notable inhabitants Al Barr, lead singer of Irish-American rock band Dropkick Murphys Barbara Bedford, Olympic gold medalist swimmer George Bissell, considered the father of the American oil industry Philip Booth, poet C. Loring Brace, anthropologist Gerald Warner Brace (1901–1978), writer, educator, sailor and boat builder The Rev. Francis Brown, American Semitic scholar Bill Bryson, American-born British author of humorous books on travel (resident from 1995 to 2003) James Freeman Clarke, American preacher and author Charlie Clouser, music producer and former keyboardist for Nine Inch Nails Richard Eberhart, poet Thomas C. Kinkaid, Admiral of the United States Navy during World War II C. Everett Koop, Surgeon General from 1982-1989 Jodi Picoult, fiction author Jon Spencer, blues and punk rock musician Armstrong Sperry, Newbery Medal-winning author, 1941-1976 Daniel Webster, statesman Eleazar Wheelock, founder of Dartmouth College Leonard Wilcox, United States Senator from 1842-1843 Geography and climate According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of , of which is land and is water, comprising 2.23% of the town. The village of Hanover, or census-designated place (CDP), has a total area of , of which is land and is water. The highest point in Hanover is the north peak of Moose Mountain, at above sea level. Hanover lies fully within the Connecticut River watershed. Inside the limits of Hanover are the small rural villages of Etna and Hanover Center. The tap water of downtown Hanover is supplied by several local reservoirs. In recent years, the town has spent over $20 million to upgrade main water lines, and will undergo another $6 million project to build a new water treatment plant. Because some of the older, smaller pipes in town are still made of cast-iron, some tap water is discolored and fishy smelling, but nonetheless potable. Outside the downtown area, residents rely on private wells that are not maintained by the town. There are a great many trails and nature preserves in Hanover, and the majority of these trails are suitable for snow shoes and cross-country skis. Demographics As of the census of 2000, there were 10,850 people, 2,832 households, and 1,761 families residing in the town. The population density was 85.3 people per km2 (221.0/sq mi). There were 2,989 housing units at an average density of 23.5/km2 (60.9/sq mi). The racial makeup of the town was 87.98% White, 1.74% Black or African American, 0.47% Native American, 6.76% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 0.88% from other races, and 2.09% from two or more races. 2.54% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 2,832 households out of which 31.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.7% were married couples living together, 4.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.8% were non-families. 25.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.47 and the average family size was 2.96. In the town the population was spread out with 15.1% under the age of 18, 37.6% from 18 to 24, 16.6% from 25 to 44, 17.1% from 45 to 64, and 13.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 23 years. For every 100 females there were 99.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.5 males. The median income for a household in the town was $72,470, and the median income for a family was $99,158. Males had a median income of $63,409 versus $35,771 for females. The per capita income for the town was $30,393. About 0.6% of families and 9.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including none of those under age 18 and 3.0% of those age 65 or over. Town center As of the census of 2000, there were 8,162 people, 1,829 households, and 967 families residing in the town's central settlement, or census-designated place (CDP). The population density was 1,792.2 people per square mile (692.6/km2). There were 1,891 housing units at an average density of 415.2/sq mi (160.5/km2). The racial makeup of the CDP was 85.27% White, 2.25% Black or African American, 0.61% Native American, 8.18% Asian, 0.09% Pacific Islander, 1.13% from other races, and 2.46% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.17% of the population. There were 1,829 households out of which 26.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.8% were married couples living together, 4.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 47.1% were non-families. 30.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 11.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.37 and the average family size was 2.95. In the CDP the population was spread out with 11.1% under the age of 18, 49.0% from 18 to 24, 14.5% from 25 to 44, 12.0% from 45 to 64, and 13.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 22 years. For every 100 females there were 98.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.6 males. The median income for a household in the CDP was $62,143, and the median income for a family was $90,548. Males had a median income of $56,667 versus $35,682 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $26,426. About 1.0% of families and 14.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including none of those under age 18 and 4.6% of those age 65 or over. Education There are 3 public schools, 1 private school, 1 college, and 2 libraries in Hanover, including: Dartmouth College Hanover High School Frances C. Richmond Middle School Bernice A. Ray Elementary School Sister cities Joigny, France (1993) Nihonmatsu, Japan (1998) References External links Town website New Hampshire Economic and Labor Market Information Bureau Profile | Hanover,_New_Hampshire |@lemmatized hanover:22 town:18 along:1 connecticut:3 river:2 grafton:1 county:1 new:9 hampshire:8 united:4 state:5 population:10 census:7 know:2 home:3 dartmouth:7 college:7 border:1 lyme:1 canaan:1 enfield:1 norwich:3 vermont:5 city:3 lebanon:1 share:1 first:2 one:5 inter:1 school:8 district:3 nation:1 cnn:2 money:2 magazine:1 rat:1 second:1 best:1 place:4 live:6 america:1 http:1 com:1 gallery:2 moneymag:2 html:1 retrieve:2 july:1 primary:1 settlement:2 resides:1 define:1 designated:1 cdp:7 contain:1 area:4 around:1 intersection:1 rout:1 small:3 number:1 traveller:1 must:1 pass:1 hike:1 appalachian:1 trail:3 also:1 u:2 army:1 corp:1 engineer:1 cold:1 region:1 research:1 engineering:1 laboratory:1 crrel:1 history:2 baker:1 memorial:1 library:2 prominent:1 feature:1 center:3 charter:2 inhabitant:4 arrive:1 point:2 southwest:1 corner:1 dresden:6 group:1 neighbor:1 community:2 briefly:1 defect:1 republic:2 independent:1 time:1 capital:1 status:1 short:1 various:1 political:1 posturing:1 western:1 rebellion:1 result:1 reject:1 defection:1 return:1 remnant:1 era:1 name:3 still:2 use:1 interstate:1 serve:1 since:1 etymology:1 hannover:2 spell:1 either:1 local:2 parish:1 house:1 honor:1 reign:1 british:2 king:1 george:2 iii:1 october:1 possible:1 derive:2 germany:1 likely:1 directly:1 old:6 sorbian:1 word:1 drezg:1 forest:3 drezd:1 ane:1 settler:1 riverside:1 appellation:1 fully:2 compatible:1 early:1 plain:1 notable:1 al:1 barr:1 lead:1 singer:1 irish:1 american:9 rock:2 band:1 dropkick:1 murphy:1 barbara:1 bedford:1 olympic:1 gold:1 medalist:1 swimmer:1 bissell:1 consider:1 father:1 oil:1 industry:1 philip:1 booth:1 poet:2 c:4 loring:1 brace:2 anthropologist:1 gerald:1 warner:1 writer:1 educator:1 sailor:1 boat:1 builder:1 rev:1 francis:1 brown:1 semitic:1 scholar:1 bill:1 bryson:1 born:1 author:4 humorous:1 book:1 travel:1 resident:2 jam:1 freeman:1 clarke:1 preacher:1 charlie:1 clouser:1 music:1 producer:1 former:1 keyboardist:1 nine:1 inch:1 nail:1 richard:1 eberhart:1 thomas:1 kinkaid:1 admiral:1 navy:1 world:1 war:1 ii:1 everett:1 koop:1 surgeon:1 general:1 jodi:1 picoult:1 fiction:1 jon:1 spencer:1 blue:1 punk:1 musician:1 armstrong:1 sperry:1 newbery:1 medal:1 win:1 daniel:1 webster:1 statesman:1 eleazar:1 wheelock:1 founder:1 leonard:1 wilcox:1 senator:1 geography:1 climate:1 accord:1 bureau:2 total:2 land:2 water:6 comprise:1 village:2 designate:2 high:2 north:1 peak:1 moose:1 mountain:1 sea:1 level:1 lie:1 within:1 watershed:1 inside:1 limit:1 rural:1 etna:1 tap:2 downtown:2 supply:1 several:1 reservoir:1 recent:1 year:7 spend:1 million:2 upgrade:1 main:1 line:3 undergo:1 another:1 project:1 build:1 treatment:1 plant:1 pipe:1 make:3 cast:1 iron:1 discolor:1 fishy:1 smelling:1 nonetheless:1 potable:1 outside:1 rely:1 private:2 well:1 maintain:1 great:1 many:1 nature:1 preserve:1 majority:1 suitable:1 snow:1 shoe:1 cross:1 country:1 ski:1 demographic:1 people:4 household:10 family:10 reside:2 density:4 per:4 sq:3 mi:3 housing:2 unit:2 average:6 racial:2 makeup:2 white:2 black:2 african:2 native:2 asian:2 pacific:2 islander:2 race:6 two:2 hispanic:2 latino:2 child:2 age:16 living:2 marry:2 couple:2 together:2 female:8 householder:2 husband:2 present:2 non:2 individual:2 someone:2 alone:2 size:4 spread:2 median:8 every:4 male:6 income:8 versus:2 capita:2 poverty:2 include:3 none:2 central:1 square:1 mile:1 education:1 public:1 france:2 richmond:1 middle:1 bernice:1 ray:1 elementary:1 sister:1 joigny:1 nihonmatsu:1 japan:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 economic:1 labor:1 market:1 information:1 profile:1 |@bigram cnn_com:1 appalachian_trail:1 hanover_hanover:1 gold_medalist:1 bill_bryson:1 inch_nail:1 punk_rock:1 newbery_medal:1 eleazar_wheelock:1 census_bureau:1 sq_mi:3 density_sq:2 mi_racial:2 racial_makeup:2 pacific_islander:2 islander_race:2 hispanic_latino:2 latino_race:2 female_householder:2 householder_husband:2 male_median:4 median_income:6 per_capita:2 capita_income:2 external_link:1 |
1,502 | DNA | Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms and some viruses. The main role of DNA molecules is the long-term storage of information. DNA is often compared to a set of blueprints or a recipe, or a code, since it contains the instructions needed to construct other components of cells, such as proteins and RNA molecules. The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in regulating the use of this genetic information. Chemically, DNA consists of two long polymers of simple units called nucleotides, with backbones made of sugars and phosphate groups joined by ester bonds. These two strands run in opposite directions to each other and are therefore anti-parallel. Attached to each sugar is one of four types of molecules called bases. It is the sequence of these four bases along the backbone that encodes information. This information is read using the genetic code, which specifies the sequence of the amino acids within proteins. The code is read by copying stretches of DNA into the related nucleic acid RNA, in a process called transcription. Within cells, DNA is organized into structures called chromosomes. These chromosomes are duplicated before cells divide, in a process called DNA replication. Eukaryotic organisms (animals, plants, fungi, and protists) store most of their DNA inside the cell nucleus and some of their DNA in the mitochondria. Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) however, store their DNA in the cell's cytoplasm. Within the chromosomes, chromatin proteins such as histones compact and organize DNA. These compact structures guide the interactions between DNA and other proteins, helping control which parts of the DNA are transcribed. Properties The chemical structure of DNA. Hydrogen bonds are shown as dotted lines. DNA is a long polymer made from repeating units called nucleotides. pp. 14–15. The DNA chain is 22 to 26 Ångströms wide (2.2 to 2.6 nanometres), and one nucleotide unit is 3.3 Å (0.33 nm) long. Although each individual repeating unit is very small, DNA polymers can be very large molecules containing millions of nucleotides. For instance, the largest human chromosome, chromosome number 1, is approximately 220 million base pairs long. In living organisms, DNA does not usually exist as a single molecule, but instead as a pair of molecules that are held tightly together. Berg J., Tymoczko J. and Stryer L. (2002) Biochemistry. W. H. Freeman and Company ISBN 0-7167-4955-6 These two long strands entwine like vines, in the shape of a double helix. The nucleotide repeats contain both the segment of the backbone of the molecule, which holds the chain together, and a base, which interacts with the other DNA strand in the helix. In general, a base linked to a sugar is called a nucleoside and a base linked to a sugar and one or more phosphate groups is called a nucleotide. If multiple nucleotides are linked together, as in DNA, this polymer is called a polynucleotide. Abbreviations and Symbols for Nucleic Acids, Polynucleotides and their Constituents IUPAC-IUB Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (CBN), Accessed 03 January 2006 The backbone of the DNA strand is made from alternating phosphate and sugar residues. The sugar in DNA is 2-deoxyribose, which is a pentose (five-carbon) sugar. The sugars are joined together by phosphate groups that form phosphodiester bonds between the third and fifth carbon atoms of adjacent sugar rings. These asymmetric bonds mean a strand of DNA has a direction. In a double helix the direction of the nucleotides in one strand is opposite to their direction in the other strand. This arrangement of DNA strands is called antiparallel. The asymmetric ends of DNA strands are referred to as the 5′ (five prime) and 3′ (three prime) ends, with the 5' end being that with a terminal phosphate group and the 3' end that with a terminal hydroxyl group. One of the major differences between DNA and RNA is the sugar, with 2-deoxyribose being replaced by the alternative pentose sugar ribose in RNA. The DNA double helix is stabilized by hydrogen bonds between the bases attached to the two strands. The four bases found in DNA are adenine (abbreviated A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T). These four bases are attached to the sugar/phosphate to form the complete nucleotide, as shown for adenosine monophosphate. These bases are classified into two types; adenine and guanine are fused five- and six-membered heterocyclic compounds called purines, while cytosine and thymine are six-membered rings called pyrimidines. A fifth pyrimidine base, called uracil (U), usually takes the place of thymine in RNA and differs from thymine by lacking a methyl group on its ring. Uracil is not usually found in DNA, occurring only as a breakdown product of cytosine. Grooves Twin helical strands form the DNA backbone. Another double helix may be found by tracing the spaces, or grooves, between the strands. These voids are adjacent to the base pairs and may provide a binding site. As the strands are not directly opposite each other, the grooves are unequally sized. One groove, the major groove, is 22 Å wide and the other, the minor groove, is 12 Å wide. The narrowness of the minor groove means that the edges of the bases are more accessible in the major groove. As a result, proteins like transcription factors that can bind to specific sequences in double-stranded DNA usually make contacts to the sides of the bases exposed in the major groove. This situation varies in unusual conformations of DNA within the cell (see below), but the major and minor grooves are always named to reflect the differences in size that would be seen if the DNA is twisted back into the ordinary B form. Base pairing Each type of base on one strand forms a bond with just one type of base on the other strand. This is called complementary base pairing. Here, purines form hydrogen bonds to pyrimidines, with A bonding only to T, and C bonding only to G. This arrangement of two nucleotides binding together across the double helix is called a base pair. As hydrogen bonds are not covalent, they can be broken and rejoined relatively easily. The two strands of DNA in a double helix can therefore be pulled apart like a zipper, either by a mechanical force or high temperature. As a result of this complementarity, all the information in the double-stranded sequence of a DNA helix is duplicated on each strand, which is vital in DNA replication. Indeed, this reversible and specific interaction between complementary base pairs is critical for all the functions of DNA in living organisms. Top, a GC base pair with three hydrogen bonds. Bottom, an AT base pair with two hydrogen bonds. Non-covalent hydrogen bonds between the pairs are shown as dashed lines. The two types of base pairs form different numbers of hydrogen bonds, AT forming two hydrogen bonds, and GC forming three hydrogen bonds (see figures, left). DNA with high GC-content is more stable than DNA with low GC-content, but contrary to popular belief, this is not due to the extra hydrogen bond of a GC basepair but rather the contribution of stacking interactions (hydrogen bonding merely provides specificity of the pairing, not stability). As a result, it is both the percentage of GC base pairs and the overall length of a DNA double helix that determine the strength of the association between the two strands of DNA. Long DNA helices with a high GC content have stronger-interacting strands, while short helices with high AT content have weaker-interacting strands. In biology, parts of the DNA double helix that need to separate easily, such as the TATAAT Pribnow box in some promoters, tend to have a high AT content, making the strands easier to pull apart. In the laboratory, the strength of this interaction can be measured by finding the temperature required to break the hydrogen bonds, their melting temperature (also called Tm value). When all the base pairs in a DNA double helix melt, the strands separate and exist in solution as two entirely independent molecules. These single-stranded DNA molecules have no single common shape, but some conformations are more stable than others. Sense and antisense A DNA sequence is called "sense" if its sequence is the same as that of a messenger RNA copy that is translated into protein. Designation of the two strands of DNA JCBN/NC-IUB Newsletter 1989, Accessed 07 May 2008 The sequence on the opposite strand is called the "antisense" sequence. Both sense and antisense sequences can exist on different parts of the same strand of DNA (i.e. both strands contain both sense and antisense sequences). In both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, antisense RNA sequences are produced, but the functions of these RNAs are not entirely clear. One proposal is that antisense RNAs are involved in regulating gene expression through RNA-RNA base pairing. A few DNA sequences in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, and more in plasmids and viruses, blur the distinction between sense and antisense strands by having overlapping genes. In these cases, some DNA sequences do double duty, encoding one protein when read along one strand, and a second protein when read in the opposite direction along the other strand. In bacteria, this overlap may be involved in the regulation of gene transcription, while in viruses, overlapping genes increase the amount of information that can be encoded within the small viral genome. Supercoiling DNA can be twisted like a rope in a process called DNA supercoiling. With DNA in its "relaxed" state, a strand usually circles the axis of the double helix once every 10.4 base pairs, but if the DNA is twisted the strands become more tightly or more loosely wound. If the DNA is twisted in the direction of the helix, this is positive supercoiling, and the bases are held more tightly together. If they are twisted in the opposite direction, this is negative supercoiling, and the bases come apart more easily. In nature, most DNA has slight negative supercoiling that is introduced by enzymes called topoisomerases. These enzymes are also needed to relieve the twisting stresses introduced into DNA strands during processes such as transcription and DNA replication. From left to right, the structures of A, B and Z DNA Alternate DNA structures DNA exists in many possible conformations that include A-DNA, B-DNA, and Z-DNA forms, although, only B-DNA and Z-DNA have been directly observed in functional organisms. The conformation that DNA adopts depends on the hydration level, DNA sequence, the amount and direction of supercoiling, chemical modifications of the bases, the type and concentration of metal ions, as well as the presence of polyamines in solution. X-ray diffraction patterns of A- and B- DNA; the much lower quality of the B- DNA form X-ray pattern— with only a few 'Bragg diffraction' orders— shows why its analysis requires the paracrystal model approach. X-ray images are courtesy of Dr. H. R. Wilson, F.R.S.Created from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:ABDNAxrgpj.jpg The first published reports of A-DNA X-ray diffraction patterns— and also B-DNA used analyses based on Patterson transforms that provided only a limited amount of structural information for oriented fibers of DNA. An alternate analysis was then proposed by Wilkins et al., in 1953, for the in vivo B-DNA X-ray diffraction/scattering patterns of highly hydrated DNA fibers in terms of squares of Bessel functions. In the same journal, Watson and Crick presented their molecular modeling analysis of the DNA X-ray diffraction patterns to suggest that the structure was a double-helix. Although the `B-DNA form' is most common under the conditions found in cells, it is not a well-defined conformation but a family of related DNA conformations http://cogprints.org/3822/ that occur at the high hydration levels present in living cells. Their corresponding X-ray diffraction and scattering patterns are characteristic of molecular paracrystals with a significant degree of disorder. Hosemann R., Bagchi R.N., Direct analysis of diffraction by matter, North-Holland Publs., Amsterdam – New York, 1962. Compared to B-DNA, the A-DNA form is a wider right-handed spiral, with a shallow, wide minor groove and a narrower, deeper major groove. The A form occurs under non-physiological conditions in partially dehydrated samples of DNA, while in the cell it may be produced in hybrid pairings of DNA and RNA strands, as well as in enzyme-DNA complexes. Segments of DNA where the bases have been chemically modified by methylation may undergo a larger change in conformation and adopt the Z form. Here, the strands turn about the helical axis in a left-handed spiral, the opposite of the more common B form. These unusual structures can be recognized by specific Z-DNA binding proteins and may be involved in the regulation of transcription. Quadruplex structures Structure of a DNA quadruplex formed by telomere repeats. The looped conformation of the DNA backbone is very different from the typical helical structure. Created from NDB UD0017 At the ends of the linear chromosomes are specialized regions of DNA called telomeres. The main function of these regions is to allow the cell to replicate chromosome ends using the enzyme telomerase, as the enzymes that normally replicate DNA cannot copy the extreme 3′ ends of chromosomes. These specialized chromosome caps also help protect the DNA ends, and stop the DNA repair systems in the cell from treating them as damage to be corrected. In human cells, telomeres are usually lengths of single-stranded DNA containing several thousand repeats of a simple TTAGGG sequence. These guanine-rich sequences may stabilize chromosome ends by forming structures of stacked sets of four-base units, rather than the usual base pairs found in other DNA molecules. Here, four guanine bases form a flat plate and these flat four-base units then stack on top of each other, to form a stable G-quadruplex structure. These structures are stabilized by hydrogen bonding between the edges of the bases and chelation of a metal ion in the centre of each four-base unit. Other structures can also be formed, with the central set of four bases coming from either a single strand folded around the bases, or several different parallel strands, each contributing one base to the central structure. In addition to these stacked structures, telomeres also form large loop structures called telomere loops, or T-loops. Here, the single-stranded DNA curls around in a long circle stabilized by telomere-binding proteins. At the very end of the T-loop, the single-stranded telomere DNA is held onto a region of double-stranded DNA by the telomere strand disrupting the double-helical DNA and base pairing to one of the two strands. This triple-stranded structure is called a displacement loop or D-loop. Branched DNA In DNA fraying occurs when non-complementary regions exist at the end of an otherwise complementary double-strand of DNA. However, branched DNA can occur if a third strand of DNA is introduced and contains adjoining regions able to hybridize with the frayed regions of the pre-existing double-strand. Although the simplest example of branched DNA involves only three strands of DNA, complexes involving additional strands and multiple branches are also possible. Chemical modifications cytosine5-methylcytosinethymine Structure of cytosine with and without the 5-methyl group. After deamination the 5-methylcytosine has the same structure as thymine Base modifications The expression of genes is influenced by how the DNA is packaged in chromosomes, in a structure called chromatin. Base modifications can be involved in packaging, with regions that have low or no gene expression usually containing high levels of methylation of cytosine bases. For example, cytosine methylation, produces 5-methylcytosine, which is important for X-chromosome inactivation. The average level of methylation varies between organisms - the worm Caenorhabditis elegans lacks cytosine methylation, while vertebrates have higher levels, with up to 1% of their DNA containing 5-methylcytosine. Despite the importance of 5-methylcytosine, it can deaminate to leave a thymine base, methylated cytosines are therefore particularly prone to mutations. Other base modifications include adenine methylation in bacteria, the presence of 5-hydroxymethylcytosine in the brain, and the glycosylation of uracil to produce the "J-base" in kinetoplastids. Damage A covalent adduct between benzo[a]pyrene, the major mutagen in tobacco smoke, and DNA Created from PDB 1JDG DNA can be damaged by many different sorts of mutagens, which change the DNA sequence. Mutagens include oxidizing agents, alkylating agents and also high-energy electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light and X-rays. The type of DNA damage produced depends on the type of mutagen. For example, UV light can damage DNA by producing thymine dimers, which are cross-links between pyrimidine bases. , On the other hand, oxidants such as free radicals or hydrogen peroxide produce multiple forms of damage, including base modifications, particularly of guanosine, and double-strand breaks. A typical human cell contains about 150,000 bases that have suffered oxidative damage. Of these oxidative lesions, the most dangerous are double-strand breaks, as these are difficult to repair and can produce point mutations, insertions and deletions from the DNA sequence, as well as chromosomal translocations. Many mutagens fit into the space between two adjacent base pairs, this is called intercalating. Most intercalators are aromatic and planar molecules, and include Ethidium bromide, daunomycin, and doxorubicin. In order for an intercalator to fit between base pairs, the bases must separate, distorting the DNA strands by unwinding of the double helix. This inhibits both transcription and DNA replication, causing toxicity and mutations. As a result, DNA intercalators are often carcinogens, and Benzo[a]pyrene diol epoxide, acridines, aflatoxin and ethidium bromide are well-known examples. Nevertheless, due to their ability to inhibit DNA transcription and replication, other similar toxins are also used in chemotherapy to inhibit rapidly growing cancer cells. Biological functions DNA usually occurs as linear chromosomes in eukaryotes, and circular chromosomes in prokaryotes. The set of chromosomes in a cell makes up its genome; the human genome has approximately 3 billion base pairs of DNA arranged into 46 chromosomes. The information carried by DNA is held in the sequence of pieces of DNA called genes. Transmission of genetic information in genes is achieved via complementary base pairing. For example, in transcription, when a cell uses the information in a gene, the DNA sequence is copied into a complementary RNA sequence through the attraction between the DNA and the correct RNA nucleotides. Usually, this RNA copy is then used to make a matching protein sequence in a process called translation which depends on the same interaction between RNA nucleotides. Alternatively, a cell may simply copy its genetic information in a process called DNA replication. The details of these functions are covered in other articles; here we focus on the interactions between DNA and other molecules that mediate the function of the genome. Genes and genomes Genomic DNA is located in the cell nucleus of eukaryotes, as well as small amounts in mitochondria and chloroplasts. In prokaryotes, the DNA is held within an irregularly shaped body in the cytoplasm called the nucleoid. The genetic information in a genome is held within genes, and the complete set of this information in an organism is called its genotype. A gene is a unit of heredity and is a region of DNA that influences a particular characteristic in an organism. Genes contain an open reading frame that can be transcribed, as well as regulatory sequences such as promoters and enhancers, which control the transcription of the open reading frame. In many species, only a small fraction of the total sequence of the genome encodes protein. For example, only about 1.5% of the human genome consists of protein-coding exons, with over 50% of human DNA consisting of non-coding repetitive sequences. The reasons for the presence of so much non-coding DNA in eukaryotic genomes and the extraordinary differences in genome size, or C-value, among species represent a long-standing puzzle known as the "C-value enigma." However, DNA sequences that do not code protein may still encode functional non-coding RNA molecules, which are involved in the regulation of gene expression. T7 RNA polymerase (blue) producing a mRNA (green) from a DNA template (orange). Created from PDB 1MSW Some non-coding DNA sequences play structural roles in chromosomes. Telomeres and centromeres typically contain few genes, but are important for the function and stability of chromosomes. An abundant form of non-coding DNA in humans are pseudogenes, which are copies of genes that have been disabled by mutation. These sequences are usually just molecular fossils, although they can occasionally serve as raw genetic material for the creation of new genes through the process of gene duplication and divergence. Transcription and translation A gene is a sequence of DNA that contains genetic information and can influence the phenotype of an organism. Within a gene, the sequence of bases along a DNA strand defines a messenger RNA sequence, which then defines one or more protein sequences. The relationship between the nucleotide sequences of genes and the amino-acid sequences of proteins is determined by the rules of translation, known collectively as the genetic code. The genetic code consists of three-letter 'words' called codons formed from a sequence of three nucleotides (e.g. ACT, CAG, TTT). In transcription, the codons of a gene are copied into messenger RNA by RNA polymerase. This RNA copy is then decoded by a ribosome that reads the RNA sequence by base-pairing the messenger RNA to transfer RNA, which carries amino acids. Since there are 4 bases in 3-letter combinations, there are 64 possible codons ( combinations). These encode the twenty standard amino acids, giving most amino acids more than one possible codon. There are also three 'stop' or 'nonsense' codons signifying the end of the coding region; these are the TAA, TGA and TAG codons. DNA replication. The double helix is unwound by a helicase and topoisomerase. Next, one DNA polymerase produces the leading strand copy. Another DNA polymerase binds to the lagging strand. This enzyme makes discontinuous segments (called Okazaki fragments) before DNA ligase joins them together. Replication Cell division is essential for an organism to grow, but when a cell divides it must replicate the DNA in its genome so that the two daughter cells have the same genetic information as their parent. The double-stranded structure of DNA provides a simple mechanism for DNA replication. Here, the two strands are separated and then each strand's complementary DNA sequence is recreated by an enzyme called DNA polymerase. This enzyme makes the complementary strand by finding the correct base through complementary base pairing, and bonding it onto the original strand. As DNA polymerases can only extend a DNA strand in a 5′ to 3′ direction, different mechanisms are used to copy the antiparallel strands of the double helix. In this way, the base on the old strand dictates which base appears on the new strand, and the cell ends up with a perfect copy of its DNA. Interactions with proteins All the functions of DNA depend on interactions with proteins. These protein interactions can be non-specific, or the protein can bind specifically to a single DNA sequence. Enzymes can also bind to DNA and of these, the polymerases that copy the DNA base sequence in transcription and DNA replication are particularly important. DNA-binding proteins Interaction of DNA with histones (shown in white, top). These proteins' basic amino acids (below left, blue) bind to the acidic phosphate groups on DNA (below right, red). Structural proteins that bind DNA are well-understood examples of non-specific DNA-protein interactions. Within chromosomes, DNA is held in complexes with structural proteins. These proteins organize the DNA into a compact structure called chromatin. In eukaryotes this structure involves DNA binding to a complex of small basic proteins called histones, while in prokaryotes multiple types of proteins are involved. The histones form a disk-shaped complex called a nucleosome, which contains two complete turns of double-stranded DNA wrapped around its surface. These non-specific interactions are formed through basic residues in the histones making ionic bonds to the acidic sugar-phosphate backbone of the DNA, and are therefore largely independent of the base sequence. Chemical modifications of these basic amino acid residues include methylation, phosphorylation and acetylation. These chemical changes alter the strength of the interaction between the DNA and the histones, making the DNA more or less accessible to transcription factors and changing the rate of transcription. Other non-specific DNA-binding proteins in chromatin include the high-mobility group proteins, which bind to bent or distorted DNA. These proteins are important in bending arrays of nucleosomes and arranging them into the larger structures that make up chromosomes. A distinct group of DNA-binding proteins are the DNA-binding proteins that specifically bind single-stranded DNA. In humans, replication protein A is the best-understood member of this family and is used in processes where the double helix is separated, including DNA replication, recombination and DNA repair. These binding proteins seem to stabilize single-stranded DNA and protect it from forming stem-loops or being degraded by nucleases. The lambda repressor helix-turn-helix transcription factor bound to its DNA target Created from PDB 1LMB In contrast, other proteins have evolved to bind to particular DNA sequences. The most intensively studied of these are the various transcription factors, which are proteins that regulate transcription. Each transcription factor binds to one particular set of DNA sequences and activates or inhibits the transcription of genes that have these sequences close to their promoters. The transcription factors do this in two ways. Firstly, they can bind the RNA polymerase responsible for transcription, either directly or through other mediator proteins; this locates the polymerase at the promoter and allows it to begin transcription. Alternatively, transcription factors can bind enzymes that modify the histones at the promoter; this will change the accessibility of the DNA template to the polymerase. As these DNA targets can occur throughout an organism's genome, changes in the activity of one type of transcription factor can affect thousands of genes. Consequently, these proteins are often the targets of the signal transduction processes that control responses to environmental changes or cellular differentiation and development. The specificity of these transcription factors' interactions with DNA come from the proteins making multiple contacts to the edges of the DNA bases, allowing them to "read" the DNA sequence. Most of these base-interactions are made in the major groove, where the bases are most accessible. The restriction enzyme EcoRV (green) in a complex with its substrate DNA Created from PDB 1RVA DNA-modifying enzymes Nucleases and ligases Nucleases are enzymes that cut DNA strands by catalyzing the hydrolysis of the phosphodiester bonds. Nucleases that hydrolyse nucleotides from the ends of DNA strands are called exonucleases, while endonucleases cut within strands. The most frequently used nucleases in molecular biology are the restriction endonucleases, which cut DNA at specific sequences. For instance, the EcoRV enzyme shown to the left recognizes the 6-base sequence 5′-GAT|ATC-3′ and makes a cut at the vertical line. In nature, these enzymes protect bacteria against phage infection by digesting the phage DNA when it enters the bacterial cell, acting as part of the restriction modification system. In technology, these sequence-specific nucleases are used in molecular cloning and DNA fingerprinting. Enzymes called DNA ligases can rejoin cut or broken DNA strands. Ligases are particularly important in lagging strand DNA replication, as they join together the short segments of DNA produced at the replication fork into a complete copy of the DNA template. They are also used in DNA repair and genetic recombination. Topoisomerases and helicases Topoisomerases are enzymes with both nuclease and ligase activity. These proteins change the amount of supercoiling in DNA. Some of these enzyme work by cutting the DNA helix and allowing one section to rotate, thereby reducing its level of supercoiling; the enzyme then seals the DNA break. Other types of these enzymes are capable of cutting one DNA helix and then passing a second strand of DNA through this break, before rejoining the helix. Topoisomerases are required for many processes involving DNA, such as DNA replication and transcription. Helicases are proteins that are a type of molecular motor. They use the chemical energy in nucleoside triphosphates, predominantly ATP, to break hydrogen bonds between bases and unwind the DNA double helix into single strands. These enzymes are essential for most processes where enzymes need to access the DNA bases. Polymerases Polymerases are enzymes that synthesize polynucleotide chains from nucleoside triphosphates. The sequence of their products are copies of existing polynucleotide chains - which are called templates. These enzymes function by adding nucleotides onto the 3′ hydroxyl group of the previous nucleotide in a DNA strand. Consequently, all polymerases work in a 5′ to 3′ direction. In the active site of these enzymes, the incoming nucleoside triphosphate base-pairs to the template: this allows polymerases to accurately synthesize the complementary strand of their template. Polymerases are classified according to the type of template that they use. In DNA replication, a DNA-dependent DNA polymerase makes a copy of a DNA sequence. Accuracy is vital in this process, so many of these polymerases have a proofreading activity. Here, the polymerase recognizes the occasional mistakes in the synthesis reaction by the lack of base pairing between the mismatched nucleotides. If a mismatch is detected, a 3′ to 5′ exonuclease activity is activated and the incorrect base removed. In most organisms DNA polymerases function in a large complex called the replisome that contains multiple accessory subunits, such as the DNA clamp or helicases. RNA-dependent DNA polymerases are a specialized class of polymerases that copy the sequence of an RNA strand into DNA. They include reverse transcriptase, which is a viral enzyme involved in the infection of cells by retroviruses, and telomerase, which is required for the replication of telomeres. Telomerase is an unusual polymerase because it contains its own RNA template as part of its structure. Transcription is carried out by a DNA-dependent RNA polymerase that copies the sequence of a DNA strand into RNA. To begin transcribing a gene, the RNA polymerase binds to a sequence of DNA called a promoter and separates the DNA strands. It then copies the gene sequence into a messenger RNA transcript until it reaches a region of DNA called the terminator, where it halts and detaches from the DNA. As with human DNA-dependent DNA polymerases, RNA polymerase II, the enzyme that transcribes most of the genes in the human genome, operates as part of a large protein complex with multiple regulatory and accessory subunits. Genetic recombination Structure of the Holliday junction intermediate in genetic recombination. The four separate DNA strands are coloured red, blue, green and yellow. Created from PDB 1M6G Recombination involves the breakage and rejoining of two chromosomes (M and F) to produce two re-arranged chromosomes (C1 and C2). A DNA helix usually does not interact with other segments of DNA, and in human cells the different chromosomes even occupy separate areas in the nucleus called "chromosome territories". This physical separation of different chromosomes is important for the ability of DNA to function as a stable repository for information, as one of the few times chromosomes interact is during chromosomal crossover when they recombine. Chromosomal crossover is when two DNA helices break, swap a section and then rejoin. Recombination allows chromosomes to exchange genetic information and produces new combinations of genes, which increases the efficiency of natural selection and can be important in the rapid evolution of new proteins. Genetic recombination can also be involved in DNA repair, particularly in the cell's response to double-strand breaks. The most common form of chromosomal crossover is homologous recombination, where the two chromosomes involved share very similar sequences. Non-homologous recombination can be damaging to cells, as it can produce chromosomal translocations and genetic abnormalities. The recombination reaction is catalyzed by enzymes known as recombinases, such as RAD51. The first step in recombination is a double-stranded break either caused by an endonuclease or damage to the DNA. A series of steps catalyzed in part by the recombinase then leads to joining of the two helices by at least one Holliday junction, in which a segment of a single strand in each helix is annealed to the complementary strand in the other helix. The Holliday junction is a tetrahedral junction structure that can be moved along the pair of chromosomes, swapping one strand for another. The recombination reaction is then halted by cleavage of the junction and re-ligation of the released DNA. Evolution DNA contains the genetic information that allows all modern living things to function, grow and reproduce. However, it is unclear how long in the 4-billion-year history of life DNA has performed this function, as it has been proposed that the earliest forms of life may have used RNA as their genetic material. RNA may have acted as the central part of early cell metabolism as it can both transmit genetic information and carry out catalysis as part of ribozymes. This ancient RNA world where nucleic acid would have been used for both catalysis and genetics may have influenced the evolution of the current genetic code based on four nucleotide bases. This would occur since the number of unique bases in such an organism is a trade-off between a small number of bases increasing replication accuracy and a large number of bases increasing the catalytic efficiency of ribozymes. Unfortunately, there is no direct evidence of ancient genetic systems, as recovery of DNA from most fossils is impossible. This is because DNA will survive in the environment for less than one million years and slowly degrades into short fragments in solution. Claims for older DNA have been made, most notably a report of the isolation of a viable bacterium from a salt crystal 250-million years old, but these claims are controversial. Uses in technology Genetic engineering Methods have been developed to purify DNA from organisms, such as phenol-chloroform extraction and manipulate it in the laboratory, such as restriction digests and the polymerase chain reaction. Modern biology and biochemistry make intensive use of these techniques in recombinant DNA technology. Recombinant DNA is a man-made DNA sequence that has been assembled from other DNA sequences. They can be transformed into organisms in the form of plasmids or in the appropriate format, by using a viral vector. The genetically modified organisms produced can be used to produce products such as recombinant proteins, used in medical research, or be grown in agriculture. Forensics Forensic scientists can use DNA in blood, semen, skin, saliva or hair found at a crime scene to identify a matching DNA of an individual, such as a perpetrator. This process is called genetic fingerprinting, or more accurately, DNA profiling. In DNA profiling, the lengths of variable sections of repetitive DNA, such as short tandem repeats and minisatellites, are compared between people. This method is usually an extremely reliable technique for identifying a matching DNA. However, identification can be complicated if the scene is contaminated with DNA from several people. DNA profiling was developed in 1984 by British geneticist Sir Alec Jeffreys, and first used in forensic science to convict Colin Pitchfork in the 1988 Enderby murders case. Colin Pitchfork — first murder conviction on DNA evidence also clears the prime suspect Forensic Science Service Accessed 23 December 2006 People convicted of certain types of crimes may be required to provide a sample of DNA for a database. This has helped investigators solve old cases where only a DNA sample was obtained from the scene. DNA profiling can also be used to identify victims of mass casualty incidents. On the other hand, many convicted people have been released from prison on the basis of DNA techniques, which were not available when a crime had originally been committed. Bioinformatics Bioinformatics involves the manipulation, searching, and data mining of DNA sequence data. The development of techniques to store and search DNA sequences have led to widely applied advances in computer science, especially string searching algorithms, machine learning and database theory. . String searching or matching algorithms, which find an occurrence of a sequence of letters inside a larger sequence of letters, were developed to search for specific sequences of nucleotides. Gusfield, Dan. Algorithms on Strings, Trees, and Sequences: Computer Science and Computational Biology. Cambridge University Press, 15 January 1997. ISBN 978-0-521-58519-4. In other applications such as text editors, even simple algorithms for this problem usually suffice, but DNA sequences cause these algorithms to exhibit near-worst-case behaviour due to their small number of distinct characters. The related problem of sequence alignment aims to identify homologous sequences and locate the specific mutations that make them distinct. These techniques, especially multiple sequence alignment, are used in studying phylogenetic relationships and protein function. Data sets representing entire genomes' worth of DNA sequences, such as those produced by the Human Genome Project, are difficult to use without annotations, which label the locations of genes and regulatory elements on each chromosome. Regions of DNA sequence that have the characteristic patterns associated with protein- or RNA-coding genes can be identified by gene finding algorithms, which allow researchers to predict the presence of particular gene products in an organism even before they have been isolated experimentally. DNA nanotechnology The DNA structure at left (schematic shown) will self-assemble into the structure visualized by atomic force microscopy at right. DNA nanotechnology is the field which seeks to design nanoscale structures using the molecular recognition properties of DNA molecules. Image from Strong, 2004. DNA nanotechnology uses the unique molecular recognition properties of DNA and other nucleic acids to create self-assembling branched DNA complexes with useful properties. DNA is thus used as a structural material rather than as a carrier of biological information. This has led to the creation of two-dimensional periodic lattices (both tile-based as well as using the "DNA origami" method) as well as three-dimensional structures in the shapes of polyhedra. Nanomechanical devices and algorithmic self-assembly have also been demonstrated, and these DNA structures have been used to template the arrangement of other molecules such as gold nanoparticles and streptavidin proteins. History and anthropology Because DNA collects mutations over time, which are then inherited, it contains historical information and by comparing DNA sequences, geneticists can infer the evolutionary history of organisms, their phylogeny. This field of phylogenetics is a powerful tool in evolutionary biology. If DNA sequences within a species are compared, population geneticists can learn the history of particular populations. This can be used in studies ranging from ecological genetics to anthropology; for example, DNA evidence is being used to try to identify the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel. Lost Tribes of Israel, NOVA, PBS airdate: 22 February 2000. Transcript available from PBS.org, (last accessed on 4 March 2006) Kleiman, Yaakov. "The Cohanim/DNA Connection: The fascinating story of how DNA studies confirm an ancient biblical tradition". aish.com (January 13, 2000). Accessed 4 March 2006. DNA has also been used to look at modern family relationships, such as establishing family relationships between the descendants of Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson. This usage is closely related to the use of DNA in criminal investigations detailed above. Indeed, some criminal investigations have been solved when DNA from crime scenes has matched relatives of the guilty individual. Bhattacharya, Shaoni. "Killer convicted thanks to relative's DNA". newscientist.com (20 April 2004). Accessed 22 December 06 History of DNA research DNA was first isolated by the Swiss physician Friedrich Miescher who, in 1869, discovered a microscopic substance in the pus of discarded surgical bandages. As it resided in the nuclei of cells, he called it "nuclein". In 1919, Phoebus Levene identified the base, sugar and phosphate nucleotide unit. Levene suggested that DNA consisted of a string of nucleotide units linked together through the phosphate groups. However, Levene thought the chain was short and the bases repeated in a fixed order. In 1937 William Astbury produced the first X-ray diffraction patterns that showed that DNA had a regular structure. In 1928, Frederick Griffith discovered that traits of the "smooth" form of the Pneumococcus could be transferred to the "rough" form of the same bacteria by mixing killed "smooth" bacteria with the live "rough" form. This system provided the first clear suggestion that DNA carried genetic information—the Avery-MacLeod-McCarty experiment—when Oswald Avery, along with coworkers Colin MacLeod and Maclyn McCarty, identified DNA as the transforming principle in 1943. DNA's role in heredity was confirmed in 1952, when Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase in the Hershey-Chase experiment showed that DNA is the genetic material of the T2 phage. In 1953 James D. Watson and Francis Crick suggested what is now accepted as the first correct double-helix model of DNA structure in the journal Nature. Their double-helix, molecular model of DNA was then based on a single X-ray diffraction image (labeled as "Photo 51") The B-DNA X-ray pattern on the right of this linked image was obtained by Rosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling in May 1952 at high hydration levels of DNA and it has been labeled as "Photo 51" taken by Rosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling in May 1952, as well as the information that the DNA bases were paired—also obtained through private communications from Erwin Chargaff in the previous years. Chargaff's rules played a very important role in establishing double-helix configurations for B-DNA as well as A-DNA. Experimental evidence supporting the Watson and Crick model were published in a series of five articles in the same issue of Nature. Nature Archives Double Helix of DNA: 50 Years Of these, Franklin and Gosling's paper was the first publication of their own X-ray diffraction data and original analysis method that partially supported the Watson and Crick model Original X-ray diffraction image ; this issue also contained an article on DNA structure by Maurice Wilkins and two of his colleagues, whose analysis and in vivo B-DNA X-ray patterns also supported the presence in vivo of the double-helical DNA configurations as proposed by Crick and Watson for their double-helix molecular model of DNA in the previous two pages of Nature. In 1962, after Franklin's death, Watson, Crick, and Wilkins jointly received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1962 Nobelprize .org Accessed 22 December 06 Unfortunately, Nobel rules of the time allowed only living recipients, but a vigorous debate continues on who should receive credit for the discovery. In an influential presentation in 1957, Crick laid out the "Central Dogma" of molecular biology, which foretold the relationship between DNA, RNA, and proteins, and articulated the "adaptor hypothesis". Crick, F.H.C. On degenerate templates and the adaptor hypothesis (PDF). genome.wellcome.ac.uk (Lecture, 1955). Accessed 22 December 2006 Final confirmation of the replication mechanism that was implied by the double-helical structure followed in 1958 through the Meselson-Stahl experiment. Further work by Crick and coworkers showed that the genetic code was based on non-overlapping triplets of bases, called codons, allowing Har Gobind Khorana, Robert W. Holley and Marshall Warren Nirenberg to decipher the genetic code. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1968 Nobelprize.org Accessed 22 December 06 These findings represent the birth of molecular biology. See also Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid Molecular models of DNA DNA microarray DNA sequencing Paracrystal model and theory X-ray scattering Crystallography X-ray crystallography Genetic disorder Junk DNA Nucleic acid analogues Nucleic acid methods Nucleic acid modeling Nucleic Acid Notations Phosphoramidite Plasmid Polymerase chain reaction Southern blot Triple-stranded DNA Notes Further reading , first published in October 1974 by MacMillan, with foreword by Francis Crick;the definitive DNA textbook,revised in 1994 with a 9 page postscript. External links DNA binding site prediction on protein DNA coiling to form chromosomes DNA from the Beginning Another DNA Learning Center site on DNA, genes, and heredity from Mendel to the human genome project. DNA Lab, demonstrates how to extract DNA from wheat using readily available equipment and supplies. DNA the Double Helix Game From the official Nobel Prize web site DNA under electron microscope Dolan DNA Learning Center Double Helix: 50 years of DNA, Nature Double Helix 1953–2003 National Centre for Biotechnology Education Francis Crick and James Watson talking on the BBC in 1962, 1972, and 1974 Genetic Education Modules for Teachers — DNA from the Beginning Study Guide Guide to DNA cloning Rosalind Franklin's contributions to the study of DNA The Register of Francis Crick Personal Papers 1938 - 2007 at Mandeville Special Collections Library, Geisel Library, University of California, San Diego U.S. National DNA Day — watch videos and participate in real-time chat with top scientists The first American newspaper coverage of the discovery of the DNA structure. | DNA |@lemmatized deoxyribonucleic:1 acid:19 dna:320 nucleic:11 contain:19 genetic:31 instruction:2 use:36 development:3 functioning:1 know:5 living:5 organism:17 virus:3 main:2 role:4 molecule:15 long:10 term:2 storage:1 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1,503 | Ethanol | Ethanol, also called ethyl alcohol, pure alcohol, grain alcohol, or drinking alcohol, is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid. It is a psychoactive drug, best known as the type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages and in modern thermometers. Ethanol is one of the oldest recreational drugs. In common usage, it is often referred to simply as alcohol or spirits. Ethanol is a straight-chain alcohol, and its molecular formula is C2H5OH. Its empirical formula is C2H6O. An alternative notation is CH3-CH2-OH, which indicates that the carbon of a methyl group (CH3-) is attached to the carbon of a methylene group (-CH2-), which is attached to the oxygen of a hydroxyl group (-OH). It is a constitutional isomer of dimethyl ether. Ethanol is often abbreviated as EtOH, using the common organic chemistry notation of representing the ethyl group (C2H5) with Et. The fermentation of sugar into ethanol is one of the earliest organic reactions employed by humanity. The intoxicating effects of ethanol consumption have been known since ancient times. In modern times, ethanol intended for industrial use is also produced from by-products of petroleum refining. Ethanol has widespread use as a solvent of substances intended for human contact or consumption, including scents, flavorings, colorings, and medicines. In chemistry, it is both an essential solvent and a feedstock for the synthesis of other products. It has a long history as a fuel for heat and light and also as a fuel for internal combustion engines. History Ethanol being used as fuel for a burner Ethanol has been used by humans since prehistory as the intoxicating ingredient of alcoholic beverages. Dried residues on 9,000-year-old pottery found in China imply that alcoholic beverages were used even among Neolithic people. Its isolation as a relatively pure compound was first achieved by the Persian alchemist, Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes, 865–925). Two other chemists who contributed to the development of distillation techniques were Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan) and Al-Kindi (Alkindus). Writings attributed to Geber (721–815) mention the flammable vapors of boiled wine. Al-Kindi (801–873) unambiguously described the distillation of wine. In 1796, Johann Tobias Lowitz obtained pure ethanol by filtering distilled ethanol through activated charcoal. Antoine Lavoisier described ethanol as a compound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and in 1808 Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure determined ethanol’s chemical formula. Alcohol in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition Fifty years later, Archibald Scott Couper published the structural formula of ethanol, which placed ethanol among the first compounds whose chemical structure had been determined. Ethanol was first prepared synthetically in 1826 through the independent efforts of Henry Hennel in Great Britain and S.G. Sérullas in France. In 1828, Michael Faraday prepared ethanol by acid-catalyzed hydration of ethylene, a process similar to that which is used today for industrial ethanol synthesis. Ethanol was used as lamp fuel in the United States as early as 1840, but a tax levied on industrial alcohol during the Civil War made this use uneconomical. This tax was repealed in 1906, and from 1908 onward Ford Model T automobiles could be adapted to run on ethanol. With the advent of Prohibition in 1920 though, sellers of ethanol fuel were accused of being allied with moonshiners, and ethanol fuel again fell into disuse until late in the 20th century. Physical properties Ethanol burning with its spectrum depicted Ethanol is a volatile, colorless liquid that has a strong characteristic odor. It burns with a smokeless blue flame that is not always visible in normal light. The physical properties of ethanol stem primarily from the presence of its hydroxyl group and the shortness of its carbon chain. Ethanol’s hydroxyl group is able to participate in hydrogen bonding, rendering it more viscous and less volatile than less polar organic compounds of similar molecular weight. Ethanol is a versatile solvent, miscible with water and with many organic solvents, including acetic acid, acetone, benzene, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, diethyl ether, ethylene glycol, glycerol, nitromethane, pyridine, and toluene. It is also miscible with light aliphatic hydrocarbons, such as pentane and hexane, and with aliphatic chlorides such as trichloroethane and tetrachloroethylene. Ethanol’s miscibility with water contrasts with that of longer-chain alcohols (five or more carbon atoms), whose water miscibility decreases sharply as the number of carbons increases. The miscibility of ethanol with alkanes is limited to alkanes up to undecane, mixtures with dodecane and higher alkanes show a miscibility gap below a certain temperature (approx. 13 °C for dodecane ). The miscisbility gap tends to get wider with higher alkanes and the temperature for complete miscibility increases. Ethanol-water mixtures have less volume than the sum of their individual components at the given fractions. Mixing equal volumes of ethanol and water results in only 1.92 volumes of mixture. CRC Handbook of Chemistry, 44th ed. Mixing ethanol and water is exothermic. At 298 K up to approx. 777 J/mol are set free. Mixtures of ethanol and water form an azeotrope at approx. 89 mole-% ethanol and 11 mole-% water or a mixture of about 96 volume percent ethanol and 4 % water at normal pressure and T=351 K. This azeotropic composition is strongly temperature- and pressure-dependent and vanishes at temperatures below 303 K . Hydrogen bonding causes pure ethanol to be hygroscopic to the extent that it readily absorbs water from the air. The polar nature of the hydroxyl group causes ethanol to dissolve many ionic compounds, notably sodium and potassium hydroxides, magnesium chloride, calcium chloride, ammonium chloride, ammonium bromide, and sodium bromide. Sodium and potassium chlorides are slightly soluble in ethanol. Because the ethanol molecule also has a nonpolar end, it will also dissolve nonpolar substances, including most essential oils Merck Index of Chemicals and Drugs, 9th ed.; monographs 6575 through 6669 and numerous flavoring, coloring, and medicinal agents. The addition of even a few percent of ethanol to water sharply reduces the surface tension of water. This property partially explains the “tears of wine” phenomenon. When wine is swirled in a glass, ethanol evaporates quickly from the thin film of wine on the wall of the glass. As the wine’s ethanol content decreases, its surface tension increases and the thin film “beads up” and runs down the glass in channels rather than as a smooth sheet. Mixtures of ethanol and water that contain more than about 50% ethanol are flammable and easily ignited. An alcohol stove has been developed in India which runs on 50% ethanol/water mixture. Alcoholic proof is a widely used measure of how much ethanol (i.e., alcohol) such a mixture contains. In the 18th century, proof was determined by adding a liquor (such as rum) to gunpowder. If the gunpowder still just exploded, that was considered to be “100 degrees proof” that it was “good” liquor — hence it was called “100 degrees proof.” Ethanol-water solutions that contain less than 50% ethanol may also be flammable if the solution is first heated. Some cooking methods call for wine to be added to a hot pan, causing it to flash boil into a vapor, which is then ignited to burn off excess alcohol. Ethanol is slightly more refractive than water, having a refractive index of 1.36242 (at λ=589.3 nm and 18.35 °C). Chemical properties Ethanol is classified as a primary alcohol, meaning that the carbon to which its hydroxyl group is attached has at least two hydrogen atoms attached to it as well. The chemistry of ethanol is largely that of its hydroxyl group. Acid-base chemistry Ethanol's hydroxyl group causes the molecule to be slightly basic. It is almost neutral like water. The pH of 100% ethanol is 7.33, compared to 7.00 for pure water. Ethanol can be quantitatively converted to its conjugate base, the ethoxide ion (CH3CH2O−), by reaction with an alkali metal such as sodium: 2CH3CH2OH + 2Na → 2CH3CH2ONa + H2, or a very strong base such as sodium hydride: CH3CH2OH + NaH → CH3CH2ONa + H2. This reaction is not possible in an aqueous solution, as water is more acidic, so that hydroxide is preferred over ethoxide formation. Halogenation Ethanol reacts with hydrogen halides to produce ethyl halides such as ethyl chloride and ethyl bromide: CH3CH2OH + HCl → CH3CH2Cl + H2O HCl reaction requires a catalyst such as zinc chloride. Hydrogen chloride in the presence of their respective zinc chloride is known as Lucas reagent. CH3CH2OH + HBr → CH3CH2Br + H2O HBr requires refluxing with a sulfuric acid catalyst. Ethyl halides can also be produced by reacting ethanol with more specialized halogenating agents, such as thionyl chloride for preparing ethyl chloride, or phosphorus tribromide for preparing ethyl bromide. CH3CH2OH + SOCl2 → CH3CH2Cl + SO2 + HCl Haloform reaction "The haloform reaction is a chemical reaction where a haloform (CHX3, where X is a halogen) is produced by the exhaustive halogenation of a methyl ketone (a molecule containing the R-CO-CH3 group) in the presence of a base. Chakrabartty, in Trahanovsky, Oxidation in Organic Chemistry, pp 343-370, Academic Press, New York, 1978 " See main "Haloform reaction" article. Ester formation Under acid-catalyzed conditions, ethanol reacts with carboxylic acids to produce ethyl esters and water: RCOOH + HOCH2CH3 → RCOOCH2CH3 + H2O. For this reaction to produce useful yields it is necessary to remove water from the reaction mixture as it is formed. Ethanol can also form esters with inorganic acids. Diethyl sulfate and triethyl phosphate, prepared by reacting ethanol with sulfuric and phosphoric acid respectively, are both useful ethylating agents in organic synthesis. Ethyl nitrite, prepared from the reaction of ethanol with sodium nitrite and sulfuric acid, was formerly a widely-used diuretic. Dehydration Strong acid desiccants, such as sulfuric acid, cause ethanol's dehydration to form either diethyl ether or ethylene: 2 CH3CH2OH → CH3CH2OCH2CH3 + H2O (on 120'C) CH3CH2OH → H2C=CH2 + H2O (on 180'C) Which product, diethyl ether or ethylene, predominates depends on the precise reaction conditions Oxidation Ethanol can be oxidized to acetaldehyde, and further oxidized to acetic acid. In the human body, these oxidation reactions are catalyzed by enzymes. In the laboratory, aqueous solutions of strong oxidizing agents, such as chromic acid or potassium permanganate, oxidize ethanol to acetic acid, and it is difficult to stop the reaction at acetaldehyde at high yield. Ethanol can be oxidized to acetaldehyde, without over oxidation to acetic acid, by reacting it with pyridinium chromic chloride. The direct oxidation of ethanol to acetic acid using chromic acid is given below. C2H5OH + 2[O] → CH3COOH + H2O The oxidation product of ethanol, acetic acid, is spent as nutrient by the human body as acetyl CoA, where the acetyl group can be spent as energy or used for biosynthesis. Chlorination When exposed to chlorine, ethanol is both oxidized and its alpha carbon chlorinated to form the compound, chloral. 4Cl2 + C2H5OH → CCl3CHO + 5HCl Combustion Combustion of ethanol forms carbon dioxide and water: C2H5OH(g) + 3 O2(g) → 2 CO2(g) + 3 H2O(l);(ΔHr = −1409 kJ/mol ) Specific Heat = 2.44 KJ/KgK Use As a fuel Energy content of some fuels compared with ethanol: Appendix B, Transportation Energy Data Book from the Center for Transportation Analysis of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory Fuel type MJ/L MJ/kg ResearchoctanenumberDry wood (20% moisture) ~19.5Methanol17.919.9123Ethanol23.5 Calculated from heats of formation. Does not correspond exactly to the figure for MJ/l divided by density. 31.1129E85(85% ethanol, 15% gasoline)25.233.2105Liquefied natural gas25.3~55Autogas (LPG)(60% Propane + 40% Butane)26.850.Aviation gasoline(high-octane gasoline, not jet fuel)33.546.8Gasohol(90% gasoline + 10% ethanol)33.747.193/94Regular Gasoline34.8 George. Overview of Storage Development DOE Hydrogen Program [pdf]. Livermore, CA. Sandia National Laboratories. 2000. 44.4min. 91Premium Gasolinemax. 95Diesel38.645.425Charcoal, extruded5023 The largest single use of ethanol is as a motor fuel and fuel additive. The largest national fuel ethanol industries exist in Brazil (gasoline sold in Brazil contains at least 25% ethanol and anhydrous ethanol is also used as fuel in more than 90% of new cars sold in the country). The Brazilian production of ethanol is praised for the high carbon sequestration capabilities of the sugar cane plantations, thus making it a real option to combat climate change. Reel, M. (August 19, 2006) "Brazil's Road to Energy Independence", Washington Post. Henry Ford designed the first mass-produced automobile, the famed Model T Ford, to run on pure anhydrous (ethanol) alcohol—he said it was "the fuel of the future". Today, however, 100% pure ethanol is not approved as a motor vehicle fuel in the U.S. Added to gasoline, ethanol reduces volatile organic compound and hydrocarbon emissions, carcinogenic benzene and butadiene emissions, and particulate matter emissions from gasoline combustion. Combustion of ethanol in an internal combustion engine yields many of the products of incomplete combustion that are produced by gasoline and significantly larger amounts of formaldehyde and related species such as formalin, acetaldehyde, etc.. California Air Resources Board,Definition of a Low Emission Motor Vehicle in Compliance with the Mandates of Health and Safety Code Section 39037.05,second release, October 1989 This leads to a significantly larger photochemical reactivity that generates much more ground level ozone. A.Lowi& W.P.L.Carter; A Method for Evaluating the Atmospheric Ozone Impact of Actual Vehicle emissions, S.A.E. Technical Paper, Warrendale,PA; march 1990 This data has been assembled into The Clean Fuels Report comparison of fuel emissions T.T.M.Jones,The Clean Fuels Report: A Quantitative Comparison Of Motor Fuels, Related Pollution and Technologies: 2008. and shows that ethanol exhaust generates 2.14 times as much ozone as does gasoline exhaust. When this is added into the custom "Localised Pollution Index (LPI)" of The Clean Fuels Report the local pollution, i.e. that which contributes to smog, is 1.7 on a scale where gasoline is 1.0 and higher numbers signify greater pollution. This issue has been formalised by the California Air Resources Board in 2008 by recognising control standards for formaldehydes et al. as an emissions control group much like the conventional NOx and Reactive Organic Gases (ROGs). Prior to the development of electronic fuel injection (EFI) and computerized engine management, the lower energy content of ethanol required that the engine carburetor be rejetted to permit a larger volume of fuel to mix with the intake air. EFI is able to actively compensate for varying fuel energy densities by monitoring the oxygen content of exhaust gases. However, a standard EFI gasoline engine can typically only tolerate up to 10% ethanol and 90% gasoline. Higher ethanol ratios require either larger-volume fuel injectors or an increase in fuel rail pressure to deliver the greater liquid volume needed to equal the energy content of pure gasoline. Ethanol pump station in Sao Paulo, Brazil where the fuel is available commercially. World production of ethanol in 2006 was , with 69% of the world supply coming from Brazil and the United States. More than 20% of the Brazilian fleet of cars on the streets are able to use 100% ethanol as fuel, which includes ethanol-only engines and flex-fuel engines. Flex-fuel engines in Brazil are able to work with all ethanol, all gasoline or any mixture of both. In the US flex-fuel vehicles can run on 0% to 85% ethanol (15% gasoline) since higher ethanol blends are not yet allowed. Brazil supports this population of ethanol-burning automobiles with large national infrastructure that produces ethanol from domestically grown sugar cane. Sugar cane not only has a greater concentration of sucrose than corn (by about 30%), but is also much easier to extract. The bagasse generated by the process is not wasted, but is utilized in power plants as a surprisingly efficient fuel to produce electricity. A Ford Taurus "fueled by clean burning ethanol" owned by New York City. The United States fuel ethanol industry is based largely on corn. According to the Renewable Fuels Association, as of October 30, 2007, 131 grain ethanol bio-refineries in the United States have the capacity to produce 7.0 billion US gallons (26 GL) of ethanol per year. An additional 72 construction projects underway (in the U.S.) can add 6.4 billion gallons of new capacity in the next 18 months. Over time, it is believed that a material portion of the ~150 billion gallon per year market for gasoline will begin to be replaced with fuel ethanol. United States Postal Service vehicle running on E85, a "flex-fuel" blend in Saint Paul, Minnesota. The U.S. federal government gives ethanol producers a 51-cent-per-gallon tax credit and mandates that their fuel be blended into the nation's gasoline supplies. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 requires that 4 billion gallons of "renewable fuel" be used in 2006 and this requirement will grow to a yearly production of 7.5 billion gallons by 2012. In the United States, ethanol is most commonly blended with gasoline as a 10% ethanol blend nicknamed "gasohol". This blend is widely sold throughout the U.S. Midwest, and in cities required by the 1990 Clean Air Act to oxygenate their gasoline during the winter. Ethanol and isobutene are also the feedstocks for ethyl tert-butyl ether (ETBE), an oxygenate antiknock additive. The use of ethanol makes ETBE partially a biofuel, but also more expensive than the similar additive methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), made from methanol and isobutene. Ethanol is also used as a cooking and lighting fuel. In India ethanol stove and lanterns have been developed which can run on 50% by weight ethanol/water mixture. This mixture (hooch or illicit liquor) is easy to distill, safer to handle and use than 100% ethanol, can be produced by small local producers and uses less energy in its production. Dual purpose lantern run on ethanol . Food versus fuel debate Ethanol plant under construction, Butler County, Iowa It is disputed whether corn ethanol as an automotive fuel results in a net energy gain or loss. As reported in "The Energy Balance of Corn Ethanol: an Update," the energy returned on energy invested (EROEI) for ethanol made from corn in the U.S. is 1.34 (it yields 34% more energy than it takes to produce it). Input energy includes natural gas based fertilizers, farm equipment, transformation from corn or other materials, and transportation. However, other researchers report that the production of ethanol consumes more energy than it yields. In comparison, sugar cane ethanol EROEI is at around 8 (it yields 8 joules for each joule used to produce it). Recent research suggests that cellulosic crops such as switchgrass provide a much better net energy production than corn, producing over five times as much energy as the total used to produce the crop and convert it to fuel. If this research is confirmed, cellulosic crops will most likely displace corn as the main fuel crop for producing bioethanol. Michael Grunwald reports that one person could be fed for 1 year "on the corn needed to fill an ethanol-fueled SUV". The Clean Energy Scam, TIME, April 7, 2008, pages 40–41. He further reports that though "hyped as an eco-friendly fuel, ethanol increases global warming, destroys forests and inflates food prices." Environmentalists, livestock farmers, and opponents of subsidies say that increased ethanol production won't meet energy goals and may damage the environment, while at the same time causing worldwide food prices to soar. Some of the controversial subsidies in the past have included more than $10 billion to Archer-Daniels-Midland since 1980. Critics also speculate that as ethanol is more widely used, changing irrigation practices could greatly increase pressure on water resources. In October 2007, 28 environmental groups decried the Renewable Fuels Standard (RFS), a legislative effort intended to increase ethanol production, and said that the measure will "lead to substantial environmental damage and a system of biofuels production that will not benefit family farmers...will not promote sustainable agriculture and will not mitigate global climate change." The Politics of Ethanol Outshine its Costs Recent articles have also blamed subsidized ethanol production for the nearly 200% increase in milk prices since 2004 , since the price of fuel has driven up the costs to cultivate, grow, harvest, ship, refine, bring to market, etc, all commodities including, but not limited to, milk, although that is disputed by some. Articles also blame the presence of speculators, and the recent growing interest in the commodities market by investors who have been scared away from a falling stock market. Ethanol production uses the starch portion of corn, but the leftover protein can be used to create a high-nutrient, low-cost animal feed. Fuel, Food Demand Raise Corn, Soybean Prices In 2007 the United Nations' independent expert on the right to food, called for a five-year moratorium on biofuel production from food crops, to allow time for development of non-food sources. He called recent increases in food costs because of fuel production, such as the quadrupling of world corn price in one year, a growing "catastrophe" for the poor. In February 2007, riots occurred in Mexico because of the skyrocketing price of tortillas. Ethanol has been credited as the reason for this increase in food prices Mexicans stage tortilla protest , BBC News, February 7, 2007. . The demand for corn has had a rippling effect on many corn-based products, like tortillas. The effects of ethanol and the increasing cost of food have also been felt in Pakistan, Indonesia, and Egypt. Oil has historically had a much higher EROEI than corn produced ethanol, according to some. However, oil must be refined into gasoline before it can be used for automobile fuel. Refining, as well as exploration and drilling, consumes energy. The difference between the energy in the fuel (output energy) and the energy needed to produce it (input energy) is often expressed as a percent of the input energy and called net energy gain (or loss). Several studies released in 2002 estimated that the net energy gain for corn ethanol is between 21 and 34 percent. The net energy loss for MTBE is about 33 percent. When added to gasoline, ethanol can replace MTBE as an anti-knock agent without poisoning drinking water as MTBE does. In Brazil, where the broadest and longest ethanol producing experiment took place, improvements in agricultural practices and ethanol production improvements led to an increase in ethanol net energy gain from 300% to over 800% in recent years. It must be noted that Brazil produces ethanol more efficiently because its primary input is the sugar from sugar cane rather than starches from corn. Consuming known oil reserves is increasing oil exploration and drilling energy consumption which is reducing oil EROEI (and energy balance) further. Opponents claim that corn ethanol production does not result in a net energy gain or that the consequences of large scale ethanol production to the food industry and environment offset any potential gains from ethanol. It has been estimated that "if every bushel of U.S. corn, wheat, rice and soybean were used to produce ethanol, it would only cover about 4% of U.S. energy needs on a net basis." Many of the issues raised could likely be fixed by techniques now in development that produce ethanol from agricultural waste, such as paper waste, switchgrass, and other materials, but EIA Forecasts Significant Shortfall in Cellulosic Biofuel Production Compared to Target Set by Renewable Fuel Standard. Proponents cite the potential gains to the U.S. economy both from domestic fuel production and increased demand for corn. Optimistic calculations project that the United States is capable of producing enough ethanol to completely replace gasoline consumption. In comparison, Brazil's ethanol consumption today covers more than 50% of all energy used by vehicles in that country. In the United States, preferential regulatory and tax treatment of ethanol automotive fuels introduces complexities beyond its energy economics alone. North American automakers have in 2006 and 2007 promoted a blend of 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline, marketed as E85, and their flex-fuel vehicles, e.g. GM's " Live Green, Go Yellow" campaign. The apparent motivation is the nature of U.S. Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards, which give an effective 54% fuel efficiency bonus to vehicles capable of running on 85% alcohol blends over vehicles not adapted to run on 85% alcohol blends. In addition to this auto manufacturer-driven impetus for 85% alcohol blends, the United States Environmental Protection Agency had authority to mandate that minimum proportions of oxygenates be added to automotive gasoline on regional and seasonal bases from 1992 until 2006 in an attempt to reduce air pollution, in particular ground-level ozone and smog. In the United States, incidents of methyl tert(iary)-butyl ether (MTBE) groundwater contamination have been recorded in the majority of the 50 states, and the State of California's ban on the use of MTBE as a gasoline additive has further driven the more widespread use of ethanol as the most common fuel oxygenate. A February 7, 2008 Associated Press article stated, "The widespread use of ethanol from corn could result in nearly twice the greenhouse gas emissions as the gasoline it would replace because of expected land-use changes, researchers concluded Thursday. The study challenges the rush to biofuels as a response to global warming." Study: Ethanol May Add to Global Warming Associated Press, February 7, 2008 The article does not take into account that even when grown in an industrial, soil-depleting manner, corn still sequesters carbon through its unharvested root and stalk tissues, which form soils, while gasoline production does not have a carbon-sequestration component in its production cycle. One acre of land can yield about 7,110 pounds (3,225 kg) of corn, which can be processed into 328 gallons (1240.61 liters) of ethanol. That is about 26.1 pounds (11.84 kg) of corn per gallon. Much overlooked in most discussions about ethanol from corn are the by-products from the production of ethanol. In general, the waste product from corn distillation is DDGS, distillers grains, a protein-rich food. The vast majority of corn produced in the US and the world goes to feed not people but livestock, which cannot naturally digest corn. The main result of feeding corn to a ruminant is excessive flatulence (production of methane gas, being a greenhouse gas), but the same animal can can readily digest DDGS . Seen in this light, all corn destined for livestock feeding should probably be distilled to harvest the ethanol fuel potential while simultaneously making the feed more nutritious to the livestock and avoiding unnecessary methane pollution. Wherever corn is used to feed livestock, farmers can take advantage of this process to make a profit on both food and fuel from the same bushel of corn. However, there are supporters of the switch to ethanol fuel. A Federal Government Sponsored study found a gallon of ethanol makes almost twice as much energy as it consumes while it also has the potential to cut greenhouse gasses by 54% if cars ran on ethanol rather than gasoline. Ethanol fuel cells Ethanol may be used as a fuel to power Direct-ethanol fuel cells (DEFC) in order to produce electricity and the by-products of water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2). Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFC) FCTec. Platinum is commonly used as an anode in such fuel cells in order to achieve a power density that is comparable to competing technologies. Until recently the high price of platinum has been cost prohibitive. A company called Acta Nanotech has created platinum free nanostructured anodes using more common and therefore less expensive metals. Offenburg students test world's first ethanol powered fuel cell vehicle Acta. A vehicle using a DEFC and non-platinum nanostructured anodes was used in the Shell Eco-Marathon 2007 by a team from Offenburg Germany which achieved an efficiency of 2716 kilometers per liter (6388 miles per gallon). Willkommen beim Projekt "Schluckspecht" der Hochschule Offenburg . Rocket fuel Ethanol was commonly used as fuel in early bipropellant rocket vehicles, in conjunction with an oxidizer such as liquid oxygen. The German V-2 rocket of World War II, credited with beginning the space age, used ethanol, mixed with water to reduce the combustion chamber temperature. Braeunig, Robert A. "Rocket Propellants." (Website). Rocket & Space Technology, 2006. Retrieved on 2007-08-23. The V-2's design team helped develop U.S. rockets following World War II, including the ethanol-fueled Redstone rocket, which launched the first U.S. satellite. "A Brief History of Rocketry." NASA Historical Archive, via science.ksc.nasa.gov. Alcohols fell into general disuse as more efficient rocket fuels were developed. Alcoholic beverages Ethanol is the principal psychoactive constituent in alcoholic beverages, with depressant effects on the central nervous system. It has a complex mode of action and affects multiple systems in the brain, most notably ethanol acts as an agonist to the GABA receptors. Similar psychoactives include those which also interact with GABA receptors, such as gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB). Ethanol is metabolized by the body as an energy-providing carbohydrate nutrient, as it metabolizes into acetyl CoA, an intermediate common with glucose metabolism, that can be used for energy in the citric acid cycle or for biosynthesis. Alcoholic beverages vary considerably in their ethanol content and in the foodstuffs from which they are produced. Most alcoholic beverages can be broadly classified as fermented beverages, beverages made by the action of yeast on sugary foodstuffs, or as distilled beverages, beverages whose preparation involves concentrating the ethanol in fermented beverages by distillation. The ethanol content of a beverage is usually measured in terms of the volume fraction of ethanol in the beverage, expressed either as a percentage or in alcoholic proof units. Fermented beverages can be broadly classified by the foodstuff from which they are fermented. Beers are made from cereal grains or other starchy materials, wines and ciders from fruit juices, and meads from honey. Cultures around the world have made fermented beverages from numerous other foodstuffs, and local and national names for various fermented beverages abound. Distilled beverages are made by distilling fermented beverages. Broad categories of distilled beverages include whiskeys, distilled from fermented cereal grains; brandies, distilled from fermented fruit juices, and rum, distilled from fermented molasses or sugarcane juice. Vodka and similar neutral grain spirits can be distilled from any fermented material (grain or potatoes are most common); these spirits are so thoroughly distilled that no tastes from the particular starting material remain. Numerous other spirits and liqueurs are prepared by infusing flavors from fruits, herbs, and spices into distilled spirits. A traditional example is gin, which is created by infusing juniper berries into a neutral grain alcohol. In a few beverages, ethanol is concentrated by means other than distillation. Applejack is traditionally made by freeze distillation, by which water is frozen out of fermented apple cider, leaving a more ethanol-rich liquid behind. Eisbier (more commonly, eisbock) is also freeze-distilled, with beer as the base beverage. Fortified wines are prepared by adding brandy or some other distilled spirit to partially-fermented wine. This kills the yeast and conserves some of the sugar in grape juice; such beverages are not only more ethanol-rich, but are often sweeter than other wines. Alcoholic beverages are sometimes used in cooking, not only for their inherent flavors, but also because the alcohol dissolves hydrophobic flavor compounds which water cannot. Just as industrial ethanol is used as feedstock for the production of industrial acetic acid, alcoholic beverages are made into culinary/household vinegar. Feedstock Ethanol is an important industrial ingredient and has widespread use as a base chemical for other organic compounds. These include ethyl halides, ethyl esters, diethyl ether, acetic acid, butadiene, and ethyl amines. Antiseptic use Ethanol is used in medical wipes and in most common antibacterial hand sanitizer gels at a concentration of about 62% (percentage by volume, not weight) as an antiseptic. Ethanol kills organisms by denaturing their proteins and dissolving their lipids and is effective against most bacteria and fungi, and many viruses (including SARS ), but is ineffective against bacterial spores. Antidote use Ethanol can be used as an antidote for poisoning by other, more toxic alcohols, in particular methanol and ethylene glycol. Ethanol competes with other alcohols for the alcohol dehydrogenase enzyme, preventing metabolism into toxic aldehyde and carboxylic acid derivatives, and it reduce the glycols tendency to crystallize in the kidneys (which is one of its more serious toxic effect). Other uses Ethanol is easily miscible in water and is a good solvent. Ethanol is less polar than water and is used in perfumes, paints and tinctures. Ethanol is also used in design and sketch art markers, such as Copic, and Tria. Alcohol is also found in certain kinds of deodorants. Use in history Before the development of modern medicines, ethanol was used for a variety of medical purposes. It has been known to be used as a truth drug (as hinted at by the maxim "in vino veritas"), as medicine for depression and as an anesthetic. Effects on humans Short-term BAC (mg/dL) BAC (% v/v) Symptoms 50 0.05% Euphoria, talkativeness, relaxation 100 0.1 % Central nervous system depression, impaired motor and sensory function, impaired cognition >140 >0.14% Decreased blood flow to brain 300 0.3% Stupefaction, possible unconsciousness 400 0.4% Possible death >550 0.55% Death Effects on the central nervous system Ethanol is a central nervous system depressant and has significant psychoactive effects in sublethal doses; for specifics, see effects of alcohol on the body by dose. Based on its abilities to change the human consciousness, ethanol is considered a drug. Death from ethyl alcohol consumption is possible when blood alcohol level reaches 0.4%. A blood level of 0.5% or more is commonly fatal. Levels of even less than 0.1% can cause intoxication, with unconsciousness often occurring at 0.3–0.4%. The amount of ethanol in the body is typically quantified by blood alcohol content (BAC), the milligrams of ethanol per 100 milliliters of blood. The table at right summarizes the symptoms of ethanol consumption. Small doses of ethanol generally produce euphoria and relaxation; people experiencing these symptoms tend to become talkative and less inhibited, and may exhibit poor judgment. At higher dosages (BAC > 100 mg/dl), ethanol acts as a central nervous system depressant, producing at progressively higher dosages, impaired sensory and motor function, slowed cognition, stupefaction, unconsciousness, and possible death. Prolonged heavy consumption of alcohol can cause significant permanent damage to the brain and other organs. See Alcohol consumption and health. In America, about half of the deaths in car accidents occur in alcohol-related crashes. There is no completely-safe level of alcohol for driving; the risk of a fatal car accident rises with the level of alcohol in the driver's blood. However, most drunk driving laws governing the acceptable levels in the blood while driving or operating heavy machinery set typical upper limits of blood alcohol content (BAC) between 0.05% and 0.08%. Discontinuing consumption of alcohol after several years of chronic drinking can also be fatal. Alcohol withdrawal can cause anxiety, autonomic dysfunction, seizures and hallucinations. Delirium tremens is a condition that requires people with a long history of heavy drinking to undertake an alcohol detoxification regimen. Effects on metabolism Ethanol within the human body is converted into acetaldehyde by alcohol dehydrogenase and then into acetic acid by acetaldehyde dehydrogenase. The product of the first step of this breakdown, acetaldehyde, is more toxic than ethanol. Acetaldehyde is linked to most of the clinical effects of alcohol. It has been shown to increase the risk of developing cirrhosis of the liver, multiple forms of cancer, and alcoholism. Drug interactions Ethanol can intensify the sedation caused by other central nervous system depressant drugs such as barbiturates, benzodiazepines, opioids, and phenothiazines Magnitude of effects Some individuals have less-effective forms of one or both of the metabolizing enzymes, and can experience more-severe symptoms from ethanol consumption than others. Conversely, those who have acquired alcohol tolerance have a greater quantity of these enzymes, and metabolize ethanol more rapidly. Long-term Birth defects Ethanol is classified as a teratogen. See fetal alcohol syndrome. Other effects Frequent drinking of alcoholic beverages has been shown to be a major contributing factor in cases of elevated blood levels of triglycerides. Ethanol is not a carcinogen. However, the first metabolic product of ethanol, acetaldehyde, is toxic, mutagenic, and carcinogenic. Production 94% denatured ethanol sold in a bottle for household use Ethanol is produced both as a petrochemical, through the hydration of ethylene, and biologically, by fermenting sugars with yeast. Mills, G.A.; Ecklund, E.E. " Which process is more economical is dependent upon the prevailing prices of petroleum and of grain feed stocks. Ethylene hydration Ethanol for use as industrial feedstock is most often made from petrochemical feed stocks, typically by the acid-catalyzed hydration of ethylene, represented by the chemical equation C2H4(g) + H2O(g) → CH3CH2OH(l). The catalyst is most commonly phosphoric acid, adsorbed onto a porous support such as diatomaceous earth or charcoal. This catalyst was first used for large-scale ethanol production by the Shell Oil Company in 1947. The reaction is carried out with an excess of high pressure steam at 300°C. In an older process, first practiced on the industrial scale in 1930 by Union Carbide, Lodgsdon, J.E. (1994). p. 817 but now almost entirely obsolete, ethylene was hydrated indirectly by reacting it with concentrated sulfuric acid to produce ethyl sulfate, which was then hydrolyzed to yield ethanol and regenerate the sulfuric acid: C2H4 + H2SO4 → CH3CH2SO4H CH3CH2SO4H + H2O → CH3CH2OH + H2SO4 Fermentation Ethanol for use in alcoholic beverages, and the vast majority of ethanol for use as fuel, is produced by fermentation. When certain species of yeast (e.g., Saccharomyces cerevisiae) metabolize sugar they produce ethanol and carbon dioxide. The chemical equation below summarizes the conversion: C6H12O6 → 2 CH3CH2OH + 2 CO2. The process of culturing yeast under conditions to produce alcohol is called fermentation. Ethanol's toxicity to yeast limits the ethanol concentration obtainable by brewing. The most ethanol-tolerant strains of yeast can survive up to approximately 15% ethanol by volume. In order to produce ethanol from starchy materials such as cereal grains, the starch must first be converted into sugars. In brewing beer, this has traditionally been accomplished by allowing the grain to germinate, or malt, which produces the enzyme, amylase. When the malted grain is mashed, the amylase converts the remaining starches into sugars. For fuel ethanol, the hydrolysis of starch into glucose can be accomplished more rapidly by treatment with dilute sulfuric acid, fungally produced amylase, or some combination of the two. Badger, P.C. "Ethanol From Cellulose: A General Review." p. 17–21. In: J. Janick and A. Whipkey (eds.), Trends in new crops and new uses. ASHS Press, 2002, Alexandria, VA. Retrieved on September 2, 2007. Cellulosic ethanol Sugars for ethanol fermentation can be obtained from cellulose. Until recently, however, the cost of the cellulase enzymes capable of hydrolyzing cellulose has been prohibitive. The Canadian firm Iogen brought the first cellulose-based ethanol plant on-stream in 2004. Its primary consumer so far has been the Canadian government, which, along with the United States Department of Energy, has invested heavily in the commercialization of cellulosic ethanol. Deployment of this technology could turn a number of cellulose-containing agricultural by-products, such as corncobs, straw, and sawdust, into renewable energy resources. Other enzyme companies are developing genetically engineered fungi that produce large volumes of cellulase, xylanase, and hemicellulase enzymes. These would convert agricultural residues such as corn stover, wheat straw, and sugar cane bagasse and energy crops such as switchgrass into fermentable sugars. Cellulose-bearing materials typically also contain other polysaccharides, including hemicellulose. When hydrolyzed, hemicellulose decomposes into mostly five-carbon sugars such as xylose. S. cerevisiae, the yeast most commonly used for ethanol production, cannot metabolize xylose. Other yeasts and bacteria are under investigation to ferment xylose and other pentoses into ethanol. On January 14, 2008, General Motors announced a partnership with Coskata, Inc. The goal is to produce cellulosic ethanol cheaply, with an eventual goal of US$1 per U.S. gallon ($0.30/L) for the fuel. The partnership plans to begin producing the fuel in large quantity by the end of 2008. By 2011 a full-scale plant will come on line, capable of producing 50 to 100 million gallons of ethanol a year (200–400 ML/a). Prospective technologies Ethanol plant in Turner County, South Dakota The anaerobic bacterium Clostridium ljungdahlii, discovered in commercial chicken wastes, can produce ethanol from single-carbon sources including synthesis gas, a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen that can be generated from the partial combustion of either fossil fuels or biomass. Use of these bacteria to produce ethanol from synthesis gas has progressed to the pilot plant stage at the BRI Energy facility in Fayetteville, Arkansas. Another prospective technology is the closed-loop ethanol plant. Ethanol produced from corn has a number of critics who suggest that it is primarily just recycled fossil fuels because of the energy required to grow the grain and convert it into ethanol. There is also the issue of competition with use of corn for food production. However, the closed-loop ethanol plant attempts to address this criticism. In a closed-loop plant, the energy for the distillation comes from fermented manure, produced from cattle that have been fed the by-products from the distillation. The leftover manure is then used to fertilize the soil used to grow the grain. Such a process is expected to lower the fossil fuel consumption used during conversion to ethanol by 75%. Rapier, R. (June 26, 2006) "E3 Biofuels: Responsible Ethanol" R-Squared Energy Blog Although energy can be created from the collection of methane from livestock manure, this can be mutually exclusive to the production of ethanol and should not be tagged on to it to make ethanol production seem more efficient or environmentally friendly. Though in an early stage of research, there is some development of alternative production methods that use feed stocks such as municipal waste or recycled products, rice hulls, sugarcane bagasse, small diameter trees, wood chips, and switchgrass. Testing Near infrared spectrum of liquid ethanol. Breweries and biofuel plants employ two methods for measuring ethanol concentration. Infrared ethanol sensors measure the vibrational frequency of dissolved ethanol using the CH band at 2900 cm−1. This method uses a relatively inexpensive solid state sensor that compares the CH band with a reference band to calculate the ethanol content. The calculation makes use of the Beer-Lambert law. Alternatively, by measuring the density of the starting material and the density of the product, using a hydrometer, the change in specific gravity during fermentation indicates the alcohol content. This inexpensive and indirect method has a long history in the beer brewing industry. Purification Ethylene hydration or brewing produces an ethanol–water mixture. For most industrial and fuel uses, the ethanol must be purified. Fractional distillation can concentrate ethanol to 95.6% by volume (89.5 mole%). This mixture is an azeotrope with a boiling point of 78.1 °C, and cannot be further purified by distillation. Common methods for obtaining absolute ethanol include desiccation using adsorbents such as starch, corn grits, or zeolites, which adsorb water preferentially, as well as azeotropic distillation and extractive distillation. Most ethanol fuel refineries use an adsorbent or zeolite to dessicate the ethanol stream. In another method to obtain absolute alcohol, a small quantity of benzene is added to rectified spirit and the mixture is then distilled. Absolute alcohol is obtained in the third fraction, which distills over at 78.3 °C (351.4 K). Because a small amount of the benzene used remains in the solution, absolute alcohol produced by this method is not suitable for consumption, as benzene is carcinogenic. There is also an absolute alcohol production process by desiccation using glycerol. Alcohol produced by this method is known as spectroscopic alcohol—so called because the absence of benzene makes it suitable as a solvent in spectroscopy. Grades of ethanol Denatured alcohol Pure ethanol and alcoholic beverages are heavily taxed, but ethanol has many uses that do not involve consumption by humans. To relieve the tax burden on these uses, most jurisdictions waive the tax when an agent has been added to the ethanol to render it unfit to drink. These include bittering agents such as denatonium benzoate and toxins such as methanol, naphtha, and pyridine. Products of this kind are called denatured alcohol. Great Britain (2005). The Denatured Alcohol Regulations 2005. Statutory Instrument 2005 No. 1524. Absolute ethanol Absolute or anhydrous alcohol generally refers to purified ethanol, containing no more than one percent water. Absolute alcohol not intended for human consumption often contains trace amounts of toxic benzene (used to remove water by azeotropic distillation). Consumption of this form of ethanol can be fatal over a short time period. Generally this kind of ethanol is used as solvents for lab and industrial settings where water will disrupt a desired reaction. Pure ethanol is classed as 200 proof in the USA, equivalent to 175 degrees proof in the UK system. See also Propan-1-ol 2,2,2-Trichloroethanol Butanol fuel Biodiesel Breathalyzer Cellulosic ethanol commercialization Neutral grain spirit Ethanol (data page) Isopropyl alcohol Outline of energy Rubbing alcohol Timeline of alcohol fuel References Further reading The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism maintains a database of alcohol-related health effects. ETOH Archival Database (1972–2003) Alcohol and Alcohol Problems Science Database. "Alcohol." (1911). In Hugh Chisholm (Ed.) Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition. Online reprint Boyce, John M., and Pittet Didier. (2003). “Hand Hygiene in Healthcare Settings.” Centers for Disease Control, Atlanta, Georgia, United States. Martinez describes the theory and practice of measuring brix on-line in beverages. Sci-toys website explanation of US denatured alcohol designations Smith, M.G., and M. Snyder. (2005). "Ethanol-induced virulence of Acinetobacter baumannii". American Society for Microbiology meeting. June 5 – June 9. Atlanta. External links International Labour Organization ethanol safety information National Pollutant Inventory – Ethanol Fact Sheet National Institute of Standards and Technology chemical data on ethanol ChEBI – biology related Chicago Board of Trade news and market data on ethanol futures Calculation of vapor pressure, liquid density, dynamic liquid viscosity, surface tension of ethanol | Ethanol |@lemmatized ethanol:255 also:29 call:10 ethyl:16 alcohol:64 pure:10 grain:15 drinking:5 volatile:4 flammable:4 colorless:2 liquid:8 psychoactive:3 drug:7 best:1 know:6 type:2 find:4 alcoholic:14 beverage:29 modern:3 thermometer:1 one:8 old:3 recreational:1 common:8 usage:1 often:7 refer:2 simply:1 spirit:8 straight:1 chain:3 molecular:2 formula:4 empirical:1 alternative:2 notation:2 oh:2 indicate:2 carbon:18 methyl:4 group:14 attach:4 methylene:1 oxygen:4 hydroxyl:7 constitutional:1 isomer:1 dimethyl:1 ether:8 abbreviate:1 etoh:2 use:76 organic:9 chemistry:6 represent:2 et:2 fermentation:6 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1,504 | Kundalini | Kundalini ( ) Sanskrit, literally "coiled". In Indian yoga, a "corporeal energy" For kundalini as "corporeal energy" see: Flood (1996), p. 96. - an unconscious, instinctive or libidinal force or Shakti, envisioned either as a goddess or else as a sleeping serpent coiled at the base of the spine, Flood (1996), p. 99. Harper et al. (2002), p. 94 McDaniel (2004), p. 103 hence a number of English renderings of the term such as 'serpent power'. Kundalini is considered a part of the subtle body along with chakras (energy centres) and nadis (channels). Each chakra is said to contain special characteristics Scotton (1996), p. 261-262. . The overall concept has many points in common with Chinese acupuncture. Yoga and Tantra propose that this energy may be "awakened" by such means as austerities, breath and other physical exercises, visualization and chanting. It may then rise up a subtle channel at the spine (called Sushumna) to the head, bringing psychological illumination. Yogis tend to attempt this alone, Tantrics in couples, both usually under the instruction of a guru. When Kundalini Shakti is conceived as a goddess, then, when it rises to the head, it unites itself with the Supreme Being (Lord Shiva). The aspirant becomes engrossed in deep meditation and infinite bliss. Kundalini Yoga:http://www.siddhashram.org/kundalini.shtml Kundalini Yoga from Swami Sivanandha: http://www.experiencefestival.com/kundalini According to Paramhans Swami Maheshwarananda awakening of kundalini shows itself as "awakening of inner knowledge". Like every form of energy one must also learn to understand spiritual energy. In order to be able to integrate this spiritual energy, careful purification and strengthening of the body and nervous system are required beforehand. By trying to force results considerable psychic disturbances and at times even permanent mental damage can occur. A spiritual master who walked this path before is required to guide the aspirant. Often will be found that negative experiences occurred only when acting without appropriate guidance or ignoring advice. Paramhans Swami Maheshwarananda, The hidden power in humans, Ibera Verlag, pages 47, 48, 49. ISBN 3-85052-197-4 Indian sources A number of models of this esoteric subtle anatomy occur in the class of texts known as Āgamas or Tantras, a large body of scriptures, rejected by many orthodox brahmins. Flood (1996), p. 122. In early texts there are various systems of chakras and nadis, with varying connections between them. Over time a system of six or seven chakras up the spine was adopted by most schools. This particular system, which may have originated in about the 11th century AD, rapidly became widely popular. This is the conventional arrangement cited by Monier-Williams, where the chakras are defined as "6 in number, one above the other". Monier-Williams, Monier. A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. p. 380. (Motilal-Banardidass: Delhi). Cf. The most famous of the Yoga Upanishads, the Yogatattva, mentions four kinds of yoga, one of which, laya-yoga, involves Kundalini. Flood (1996), p. 96. Another source text for the concept is the Hatha Yoga Pradipika written by Swami Svatmarama (English translation, 1992) somewhere between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries. Svatmarama, page citation needed. Western interpretation Sir John Woodroffe (pen name Arthur Avalon) was one of the first to bring the notion of Kundalini to the West. A High Court Judge in Calcutta, he became interested in Shaktism and Hindu Tantra. His translation of and commentary on two key texts was published as The Serpent Power. Woodroffe rendered Kundalini as "Serpent Power". Western awareness of the idea of Kundalini was strengthened by the Theosophical Society and the interest of the psychoanalyst Carl Jung (1875-1961). "Jung's seminar on Kundalini yoga, presented to the Psychological Club in Zurich in 1932, has been widely regarded as a milestone in the psychological understanding of Eastern thought. Kundalini yoga presented Jung with a model for the development of higher consciousness, and he interpreted its symbols in terms of the process of individuation". Princeton University Press Book description to C. G Jung - "The Psychology of Kundalini Yoga", 1999 In the early '30s two Italian scholars, Tommaso Palamidessi and Julius Evola, published several books with the intent of re-interpreting alchemy with reference to yoga. Palamidessi Tommaso, Alchimia come via allo Spirito, ed. EGO, 1948 Turin Those works had an impact on modern interpretations of Alchemy as a mystical science. In those works, Kundalini is called an Igneous Power or Serpentine Fire. Another popularizer of the concept of Kundalini among Western readers was Gopi Krishna. His autobiography is entitled Kundalini—The Evolutionary Energy in Man. Krishna, Gopi (1971) Kundalini: the evolutionary energy in man. Boulder, Colorado: Shambhala According to June McDaniel, his writings have influenced Western interest in kundalini yoga. For quotation "Western interest at the popular level in kundalini yoga was probably most influenced by the writings of Gopi Krishna, in which kundalini was redefined as chaotic and spontaneous religious experience." see: McDaniel, p. 280. Swami Sivananda produced an English language manual of Kundalini Yoga methods. Other well-known spiritual teachers who have made use of the idea of kundalini include Osho, George Gurdjieff, Paramahansa Yogananda, Rudi (Swami Rudrananda), Yogi Bhajan and Nirmala Srivastava (Shri Mataji Nirmala Devi). Kundalini references may commonly be found at present in a wide variety of derivative "New Age" presentations, and is a catchword that has been adopted by many new religious movements. However, some commentators, such as transpersonal psychologist Stuart Sovatsky, thinks that the association of Yogic sanskrit terminology (chakras, kundalini, mantras, etc.) with the superficiality of new-age rhetoric, has been unfortunate Sovatsky, pg. 160 . Recently, there has been a growing interest within the medical community to study the physiological effects of meditation, and some of these studies have applied the discipline of Kundalini Yoga to their clinical settings Lazar et al. (2000) Cromie (2002) . Their findings are not all positive. Some modern experimental research Rudra, Kundalini (1993 in German) seeks to establish links between Kundalini practice and the ideas of Wilhelm Reich and his followers. However, the intensive spiritual practices associated with some Asian traditions are not without their problems. Psychiatric literature Turner et al.,pg. 440 notes that "Since the influx of eastern spiritual practices and the rising popularity of meditation starting in the 1960s, many people have experienced a variety of psychological difficulties, either while engaged in intensive spiritual practice or spontaneously". Among the psychological difficulties associated with intensive spiritual practice we find "kundalini awakening","a complex physio-psychospiritual transformative process described in the yogic tradition" . Also, researchers in the fields of Transpersonal psychology, Scotton (1996) and Near-death studies Kason (2000) Greyson (2000) describe a complex pattern of sensory, motor, mental and affective symptoms associated with the concept of Kundalini, sometimes called the Kundalini Syndrome. See also Kaula Kundalini Yoga Prana Qi Qigong Samādhi Pranotthana Shaktipat Taoist sexual practices Tummo Turiya Peak experience Notes References Cromie, William J. Research: Meditation changes temperatures: Mind controls body in extreme experiments. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Gazette, 18 April 2002 Flood, Gavin. An Introduction to Hinduism. (Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1996). ISBN 0-521-43878-0 Greyson, Bruce (2000) Some Neuropsychological Correlates Of The Physio-Kundalini Syndrome. The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, Vol.32, No. 2 Kason, Yvonne (2000) Farther Shores: Exploring How Near-Death, Kundalini and Mystical Experiences Can Transform Ordinary Lives. Toronto: Harper Collins Publishers, Revised edition, ISBN 0-00-638624-5 Krishna, Gopi (1971) Kundalini: the evolutionary energy in man. Boulder, Colorado: Shambhala Lazar, Sara W.; Bush, George; Gollub, Randy L.; Fricchione, Gregory L.; Khalsa, Gurucharan; Benson, Herbert (2000) Functional brain mapping of the relaxation response and meditation [Autonomic Nervous System]. NeuroReport: Volume 11(7) 15 May 2000 p 1581–1585 PubMed Abstract PMID 10841380 Palamidessi, Tommaso (1948) Alchimia come via allo spirito, ed. EGO, Turin Rudra (1993), Kundalini die Energie der Natur die Natur der Energie im Menschen, Wild Dragon Connections, Worpswede, Germany, ISBN 3-9802560-1-4 Scotton, Bruce (1996) The phenomenology and treatment of kundalini, in Chinen, Scotton and Battista (Editors) (1996) Textbook of transpersonal psychiatry and psychology. (pp.261–270). New York, NY, US: Basic Books, Inc. Suny Series in Transpersonal and Humanistic Psychology Svatmarama, Swami (1992) Hatha Yoga Pradipika. London: The Aquarian Press, An Imprint of HarperCollinsPublishers. Translated by Elsy Becherer, foreword by B K S Iyengar, commentary by Hans Ulrich Rieker Turner, Robert P.; Lukoff, David; Barnhouse, Ruth Tiffany & Lu Francis G. (1995) Religious or Spiritual Problem. A Culturally Sensitive Diagnostic Category in the DSM-IV. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease,Vol.183, No. 7 435-444 Further reading Bentov, Itzhak: Stalking the Wild Pendulum: On the Mechanics of Consciousness, Destiny Books (1988), United States, (ISBN 0-8928-1202-8) Collie, El: "Branded by the Spirit" Kieffer, Gene (1988): Kundalini for the New Age - Selected Writings of Gopi Krishna, (ISBN 0-533-34433-1) Laue, Thorsten: Kundalini Yoga, Yogi Tee und das Wassermannzeitalter. Bibliografische Einblicke in die Healthy, Happy, Holy Organization (3HO) des Yogi Bhajan. Tübingen: 2008. Online abrufbar unter: http://tobias-lib.ub.uni-tuebingen.de/volltexte/2008/3596/ [in German] Laue, Thorsten: Kundalini Yoga, Yogi Tee und das Wassermannzeitalter. Religionswissenschaftliche Einblicke in die Healthy, Happy, Holy Organization (3HO) des Yogi Bhajan, Münster: LIT, 2007, ISBN 3825801403 [in German] Narayanananda, Swami (1979): The Primal Power in Man or the Kundalini Shakti, N.U. Yoga Trust, Denmark, (ISBN 87-87571-60-9) (6th rev. ed., (1st ed. 1950)) Sannella, Lee (1987): The Kundalini Experience, Integral Publishing, California, United States, (ISBN 0-9412-5529-9) Tweedie, I., Daughter of Fire: A Diary of a Spiritual Training with a Sufi Master, 1995, The Golden Sufi Center, ISBN 0-9634574-5-4 White, J, edt. (1990) Kundalini. Evolution and enlightenment. New York: Paragon House Morgen, Robert: "Kundalini Awakening for Personal Mastery" External links | Kundalini |@lemmatized kundalini:46 sanskrit:3 literally:1 coil:2 indian:2 yoga:21 corporeal:2 energy:10 see:3 flood:5 p:11 unconscious:1 instinctive:1 libidinal:1 force:2 shakti:3 envision:1 either:2 goddess:2 else:1 sleep:1 serpent:4 base:1 spine:3 harper:2 et:3 al:3 mcdaniel:3 hence:1 number:3 english:4 rendering:1 term:2 power:6 consider:1 part:1 subtle:3 body:4 along:1 chakras:5 centre:1 nadis:2 channel:2 chakra:1 say:1 contain:1 special:1 characteristic:1 scotton:4 overall:1 concept:4 many:4 point:1 common:1 chinese:1 acupuncture:1 tantra:3 propose:1 may:5 awaken:3 mean:1 austerity:1 breath:1 physical:1 exercise:1 visualization:1 chanting:1 rise:3 call:3 sushumna:1 head:2 bring:2 psychological:5 illumination:1 yogi:6 tend:1 attempt:1 alone:1 tantrics:1 couple:1 usually:1 instruction:1 guru:1 conceive:1 unite:1 supreme:1 lord:1 shiva:1 aspirant:2 becomes:1 engross:1 deep:1 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1,505 | Ababda_people | A member of the Abada Territory of the Ababdah The Ababda (or Ababde) (the Gebadei of Pliny, and possibly the Troglodytes of other classical writers), are nomads living in the area between the Nile and the Red Sea, in the vicinity of Aswan in Egypt. They are a subgroup of the Beja people who are bilingual in Beja and Egyptian Arabic. They extend from the Nile at Aswan to the Red Sea, and reach northward to the Qena-Quseir road, thus occupying the southern border of Egypt east of the Nile. They call themselves "sons of the Jinns." With some of the clans of the Bisharin and possibly the Hadendoa, they represent the Blemmyes of classic geographers, and their location today is almost identical with that assigned them in Roman times. They were constantly at war with the Romans, who eventually conquered them. In the Middle Ages, they were known as Beja, and convoyed pilgrims from the Nile valley to Aidhab, the port of embarkation for Jedda. From time immemorial, they have acted as guides to caravans through the Nubian desert and up the Nile valley as far as Sennar. They intermarried with the Nubians, and settled in small colonies at Shendi and elsewhere up to Muhammad Ali's conquest of the region in the early 19th century. They are still great trade carriers, and visit very distant districts. References External links Zbigniew Kosc: Ababda Bedouins of the Eastern Desert See also Beja people | Ababda_people |@lemmatized member:1 abada:1 territory:1 ababdah:1 ababda:2 ababde:1 gebadei:1 pliny:1 possibly:2 troglodyte:1 classical:1 writer:1 nomads:1 living:1 area:1 nile:5 red:2 sea:2 vicinity:1 aswan:2 egypt:2 subgroup:1 beja:4 people:2 bilingual:1 egyptian:1 arabic:1 extend:1 reach:1 northward:1 qena:1 quseir:1 road:1 thus:1 occupy:1 southern:1 border:1 east:1 call:1 son:1 jinns:1 clan:1 bisharin:1 hadendoa:1 represent:1 blemmyes:1 classic:1 geographer:1 location:1 today:1 almost:1 identical:1 assign:1 roman:2 time:2 constantly:1 war:1 eventually:1 conquer:1 middle:1 age:1 know:1 convoy:1 pilgrim:1 valley:2 aidhab:1 port:1 embarkation:1 jedda:1 immemorial:1 act:1 guide:1 caravan:1 nubian:2 desert:2 far:1 sennar:1 intermarry:1 settle:1 small:1 colony:1 shendi:1 elsewhere:1 muhammad:1 ali:1 conquest:1 region:1 early:1 century:1 still:1 great:1 trade:1 carrier:1 visit:1 distant:1 district:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 zbigniew:1 kosc:1 bedouin:1 eastern:1 see:1 also:1 |@bigram muhammad_ali:1 external_link:1 |
1,506 | Britney_Spears | Britney Jean Spears (born December 2, 1981) is an American singer and entertainer. Spears is ranked as the eighth best-selling female recording artist in the United States with 32 million sold albums certified by the Recording Industry Association of America. As of November 2007, Spears has sold over 83 million records worldwide, making her one of the world's best-selling music artists. Zomba Label: Britney Spears Debuts Big with BLACKOUT Spears is currently the best selling female artist of the decade and the fifth best selling artist overall. http://new.music.yahoo.com/blogs/chart_watch/34074/chart-watch-extra-the-top-20-album-sellers-of-the-2000s Raised in Kentwood, Louisiana, Spears first appeared on national television in 1992 as a contestant on the Star Search program, and went on to star in Disney Channel's television series The New Mickey Mouse Club from 1993 to 1994. In 1997, Spears signed a recording contract with Jive, releasing her debut album ...Baby One More Time in 1999. The album established her as a pop icon and "bona fide pop phenomenon", credited for influencing the revival of teen pop in the late 1990s. . Her next three albums debuted at number one on the Billboard 200, making her the first female artist to have her first four albums debut at number one. In late 2008, her sixth studio album, Circus, also debuted at number one. Life and music career Early life, career debut, and Innosense Spears performing in 1999. Britney Spears was born and raised in Kentwood, Louisiana as a Southern Baptist. Her parents are Lynne Irene (née Bridges), a former elementary school teacher, and Jamie Parnell Spears, a former building contractor and chef. Spears has two siblings, Bryan and Jamie Lynn. Bryan Spears is married to Jamie-Lynn's manager, Graciella Rivera. Britney's Bro Gets Hitched people.com, January 1, 2009 Spears was an accomplished gymnast, attending gymnastics classes until age nine and competing in state-level competitions. She performed in local dance revues and sang in her local Baptist church choir. Spears entered New York City's Professional Performing Arts School when she was eight. Spears's parents would often argue, and they eventually divorced in 2002. At age eight, Spears auditioned for the Disney Channel series The New Mickey Mouse Club. Although she was considered too young to join the series at the time, a producer on the show introduced her to a New York City agent. Spears subsequently spent three summers at NYC's Professional Performing Arts School and also appeared in a number of off-Broadway productions. She was an understudy in the 1991 off-Broadway musical Ruthless!. In 1992, she landed a spot on the popular television show Star Search. She won the first round of competition, but ultimately lost. At age eleven, Spears returned to the Disney Channel for a spot on the The New Mickey Mouse Club in Lakeland, Florida. She was featured on the show from 1993 to 1994, until she was 13. After the show ended, Spears returned to Kentwood and attended high school for a year. In 1997, Spears briefly joined the all-female pop group Innosense. Later that same year, she recorded a solo demo and was signed by Jive Records. She began a U.S. concert tour sponsored by American teen magazines, and eventually became an opening act for 'N Sync and the Backstreet Boys. 1998–2000: ...Baby One More Time and Oops!... I Did It Again Spears released her debut single, "...Baby One More Time", in October 1998 which peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 in January 1999 and topped the chart for two weeks. Gillian G. Gaar, author of She's a Rebel: The History of Women in Rock & Roll (2002), documented that "eyebrows were raised over the schoolgirl-in-heat persona Spears projected in her [music video for ...Baby One More Time], along with an increasingly revealing series of stage outfits". Spears's debut album ...Baby One More Time peaked at number one on the Billboard 200 in January 1999. Rolling Stone magazine, in a review of the album, wrote: "While several Cherion-crafted kiddie-funk jams serve up beefy hooks, shameless schlock slowies, like [']E-Mail My Heart,['] are pure spam". NME commented "[Spears's debut album and its title-track] are the kind of soullessness that saturates Stateside charts and consists of nothing but over-chewed bubblegum beats and saccharine sensibilities". In contrast, Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic wrote: "Like many teen pop albums, ...Baby One More Time has its share of well-crafted filler, but the singles, combined with Britney's burgeoning charisma, make this a pretty great piece of fluff". ...Baby One More Time was later certified fourteen times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America, denoting fourteen million units shipped within the United States. Spears posed for the cover of Rolling Stone magazine in April 1999, shot by photographer David LaChapelle. Geoff Boucher of The Los Angeles Times reported, "there was no mistaking the titillation factor in the recent Spears cover story and accompanying photos in the April 15 issue of Rolling Stone, which sent eyebrows arching throughout the music industry, where several executives half-jokingly called it "child pornography". Gillian G. Gaar reported, "The American Family Association charged that the pictures, which showed Spears in push-up bras and a minuscule pair of shorts with 'Baby' in rhinestones on the bottom, presented a 'disturbing mix of childhood innocence and adult sexuality' and asked that all 'God-loving Americans' boycott stores carrying her albums". More controversy arose when Spears declared that she would "remain a virgin until marriage". This pledge has been questioned due to her apparently sexual relationship with fellow pop singer Justin Timberlake. In late 1999, Spears appeared on the sitcom Sabrina, the Teenage Witch and performed the song "(You Drive Me) Crazy"; this cameo was a cross-promotion for the film Drive Me Crazy, which starred Sabrina'''s Melissa Joan Hart and was named after the song. In December 1999, she won four Billboard Music Awards, including Female Artist of the Year. A month later, she received the Favorite Pop/Rock New Artist award at the American Music Awards. Following the success of her previous album, Spears released the album Oops!... I Did It Again in May 2000. It debuted at number one in the U.S. by selling 1,319,193 units during its first week of sales, breaking the SoundScan record for the highest album sales in its debut week by any solo artist. The RIAA awarded the album with a diamond certification with over 10 million copies sold in the U.S. Allmusic gave it awarded the album 4 out of 5 stars, saying that the album "has the same combination of sweetly sentimental ballads and endearingly gaudy dance-pop that made "...Baby One More Time." Rolling Stone gave the album 3.5 stars out of 5 by noting the album as "fantastic pop cheese" and "Britney's demand for satisfaction is complex, fierce and downright scary." The album's lead single "Oops!... I Did It Again" broke the record for most radio station additions in a single day, and quickly became a top ten hit in the U.S. and other countries. The same year, Spears launched her first world tour, the "Oops!... I Did It Again World Tour". During the tour, she made a stop in New York for the 2000 MTV Video Music Awards. As part of her performance, she ripped off a black suit to reveal a provocative nude-colored and crystal-adorned outfit that generated much controversy. Spears earned two Billboard Music Awards for Oops!... I Did It Again. 2001–2003: Britney, Crossroads, and In the Zone Spears released her third studio album Britney in November 2001. In the album, she assumed some creative control by co-writing five tracks. Although not as successful as her previous albums, Britney debuted at number one in the U.S. by selling 745,744 units during its first week. The album's success made her the only female artist in music history to have her first three albums debut at number one. Britney biography The album fared well with critics such as Allmusic who gave it 4.5 out of 5 stars, describing the album's title tracks as being "pivotal moments on Britney Spears's third album, the record where she strives to deepen her persona, making it more adult while still recognizably Britney." In contrast, Rolling Stone said of the album Britney "belabors the obvious: Spears is one month away from entering her twenties and clearly needs to grow up if she's going to bring her fans along." Britneys lead single "I'm a Slave 4 U" peaked at 27 on the Billboard Hot 100 making it the album's biggest hit. To help promote the album, Spears embarked on the Dream Within a Dream Tour in November 2001. The tour was forced to cut short in Mexico City due to bad weather. With the end to her tour, Spears announced she would take a six month break from her career. In early 2002, Spears's four-year relationship with Timberlake ended. His 2002 song "Cry Me a River" and its music video, which featured an actress resembling Spears, caused speculation that Spears had been unfaithful; Timberlake, however, denied that his song was meant to portray her. June 2002 saw the opening of Spears's restaurant, Nyla, in New York City, which served Louisianan and Italian cuisine. However, she was pulled out of the business venture in November as a result of debts and management issues. Nyla officially closed in 2003. In the same year, Limp Bizkit frontman Fred Durst confirmed that he was in a relationship with Spears. Durst was also hired to help write and produce tracks for her album In the Zone, which were eventually scrapped. Spears had her first starring role in the 2002 film Crossroads, in which she portrayed a high school graduate who travels to find her long-lost mother. The movie was poorly received, as was her performance; Spears received Razzie Awards for Worst Actress and for Worst Original Song. Nonetheless, the film grossed over $60 million worldwide. Spears also made cameo appearances in Austin Powers in Goldmember and Longshot. Footage of Spears appeared in the 2004 documentary Fahrenheit 9/11, which samples a 2003 CNN interview about the Iraq War in which Spears stated that she thought "we should just trust our president in every decision he makes and should just support that". Spears made her third consecutive MTV Video Music Awards performance. While performing "I'm a Slave 4 U", she used caged animals as props and danced with a large albino python draped over her shoulders. Animal-rights organization PETA claimed that the animals featured in the performance were mistreated and cancelled plans for an anti-fur billboard that was to feature Spears. Her career success was highlighted by Forbes magazine in 2002 as Spears was ranked the world's most powerful celebrity. At a performance at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards, she appeared with Christina Aguilera performing the song "Like a Virgin", and was later joined by American pop singer Madonna, with whom Spears and Aguilera both locked lips; the incident was highly publicized. Spears released her fourth studio album In the Zone in November 2003, jettisoning the Max Martin-produced synthpop of her earlier releases. The album took in lesser-known producers such as RedZone and big names including Moby and R. Kelly. Spears co-wrote eight of the album's thirteen songs and co-produced several pieces of her material for the first time. In the Zone reached number one in the U.S. charts during its debut week, selling over 609,000 copies. This made Spears the first female in the Nielsen SoundScan era to have her first four studio albums to debut at number one. The album had a mixed reception from critics. Stylus Magazine gave the album a D and blamed Spears's career choices by stating, "Ultimately, In the Zone suffers greatly from Britney's uneasy transition from teen tart to sexually powerful woman. Had Britney been in charge of her career direction instead of mercilessly prostituted by her management, she might have been able to produce something with some semblance of musical vision." The Guardian praised the album's melodies and her effort, giving it 4 out of 5 stars: "Unlike previous Britney albums, In the Zone has no filler and no shoddy cover versions, just 57 varieties of blue-chip hit-factory pop. There is southern hip-hop, deep house, Neptunes-style R&B, the ubiquitous Diwali beat and, most importantly, oodles of Madonna." The album spawned the hit single "Toxic", winning Spears her first ever Grammy in the category of Best Dance Recording. 2004–2005: Marriages, first child and compilation albums Spears married childhood friend Jason Allen Alexander on January 3, 2004, at The Little White Wedding Chapel in Las Vegas. The marriage lasted 55 hours, ending with an annulment stating that Spears "lacked understanding of her actions to the extent that she was incapable of agreeing to marriage because before entering into the marriage the Plaintiff and Defendant did not know each others' likes and dislikes, each others' desires to have or not have children, and each other's desires as to State of residency". Months after her Las Vegas marriage, Spears embarked on The Onyx Hotel Tour, which was canceled in June after Spears injured her knee during the filming of the video for the single "Outrageous". The tour's choreography generated much controversy and criticism, which was cited inappropriate with the presence of young children in the audience. In September 2004, Spears became involved in the Kabbalah Centre through her friendship with Madonna. However, she publicly left the religion in 2006, stating on her website, "I no longer study Kabbalah, my baby is my religion." In July 2004, Spears announced her engagement to Kevin Federline, three months after they met. Federline had recently been in a relationship with actress Shar Jackson, who was eight months pregnant with their second child. These initial stages were chronicled in Spears's first reality show Britney & Kevin: Chaotic, which aired on UPN in May and June 2005. On the night of September 18, Spears married Federline in a surprise, non-denominational ceremony at a residence in Studio City, California, filing legal papers on October 6. After the marriage, Spears announced via her website that she would be taking another career break to start a family. She gave birth to her first child, Sean Preston Federline, nearly one year later, on September 14, 2005 in Santa Monica, California by a scheduled caesarean section. November 2004 saw the release of her first greatest hits collection, Greatest Hits: My Prerogative, which features all of Spears's singles with the exception of "From The Bottom Of My Broken Heart". It also featured three previously unreleased songs: a cover version of American R&B singer Bobby Brown's 1988 hit "My Prerogative", "Do Somethin'", produced by Bloodshy and Avant, with whom she had worked on In The Zone, and "I've Just Begun (Having My Fun)", which was a song originally recorded for Spears's fourth album, In The Zone, but did not make the final cut. By the end of that year, Spears had become one of the best-selling artists in the world. In November 2005, Spears released her first remix album, B In The Mix: The Remixes. The album ranged from "...Baby One More Time" to "Toxic". Her single "Someday (I Will Understand)" was also remixed. Another single, "And Then We Kiss", was only released in Asia, where it charted in many countries. The song peaked at number 15 on Billboard'''s Hot Dance Airplay chart, despite it not being officially released in the U.S. 2006–2007: Second child, Personal and professional struggles, and Blackout In 2006, Spears guest-starred on the Will & Grace episode "Buy, Buy Baby" as a closeted lesbian. Spears announced her second pregnancy in May 2006 during an appearance on The Late Show with David Letterman. She also appeared on Dateline the next month to discuss tabloid rumors about an impending divorce, and motherhood. She addressed an incident which occurred in February when photos revealed her driving with her son unrestrained in her lap, explaining, "I see a bunch of photographers and I’m scared and I want to get out of the situation... They’re coming up on the sides of the car which is a scary situation for me… so I get my baby out of the car and I go home." The month following the televised interview, Spears posed nude for the August 2006 cover of Harper's Bazaar. Just two days before Sean's first birthday, Spears gave birth to her second son, Jayden James Federline on September 12 in Los Angeles. Spears filed for divorce from Federline on November 7, 2006, citing irreconcilable differences and asking for both physical and legal custody of their two children, with visitation rights for Federline. The following day, Federline filed a response to Spears's divorce petition, seeking physical and legal custody of their children. American attorney Laura Wasser was hired to represent Spears in the case. According to a representative for Federline's lawyer, the divorce filing "caught Kevin totally by surprise". The couple reached a global settlement agreement in March 2007 and their divorce was finalized in July. Spears's aunt Sandra Bridges Covington, with whom she had been very close, died of ovarian cancer on January 21, 2007. Spears then stayed in an off-shore drug rehabilitation facility in Antigua for less than 24 hours on February 16. The following night at a hair salon in Tarzana, California she shaved her head with electric clippers. A few days later, she admitted herself to another treatment facility in Malibu, California. While leaving the facility briefly, she quickly returned on February 22. The previous day, Kevin Federline had requested an emergency hearing regarding the custody of their children but then his attorney announced that Federline asked to cancel the court appearance. No further explanation was given. Throughout 2007, Spears's behavior received heightened media attention, including attacking a paparazzi vehicle with an umbrella. Spears left the rehabilitation center on March 20 according to her manager, who said she was released after "successfully completing their program." As the legal battle over the custody of their children continued, many members of her entourage have been summoned to testify about her parenting skills. In March 2007, Leonard Pitts, Jr. wrote that in the aftermath of Spears's personal struggles that have become widely publicized, Spears had been reduced to an abstract idea as opposed to being regarded as a real person. "The abstraction is not surprising: Whatever media touch, they objectify... What must it be like to have your marriage and divorce, your relationship with your parents and kids... dissected by millions of strangers who think they know you?" Pitts further commented that fame and fortune do not qualify the media scrutiny Spears has faced, but observed that fact has been overlooked by "our rush to a day of 'reality' television" and "tabloid journalism". Though "[t]here is no reverence, no privacy, [and] nothing held back as sacred", Pitts argues "Britney Jean Spears is not an idea." In May 2007, she produced a mini-tour for the House of Blues just after she left a rehabilitation facility under the name The M+M's; with six shows altogether, she sang live during some lines of her songs. She recorded her next album with producers such as Sean Garrett, J. R. Rotem and Nate "Danja" Hills throughout 2006 and 2007. In September 2007, the official findings in Spears's custody battle were announced by the court. She was ordered to undergo random drug and alcohol testings and to attend parenting counseling. Spears and Federline continued to share joint custody of their two children on a conditional basis. A few days later, she was officially charged with misdemeanor hit-and-run and driving without a license. If convicted, she could face a year in jail. Spears lost physical custody of her children to Federline on October 1, with the court ruling that Federline will keep full custody of the children. The charges for her alleged hit-and-run that occurred in August 2007 were officially laid, she was booked for the charges by the Los Angeles Police Department on October 15 but was not arrested. The release of Spears's fifth album, Blackout, was rescheduled to October 30, 2007 rather than November 13, 2007 due to online leaks. Blackout debuted at number two on the U.S. Billboard 200., making Spears the only female music artist to have her first five albums go to number one and two. It was fairly well received by critics. Britney Spears: Blackout (2007): Reviews As of June 2008, there have been 3.1 million digital downloads of the songs and remixes from the album in the United States. Rolling Stone gave the album 3.5 out of 5 stars. Allmusic also rated the album 3.5 out of 5 stars, calling Blackout "coherent and entertaining" and stating that "it holds together better than any of her other records". Blackouts lead single, "Gimme More" leaked on the internet on August 30. The song, which was Spears's first produced by Danja, peaked at number three on Billboard Hot 100 on October 3, making it her most successful single in the U.S. since her debut, "...Baby One More Time". Spears's highly anticipated performance of "Gimme More" at the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards was panned. The BBC stated that "her performance would go down in the history books as being one of the worst to grace the MTV Awards", and The Times noted that "Spears was out of synch as she lip-synched and at times just stopped singing altogether". Despite the criticism on her performance, the single has achieved worldwide success. The second single, "Piece of Me", was certified platinum in the U.S. RIAA - "Piece of Me" Certification RIAA.com 2008 onward: Conservatorship, custody settlement and Circus On the evening of January 3, 2008, after not sleeping for over four days, Spears refused to relinquish custody of her children to Federline's representatives. In response, police were called to Spears's home. Britney Spears Hospitalized for 'An Evaluation'. People. Retrieved on 2008-01-04. She was hospitalized at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center after she "appeared to be under the influence of an unknown substance", though blood tests tested negative for any illicit substances. EXCLUSIVE: Britney not on drugs!. Life & Style. Retrieved on 2008-01-04. She was held for psychiatric evaluation for two days. Britney Spears taken to hospital for tests. cnn.com. Retrieved on 2008-01-04. Britney Spears on suicide watch. The Mirror. Retrieved on 2008-01-17 Pending a February 19 hearing, Commissioner Scott Gordon issued an order on January 14 stating that her visitation rights have been suspended indefinitely. On January 31, a court placed Spears under temporary co-conservatorship of her father James Spears and attorney Andrew Wallete, giving them complete control of her assets. As a result of an order placed by her psychiatrist, she was taken to UCLA Medical Center to be put on a 5150 involuntary psychiatric hold for the second time that month. On February 1, a restraining order was issued against Sam Lutfi, a prominent figure in Spears's life. Notice of Hearing and Temporary Restraining Order, Los Angeles Superior Court "Spears's Manager Accused of Drugging Her", Breitbart She was released from the hospital on February 6, amid speculation that she has bipolar disorder, Music Story Page although medical records are confidential, and no confirmation has been made. Her parents expressed disappointment and concern at the decision to release her. She has regained some visitation rights after coming to an agreement with Federline and his counsel. On July 18, 2008, Spears and Federline reached a custody settlement in which Federline retains sole custody while Spears keeps her visitation rights. It's Over: Britney & Kevin Reach a Custody Settlement - Scandals & Feuds, Britney Spears, Kevin Federline : People.com Vanessa Grigoriadis reported in "The Tragedy of Britney Spears" (2008), her cover story for Rolling Stone, that "more than any other star today, Britney epitomizes the crucible of fame for the famous: loving it, hating it and never quite being able to stop it from destroying you". Grigoriadis wrote that "every day in L.A., at least a hundred paparazzi, reporters and celebrity-magazine editors dash after her" and that paparazzi estimated Spears generated "up to twenty percent of their coverage for the past year". She further documented that in addition to tabloid journalists, the Associated Press declared that everything Spears does is considered news. "The paparazzi feed the celebrity magazines, which feed the mainstream press, while sources sell their dirtiest material to British tabloids, and then it trickles back to America," wrote Grigoriadis, "She's the canary in the coal mine of our culture, the most vivid representation of the excess of the past decade." In 2008, Spears guest-starred on CBS's television show How I Met Your Mother playing a receptionist. She received positive reviews for her performance as well as bringing in the series' highest ratings ever. Spears reprised her role in May 2008, leaving the storyline open for a future return. Oops... Brit's Doing CBS' Mother Again!TV Guide. April 2, 2008. Retrieved on April 2, 2008. On September 7, 2008, Spears opened the MTV Video Music Awards for the third time. Although having not performed, a skit with Jonah Hill was pre-taped, as well as an introduction speech to the official opening of the show. Spears won Best Female Video, Best Pop Video and Video Of The Year for "Piece of Me". See: On September 15, Jive released a statement announcing the title of her sixth studio album, Circus as well as the first single, "Womanizer". The single was released to radio stations on September 26, and the release date for the album is December 2, Spears's 27th birthday. Britney Spears Announces New Album 'Circus' for Worldwide Release December 2, Yahoo! Finance, September 15, 2008. Accessed September 16, 2008. On October 15, the song made a record-breaking jump to number one on the Billboard Hot 100, breaking the record set by T.I.'s Live Your Life. It also garnered first-week download sales of 286,000, the biggest opening-week tally by a female artist since Nielsen SoundScan began tracking digital downloads in 2003. It marked Spears's first number one single on the Hot 100 since her debut, "...Baby One More Time". On October 21, 2008, Los Angeles Superior Court Judge James Steele declared a mistrial and dismissed the August 2007 driving without a license misdemeanor charges against Spears, who was represented by attorney J. Michael Flanagan. Spears claimed she had a valid Louisiana license and a California permit was not required. afp.google.com, Britney Spears in clear as driving case ends in mistrial nytimes.com, Mistrial in Spears Case On November 6, 2008, Spears won two awards at the MTV Europe Music Awards 2008, "Album of The Year" for Blackout and "Act of 2008", and despite not being present, two acceptance videos were taped and shown at the show. Circus debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 selling 505,000 copies in its first week. This became Spears's fifth number one album, making her the only act in Nielsen SoundScan history to have four albums debuted with 500,000 copies or more. http://www.billboard.com/bbcom/news/britney-s-circus-debuts-atop-album-chart-1003921402.story It is also Spears's second album, the first being ...Baby One More Time, to have charted two top-ten singles as "Circus", the follow up single to the number-one hit "Womanizer", debuted at number three on the Hot 100, making it her highest debut on the chart as well as her seventh top ten hit. In January 2009, Spears and her father obtained a restraining order against the singer's former manager/friend Sam Lutfi, one-time beau Adnan Ghalib, and attorney Jon Eardley — all of whom, court documents claim, have been conspiring to gain control of the pop star's affairs. The restraining order forbids Lutfi and Ghalib from contacting Spears or coming within 250 yards of her, her property or family members. In February 2009, Spears achieved further success in solidifying her comeback by having the second single of off her comeback album, "Circus" rise to number one on the Top 40 Radio Chart, making it the first time Spears has achieved back-to-back number one hits on the Top 40 Chart along with her comeback single, "Womanizer". http://www.britney.com/us/blog/circus-single-1 This makes her fifth number one song on the chart, putting her in a tie for second place for most number one Top 40 songs in the Mainstream Top 40's sixteen year history. Mariah Carey is in first place with six number one songs. http://britneyspearsblackout.com/?p=8213 In April 2009, Spears declared her support for same-sex marriage to the media, following the controversial incident on Miss USA where contestant Carrie Prejean, representing California, expressed her disapproval of same-sex unions. The message left by Spears on her Twitter page read “Love is love! People should be able to do whatever makes them happy!” http://www.pinknews.co.uk/news/articles/2005-12105.html Musical style and performance Rami Yacoub who co-produced Spears's debut album with lyricist Max Martin, commented, "I know from Denniz Pop and Max's previous productions, when we do songs, there's kind of a nasal thing. With N' Sync and the Backstreet Boys, we had to push for that mid-nasal voice. When Britney did that, she got this kind of raspy, sexy voice." Following the release of her debut album, Chuck Taylor of Billboard observed, "Spears has become a consummate performer, with snappy dance moves, a clearly real-albeit young-and funkdified voice ... "(You Drive Me) Crazy", her third single ... demonstrates Spears's own development, proving that the 17-year-old is finding her own vocal personality after so many months of steadfast practice." Spears later commented, "With ...Baby One More Time, I didn't get to show my voice off. The songs were great, but they weren't very challenging". Choreography Joan Anderman of The Boston Globe cited Madonna and Janet Jackson as two of Spears's "biggest influences", commenting that Spears adopted Madonna's "Truth or Dare"-era moves" and Jackson's sexy-robot body language". Judy Mitoma, author of Envisioning dance on film and video (2002) observed "[t]he music videos of the late 1990s and early 2000s enlist[ed] the popular dance vocabularies at the time ... pounding feet into the floor and jabbing at the air with taunt arm movements, punctuating with bent knees and thrusting hips". Britney Spears, among her contemporaries, became a "playfully carnal, provocatively dressed vixen ... led by Madonna (and the first time she grabbed her crotch) [and] fueled by Janet Jackson, transformed from a soft-fleshed, innocent girl to a buffed and buxom woman". In the 2002 book Madonnastyle by Carol Clerk, Spears is quoted saying: "I have been a huge fan of Madonna since I was a little girl. I would really, really like to be a legend like Madonna ... Her choreography definitely opened the door for girls to go in there and do their own thing". Live performances Kevin Johnson of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch reported that his review of Spears's concert performance of her Oops!... I Did It Again World Tour in July 2000, garnered mix reactions. He stated: "It was the review of Spears's concert that got most readers writing - to disagree and agree. A Spears fan wrote, "I don't like you or your stinking, horrible, abusive report! ... I, however, love Britney." Another fan wrote, "Britney Spears is a legend, a great performer. She is our idol and nothing you say about that concert will change that. It still hurts to think you didn't see how many people she touched that night. ... What I saw was hard work and determination, great dance moves, catchy lyrics, and positive songs". In contrast, Johnson also reported: "One reader said, "I was pleased the article was direct and told the simple truth: Britney can't sing. I attended the concert and had a great time, but unlike 95 percent of the crowd, I realized how ridiculous Britney Spears really is". In August 2000, Joan Anderman wrote in her review of the concert, "Spears sang without the help of prerecorded tracks — that's both the good news and the bad news — avoiding the perils by having her two backup vocalists sing in unison with her much of the time, a wise move for someone whose vocal and emotional range are limited, and whose singing isn't even particularly appealing". The following year, at the beginning of Spears's Dream Within a Dream Tour, the Los Angeles Daily News reported: "Britney Spears is easy to criticize — those outfits, that coquette/ good-girl contradiction, those recycled pop hooks. But Tuesday night, surrounded by thousands of Britney devotees at the sold-out Arrowhead Pond of Anaheim, she was easy to love as well...Because of all that dancing, thrashing and dodging fire on stage, Spears performed most of the show to a recorded track. It was hard to tell when she was really singing or just lip-syncing. But, in the context of a Britney Spears concert, does it really matter? Like a Vegas revue show, you don't go to hear the music, you go for the somewhat-ridiculous spectacle of it all". In December 2001, Sean Piccoli of South Florida Sun-Sentinel reported: "[Spears's] contributions to pop are not generally founded in music. Wednesday's spectacle was pop inspired not by songs, but by cheerleader tryouts and beauty pageants. The point was not whether Spears could sing — her voice is a very small bag of heavy-breathing tricks — or even dance. What mattered was how she presents...By that standard, the show was a success. Spears had the biggest runway a girl could ask for and made good use of it, ensuring that every person from the floor to the nosebleed seats could see her fling her hair, swivel her hips or, in one sequence that was almost eerie, dance with a video projection of herself". Legacy Britney Spears's star on the Hollywood Walk of FameBritney Spears became a pop culture icon immediately after launching her recording career. Rolling Stone magazine wrote: "One of the most controversial and successful female vocalists of the 21st century," she "spearheaded the rise of post-millennial teen pop ... Spears early on cultivated a mixture of innocence and experience that broke the bank". She is listed by the Guinness World Records as having the "Best-selling album by a teenage solo artist" for her debut album ...Baby One More Time which sold over thirteen million copies in the United States. Melissa Ruggieri of the Richmond Times-Dispatch reported, "She's also marked for being the best-selling teenage artist. Before she turned 20 in 2001, Spears sold more than 37 million albums worldwide". Barbara Ellen of The Observer reported: "Spears is famously one of the 'oldest' teenagers pop has ever produced, almost middle aged in terms of focus and determination. Many 19-year-olds haven't even started working by that age, whereas Britney, a former Mouseketeer, was that most unusual and volatile of American phenomena — a child with a full-time career. While other little girls were putting posters on their walls, Britney was wanting to be the poster on the wall. Whereas other children develop at their own pace, Britney was developing at a pace set by the ferociously competitive American entertainment industry". 'Britney Spears' has been Yahoo!'s most popular search term for the last four consecutive years, seven times in total. Spears was named as Most Searched Person in the Guinness World Records book edition 2007 and 2009. http://biz.yahoo.com/prnews/080914/3738985en_public.html?.v=1 Bebo Norman and Busted both wrote songs about Spears called "Britney". http://www.ccmmagazine.com/just_for_you/story_behind_the_song/11581817 . People magazine and MTV reported that on October 1, 2008, Bronx's John Philip Sousa Middle School, named their music studio in honor of Britney Spears. http://newsroom.mtv.com/2008/10/02/britney-spears-gets-bronx-middle-school-music-studio-named-in-her-honor/ Spears herself was present during the ceremony and donated $10,000 dollars to the school's music program. http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20230241,00.html Products and endorsements In early 2001, Spears signed a multi-million dollar promotional deal with Pepsi that included television commercials, point-of-purchase promotions, and Internet ties between Spears and the company. Britney Spears has earned over US$370 million from her many, multi-million dollar advertisement and endorsement deals all around the World.. She has published four books, including A Mother's Gift, and released seven DVDs, including her self-produced 2005 reality series Britney & Kevin: Chaotic. Other Spears products include a doll and a video game. She participated in seven tours including "The Onyx Hotel Tour" in 2004. She has grossed over US$350 million from tour ticket sales and over $185 million in merchandise from her tours, the most ever grossed by a performer (male and female). Spears endorsed her first Elizabeth Arden fragrance "Curious" in 2004, which had $100 million in sales in the five weeks after its 2004 release. http://www.usmagazine.com/news/see-britney-spears-sexy-new-perfume-hidden-fantasy-ad In September 2005, Spears released the fragrance "Fantasy" with Elizabeth Arden, which also saw great success. These were followed by the release of two more fragrances of "Curious:In Control" and "Midnight Fantasy" in 2006. Her latest Elizabeth Arden fragrance "Believe", was released in September 2007. http://www.fragrantica.com/designers/Britney+Spears.html In January, 2008, Spears released "Curious Heart". http://www.thescentedlife.com/as-promised-britney-spears-new-perfume-curious-heart/ http://nowsmellthis.blogharbor.com/blog/_archives/2008/1/3/3444198.html Spears released a new fragrance entitled "Hidden Fantasy" in January 2009. http://www.usmagazine.com/news/see-britney-spears-sexy-new-perfume-hidden-fantasy-ad In 2009, according to Forbes Magazine Britney Spears perfume line with Elizabeth Arden has now netted a total of $1 Billion dollars in retails sales since it launched in 2004. Estimates say Spears has probably earned for herself close to $50 million now from the total gross. On March 22, 2009, it was announced that Spears has the #1 selling celebrity fragance, making up 34% of sales. http://www.britneyspears.com/2009/05/britneys-perfume-line-on-top.php On March 2, 2009 it was announced that Spears would be the new face of Candie's. http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20262462,00.html http://www.britneyspears.com/2009/03/breaking-news-britney-is-the-new-candies-girl.php On April 1, 2009, People Magazine released a sneak peek of what the ads will look like. Discography Studio albums 1999: ...Baby One More Time 2000: Oops!... I Did It Again 2001: Britney 2003: In the Zone 2007: Blackout 2008: Circus Compilation albums 2004: Greatest Hits: My Prerogative 2005: B in the Mix: The Remixes Tours 1999: ...Baby One More Time Tour 2000: Crazy 2K Tour 2000: Oops!... I Did It Again World Tour 2001 – 2002: Dream Within a Dream Tour 2004: The Onyx Hotel Tour 2007: The M+M's Tour 2009: The Circus Starring: Britney Spears Filmography Year Title Role Notes 1991 The Mickey Mouse Club Various Roles Seasons 6-7, 1991-1993 1999 The Famous Jett Jackson Herself She sang "...Baby One More Time" and "Sometimes" on the show. Britney on The Famous Jett Jackson Sabrina the Teenage Witch Herself Cameo (Sang (You Drive Me) Crazy on show) 2000 Longshot Flight Attendant Cameo The Simpsons Herself Episode: "The Mansion Family" 2002 Austin Powers in Goldmember Herself Cameo/Soundtrack Crossroads Lucy Wagner Lead Role/Feature Film Robbie the Reindeer in Legend of the Lost Tribe Donner English version/Animation 2004 Britney & Kevin: Chaotic Herself Reality Show 2006 Will & Grace Amber-Louise Episode "Buy, Buy Baby" 2008 How I Met Your Mother Abby Season 3: "Ten Sessions" and "Everything Must Go" Britney: For the Record Herself Biography/Documentary Awards YearCategoryGenreRecordingResult Grammy Awards2000Best New ArtistGeneral...Baby One More TimeNominatedBest Female Pop Vocal PerformancePop"...Baby One More Time"Nominated2001Best Female Pop Vocal PerformancePop"Oops!... I Did It Again"NominatedBest Pop Vocal AlbumPopOops!... I Did It AgainNominated2003Best Female Pop Vocal PerformancePop"Overprotected" Nominated2005Best Dance RecordingDance"Toxic" Won See also List of awards received by Britney Spears List of best-selling music artists List of best selling music artists in U.S. List of artists who reached number one on the Hot 100 (U.S.) List of best-selling albums worldwide List of best-selling singles worldwide List of honorific titles in popular music List of stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame Further reading Peters, Beth (1999). True Brit: The Story of Singing Sensation Britney Spears. Ballantine Books. ISBN 978-0345436870. Spears, Britney (2000). Britney Spears's Heart to Heart. Three Rivers Press. ISBN 978-0609807019. Scott, Kieran (2001). I was a Mouseketeer!. Disney Press. ISBN 978-0786844708. Stevens, Amanda (2001). Britney Spears: the illustrated story. Billboard Books. ISBN 978-0823078677. Smith, Sean (2006). Britney The Unauthorized Biography of Britney Spears. Pan Macmillan. ISBN 978-0330440776. References External links Jive's Britney Spears website | Britney_Spears |@lemmatized britney:69 jean:2 spear:182 born:1 december:5 american:10 singer:5 entertainer:1 rank:2 eighth:1 best:14 sell:16 female:15 record:18 artist:16 united:4 state:14 million:16 album:69 certify:3 recording:4 industry:4 association:3 america:3 november:10 worldwide:7 make:24 one:51 world:10 selling:7 music:27 zomba:1 label:1 debut:26 big:6 blackout:9 currently:1 decade:2 fifth:4 overall:1 http:17 new:17 yahoo:4 com:22 blog:3 chart:12 watch:2 extra:1 top:10 seller:1 raise:3 kentwood:3 louisiana:3 first:30 appear:7 national:1 television:6 contestant:2 star:17 search:3 program:3 go:9 disney:4 channel:3 series:6 mickey:4 mouse:4 club:4 sign:3 contract:1 jive:4 release:27 baby:24 time:35 establish:1 pop:24 icon:2 bona:1 fide:1 phenomenon:2 credit:1 influence:3 revival:1 teen:5 late:6 next:3 three:8 number:27 billboard:15 four:8 sixth:2 studio:9 circus:11 also:14 life:5 career:9 early:6 innosense:2 perform:7 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1,507 | Debit_card | A debit card (also known as a bank card or check card) is a plastic card which provides an alternative payment method to cash when making purchases. Functionally, it can be called an electronic check, as the funds are withdrawn directly from either the bank account (often referred to as a check card), or from the remaining balance on the card. In some cases, the cards are designed exclusively for use on the Internet, and so there is no physical card. Säkra kortbetalningar på Internet | Nordea.se e-kort The use of debit cards has become widespread in many countries and has overtaken the cheque, and in some instances cash transactions by volume. Like credit cards, debit cards are used widely for telephone and Internet purchases, and unlike credit cards the bearer of the debit card doesn't have to pay back. Debit cards can also allow for instant withdrawal of cash, acting as the ATM card for withdrawing cash and as a cheque guarantee card. Merchants can also offer "cashback"/"cashout" facilities to customers, where a customer can withdraw cash along with their purchase. Credit or Debit? For consumers, the difference between a "debit card" and a "credit card" is that the debit card deducts the balance from a deposit account, like a checking account, where the credit card allows the consumer to spend money on credit to the issuing bank. In other words, a debit card uses the money you have and a credit card uses the money you don't have. "Debit cards" which are linked directly to a checking account are sometimes dual-purpose, so that they can be used as a credit card, and can be charged by merchants using the traditional credit networks. A merchant will ask for "credit or debit?" if the card is a combined credit+debit card. If the payee chooses "credit", the credit balance will be debited the amount of the purchase; if the payee chooses "debit", the bank account balance will be debited the amount of the purchase. The "debit" networks usually require that a personal identification number be supplied. The "credit" networks typically require that purchases be made in person and often allow cards to be charged with only a signature, and/or picture ID. Types of debit card Debit card An example of the front of a typical debit card: <li>Issuing bank logo <li>EMV chip <li>Hologram <li>Card number <li>Card brand logo <li>Expiration date <li>Cardholder's name An example of the reverse side of a typical debit card: <li>Magnetic stripe <li>Signature strip <li>Card Security Code There are currently three ways that debit card transactions are processed: online debit (also known as PIN debit), offline debit (also known as signature debit) and Electronic Purse Card. Although many debit cards are of the Visa or MasterCard brand, there are many other types of debit card, each accepted only within a particular country or region, for example Switch (now: Maestro) and Solo in the United Kingdom, Interac in Canada, Carte Bleue in France, Laser in Ireland, "EC electronic cash" (formerly Eurocheque) in Germany and EFTPOS cards in Australia and New Zealand. The need for cross-border compatibility and the advent of the euro recently led to many of these card networks (such as Switzerland's "EC direkt", Austria's "Bankomatkasse" and Switch in the United Kingdom) being re-branded with the internationally recognised Maestro logo, which is part of the MasterCard brand. Some debit cards are dual branded with the logo of the (former) national card as well as Maestro (e.g. EC cards in Germany, Laser cards in Ireland, Switch and Solo in the UK, Pinpas cards in the Netherlands, Bancontact cards in Belgium, etc.). The use of a debit card system allows operators to package their product more effectively while monitoring customer spending. An example of one of these systems is ECS by Embed International. Online Debit Card Online debit cards require electronic authorization of every transaction and the debits are reflected in the user’s account immediately. The transaction may be additionally secured with the personal identification number (PIN) authentication system and some online cards require such authentication for every transaction, essentially becoming enhanced automatic teller machine (ATM) cards. One difficulty in using online debit cards is the necessity of an electronic authorization device at the point of sale (POS) and sometimes also a separate PINpad to enter the PIN, although this is becoming commonplace for all card transactions in many countries. Overall, the online debit card is generally viewed as superior to the offline debit card because of its more secure authentication system and live status, which alleviates problems with processing lag on transactions that may have been forgotten or not authorized by the owner of the card. Banks in some countries, such as Canada and Brazil, only issue online debit cards Offline Debit Card Offline debit cards have the logos of major credit cards (e.g. Visa or MasterCard) or major debit cards (e.g. Maestro in the United Kingdom and other countries, but not the United States) and are used at the point of sale like a credit card. This type of debit card may be subject to a daily limit, and/or a maximum limit equal to the current/checking account balance from which it draws funds. Transactions conducted with offline debit cards require 2–3 days to be reflected on users’ account balances. In some countries and with some banks and merchant service organizations, a "credit" or offline debit transaction is without cost to the purchaser beyond the face value of the transaction, while a small fee may be charged for a "debit" or online debit transaction (although it is often absorbed by the retailer). Other differences are that online debit purchasers may opt to withdraw cash in addition to the amount of the debit purchase (if the merchant supports that functionality); also, from the merchant's standpoint, the merchant pays lower fees on online debit transaction as compared to "credit" (offline) debit transactions. Prepaid Debit Card Prepaid debit cards, also called reloadable debit cards or reloadable prepaid cards, are often used for recurring payments. http://www.revenuetoday.com/story/no-check-please No Check, Please The payer loads funds to the cardholder's card account. Particularly for US-based companies with a large number of payment recipients abroad, prepaid debit cards allow the delivery of international payments without the delays and fees associated with international checks and bank transfers. http://accounting.smartpros.com/x59817.xml Companies Use Debit Cards to Pay Workers Web-based services such as stock photography websites (istockphoto), outsourced services (oDesk), and affiliate networks (MediaWhiz) have all started offering prepaid debit cards for their contributors/freelancers/vendors abroad. http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/08/26/start-up-offers-a-way-to-pay-workers-abroad/#more-1413 Start-Up Offers a Way to Pay Workers Abroad Electronic Purse Card Smart-card-based electronic purse systems (in which value is stored on the card chip, not in an externally recorded account, so that machines accepting the card need no network connectivity) were tried throughout Europe from the mid-1990s, most notably in Germany (Geldkarte), Austria (Quick), Belgium (Proton), France (Moneo), the Netherlands (Chipknip and Chipper), Switzerland ("Cash"), Norway ("Mondex"), Sweden ("Cash"), Finland ("Avant"), UK ("Mondex"), Denmark ("Danmønt") and Portugal ("Porta-moedas Multibanco"). The major boom in smart card use came in the 1990s, with the introduction of the smart-card-based SIM used in GSM mobile phone equipment in Europe. With the ubiquity of mobile phones in Europe, smart cards have become very common. Advantages and Disadvantages Debit and check cards, as they have become widespread, have revealed numerous advantages and disadvantages to the consumer and retailer alike. Advantages are as follows (most of them applying only to a some countries, but the countries to which they apply are unspecified): A consumer who is not credit worthy and may find it difficult or impossible to obtain a credit card can more easily obtain a debit card, allowing him/her to make plastic transactions. Use of a debit card is limited to the existing funds in the account to which it is linked (except cases of offline payments), thereby preventing the consumer from racking up debt as a result of its use, or being charged interest, late fees, or fees exclusive to credit cards. For most transactions, a check card can be used to avoid check writing altogether. Check cards debit funds from the user's account on the spot, thereby finalizing the transaction at the time of purchase, and bypassing the requirement to pay a credit card bill at a later date, or to write an insecure check containing the account holder's personal information. Like credit cards, debit cards are accepted by merchants with less identification and scrutiny than personal checks, thereby making transactions quicker and less intrusive. Unlike personal checks, merchants generally do not believe that a payment via a debit card may be later dishonored. Unlike a credit card, which charges higher fees and interest rates when a cash advance is obtained, a debit card may be used to obtain cash from an ATM or a PIN-based transaction at no extra charge, other than a foreign ATM fee. The Debit card has many disadvantages as opposed to cash or credit: Some banks are now charging over-limit fees or non-sufficient funds fees based upon pre-authorizations, and even attempted but refused transactions by the merchant (some of which may not even be known by the client). Many merchants mistakenly believe that amounts owed can be "taken" from a customer's account after a debit card (or number) has been presented, without agreement as to date, payee name, amount and currency, thus causing penalty fees for overdrafts, over-the-limit, amounts not available causing further rejections or overdrafts, and rejected transactions by some banks. In some countries debit cards offer lower levels of security protection than credit cards Debit card facts . Theft of the users PIN using skimming devices can be accomplished much easier with a PIN input than with a signature-based credit transaction. However, theft of users' PIN codes using skimming devices can be equally easily accomplished with a debit transaction PIN input, as with a credit transation PIN input, and theft using a signature-based credit transaction is equally easy as theft using a signature-based debit transaction. In many places, laws protect the consumer from fraud a lot less than with a credit card. While the holder of a credit card is legally responsible for only a minimal amount of a fraudulent transaction made with a credit card, which is often waived by the bank, the consumer may be held liable for hundreds of dollars in fraudulent debit transactions. The consumer also has a much shorter time (usually just two days) to report such fraud to the bank in order to be eligible for such a waiver with a debit card, whereas with a credit card, this time may be up to 60 days. A thief who obtains or clones a debit card along with its PIN may be able to clean out the consumer's bank account, and the consumer will have no recourse. In the UK and Ireland, among other countries, a consumer who purchases goods or services with a credit card can pursue the credit card issuer if the goods or services are not delivered or are unmerchantable. While they must generally exhaust the process provided by the retailer first, this is not necessary if the retailer has gone out of business. This protection is not provided by legislation when using a debit card but may be offered to a limited extent as a benefit provided by the card network, e.g. Visa debit cards. When a transaction is made using a credit card, the bank's money is being spent, and therefore, the bank has a vested interest in claiming its money where there is fraud or a dispute. The bank may fight to void the charges of a consumer who is dissatisfied with a purchase, or who has otherwise been treated unfairly by the merchant. But when a debit purchase is made, the consumer has spent his/her own money, and the bank has little if any motivation to collect the funds. In some countries, and for certain types of purchases, such as gasoline (via a pay at the pump system), lodging, or car rental, the bank may place a hold on funds much greater than the actual purchase for a fixed period of time. However, this isn't the case in other countries, such as Sweden. Until the hold is released, any other transactions presented to the account, including checks, may be dishonored, or may be paid at the expense of an overdraft fee if the account lacks any additional funds to pay those items. While debit cards bearing the logo of a major credit card are accepted for virtually all transactions where an equivalent credit card is taken, a major exception in some countries is at car rental facilities | Help | . In some countries car rental agencies require an actual credit card to be used, or at the very least, will verify the creditworthiness of the renter using a debit card. In these unspecified countries, these companies will deny a rental to anyone who does not fit the requirements, and such a credit check may actually hurt one's credit score, as long as there is such a thing as a credit score in the country of purchase and/or the country of residence of the customer. Consumer Protection Consumer protections vary, depending on the network used. Visa and MasterCard, for instance, prohibit minimum and maximum purchase sizes, surcharges, and arbitrary security procedures on the part of merchants. Merchants are usually charged higher transaction fees for credit transactions, since debit network transactions are less likely to be fraudulent. This may lead them to "steer" customers to debit transactions. Consumers disputing charges may find it easier to do so with a credit card, since the money will not immediately leave their control. Fraudulent charges on a debit card can also cause problems with a checking account because the money is withdrawn immediately and may thus result in an overdraft or bounced checks. In some cases debit card-issuing banks will promptly refund any disputed charges until the matter can be settled, and in some jurisdictions the consumer liability for unauthorized charges is the same for both debit and credit cards. In some countries, like India and Sweden, the consumer protection is the same regardless of the network used. Some banks set minimum and maximum purchase sizes, mostly for online-only cards. However, this has nothing to do with the card networks, but rather with the bank's judgement of the person's age and credit records. Any fees that the customers have to pay to the bank are the same regardless of whether the transaction is conducted as a credit or as a debit transaction, so there is no advantage for the customers to choose one transaction mode over another. Shops may add surcharges to the price of the goods or services in accordance with laws allowing them to do so. Banks consider the purchases as having been made at the moment when the card was swiped, regardless of when the purchase settlement was made. Regardless of which transaction type was used, the purchase may result in an overdraft because the money is considered to have left the account at the moment of the card swiping. Financial access Debit cards and secured credit cards are popular among college students who have not yet established a credit history. Debit cards may also be used by expatriated workers to send money home to their families holding an affiliated debit card. Issues with deferred posting of offline debit To the consumer, a debit transaction is perceived as occurring in real-time; i.e. the money is withdrawn from their account immediately following the authorization request from the merchant, which in many countries, is the case when making an online debit purchase. However, when a purchase is made using the "credit" (offline debit) option, the transaction merely places an authorization hold on the customer's account; funds are not actually withdrawn until the transaction is reconciled and hard-posted to the customer's account, usually a few days later. However, the previous sentence applies to all kinds of transaction types, at least when using a card issued by a European bank. This is in contrast to a typical credit card transaction; though it can also have a lag time of a few days before the transaction is posted to the account, it can be many days to a month or more before the consumer makes repayment with actual money. Because of this, in the case of a benign or malicious error by the merchant or bank, a debit transaction may cause more serious problems (e.g. money not accessible; overdrawn account) than in the case of a credit card transaction (e.g. credit not accessible; over credit limit). This is especially true in the United States, where writing "hot checks" is a crime in every state, but exceeding your credit limit is not. Internet purchases Debit cards may also be used on the Internet. Internet transactions may be conducted in either online or offline mode, although shops accepting online-only cards are rare in some countries (such as Sweden), while they are common in other countries (such as the Netherlands). For a comparison, PayPal offers the customer to use an online-only Maestro card if the customer enters a Dutch address of residence, but not if the same customer enters a Swedish address of residence. Internet purchases may be conducted in either online or offline mode, and just as in the case where you use your card in a shop, it is (at least in most countries) impossible to tell whether the transaction was conducted in online or offline mode (unless an online-only card was used, in which case you know that it was conducted in online mode), since the mode isn't mentioned on any receipt or similar. Internet purchases use neither a PIN code nor a signature for identification. Transactions may be conducted in either credit or debit mode (which is sometimes, but not always, indicated on the receipt), and this has nothing to do with whether the transaction was conducted on online or offline mode, since both credit and debit transactions may be conducted in both modes. Debit cards around the world In some countries, banks tend to levy a small fee for each debit card transaction. In some countries (e.g. the UK) the merchants bear all the costs and customers are not charged. There are many people who routinely use debit cards for all transactions, no matter how small. Some (small) retailers refuse to accept debit cards for small transactions, where paying the transaction fee would absorb the profit margin on the sale, making the transaction uneconomic for the retailer. Australia Debit cards in Australia are called different names depending on the issuing bank: Commonwealth Bank of Australia: Keycard; Westpac Banking Corporation: Handycard; National Australia Bank: FlexiCard; ANZ Bank: Access card; Bendigo Bank: Cashcard. EFTPOS is very popular in Australia and has been operating there since the 1980s. EFTPOS-enabled cards are accepted at almost all swipe terminals able to accept credit cards, regardless of the bank that issued the card, including Maestro cards issued by foreign banks, with most businesses accepting them, with 450,000 Point Of Sale terminals. | MasterCard Maestro EFTPOS cards can also be used to deposit and withdraw cash over the counter at Australia Post outlets participating in giroPost, just as if the transaction was conducted at a bank branch, even if the bank branch is closed. Electronic transactions in Australia are generally processed via the Telstra Argent and Optus Transact Plus network - which has recently superseded the old Transcend network in the last few years. Most early keycards were only usable for EFTPOS and at ATM or bank branches, whilst the new debit card system works in the same ways a credit card, except it will only use funds in the specified bank account. This means that, among other advantages, the new system is suitable for electronic purchases without a delay of 2 to 4 days for bank-to-bank money transfers. Australia operates both electronic credit card transaction authorization and traditional EFTPOS debit card authorization systems, the difference between the two being that EFTPOS transactions are authorized by a personal identification number (PIN) while credit card transactions are usually authorized by the printing and signing of a receipt. If the user fails to enter the correct pin 3 times, the consequences range from the card being locked out and requiring a phone call or trip to the branch to reactivate with a new PIN, the card being cut up by the merchant, or in the case of an ATM, being kept inside the machine, both of which require a new card to be ordered. Generally credit card transaction costs are borne by the merchant with no fee applied to the end user while EFTPOS transactions cost the consumer an applicable withdrawal fee charged by their bank. The introduction of Visa and MasterCard debit cards along with regulation in the settlement fees charged by the operators of both EFTPOS and credit cards by the Reserve Bank has seen a continuation in the increasing ubiquity of credit card use among Australians and a general decline in the profile of EFTPOS. However, the regulation of settlement fees also removed the ability of banks, who typically provide merchant services to retailers on behalf of Visa, MasterCard or Bankcard, from stopping those retailers charging extra fees to take payment by credit card instead of cash or EFTPOS. Though only a few operators with strong market power have done so, the passing on of fees charged for credit card transactions may result in an increased use of EFTPOS. Canada Canada has a nation-wide EFTPOS system, called Interac Direct Payment. Since being introduced in 1994, IDP has become the most popular payment method in the country. In Canada, the debit card is sometimes referred to as a "bank card". It is a client card issued by a bank that provides access to funds and other bank account transactions, such as transferring funds, checking balances, paying bills, etc., as well as point of purchase transactions connected on the Interac network. Since its national launch in 1994, Interac Direct Payment has become so widespread that, as of 2001, more transactions in Canada were completed using debit cards than cash . This popularity may be partially attributable to two main factors: the convenience of not having to carry cash, and the availability of automated bank machines (ABMs) and Direct Payment merchants on the network. Canadians, in fact, rank as the undisputed world leaders in debit card use,making 71.7 debit transactions per person in 2001, which is significantly more than consumers in the next closest country (France, at 60.3). The average value of a debit transaction in Canada (US$27 in 2001) was the lowest in an 11-country comparison, with Japan (US$405) and Switzerland (US$100) markedly standing out.93 Thus, compared to consumers in other countries, Canadians appear to be using their debit cards more often, even for frequent low-cost transactions. Debit cards may be considered similar to stored-value cards in that they represent a finite amount of money owed by the card issuer to the holder. They are different in that stored-value cards are generally anonymous and are only usable at the issuer, while debit cards are generally associated with an individual's bank account and can be used anywhere on the Interac network. In Canada, the bank cards can only be used at POS and ABMs. Select financial institutions allow their clients to use their debit cards in the United States on the NYCE network. Consumer protection in Canada Consumers in Canada are protected under a voluntary code* entered into by all providers of debit card services, The Canadian Code of Practice for Consumer Debit Card Services FCAC - For the Industry - Reference Documents (sometimes called the "Debit Card Code"). Adherence to the Code is overseen by the Financial Consumer Agency of Canada (FCAC), which investigates consumer complaints. According to the FCAC website, revisions to the Code that came into effect in 2005 put the onus on the financial institution to prove that a consumer was responsible for a disputed transaction, and also place a limit on the number of days that an account can be frozen during the financial institution's investigation of a transaction. Chile Chile has an EFTPOS system called Redcompra (Purchase Network) which is currently used in at least 23,000 establishments throughout the country. Goods may be purchased using this system at most supermarkets, retail stores, pubs and restaurants in major urban centers. Colombia Colombia has a system called Redeban-Multicolor and Credibanco Visa which are currently used in at least 23,000 establishments throughout the country. Goods may be purchased using this system at most supermarkets, retail stores, pubs and restaurants in major urban centers. Colombian debit cards are Maestro (pin), Visa Electron (pin), Visa Debit (as Credit) and MasterCard-Debit (as Credit). Denmark The Danish debit card Dankort was introduced on 1 September 1983, and despite the initial transactions being paper-based, the Dankort quickly won widespread acceptance in Denmark. By 1985 the first EFTPOS terminals were introduced, and 1985 was also the year when the number of Dankort transactions first exceeded 1 million Dankortet fylder 25 år i dag . Miscellaneous facts & numbers In 2007 PBS, the Danish operator of the Dankort system, processed a total of 737 million Dankort transactions PBS Årsrapport 2007 . Of these, 4.5 million just on a single day, 21 December. This remains the current record. At the end of 2007, there were 3,9 million Dankort in existence. More than 80,000 Danish shops have a Dankort terminal. Another 11,000 internet shops also accept the Dankort. France Banks in France charge annual fees for debit cards (despite card payments being very cost efficient for the banks), yet they do not charge personal customers for checkbooks or processing checks (despite checks being very costly for the banks). This imbalance most probably dates from the unilateral introduction in France of Chip and PIN debit cards in the early 1990s, when the cost of this technology was much higher than it is now. Credit cards of the type found in the United Kingdom and United States are unusual in France and the closest equivalent is the deferred debit card, which operates like a normal debit card, except that all purchase transactions are postponed until the end of the month, thereby giving the customer between 1 and 31 days of interest-free credit. The annual fee for a deferred debit card is around €10 more than for one with immediate debit. Most France debit cards are branded with the Carte Bleue logo, which assures acceptance throughout France. Most card holders choose to pay around €5 more in their annual fee to additionally have a Visa or a MasterCard logo on their Carte Bleue, so that the card is accepted internationally. A Carte Bleue without a Visa or a MasterCard logo is often known as a "Carte Bleue Nationale" and a Carte Bleue with a Visa or a MasterCard logo is known as a "Carte Bleue Internationale", or more frequently, simply called a "Visa" or "MasterCard". Many smaller merchants in France refuse to accept debit cards for transactions under €15 (equivalent to 100 French Francs) because of the minimum fee charged by merchants' banks per transaction. Merchants in France do not differentiate between debit and credit cards, and so both have equal acceptance. However, Visa's and MasterCard's regulations prohibit merchants from setting minimum charge amounts. American Express's policy is to discourage any merchant practices that create a "barrier to acceptance" and setting minimum charge limits is such a barrier. Amex does prohibit "discrimination" against the Amex card, which means they cannot have minimum charge for Amex but not for Visa and MasterCard but they cannot have a minimum charge for Visa and MasterCard because Visa and MasterCard prohibit this. Germany Debit cards have enjoyed wide acceptance in Germany for years. Facilities already existed before EFTPOS became popular with the Eurocheque card, an authorization system initially developed for paper checks where, in addition to signing the actual check, customers also needed to show the card alongside the check as a security measure. Those cards could also be used at ATM Terminals and for card-based electronic funds transfer (called Girocard). These are now the only functions of such cards: the Eurocheque system (along with the brand) was abandoned in 2002 during the transition from the Deutsche Mark to the Euro. As of 2005, most stores and petrol outlets have EFTPOS facilities. Processing fees are paid by the businesses, which leads to some business owners refusing debit card payments for sales totalling less than a certain amount, usually 5 or 10 euro. To avoid the processing fees, many businesses resorted to using direct debit, which is then called electronic direct debit (, abbr. ELV). The point-of-sale terminal reads the name and account number from the card but instead of handling the transaction through the ec network it simply prints a form, which the customer signs to authorise the debit note. However, this method also avoids any verification or payment guarantee provided by the network. Further, customers can return debit notes by notifying their bank without giving a reason. This means that the beneficiary bears the risk of fraud and illiquidity. Some business mitigate the risk by consulting a proprietary blacklist or by switching to electronic cash for higher transaction amounts. Around 2000, an Electronic Purse Card was introduced, dubbed Geldkarte ("money card"). It makes use of the smart card chip on the front of the standard issue debit card. This chip can be charged with up to 200 euro, and is advertised as a means of making medium to very small payments, even down to several euros or cent payments. The key factor here is that no processing fees are deducted by banks. It did not gain the popularity its inventors had hoped for. However, this could change as this chip is now used as means of age verification at cigarette vending machines, which has been mandatory since January 2007. Furthermore, some payment discounts are being offered (e.g. a 10% reduction for public transport fares) when paying with "Geldkarte". The "Geldkarte" payment lacks all security measures, since it does not require the user to enter a PIN or sign a sales slip: the loss of a "Geldkarte" is similar to the loss of a wallet or purse - anyone who finds it can then use their find to pay for their own purchases. Hong Kong The Octopus card, a stored value contactless smart card, was initially launched in September 1997 to collect fares for the city's mass transit system. Since then, the Octopus system has become widely used for payments for virtually all public transport in Hong Kong, as well as convenience stores, fast food restaurants, parking meters, car parks, service stations and vending machines. Over 18 million Octopus cards are in circulation, and 95% of Hong Kong people aged 16-65 use Octopus. Octopus Corporation, Business Statistics Hungary In Hungary debit cards are far more common and popular than credit cards. Many Hungarians even refer to their debit card ("betéti kártya") mistakenly using the word for credit card ("hitelkártya"). India The debit card has limited popularity in India as the merchant is charged for each transaction. The debit card therefore is mostly used for ATM transactions. Most of the banks issue VISA debit cards, while some banks (like SBI) issue Maestro cards. The debit card transactions are routed through the VISA or MasterCard networks rather than directly via the issuing bank. Italy Debit cards are quite popular in Italy. There are both classic and prepayed cards. The main classic debit card in Italy is PagoBancomat: this kind of card is issued by Italian banks, often with a credit card (so you get a dual mode card). It allows access to the owner's bank account funds and it is widely accepted in most shops, altough on the Internet it is allowed only the credit card mode. The major debit prepayed card is issued by Poste Italiane S.p.A., is called Postepay and runs on the Visa Electron circuit. It can be used on Poste Italiane's ATMs (Postamat) and on Visa Electron-compatible bank ATMs all over the world. It has no fees when used on the Internet and in POS-based transactions. Other cards are issued by other companies, such as Vodafone CashCard, Banca di Milano's Carta Jeans and Carta Moneta Online. Japan In Japan people usually use their , originally intended only for use with cash machines, as debit cards. The debit functionality of these cards is usually referred to as , and only cash cards from certain banks can be used. A cash card has the same size as a VISA/MasterCard. As identification, the user will have to enter his or her four-digit PIN when paying. J-Debit was started in Japan on March 6, 2000. Suruga Bank began service of Japan's first Visa Debit in 2006. Ebank will start service of Visa Debit by the end of 2007. eBank Money Card - eBank Corporation(Japan) The Netherlands In the Netherlands using EFTPOS is known as pinnen (pinning), a term derived from the use of a Personal Identification Number. PINs are also used for ATM transactions, and the term is used interchangeably by many people, although it was introduced as a marketing brand for EFTPOS. The system was launched in 1987, and in 2006 there were 166,375 terminals throughout the country, including mobile terminals used by delivery services and on markets. All banks offer a debit card suitable for EFTPOS with current accounts. PIN transactions are usually free to the customer, but the retailer is charged per-transaction and monthly fees. Equens, an association with all major banks as its members, runs the system, and until August 2005 also charged for it. Responding to allegations of monopoly abuse, it has handed over contractual responsibilities to its member banks, who now offer competing contracts. Interpay, a legal predecessor of Equens, was fined EUR 47 million in 2004, but the fine was later dropped, and a related fine for banks was lowered from EUR 17 to €14 million. Per-transaction fees are between 5-10 eurocents, depending on volume. Credit cards use in the Netherlands is very low, and most credit cards cannot be used with EFTPOS, or charge very high fees to the customer. Debit cards can often, though not always, be used in the entire EU for EFTPOS. Most debit cards are Maestro cards. Electronic Purse Cards were introduced in 1996, but have never become very popular. New Zealand The EFTPOS (electronic fund transfer at point of sale) system is highly popular in New Zealand, with more debit card terminals per head of population than any other country Key Dates in Bank of New Zealands History - Bank of New Zealand , and being used for about 60% of all retail transactions Payment and Settlement Services in New Zealand, September 2003, Reserve Bank of New Zealand . According to the largest EFTPOS network provider, "New Zealanders use EFTPOS twice as much as any other country." http://www.paymark.co.nz/dart/darthttp.dll?etsl&site_id=1§ion_id=37&page_id=228&detail_title_section_id=71 It is not unusual for a New Zealander to have more than one EFTPOS card and for banks to offer fixed monthly fees for unlimited (100 or greater at least) EFTPOS transactions during that month. During peak spending times, e.g. around Christmas, or during extreme fluctuations, the New Zealand EFTPOS system can become overloaded and 'crash' due to the sheer number of transactions being processed. Virtually all retail outlets have EFTPOS terminals, particularly supermarkets, "dairies" (convenience stores), service stations, and bars. Increasingly Taxi operators, businesses operating from stands at events and even pizza delivery people have mobile EFTPOS terminals. New Zealanders use EFTPOS for both small and large transactions. It would not be unusual for a New Zealander to use an EFTPOS card to pay for an amount as small as 50 cents NZD. Because EFTPOS is such an integral part of spending in New Zealand, rare network failures cause tremendous delays, inconvenience and lost income to businesses who must resort to manual "zip-zap" swipe machines to process EFTPOS transactions until the network returns to service. http://www.stuff.co.nz/stuff/0,2106,3521599a10,00.html Typically New Zealand merchants do not pay a fee per transaction as is the case in Australia and other countries. Transaction fees are typically borne by the customer, and retailers pay a fixed monthly equipment rental fee. As bank accounts for students and children under 18 years old typically attract low or no electronic transaction fees, the use of EFTPOS by the younger generations has become virtually ubiquitous. In recent times, major banks have started to offer accounts with no EFTPOS transaction fees. The Bank of New Zealand introduced EFTPOS to New Zealand in 1985 through a pilot scheme with petrol stations. EFTPOS is operated through two primary networks. One, EFTPOS NZ, owned by ANZ, and a second operated by Electronic Transaction Services Limited which is owned by ASB Bank, Westpac, and the Bank of New Zealand. The ETSL network processes approximately 80% of all EFTPOS transactions in New Zealand on their Paymark EFTPOS network and has over 60,000 points of sale. http://www.paymark.co.nz/dart/darthttp.dll?etsl&site_id=1§ion_id=31&page_id=323&detail_title_section_id=31 During July 2006 the five billionth EFTPOS payment flowed across the ETSL/Paymark EFTPOS network since the electronic form of payment was introduced in New Zealand in 1989. Paymark On 9 May 2007, Payment Express was certified as the first (and to date only) IP / broadband certified terminal allowing EFTPOS transactions to be transmitted securely over the Internet. However security issues regarding EFTPOS payments over the public Internet and the costs associated with legacy (dial up) terminal replacement has hampered the growth of the IP medium in New Zealand. One company, Merchant IP Services (MIPS) offers an alternative IP-POS solution allowing for the secure IP connection of most legacy (dial-up) terminals without the need for terminal replacement. The PCI compliant and Paymark certified MIPS IP-POS system consists of a MIPS WebNAC connected to the legacy EFTPOS terminal converting dial up transaction data to IP before transporting the payment securely to the bank switch. In March 2008 ETSL Paymark partnered with virtual wallet payment system pago to create New Zealands first debit or "stored value" system for online shopping. Philippines In the Philippines, all three national ATM network consortia offer proprietary PIN debit. This was first offered by Express Payment System in 1987, followed by Megalink with Paylink in 1993 then BancNet with the Point-of-Sale in 1994. Express Payment System or EPS was the pioneer provider, having launched the service in 1987 on behalf of the Bank of the Philippine Islands. The EPS service has subsequently been extended in late 2005 to include the other Expressnet members: Banco de Oro and Land Bank of the Philippines. They currently operate 10,000 terminals for their cardholders. Megalink launched Paylink EFTPOS system in 1993. Terminal services are provided by Equitable Card Network on behalf of the consortium. Service is available in 2,000 terminals, mostly in Metro Manila. BancNet introduced their Point of sale System in 1994 as the first consortium-operated EFTPOS service in the country. The service is available in over 1,400 locations throughout the Philippines, including second and third-class municipalities. In 2005, BancNet signed a Memorandum of Agreement to serve as the local gateway for China UnionPay, the sole ATM switch in the People's Republic of China. This will allow the estimated 1.0 billion Chinese ATM cardholders to use the BancNet ATMs and the EFTPOS in all Supermalls. Visa Debit cards are issued by Union Bank of the Philippines (e-Wallet & eon), Chinatrust, Equicom Savings Bank (Key Card & Cash Card) & Sterling Bank of Asia (VISA ShopNPay prepaid and debit cards). Union Bank of the Philippines cards & Sterling Bank of Asia EMV cards which can also be used for internet purchases. Sterling Bank of Asia has release its first line of prepaid and debit Visa cards with EMV chip. MasterCard debit cards, also known as MasterCard PayPass cards are issued by Banco de Oro. MasterCard Electronic cards are issued by BPI (Express Cash) and Security Bank (CashLink Plus). All VISA and MasterCard based debit cards in the Philippines are non-embossed and are marked either for "Electronic Use Only" (VISA/MasterCard) or "Valid only where MasterCard Electronic is Accepted" (MasterCard Electronic) Poland In Poland, local debit cards, such as PolCard, have become largely substituted with international ones, such as Visa, MasterCard, or the unembossed Visa Electron or Maestro. Most banks in Poland block Internet and MOTO transactions with unembossed cards, requiring the customer to buy an embossed card or a card for Internet/MOTO transactions only. The number of banks which do not block MOTO transactions on unembossed cards has recently started to increase. Russia With the exception of VISA and Master Card, there are some local payment system based in general on Smart Card technology. Sbercard. This payment system was created by Sberbank around 1995–1996. It uses BGS Smartcard Systems AG smart card technology i.e. DUET. Sberbank was a single retail bank in USSR before 1990. De facto this is a payment system of the SberBank. Zolotaya Korona. This card brand was created in 1994. Zolotay Korona is based on CFT technology. STB Card. This card uses the classic magnetic stripe technology. It almost fully collapsed after 1998 (GKO crisis) with STB bank failure. Union Card. The card also uses the classic magnetic stripe technology. This card brand is on the decline. These accounts are being reissued as Visa or MasterCard accounts. Nearly every transaction, regardless of brand or system, is processed as an immediate debit transaction. Non-debit transactions within these systems have spending limits that are strictly limited when compared with typical Visa or MasterCard accounts. Singapore Singapore's debit service is managed by Network for Electronic Transfers (NETS), founded by Singapore’s leading banks, DBS, Keppel Bank, OCBC, OUB, POSB, Tat Lee Bank and UOB in 1985 as a result of a need for a centralised e-Payment operator.It will deduct money from your bank directly when you buy things using debits card. United Kingdom In the UK debit cards (an integrated EFTPOS system) are an established part of the retail market and are widely accepted both by bricks and mortar stores and by internet stores. The term EFTPOS is not widely used by the public, debit card (or Switch, even when referring to a Visa card) is the generic term used. Cards commonly in circulation include Maestro (previously Switch), Solo, Visa Debit (previously Visa Delta) and Visa Electron. Banks do not charge customers for EFTPOS transactions in the UK, but some retailers make small charges, particularly where the transaction amount in question is small. The UK has converted all debit cards in circulation to Chip and PIN (except for Chip and Signature cards issued to people with certain disabilities), based on the EMV standard, to increase transaction security; however, PINs are not required for internet transactions. In the United Kingdom, banks started to issue debit cards in the mid 1980s in a bid to reduce the number of cheques being used at the point of sale, which are costly for the banks to process. As in most countries, fees paid by merchants in the United Kingdom to accept credit cards are a percentage of the transaction amount , which funds card holders' interest-free credit periods as well as incentive schemes such as points, airmiles or cashback. Debit cards do not usually have these characteristics, and so the fee for merchants to accept debit cards is a low fixed amount, regardless of transaction amount. For very small amounts, this means it is cheaper for a merchant to accept a credit card than a debit card. Although merchants won the right through The Credit Cards (Price Discrimination) Order 1990 to charge customers different prices according to the payment method, few merchants in the UK charge less for payment by debit card than by credit card, the most notable exceptions being budget airlines, travel agents and IKEA . Debit cards in the UK lack the advantages offered to holders of UK-issued credit cards, such as free incentives (points, airmiles, cashback etc), interest-free credit and protection against defaulting merchants under Section 75 of the Consumer Credit Act 1974. Almost all establishments in the United Kingdom that accept credit cards also accept debit cards (although not always Solo and Visa Electron), but a minority of merchants, for cost reasons, accept debit cards and not credit cards (for example the Post Office and, until 1999, John Lewis). United States In the U.S., EFTPOS is universally referred to simply as debit. The same interbank networks that operate the ATM network also operate the POS network. Most interbank networks, such as Pulse, NYCE, MAC, Tyme, SHAZAM, STAR, etc. are regional and do not overlap, however, most ATM/POS networks have agreements to accept each other's cards. This means that cards issued by one network will typically work anywhere they accept ATM/POS cards for payment. For example, a NYCE card will work at a Pulse POS terminal or ATM, and vice versa. Many debit cards in the United States are issued with a Visa or MasterCard logo allowing use of their signature-based networks. The liability of a U.S. debit card user in case of loss or theft is up to 50 USD if the loss or theft is reported to the issuing bank in two business days after the customer notices the loss. Consumer Handbook to Credit Protection Laws: Electronic Fund Transfers The fees charged to merchants on offline debit purchases—and the lack of fees charged merchants for processing online debit purchases and paper checks—have prompted some major merchants in the U.S. to file lawsuits against debit-card transaction processors such as Visa and MasterCard. In 2003, Visa and MasterCard agreed to settle the largest of these lawsuits and agreed to settlements of billions of dollars. Many consumers prefer "credit" transactions because of the lack of a fee charged to the consumer/purchaser; also, a few debit cards in the U.S. offer rewards for using "credit" (e.g. Washington Mutual's "Wamoola"). However, since "credit" costs more for merchants, many terminals at PIN-accepting merchant locations now make the "credit" function more difficult to access. For example, if you swipe a debit card at Wal-Mart in the U.S., you are immediately presented with the PIN screen for online debit; to use offline debit you must press "cancel" to exit the PIN screen, then press "credit" on the next screen. One additional problem surrounding the use of debit cards is their use at a self-service gas pump like those common in the U.S. The customer might want to purchase fuel on their debit card, but the pump's computer does not know how much fuel the customer wants. The pump is activated by the customer presenting their card to a card reader (see methods described above) and possibly entering a PIN. At this point the pump will dispense fuel, though no sales transaction has completed. The pump has no way of knowing how much fuel will be sold, nor how much money is available in the customer’s debit account. In a typical sale transaction, trying to spend more money than is available in your account (credit or debit) will result in a "no-sale" alert to the merchant, and the sale does not occur. At a self-serve fuel pump, the fuel is already in the customer's tank by the time the bank knows the final sale price. Several solutions to this problem are in place, such as denying $1 pre-authorizations when an account holds less than $10 while still allowing transactions for specific amounts, but the concept of delivering the merchandise before the sales transaction plagues the debit card system. The commission is sometimes so high that the gas station sometimes actually loses money when someone pays for gas with credit. When pay at the pump started in the 1980s, many gas stations offered a discount for paying with cash. Most of them stopped doing that because the discount did not significantly increase their cash sales. FSA, HRA, and HSA debit cards In the U.S.A, a FSA debit card only allows medical expenses. It is used by some banks for withdrawals from their FSAs, MSAs, and HSAs as well. They have Visa or MasterCard logos, but cannot be used as "debit cards", only as "credit cards"", and they are not accepted by all merchants that accept debit and credit cards, but only by those that accept FSA debit cards. Merchant codes and product codes are used at the point of sale (required by law by certain merchants by certain dates in the USA) to restrict sales if they do not qualify. Because of the extra checking and documenting that goes on, later, the statement can be used to substantiate these purchases for tax deductions. In the occasional instance that a qualifying purchase is rejected, another form of payment must be used (a check or payment from another account and a claim for reimbursement later). In the more likely case that non-qualifying items are accepted, the consumer is technically still responsible, and the discrepancy could be revealed during an audit. A small but growing segment of the debit card business in the U.S. involves access to tax-favored spending accounts such as flexible spending accounts (FSA), health reimbursement accounts (HRA), and health savings accounts (HSA). Most of these debit cards are for medical expenses, though a few are also issued for dependent care and transportation expenses. Traditionally, FSAs (the oldest of these accounts) were accessed only through claims for reimbursement after incurring, and often paying, an out-of-pocket expense; this often happens after the funds have already been deducted from the employee's paycheck. (FSAs are usually funded by payroll deduction.) The only method permitted by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) to avoid this "double-dipping" for medical FSAs and HRAs is through accurate and auditable reporting on the tax return. Statements on the debit card that say "for medical uses only" are invalid for several reasons: (1) The merchant and issuing banks have no way of quickly determining whether the entire purchase qualifies for the customer's type of tax benefit; (2) the customer also has no quick way of knowing; often has mixed purchases by necessity or convenience; and can easily make mistakes; (3) extra contractual clauses between the customer and issuing bank would cross-over into the payment processing standards, creating additional confusion (for example if a customer was penalized for accidentally purchasing a non-qualifying item, it would undercut the potential savings advantages of the account). Therefore, using the card exclusively for qualifying purchases may be convenient for the customer, but it has nothing to do with how the card can actually be used. If the bank rejects a transaction, for instance, because it is not at a recognized drug store, then it would be causing harm and confusion to the cardholder. In the United States, not all medical service or supply stores are capable of providing the correct information so an FSA debit card issuer can honor every transaction-if rejected or documentation is not deemed enough to satisfy regulations, cardholders may have to send in forms manually. See also APACS Automated teller machine (ATM) Bank card number Point-of-sale (POS) Credit card pago Electronic funds transfer EPAS Electronic Payment Services interbank network Interac Inventory information approval system, a point-of-sale technology used with FSA debit cards Laser (debit card) Maestro (debit card) Solo (debit card) Switch (debit card) Visa Debit Visa Electron MasterCard References | Debit_card |@lemmatized debit:204 card:320 also:32 know:12 bank:104 check:26 plastic:2 provide:9 alternative:2 payment:39 method:6 cash:24 make:19 purchase:41 functionally:1 call:12 electronic:27 fund:21 withdraw:8 directly:4 either:5 account:46 often:12 refer:6 remain:2 balance:7 case:13 design:1 exclusively:2 use:102 internet:18 physical:1 säkra:1 kortbetalningar:1 på:1 nordea:1 se:1 e:15 kort:1 become:13 widespread:4 many:19 country:36 overtake:1 cheque:3 instance:4 transaction:120 volume:2 like:8 credit:98 widely:5 telephone:1 unlike:3 bearer:1 pay:25 back:1 allow:16 instant:1 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harm:1 capable:1 honor:1 documentation:1 deem:1 enough:1 satisfy:1 manually:1 apacs:1 automate:1 epas:1 inventory:1 approval:1 |@bigram debit_card:139 expiration_date:1 offline_debit:11 electronic_purse:5 visa_mastercard:24 carte_bleue:7 internationally_recognised:1 debit_transaction:16 http_www:4 blog_nytimes:1 nytimes_com:1 mobile_phone:2 advantage_disadvantage:2 visa_debit:8 vested_interest:1 car_rental:3 online_offline:4 offline_mode:4 eftpos_transaction:8 retail_store:2 mastercard_logo:5 vend_machine:2 hong_kong:3 convenience_store:2 di_milano:1 retail_outlet:1 metro_manila:1 de_facto:1 singapore_singapore:1 brick_mortar:1 vice_versa:1 billion_dollar:1 wal_mart:1 automate_teller:1 |
1,508 | Knights_who_say_Ni | Michael Palin as one of the "Knights Who Say Ni" The Knights Who Say Ni! are a band of knights from the comedy film Monty Python and the Holy Grail, feared for the manner in which they utter the word "ni" (, like knee but clipped short). They are the keepers of the sacred words: Ni, Peng, and Neee-Wom Details The Knights are led by a man who is approximately 12 feet tall with disproportionately short arms and reindeer antlers inserted into his helmet (played by Michael Palin standing on a ladder; the original screenplay suggested that he be played by "Mike standing on John's shoulders"). The other Knights are of normal human proportions and act as a chorus, only repeating words and phrases that the head Knight has spoken. "Ni!" is only the most notable of the sacred words which they are assigned to protect; the others being "Peng" and "Neee-wom". All of these words are infamous for the palpable horror and fear (and suggested pain) they bring about, whether delivered by the Knights or not. According to King Arthur, "Those who hear them seldom live to tell the tale!" The Knights demand that King Arthur bring them a shrubbery in order to pass through a patch of woodland which they guard. They require that it must be one that looks nice and is not too expensive. As a result, Arthur and his companions return to a nearby village where they purchase a shrubbery from "Roger the Shrubber" (played by Eric Idle). Later, the Knights who say Ni become the Knights who say an odd string of syllables (although the knights apart from the head knight continue to say 'Ni'). The saying is spelled the following way according to the "script" subtitles available on the collector's edition DVD: "Ekke Ekke Ekke Ekke Ptang Zoo Boing (unintelligible muttering)"! Because of the challenging pronunciation, King Arthur simply refers to them as "The Knights Who 'Til Recently Said Ni". Originally, the name was to be changed to "the Knights Who Go Ni... Whom... Ping." Later, the Knights demand that King Arthur get them another shrubbery, and arrange the two shrubberies so that they get a two-level effect ("...with a little path running down the middle"), and to "...cut down the mightiest tree in the forest with... a herring!" Arthur refuses, claiming that such a feat cannot be done, to which the Knights reply "Oh, please?" The Knights have a weakness in that a number of words, when spoken to them, cause them pain and agony. The only one of these words that is revealed in the film is the word "it". Ultimately, King Arthur and Sir Robin both say "it" several times in conversation (unaware that "it" was the word that was causing the Knights pain), crippling the Knights and allowing them to pass through the forest unhindered. It is often noted that there is a contradiction here, since the word "it" is used by Arthur during the first meeting "...What is it you want?.." and by the leader of the Knights who say Ni at the beginning of the second meeting "...It is a good shrubbery..." without causing the Knights any pain at all. Although this is a clear continuity error, there are many other Monty Python sketches (Buying a Bed, Travel Agent/Watney's Red Barrel, Woody and Tinny Words) where characters with peculiar speech impediments are only afflicted when it is most convenient for the sketch. Spamalot The Knights appear in Spamalot, the 2004 Broadway musical "lovingly ripped off" from the film, with their first scene virtually unchanged. The Knights' new name changes almost nightly, improvised by the actor playing the lead Knight (originally Hank Azaria), but always starting with "Ekke Ekke Ekke F'tang F'tang Olé Biscuitbarrel..." which itself references several famous sketches from Monty Python's Flying Circus, including Election Night Special. In one performance, after the traditional shouting of "Ecky Ecky Ecky F'tang F'tang Olé Biscuitbarrel," the Lead Knight loudly screamed GOAL! for a very long time, before telling the audience the current soccer World Cup score ["It's one-one in the second half!"] and garnering large praise. With the Rod Blagojevich impeachment in the news, the Knights were able to change around their script in the Chicago performance of Spamalot to mention the selling of the senate seat. In Cleveland the knights say a common line from the song Cleveland Rocks saying: "All the girls with cherry red lips singing Cleveland Rocks Cleveland Rocks." King Arthur refers to them as "The artists formerly known as the Knights who say Ni", a reference to Prince. The other major change in the scene is that the renamed Knights not only demand another shrubbery, but also that King Arthur put on a musical and take it to Broadway. King Arthur does attempt to fulfil this quest in the second act until the Lady of the Lake tells him that he is already in a musical—see fourth wall. Origin In the DVD commentary for the film, Michael Palin says that their use of the word was derived from The Goon Show. Other parallels to The Goon Show can also be drawn between the strangled voice of the Knights and the voice of Bluebottle. Gaming In Guild Wars, in the Canthan New year, there is a quest that allows you to meet "The Knights Who Say Nian!" The team name for the University of Central Florida's SAE Baja team is "The Knights Who Say Ni". In World of Warcraft, there is a quest named, "Bring Me A Shrubbery!", in which the character must gather 5 Sanguine Hibiscus, which "used to grow as thick as shrubs". In Runescape, if you use a herring with a tree you will get the message "This is not the mightiest tree in the forest." furthermore, ussing a herring with the "Grand Tree" gives the message "it cannot be done" References | Knights_who_say_Ni |@lemmatized michael:3 palin:3 one:6 knight:32 say:14 ni:12 band:1 comedy:1 film:4 monty:3 python:3 holy:1 grail:1 fear:2 manner:1 utter:1 word:12 like:1 knee:1 clip:1 short:2 keeper:1 sacred:2 peng:2 neee:2 wom:2 detail:1 lead:3 man:1 approximately:1 foot:1 tall:1 disproportionately:1 arm:1 reindeer:1 antler:1 insert:1 helmet:1 play:4 stand:2 ladder:1 original:1 screenplay:1 suggest:2 mike:1 john:1 shoulder:1 normal:1 human:1 proportion:1 act:2 chorus:1 repeat:1 phrase:1 head:2 speak:2 notable:1 assign:1 protect:1 others:1 infamous:1 palpable:1 horror:1 pain:4 bring:3 whether:1 deliver:1 accord:2 king:8 arthur:11 hear:1 seldom:1 live:1 tell:3 tale:1 demand:3 shrubbery:7 order:1 pass:2 patch:1 woodland:1 guard:1 require:1 must:2 look:1 nice:1 expensive:1 result:1 companion:1 return:1 nearby:1 village:1 purchase:1 roger:1 shrubber:1 eric:1 idle:1 later:2 become:1 odd:1 string:1 syllable:1 although:2 apart:1 continue:1 saying:1 spell:1 following:1 way:1 script:2 subtitle:1 available:1 collector:1 edition:1 dvd:2 ekke:7 ptang:1 zoo:1 boing:1 unintelligible:1 muttering:1 challenging:1 pronunciation:1 simply:1 refers:2 til:1 recently:1 originally:2 name:4 change:4 go:1 ping:1 get:3 another:2 arrange:1 two:2 level:1 effect:1 little:1 path:1 run:1 middle:1 cut:1 mighty:2 tree:4 forest:3 herring:3 refuse:1 claim:1 feat:1 cannot:2 reply:1 oh:1 please:1 weakness:1 number:1 cause:3 agony:1 reveal:1 ultimately:1 sir:1 robin:1 several:2 time:2 conversation:1 unaware:1 cripple:1 allow:2 unhindered:1 often:1 note:1 contradiction:1 since:1 use:4 first:2 meeting:2 want:1 leader:1 beginning:1 second:3 good:1 without:1 clear:1 continuity:1 error:1 many:1 sketch:3 buy:1 bed:1 travel:1 agent:1 watney:1 red:2 barrel:1 woody:1 tinny:1 character:2 peculiar:1 speech:1 impediment:1 afflict:1 convenient:1 spamalot:3 appear:1 broadway:2 musical:3 lovingly:1 rip:1 scene:2 virtually:1 unchanged:1 new:2 almost:1 nightly:1 improvise:1 actor:1 hank:1 azaria:1 always:1 start:1 f:4 tang:4 olé:2 biscuitbarrel:2 reference:3 famous:1 fly:1 circus:1 include:1 election:1 night:1 special:1 performance:2 traditional:1 shouting:1 ecky:3 loudly:1 screamed:1 goal:1 long:1 audience:1 current:1 soccer:1 world:2 cup:1 score:1 half:1 garner:1 large:1 praise:1 rod:1 blagojevich:1 impeachment:1 news:1 able:1 around:1 chicago:1 mention:1 selling:1 senate:1 seat:1 cleveland:4 common:1 line:1 song:1 rock:3 girl:1 cherry:1 lip:1 sing:1 artist:1 formerly:1 know:1 prince:1 major:1 rename:1 also:2 put:1 take:1 attempt:1 fulfil:1 quest:3 lady:1 lake:1 already:1 see:1 fourth:1 wall:1 origin:1 commentary:1 derive:1 goon:2 show:2 parallel:1 draw:1 strangled:1 voice:2 bluebottle:1 gaming:1 guild:1 war:1 canthan:1 year:1 meet:1 nian:1 team:2 university:1 central:1 florida:1 sae:1 baja:1 warcraft:1 gather:1 sanguine:1 hibiscus:1 grow:1 thick:1 shrubs:1 runescape:1 message:2 furthermore:1 ussing:1 grand:1 give:1 |@bigram michael_palin:3 monty_python:3 holy_grail:1 eric_idle:1 ekke_ekke:5 python_sketch:1 speech_impediment:1 virtually_unchanged:1 sketch_monty:1 fly_circus:1 |
1,509 | Lusitania | This article concerns the Roman province. For the ship, see RMS Lusitania. For other uses, see Lusitania (disambiguation). The Iberian peninsula in the time of Hadrian (ruled 117-138 AD), showing, in western Iberia, the imperial province of Lusitania (Portugal, Extremadura) Province of Lusitania highlighted Lusitania was an ancient Roman province including approximately all of modern Portugal south of the Douro river, and part of modern Spain (the present autonomous community of Extremadura and a small part of the province of Salamanca). It was named after the Lusitani or Lusitanian people (an Indo-European people). Its capital was Emerita Augusta (currently Mérida), and it was initially part of the Roman Republic province of Hispania Ulterior, before becoming a province of its own in the Roman Empire. Pre-Roman Lusitania Strabo in his Geography mentions that the ancient people called Lusitania to the lands north of river Douro, the land that in his own time was known as Gallaecia. Strabo, Geography, Book III, Chapter 4 Origin of the name The etymology of Lusitania, like the origin of the Lusitani who gave the province their name, is unclear. The name may be of Celtic origin: Lus and Tanus, "tribe of Lusus". The Trajan Alcántara Bridge The name may derive from Lucis, an ancient people mentioned in Ora Maritima and Tan, from celtic Tan (Stan), or Tain, meaning a region or implying a country of waters, a root word that formerly meant a prince or sovereign governor of a region. An Universal History From the Earliest Account of Time, 1747, p. 22. Charles Vallancey, Collectanea de Rebus Hibernicis, V.6, pt.1, 1786, p.279. Edward Lhuyd & John O'Brien, Focalóir gaoidhilge-sax-bhéarla, or An Irish-English dictionary, 1768, p. 464. The name has been connected with the personal celtic name Luso and with the god Lugh. Room,Adrian. Placenames of the World. pg 228 Ancient Romans, such as Pliny the Elder (Natural History, 3.5) and Varro (cited by Pliny), speculated that the name Lusitania was of Roman origin, as when Pliny says lusum enim liberi patris aut lyssam cum eo bacchantium nomen dedisse lusitaniae et pana praefectum eius universae: that Lusitania takes its name from the lusus associated with Bacchus and the lyssa of his Bacchantes, and that Pan is its governor. Lusus is usually translated as 'game' or 'play', while lyssa is a borrowing from the Greek λυσσα, 'frenzy' or 'rage', and sometimes Rage personified; for later poets Lusus and Lyssa become flesh-and-blood companions of Bacchus. Luís de Camões' Os Lusíadas, which portrays Lusus as the founder of Lusitania, extends these ideas, which have no connection with modern etymology. Lusitanians Iberian Peninsula at about 200 BC . The Lusitani, who were Indo-Europeans and may have come from the Alps, established themselves in the region in the 6th century BC, but historians and archeologists are still undecided about their origins. Some modern authors consider them to be an indigenous people who were celticized culturally and possibly genetically through intermarriage. The archeologist Scarlat Lambrino defended the position that the Lusitanians were a tribal group of Celtic origin related to the Lusones (a tribe that inhabited the east of Iberia). Possibly, both tribes came from the Swiss mountains. But some prefer to see the Lusitanians as a native Iberian tribe, resulting from intermarriage between different tribes. The first area colonized by the Lusitani was probably the Douro valley and the region of Beira Alta (present day Portugal); in Beira they stayed until they defeated the Celtici and other tribes, then they expanded to cover a territory that reached Estremadura before the arrival of the Romans. War against Rome The Lusitani are mentioned for the first time in Livy (218 BC) and are described as Carthaginian mercenaries; they are reported as fighting against Rome in 194 BC, sometimes allied with other Celtiberian tribes. In 179 BC the praetor Lucius Postumius Albinus celebrated a triumph over the Lusitani, but in 155 BC, on the command of Punicus (perhaps a Carthaginian general) first and Cesarus after, the Lusitani reached Gibraltar. Here they were defeated by the praetor Lucius Mummius. Servius Sulpicius Galba organized a false armistice, but while the Lusitani celebrated this new alliance, he massacred them, selling the survivors as slaves; this caused a new rebellion led by Viriathus, who was soon killed by traitors paid by the Romans in 139BC, after having led a successful guerrilla campaign against Rome and their local allies. Romans scored other victories with proconsul Decimus Junius Brutus Callaicus and Gaius Marius (113 BC), but still the Lusitani resisted with a long guerilla war; they later joined Sertorius' (a renegade Roman General) troops and were finally defeated by Augustus. 152 BC - From this date onwards the Roman Republic has difficulties in recruiting soldiers for the wars in Hispania, deemed particularly brutal. Read more at Timeline of Portuguese history (Pre-Roman). References An etymological lexicon of Proto-Celtic See also Lusitanians Lusitanian mythology Lusitanian language Ophiussa Portugal History of Portugal Timeline of Portuguese history Pre-Roman Western Iberia (Before the 3rd Century BC) Roman Lusitania and Gallaecia (3rd Century BC to 4th Century AC) Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula Balsa (Roman town) External links Detailed map of the Pre-Roman Peoples of Iberia (around 200 BC) be-x-old:Лузітанія | Lusitania |@lemmatized article:1 concern:1 roman:18 province:8 ship:1 see:4 rms:1 lusitania:12 us:1 disambiguation:1 iberian:4 peninsula:3 time:4 hadrian:1 rule:1 ad:1 showing:1 western:2 iberia:4 imperial:1 portugal:5 extremadura:2 highlight:1 ancient:4 include:1 approximately:1 modern:4 south:1 douro:3 river:2 part:3 spain:1 present:2 autonomous:1 community:1 small:1 salamanca:1 name:9 lusitani:9 lusitanian:3 people:7 indo:2 european:2 capital:1 emerita:1 augusta:1 currently:1 mérida:1 initially:1 republic:2 hispania:2 ulterior:1 become:2 empire:1 pre:5 strabo:2 geography:2 mention:3 call:1 land:2 north:1 know:1 gallaecia:2 book:1 iii:1 chapter:1 origin:6 etymology:2 like:1 give:1 unclear:1 may:3 celtic:5 lu:1 tanus:1 tribe:7 lusus:5 trajan:1 alcántara:1 bridge:1 derive:1 lucis:1 ora:1 maritima:1 tan:2 stan:1 tain:1 mean:2 region:4 imply:1 country:1 water:1 root:1 word:1 formerly:1 prince:1 sovereign:1 governor:2 universal:1 history:5 early:1 account:1 p:3 charles:1 vallancey:1 collectanea:1 de:2 rebus:1 hibernicis:1 v:1 pt:1 edward:1 lhuyd:1 john:1 brien:1 focalóir:1 gaoidhilge:1 sax:1 bhéarla:1 irish:1 english:1 dictionary:1 connect:1 personal:1 luso:1 god:1 lugh:1 room:1 adrian:1 placenames:1 world:1 pg:1 pliny:3 elder:1 natural:1 varro:1 cite:1 speculate:1 say:1 lusum:1 enim:1 liberi:1 patris:1 aut:1 lyssam:1 cum:1 eo:1 bacchantium:1 nomen:1 dedisse:1 lusitaniae:1 et:1 pana:1 praefectum:1 eius:1 universae:1 take:1 associate:1 bacchus:2 lyssa:3 bacchant:1 pan:1 usually:1 translate:1 game:1 play:1 borrowing:1 greek:1 λυσσα:1 frenzy:1 rage:2 sometimes:2 personified:1 late:1 poet:1 flesh:1 blood:1 companion:1 luís:1 camões:1 os:1 lusíadas:1 portray:1 founder:1 extend:1 idea:1 connection:1 lusitanians:4 bc:11 come:2 alp:1 establish:1 century:4 historian:1 archeologist:2 still:2 undecided:1 author:1 consider:1 indigenous:1 celticized:1 culturally:1 possibly:2 genetically:1 intermarriage:2 scarlat:1 lambrino:1 defend:1 position:1 tribal:1 group:1 relate:1 lusones:1 inhabit:1 east:1 swiss:1 mountain:1 prefer:1 native:1 result:1 different:1 first:3 area:1 colonize:1 probably:1 valley:1 beira:2 alta:1 day:1 stay:1 defeat:3 celtici:1 expand:1 cover:1 territory:1 reach:2 estremadura:1 arrival:1 war:3 rome:3 livy:1 describe:1 carthaginian:2 mercenary:1 report:1 fight:1 ally:2 celtiberian:1 praetor:2 lucius:2 postumius:1 albinus:1 celebrate:2 triumph:1 command:1 punicus:1 perhaps:1 general:2 cesarus:1 gibraltar:1 mummius:1 servius:1 sulpicius:1 galba:1 organize:1 false:1 armistice:1 new:2 alliance:1 massacre:1 sell:1 survivor:1 slave:1 cause:1 rebellion:1 lead:2 viriathus:1 soon:1 kill:1 traitor:1 pay:1 successful:1 guerrilla:1 campaign:1 local:1 score:1 victory:1 proconsul:1 decimus:1 junius:1 brutus:1 callaicus:1 gaius:1 marius:1 resist:1 long:1 guerilla:1 later:1 join:1 sertorius:1 renegade:1 troop:1 finally:1 augustus:1 date:1 onwards:1 difficulty:1 recruit:1 soldier:1 deem:1 particularly:1 brutal:1 read:1 timeline:2 portuguese:2 reference:1 etymological:1 lexicon:1 proto:1 also:1 mythology:1 language:1 ophiussa:1 ac:1 balsa:1 town:1 external:1 link:1 detail:1 map:1 around:1 x:1 old:1 лузітанія:1 |@bigram rms_lusitania:1 iberian_peninsula:3 douro_river:1 indo_european:2 hispania_ulterior:1 strabo_geography:2 edward_lhuyd:1 god_lugh:1 pliny_elder:1 servius_sulpicius:1 sulpicius_galba:1 decimus_junius:1 junius_brutus:1 gaius_marius:1 proto_celtic:1 external_link:1 |
1,510 | Politics_of_Hungary | Politics of Hungary takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Hungary is the head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. The party system is dominated by the socialdemocratic Hungarian Socialist Party and the conservative Hungarian Civic Union or FIDESZ. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The Republic of Hungary is an independent, democratic and constitutional state. Since the constitutional amendment of 23 October, 1989, Hungary is a parliamentary republic. Legislative power is exercised by the unicameral National Assembly that consists of 386 members. Members of the National Assembly are elected for four years. Executive branch |President |László Sólyom | |5 August 2005 |- |Prime Minister |Gordon Bajnai | |14 April 2009 |} The President of the Republic, elected by the National Assembly every five years, has a largely ceremonial role, but he is nominally the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces and his powers include the nomination of the Prime Minister who is to be elected by a majority of the votes of the Members of Parliament, based on the recommendation made by the President of the Republic. Due to the Hungarian Constitution, based on the post-WWII Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany, the Prime Minister has a leading role in the executive branch as he selects Cabinet ministers and has the exclusive right to dismiss them (similarly to the competences of the German federal chancellor). Each cabinet nominee appears before one or more parliamentary committees in consultative open hearings, survive a vote by the Parliament and must be formally approved by the president. Legislative branch The unicameral, 386-member National Assembly (Országgyűlés) is the highest organ of state authority and initiates and approves legislation sponsored by the prime minister. Its members are elected for a four year term. 176 members are elected in single-seat constituencies, 152 by proportional representation in multi-seat constituencies, and 58 so-called compensation seats are distributed based on the number of votes "lost" (i.e., the votes that did not produce a seat) in either the single-seat or the multi-seat constituencies. The election threshold is 5%, but it only applies to the multi-seat constituencies and the compensation seats, not the single-seat constituencies. Political parties and elections Judicial branch An eleven member Constitutional Court has power to challenge legislation on grounds of unconstitutionality. This body has never been filled completely and currently convenes with just nine members, which verges on incapacitation. The President of the Supreme Court and the Hungarian civil and penal legal system he leads is fully independent of the Executive Branch. The Attorney General or Chief Prosecutor of Hungary is currently fully independent of the Executive Branch, but his status is actively debated. Several ombudsman offices exist in Hungary to protect civil, minority, educational and ecological rights in non-judicial matters. They can issue legally binding decisions since late 2003. Financial branch The central bank, the Hungarian National Bank has been fully independent between 1990-2004, but new legislation gave certain appointment rights to the Executive Branch in November 2004 which is disputed before the Constitutional Court. Administrative divisions Hungary is divided in 19 counties (megyék, singular - megye), 23 urban counties* (megyei jogú városok, singular - megyei jogú város), and 1 capital city** (főváros); Bács-Kiskun, Baranya, Békés, Békéscsaba*, Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén, Budapest**, Csongrád, Debrecen*, Dunaújváros*, Eger*, Érd*, Fejér, Győr*, Győr-Moson-Sopron, Hajdú-Bihar, Heves, Hódmezővásárhely*, Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok, Kaposvár*, Kecskemét*, Komárom-Esztergom, Miskolc*, Nagykanizsa*, Nógrád, Nyíregyháza*, Pécs*, Pest, Salgótarján*, Somogy, Sopron*, Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg, Szeged*, Szekszárd*, Székesfehérvár*, Szolnok*, Szombathely*, Tatabánya*, Tolna, Vas, Veszprém, Veszprém*, Zala, Zalaegerszeg* Member of the international organizations Hungary is member of ABEDA, Australia Group, BIS, CE, CEI, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EU (member, as by May 1, 2004), FAO, G- 9, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, ITUC, NAM (guest), NATO, NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, PFP,SECI, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNFICYP, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNOMIG, UNU, UPU, WCO, WEU (associate), WFTU, Visegrád group, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, Zangger Committee Ministries Note: with restructruring and reorganization, this information may change even within a governmental period. Prime Minister's Office (Miniszterelnöki Hivatal) minister: Csaba Molnár Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (Földművelésügyi és Vidékfejlesztési Minisztérium) minister: József Gráf Ministry of Defence (Honvédelmi Minisztérium) minister: Imre Szekeres Ministry of National Development and Economic Affairs (Nemzeti Fejlesztési és Gazdasági Minisztérium) minister: Tamas Vahl Ministry of Education and Culture (Oktatási és Kultúrális Minisztérium) minister: István Hiller Ministry of Environmental Protection and Water (Környezetvédelmi és Vízügyi Minisztérium) minister: Imre Szabó Ministry of Finance (Pénzügyminisztérium) minister: Peter Oszko Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Külügyminisztérium) minister: Peter Balazs Ministry of Health (Egészségügyi Minisztérium) minister: Tamás Székely Ministry of Justice and Law Enforcement (Igazságügyi és Rendészeti Minisztérium) minister: Tibor Draskovics Ministry of Transport, Communication and Energy (Közlekedési, Hírközlési és Energiaügyi Minisztérium) minister: Peter Honig Ministry of Social Affairs and Labour (Szociális és Munkaügyi Minisztérium) minister: Laszlo Herczog Ministers without portfolio Minister without portfolio: Péter Kiss (Sources differ on the English names.) External links Politics.hu - English-language resource about Hungarian politics | Politics_of_Hungary |@lemmatized politics:3 hungary:8 take:1 place:1 framework:1 parliamentary:3 representative:1 democratic:2 republic:6 whereby:1 prime:6 minister:21 head:1 government:3 pluriform:1 multi:4 party:4 system:3 executive:7 power:5 exercise:2 legislative:3 vest:1 parliament:3 dominate:1 socialdemocratic:1 hungarian:6 socialist:1 conservative:1 civic:1 union:1 fidesz:1 judiciary:1 independent:5 legislature:1 constitutional:4 state:2 since:2 amendment:1 october:1 unicameral:2 national:6 assembly:4 consist:1 member:11 elect:5 four:2 year:3 branch:8 president:5 lászló:1 sólyom:1 august:1 gordon:1 bajnai:1 april:1 every:1 five:1 largely:1 ceremonial:1 role:2 nominally:1 commander:1 chief:2 armed:1 force:1 include:1 nomination:1 majority:1 vote:4 base:3 recommendation:1 make:1 due:1 constitution:1 post:1 wwii:1 basic:1 law:2 federal:2 germany:1 leading:1 select:1 cabinet:2 exclusive:1 right:3 dismiss:1 similarly:1 competence:1 german:1 chancellor:1 nominee:1 appear:1 one:1 committee:2 consultative:1 open:1 hearing:1 survive:1 must:1 formally:1 approve:1 országgyűlés:1 high:1 organ:1 authority:1 initiate:1 approves:1 legislation:3 sponsor:1 term:1 single:3 seat:9 constituency:5 proportional:1 representation:1 call:1 compensation:2 distribute:1 number:1 lose:1 e:1 produce:1 either:1 election:2 threshold:1 apply:1 political:1 judicial:2 eleven:1 court:3 challenge:1 ground:1 unconstitutionality:1 body:1 never:1 fill:1 completely:1 currently:2 convenes:1 nine:1 verge:1 incapacitation:1 supreme:1 civil:2 penal:1 legal:1 lead:1 fully:3 attorney:1 general:1 prosecutor:1 status:1 actively:1 debate:1 several:1 ombudsman:1 office:2 exist:1 protect:1 minority:1 educational:1 ecological:1 non:1 matter:1 issue:1 legally:1 bind:1 decision:1 late:1 financial:1 central:1 bank:2 new:1 give:1 certain:1 appointment:1 november:1 dispute:1 administrative:1 division:1 divide:1 county:2 megyék:1 singular:2 megye:1 urban:1 megyei:2 jogú:2 városok:1 város:1 capital:1 city:1 főváros:1 bács:1 kiskun:1 baranya:1 békés:1 békéscsaba:1 borsod:1 abaúj:1 zemplén:1 budapest:1 csongrád:1 debrecen:1 dunaújváros:1 eger:1 érd:1 fejér:1 győr:2 moson:1 sopron:2 hajdú:1 bihar:1 heves:1 hódmezővásárhely:1 jász:1 nagykun:1 szolnok:2 kaposvár:1 kecskemét:1 komárom:1 esztergom:1 miskolc:1 nagykanizsa:1 nógrád:1 nyíregyháza:1 pécs:1 pest:1 salgótarján:1 somogy:1 szabolcs:1 szatmár:1 bereg:1 szeged:1 szekszárd:1 székesfehérvár:1 szombathely:1 tatabánya:1 tolna:1 va:1 veszprém:2 zala:1 zalaegerszeg:1 international:1 organization:1 abeda:1 australia:1 group:2 bi:1 ce:1 cei:1 cern:1 eapc:1 ebrd:1 ece:1 eu:1 may:2 fao:1 g:1 iaea:1 ibrd:1 icao:1 icc:1 icrm:1 ida:1 iea:1 ifc:1 ifrcs:1 ilo:1 imf:1 imo:1 inmarsat:1 intelsat:1 interpol:1 ioc:1 iom:1 iso:1 itu:1 ituc:1 nam:1 guest:1 nato:1 nea:1 nsg:1 oas:1 observer:1 oecd:1 opcw:1 osce:1 pca:1 pfp:1 seci:1 un:1 unctad:1 unesco:1 unficyp:1 unhcr:1 unido:1 unikom:1 unmibh:1 unmik:1 unomig:1 unu:1 upu:1 wco:1 weu:1 associate:1 wftu:1 visegrád:1 wipo:1 wmo:1 wtoo:1 wtro:1 zangger:1 ministry:12 note:1 restructruring:1 reorganization:1 information:1 change:1 even:1 within:1 governmental:1 period:1 miniszterelnöki:1 hivatal:1 csaba:1 molnár:1 agriculture:1 rural:1 development:2 földművelésügyi:1 és:7 vidékfejlesztési:1 minisztérium:9 józsef:1 gráf:1 defence:1 honvédelmi:1 imre:2 szekeres:1 economic:1 affair:3 nemzeti:1 fejlesztési:1 gazdasági:1 tamas:1 vahl:1 education:1 culture:1 oktatási:1 kultúrális:1 istván:1 hiller:1 environmental:1 protection:1 water:1 környezetvédelmi:1 vízügyi:1 szabó:1 finance:1 pénzügyminisztérium:1 peter:3 oszko:1 foreign:1 külügyminisztérium:1 balazs:1 health:1 egészségügyi:1 tamás:1 székely:1 justice:1 enforcement:1 igazságügyi:1 rendészeti:1 tibor:1 draskovics:1 transport:1 communication:1 energy:1 közlekedési:1 hírközlési:1 energiaügyi:1 honig:1 social:1 labour:1 szociális:1 munkaügyi:1 laszlo:1 herczog:1 without:2 portfolio:2 péter:1 kiss:1 source:1 differ:1 english:2 name:1 external:1 link:1 hu:1 language:1 resource:1 |@bigram prime_minister:6 pluriform_multi:1 judiciary_independent:1 constitutional_amendment:1 commander_chief:1 legislative_branch:1 seat_constituency:5 proportional_representation:1 judicial_branch:1 supreme_court:1 legally_bind:1 ce_cei:1 cern_eapc:1 eapc_ebrd:1 ebrd_ece:1 ece_eu:1 iaea_ibrd:1 ibrd_icao:1 icao_icc:1 icc_icrm:1 icrm_ida:1 ida_iea:1 ifc_ifrcs:1 ifrcs_ilo:1 ilo_imf:1 imf_imo:1 imo_inmarsat:1 inmarsat_intelsat:1 intelsat_interpol:1 interpol_ioc:1 ioc_iom:1 iom_iso:1 iso_itu:1 itu_ituc:1 ituc_nam:1 nam_guest:1 nato_nea:1 nea_nsg:1 nsg_oas:1 oas_observer:1 oecd_opcw:1 opcw_osce:1 osce_pca:1 pca_pfp:1 seci_un:1 un_unctad:1 unctad_unesco:1 unhcr_unido:1 unmibh_unmik:1 upu_wco:1 wco_weu:1 weu_associate:1 wipo_wmo:1 wmo_wtoo:1 wtoo_wtro:1 wtro_zangger:1 zangger_committee:1 minisztérium_minister:9 foreign_affair:1 external_link:1 |
1,511 | Northern_Territory | The Northern Territory is a federal territory of Australia, occupying much of the centre of the mainland continent, as well as the central northern regions. It shares borders with Western Australia to the west, South Australia to the south, and Queensland to the east. To the north, the territory is bordered by the Timor Sea, the Arafura Sea and the Gulf of Carpentaria. Despite its large area — over , making it the third largest Australian federal division — it is sparsely populated. With a population of 221,100 ABS population estimates (September 2008) it is the least populous division on the mainland. The history of the Northern Territory began over 40,000 years ago when Indigenous Australians settled the region. Makassan traders began trading with the indigenous people of the Northern Territory for trepang from at least the 18th century onwards, and very likely for 300 years prior to that, while the coast of the territory was first seen by Europeans in the 17th century. The British were the first Europeans to attempt to settle the coastal regions in the 19th century; however no attempt was successful until the establishment of a settlement at Port Darwin in 1869. Today the economy is based on tourism, especially Kakadu National Park in the Top End and the Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park (Ayers Rock) in central Australia, and mining. The capital city is Darwin. The population is not concentrated in coastal regions but rather along the Stuart Highway. The other major settlements are Katherine, Alice Springs, Tennant Creek and Nhulunbuy in the territory's north-east. Residents of the Northern Territory are often known simply as 'Territorians'. History Indigenous Australians have lived in the present area of the Northern Territory for an estimated 40,000 years, and extensive seasonal trade links existed between them and the peoples of what is now Indonesia for at least five centuries. With the coming of the British, there were four early attempts to settle the harsh environment of the northern coast, of which three failed in starvation and despair. The Northern Territory was part of New South Wales from 1825 to 1863, except for a brief time from February to December 1846, when it was part of the short lived colony of North Australia. It was part of South Australia from 1863 to 1911. Under the administration of South Australia, the overland telegraph was constructed between 1870 and 1872. A railway was also built between Palmerston and Pine Creek between 1883 and 1889. The economic pattern of cattle raising and mining was established so that by 1911 there were 513,000 cattle. Victoria River Downs was at one time the largest cattle station in the world. Gold was found at Grove Hill in 1872 and at Pine Creek, Brocks Creek, Burrundi, and copper was found at Daly River. Letters Patent annexing the Northern Territory to South Australia, 1863 On 1 January 1911, a decade after federation, the Northern Territory was separated from South Australia and transferred to Commonwealth control. Alfred Deakin opined at this time "To me the question has been not so much commercial as national, first, second, third and last. Either we must accomplish the peopling of the northern territory or submit to its transfer to some other nation." For a brief time between 1927 and 1931 the Northern Territory was divided into North Australia and Central Australia at the 20th parallel of South latitude. Soon after this time, parts of the Northern Territory were considered in the "Kimberley Scheme" as a possible site for the establishment of a Jewish Homeland, understandably considered the "Unpromised Land". During World War II, most of the Top End was placed under military government. This is the only time since Federation that an Australian state or territory has been under military control. After the war, control for the entire area was handed back to the Commonwealth. Indigenous Australians had struggled for rights to fair wages and land. An important event in this struggle was the strike and walk off by the Gurindji people at Wave Hill Cattle Station in 1966. The Commonwealth Government of Gough Whitlam set up the Woodward Royal Commission in February 1973 set to inquire into how land rights might be achieved in the Northern Territory. Justice Woodward's first report in July 1973 recommended that a Central Land Council and a Northern Land Council be established in order to present to him the views of Aboriginal people. In response to the report of the Royal Commission a Land Rights Bill was drafted, but the Whitlam Government was dismissed before it was passed. The Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act 1976 was eventually passed by the Fraser Government on 16 December 1976 and began operation on the following Australia Day (26 January 1977). In 1978 the Territory was granted responsible government, with a Legislative Assembly headed by a Chief Minister. During 1996 the Northern Territory was briefly one of the few places in the world with legal voluntary euthanasia, until the Federal Parliament overturned the legislation. Federal Parliament NT Legislation, http://www.nt.gov.au/lant/parliament/committees/rotti/parldebate.shtml Before the overriding legislation was enacted, three people committed suicide through voluntary euthanasia, a practice orchestrated by Dr. Philip Nitschke. Government The legislative assembly building in Darwin. Parliament The Northern Territory is one of the three unicameral parliament's in the country based on the Westminster System. The Northern Territory Parliament consists of only one house, the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly which was created in 1974, replacing the Northern Territory Legislative Council. The Northern Territory Legislative Council was the partly elected governing body from 1947 until its replacement by the fully elected Northern Territory Legislative Assembly in 1974. The total enrolment for the 1947 election was 4,443, all of whom were white. The Northern Territory was split into five electorates: Darwin, Alice Springs, Tennant Creek, Batchelor, and Stuart. Whilst this assembly exercises similar powers as the governments of the states of Australia, it does so by legislated delegation of powers from the commonwealth government, rather than by any constitutional right. The Monarch represented by the Administrator of the Northern Territory which is similar to that of state governors. Twenty-five members of the Legislative Assembly are elected to four-year terms from single-member electorates. For several years there has been agitation for full statehood. A referendum was held on the issue in 1998, which was resolved in the negative. This was a shock to both the Northern Territory and Commonwealth governments, for opinion polls showed most Territorians supported statehood. However, under the Australian Constitution, the Federal Government may set the terms of entry to full statehood. The Northern Territory was offered three Senators, rather than the twelve guaranteed to original states. (Because of the difference in populations, equal numbers of Senate seats would mean a Territorian's vote for a Senator would have been worth more than 30 votes in New South Wales or Victoria.) Alongside what was cited as an arrogant approach adopted by then Chief Minister Shane Stone, it is believed that most Territorians, regardless of their general views on statehood, were reluctant to adopt the particular offer that was made. Chief Minister and Cabinet The Chief Minister of the Northern Territory is the head of government of a self-governing territory, while the head of government of a state is a Premier. The Chief Minister is appointed by the Administrator of the Northern Territory, who in normal circumstances will appoint the head of whatever party holds the majority of seats in the Northern Territory Legislative Assembly. The current Chief Minister of the Northern Territory is Paul Henderson. Paul Henderson replaced Claire Martin on 26 November 2007. The Leader of the Opposition was Denis Burke, head of the Country Liberal Party, until the Territory elections of June 2005, where Burke lost his seat. The party then chose Terry Mills as the new Opposition Leader. Subsequently, Jodeen Carney took over for a time. In January 2008, Terry Mills again became the Opposition Leader. Administrator The Northern Territory received self-government on 1 July 1978 under its own Administrator of the Northern Territory appointed by the Governor-General of Australia. The Commonwealth government, not the Government of the Northern Territory, advises the governor-general on appointment of the Administrator, but by convention, consults first with the Territory Government. The current administrator, Tom Pauling, was sworn in on 9 November 2007. Federal government The Northern Territory is represented in the Commonwealth parliament by two Members in the House of Representatives, currently Warren Snowdon and Damian Hale for the Australian Labor Party (ALP), and two members in the Senate, currently Trish Crossin for the ALP and Nigel Scullion for the CLP. Local Government The Northern Territory is incorporated into 17 Local Government Areas, including 11 shires and 5 municipalities. Shire, city and town councils are responsible for functions delegated by the Northern Territory parliament, such as city planning, road infrastructure and waste management. Council revenue comes mostly from property taxes and government grants. Demographics Northern Territorypopulation by year 1901 4,765 1956 19,556 1961 44,481 1974 102,924 1975 92,869 1981 122,616 1991 165,493 2002 199,411 2006 210,600 2011 236,300 2021 296,300 2031 364,000 2056 573,000 Source: Australian Bureauof Statistics Darwin skyline from East Point The population of the Northern Territory in late 2006 was estimated at 212,600 This was an 1.8% increase from the 2001 Australian Bureau of Statistics report, and the population represents 1% of the total population of Australia. The estimated population of the Northern Territory at the end of 2008 was 221,100. The population grew 2.2% which was the second largest growth in the country with Queensland after Western Australia which grew 2.4%. The Northern Territory's population is the youngest in Australia and has the largest proportion under 15 years of age and the smallest proportion aged 65 and over. The median age of residents of the Northern Territory is 30.3 years, almost six years younger than the national median age. More than 100 nationalities are represented in the Northern Territory's population, including more than 50 organisations representing different ethnic groups. The 2006 Census revealed that of the Northern Territory's population, 68.4% is of European descent. 64,491 (30.6%) English with 44,662 (20.2%), Irish with 14,346 (6.8%), Scottish with 11,759 (5.6%), German with 7,729 (3.7%) and Italian with 3,308 (1.5%). Indigenous Australian people make up 31% of the Northern Territory's population, while Chinese people with 4,081 make up (1.9%). Indigenous Australians own some 49% of the land. The life expectancy of Aboriginal Australians is well below that of non-Indigenous Australians in the Northern Territory, a fact that is mirrored elsewhere in Australia. ABS statistics suggest that Indigenous Australians die about 20 years earlier than the average Australian. There are Aboriginal communities in many parts of the territory, the largest ones being the Pitjantjatjara near Uluru, the Arrernte near Alice Springs, the Luritja between those two, the Warlpiri further north, and the Yolngu in eastern Arnhem Land. In terms of birthplace, according to the 2006 census 13.8% of the population were born overseas. 2.6% of Territorians were born in England, 1.7% in New Zealand, 1.0% in Philippines, 0.6% in the United States and 0.5% in East Timor. More than 54% of Territorians live in Darwin, located in the territory's north (Top End). The greater Darwin metropolitan area and nearby Palmerston is home to 120,900 people. Less than half of the territory's population live in the rural Northern Territory. Rank Statistical Division/District 2007 - 2008 Population 1 Darwin 120,652 2 Palmerston 28,621 3 Alice Springs 27,481 4 Katherine 9,912 5 Nhulunbuy 4,849 6 Tennant Creek 3,494 7 Wadeye 2,322 8 Jabiru 1,287 9 Yulara 1,186 Religion 53.6% of Territorians describe themselves Christian. Roman Catholics form the single largest religious group in the territory with 20.3% of the Northern Territory's population, followed by Anglican (12.7%), Uniting Church (7.0%) and Lutheran (3.6%). Buddhism is the territory's largest non - Christian religion (1.4%), followed by Islam (0.5%) and Hinduism (0.2%). around 21.9% of territorians claim no religion. Profiles&textversion=true&navmapdisplayed=true&breadcrumb=PLD&&collection=census&period=2006&producttype=Community Profiles&#Basic Community Profile 2006 Census Community Profile Series : Northern Territory Land Rights Aboriginal rock art in Kakadu National Park The Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act 1976 established the basis upon which Aboriginal people in the Northern Territory could, for the first time, claim rights to land based on traditional occupation. In effect it allowed title to be transferred for most of the Aboriginal reserve lands and the opportunity to claim other land not owned, leased or being used by someone else. The Land Councils are representative bodies with statutory authority under the Act. They also have responsibilities under the Native Title Act 1993 and the Pastoral Land Act 1992. There are four Land Councils in the Northern Territory, they are: the Anindilyakawa Land Council covering Groote Eylandt in the Gulf of Carpentaria. the Central Land Council is in the southern half of the Northern Territory. The region covers 771,747 square kilometres (297,973&nbps;sq mi) of remote, rugged and often inaccessible areas. There are 18,000 Aboriginal people from 15 different Aboriginal language groups in Central Australia. the Northern Land Council covering the Top End. the Tiwi Land Council covering Bathurst and Melville Islands north of Darwin. The Northern Territory Emergency Response provides for the Commonwealth Government to compulsorily acquire five year leases of townships currently held under the title provisions of the Native Title Act 1993 through with compensation on a basis other than just terms. (The number of settlements involved remains unclear.) Education Primary and secondary A Northern Territory school education consists of six years of primary schooling, including one transition year, three years of middle schooling, and three years of secondary schooling. In the beginning of 2007, the Northern Territory introduced Middle School for Years 7-9 and High School for Years 10-12. Northern Territory children generally begin school at age five. On completing secondary school, students earn the Northern Territory Certificate of Education (NTCE). Students who successfully complete their secondary education also receive a tertiary entrance ranking, or ENTER score, to determine university admittance. An International Baccalaureate is offered at one school in the Territory - Kormilda College. Northern Territory schools are either publicly or privately funded. Public schools, also known as state or government schools, are funded and run directly by the Department of Employment, Education and Training. Department of Employment, Education and Training, http://www.deet.nt.gov.au/education/ Private fee-paying schools include schools run by the Catholic Church and independent schools, some elite ones similar to English public schools. Some Northern Territory Independent schools are affiliated with Protestant, Lutheran, Anglican, Greek Orthodox or Seventh-day Adventist churches, but include non church schools and an Indigenous school. As of 2007, the Northern Territory had 150 public schools, 15 Catholic schools and 20 independent schools. 33,000 students were enrolled in public schools, and 3,373 in private schools and 4,684 in catholic schools. The Northern Territory has about 4,000 full-time teachers. Tertiary Charles Darwin University The Northern Territory has one university. Northern Territory University (now called Charles Darwin University) enrolled its first student in 1987. Charles Darwin University Annual Report, http://www.cdu.edu.au/vc/annualreport.html Charles Darwin University had about 19,000 students enrolled: about 5500 higher education students and about 13500 VET students. The first tertiary institution in the territory was the Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education (established in mid 1960s). Libraries The Northern Territory State Library is the Territory's research and reference library. It is responsible for collecting and preserving the Northern Territory documentary heritage and making it available through a range of programs and services. Material in the collection includes books, newspapers, magazines, journals, manuscripts, maps, pictures, objects, sound and video recordings and databases. Geography Northern Territory towns, settlements and road network There are many very small settlements scattered across the territory, but the larger population centres are located on the single paved road that links Darwin to southern Australia, the Stuart Highway, known to locals simply as "the track". The Northern Territory is also home to two spectacular natural rock formations, Uluru (Ayers Rock) and Kata Tjuta (The Olgas), which are sacred to the local Aboriginal peoples and which have become major tourist attractions. In the northern part of the territory lies Kakadu National Park, which features breathtaking wetlands and native wildlife. To the north of that lies the Arafura Sea, and to the east lies Arnhem Land, whose regional centre is Maningrida on the Liverpool River delta. There is an extensive series of river systems in the Northern Territory. These rivers include: Alligator River, Daly River, Finke River, McArthur River, Roper River, Todd River and Victoria River. National parks Mount Sonder, the second highest mountain in the Northern Territory after nearby Mount Zeil, in West MacDonnell National Park Nourlangie Rock in Kakadu National Park Arnhem Land (Restricted Area) Barranyi Nth. Island National Park Casuarina Coastal Reserve Daly River Nature Park Devils Marbles Conservation Reserve Djukbinj National Park Elsey National Park Finke Gorge National Park Gregory National Park Gurig National Park-now Garig Gunak Barlu National Park Howard Springs Nature Park Conservation Reserve Kakadu National Park Keep River National Park Watarrka National Park (including Kings Canyon) Litchfield National Park Mary River Crossing Conservation Reserve and proposed Mary River National Park Mataranka Thermal Springs Nitmiluk National Park Katherine Gorge Palm Valley Tanami Desert The Olgas Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park Watarrka National Park West MacDonnell National Park Uluru, (Ayers Rock) one of the most well known images of the Northern Territory Climate Average monthly maximumtemperature in Northern TerritoryMonthDarwinAlice SpringsJanuary31.8 °C 36.3 °CFebruary31.4 °C35.1 °CMarch31.9 °C32.7 °CApril32.7 °C28.2 °CMay32.0 °C23.0 °CJune30.6 °C19.8 °CJuly30.5 °C19.7 °CAugust31.3 °C22.6 °CSeptember32.5 °C27.1 °COctober33.2 °C30.9 °CNovember33.2 °C33.7 °CDecember33.6 °C35.4 °C Source: Bureau of Meteorology The Northern Territory has two distinctive climate zones. The northern end, including Darwin, has a tropical climate with high humidity and two seasons, the wet (November to April) and dry season (May to October). During the dry season nearly every day is warm and sunny, and afternoon humidity averages around 30%. There is very little rainfall between May and September. In the coolest months of June and July, the daily minimum temperature may dip as low as , but very rarely lower, and frost has never been recorded. The wet season is associated with tropical cyclones and monsoon rains. The majority of rainfall occurs between December and March (the southern hemisphere summer), when thunderstorms are common and afternoon relative humidity averages over 70% during the wettest months. On average more than of rain falls in the north. The central region is the desert centre of the country, which includes Alice Springs and Ayers Rock, and is semi-arid with little rain usually falling during the hottest months from October to March. Central Australia receives less than of rain per year. The highest maximum temperature recorded in the territory was at Finke on 2 January 1960. The lowest minimum temperature was at Alice Springs on 12 July 1976. World Extremes, http://members.iinet.net.au/~jacob/worldtp.html Economy The Northern Territory's economy is largely driven by mining, which is concentrated on energy producing minerals, petroleum and energy and contributes around $2.5 billion to the gross state product and employs over 4,600 people. Mining accounts for 26 per cent of the gross state product in 2006 - 2007 compared to just 7 per cent nationally. About Minerals and Energy Department of Regional Development, Primary Industry, Fisheries and Resources The economy has continued to grow during the 2005 - 2006 financial year from the past two financial years. Between 2003 and 2006 the gross state product had risen from $8,670 million to $11,476 million and increase of 32.4 per cent. During the three years to 2006 - 2007 the Northern Territory gross state product grew by an average annual rate of 5.5 per cent. Northern Territory Budget Gross state product per capita in the Northern Territory ($63,548) is also higher than the gross domestic product per capita for Australia ($45,021). This can be attributed to the recent mining and resources boom. The Northern Territory's exports were up 19 per cent during 2005 - 2006. The largest contributor to the territories exports was: oil and gas (33.4 per cent), iron-ore (20. per cent), other manufactoring (5.9 per cent) and agriculture (4.9 per cent). Imports to the Northern Territory totalled $2,887.8 million which consisted of mainly machinery and equipment manufactoring (58.4 per cent) and petroleum, coal, chemical and associated product manufacturing (17.0 per cent). The Ranger Mine The principal mining operations are bauxite at Gove Peninsula where the production is estimated to increase 52.1 per cent to $254 million in 2007-08. Manganese at Groote Eylandt, production is estimated to increase 10.5 per cent to $1.1 billion which will be helped by the newly developed mines include Bootu Creek and Frances Creek. Gold is estimated to increase 21.7 per cent to $482 million at the Union Reefs plant. Uranium at Ranger Uranium Mine. Northern Territory Budget Mining and energy Tourism is one of the major industries on the Northern Territory. Iconic destinations such as Uluru and Kakadu make the Northern Territory a popular destination for domestic and international travellers. Diverse landscapes, spectacular waterfalls, wide open spaces, aboriginal culture, wild and untamed wildlife, all create a unique opportunity for the visitor to immerse themselves in the natural wonder that the Northern Territory offers. Images of Uluru (Ayers Rock) are recognised around the world ensuring that Tourism in the Northern Territory will remain a vital component of its future. In 2005-06, 1.38 million people visited the Northern Territory. They stayed for 9.2 million nights and spent over $1.5 billion. The territory is well known for being promoted with the slogan "You'll Never Never Know if you Never Never Go". This was implemented as a result of the Kennedy Review in 1992. Sport Transport The Ghan, which runs across the Territory from north to south, in Alice Springs. The Northern Territory is the most sparsely populated state or territory in Australia. Despite its sparse population there is a network of sealed roads connecting the major population centres, the neighboring states, and some other centres such as Uluru (Ayers Rock), Kakadu and Litchfield National Parks. The Stuart Highway, known as "The Track", runs north to south, connecting Darwin and Alice Springs to Adelaide. Some of the sealed roads are single lane bitumen. Many unsealed (dirt) roads connect the more remote settlements. The Adelaide-Darwin Railway, a new standard gauge railway, connects Adelaide via Alice Springs with Darwin, replacing earlier narrow gauge railways which only went north as far as Alice Springs. The Northern Territory was one of the few remaining places in the world with no speed restrictions on public roads. Since 1 January 2007 a default speed limit of 110 km/h applies on roads outside of urban areas (Inside urban areas of 40, 50 or 60 km/h). Speeds of up to 130 km/h are permitted on some major highways, such as the Stuart Highway. As of June 2007 however road deaths were up 28.6% compared to the previous year. The road toll has also increased, by 35.7%. However, claims that the road toll increased after the introduction of speed limits have to be viewed cautiously, because there are only a small number of road deaths in the Territory each year, and the annual variation (expressed as a percentage) is therefore large. For example, the road toll increase of 35.7% is a change from 14 deaths to 19 deaths, which can be accounted for by just one or two additional accidents. Darwin International Airport is the major domestic and international airport for the territory. Several smaller airports are also scattered throughout the Territory and are served by smaller airlines; including Alice Springs Airport, Ayers Rock Airport and Tennant Creek Airport. Media Print The Northern Territory has only one daily tabloid newspaper, News Corporation's Northern Territory News, Centralian Advocate which is circulated around the Alice Springs region twice a week. Also published is one Sunday tabloid newspaper The Sunday Territorian. There are also 5 weekly Community Newspapers. The Northern Territory also receives the national daily, The Australian Television Metropolitan Darwin has had five broadcast television stations: ABC Northern Territory. Produces nightly local news at 7pm. (digital & analogue) (callsign: ABD - Channel 6 Analogue, Channel 30 Digital) SBS Northern Territory (digital & analogue) (callsign: SBS - Channel 28 Analogue, Channel 29 Digital) Seven Network/Southern Cross Television Darwin. Produces weeknightly local news updates . (digital & analogue) (callsign: TND - Channel 34 Analogue, Channel 32 Digital) Nine Network Darwin. Produces weeknightly local news from 6pm - 6.30pm. (digital & analogue) (callsign: NTD - Channel 8 Analogue, Channel 31 Digital) Network Ten/Darwin Digital Television Darwin. Receives Ten News At Five from ATV-10 in Melbourne. (digital & analogue) (callsign: DTD - Channel 33 Digital) In addition, broadcasters operate digital multichannels: ABC2 (carried by ABD) SBS World News Channel (carried by SBS) Ten HD (carried by DTD) Nine HD (carried by NTD) Regional Northern Territory has a similar availability of stations. Imparja Television is produced from Alice Springs and is available throughout most of the Northern Territory. Produces weeknightly local news 6pm - 6:30pm. Radio Darwin has radio stations on both AM and FM frequencies. ABC stations include ABC NewsRadio (102.5FM), 105.7 ABC Darwin (8DDD 105.7FM), ABC Radio National (657AM), ABC Classic FM (107.3FM) and Triple J (103.3FM). The 2 commercial stations are: Mix 104.9 (8MIX), Hot 100 (8HOT) The leading community stations are 104.1 Territory FM and Radio Larrakia (8KNB). See also Darwin Towns in the Northern Territory Cities in the Northern Territory Local Government Areas of the Northern Territory List of people from Darwin Crime in the Northern Territory Northern Territory Police Highways in the Northern Territory Australian Aboriginal Prehistoric Sites Notes References Hill, Ernestine. 1951. The Territory: The classic saga of Australia's far north. Angus & Robertson. Reprint: 1995. ISBN 0-207-18821-1 Govan, A. (2007) Broadband debate key to NT's future. N.T. Business Review, vol. N/A, no. N/A, p.7 Morrison, P. (2000) a pilot implementation of internet access for remote aboriginal communities in the "Top end" Of Australia. Urban Studies, Vol. 37, No.10, pp. 1781–1792. Toyne, P. (2002) Northern Territory Governments Response to the House of Representatives Communications, Information Technology & the Arts Committee inquiry into Wireless Broadband Communications. In N.T. GOVERNMENT (Ed.) (pp. 3). Darwin: Northern Territory Government. Toyne, P. (2003) Remote Areas Telecommunications Strategy 2003-2008. In N. T. GOVERNMENT (Ed.) (pp.1– 32). Darwin N.T. viewed 6 February 2008, <http://www.nt.gov.au/dcis/it/docs/ntg_remote_telec_strat.pdf> External links Northern Territory Government of Australia Northern Territory Visitor's Guide Northern Territory National Emergency Response Bill 2007 Intervention Program in Indigenous communities and town camps Northern Territory Climate Northern-Territory Northern Territory Climate Northern Territory economy/mining Northern Territory Education Report on NT Education Northern Territory Universities Northern Territory Population estimates June 2007 June 2007 NT population estimates | Northern_Territory |@lemmatized northern:115 territory:136 federal:6 australia:26 occupy:1 much:2 centre:6 mainland:2 continent:1 well:4 central:8 region:7 share:1 border:2 western:2 west:3 south:11 queensland:2 east:5 north:13 timor:2 sea:3 arafura:2 gulf:2 carpentaria:2 despite:2 large:11 area:11 make:6 third:2 australian:17 division:3 sparsely:2 populated:2 population:22 abs:2 estimate:7 september:2 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1,512 | Central_Asia | Physical map of Central Asia from the Caucasus in the northwest, to Mongolia in the northeast. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east, and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south. It is also sometimes known as Middle Asia or Inner Asia, and is within the scope of the wider Eurasian continent. Various definitions of its exact composition exist and no one definition is universally accepted. Despite this uncertainty in defining borders, it does have some important overall characteristics. For one, Central Asia has historically been closely tied to its nomadic peoples and the Silk Road. Steppe Nomads and Central Asia As a result, it has acted as a crossroads for the movement of people, goods, and ideas between Europe, Western Asia, South Asia, and East Asia. Travelers on the Silk Road In modern context, Central Asia consists of the five former Soviet republics of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. Other areas are often included such as Afghanistan, northeastern Iran and western parts of the People's Republic of China such as Xinjiang. Mongolia, Jammu and Kashmir, Northern Areas of Pakistan, southwestern and middle China such as Tibet, Qinghai, Gansu and Inner Mongolia, and southern parts of Siberia may also be included in Central Asia. During pre-Islamic and early Islamic times, Central Asia was a predominantely Iranian Encyclopædia Iranica, "CENTRAL ASIA: The Islamic period up to the mongols", C. Edmund Bosworth: "In early Islamic times Persians tended to identify all the lands to the northeast of Khorasan and lying beyond the Oxus with the region of Turan, which in the Shahnama of Ferdowsi is regarded as the land allotted to Fereydun's son Tur. The denizens of Turan were held to include the Turks, in the first four centuries of Islam essentially those nomadizing beyond the Jaxartes, and behind them the Chinese (see Kowalski; Minorsky, "Turan"). Turan thus became both an ethnic and a geographical term, but always containing ambiguities and contradictions, arising from the fact that all through Islamic times the lands immediately beyond the Oxus and along its lower reaches were the homes not of Turks but of Iranian peoples, such as the Sogdians and Khwarezmians." C.E. Bosworth, "The Appearance of the Arabs in Central Asia under the Umayyads and the establishment of Islam", in History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol. IV: The Age of Achievement: AD 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century, Part One: The Historical, Social and Economic Setting, edited by M. S. Asimov and C. E. Bosworth. Multiple History Series. Paris: UNESCO Publishing, 1998. excerpt from page 23: "Central Asia in the early seventh century, was ethnically, still largely an Iranian land whose people used various Middle Iranian languages. region that included sedentary Sogdians, Chorasmians and semi-nomadic Scythians, Alans. The ancient sedentary population played an important role in the history of Central Asia. Tajiks, Pashtuns, Pamiris and other Iranian groups are still present in the region. After expansion by Turkic peoples, central Asia became also the homeland for many Turkic peoples, including the Uzbeks, Kazakhs, Kyrgyz and Uyghurs, and Central Asia is sometimes referred to as Turkestan. Definitions Three sets of possible boundaries for the region Central Asia's location as a region of the world The idea of Central Asia as a distinct region of the world was introduced in 1843 by the geographer Alexander von Humboldt. The borders of Central Asia are subject to multiple definitions. Many text books still refer to this area as Turkestan, which was the name used prior to Stalin's rule. The most limited definition was the official one of the Soviet Union that defined the "Middle Asia" as consisting solely of Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan, but did not include Kazakhstan, Afghanistan and Mongolia. This definition was also often used outside the USSR in this period. However, the Russian language has two distinct terms: Средняя Азия (Srednyaya Aziya or "Middle Asia", the narrower definition which includes only those traditionally non-Slavic, "Central Asian" lands that were incorporated within those borders of historical Russia) and Центральная Азия (Tsentral'naya Aziya or "Central Asia", the wider definition which includes "Central Asian" lands that have never been part of historical Russia). However, there lacks a meaningful distinction between the two in the English language; and so "Central Asia" is used for both Russian usages, thus creating some confusion. Soon after independence, the leaders of the five former Soviet Central Asian Republics met in Tashkent and declared that the definition of Central Asia should include Kazakhstan as well as the original four included by the Soviets. Since then, this has become the most common definition of Central Asia. The UNESCO general history of Central Asia, written just before the collapse of the USSR, defines the region based on climate and uses far larger borders. According to it, Central Asia includes Mongolia, Tibet, Kashmir and Ladakh divisions of Jammu & Kashmir and, northeast Iran (Golestan, North Khorasan, and Razavi provinces), Afghanistan, Northern Areas of Pakistan and the N.W.F.P. province, central-east Russia south of the Taiga, and the former Central Asian Soviet Republics (the five "Stans" of the former Soviet Union). An alternative method is to define the region based on ethnicity, and in particular, areas populated by Eastern Turkic, Eastern Iranian, or Mongolian peoples. These areas include Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, the Turkic regions of southern Siberia, the five republics, and Afghan Turkestan. Afghanistan as a whole and Northern Areas of Pakistan may also be included. The Tibetans and Ladakhi are also included. Insofar, the mentioned peoples are considered the "indigenous" peoples of the vast region. There are several places that claim to be the geographic center of Asia, for example Kyzyl, the capital of the Tuvan Republic in the Russian Federation, and a village North of Urumqi, Xinjiang, China. 43°40'52"N 87°19'52"E Degree Confluence Project. Geography Climate map of Central Asia. This map clearly illustrates the boundaries of Central Asia. From the northwest, the mountain climate (purple) extends from the Caucasus, through Iranian Azerbaijan, along the Iranian border, through Afghanistan, and Pakistan and into Tibet in the southeast. The steppe climate (peach) extends from the North Caucasus in the northwest, over the Caspian Sea, through Kazakhstan, and around Mongolia in the northeast. The arid climates of the Ferghana Valley, Takla Makan and Gobi deserts are also prominently visible. The labels refer to the Trewartha climate classification scheme. Central Asia is an extremely large region of varied geography, including high passes and mountains (Tian Shan), vast deserts (Kara Kum, Kyzyl Kum, Taklamakan), and especially treeless, grassy steppes. The vast steppe areas of Central Asia are considered together with the steppes of Eastern Europe as a homogenous geographical zone known as the Euro-Asian Steppe. Much of the land of Central Asia is too dry or too rugged for farming. The Gobi desert extends from the foot of the Pamirs, 77° east, to the Great Khingan (Da Hinggan) Mountains, 116°–118° east. Central Asia has the following geographic extremes: The world's northernmost desert (sand dunes), at Buurug Deliin Els, Mongolia, 50°18' north. The Northern Hemisphere's southernmost permafrost, at Erdenetsogt sum, Mongolia, 46°17' north. The world's shortest distance between non-frozen desert and permafrost: . A majority of the people earn a living by herding livestock. Industrial activity centers in the region's cities. Major rivers of the region include the Amu Darya, the Syr Darya and the Hari River. Major bodies of water include the Aral Sea and Lake Balkhash, both of which are part of the huge west/central Asian endorheic basin that also includes the Caspian Sea. Both of these bodies of water have shrunk significantly in recent decades due to diversion of water from rivers that feed them for irrigation and industrial purposes. Water is an extremely valuable resource in arid Central Asia, and can lead to rather significant international disputes. Climate Since Central Asia is not buffered by a large body of water, temperature fluctuations are more severe. According to the Köppen climate classification system, Central Asia is part of the Palearctic ecozone. The largest biome in Central Asia is the Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome. Central Asia also contains the Montane grasslands and shrublands, Deserts and xeric shrublands and Temperate coniferous forests biomes. History A Scythian horseman from the general area of the Ili river, Pazyryk, c.300 BCE. The history of Central Asia is defined by the area's climate and geography. The aridness of the region made agriculture difficult and its distance from the sea cut it off from much trade. Thus few major cities developed in the region, instead the area was for millennia dominated by the nomadic horse peoples of the steppe. Relations between the steppe nomads and the settled people in and around Central Asia were long marked by conflict. The nomadic lifestyle was well suited to fare and the steppe horse riders became some of the most militarily potent peoples in the world, only limited by their lack of internal unity. Any internal unity that was achieved, was most probably due to the influence of the Silk Road, which traveled along Central Asia. Periodically great leaders or changing conditions would organize several tribes into one force, and create an almost unstoppable power. These included the Hun invasion of Europe, the Wu Hu attacks on China and most notably the Mongol conquest of much of Eurasia. A Land Conquered by the Mongols During pre-Islamic and early Islamic times, southern Central Asia was inhabited predominantly by speakers of Iranian languages. Encyclopædia Iranica, "CENTRAL ASIA: The Islamic period up to the mongols", C. Edmund Bosworth: "In early Islamic times Persians tended to identify all the lands to the northeast of Khorasan and lying beyond the Oxus with the region of Turan, which in the Shahnama of Ferdowsi is regarded as the land allotted to Fereydun's son Tur. The denizens of Turan were held to include the Turks, in the first four centuries of Islam essentially those nomadizing beyond the Jaxartes, and behind them the Chinese (see Kowalski; Minorsky, "Turan"). Turan thus became both an ethnic and a geographical term, but always containing ambiguities and contradictions, arising from the fact that all through Islamic times the lands immediately beyond the Oxus and along its lower reaches were the homes not of Turks but of Iranian peoples, such as the Sogdians and Khwarezmians." C.E. Bosworth, "The Appearance of the Arabs in Central Asia under the Umayyads and the establishment of Islam", in History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Vol. IV: The Age of Achievement: AD 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century, Part One: The Historical, Social and Economic Setting, edited by M. S. Asimov and C. E. Bosworth. Multiple History Series. Paris: UNESCO Publishing, 1998. excerpt from page 23: "Central Asia in the early seventh century, was ethnically, still largely an Iranian land whose people used various Middle Iranian languages. Among the ancient sedentary Iranian peoples, the Sogdians and Chorasmians played an important role, while Iranian peoples such as Scythians and the later on Alans lived a nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle. The dominance of the nomads ended in the 16th century, as firearms allowed settled peoples to gain control of the region. Russia, China, and other powers expanded into the region and had captured the bulk of Central Asia by the end of the nineteenth century. After the Russian Revolution the Central Asian regions were incorporated into the Soviet Union. Mongolia remained independent but became a Soviet satellite state. The Soviet areas of Central Asia saw much industrialization and construction of infrastructure, but also the suppression of local cultures, hundreds of thousands of deaths from failed collectivization programs, and a lasting legacy of ethnic tensions and environmental problems. Soviet authorities deported millions of people, including entire nationalities, Deported Nationalities from western areas of the USSR to Central Asia and Siberia. Anne Applebaum – Gulag: A History Intro With the collapse of the Soviet Union five countries gained independence. In nearly all the new states former Communist Party officials retained power as local strongmen. None of the new republics could be considered functional democracies in the early days of independence, although it appears Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan and Mongolia have made great strides. Other parts of Central Asia remain part of China or Russia. Culture Blue-eyed Central Asian and East-Asian Buddhist monks, Bezeklik, 9th-10th century. Religions Islam is the religion most common in the Central Asian Republics, Afghanistan, Xinjiang and the peripheral western regions, such as Bashkiria. Most Central Asian Muslims are Sunni, although there are sizeable Shia minorities in Afghanistan. Hinduism is the religion most prevalent in northwest India although there is a considerable presence of Islam. There are also sizeable minorities of Hindus in Pakistan and Afghanistan. Tibetan Buddhism is most common in Tibet, Mongolia, and the southern Russian regions of Siberia, where Shamanism is also popular. Increasing Han Chinese migration westward since the establishment of the PRC has brought Confucianism and other beliefs into the region. Nestorianism was the form of Christianity most practiced in the region in previous centuries, but now the largest denomination is the Russian Orthodox Church, with many members in Kazakhstan. The Bukharian Jews were once a sizable community in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, but nearly all have emigrated since the Collapse of the Soviet Union and the revival of Islam in the region. Arts Yama, the Tibetan Lord of Death. At the crossroads of Asia, shamanist practices live alongside Buddhism. Thus Yama, Lord of Death, was revered in Tibet as a spiritual guardian and judge. Mongolian Buddhism in particular influenced Tibetan Buddhism. The Qianlong Emperor of China in the 18th century was Tibetan Buddhist, and would sometimes travel from Beijing to other cities for personal religious worship. Note the human skulls and severed heads that festoon Yama's crown and necklace, which give some concept of the size that Yama was expected to be when one faced him at one's death. This particular Dharmapala is painted wood, four feet high in total. Central Asia also has an indigenous form of improvisational oral poetry which is over 1000 years old. It is principally practiced in Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan by akyns, lyrical improvisationists. They will engage in lyrical battles, the aitysh or the alym sabak. The tradition arose out of early bardic oral historians. They are usually accompanied by a stringed instrument—in Kyrgyzstan, a three-stringed komuz and in Kazakhstan a similar two-stringed instrument. Some also learn to sing the Manas, Kyrgyzstan's epic poem (those who learn the Manas exclusively but do not improvise are called manaschis). During Soviet rule, akyn performance was co-opted by the authorities and subsequently declined in popularity. With the fall of the Soviet Union it has enjoyed a resurgence, although akyns still do use their art to campaign for political candidates. A 2005 Washington Post article proposed a similarity between the improvisational art of akyns and modern freestyle rap performed in the West. «In Central Asia, a Revival of an Ancient Form of Rap - Art of Ad-Libbing Oral History Draws New Devotees in Post-Communist Era» by Peter Finn, Washington Post Foreign Service, Sunday, March 6, 2005, p. A20. Demographics The ethnolinguistic patchwork of Central Asia By the most inclusive definition, more than 80 million people live in Central Asia, about 2% of Asia's total population. Of the regions of Asia, only North Asia has fewer people. It has a population density of 9 people per km², vastly less than the 80.5 people per km² of the continent as a whole. Languages The languages of the majority of the inhabitants of the former Soviet Central Asian Republics come from the Turkic language group. Ethnographic maps Turkmen, closely related to Turkish (they are both members of the Oghuz group of Turkic), is mainly spoken in Turkmenistan and into Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iran and Turkey. Kazakh, Kyrgyz and Tatar are related languages of the Kypchak group of Turkic languages, and are spoken throughout Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, and into Afghanistan, Xinjiang and Qinghai. Uzbek and Uyghur are spoken in Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Xinjiang. Russian, as well as being spoken by around six million ethnic Russians and Ukrainians of Central Asia, Robert Greenall, Russians left behind in Central Asia, BBC News, 23 November 2005. is a lingua franca throughout the former Soviet Central Asian Republics. Mandarin Chinese has an equally dominant presence in Inner Mongolia, Qinghai and Xinjiang. The Turkic languages belong to the much larger, but controversial Altaic language family, which includes Mongolian. Mongolian is spoken throughout the region of Mongolia and into Inner Mongolia, Qinghai and Xinjiang. East Iranian languages were once spoken throughout Central Asia, but the once prominent Sogdian, Khwarezmian, Bactrian and Scythian languages are now extinct. However, the East Iranian Pashto is still spoken in Afghanistan and northwestern Pakistan, and other minor East Iranian languages, such as Shughni, Munji, Ishkashimi, Sarikoli, Wakhi, Yaghnobi and Ossetian are also spoken in various places in Central Asia. Varieties of Persian are also spoken in the region, locally known as Darī (in Afghanistan), Tojikī (by Tajiks in Tajikistan), and Bukhori (by the Bukharan Jews in Bukhara). The Tibetan language is spoken by around six million people across the Tibetan Plateau and into Qinghai and Sichuan. Tocharian, an Indo-European language, was once spoken in Xinjiang and parts of Afghanistan, but is now extinct. Geostrategy Central Asia has long been a strategic location merely because of its proximity to several great powers on the Eurasian landmass. The region itself never held a dominant stationary population, nor was able to make use of natural resources. Thus it has rarely throughout history become the seat of power for an empire or influential state. Central Asia has been divided, redivided, conquered out of existence, and fragmented time and time again. Central Asia has served more as the battleground for outside powers, than as a power in its own right. Central Asia had both the advantage and disadvantage of a central location between four historical seats of power. From its central location, it has access to trade routes to and from all the regional powers. On the other hand, it has been continuously vulnerable to attack from all sides throughout its history, resulting in political fragmentation or outright power vacuum, as it is successively dominated. Political cartoon from the period of the Great Game showing the Afghan Amir Sher Ali with his "friends" Imperial Russia and the United Kingdom (1878) To the North, the steppe allowed for rapid mobility, first for nomadic horseback warriors like the Huns and Mongols, and later for Russian traders, eventually supported by railroads. As the Russian empire expanded to the East, it would also push down into Central Asia towards the sea, in a search for warm water ports. The Soviet bloc would reinforce dominance from the North, and attempt to project power as far south as Afghanistan. To the East, the demographic and cultural weight of Chinese empires continually pushed outward into Central Asia. Manchu Qing dynasty would conquer Uyghurstan/East Turkistan and Tibet. As part of the Sino-Soviet bloc, China would keep Tibet. However, with the Sino-Soviet split, China would project power into Central Asia, most notably in the case of Afghanistan, to counter Russian dominance of the region. To the Southeast, the demographic and cultural influence of India was felt in Central Asia, notably in Tibet, the Hindu Kush, and slightly beyond. Several historical Indian dynasties, especially those seated along the Indus river would expand into Central Asia. India's ability to project power into Central Asia although has been limited due to the mountain ranges in Pakistan (and the country itself, which has somewhat advanced greater into the affairs of the overall region), as well as the cultural differences between Hindu India, and what would become a mostly Muslim Central Asia. To the Southwest, Western Asian powers have expanded into the Southern areas of Central Asia (usually, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan). Several Persian empires would conquer and reconquer parts of Central Asia; Alexander the Great's Hellenic empire would extend into Central Asia; two Islamic empires would exert substantial influence throughout the region; and the modern state of Iran has projected influence throughout the region as well. In the post-Cold War era, Central Asia is an ethnic cauldron, prone to instability and conflicts, without a sense of national identity, but rather a mess of historical cultural influences, tribal and clan loyalties, and religious fervor. Projecting influence into the area is no longer just Russia, but also Turkey, Iran, China, Pakistan, India and the United States: Russia continues to dominate political decision-making throughout the former SSRs, although as other countries move into the area Russia's influence has slowly waned, yet they are still the dominant power. China, already controlling Xinjiang and Tibet, projects significant power in the region, especially in energy/oil politics (for example, through the Shanghai Cooperation Organization). Turkey exerts considerable influence in the region on account of its ethnic and linguistic ties with the Turkic peoples of Central Asia and its involvement in the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline. Political and economic relations are growing rapidly (e.g. Turkey recently eliminated visa requirements for citizens of the Central Asian Turkic republics). Iran, the seat of historical empires which controlled parts of Central Asia, has historical and cultural links to the region, and is vying to construct an oil pipeline from the Caspian Sea to the Persian Gulf. Pakistan, a strong nuclear-armed state as well as having a capable military, helped to sustain Taliban rule in Afghanistan, and is termed capable of exercising influence. For some Central Asian nations, the shortest route to the ocean lies through Pakistan. Pakistan seeks Natural Gas from Central Asia, and supports the development of pipelines from its countries. And the United States with its military involvement in the region, and oil diplomacy, is also significantly involved in the region's politics. War on Terror In the context of the United States' War on Terror, Central Asia has once again become the center of geostrategic calculations. Pakistan's status has been upgraded by the U.S.-government to Major non-NATO ally because of its central role in serving as a staging point for the invasion of Afghanistan, providing intelligence on Al-Qaeda operations in the region, and leading the hunt on Osama bin Laden, believed to still be in the region. Afghanistan, which had served as a haven and source of support for Al-Qaeda, under the protection of Mullah Omar and the Taliban, was the target of a U.S. invasion in 2001, and ongoing reconstruction and drug-eradication efforts. U.S. military bases have also been established in Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan, causing both Russia and the People's Republic of China to voice their concern over a permanent U.S. military presence in the region. Western observers and governments have claimed that Russia, China and the former Soviet republics have taken advantage of the War on Terror to increase oppression of certain ethnic groups, including minority separatist movements, as well as some religious groups. Washington, which considers Russia and China as strategic partners in the War on Terror, has largely turned a blind eye to these claims. Major cultural and economic centres CityCountryPopulationImageInformation Tashkent 2,180,000(2008) The capital of Uzbekistan and the biggest city in Uzbekistan. In pre-Islamic and early Islamic times the town and the province were known as "Chach". Tashkent started as an oasis on the Chirchik River, near the foothills of the Golestan Mountains. In ancient times, this area contained Beitian, probably the summer "capital" of the Kangju confederacy. Pulleyblank, Edwin G. 1963. "The consonantal system of Old Chinese." Asia Major 9 (1963), p. 94. Ashgabat 695,300(2001) The capital of Turkmenistan and the biggest city in Turkmenistan. Ashgabat is a relatively young city, growing out of a village of the same name established by Russians in 1818. It is not far from the site of Nisa, the ancient capital of the Parthians, and it grew on the ruins of the Silk Road city of Konjikala, which was first mentioned as a wine-producing village in 2nd century BCE and was leveled by an earthquake in 1st century BCE (a precursor of the 1948 Ashgabat earthquake). Konjikala was rebuilt because of its advantageous location on the Silk Road and it flourished until its destruction by Mongols in the 13th century CE. After that it survived as a small village until the Russians took over in the 19th century. Konjikala: the Silk Road precursor of Ashgabat Konjikala, in: MaryLee Knowlton, Turkmenistan, Marshall Cavendish, 2006, pp. 40-41, ISBN 0761420142, ISBN 9780761420149 (viewable on Google Books). Kabul 3,000,000(2008) The capital and largest city of Afghanistan. The city of Kabul is thought to have been established between 2000 BCE and 1500 BCE. The history of Afghanistan, Ghandara.com website In the Rig Veda (composed between 1700–1100 BCE) the word "Kubhā" is mentioned, which appears to refer to the Kabul River. "Kabul" Chambers's Encyclopaedia: A Dictionary of Universal Knowledge (1901 edition) J.B. Lippincott Company, NY, page 385 Mashhad 2,427,316(2006) The second largest city in Iran and one of the holiest cities in the Shia world. At the beginning of the 9th century (3th century AH) Mashhad was a small village called Sanabad situated 24km away from Tus. It was not considered a great city until Mongol raids in 1220 which caused the destruction of many large cities in the Greater Khorasan territories, leaving Mashhad relatively intact. Thus the survivors of the massacres migrated to Mashhad. Zabeth (1999) pp. 14-15 Ürümqi Xinjiang AR, PRC 2,681,834(2006) The capital and largest city in Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region and the cultural center of Uyghurs. Two thousand years ago Ürümqi was an important town on the northern route of the Silk Road, a vast network of trade routes that also facilitated cultural exchanges throughout Eurasia. Mazar-e Sharif 600,000 EST.(2008) The fourth largest city in Afghanistan and capital of Balkh province and is linked by roads to Kabul in the south-east, Herat to the west and Uzbekistan to the north. Ulan Bator 1,067,472(2008) The capital and largest city in Mongolia and the cultural center of Mongolians. The city was founded in 1639 as an initially nomadic Buddhist monastic centre. Since 1778 it has been located in the Tuul river valley. In the 20th century, Ulaanbaatar grew into a major manufacturing centre. Samarkand 596,300(2008) The second-largest city in Uzbekistan and the capital of Samarqand Province. The city is most noted for its central position on the Silk Road between China and the West, and for being an Islamic centre for scholarly study. Bishkek 1,250,000(2007) The capital and the largest city of Kyrgyzstan. Bishkek is also the administrative center of Chuy Province which surrounds the city, even though the city itself is not part of the province but rather a province-level unit of Kyrgyzstan. Tous N/A An ancient city in the Iranian province of Razavi Khorasan. To the ancient Greeks, it was known asn Susia (Gr. Σούσια). It was captured by Alexander the Great in 330 BC. The city was almost entirely destroyed by Genghis Khan's Mongol conquest in 1220. Astana 700,000(2009) The capital and second largest city in Kazakhstan. After Kazakhstan gained its independence in 1991, the city and the region were renamed "Aqmola". The name was often translated as "White Tombstone", but actually means "Holy Place" or "Holy Shrine". The "White Tombstone" literal translation was too appropriate for many visitors to escape notice in almost all guide books and travel accounts. In 1994, the city was designated as the future capital of the newly-independent country, and again renamed to the present "Astana" after the capital was officially moved from Almaty in 1997. Dushanbe 679,400(2008) The capital and largest city of Tajikistan. Dushanbe means "Monday" in Tajik and Persian, D. Saimaddinov, S. D. Kholmatova, and S. Karimov, Tajik-Russian Dictionary, Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tajikistan, Rudaki Institute of Language and Literature, Scientific Center for Persian-Tajik Culture, Dushanbe, 2006. and the name reflects the fact that the city grew on the site of a village that originally was a popular Monday marketplace. Bukhara 237,900(1999) The nation's fifth-largest city and the capital of the Bukhara Province of Uzbekistan. Bukhara has been one of the main centres of Persian civilization from its early days in 6th century BCE and since 12th century CE, Turkic speakers gradually moved in. Its architecture and archaeological sites form one of the pillars of the Central Asian history and art. Almaty 1,420,747(2009) It was the capital of Kazakhstan (and its predecessor, the Kazakh SSR) from 1929 to 1998. Despite losing its status as the capital, Almaty remains the major commercial center of Kazakhstan. Nishapur 270,972(2006) The city is located in the Razavi Khorasan province in northeastern Iran, situated in a fertile plain at the foot of the Binalud Mountains, near the regional capital of Mashhad. It's hometown of several respected Persian poets and artists, including Omar Khayyám, Attar Neyshapuri and Kamal-ol-molk. See also Agriculture in Central Asia Central Asian studies Central Asian Union ECO Eurasian nomads Euro-Asian Steppe Great Game (the rivalry between the British Empire and Tsarist Russia in the 19th century for control of Central Asia) Hindutash Khotan Music of Central Asia Soviet Central Asia (1924-1991) Survey of India Turkistan Afghan Turkestan University of Central Asia Ancient India and Central Asia Citations General references Dani, A.H. and V.M. Masson eds. UNESCO History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Paris: UNESCO, 1992. Mandelbaum, Michael. ed. Central Asia and the World: Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Turkmenistan New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1994. Olcott, Martha Brill. Central Asia's New States: Independence, Foreign policy, and Regional security. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1996. Soucek, Svatopluk. A History of Inner Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Marcinkowski, M. Ismail. Persian Historiography and Geography: Bertold Spuler on Major Works Produced in Iran, the Caucasus, Central Asia, Pakistan and Early Ottoman Turkey, Singapore: Pustaka Nasional, 2003. Rall, Ted. "Silk Road to Ruin: Is Central Asia the New Middle East?" New York: NBM Publishing, 2006. Stone, L. A' 'The International Politics of Central Eurasia', (272 pp). Central Eurasian Studies On Line: Accessible via the Web Page of the International Eurasian Institute for Economic and Political Research: http://www.iicas.org/forumen.htm Weston, David. Teaching about Inner Asia, Bloomington, Indiana: ERIC Clearinghouse for Social Studies, 1989. External links The Spektator - Society, culture and travel articles on Kyrgyzstan and the Central Asian region Central Asia Health Review University of Cambridge Central Asia Forum Central Asia Gateway Central Eurasian Studies World Wide National Geographic.com - Nat Geo Music: Central Asian Classical Music page National Geographic.com - Nat Geo Music: Central Asian Bardic Music page Publications on the history of Central Asia Prior to 1917 Policymakers' Guide to Central Asia University of Central Asia Discovery Central Asia magazine: Publications on the travel, history and culture of Central Asia New Europe News Extensive news coverage and analysis of Central Asia. Where West Meets East: The Complex mtDNA Landscape of the Southwest and Central Asian Corridor Texas Tech University, full-text examples of Central Asian literature The International Politics of Central Eurasia], (272 pp). Central Eurasian Studies On Line: The International Eurasian Institute for Economic and Political Research, 2001. 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1,513 | Cartesian_coordinate_system | Illustration of a Cartesian coordinate system. Four points are marked and labeled with their coordinates: (2,3) in green, (−3,1) in red, (−1.5,−2.5) in blue, and the origin (0,0) in purple. In mathematics, a Cartesian coordinate system (also called rectangular coordinate system) specifies each point uniquely in a plane by a pair of numerical coordinates, which are the signed distances from the point to two fixed perpendicular directed lines, measured in the same unit of length. Each reference line is called a coordinate axis or just axis of the system, and the point where they meet is its origin. The coordinates can also be defined as the positions of the perpendicular projections of the point onto the two axes, expressed as a signed distances from the origin. One can use the same principle to specify the position of any point in three-dimensional space by three Cartesian coordinates, its signed distances to three mutually perpendicular planes (or, equivalently, by its perpendicular projection onto three mutually perpendicular lines). In general, one can specify a point in spaces of any dimension n by use of n Cartesian coordinates, the signed distances from n mutually perpendicular hyperplanes. Cartesian coordinate system with the circle of radius 2 centered at the origin marked in red. The equation of the circle is x2 + y2 = 4. The invention of Cartesian coordinates in the 17th century by René Descartes revolutionized mathematics by providing the first systematic link between Euclidean geometry and algebra. Using the Cartesian coordinate system, geometric shapes (such as curves) can be described by Cartesian equations — algebraic equations involving the coordinates of the points lying on the shape. For example, the circle of radius 2 may be described as the set of all points whose coordinates x and y satisfy the equation x2 + y2 = 4. Cartesian coordinates are the foundation of analytic geometry, and provide enlightening geometric interpretations for many other branches of mathematics, such as linear algebra, complex analysis, differential geometry, multivariate calculus, group theory, and more. A familiar example is the concept of the graph of a function. Cartesian coordinates are also essential tools for most applied disciplines that deal with geometry, including astronomy, physics, engineering, and many more. They are the most common coordinate system used in computer graphics, computer-aided geometric design, and other geometry-related data processing. History The adjective Cartesian refers to the French mathematician and philosopher René Descartes (who used the name Cartesius in Latin). The idea of this system was developed in 1637 in two writings by Descartes and independently by Pierre de Fermat, although Fermat used 3 dimensions and did not publish the discovery. In part two of his Discourse on Method, Descartes introduces the new idea of specifying the position of a point or object on a surface, using two intersecting axes as measuring guides. In La Géométrie, he further explores the above-mentioned concepts. It may be interesting to note that some have indicated that the master artists of the Renaissance used a grid, in the form of a wire mesh, as a tool for breaking up the component parts of their subjects they painted. That this may have influenced Descartes is merely speculative. (See perspective, projective geometry.) Representing a vector in the standard basis. The development of the Cartesian coordinate system enabled the development of calculus by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz. A Tour of the Calculus, David Brezinsky Many other coordinate systems have been developed since Descartes, such as the polar coordinates for the plane, and the spherical and cylindrical coordinates for three-dimensional space. Definitions The number line Choosing a Cartesian coordinate system for a one-dimensional space — that is, for a straight line — means choosing a point O of the line (the origin), a unit of length, and an orientation for the line. The latter means choosing which of the two half-lines determined by O is the positive, and which is negative; we then say that the line is oriented (or points) from the negative half towards the positive half. Then each point p of the line can be specified by its distance from O, taken with a + or - sign depending on which half-line contains p. A line with a chosen Cartesian system is called a number line. Every real number, whether integer, rational, or irrational, has a unique location on the line. Conversely, every point on the line can be interpreted as a number in an ordered continuum which includes the real numbers. Cartesian coordinates in two dimensions Choosing a Cartesian coordinate system for a plane means choosing an ordered pair of lines (axes) at right angles to each other, a single unit of length for both axes, and an orientation for each axis. The point where the axes meet is taken as the origin for both axes, thus turning each axis into a number line. Each coordinate of a point p is obtained by drawing a line through p perpendicular to the associated axis, finding the point q where that line meets the axis, and interpreting q as a number of that number line. Cartesian coordinates in three dimensions A three dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, with origin O and axis lines X, Y and Z, oriented as shown by the arrows. The tic marks on the axes are one length unit apart. The black dot shows the point with coordinates X = 2, Y = 3, and Z = 4, or (2,3,4). Choosing a Cartesian coordinate system for a three-dimensional space means choosing an ordered triplet of lines (axes), any two of them being perpendicular; a single unit of length for all three axes; and an orientation for each axis. As in the two-dimensional case, each axis becomes a number line. The coordinates of a point p are obtained by drawing a line through p perpendicular to each axis, and reading the points where these lines meet the axes as three numbers of these number lines. Alternatively, the coordinates of a point p can also be taken as the (signed) distances from p to the three planes defined by the three axes. If the axes are x, y, and z, then the x coordinate is the distance from the plane defined by the y and z axes. The distance is to be taken with the + or − sign, depending on which of the two half-spaces separated by that plane contains p. The y and z coordinates can be obtained in the same way from the (x,z) and (x,y) planes, respectively. The coordinate surfaces of the Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z). The z-axis is vertical and the x-axis is highlighted in green. Thus, the red plane shows the points with x=1, the blue plane shows the points with z=1, and the yellow plane shows the points with y=-1. The three surfaces intersect at the point P (shown as a black sphere) with the Cartesian coordinates (1.0, -1.0, 1.0). Generalizations One can generalize the concept of Cartesian coordinates to allow axes that are not perpendicular to each other, and/or different units along each axis. In that case, each coordinate is obtained by projecting the point onto one axis along a direction that is parallel to the other axis (or, in general, to the hyperplane defined by all the other axes). In those oblique coordinate systems the computations of distances and angles is more complicated than in standard Cartesian systems, and many standard formulas (such as the Pythagorean formula for the distance) do not hold. Notations and conventions The Cartesian coordinates of a point are usually written in parentheses and separated by commas, as in (10,5) or (3,5,7). The origin is often labelled with the capital letter O. In analytic geometry, unknown or generic coordinates are often denoted by the letters x and y on the plane, and x, y, and z in three-dimensional space. w is often used for four-dimensional space, but the rarity of such usage precludes concrete convention here. This custom comes from an old convention of algebra, to use letters near the end of the alphabet for unknown values (such as were the coordinates of points in many geometric problems), and letters near the beginning for given quantities. These conventional names are often used in other domains, such as physics and engineering. However, other letters may be used too. For example, in a graph showng how a pressure varies with time, the graph coordinates may be denoted t and P. Each axis is usually named after the coordinate which is measured along it; so one says the x-axis, the y-axis, the t-axis, etc. Another common convention for coordinate naming is to use subscripts, as in x1, x2, … xn for the n coordinates in an n-dimensional space; especially when n is greater than 3, or variable. Some authors (and many programmers) prefer the numbering x0, x1, … xn−1. These notations are especially advantageous in computer programming: by storing the coordinates of a point as an array, instead of a record, one can use iterative commands or procedure parameters instead of repeating the same commands for each coordinate. In mathematical illustrations of two-dimensional Cartesian systems, the first coordinate (traditionally called the abscissa) is measured along a horizontal axis, oriented from left to right. The second coordinate (the ordinate) is then measured along a vertical axis, usually oriented from bottom to top. However, in computer graphics and image processing one often uses a coordinate system with the y axis pointing down (as displayed on the computer's screen). This convention developed in the 1960s (or earlier) from the way that images were originally stored in display buffers. For three-dimensional systems, mathematicians usually draw the z axis as vertical and pointing up, so that the x and y axes lie on an horizontal plane. There is no prevalent convention for the directions of these two axes, but the orientations are usually chosen according to the right-hand rule. In three dimensions, the names "abscissa" and "ordinate" are rarely used for x and y. When they are, the z-coordinate is sometimes called the applicate. Quadrants and octants The axes of a two-dimensional Cartesian system divide the plane four infinite regions, called quadrants, each bounded by two half-axes. These are often numbered from 1st to 4th and denoted by Roman numerals: I (where he signs of the two coordinates are +,+), II (−,+), III (−,−), and IV (+,−). When the axes are drawn according to the mathematical custom, the numbering goes counter-clockwise starting from the upper right ("northeast") quadrant. The four quadrants of a Cartesian coordinate system. Similarly, a three-dimensional Cartesian system defines a division of space into eight regions or octants, according to the signs of the coordinates of the points. The octant where all three coordinates are positive is sometimes called the first octant; however, there is no established nomenclature for the other octants. The n-dimensional generalization of the quadrant and octant is the orthant. Cartesian space An Euclidean plane with a chosen Cartesian system is called a Cartesian plane. Since Cartesian coordinates are unique and non-ambiguous, the points of a Cartesian plane can be identified with all possible pairs of real numbers; that is with the Cartesian product , where is the set of all reals. In the same way one defines a Cartesian space of any dimension n, whose points can be identified with the tuples (lists) of n real numbers, that is, with . Cartesian formulas for the plane Distance between two points The distance between two points of the plane with Cartesian coordinates and is This is the Cartesian version of Pythagoras' theorem. In three-dimensional space, the distance between points and is which can be obtained by two consecutive applications of Pythagoras' theorem. Orientation and handedness see also: right-hand rule In two dimensions The right hand rule. Fixing or choosing the x-axis determines the y-axis up to direction. Namely, the y-axis is necessarily the perpendicular to the x-axis through the point marked 0 on the x-axis. But there is a choice of which of the two half lines on the perpendicular to designate as positive and which as negative. Each of these two choices determines a different orientation (also called handedness) of the Cartesian plane. The usual way of orienting the axes, with the positive x-axis pointing right and the positive y-axis pointing up (and the x-axis being the "first" and the y-axis the "second" axis) is considered the positive or standard orientation, also called the right-handed orientation. A commonly used mnemonic for defining the positive orientation is the right hand rule. Placing a somewhat closed right hand on the plane with the thumb pointing up, the fingers point from the x-axis to the y-axis, in a positively oriented coordinate system. The other way of orienting the axes is following the left hand rule, placing the left hand on the plane with the thumb pointing up. Regardless of the rule used to orient the axes, rotating the coordinate system will preserve the orientation. Switching the role of x and y will reverse the orientation. In three dimensions Fig. 7 - The left-handed orientation is shown on the left, and the right-handed on the right. Fig. 8 - The right-handed Cartesian coordinate system indicating the coordinate planes. Once the x- and y-axes are specified, they determine the line along which the z-axis should lie, but there are two possible directions on this line. The two possible coordinate systems which result are called 'right-handed' and 'left-handed'. The standard orientation, where the xy-plane is horizontal and the z-axis points up (and the x- and the y-axis form a positively oriented two-dimensional coordinate system in the xy-plane if observed from above the xy-plane) is called right-handed or positive. The name derives from the right-hand rule. If the index finger of the right hand is pointed forward, the middle finger bent inward at a right angle to it, and the thumb placed at a right angle to both, the three fingers indicate the relative directions of the x-, y-, and z-axes in a right-handed system. The thumb indicates the x-axis, the index finger the y-axis and the middle finger the z-axis. Conversely, if the same is done with the left hand, a left-handed system results. Figure 7 is an attempt at depicting a left and a right-handed coordinate system. Because a three-dimensional object is represented on the two-dimensional screen, distortion and ambiguity result. The axis pointing downward (and to the right) is also meant to point towards the observer, whereas the "middle" axis is meant to point away from the observer. The red circle is parallel to the horizontal xy-plane and indicates rotation from the x-axis to the y-axis (in both cases). Hence the red arrow passes in front of the z-axis. Figure 8 is another attempt at depicting a right-handed coordinate system. Again, there is an ambiguity caused by projecting the three-dimensional coordinate system into the plane. Many observers see Figure 8 as "flipping in and out" between a convex cube and a concave "corner". This corresponds to the two possible orientations of the coordinate system. Seeing the figure as convex gives a left-handed coordinate system. Thus the "correct" way to view Figure 8 is to imagine the x-axis as pointing towards the observer and thus seeing a concave corner. Representing a vector in the standard basis A point in space in a Cartesian coordinate system may also be represented by a vector, which can be thought of as an arrow pointing from the origin of the coordinate system to the point. If the coordinates represent spatial positions (displacements) it is common to represent the vector from the origin to the point of interest as . In three dimensions, the vector from the origin to the point with Cartesian coordinates is sometimes written as : where , , and are unit vectors and the respective versors of , , and axes. This is the quaternion representation of the vector, and was introduced by Sir William Rowan Hamilton. The unit vectors , , and are called the versors of the coordinate system, and are the vectors of the standard basis in three-dimensions. Applications Each axis may have different units of measurement associated with it (such as kilograms, seconds, pounds, etc.). Although four- and higher-dimensional spaces are difficult to visualize, the algebra of Cartesian coordinates can be extended relatively easily to four or more variables, so that certain calculations involving many variables can be done. (This sort of algebraic extension is what is used to define the geometry of higher-dimensional spaces.) Conversely, it is often helpful to use the geometry of Cartesian coordinates in two or three dimensions to visualize algebraic relationships between two or three of many non-spatial variables. The graph of a function or relation is the set of all points satisfying that function or relation. For a function of one variable, f, the set of all points (x,y) where y = f(x) is the graph of the function f. For a function of two variables, g, the set of all points (x,y,z) where z = g(x,y) is the graph of the function g. A sketch of the graph of such a function or relation would consist of all the salient parts of the function or relation which would include its relative extrema, its concavity and points of inflection, any points of discontinuity and its end behavior. All of these terms are more fully defined in calculus. Such graphs are useful in calculus to understand the nature and behavior of a function or relation. Notes References Descartes, René. Oscamp, Paul J. (trans). Discourse on Method, Optics, Geometry, and Meteorology''. 2001. Bibliography External links Geodetic to Cartesian Converter Cartesian to Geodetic Converter Cartesian Coordinate System Printable Cartesian Coordinates MathWorld description of Cartesian coordinates Coordinate Converter - converts between polar, Cartesian and spherical coordinates | Cartesian_coordinate_system |@lemmatized illustration:2 cartesian:50 coordinate:81 system:40 four:6 point:59 mark:4 label:2 green:2 red:5 blue:2 origin:11 purple:1 mathematics:3 also:9 call:13 rectangular:1 specify:6 uniquely:1 plane:28 pair:3 numerical:1 signed:4 distance:13 two:29 fixed:1 perpendicular:12 direct:1 line:29 measure:5 unit:9 length:5 reference:2 axis:48 meet:4 define:9 position:4 projection:2 onto:3 ax:23 express:1 one:11 use:20 principle:1 three:27 dimensional:21 space:16 mutually:3 equivalently:1 general:2 dimension:11 n:9 hyperplanes:1 circle:4 radius:2 center:1 equation:4 invention:1 century:1 rené:3 descartes:7 revolutionize:1 provide:2 first:4 systematic:1 link:2 euclidean:2 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1,514 | Long_Parliament | Meeting of the Long Parliament. The Long Parliament is the name of the English Parliament called by Charles I, on 3 November 1640, This article uses the Julian calendar with the start of year adjusted to 1 January (For a more detailed explanation, see Old Style and New Style dates: Differences between the start of the year) following the Bishops' Wars. It received its name from the fact that through a unique Act of Parliament, it could only be dissolved with the agreement of the members, Full text of the Act against Dissolving the Long Parliament without its own Consent 11 May 1641 and those members did not agree to its dissolution until after the English Civil War and at the end of Interregnum in 1660. House of Commons Journal Volume 7: Dissolving Parliament 16 March 1660 (New Style) It sat from 1640 until 1649, when it was purged by the New Model Army of those who were not sympathetic to the Army's concerns. Those members who remained after the Army's purge became known as the Rump Parliament. During the Protectorate, the Rump was replaced by other Parliamentary assemblies, only to be recalled after Oliver Cromwell's death in 1658 by the Army in the hope of restoring credibility to the Army's rule. When this failed, General George Monck allowed the members barred in 1649 to retake their seats so that they could pass the necessary legislation to initiate the Restoration and dissolve the Long Parliament. This cleared the way for a new Parliament, known as the Convention Parliament, to be elected. 1640–1648 The sole reason Charles I assembled Parliament in 1640 was to ask it to pass finance bills, since the Bishops' Wars had bankrupted him. The Parliament was initially influenced by John Pym and his supporters. In August 1641, it enacted legislation depriving Charles I of the powers that he had assumed since his accession. The reforms were designed to negate the possibility of Charles ruling absolutely again. The parliament also freed those imprisoned by the Star Chamber. The Triennial Act of 1641, also known as the Dissolution Act, was passed, requiring that no more than three years should elapse between sessions of Parliament. Parliament was also responsible for the impeachment and subsequent execution of the king's advisers, Archbishop William Laud and Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford. The Irish Rebellion which started in October 1641 brought the control of the army back into the discussions between King and Parliament. Led by John Pym, Parliament presented the King with the Grand Remonstrance which was passed in the Commons by 11 votes (159 - 148) on 22 November 1641. It listed over 150 perceived "misdeeds" of Charles' reign including the Church (under the influence of foreign papists) and royal advisers (also "have[ing] engaged themselves to further the interests of some foreign powers") the second half of the Remonstrance proposed solutions to the "misdeeds" including church reform and Parliamentary influence over the appointment of royal ministers. December 1641 Parliament asserted that it wanted control over the appointment of the commanders of the Army and Navy in the Militia Ordinance . The king rejected the Grand Remonstrance and refused to give royal assent to the Militia Bill. The King believed that Puritans (or Dissenters) encouraged by five vociferous members of the House of Commons, John Pym, John Hampden, Denzil Holles, Sir Arthur Haselrig and William Strode along with Lord Mandeville (the future Earl of Manchester) who sat in the House of Lords, had encouraged the Scots to invade England in the recent Bishops' Wars and that they were intent on turning the London mob against him. When rumours reached the court that they were also planning to impeach the Queen for alleged involvement in Catholic plots Charles decided to arrest them for treason. The Speaker of the House during the Long Parliament was William Lenthall. On 4 January 1642 the king entered the House of Commons to seize the five members. Having taken the speaker's chair and looked round in vain to discover the offending members commenting "I see the birds have flown", Charles turned to Lenthall standing below, and demanded of him whether any of those persons were in the House, whether he saw any of them and where they were. Lenthall fell on his knees and replied: "May it please your Majesty, I have neither eyes to see nor tongue to speak in this place but as the House is pleased to direct me, whose servant I am here." By the time of the Restoration Lenthall seems to have forgotten his previous resolve when he consented to appear as a witness against the regicide Thomas Scot, for words spoken in the House of Commons while he was the Speaker. After his failure to capture the five members, and fearing for his family's lives, Charles left London for Oxford. Most of the royalist members of Parliament left to join him there where they formed the Oxford Parliament. Without its royalist members, the Long Parliament continued to sit during the Civil War and beyond because of the Dissolution Act. In March 1642 with the King absent from London and the war clouds gathering, Parliament decreed that its own Parliamentary Ordinances were valid laws without royal assent. The Militia Ordinance was passed on 5 March by Parliament which gave Parliament control of the local militia called Trained Bands. Control of the London Trained Bands was the most strategically critical because they could protect the radical members of Parliament from armed intervention against them by any soldiers which Charles had near the capital. In response to the Militia Ordinance, Charles revived the Commissions of Array as a means of summoning an army instead. 1649–1653 Rump Parliament Main article: Rump Parliament Oliver Cromwell dissolving the Long Parliament. Divisions emerged between various factions, culminating in Pride's Purge on 7 December 1648, when, under the orders of Oliver Cromwell's son-in-law Henry Ireton, Colonel Pride physically barred about half of the members of Parliament from taking their seats. Many of the excluded members were Presbyterians. In the wake of the ejections, the remnant, the Rump Parliament, arranged for the trial and execution of Charles I. It was also responsible for the setting up of the Commonwealth of England in 1649. Oliver Cromwell forcibly disbanded the Rump in 1653 when it seemed they might disband his expensive army of 50,000 men. It was followed by the Barebones Parliament and then the First, Second and Third Protectorate Parliament 1659 recall and 1660 restoration After Richard Cromwell, who had succeeded his father Oliver as Lord Protector in 1658, was effectively deposed by an officers' coup in April, 1659, the officers re-summoned the Rump Parliament to sit. It convened on 7 May 1659, but after five months in power it again clashed with the army (led by John Lambert) and was again forcibly dissolved on 13 October 1659. Rule then passed to an unelected Committee of Safety, including Lambert; but as General George Monck, who had been Cromwell's viceroy in Scotland, began to march south, Lambert, who had ridden out to face him, lost support in London, the Navy declared for Parliament, and on 26 December 1659 the Rump was restored to power. Monck, whom Lambert had failed to confront, continued his southward march. On 3 February 1660, Monck arrived in London. After an initial show of deference to the Rump, Monck quickly found them unwilling to cooperate with his plan for a free election of a new parliament; so on 21 February 1660 he reinstated the members 'secluded' by Pride, so that they could prepare legislation for the Convention Parliament. Having called for elections for a Parliament to meet on 25 April, the Long Parliament dissolved itself on 16 March 1660. According to contemporary royalist legal theory, the Long Parliament was regarded as having been automatically dissolved form the moment of Charles I's execution on 30 January 1649. This view was confirmed by a court ruling during the treason trial of Henry Vane the Younger. Notable members of the Long Parliament Sir John Coolepeper Oliver Cromwell Sir Simonds D'Ewes George Digby, 2nd Earl of Bristol Lucius Cary, 2nd Viscount Falkland John Hampden Sir Robert Harley Sir Arthur Haselrig Denzil Holles, 1st Baron Holles Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon William Lenthall John Pym Sir Benjamin Rudyerd William Russell, 1st Duke of Bedford Oliver St John Sir Francis Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Trowbridge Sir Nicholas Slanning William Strode James Temple Sir Henry Vane the Elder Sir Henry Vane the Younger Sir Nicholas Crisp Time line Triennial Act, passed 15 February 1641 Archbishop William Laud imprisoned 26 February 1641 Act against Dissolving the Long Parliament without its own Consent 11 May 1641 Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford executed May 12, 1641 Abolition of the Star Chamber 5 July 1641 Ship Money declared illegal 7 August 1641 Grand Remonstrance 22 November 1641 Militia Bill December, 1641 The King’s answer to the petition accompanying the Grand Remonstrance 23 December 1641 The King's attempt to seize the five members 4 January 1642 The King and Royal Family leave Whitehall for Hampton Court. January, 1642 The King leaves Hampton Court for the North 2 March 1642 Militia Ordinance agreed by Lords and Commons 5 March 1642 Parliament decreed that Parliamentary Ordinances were valid without royal assent following the King's refusal to assent to the Militia Ordinance 15 March 1642 Adventurers Act to raise money to suppress the Irish Rebellion of 1641 19 March 1642 The Solemn League and Covenant 25 September 1643 Ordinance appointing the First Committee of both Kingdoms 16 February 1644 The Self-denying Ordinance 4 April 1645 Pride's Purge (Start of the Rump Parliament) 7 December 1648 Excluded members of the Long Parliament reinstated by George Monck 21 February 1660 Having called for elections for a Parliament to meet on 25 April, the Long Parliament dissolved itself on 16 March 1660 See also List of Parliaments of England Further reading British Civil Wars: The Long Parliament British Civil Wars: 1641 Time Line British Civil Wars: 1642 Time Line Full text of The Triennial Act. 15 February 1641 Full text of the Act against Dissolving the Long Parliament without its own Consent 11 May 1641 Full text of the act Abolishing the Star Chamber 5 July 1641 Full text of the Act Declaring the Illegality of Ship-money 7 August 1641 Full Text of the Grand Remonstrance, with the Petition accompanying it. 22 November 1641 Full text of the King’s Answer to the Petition Accompanying the Grand Remonstrance 23 December 1641 Full text of The Solemn League and Covenant 25 September 1643 Full text of the Ordinance appointing the First Committee of both Kingdoms 16 February 1644 Full text of the Self-denying Ordinance 4 April 1645 Footnotes | Long_Parliament |@lemmatized meeting:1 long:15 parliament:50 name:2 english:2 call:4 charles:12 november:4 article:2 use:1 julian:1 calendar:1 start:4 year:3 adjust:1 january:5 detailed:1 explanation:1 see:4 old:1 style:3 new:5 date:1 difference:1 follow:3 bishop:3 war:9 receive:1 fact:1 unique:1 act:12 could:4 dissolve:10 agreement:1 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1,515 | New_Zealand_English | New Zealand English (NZE, en-NZ en-NZ is the language code for New Zealand English , as defined by ISO standards (see ISO 639-1 and ISO 3166-1 alpha-2) and Internet standards (see IETF language tag). ) is the form of the English language used in New Zealand. The English language was established in New Zealand by colonists during the 19th century. The most distinctive influences on New Zealand English have come from southern England, Scottish English and the indigenous Māori language. New Zealand English is close to Australian English in pronunciation, but has several subtle differences; several of these show the influence of Māori speech. One of the most striking differences between the New Zealand accent and the Australian accent and other varieties of English (although shared partly with South African English) is that is a central vowel. Dictionaries of New Zealand English The first comprehensive dictionary dedicated to New Zealand English was probably the Heinemann New Zealand dictionary, published in 1979. Edited by Harry Orsman, it is a comprehensive 1,300-page book, with information relating to the usage and pronunciation of terms that were both widely accepted throughout the English-speaking world and those peculiar to New Zealand. It includes a one-page list of the approximate date of entry into common parlance of many terms found in New Zealand English but not elsewhere, such as "haka" (1827), "Boohai" (1920), and "bach" (1905). In 1997, Oxford University Press produced the Dictionary of New Zealand English, which it claimed was based on over forty years of research. This research started with Orsman's 1951 thesis and continued with his editing this dictionary. To assist with and maintain this work, the New Zealand Dictionary Centre was founded in 1997. Since then it has published several more dictionaries of New Zealand English, culminating in the publication of The New Zealand Oxford Dictionary in 2004. A more light-hearted look at English as spoken in New Zealand, A personal Kiwi-Yankee dictionary, was written by American-born University of Otago psychology lecturer Louis Leland in 1980. This slim volume lists many of the potentially confusing and/or misleading terms for Americans visiting or migrating to New Zealand. A second edition was published during the 1990s. Historical development A distinct New Zealand variant of the English language has been in existence since at least 1912, when Frank Arthur Swinnerton described it as a "carefully modulated murmur," though it probably goes back further than that. From the beginning of British settlement on the islands, a new dialect began to form by adopting Māori words to describe the flora and fauna of New Zealand, for which English did not have any words of its own. The Story of English by Robert McCrum, William Cran, and Robert MacNeil. BBC Publications and Faber and Faber: London, 1986. Pronunciation Vowels The short front vowels The short-i of KIT is a central vowel around or . This sounds somewhat similar to (although not quite as open as) a short-u in other forms of English, and contrasts sharply with the -like vowel heard in Australia; because of this, some New Zealanders often claim that Australians say "feesh and cheeps" for fish and chips while some Australians conversely claim that New Zealanders say "fush and chups". Kortmann and Schneider, pp 587 and 611. Crystal, p 354. Trudgill and Hannah, pp 23-24 New Zealand short-i is not phonologically distinct from the schwa . The short-e of DRESS has moved to fill in the space left by , and is phonetically in the region of ; it sounds like a short-i itself to other English speakers. Likewise, the short-a of TRAP is approximately , which sounds like a short-e to most Northern Hemisphere speakers. Documentary films from the first half of the 20th century featuring both Australian and New Zealand voices show that the accents were more similar before the Second World War and diverged mostly after the 1950s. Recent linguistic research has suggested that the short, flat 'i' heard in New Zealand comes from dialects of English spoken by lower-class English people in the late nineteenth century. It is, however, also encountered in Scottish English, and given the relatively higher level of Scottish emigration to New Zealand than Australia, this may also be an influence. The pronunciation of English vowels by native Māori speakers may also have influenced the New Zealand accent. There is a Māori accent distinct from the accent of native English speakers. Conditioned mergers The vowels as in near and as in square are increasingly being merged, so that here rhymes with there; and bear and beer, and rarely and really are homophones. This is the "most obvious vowel change taking place" in New Zealand English. There is some debate as to the quality of the merged vowel, but the consensus appears to be that it is towards a close variant, . Kortmann and Schneider, pp 582, 592, 610. Before , the vowels : (as in reel vs real), as well as : (doll vs dole), and sometimes : (pull vs pool), : (Ellen vs Alan) and : (full vs fill) may be merged . Trudgill and Hannah, p 24. Kortmann and Schneider, pp 589f. Other vowels - as in start, bath, and palm is a near-open central-to-front vowel or . The phonetic quality of this vowel overlaps with the quality for as in strut. The difference between the two is entirely length for many speakers. Kortmann and Schneider, pp 582, 588, 590 The vowel (as in bird and nurse) is rounded and often fronted in the region of . Kortmann and Schneider, pp 582, 591 Consonants New Zealand English is mostly non-rhotic (with linking and intrusive R), except for speakers of the so-called "Southland burr", a semi-rhotic, Scottish-influenced dialect heard principally in Southland and parts of Otago. http://english.unitecnology.ac.nz/resources/resources/exp_lang/other_forms.html Kortmann and Schneider, p 605. Among r-less speakers, however, non-prevocalic is sometimes pronounced in a few words, including Ireland and the name of the letter R itself. Kortmann and Schneider, p 594. is dark in all positions, and is often vocalised in the syllable coda. Crystal, p 354. Trudgill and Hannah, p 24. This varies in different regions and between different socio-economic groups; the younger, lower social class speakers vocalise most of the time. Kortmann and Schneider, p 611. Other consonants The distinction between as in witch and as in which, retained by older speakers, is now disappearing. Trudgill and Hannah, p 24. Kortmann and Schneider, pp 606 and 609. Intervocalic may be flapped. Trudgill and Hannah, p 24. Other features New Zealand English has the trap-bath split; words like dance have , as in Southern England and South Australia. Trudgill and Hannah, p 24. Crystal, p 354. As in Australian English, some New Zealanders will pronounce past participles such as grown, thrown and mown with two syllables, inserting an additional schwa . By contrast, groan, throne and moan are all unaffected, meaning these word pairs can be distinguished by ear. Kortmann and Schneider, p 611. This has also been heard (rarely) in the pronunciation of the word three, where the schwa appears between the 'th' and the 'r', creating a two-syllable word, and in words such as dwarf and Dwane/Duane where the schwa appears between the 'd' and the 'w' (or 'u'), leading to puns like "Duosyllabic Duane". The trans- prefix is commonly pronounced . This produces mixed pronunciation of the as in words like "transplant" () whereas in northern (but not southern) British English the same vowel is used in both syllables (). The name of the letter H is usually , as in Great Britain and North America, but can be the aspirated of Hiberno-English origin found in Australian English, though this is often considered incorrect. Phonology The phonology of New Zealand English is similar to that of other non-rhotic dialects such as Australian English and RP, but with some distinct variations, which are indicated by the transcriptions for New Zealand vowels in the tables below: Bauer, Warren & Bardsley et al. 2007, pp 97–102 + For a basic key to the IPA, see Help:IPA. Short vowels IPA Examples ɘ sit, about, winner i city e bed, end ɛ lad, cat, ran ɐ run, enough ɒ not, wasp ʊ put, wood Long vowels IPA Examples ɐː father, arm iː see ɵː bird oː law, caught ʉː soon, through Diphthongs IPA Examples æe day, pain ɑe my, wise oe boy ɐʉ no, tow æo now ɪə near, here eə hair, there ʉɐ tour New Zealand English vocabulary There are also a number of dialectical words and phrases used in New Zealand English. These are mostly informal terms most common in casual speech. New Zealand adopted decimal currency in the 1960s and the metric system in the 1970s. While the older measures are understood by those born before 1960, younger New Zealanders have lived most or all of their lives in a metric environment and may not be familiar with pounds, ounces, stones, degrees fahrenheit, yards and miles or pounds, shillings and pence. Differences with Australian English Many of these relate to words used to refer to common items, often based on which major brands become eponyms: NZ Australia Explanation Cellphone / mobile / mobile phone (cell)/phone(mobile) Mobile phone(mobile) A portable telephone. Chilly bin Esky Insulated container for keeping drinks and food cool. Dairy Milk barDelicatessenconvenience storeDeli Equivalent to convenience store, although the term usage is becoming rarer. In larger cities convenience store or superette are used due to immigration. Note that the term delicatessen is used in New Zealand for a somewhat different purpose, referring to a shop or a section of a supermarket serving specialist foods such as salamis, fine cheeses, and the like (just as it is in most states of Australia). Domain, field Oval, paddock An area normally used for recreational purposes, usually grass/earth. Duvet Doona A padded quilt. Jandals Thongs Backless sandals (otherwise known as "flip-flops" or "Japanese sandals"). Jersey Jumper Garment for warmth. In NZ and Australia jersey also used for top part of sports uniform (e.g. for rugby) - another term for a sports jersey, guernsey, is frequently used in Australia but only rarely found in New Zealand Judder bar WordWeb online / Speed bump Speed bump Humps or the like in urban or suburban roads, designed to limit the speed of traffic. Speed bump is a common term in both New Zealand and Australia No exit No through road A road with a dead end; a cul-de-sac. Oil skin / Swanndri Driza-Bone Oil skin Oil skin: Country raincoat; Swanndri: heavy woollen jersey (often checquered). Togs BathersSwimmersCozziesTogsbudgie smuggler Swimwear (see Australian words for swimwear) Trolley Shopping trolley A device, usually four-wheeled, for transporting shopping within supermarket precincts. Trolley, Trundler Shopping jeep/granny trolley A two-wheeled device for transporting shopping from local shops (now rarely seen). Tramp Bush walk Bush-walking or hiking. Twink White-Out Correction fluid. VividFelts, Felt tips Texta A permanent marker pen. a Used mainly in Queensland and northern New South Wales. In the 1950s and 1960s, the phrase "milk bar" referred to a place that served non-alcoholic drinks, primarily milkshakes, tea and sometimes coffee. Ice creams were also served. A traditional difference, between the New Zealand "varsity" and the Australian "uni" (for "university"), has largely disappeared with the adoption of "uni" into the New Zealand vocabulary. Usage New Zealanders will often reply to a question with a statement spoken with a rising intonation at the end. This often has the effect of making their statement sound like another question. There is enough awareness of this that it is seen in exaggerated form in comedy parody of working class/uneducated New Zealanders. This rising intonation can also be heard at the end of statements, which are not in response to a question but to which the speaker wishes to add emphasis. High rising terminals are also heard in Australia, but are said to be more common in, and possibly originating from, New Zealand. Crystal, p 355 . In informal speech, some New Zealanders use the third person feminine she in place of the third person neuter it as the subject of a sentence, especially when the subject is the first word of the sentence. The most common use of this is in the phrase "She'll be right" meaning either "It will be okay" or "It is close enough to what is required". This is similar to Australian English. Māori influence Many local everyday words have been borrowed from the Māori language, including words for local flora, fauna, and the natural environment. See Māori influence on New Zealand English. The dominant influence of Māori on New Zealand English is lexical. A 1999 estimate based on the Wellington corpora of written and spoken New Zealand English put the proportion of words of Māori origin at approximately 0.6%, mostly place and personal names Kennedy, Graham & Shinji Yamazaki 1999. The Influence of Maori on the New Zealand English Lexicon. In John M. Kirk (ed), Corpora Galore: Analyses and Techniques in Describing English. Amsterdam: Rodopi: 33-44 . Māori is also ever-present and has a significant conceptual influence in the legislature, government, and community agencies (e.g. health and education), where legislation requires that proceedings and documents are translated into Māori (under certain circumstances, and when requested). Political discussion and analysis of issues of sovereignty, environmental management, health, and social well being thus rely on Māori at least in part. Māori as a spoken language is particularly important wherever community consultation occurs. Pronunciation of Māori place names The pronunciation of many Māori place names was anglicised for most of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, but since the 1980s, increased consciousness of Māori has led to a shift back to correct Māori pronunciations. The anglicisations have persisted most among residents of the towns in question, so it has become something of a shibboleth, with correct Māori pronunciation marking someone as non-local. + Examples Placename Anglicisation correct pronunciation IPA Paraparaumu para-pram pa-ra-pa-ra-u-mu Taumarunui Towm-ra-nooey tau-ma-ru-nu-i Oakura oa-kra o-a-ku-ra Hawera hara ha-we-ra Te Awamutu tee-awa-moot or tee-a-mootu te a-wa-mu-tu Waikouaiti wacker-wite or weka-what wai-kou-a-i-ti Otorohanga Oh-tra-hung-a or Oh-tra-hong-a o-to-ro-ha-nga Te Kauwhata Teekah-Wadda te kau-fa-ta Some anglicised names are colloquially shortened, for example, "coke" for Kohukohu, "the Rapa" (pronounced rapper) for the Wairarapa, "Pram" for Paraparaumu and "the Naki" (pronounced nackey, rhymes with lackey) for Taranaki. Dialects within New Zealand English Recognisable regional variations is slight, with the exception of Southland, where the "Southland burr" (see above) is heard. This southern area formed a traditional repository of immigration from Scotland. Several words and phrases common in Scots or Scottish English still persist in this area as well. Some examples of this include the use of wee to mean "small", and phrases such as to do the messages meaning "to go shopping". Some speakers from the West Coast of the South Island retain a half Australian accent from the region's 19th century goldrush settlers. Spelling Where there is a distinct difference between British and US spelling (such as colour/color and travelled/traveled), the British spelling is universally used. Some Americanisms have begun to creep in through their exposure in mass media (for example, the use of "math" rather than "maths" as an abbreviation for mathematics), though these spellings are non-standard. In words that may be spelled with either an -ise or an -ize suffix (such as organise/organize) New Zealand English uses the -ise suffix exclusively. This contrasts with American English, where -ize is generally preferred, and British English, where -ise is more frequent but -ize is preferred by some (including the Oxford English Dictionary). New Zealand favours the spelling fiord over fjord, unlike most other English-speaking countries. This is particularly apparent in the name of Fiordland, a rugged region in the country's southwest. See also Culture of New Zealand New Zealand humour Regional accents of English Notes References Bartlett, Christopher. (1992). Regional variation in New Zealand English: the case of Southland. New Zealand English Newsletter 6: 5-15. Bauer, L.; Warren, P. & Bardsley, D. et al. (2007), "New Zealand English", Journal of the International Phonetic Association 37 (1): 97–102. Cryer, Max. (2002). Curious Kiwi Words. Auckland, NZ: HarperCollinsPublishers (NZ) Ltd. Crystal, David (2003). The Cambridge encyclopedia of the English language (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. Deverson, Tony and Graeme Kennedy (eds.) (2005). The New Zealand Oxford Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Grant, L.E., and Devlin, G.A. (eds.) (1999). In other words: A dictionary of expressions used in New Zealand. Palmerston North, NZ: Dunmore Press. Kortmann, Bernd; Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Mesthrie, Rajend; & Upton, Clive (Eds.). (2004). A handbook of varieties of English. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Leland, Louis S., jr. (1980). A personal Kiwi-Yankee dictionary. Dunedin, NZ: John McIndoe Ltd. Orsman, H.W., (ed.) (1997). The Dictionary of New Zealand English: a dictionary of New Zealandisms on historical principles. Auckland: Oxford University Press. Orsman, H.W., (ed.) (1979). Heinemann New Zealand dictionary. Auckland, NZ: Heinemann Educational Books (NZ) Ltd. Trudgill, Peter and Jean Hannah. (2002). International English: A Guide to the Varieties of Standard English, 4th ed. London: Arnold. 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1,516 | Government_of_France | Symbol of the French government The government of France is a semi-presidential system determined by the French Constitution of the fifth Republic. The nation declares itself to be "an indivisible, secular, democratic, and social Republic". The constitution provides for a separation of powers and proclaims France's "attachment to the Rights of Man and the principles of national sovereignty as defined by the Declaration of 1789." The national government of France is divided into an executive, a legislative and a judicial branch. The President shares executive power with their appointee, the Prime Minister. The cabinet globally, including the Prime Minister, can be revoked by the National Assembly, the lower house of Parliament, through a "censure motion"; this ensures that the Prime Minister is always supported by a majority of the house. Parliament comprises the National Assembly and the Senate. It passes statutes and votes on the budget; it controls the action of the executive through formal questioning on the floor of the houses of Parliament and by establishing commissions of enquiry. The constitutionality of the statutes is checked by the Constitutional Council, members of which are appointed by the President of the Republic, the President of the National Assembly, and the President of the Senate. Former Presidents of the Republic also are members of the Council. The independent judiciary is based on a civil law system which evolved from the Napoleonic codes. It is divided into the judicial branch (dealing with civil law and criminal law) and the administrative branch (dealing with appeals against executive decisions), each with their own independent supreme court of appeal: the Court of Cassation for the judicial courts and the Conseil d'Etat for the administrative courts. The French government includes various bodies that check abuses of power and independent agencies. France is a unitary state. However, the various legal subdivisions—the régions, départements and communes—have various attributions, and the national government is prohibited from intruding into their normal legal operations. France is a founding member of the European Community and later the European Union. As such, France has transferred part of its sovereignty to European institutions, as provided by its constitution. The French government therefore has to abide by European treaties, directives and regulations. Constitution A popular referendum approved the constitution of the French Fifth Republic in 1958, greatly strengthening the authority of the presidency and the executive with respect to Parliament. The constitution does contain a bill of rights in itself, but its preamble mentions that France should follow the principles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, as well as those of the preamble to the constitution of the Fourth Republic. This has been judged to imply that the principles laid forth in those texts have constitutional value, and that legislation infringing on those principles should be found unconstitutional if a recourse is filed before the Constitutional Council. See decisions 71-44 DC of 16 July 1971 and 73-51 DC of 27 December 1973 citing the preamble of the Constitution and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. Also, a recent modification of the Constitution has added a reference in the preamble to an Environment charter that has full constitutional value. Constitutional law 2005-205 of 1 March 2005 Among these foundational principles, one may cite: the equality of all citizens before law, and the rejection of special class privileges such as those that existed prior to the French Revolution; presumption of innocence; freedom of speech; freedom of opinion including freedom of religion; the guarantee of property against arbitrary seizure; the accountability of government agents to the citizenry. The main processes of the French national government (most of the justice system excluded for clarity) Executive branch France has an original system with an executive branch headed by two officials: the President and the Prime Minister. In the original 1958 constitution, the President was elected by an electoral college of elected officials. However, in 1962, Charles de Gaulle obtained, through a referendum, an amendment to the constitution whereby the president would be directly elected by citizens. Constitutional law 62-1262 of 6 November 1962 Given France's runoff voting system, Constitution, article 7 this means that the presidential candidate is required to obtain a nationwide majority of non-blank votes at either the first or second round of balloting, which presumably implies that the president is somewhat supported by at least half of the voting population; this gives him considerable legitimacy. Despite his somewhat restricted de jure powers, the president thus enjoys considerable aura and effective power. As a consequence, the President is the preeminent figure in French politics. He appoints the Prime Minister; Constitution, article 8 though he may not de jure dismiss him, if the Prime Minister is from the same political side, he can, in practice, have him resign on demand (and it is known that Prime Ministers are asked to sign a non-dated dismissal letter before being nominated). He appoints the ministers, ministers-delegate and secretaries. When the President's political party or supporters control parliament, the President is the dominant player in executive action, choosing whomever he wishes for the government, and having it follow his political agenda (parliamentary disagreements do occur, though, even within the same party). However, when the President's political opponents control parliament, the President's dominance can be severely limited, as he must choose a Prime Minister and cabinet who reflect the majority in parliament, and who will implement the agenda of the parliamentary majority. When parties from opposite ends of the political spectrum control parliament and the presidency, the power-sharing arrangement is known as cohabitation. Cohabitation used to happen from time to time before 2002, because the mandate of the President was 7 years and the mandate of the Assemblée Nationale was 5 years. Now that the mandate of the President has been shortened to 5 years, and that the elections are separated by only a few months, this is less likely to happen. Nicolas Sarkozy became President on 2007 16 May, succeeding Jacques Chirac. Government The government is headed by the Prime Minister. Constitution, article 21 It has at its disposal the civil service, the government agencies, and the armed forces. Constitution, article 20 (The term "cabinet" is rarely used to describe the gouvernement, even in translation, as it is used in French to mean a minister's private office, composed of politically-appointed aides. In French, the word gouvernement can refer to government in general, but generally refers to the group of ministers.) The government is responsible to Parliament, Constitution, article 20 and the National Assembly may pass a motion of censure, Constitution, article 49 forcing the resignation of the cabinet. This, in practice, forces the gouvernement to be from the same political stripe as the majority in the Assembly. Ministers have to answer questions from members of Parliament, both written and oral; this is known as the questions au gouvernement (questions to the government). Constitution, article 48 In addition, ministers attend meetings of the houses of Parliament when laws pertaining to their areas of responsibility are being discussed. Government ministers cannot pass legislation without parliamentary approval, though the Prime Minister may issue autonomous regulations or subordinated regulations (décrets d'application) provided they do not infringe on the Parliament domain, as detailed in the constitution. Ministers, however, can propose legislation to Parliament; since the Assembly is from the same political stripe as the ministers, such legislation is, in general, very likely to pass. However, this is not guaranteed, and, on occasion, the opinion of the majority parliamentarians may differ significantly from those of the executive, which often results in a large number of amendments. The Prime Minister can engage the responsibility of his government on a law, under article 49-3 of the Constitution. The law is then considered adopted unless the National Assembly votes a motion of censure, in which case the law is refused and the government has to resign. As of 2006, the last time this article was invoked was for the "First Employment Contract" proposed by Prime Minister Dominique de Villepin, National Assembly, transcripts of the sitting of 9 February 2006: appearance of Dominique de Villepin announcing the application of article 49-3; adopted text a move that greatly backfired. The "first employment contract" was cancelled by a law of 21 April 2006 following massive street protests; see First Employmenty Contract. Traditionally, the gouvernement comprises members of three ranks. Ministers are the most senior members of the government; deputy ministers (ministres délégués) assist ministers in particular areas of their portfolio; ministers of state (secrétaires d'État) assist ministers in less important areas, and attend cabinet meetings only occasionally. Before the Fifth Republic, some ministers of particular political importance were called "secretaries of state" (ministres d'État); the practice has continued under the Fifth Republic in a purely honorific fashion: ministers styled Secretary of State are supposed to be of a higher importance in the gouvernement. The number of ministries and the splitting of responsibilities and administrations between them varies from government to government. While the name and exact areas of responsibility of each ministry may change, one generally finds at least: Ministry for the Economy, Industry and Employment (taxes, budget), Ministry of the Interior (law enforcement, relationships with local governments), Ministry of Justice and Keeper of the Seals (prisons, running the court system, supervision of the prosecution service) Ministry of National Education, Ministry of Defence, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Transportation. (For more on French ministries, see French government ministers) The gouvernement has a leading role in shaping the agenda of the houses of Parliament. It may propose laws to Parliament, as well as amendments during parliamentary meetings. It may make use of some procedures to speed up parliamentary deliberations. The cabinet has weekly meetings (usually on Wednesday mornings), chaired by the President, at the Élysée Palace. Following the election of Nicolas Sarkozy as President of the French Republic, François Fillon replaced Dominique de Villepin as the French Prime Minister on 17 May 2007. Statutory instruments and delegated legislation The French executive has a limited power to establish regulation or legislation. (See below for how such regulations or legislative items interact with statute law.) Decrees and other executive decisions Only the President and Prime Minister sign decrees (décrets), which are akin to US executive orders. Decrees can only be taken following certain procedures and with due respect to the constitution and statute law. The President signs decrees appointing and dismissing most senior civil and military servants, for positions listed in the Constitution or in Statutes. He also signs decrees establishing some regulations (décrets en conseil des ministres). All such decrees must be countersigned by the Prime Minister and the ministers concerned. The Prime Minister signs decrees establishing regulations, which the concerned ministers countersign. In some areas, they constitute primary legislation, in some others they must be subordinate to an existing statute. In some cases, statutes impose a compulsory advisory review by the Conseil d'État (décrets en Conseil d'État), as opposed to décrets simples. Le rôle consultatif du Conseil d'État The individual ministers issue ministerial orders (arrêtés) in their fields of competence, subordinate to statutes and decrees. Contrary to a sometimes used polemical cliché, that dates from the third republic, with its decrees-law (décrets-lois), neither the president nor the prime minister may rule by decree (outside of the narrow case of presidential emergency powers). Ordinances The executive cannot issue decrees in areas that the Constitution puts under the responsibility of legislation, issued by Parliament. Still, Parliament may, through a habilitation law, authorize the executive to issue ordinances (ordonnances), with legislative value, in precisely defined areas. Constitution, article 38 Habilitation laws specify the scope of the ordinance. After the ordinance is issued, Parliament is asked whether it wants to ratify it. If Parliament votes no to ratification, the ordinance is cancelled. Most of the time, ratification is made implicitly or explicitly through a Parliament act that deals with the subject concerned, rather than by the ratification act itself. On the legal regime of ordinances and explicit and implicit ratification, see Les ordonnances : bilan au 31 décembre 2006 by the legal service of the French Senate. The use of ordinances is normally reserved for urgent matters, or for technical, uncontroversial texts (such as the ordinances that converted all sums in French Francs to Euros in the various laws in force in France). Law 2000-517 authorized the government to adopt ordinances to convert sums from Francs to Euros in various legislative texts. There is also a practice to use ordinances to transpose European Directives into French law, in order to avoid late transposition of Directive, which is often happening and is criticized by the EU Commission. Ordinances are also used to codify law into codes, in order to rearrange them for the sake of clarity without substantially modifying them. They are also sometimes used to push controversial legislation through, such as when Prime Minister Dominique de Villepin created new forms of work contracts in 2005 Ordinance of 2 August 2005 regarding the "new employment contract" , using a procedure known as 49-3. The use of ordinances in such contexts is then criticized by the opposition as anti-democratic, and demeaning to Parliament. It must be said, however, that since the National Assembly can dismiss the government through a motion of censure, the government necessarily relies on a majority in Parliament, and this majority would be likely to adopt the controversial law anyway. Internal limits of the executive branch; checks and balances The general rule is that government agencies and the civil service are at the disposal of the gouvernement, or cabinet. However, various agencies See this list are independent agencies (autorités administratives indépendantes) See bibliography that have been statutorily excluded from the executive's authority, although they belong in the executive branch. These independent agencies have some specialized regulatory power, some executive power, and some quasi-judicial power. They are also often consulted by the government or the French Parliament seeking advice before regulating by law. They can impose sanctions that are named "administrative sanctions" sanctions administratives. However, their decisions can still be contested face to a judicial court or an administrative court. Some examples of independent agencies: The Banque de France, the central bank, is independent (financial and economic code, L141 and following). This was a prerequisite for integrating the European System of Central Banks. The Electronic Communications & Posts Regulation Authority (Autorité de régulation des communications électroniques et des postes (ARCEP)), which was previously named Telecommunication Regulation Authority (Autorité de régulation des télécommunications (ART)), is an independent administrative authority for the open markets of telecommunications and postal services. The Energy Regulation Commission (Commission de régulation de l’énergie (CRE)) is an independent administrative authority for the open markets of gas and electricity. The Financial Markets Authority (Autorité des marchés financiers (AMF)) regulates securities markets. The Higher Council of the Audiovisual (Conseil supérieur de l’audiovisuel (CSA)) supervises the granting and withdrawing of emission frequencies for radio and TV, as well as public broadcasting. The National Commission on Campaign Accounts and Political Financing ( Commission Nationale des Comptes de Campagne et des Financements Politiques) regulates the financing and spending of political parties and political campaign. Public media corporations should not be influenced in their news reporting by the executive in power, since they have the duty to supply the public with unbiased information. For instance, the Agence France-Presse (AFP) is an independent public corporation. Its resources must come solely from its commercial sales. The majority of the seats in its board are held by representatives of the French press. The government also provides for watchdogs over its own activities; these independent administrative authorities are headed by a commission typically composed of senior lawyers or members of the Parliament. Each of the two chambers of the Parliament often has its own commission, but sometimes they collaborate to create a single Commission nationale mixte paritaire. For example: The National Commission for Computing & Freedom (Commission nationale informatique et libertés (CNIL)); public services must request authorization from it before establishing a file with personal information, and they must heed its recommendations; private bodies must only declare their files; citizens have recourse before the commission against abuses. The National Commission for the Control of Security Interceptions (Commission nationale de contrôle des interceptions de sécurité (CNCIS)); the executive, in a limited number of circumstances concerning national security, may request an authorization from the commission for wiretaps (in other circumstances, wiretaps may only be authorized within a judicially-administered criminal investigation). In addition, the duties of public service limit the power that the executive has over the French Civil Service. For instance, appointments, except for the highest positions (the national directors of agencies and administrations), must be made solely on merit or time in office, typically in competitive exams. Certain civil servants have statuses that prohibit executive interference; for instance, judges and prosecutors may be named or moved only according to specific procedures. Public researchers and university professors enjoy academic freedom; by law, they enjoy complete freedom of speech within the ordinary constraints of academia. Some important directorates and establishments The government also provides specialized agencies for regulating critical markets or limited resources, and markets created by regulations. Although, as part of the administration, they are subordinate to the ministers, they often act with high independence. The General Directorate of Competition, Consumption & Repression of Frauds ( Direction générale de la concurrence, de la consommation et de la répression des fraudes (DGCCRF)) regulates and controls the legality and safety of products and services available on the markets open to competition for all economical actors and private consumers, and can deliver administrative sanctions in case of abuses. The General Directorate of Civil Aviation (Direction générale de l’aviation civile (DGAC)) regulates the traffic in the national air space and delivers the authorizations for airways companies and other private or public organizations and people. The National Agency for Employment (Agence nationale pour l’emploi (ANPE)) maintained a public registry for the allocation of social benefits to unemployed people (but now a single registry is shared with the independent ASSEDIC paying them, a joint association of employers and workers unions), assists them as well as employers seeking people, and controls them. The French State names its general director and the Paliament provides for its finances and personnel, but it only owns one third of the seats at its decision board of directors (the other seats are shared equally by unions of employers and workers). The National Agency of Frequencies (Agence nationale des fréquences (ANFR)), a public establishment of an administrative character, Code of postal services and electronic communications, article L43 regulates and maintains the allocation of spectral radiofrequencies resources along with other international frequencies regulators and national regulators (the CSA and ARCEP) or public ministries, controls the operators on the national territory, and publishes compliance standards for manufacturers of radioelectric equipments. Organization of government services Each ministry has a central administration (administration centrale), generally divided into directorates. These directorates are usually subdivided into divisions or sub-directorates. Each direction is headed by a director, named by the President in Council. The central administration largely stays the same regardless of the political tendency of the executive in power. In addition, each minister has a private office, which is composed of members whose nomination is politically determined, called the cabinet. They are quite important and employ numbers of highly qualified staff to follow all the administrative and political affairs. They are powerful, and have been sometimes considered as a parallel administration, especially, but not only, in all matters that are politically sensitive. Each cabinet is led by a chief of staff named directeur de cabinet. The state also has distributive services spread throughout French territory, often reflecting divisions into régions or départements. The prefect, the representative of the national government in each région or département, supervises the activities of the distributive services in his jurisdiction. Generally, the services of a certain administration in a région or département are managed by a high-level civil servant, often called director, but not always; for instance, the services of the Trésor public (Treasury) in each département are headed by a treasurer-paymaster general, appointed by the President of the Republic. In the last several decades, the departmental conseil général (see "Local Government" below) has taken on new responsibilities and plays an important role in administrating government services at the local level. The government also maintains public establishments. These have a relative administrative and financial autonomy, in order to accomplish a defined mission. They are attached to one or more supervising authorities. These are classified into several categories: public establishments of an administrative character, including, for instance: universities, and most public establishments of higher education; etablishments of a research and technical character, such as CNRS or INRIA; public establishments of an industrial and commercial character, including, for instance, CEA and Ifremer. One essential difference is that in administrations and public establishments of an administrative character operate under public law, while establishments of an industrial and commercial character operate mostly under private law. A consequence is that in the former, permanent personnel are civil servants, while normally in the latter, they are contract employees. In addition, the government still owns and controls all the shares or the majority of shares of some companies, like Electricité de France, SNCF or Areva. Social security organizations, though established by statute and controlled and supervised by the state, are not operated nor directly controlled by the national government. Instead, they are managed by the "social partners" (partenaires sociaux) – unions of employers such as the MEDEF and unions of employees. Their budget is separate from the national budget. Legislative branch The Parliament of France, making up the legislative branch, consists of two houses: the National Assembly and the Senate; the Assembly is the pre-eminent body. Parliament meets for one 9-month session each year: under special circumstances the president can call an additional session. Although parliamentary powers have diminished from those existing under the Fourth Republic, the National Assembly can still cause a government to fall if an absolute majority of the total Assembly membership votes to censure. It has never happened since the establishment of the Fifth Republic in 1958. The cabinet has a strong influence in shaping the agenda of Parliament. The government also can link its term to a legislative text which it proposes, and unless a motion of censure is introduced (within 24 hours after the proposal) and passed (within 48 hours of introduction - thus full procedures last at most 72 hours), the text is considered adopted without a vote. Members of Parliament enjoy parliamentary immunity. This immunity is called for in article 26 of the Constitution, as defined by the Constitutional law of 5 August 1995. See: National assembly, L'immunité parlementaire. Both assemblies have committees that write reports on a variety of topics. If necessary, they can establish parliamentary enquiry commissions with broad investigative power. National Assembly The National Assembly sits in the Palais Bourbon, by the Seine. The National Assembly is the principal legislative body. Its 577 deputies are directly elected for 5-year terms in local majority votes, and all seats are voted on in each election. The National Assembly may force the resignation of the executive cabinet by voting a motion of censure. For this reason, the prime minister and his cabinet are necessarily from the dominant party or coalition in the assembly. In the case of a president and assembly from opposing parties, this leads to the situation known as cohabitation. While motions of censure are periodically proposed by the opposition following government actions that it deems highly inappropriate, they are purely rhetorical; party discipline ensures that, throughout a parliamentary term, the government is never overthrown by the Assembly. Latest election Senate The Senate's amphitheater Senators are chosen by an electoral college of about 145,000 local elected officials for 6-year terms, and one half of the Senate is renewed every 3 years. Before the law of 30 July 2004, senators were elected for 9 years, renewed by thirds every 3 years. There are currently 321 senators, but there will be 346 in 2010; 304 represent the metropolitan and overseas départements, five the other dependencies and 12 the French established abroad. The Senate's legislative powers are limited; on most matters of legislation, the National Assembly has the last word in the event of a disagreement between the two houses. Since the beginning of the Fifth Republic, the Senate has always had a right-wing majority. This is mostly due to the over-representation of small villages compared to big cities. This, and the indirect mode of election, prompted socialist Lionel Jospin, who was prime minister at the time, to declare the Senate an "anomaly". L'Humanité, 21 April 1998; L'Humanité, 23 April 1998; L'Humanité, 13 August 2002 Legislation adoption procedures Statute legislation may be proposed by the government (council of ministers), or by members of Parliament. In the first case, it is a projet de loi; in the latter case, a proposition de loi. All projets de loi must undergo compulsory advisory review by the Conseil d'État before being submitted to parliament. Constitution, article 39 Propositions de loi cannot increase the financial load of the state without providing for funding. Constitution, article 40 Projets de loi start in the house the government chooses (except in some narrow cases Constitution, article 39 ), propositions de loi start in the house where they originated. After the house has amended and voted on the text, it is sent to the other house, which can also amend it. If the houses do not choose to adopt the text in identical terms, it is sent before a commission made of equal numbers of members of both houses, which tries to harmonize the text. If it does not manage to do so, the National Assembly can vote the text and have the final say on it (except for laws related to the organization of the Senate). Constitution, article 46 The law is then sent to the President of France for signature. Constitution, article 10 At this point, the President of France, the speaker of either house or a delegation of 60 deputies or 60 senators can ask for the text to undergo constitutional review before being put into force; Constitution, article 61 it is then sent before the Constitutional Council. The President can also, only once per law and with the countersigning of the Prime minister, send the law back to parliament for another review. Constitution, article 10 Otherwise, the President must sign the law. After being countersigned by the Prime minister and the concerned ministers, Constitution, article 19 it is then sent to the Journal Officiel for publication. Civil Code, article 1 Budget See also: Taxation in France. Financing Acts (lois de finances) and the Social Security Financing Acts (lois de financement de la sécurité sociale) are special Acts of Parliament voted and approved through specific procedures. Because of the importance of allowing government and social security organizations to proceed with the payment of their suppliers, employees, and recipients, without risk of a being stopped by parliamentary discord, these bills are specially constrained. In the past, parliamentarians would often add unrelated amendments (cavaliers budgétaires) to the finance bills, in order to get such amendments passed – because of the reduced time in which the budget is examined. However, these are nowadays considered unconstitutional. If Parliament cannot agree on a budget within some specified reasonable bounds, the government is entitled to adopt a budget through ordinances: this threat prevents parliamentarians from threatening to bankrupt the executive. The way the Finance Bill is organized, and the way the government has to execute the budget, were deeply reformed in 2001 by the Loi organique n°2001-692 du 1er août 2001 relative aux lois de finances, generally known as the LOLF. Because of the major changes involved, the application of the law was gradual, and the first budget to be fully passed under LOLF will be the 2006 budget, passed in late 2005. The LOLF divides expenses according to identifiable "missions" (which can be subdivided into sub-missions etc.). The performance of the administration and public bodies will be evaluated with respect to these missions. The budget of the national government was forecast to be 288.8 billion Euro in 2005. This includes neither Social Security, nor the budgets of local governments. Multiple offices It has long been customary for Parliament members to hold, in addition to the office of deputy or senator, another local office such as city mayor, hence titles like "Deputy and Mayor" (député-maire) and "Senatory and Mayor" (sénateur-maire). This is known as the cumul of electoral offices. Proponents of the cumul allege that having local responsibilities ensures that members of parliament stay in contact with the reality of their constituency; also, they are said to be able to defend the interest of their city etc. better by having a seat in parliament. In recent years, the cumul has been increasingly criticized. Critics contend that lawmakers that also have some local mandate cannot be assiduous to both tasks; for instance, they may neglect their duties to attend parliamentary sittings and commission in order to attend to tasks in their constituency. The premise that holders of dual office can defend the interest of their city etc. in the National Parliament is criticized in that national lawmakers should have the national interest in their mind, not the advancement of the projects of the particular city they are from. Finally, this criticism is part of a wider criticism of the political class as a cozy, closed world in which the same people make a long career from multiple positions. As a consequence, laws that restrict the possibilities of having multiple mandates have been enacted. Economic and Social Council The Economic and Social Council is a consultative assembly. It does not play a role in the adoption of statutes and regulations, but advises the lawmaking bodies on questions of social and economic policies. The executive may refer any question or proposal of social or economic importance to the Economic and Social Council. The Economic and Social Council publishes reports, which are sent to the Prime Minister, the National Assembly, and the Senate. They are published in the Journal Officiel. Judicial Branch French law provides for a separate judicial branch with an independent judiciary which does not answer to or is directly controlled by the other two branches of government. France has a civil law legal system, the basis of which is codified law; however, case law plays a significant role in the determination of the courts. The most distinctive feature of the French judicial system is that it is divided into judicial and administrative streams. Judicial courts The judicial stream of courts adjudicates civil and criminal cases. The judicial court stream consists of inferior courts, intermediate appellate courts, and the French Supreme Court. Judges are government employees but are granted special statutory protection from the executive. Judicial officers have security of tenure and may not be promoted (or demoted) without their consent. Their careers are overseen by the Judicial Council of France. The Office of Public Prosecutions, on the other hand, is a part of the French Ministry of Justice. In the past, this has bred suspiscion of undue political pressure to dismiss suits or claims against government officials charged with corruption, and the status of public prosecutors and their ties to government are frequently topics of debate. Trial by jury is virtually unknown in France, except for severe criminal cases which are the jurisdiction of the Courts of Assizes. A full Court is made up of a 3-judge panel and a petty jury of 9 jurors (vs. 12 jurors on appeal), who, together, render verdicts, and if a conviction is handed down, also determine a sentence. Jurors are selected at random from eligible voters. Pre-trial proceedings are inquisitorial by nature, but open court proceedings are adversarial. The burden of proof in criminal proceedings is on the prosecution, and the accused is constitutionally presumed innocent until proven guilty. For the most part, judges are appointed, but several specialty courts of original jurisdiction are sat by judges who are elected into office. For instance, labor tribunals are staffed with an equal number of magistrates from employers' unions and employees' unions. The same applies to land estate tribunals. Administrative courts The Conseil d'État sits in the Palais Royal Courts of administrative law adjudicate on claims and suits against government offices and agencies. The administrative stream is made up of administrative courts, courts of administrative appeal, and the Council of State as the court of last resort. The Council of State hears cases against executive branch decisions and has the power to quash or set aside executive-issued statutory instruments such as orders and regulations when they violate constitutional law, enacted legislation, or codified law. Court proceedings mostly involve written hearings and are inquisitorial, with judges having the parties submit written testimony or arguments. Any jurisdictional dispute between the judicial and administrative streams are settled by a special court called Tribunal des conflits, or "Court of Jurisdictional Dispute", composed of an equal number of Supreme Court justices and councillors of State. Constitutional Council Neither judicial nor administrative courts are empowered to rule on the constitutionality of acts of Parlimaent. While technically not part of the judicial branch, the Constitutional Council examines legislation prior to its enactment and decides whether or not it violates the Constitution or France's international treaties. This applies to all forms of organic laws, but only by referral from the French President, President of the Senate, President of the National Assembly, the Prime Minister, or any of the 60 senators or 60 assembly members of the other types of laws. The Constitutional Council may declare acts to be unconstitutional, even if they contradict the principles of the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (cited in the Preamble of the Constitution) or the European Convention on Human Rights (accepted by treaty). Council members to the Constitutional Council are appointed for nine years (three every three years); three are appointed by the President, three by the President of the National Assembly, and three by the President of the Senate. Financial courts France's main Court of Audit (Cour des Comptes) and regional audit courts audit government finances, public institutions (including other courts), and public entities. The court publishes an annual report and can refer criminal matters to public prosecutors. It can also directly fine public accountants for mishandling funds, and refer civil servants who misused funds to the Court of Financial and Budgetary Discipline. The main and regional audit courts do not judge the accountants of private organizations. However, in some circumstances, they may audit their accounting, especially when an organization has been awarded a government contract over a public utility or a service requiring the permanent use of the public domain or if an organization is a bidder on a government contract. The Court is often solicitated by various state agencies, parlementary commissions, and public regulators, but it can also petitioned to act by any French citizen or organization operating in France. The Court's finances are overseen by financial commissions of the two Houses of the French Parliament which also set the Court's working budget in the annual Act of finances. Ombudsman In 1973 the position of médiateur de la République (the Republic's ombudsman) was created. The ombudsman is charged with solving, without the need to a recourse before the courts, the disagreements between citizens and the administrations and other entities charged with a mission of a public service; proposing reforms to the Government and the administrations in order to further these goals; and actively participating in the international promotion of human rights. The ombudsman is appointed for a period of 6 years by the President of the Republic in the Council of Ministers. He cannot be removed from office and is protected for his official actions by an immunity similar to parliamentary immunity. He does not receive or accept orders from any authority. The current ombudsman is Jean-Paul Delevoye. French law Basic principles The basic principles that the French Republic must respect are found in the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. France uses a civil law system; that is, law arises primarily from written statutes; judges are not to make law, but merely to interpret it (though the amount of judge interpretation in certain areas makes it equivalent to case law). Many fundamental principles of French Law were laid in the Napoleonic Codes. Basic principles of the rule of law were laid in the Napoleonic Code: laws can only address the future and not the past (ex post facto laws are prohibited); to be applicable, laws must have been officially published (see Journal Officiel). In agreement with the principles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, the general rule is that of freedom, and law should only prohibit actions detrimental to society. As Guy Canivet, first president of the Court of Cassation, said about what should be the rule in French law: Guy Canivet was saying how the rules governing prisons disregarded the basic rule of law that liberty is the general case and prohibition the exception. See Jacques Floch, Report of the enquiry commission of the French national assembly on the situation in French prisons. Freedom is the rule, and its restriction is the exception; any restriction of Freedom must be provided for by Law and must follow the principles of necessity and proportionality. That is, law may lay out prohibitions only if they are needed, and if the inconveniences caused by this restriction do not exceed the inconveniences that the prohibition is supposed to remedy. France does not recognize religious law, nor does it recognize religious beliefs as a motivation for the enactment of prohibitions. As a consequence, France has long had neither blasphemy laws nor sodomy laws (the latter being abolished in 1789). Statutory law versus executive regulations French law differentiates between legislative acts (loi), generally passed by the legislative branch, and regulations (règlement, instituted by décrets), issued by the prime minister. There also exist secondary regulation called arrêtés, issued by ministers, subordinates acting in their names, or local authorities; these may only be taken in areas of competency and within the scope delineated by primary legislation. There are also more and more regulations issued by independent agencies, especially relating to economic matters. According to the Constitution of France (article 34): Statutes shall concern: Civic rights and the fundamental guarantees granted to citizens for the exercise of their public liberties; the obligations imposed for the purposes of national defence upon citizens in respect of their persons and their property; Nationality, the status and legal capacity of persons, matrimonial regimes, inheritance and gifts; The determination of serious crimes and other major offences and the penalties applicable to them; criminal procedure; amnesty; the establishment of new classes of courts and tribunals and the regulations governing the members of the judiciary; The base, rates and methods of collection of taxes of all types; the issue of currency. Statutes shall likewise determine the rules concerning: The electoral systems of parliamentary assemblies and local assemblies; The creation of categories of public establishments; The fundamental guarantees granted to civil and military personnel employed by the State; The nationalization of enterprises and transfers of ownership in enterprises from the public to the private sector. Statutes shall determine the fundamental principles of: The general organization of national defence; The self-government of territorial units, their powers and their resources; Education; The regime governing ownership, rights in rem, and civil and commercial obligations; Labour law, trade-union law and social security. Finance Acts shall determine the resources and obligations of the State in the manner and with the reservations specified in an institutional Act. Social Security Finance Acts shall determine the general conditions for the financial balance of Social Security and, in light of their revenue forecasts, shall determine expenditure targets in the manner and with the reservations specified in an institutional Act. Programme Acts shall determine the objectives of the economic and social action of the State. The provisions of this article may be enlarged upon and complemented by an organic law. Other areas are matters of regulation. This separation between law and regulation is enforced by the Conseil constitutionnel: the government can, with the agreement of the Conseil constitutionnel, modify by decrees the laws that infringe on the domain of regulations. At the same, the Conseil d'État nullifies decrees that infringe on the domain of the law. Order of authority for sources of the law When courts have to deal with incoherent texts, they apply a certain hierarchy: a text higher in the hierarchy will overrule a lower text. The general rule is that the Constitution is superior to laws which are superior to regulations. However, with the intervention of European law and international treaties, and the quasi-case law of the administrative courts, the hierarchy may become somewhat unclear. The following hierarchy of norms should thus be taken with due caution: The French Constitution, including the basic core constitutional values recognized by the laws of the Republic as defined by the Constitutional Council European Union treaties, orders, and regulations International treaties and agreements organic laws Acts of Parliament codes of law orders-in-council (advised on by the Council of State) other executive orders rules and regulations of multiple ministers of a single minister of local authorities regulations and decisions by independent agencies. Local government Traditionally, decision-making in France used to be highly centralized, with each of France's départements headed by a prefect appointed by the central government, in addition to the conseil général, a locally elected council. However, in 1982, the national government passed legislation to decentralize authority by giving a wide range of administrative and fiscal powers to local elected officials. In March 1986, regional councils were directly elected for the first time, and the process of decentralization has continued, albeit at a slow pace. In March 2003, a constitutional revision has changed very significantly the legal framework towards a more decentralized system and has increased the powers of local governments. Administrative units with a local government in Metropolitan France (that is, the parts of France lying in Europe) consist of: about 36,000 communes, headed by a municipal council and a mayor, grouped in 96 départements, headed by a conseil général (general council) and its president, grouped in 22 régions, headed by a regional council and its president. The conseil général is an institution created in 1790 by the French Revolution in each of the newly created departments (they were suppressed by the Vichy government from 1942 to 1944). A conseiller général (departmental councillor) must be at least 21 years old and either live or pay taxes in locality from which he or she is elected. (Sociologist Jean Viard noted [Le Monde, Feb. 22, 2006] that half of all conseillers généraux were still fils de paysans, i.e. sons of peasants, suggesting France's deep rural roots). Though the central government can theoretically dissolve a conseil général (in case of a dysfunctional conseil), this has happened only once in the Fifth Republic. The conseil général discusses and passes laws on matters that concern the department; it is administratively responsible for departmental employees and land, manages subsidized housing, public transportation, and school subsidies, and contributes to public facilities. It is not allowed to express "political wishes." The conseil général meets at least three times a year and elects its president for a term of 3 years, who presides over its "permanent commission," usually consisting of 5-10 other departmental councillors elected from among their number. The conseil général has accrued new powers in the course of the political decentralization that has occurred past in France during the past thirty years. There are in all more than 4,000 conseillers généraux in France. Different levels of administration have different duties, and shared responsibility is common; for instance, in the field of education, communes run public elementary schools, while départements run public junior high schools and régions run public high schools, but only for the building and upkeep of buildings; curricula and teaching personnel are supplied by the national Ministry of Education. The 3 main cities, Paris, Lyon and Marseille have a special statute. Paris is at the same time a commune and a département with an institution, the Conseil de Paris, that is elected at the same time as the other conseil municipaux, but that operates also as a conseil général. The 3 cities are also divided into arrondissement each having its conseil d'arrondissement and its mayor. French overseas possessions are divided into two groups: 4 overseas regions, with some strong similarity of organization to their metropolitan counterparts; in these overseas regions all laws of France are automatically applicable, except if a specific text provides otherwise or provides some adaptation. The four régions are fully incorporated parts of of the territory of the French Republic, and as such belong to the European Union, which means that European law is applicable; Territories, generally having greater autonomy. In general, French laws are not applicable, except if a specific text provides otherwise. A new Territory has been created in February 2007: Saint-Barthélemy. This Territory used to be part of the overseas département of Guadeloupe. The statute of Saint-Barthélemy provides the automatic application of French law, except mostly in the domain of taxes and immigration, which are left to the Territory. The Territories do not belong to the European Union. However, as "overseas territories" they have association agreements with the EU and may opt-in to some EU' provisions. EU law applies to them only insofar is necessary to implement the association agreements. All inhabited French territory is represented in both houses of Parliament and votes for the presidential election. See also Journal Officiel de la République Française Légifrance References All texts in French unless otherwise noted. Specific General Legal reference texts General reference General government web site with all texts, including some that are translated to English Constitution Constitution de la République Française original text official English translation) Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (French text, English translation) Rules of procedure Rules of procedure of the National Assembly (original text, English version) Justice Code civil (official English translation) Code des juridictions financières Code de procédure pénale (official English translation) Code de justice administrative Budget The LOLF (official English translation) Ombudsman Law 73-6 of 3 January 1973, creating the position of the Ombudsman (updated version) Justice Civil Code, statutory part Code of Civil Procedure, statutory part (official English translation) Criminal Code, statutory part official English translation) Code of Criminal Procedure, statutory part (official English translation) Code of Administrative Justice, statutory part Official documentation General Vie publique : découverte des institutions Les pouvoirs publics. Textes essentiels 2005., La Documentation française, ISBN 2-11-005961-3 Financial jurisdictions La Cour des Comptes, The Court of Accounts Budget Alain Lambert, Didier Migaud, Réussir la LOLF, clé d'une gestion publique responsible et efficace. Rapport au Gouvernement, September 2005, ISBN 2-11-095515-5 (page, PDF) Presentation of the LOLF Edward Arkwright, Stanislas Godefroy, Manuel Mazquez, Jean-Luc Bœuf, Cécile Courrèges, La mise en oeuvre de la loi organique relative aux lois de finances, La Documentation Française, 2005, ISBN 2-11-005944-3 Independent administrative authorities Conseil d'État, rapport public 2001, Les autorités administratives indépendantes (PDF) ISBN 2-11-004788-7 Further reading Frédéric Monera, L'idée de République et la jurisprudence du Conseil constitutionnel - Paris: L.G.D.J., 2004 -; External links All external sites in French but most of them have pages in English. General Service Public, Official portal to public services Law Official online repository of laws and regulations (Légifrance) Official online repository of treaties in which France is a party Executive Branch Official site of the Presidency Official site of the Government Legislative Branch Official site of the French National Assembly Official site of the French Senate Judiciary Official site of the Cour de Cassation Official site of the Conseil d'État Official site of the Constitutional Council Official site of the Court of Auditors Official site of the High Council of the Magistracy Others Official site of the Ombudsman Official site of the French Economic and Social Council http://upload.wikimedia.org/skins/common/images/button_media.png | Government_of_France |@lemmatized symbol:1 french:51 government:68 france:36 semi:1 presidential:4 system:12 determine:9 constitution:40 fifth:7 republic:20 nation:1 declare:4 indivisible:1 secular:1 democratic:2 social:18 provide:13 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1,517 | Bert_Bell | De Benneville "Bert" Bell (February 25, 1895 – October 11, 1959) was co-founder of the Philadelphia Eagles, co-owner and coach of the Pittsburgh Steelers and commissioner of the National Football League from 1946 until his death. Early life Bell grew up in a prominent Philadelphia, Pennsylvania family, the son of John Cromwell Bell, Pennsylvania's attorney general. Once commenting on his son's plans for college, the elder Bell said, "Bert will go to Penn (the University of Pennsylvania) or he will go to hell." While there, Bell played quarterback for the Quakers' football team, a stretch that was interrupted by World War I service at the Mobile Hospital Unit in France. After graduating, Bell served as backfield coach at his alma mater from 1920 to 1928, then held the same position for two years at Temple University in 1930 and 1931. Philadelphia Eagles founder, co-owner, coach, owner In 1933, with three other former college teammates (including Lud Wray, first head coach), he became co-owner of the Eagles for $2,500. Taking the approach of making the overall league stronger, Bell was credited with establishing the NFL draft in 1935. He served as Eagles head coach from 1936 to 1940. By 1937, the Eagles had lost $90,000 and were put up for public auction. Bell became sole owner with a winning bid of $4,500, but after continuing financial struggles, he became co-owner of the Pittsburgh Steelers with his friend Art Rooney in a bizarre transaction in which Rooney sold the Steelers to Philadelphia businessman Alex Thompson, who then traded franchises with Bell. By 1943, a wartime manpower shortage led the Steelers and Eagles to temporarily merge into the "Steagles." The following year, the Steelers merged with the Chicago Cardinals. In 1937, Bell founded the Maxwell Football Club, which awards the Maxwell Award to the top college football player and the Bert Bell Award to the top professional. NFL commissioner On January 11, 1946, Bell was selected to replace Elmer Layden as NFL commissioner and subsequently sold his ownership in the Steelers after being given a three-year contract at $25,000 per year. A year later, the contract was changed to a five-year pact at the same salary, a move that was followed in 1949 by a ten-year agreement that boosted his annual pay to $30,000. Among his accomplishments as commissioner, Bell merged the league with the All-America Football Conference, and did battle with the Canadian Football League over scheduling and player rights. He also coined the phrase, "On any given Sunday, any team can beat any other team." One of his first major acts dealt with a gambling scandal that marred the 1946 NFL Championship game. In response, he was able to create laws in virtually every state that made it a crime for an athlete not to report a bribe attempt. In addition to all these duties, he also single-handedly plotted out league schedules each season on his dining-room table by using a giant checkerboard. He created the revenue-sharing system that enables the small-market teams to make larger profits and remain competitive. He also embraced the idea of television blackouts for home teams, especially after watching the Los Angeles Rams lose money after they televised all of their 1950 season games. However, he was seen as being a little too strict when he refused to lift a blackout for Detroit viewers to watch the sold out 1957 NFL Championship between the Lions and the Cleveland Browns, claiming it would be considered "dishonest" to the paying customers. Death and legacy Bell died of a heart attack on October 11, 1959 at Philadelphia's Franklin Field, while watching a game between the team he co-founded, the Eagles, and the Steelers, which he had co-owned from 1941 to 1946. The Eagles actually scored the game-winning touchdown the moment Bell died, as fans were paying more attention to Bell than the game. He had been under a doctor's care for two years and had recovered from a heart attack the previous February. Few knew that at the time, Bell was planning to retire as commissioner in order to regain ownership of the Eagles before the next season. The Bert Bell Benefit Bowl, informally referred to as the Playoff Bowl and first played in 1960 (the year after his death), was named for him. Bell was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1963 as a charter member. Personal life Bell married Broadway actress Frances Upton on May 6, 1934. They had three children, sons Bert, Jr. and Upton, and daughter Jane. Bell's older brother, John C. Bell, Jr., served as Lieutenant Governor and briefly as Governor of Pennsylvania. External links Pro Football Hall of Fame: Member profile Comcast Sportsnet article on Bell | Bert_Bell |@lemmatized de:1 benneville:1 bert:5 bell:23 february:2 october:2 co:7 founder:2 philadelphia:5 eagle:9 owner:6 coach:5 pittsburgh:2 steelers:7 commissioner:5 national:1 football:8 league:5 death:3 early:1 life:2 grow:1 prominent:1 pennsylvania:4 family:1 son:3 john:2 cromwell:1 attorney:1 general:1 comment:1 plan:2 college:3 elder:1 say:1 go:2 penn:1 university:2 hell:1 play:2 quarterback:1 quaker:1 team:6 stretch:1 interrupt:1 world:1 war:1 service:1 mobile:1 hospital:1 unit:1 france:2 graduate:1 serve:3 backfield:1 alma:1 mater:1 hold:1 position:1 two:2 year:9 temple:1 three:3 former:1 teammate:1 include:1 lud:1 wray:1 first:3 head:2 become:3 take:1 approach:1 make:3 overall:1 stronger:1 credit:1 establish:1 nfl:5 draft:1 lose:2 put:1 public:1 auction:1 sole:1 win:2 bid:1 continue:1 financial:1 struggle:1 friend:1 art:1 rooney:2 bizarre:1 transaction:1 sell:3 businessman:1 alex:1 thompson:1 trade:1 franchise:1 wartime:1 manpower:1 shortage:1 lead:1 temporarily:1 merge:3 steagles:1 following:1 chicago:1 cardinal:1 found:2 maxwell:2 club:1 award:3 top:2 player:2 professional:1 january:1 select:1 replace:1 elmer:1 layden:1 subsequently:1 ownership:2 give:2 contract:2 per:1 later:1 change:1 five:1 pact:1 salary:1 move:1 follow:1 ten:1 agreement:1 boost:1 annual:1 pay:3 among:1 accomplishment:1 america:1 conference:1 battle:1 canadian:1 scheduling:1 right:1 also:3 coin:1 phrase:1 sunday:1 beat:1 one:1 major:1 act:1 deal:1 gamble:1 scandal:1 mar:1 championship:2 game:5 response:1 able:1 create:2 law:1 virtually:1 every:1 state:1 crime:1 athlete:1 report:1 bribe:1 attempt:1 addition:1 duty:1 single:1 handedly:1 plot:1 schedule:1 season:3 din:1 room:1 table:1 use:1 giant:1 checkerboard:1 revenue:1 sharing:1 system:1 enable:1 small:1 market:1 large:1 profit:1 remain:1 competitive:1 embrace:1 idea:1 television:1 blackout:2 home:1 especially:1 watch:3 los:1 angeles:1 ram:1 money:1 televise:1 however:1 see:1 little:1 strict:1 refuse:1 lift:1 detroit:1 viewer:1 lion:1 cleveland:1 brown:1 claim:1 would:1 consider:1 dishonest:1 customer:1 legacy:1 die:2 heart:2 attack:2 franklin:1 field:1 actually:1 score:1 touchdown:1 moment:1 fan:1 attention:1 doctor:1 care:1 recover:1 previous:1 know:1 time:1 retire:1 order:1 regain:1 next:1 benefit:1 bowl:2 informally:1 refer:1 playoff:1 name:1 induct:1 pro:2 hall:2 fame:2 charter:1 member:2 personal:1 marry:1 broadway:1 actress:1 upton:2 may:1 child:1 jr:2 daughter:1 jane:1 old:1 brother:1 c:1 lieutenant:1 governor:2 briefly:1 external:1 link:1 profile:1 comcast:1 sportsnet:1 article:1 |@bigram philadelphia_eagle:2 pittsburgh_steelers:2 philadelphia_pennsylvania:1 alma_mater:1 manpower_shortage:1 single_handedly:1 revenue_sharing:1 los_angeles:1 hall_fame:2 lieutenant_governor:1 external_link:1 comcast_sportsnet:1 |
1,518 | House_of_Cards | A house of cards is a structure formed of playing cards, as a pastime. House of cards may also refer to: In film and television: House of Cards, a BBC television drama based on the novel of the same name House of Cards (1968 film), starring George Peppard, Inger Stevens and Orson Welles House of Cards (1993 film), starring Kathleen Turner and Tommy Lee Jones "House of Cards" (Yes, Dear episode), from the American TV sitcom "House of Cards" (Law & Order episode), from the American TV show In music: "House of Cards", a song (from 1994 album Stones in the Road) by Mary Chapin Carpenter "House of Cards", a song (from 2007 album In Rainbows) by Radiohead "House of Cards", a song by Madina Lake "House of Cards", a song by Elton John "House of Cards," a song by Zeromancer "House of Cards," a song by The Cooper Temple Clause "House of Cards," a song by Australian band GANGgajang In books: House of Cards: A Tale of Hubris and Wretched Excess on Wall Street by William D. Cohan Other: House of Cards, a special deck of cards designed by Charles and Ray Eames In the video game Hitman: Blood Money, there is a mission called "A House of Cards" which is set in a casino. | House_of_Cards |@lemmatized house:17 card:19 structure:1 form:1 play:1 pastime:1 may:1 also:1 refer:1 film:3 television:2 bbc:1 drama:1 base:1 novel:1 name:1 star:2 george:1 peppard:1 inger:1 stevens:1 orson:1 welles:1 kathleen:1 turner:1 tommy:1 lee:1 jones:1 yes:1 dear:1 episode:2 american:2 tv:2 sitcom:1 law:1 order:1 show:1 music:1 song:7 album:2 stone:1 road:1 mary:1 chapin:1 carpenter:1 rainbow:1 radiohead:1 madina:1 lake:1 elton:1 john:1 zeromancer:1 cooper:1 temple:1 clause:1 australian:1 band:1 ganggajang:1 book:1 tale:1 hubris:1 wretched:1 excess:1 wall:1 street:1 william:1 cohan:1 special:1 deck:1 design:1 charles:1 ray:1 eames:1 video:1 game:1 hitman:1 blood:1 money:1 mission:1 call:1 set:1 casino:1 |@bigram orson_welles:1 tommy_lee:1 |
1,519 | Marquess_of_Aberdeen_and_Temair | George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen; Prime Minister of the United Kingdom 1852-1855 Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair, in the County of Aberdeen, in the County of Meath and in the County of Argyll, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created on 4 January 1916 for John Hamilton-Gordon, 7th Earl of Aberdeen. The Gordon family descends from John Gordon, who fought as a Royalist against the Covenanters in the Civil War. In 1642 he was created a Baronet, of Haddo in the County of Aberdeen, in the Baronetage of Nova Scotia. In 1644 he was found guilty of treason and beheaded, with the baronetcy forfeited. The title was restored after the Restoration for his son John, the second Baronet. He died without male issue and was succeeded by his younger brother, the third Baronet. He was a noted advocate and served as Lord President of the Court of Session and as Lord Chancellor of Scotland. On 30 November 1682 he was raised to the Peerage of Scotland as Lord Haddo, Methlic, Tarves and Kellie, Viscount of Formartine and Earl of Aberdeen. He was succeeded by his only surviving son, the second Earl. He sat in the House of Lords as a Scottish Representative Peer from 1721 to 1727. On his death the titles passed to his eldest son from his second marriage, the third Earl. He was a Scottish Representative Peer from 1747 to 1761 and from 1774 to 1790. He was succeeded by his grandson, the fourth Earl. He was the eldest son of George Gordon, Lord Haddo. Lord Aberdeen was a distinguished diplomat and statesman and served as Foreign Secretary from 1828 to 1830 and from 1841 to 1846 and as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1852 to 1855. In 1815 he was created Viscount Gordon, of Aberdeen in the County of Aberdeen, in the Peerage of the United Kingdom, which entitled him to an automatic seat in the House of Lords. Aberdeen married firstly Lady Catherine Elizabeth (1784–1812), daughter of John Hamilton, 1st Marquess of Abercorn, and assumed by Royal license the additional surname of Hamilton in 1818. When he died the titles passed to his eldest son from his second marriage to Harriet Douglas, the fifth Earl. He sat as Liberal Member of Parliament for Aberdeenshire. His eldest son, the sixth Earl, was a sailor and adventurer. He was accidentally drowned off the coast of America in 1870. He was unmarried and was succeeded by his younger brother, the seventh Earl. He was a Liberal politician and served as Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland in 1886 and from 1905 to 1915 and as Governor General of Canada from 1893 to 1898. In 1916 he was created Earl of Haddo, in the County of Aberdeen, and Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair, in the County of Aberdeen, in the County of Meath and in the County of Argyll. Both titles are in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. He was succeeded by his eldest son, the second Marquess. He was a member of the London County Council and served as Lord-Lieutenant of Aberdeenshire. He was childless and was succeeded by his younger brother, the third Marquess. He was notably President of the Federation of British Industries. When he died the titles passed to his eldest son, the fourth Marquess. He was a member of the Aberdeenshire County Council and Lord-Lieutenant of Aberdeenshire. He had four adopted children but no biological issue and was succeeded by his younger brother, the fifth Marquess. He was a broadcaster working for the BBC. He never married and on his death in 1984 the titles passed to his fourth and youngest brother, the sixth Marquess. He was Chairman of The Arts Club. As of 2007 the titles are held by his only son, the seventh Marquess, who succeeded in 2002. John Hamilton-Gordon, 1st Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair Numerous other members of the Gordon family have also gained distinction. The Hon. William Gordon (d. 1816), eldest son from the third marriage of the second Earl, was a General in the Army. The Hon. Cosmo Gordon, second son from the third marriage of the second Earl, was a Colonel in the Army. The Hon. Alexander Gordon (1739–1792), third son from the third marriage of the second Earl, was a Lord of Session from 1788 to 1792 under the judicial title of Lord Rockville. His son William Duff-Gordon was Member of Parliament for Worcester. In 1815 he succeeded his uncle as second Baronet of Halkin according to a special remainder and assumed the additional surname of Duff (see Duff-Gordon Baronets for further history of this branch of the family). The Hon. William Gordon, younger brother of the fourth Earl, was a Vice-Admiral in the Royal Navy and sat as Member of Parliament for Aberdeenshire. The Hon. Alexander Gordon (1786–1815), younger brother of the fourth Earl, was a soldier and was killed at the Battle of Waterloo. The Hon. Sir Robert Gordon, younger brother of the fourth Earl, was a diplomat and served as British Ambassador to Austria. The Hon. John Gordon (1792–1869), younger brother of the fourth Earl, was an Admiral in the Royal Navy. The Hon. Sir Alexander Hamilton-Gordon (1817–1890), eldest son of the second marriage of the fourth Earl, was a General in the Army and sat as Member of Parliament for Aberdeenshire East. His eldest son, Sir Alexander Hamilton-Gordon was also a General in the Army. Reverend the Hon. Douglas Hamilton-Gordon (1824–1901), third son of the second marriage of the fourth Earl, was Chaplain-in-Ordinary to Queen Victoria and Canon of Salisbury. The Hon. Arthur Hamilton-Gordon, fourth son of the second marriage of the fourth Earl, was a Liberal politician and was created Baron Stanmore in 1893 (see this title for more information on him and this branch of the family). Ishbel Hamilton-Gordon, Marchioness of Aberdeen and Temair, daughter of Dudley Marjoribanks, 1st Baron Tweedmouth, and wife of the first Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair, was an author, philanthropist and an advocate of woman's interests. The title Earl of Haddo is the courtesy title for the Marquess's eldest son and heir, the eldest son of whom uses the courtesy title Viscount of Formartine. The family seat is Haddo House, Aberdeenshire. The Marquesses of Aberdeen and Temair are related to the Marquesses of Huntly. Sir John Gordon (d. c. 1395) of Strathbogie, ancestor of Sir John Gordon, 1st Baronet, was the brother of Elizabeth Gordon. She married Sir Alexander Seton (d. 1438) and was the mother of Alexander Gordon, 1st Earl of Huntly (ancestor of the Marquesses of Huntly). Gordon Baronets, of Haddo (1642) Sir John Gordon, 1st Baronet (1610–1644) was a supporter of Charles I in the War of Three Kingdoms. Created a baronet in 1642 for his services against the Covenanters, he was captured and executed by them in 1644. Sir John Gordon, 2nd Baronet (c. 1632–1665) was the eldest son of the 1st Baronet. At the Restoration in 1660, the forfeited estates of his father were returned to him. He died in 1665 without issue, and the baronetcy passed to his younger brother, George, later Earl of Aberdeen. Sir George Gordon, 3rd Baronet (1637–1720) (created Earl of Aberdeen in 1682), was the younger son of the 1st Baronet. Trained as a lawyer, he succeeded to the baronetcy in 1665. Gordon was made Lord Chancellor of Scotland in 1682, and subsequently created Earl of Aberdeen. He fell out of favor with James II in 1684 and was dismissed, but remained a non-juror until the accession of Anne. Earls of Aberdeen (1682) George Gordon, 1st Earl of Aberdeen (1637–1720) William Gordon, 2nd Earl of Aberdeen (1679–1745) George Gordon, 3rd Earl of Aberdeen (1722–1801) George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen (1784–1860) George Hamilton-Gordon, 5th Earl of Aberdeen (1816–1864) George Hamilton-Gordon, 6th Earl of Aberdeen (1841–1870) John Campbell Hamilton-Gordon, 7th Earl of Aberdeen (1847-1934) (created Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair in 1916) Marquesses of Aberdeen and Temair (1916) John Campbell Gordon, 1st Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair (1847–1934) George Gordon, 2nd Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair (1879–1965) Dudley Gladstone Gordon, 3rd Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair (1883–1972) David George Ian Alexander Gordon, 4th Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair (1908–1974) Archibald Victor Dudley Gordon, 5th Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair (1913–1984) Alastair Ninian John Gordon, 6th Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair (1920–2002) Alexander George Gordon, 7th Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair (b. 1955) The Heir Apparent is the present holder's eldest son George Ian Alastair Gordon, Earl of Haddo (b. 1983) References Kidd, Charles, Williamson, David (editors). Debrett's Peerage and Baronetage (1990 edition). New York: St Martin's Press, 1990. www.thepeerage.com See also Baron Stanmore Duff-Gordon Baronets | Marquess_of_Aberdeen_and_Temair |@lemmatized george:13 hamilton:14 gordon:47 earl:34 aberdeen:37 prime:2 minister:2 united:5 kingdom:6 marquess:24 temair:15 county:11 meath:2 argyll:2 title:13 peerage:5 create:9 january:1 john:13 family:5 descend:1 fight:1 royalist:1 covenanters:2 civil:1 war:2 baronet:14 haddo:8 baronetage:2 nova:1 scotia:1 find:1 guilty:1 treason:1 behead:1 baronetcy:3 forfeit:1 restore:1 restoration:2 son:22 second:13 die:4 without:2 male:1 issue:3 succeed:10 young:11 brother:11 third:8 noted:1 advocate:2 serve:5 lord:13 president:2 court:1 session:2 chancellor:2 scotland:3 november:1 raise:1 methlic:1 tarves:1 kellie:1 viscount:3 formartine:2 survive:1 sit:4 house:3 scottish:2 representative:2 peer:2 death:2 pass:5 eldest:13 marriage:8 grandson:1 fourth:11 distinguished:1 diplomat:2 statesman:1 foreign:1 secretary:1 entitle:1 automatic:1 seat:2 marry:3 firstly:1 lady:1 catherine:1 elizabeth:2 daughter:2 abercorn:1 assume:2 royal:3 license:1 additional:2 surname:2 harriet:1 douglas:2 fifth:2 liberal:3 member:7 parliament:4 aberdeenshire:7 sixth:2 sailor:1 adventurer:1 accidentally:1 drown:1 coast:1 america:1 unmarried:1 seventh:2 politician:2 lieutenant:3 ireland:1 governor:1 general:4 canada:1 london:1 council:2 childless:1 notably:1 federation:1 british:2 industry:1 four:1 adopt:1 child:1 biological:1 broadcaster:1 work:1 bbc:1 never:1 chairman:1 art:1 club:1 hold:1 numerous:1 also:3 gain:1 distinction:1 hon:10 william:4 army:4 cosmo:1 colonel:1 alexander:8 judicial:1 rockville:1 duff:4 worcester:1 uncle:1 halkin:1 accord:1 special:1 remainder:1 see:3 history:1 branch:2 vice:1 admiral:2 navy:2 soldier:1 kill:1 battle:1 waterloo:1 sir:9 robert:1 ambassador:1 austria:1 east:1 reverend:1 chaplain:1 ordinary:1 queen:1 victoria:1 canon:1 salisbury:1 arthur:1 baron:3 stanmore:2 information:1 ishbel:1 marchioness:1 dudley:3 marjoribanks:1 tweedmouth:1 wife:1 first:1 author:1 philanthropist:1 woman:1 interest:1 courtesy:2 heir:2 use:1 relate:1 huntly:3 c:2 strathbogie:1 ancestor:2 seton:1 mother:1 supporter:1 charles:2 three:1 service:1 capture:1 execute:1 forfeited:1 estate:1 father:1 return:1 later:1 train:1 lawyer:1 make:1 subsequently:1 fell:1 favor:1 james:1 ii:1 dismiss:1 remain:1 non:1 juror:1 accession:1 anne:1 campbell:2 gladstone:1 david:2 ian:2 archibald:1 victor:1 alastair:2 ninian:1 b:2 apparent:1 present:1 holder:1 reference:1 kidd:1 williamson:1 editor:1 debrett:1 edition:1 new:1 york:1 st:1 martin:1 press:1 www:1 thepeerage:1 com:1 |@bigram earl_aberdeen:14 prime_minister:2 marquess_aberdeen:14 aberdeen_temair:15 county_meath:2 nova_scotia:1 guilty_treason:1 eldest_son:13 marry_firstly:1 gordon_marquess:8 gordon_baronet:7 vice_admiral:1 queen_victoria:1 heir_apparent:1 |
1,520 | Mathematical_constant | A mathematical constant is a number, usually a real number, that arises naturally in mathematics. Unlike physical constants, mathematical constants are defined independently of physical measurement. Some mathematical constants, such as e and , arise in many different contexts. Others, such as Graham's number or Skewes' number, only arise in a single specific context, but are notable because they are the earliest found, largest or smallest exemplar of a class of numbers. Many of the more interesting mathematical constants have a name, also when they can easily be specified by a short formula. What it means for a constant to arise "naturally", and what makes a constant "interesting", is ultimately a matter of taste, and some mathematical constants are notable more for historical reasons than for their intrinsic mathematical interest. Mathematical constants are always definable numbers and are almost always also computable numbers (Chaitin's constant being a significant exception). However, computable constants need not be easily computed; the De Bruijn-Newman constant, for example, has no known digits of its decimal expansion. Constants may be sorted by size but alternate classifications are used, such as using continued fractions. Common mathematical constants (some of which also ubiquitous in science) Ubiquitous in many different fields of science, such recurring constants include , and the Feigenbaum constants which are linked to the mathematical models used to describe physical phenomena, Euclidean geometry, analysis and logistic maps respectively. However, mathematical constants such as Apéry's constant and the Golden ratio occur unexpectedly outside of mathematics. Archimedes' constant π The circumference of a circle with diameter 1 is . , though having a natural definition in Euclidean geometry (the circumference of a circle of diameter 1), may be found in many different places in mathematics. Pi is also the circumference of any given circle divided by its diameter. Key examples include the Gaussian integral in complex analysis, nth roots of unity in number theory and Cauchy distributions in probability. However, its universality is not limited to mathematics. Indeed, various formulas in physics, such as Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, and constants such as the cosmological constant bear the constant pi. The presence of pi in physical principles, laws and formulas can have very simple explanations. For example, Coulomb's law, describing the inverse square proportionality of the magnitude of the electrostatic force between two electric charges and their distance, states that, in SI units, . The exponential growth – or Napier's – constant e Exponential growth (green) describes many physical phenomena. The exponential growth constant appears in many parts of applied mathematics. For example, as the Swiss mathematician Jacob Bernoulli discovered, arises in compound interest. Indeed, an account that starts at $1, and yields dollars at simple interest, will yield dollars with continuous compounding. also has applications to probability theory, where it arises in a way not obviously related to exponential growth. Suppose that a gambler plays a slot machine with a one in n probability and plays it n times. Then, for large n (such as a million) the probability that the gambler will win nothing at all is (approximately) . Another application of , also discovered in part by Jacob Bernoulli along with French mathematician Pierre Raymond de Montmort is in the problem of derangements, also known as the hat check problem . Here n guests are invited to a party, and at the door each guest checks his hat with the butler who then places them into labelled boxes. But the butler does not know the name of the guests, and so must put them into boxes selected at random. The problem of de Montmort is: what is the probability that none of the hats gets put into the right box. The answer is and as tends to infinity, approaches . The Feigenbaum constants α and δ Bifurcation diagram of the logistic map. Iterations of continuous maps serve as the simplest examples of models for dynamical systems. Named after mathematical physicist Mitchell Feigenbaum, the two Feigenbaum constants appear in such iterative processes: they are mathematical invariants of logistic maps with quadratic maximum points and their bifurcation diagrams. The logistic map is a polynomial mapping, often cited as an archetypal example of how chaotic behaviour can arise from very simple non-linear dynamical equations. The map was popularized in a seminal 1976 paper by the English biologist Robert May , in part as a discrete-time demographic model analogous to the logistic equation first created by Pierre François Verhulst. The difference equation is intended to capture the two effects of reproduction and starvation. Apéry's constant ζ(3) Despite being a special value of the Riemann zeta function, Apéry's constant arises naturally in a number of physical problems, including in the second- and third-order terms of the electron's gyromagnetic ratio, computed using quantum electrodynamics . Also, Pascal Wallisch noted that , where are the neutron mass, the electron mass and the Golden ratio respectively. The golden ratio φ Golden rectangles in an icosahedron An explicit formula for the nth Fibonacci number involving the golden ratio. The number turns up frequently in geometry, particularly in figures with pentagonal symmetry. Indeed, the length of a regular pentagon's diagonal is times its side. The vertices of a regular icosahedron are those of three mutually orthogonal golden rectangles. Also, it appears in the Fibonacci sequence, related to growth by recursion . It is approximately equal to 1.61803398874, or, more precisely, . Adolf Zeising, whose main interests were mathematics and philosophy, found the golden ratio expressed in the arrangement of branches along the stems of plants and of veins in leaves. He extended his research to the skeletons of animals and the branchings of their veins and nerves, to the proportions of chemical compounds and the geometry of crystals, even to the use of proportion in artistic endeavours. In these phenomena he saw the golden ratio operating as a universal law. Zeising wrote in 1854: [The Golden Ratio is a universal law] in which is contained the ground-principle of all formative striving for beauty and completeness in the realms of both nature and art, and which permeates, as a paramount spiritual ideal, all structures, forms and proportions, whether cosmic or individual, organic or inorganic, acoustic or optical; which finds its fullest realization, however, in the human form. The Euler-Mascheroni constant γ The area between the two curves (red) tends to a limit. The Euler–Mascheroni constant is a recurring constant in number theory. The French mathematician Charles Jean de la Vallée-Poussin proved in 1898 that when taking any positive integer n and dividing it by each positive integer m less than n, the average fraction by which the quotient n/m falls short of the next integer tends to as n tends to infinity. Surprisingly, this average doesn't tend to one half. The Euler-Mascheroni constant also appears in Merten's third theorem and has relations to the gamma function, the zeta function and many different integrals and series. The definition of the Euler-Mascheroni constant exhibits a close link between the discrete and the continuous (see curves on the right). Conway's constant λ Conway's look-and-say sequence Conway's constant is the invariant growth rate of all derived strings similar to the look-and-say sequence (except two trivial ones) . It is given by the unique positive real root of a polynomial of degree 71 with integer coefficients . Khinchin's constant K If a real number is written using simple continued fraction then, as Russian mathematician Aleksandr Khinchin proved in 1934, the limit as tends to infinity of the geometric mean exists, and, except for a set of measure 0, this limit is a constant, Khinchin's constant . Mathematical curiosities and unspecified constants Simple representatives of sets of numbers This Babylonian clay tablet gives an approximation of in four sexagesimal figures, which is about six decimal figures Photograph, illustration, and description of the root(2) tablet from the Yale Babylonian CollectionHigh resolution photographs, descriptions, and analysis of the root(2) tablet (YBC 7289) from the Yale Babylonian Collection . Liouville's constant is a simple example of a transcendental number. Some constants, such as the square root of 2, Liouville's constant and Champernowne constant are not important mathematical invariants but retain interest being simple representatives of special sets of numbers, the irrational numbers , the transcendental numbers and the normal numbers (in base 10) respectively. The discovery of the irrational numbers is usually attributed to the Pythagorean Hippasus of Metapontum who proved, most likely geometrically, the irrationality of . As for Liouville's constant, named after French mathematician Joseph Liouville, it was the first transcendental number ever constructed . Chaitin's constant Ω In the computer science subfield of algorithmic information theory, Chaitin's constant is the real number representing the probability that a randomly-chosen Turing machine will halt, formed from a construction due to Argentine-American mathematician and computer scientist Gregory Chaitin. Chaitin's constant, though not being computable, has been proven to be transcendental and normal. Unspecified constants When unspecified, constants indicate classes of similar objects, commonly functions, all equal up to a constant - technically speaking, this is may be viewed as 'similarity up to a constant'. Such constants appear frequently when dealing with integrals and differential equations. Though unspecified, they have a specific value, which often isn't important. Solutions with different constants of integration of . In integrals Indefinite integrals are called indefinite because their solutions are only unique up to a constant. For example, when working over the field of real numbers where , the constant of integration, is an arbitrary fixed real number . In other words, whatever the value of , differentiating with respect to always yields . In differential equations In a similar fashion, constants appear in the solutions to differential equations where not enough initial values or boundary conditions are given. For example, the ordinary differential equation has solution where is an arbitrary constant. When dealing with partial differential equations, the constants may be functions, constant with respect to some variables (but not necessarily all of them). For example, the PDE has solutions where is an arbitrary function in the variable . Notation Representing constants Different symbols are used to represent and manipulate constants, such as , and . It is common to express the numerical value of a constant by giving its decimal representation (or just the first few digits of it). For two reasons this representation may cause problems. First, even though rational numbers all have a finite or ever-repeating decimal expansion, irrational numbers don't have such an expression making them impossible to completely describe in this manner. Also, the decimal expansion of a number is not necessarily unique. For example, the two representations 0.999... and 1 are equivalent in the sense that they represent the same number. Calculating digits of the decimal expansion of constants has been a common enterprise for many centuries. For example, German mathematician Ludolph van Ceulen of the 16th century spent a major part of his life calculating the first 35 digits of pi Ludolph van Ceulen – biography at the MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. . Nowadays, using computers and supercomputers, some of the mathematical constants, including , have been computed to more than one hundred billion — — digits. Fast algorithms have been developed, some of which — as for Apéry's constant — are unexpectedly fast. Graham's number defined using Knuth's up-arrow notation. Some constants differ so much from the usual kind that a new notation has been invented to represent them reasonably. Graham's number illustrates this as Knuth's up-arrow notation is used . It may be of interest to represent them using continued fractions to perform various studies, including statistical analysis. Many mathematical constants have an analytic form, that is they can constructed using well-known operations that lend themselves readily to calculation. However, Grossman's constant has no known analytic form . Symbolizing and naming of constants Symbolizing constants with letters is a frequent means of making the notation more concise. A standard convention, instigated by Leonhard Euler in the 18th century, is to use lower case letters from the beginning of the Latin alphabet or the Greek alphabet when dealing with constants in general. Erdős–Borwein constant Embree-Trefethen constant Brun's constant for twin prime Rydberg constant cardinal number aleph naught Different kinds of notation. However, for more important constants, the symbols may be more complex and have an extra letter, an asterisk, a number, a lemniscate or use different alphabets such as Hebrew, Cyrillic or Gothic. Sometimes, the symbol representing a constant is a whole word. For example, American mathematician Edward Kasner's 9-year-old nephew coined the names googol and googolplex The parabolic constant is the ratio of the arc length of the parabolic segment formed by the latus rectum (red) to its focal parameter (green). The names are either related to the meaning of the constant (parabolic constant, twin prime constant, ...) or to a specific person (Sierpiński's constant, Josephson constant, ...). Table of selected mathematical constants Abbreviations used: R - Rational number, I - Irrational number (may be algebraic or transcendental), A - Algebraic number (irrational), T - Transcendental number (irrational) Gen - General, NuT - Number theory, ChT - Chaos theory, Com - Combinatorics, Inf - Information theory, Ana - Mathematical analysis Symbol Value Name Field N First Described # of Known Digits 0 = 0 Zero Gen R c. 7th-5th century BCE N/A1 = 1 One, Unity Gen R N/Ai = Imaginary unit Gen, Ana A 16th century N/Aπ ≈ 3.14159 26535 89793 23846 26433 83279 50288 , Archimedes' constant or Ludolph's number Gen, Ana T by c. 2000 BCE 1,241,177,300,000 e ≈ 2.71828 18284 59045 23536 02874 71352 66249Napier's constant, or Euler's number, base of Natural logarithm Gen, Ana T 1618 100,000,000,000√ ≈ 1.41421 35623 73095 04880 16887 24209 69807 Pythagoras' constant, square root of two Gen A by c. 800 BCE 137,438,953,444√ ≈ 1.73205 08075 68877 29352 74463 41505 87236 Theodorus' constant, square root of three Gen A by c. 800 BCE√ ≈ 2.23606 79774 99789 69640 91736 68731 27623 square root of five Gen A by c. 800 BCE 1,000,000γ ≈ 0.57721 56649 01532 86060 65120 90082 40243 Euler-Mascheroni constantGen, NuT 1735 14,922,244,771φ ≈ 1.61803 39887 49894 84820 45868 34365 63811 Golden ratio Gen A by 3rd century BCE 100,000,000,000ρ ≈ 1.32471 79572 44746 02596 09088 54478 09734 Plastic constant NuT A 1928 β* ≈ 0.70258 Embree-Trefethen constantNuTδ ≈ 4.66920 16091 02990 67185 32038 20466 20161 Feigenbaum constant ChT 1975α ≈ 2.50290 78750 95892 82228 39028 73218 21578 Feigenbaum constant ChTC2 ≈ 0.66016 18158 46869 57392 78121 10014 55577 Twin prime constant NuT 5,020M1 ≈ 0.26149 72128 47642 78375 54268 38608 69585 Meissel-Mertens constant NuT 18661874 8,010 B2 ≈ 1.90216 05823 Brun's constant for twin primes NuT 1919 10B4 ≈ 0.87058 83800 Brun's constant for prime quadruplets NuTΛ ≥ –2.7 • 10-9 de Bruijn-Newman constant NuT 1950? noneK ≈ 0.91596 55941 77219 01505 46035 14932 38411 </td> Catalan's constant Com 15,510,000,000K ≈ 0.76422 36535 89220 66299 06987 31250 09232 Landau-Ramanujan constant NuT 30,010K ≈ 1.13198 824 Viswanath's constant NuT 8 B´L = 1 Legendre's constant NuT R N/Aμ ≈ 1.45136 92348 83381 05028 39684 85892 02744 Ramanujan-Soldner constant NuT 75,500EB ≈ 1.60669 51524 15291 76378 33015 23190 92458 Erdős–Borwein constant NuT Iβ ≈ 0.28016 94990 23869 13303 Bernstein's constant Anaλ ≈ 0.30366 30028 98732 65859 74481 21901 55623 Gauss-Kuzmin-Wirsing constant Com 1974 385σ ≈ 0.35323 63718 54995 98454 Hafner-Sarnak-McCurley constant NuT1993λ, μ ≈ 0.62432 99885 43550 87099 29363 83100 83724 Golomb–Dickman constant Com, NuT 1930 1964 ≈ 0.64341 05463 Cahen's constant T 1891 4000 ≈ 0.66274 34193 49181 58097 47420 97109 25290Laplace limit ≈ 0.80939 40205 Alladi-Grinstead constant NuTΛ ≈ 1.09868 58055 Lengyel's constant Com 1992 ≈ 3.27582 29187 21811 15978 76818 82453 84386 Lévy's constant NuT ζ(3) ≈ 1.20205 69031 59594 28539 97381 61511 44999 Apéry's constant I 1979 15,510,000,000θ ≈ 1.30637 78838 63080 69046 86144 92602 60571 Mills' constantNuT 1947 6850 ≈ 1.45607 49485 82689 67139 95953 51116 54356 Backhouse's constant ≈ 1.46707 80794 Porter's constant NuT 1975 ≈ 1.53960 07178 Lieb's square ice constant Com 1967 ≈ 1.70521 11401 05367 76428 85514 53434 50816 Niven's constantNuT 1969K ≈ 2.58498 17595 79253 21706 58935 87383 17116 Sierpiński's constant ≈ 2.68545 20010 65306 44530 97148 35481 79569 Khinchin's constantNuT 1934 7350F ≈ 2.80777 02420 28519 36522 15011 86557 77293 Fransén-Robinson constant AnaL ≈ 0.5 Landau's constant Ana 1P2 ≈ 2.29558 71493 92638 07403 42980 49189 49039 Parabolic constant Gen T Ω ≈ 0.56714 32904 09783 87299 99686 62210 35555 Omega constant Ana T ≈ 0.187859 MRB constant Gen I 3:13GMT 1/11/1999 http://marvinrayburns.com/Original_MRB_Post.mht 250,000 http://www.research.att.com/~njas/sequences/A037077 Notes External links Constants - from Wolfram MathWorld Inverse symbolic calculator (CECM, ISC) (tells you how a given number can be constructed from mathematical constants) On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences (OEIS) Simon Plouffe's inverter Steven Finch's page of mathematical constants Xavier Gourdon and Pascal Sebah's page of numbers, mathematical constants and algorithms | Mathematical_constant |@lemmatized mathematical:21 constant:124 number:41 usually:2 real:6 arise:6 naturally:3 mathematics:7 unlike:1 physical:6 define:2 independently:1 measurement:1 e:3 many:9 different:8 context:2 others:1 graham:3 skewes:1 single:1 specific:3 notable:2 early:1 found:1 large:2 small:1 exemplar:1 class:2 interesting:1 name:7 also:11 easily:2 specify:1 short:2 formula:4 mean:3 make:3 interest:7 ultimately:1 matter:1 taste:1 historical:1 reason:2 intrinsic:1 always:3 definable:1 almost:1 computable:3 chaitin:5 significant:1 exception:1 however:6 need:1 compute:3 de:5 bruijn:2 newman:2 example:13 know:6 digit:6 decimal:6 expansion:4 may:9 sort:1 size:1 alternate:1 classification:1 use:15 continued:3 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1,521 | Albert_the_Bear | Monument commemorating Albert at Spandau Citadel, Berlin. Albert the Bear (; c. 1100–18 November 1170) was the first Margrave of Brandenburg (as Albert I) from 1157 to his death and was briefly Duke of Saxony between 1138 and 1142. Life Albert was the only son of Otto, Count of Ballenstedt, and Eilika, daughter of Magnus Billung, Duke of Saxony. He inherited the valuable estates in northern Saxony of his father in 1123, and on his mother's death, in 1142, succeeded to one-half of the lands of the house of Billung. Albert was a loyal vassal of his relation, Lothar I, Duke of Saxony, from whom, about 1123, he received the Margraviate of Lusatia, to the east; after Lothar became King of the Germans, he accompanied him on a disastrous expedition to Bohemia in 1126, when he suffered a short imprisonment. Albert's entanglements in Saxony stemmed from his desire to expand his inherited estates there. After the death of his brother-in-law, Henry II, margrave of a small area on the Elbe called the Saxon Northern March, in 1128, Albert, disappointed at not receiving this fief himself, attacked Udo, the heir, and was consequently deprived of Lusatia by Lothar. In spite of this, he went to Italy in 1132 in the train of the king, and his services there were rewarded in 1134 by the investiture of the Northern March, which was again without a ruler. Once he was firmly established in the Northern March, Albert's covetous eye lay also on the thinly populated lands to the north and east. Three years he was occupied in campaigns against the Slavic Wends, who as pagans were considered fair game, and whose subjugation to Christianity was the aim of the Wendish Crusade of 1147 in which Albert took part; diplomatic measures were more successful, and by an arrangement made with the last of the Wendish princes of Brandenburg, Pribislav of the Hevelli, Albert secured this district when the prince died in 1150. Taking the title "Margrave of Brandenburg", he pressed the "crusade" against the Wends, extended the area of his mark, encouraged German migration, established bishoprics under his protection, and so became the founder of the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1157, which his heirs — the House of Ascania — held until the line died out in 1320. The seal of Albert the Bear. In 1137 Conrad III, the Hohenstaufen King of the Germans, deprived Albert's cousin and nemesis, Henry the Proud of his Saxon duchy, which was awarded to Albert if he could take it. After some initial success in his efforts to take possession, Albert was driven from Saxony, and also from his Northern march by Henry, and compelled to take refuge in south Germany. When peace was made with Henry in 1142, Albert renounced the Saxon duchyand received the Counties of Weimar and Orlamünde. It was possibly at this time that Albert was made Arch-Chamberlain of the Empire, an office which afterwards gave the Margraves of Brandenburg the rights of a prince-elector. In 1158 a feud with Henry's son, Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony, was interrupted by a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. In 1162 Albert accompanied Emperor Frederick Barbarossa to Italy, where he distinguished himself at the storming of Milan. In 1164 Albert joined a league of princes formed against Henry the Lion, and peace being made in 1169, Albert divided his territories among his six sons. He died on 13 November 1170, possibly in Stendal, and was buried at Ballenstedt. Cognomen Albert's personal qualities won for him the cognomen of the Bear, "not from his looks or qualities, for he was a tall handsome man, but from the cognisance on his shield, an able man, had a quick eye as well as a strong hand, and could pick what way was straightest among crooked things, was the shining figure and the great man of the North in his day, got much in the North and kept it, got Brandenburg for one there, a conspicuous country ever since," says Carlyle, who called Albert "a restless, much-managing, wide-warring man." He is also called by later writers "the Handsome." Family and children Foundation of the memorial to Albert at Spandau Citadel. Albert was married in 1124 to Sofie of Winzenburg (died 25 March 1160) and they had the following children: Otto I, Margrave of Brandenburg (1126/1128–7 March 1184) Count Hermann I of Orlamünde (died 1176) Siegfried (died 24 October 1184), Bishop of Brandenburg from 1173-1180, Prince-Archbishop of Bremen, the first ranked prince, from 1180-1184 Heinrich (died 1185), a canon in Magdeburg Count Albrecht of Ballenstedt (died after 6 December 1172) Count Dietrich of Werben (died after 5 September 1183) Count Bernhard of Anhalt (1140–9 February 1212), Duke of Saxony from 1180-1212 as Bernard III Hedwig (d. 1203), married to Otto, Margrave of Meißen Daughter, married c. 1152 to Vladislav of Bohemia Adelheid (died 1162), a nun in Lamspringe Gertrude, married in 1155 to Duke Diepold of Moravia Sybille (died c. 1170), Abbess of Quedlinburg Eilika External links Thomas Carlyle, History of Friedrich ii Chapter iv: Albert the Bear The History Files: Rulers of Brandenburg | Albert_the_Bear |@lemmatized monument:1 commemorate:1 albert:24 spandau:2 citadel:2 berlin:1 bear:4 c:3 november:2 first:2 margrave:6 brandenburg:9 death:3 briefly:1 duke:6 saxony:8 life:1 son:3 otto:3 count:5 ballenstedt:3 eilika:2 daughter:2 magnus:1 billung:2 inherit:1 valuable:1 estate:2 northern:5 father:1 mother:1 succeed:1 one:2 half:1 land:3 house:2 loyal:1 vassal:1 relation:1 lothar:3 receive:3 margraviate:2 lusatia:2 east:2 become:2 king:3 german:3 accompany:2 disastrous:1 expedition:1 bohemia:2 suffer:1 short:1 imprisonment:1 entanglement:1 stem:1 desire:1 expand:1 inherited:1 brother:1 law:1 henry:7 ii:2 small:1 area:2 elbe:1 call:3 saxon:3 march:6 disappoint:1 fief:1 attack:1 udo:1 heir:2 consequently:1 deprive:2 spite:1 go:1 italy:2 train:1 service:1 reward:1 investiture:1 without:1 ruler:2 firmly:1 establish:2 covetous:1 eye:2 lay:1 also:3 thinly:1 populated:1 north:3 three:1 year:1 occupy:1 campaign:1 slavic:1 wends:2 pagan:1 consider:1 fair:1 game:1 whose:1 subjugation:1 christianity:1 aim:1 wendish:2 crusade:2 take:5 part:1 diplomatic:1 measure:1 successful:1 arrangement:1 make:4 last:1 prince:6 pribislav:1 hevelli:1 secure:1 district:1 die:6 title:1 press:1 extend:1 mark:1 encouraged:1 migration:1 bishopric:1 protection:1 founder:1 ascania:1 hold:1 line:1 seal:1 conrad:1 iii:2 hohenstaufen:1 cousin:1 nemesis:1 proud:1 duchy:1 award:1 could:2 initial:1 success:1 effort:1 possession:1 drive:1 compel:1 refuge:1 south:1 germany:1 peace:2 renounce:1 duchyand:1 county:1 weimar:1 orlamünde:2 possibly:2 time:1 arch:1 chamberlain:1 empire:1 office:1 afterwards:1 give:1 right:1 elector:1 feud:1 lion:2 interrupt:1 pilgrimage:1 holy:1 emperor:1 frederick:1 barbarossa:1 distinguish:1 storming:1 milan:1 join:1 league:1 form:1 divide:1 territory:1 among:2 six:1 stendal:1 bury:1 cognomen:2 personal:1 quality:2 win:1 look:1 tall:1 handsome:2 man:4 cognisance:1 shield:1 able:1 quick:1 well:1 strong:1 hand:1 pick:1 way:1 straight:1 crooked:1 thing:1 shining:1 figure:1 great:1 day:1 get:2 much:2 keep:1 conspicuous:1 country:1 ever:1 since:1 say:1 carlyle:2 restless:1 managing:1 wide:1 war:1 late:1 writer:1 family:1 child:2 foundation:1 memorial:1 marry:4 sofie:1 winzenburg:1 following:1 hermann:1 died:5 siegfried:1 october:1 bishop:1 archbishop:1 bremen:1 ranked:1 heinrich:1 canon:1 magdeburg:1 albrecht:1 december:1 dietrich:1 werben:1 september:1 bernhard:1 anhalt:1 february:1 bernard:1 hedwig:1 meißen:1 vladislav:1 adelheid:1 nun:1 lamspringe:1 gertrude:1 diepold:1 moravia:1 sybille:1 abbess:1 quedlinburg:1 external:1 link:1 thomas:1 history:2 friedrich:1 chapter:1 iv:1 file:1 |@bigram margrave_brandenburg:4 duke_saxony:5 margraviate_brandenburg:1 house_ascania:1 frederick_barbarossa:1 tall_handsome:1 external_link:1 thomas_carlyle:1 |
1,522 | Instructional_theory | Instructional theory is a discipline that focuses on how to structure material for promoting the education of human beings, particularly youth. Originating in the United States in the late 1970s, instructional theory is typically divided into two categories: the cognitive and behaviorist schools of thought. Instructional theory was spawned off the 1956 work of Benjamin Bloom, a University of Chicago professor, and the results of his Taxonomy of Education Objectives — one of the first modern codifications of the learning process. One of the first instructional theorists was Robert M. Gagne, who in 1965 published Conditions of Learning for the Florida State University's Department of Educational Research. Renowned psychologist B. F. Skinner's theories of behavior were highly influential on instructional theorists because their hypotheses can be tested fairly easily with the scientific process. It is more difficult to demonstrate cognitive learning results. Paulo Freire's Pedagogy of the Oppressed had a broad influence over a generation of American educators with his critique of various "banking" models of education and analysis of the teacher-student relationship. In the context of e-learning, a major discussion in instructional theory is the potential of learning objects to structure and deliver content. A stand-alone educational animation is an example of a learning object that can be re-used as the basis for different learning experiences. There are currently many groups trying to set standards for the development and implementation of learning objects. At the forefront of the standards groups is the Department of Defense's Advanced Distributed Learning initiative with its SCORM standards. SCORM stands for Shareable Content Object Reference Model. See also Educational technology Edupunk Instructional design Instructional technology Learning theory Teaching method Training Within Industry was developed during WWII and is still in use around the world References Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed. ISBN 0-8264-1276-9. External links Educational CyberPlayGround Online Curriculum Advanced Distributed Learning Department of Educational Research Encyclopaedia of Informal Education | Instructional_theory |@lemmatized instructional:8 theory:6 discipline:1 focus:1 structure:2 material:1 promote:1 education:4 human:1 particularly:1 youth:1 originate:1 united:1 state:2 late:1 typically:1 divide:1 two:1 category:1 cognitive:2 behaviorist:1 school:1 thought:1 spawn:1 work:1 benjamin:1 bloom:1 university:2 chicago:1 professor:1 result:2 taxonomy:1 objective:1 one:2 first:2 modern:1 codification:1 learning:5 process:2 theorist:2 robert:1 gagne:1 published:1 condition:1 learn:6 florida:1 department:3 educational:5 research:2 renowned:1 psychologist:1 b:1 f:1 skinner:1 behavior:1 highly:1 influential:1 hypothesis:1 test:1 fairly:1 easily:1 scientific:1 difficult:1 demonstrate:1 paulo:2 freire:2 pedagogy:2 oppress:2 broad:1 influence:1 generation:1 american:1 educator:1 critique:1 various:1 bank:1 model:2 analysis:1 teacher:1 student:1 relationship:1 context:1 e:1 major:1 discussion:1 potential:1 object:4 deliver:1 content:2 stand:2 alone:1 animation:1 example:1 use:2 basis:1 different:1 experience:1 currently:1 many:1 group:2 try:1 set:1 standard:3 development:1 implementation:1 forefront:1 defense:1 advance:2 distributed:1 initiative:1 scorm:2 shareable:1 reference:2 see:1 also:1 technology:2 edupunk:1 design:1 teach:1 method:1 training:1 within:1 industry:1 develop:1 wwii:1 still:1 around:1 world:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 cyberplayground:1 online:1 curriculum:1 distribute:1 encyclopaedia:1 informal:1 |@bigram paulo_freire:2 external_link:1 |
1,523 | Folklore | Folklore is the body of expressive culture, including tales, music, dance, legends, oral history, proverbs, jokes, popular beliefs, customs, and so forth within a particular population comprising the traditions (including oral traditions) of that culture, subculture, or group. It is also the set of practices through which those expressive genres are shared. The academic and usually ethnographic study of folklore is sometimes called folkloristics. The word 'folklore' was first used by the English antiquarian William Thoms in a letter published by the London Journal Athenaeum in 1846. Georges, Robert A., Michael Owens Jones, "Folkloristics: An Introduction," Indiana University Press, 1995. In usage, there is a continuum between folklore and mythology. Stith Thompson made a major attempt to index the motifs of both folklore and mythology, providing at outline into which new motifs can be placed, and scholars can keep track of all older motifs. History Part 1: Nineteenth Century Backgrounds W.K. McNeil, Pre-Society American Folklorists Simon J. Bronner, The Intellectual Climate of Nineteenth-Century American Folklore Studies Rosemary Lévy Zumwalt, On the Founding of the American Folklore Society and the Journal of American Folklore The concept of folklore developed as part of the 19th century ideology of romantic nationalism, leading to the reshaping of oral traditions to serve modern ideological goals; only in the 20th century did ethnographers begin to attempt to record folklore without overt political goals. The Brothers Grimm, Wilhelm and Jakob Grimm, collected orally transmitted German tales and published the first series as Kinder- und Hausmärchen ("Children's and Household Tales") in 1812. The term was coined in 1846 by an Englishman, William Thoms, who wanted to use an Anglo-Saxon term for what was then called "popular antiquities." Johann Gottfried von Herder first advocated the deliberate recording and preservation of folklore to document the authentic spirit, tradition, and identity of the German people; the belief that there can be such authenticity is one of the tenets of the romantic nationalism which Herder developed. One definition is "artistic communication in small groups," coined by Dan Ben-Amos a scholar at the University of Pennsylvania, and the term, and the associated field of study, now include non-verbal art forms and customary practices. French-Canadian folklore includes tales of the "bewitched canoe" Nature Folklore, in nature, is traditional. All the traditional approaches of people including customs, beliefs, behavioral, drama, dances, art, painting, sculpture of past times of a particular area are the subject matter of the ‘Folklore’. ‘Folklore’ is that which is orally transmitted. In the non-literate society where the cultural base requires an oral tradition for propagation, it happens so that the folklorists or anthropologists tend to use folklore to determine their language, the system of their hunting, the sense of right and wrong and so on as it prevailed amongst them, all of these being traditional and transmitted orally. On the other hand, in the literate society, there exists many learnings which are basically oral not written. As for example, one learns how to drive, to plough or to plant, in what manner one has to brush his teeth etc. not in written form. If we imitate these ideas, we would have to accept these learnings, both literate and non-literate societies, as folklore since the both are traditionally oral. But this is a wrong idea that only the elements of learning that are passed through an oral tradition from generation to generation in a society belongs to the domain of ‘Folklore’. The area of folklore, however, is vast. Each item of folklore, such as folktales, myths (which are part of folktales), proverbs, ballads, folk songs, etc. can be defined and analyzed individually. Many scholars have divided the folklore broadly under two heads, non-materials or spiritual and material. But this division does not appear to be very realistic and sound. Material folklore means or includes those lores which have physical existence. On the contrary, folk literature includes those lores which do not have a physical existence, but find expression through language, oral or written. Folk beliefs, superstitions and all non-literary elements, some of which are verbal, also belong to the non-material group. But problem is there that there are some lores such as- folk dance, a visual art etc. which belong to neither the material nor non-material group, for it is not oral, neither is it material. It finds expression through movements of the body or in some other ways. Folk literature All kinds of folktales including myths, legends, fairy tales, fables, animal tales, household tales, numskull tales, humorous-tales, ghost stories, witch tales, anecdotes, short stories, and so on; proverbs, riddles, ballads, songs, lullabies, rhymes, etymology, dramas, blessings, curses, similes, folk titles, chants, charms, education, speeches, metaphors, chain letters, latrilania, names, limericks, instrumental music, oaths, taunts, tongue-twisters, greetings, and leave-taking, traditional comments made after body emissions, poetry ranging from oral epics to autograph book verses, the vendor’s cries, the traditional conventional sounds used to summon or command animals, folksong, parody, and so on- all are related to folk literature. Most of these elements have been created and passed on by word of mouth; some of them have been preserved in script but some have been of traditional written origin. Folk practices The folk practices are neither literature nor art. Folk practices have two types. They are: Day-to-day practices. This type includes folk beliefs, customs, superstitions, rites and rituals, folk, traditional procedures etc. Occasional. This type includes folk games, folk sports, fighting competitions of animals and birds. Folk arts or artistic folklore The folk arts or artistic folklore has also two types. They are- 1) Performing: This type includes folk dances, folk dramas (such as ‘Jatra Pala’), rhyming and rope-jumping, folk-caricature, folk gestures. 2) Non-performing: Folk paintings, sculpture, arts and crafts, embroidered quilt, doll-making, images of gods and godesses, alpana, design on cakes, on furniture; body paintings, ornaments, archery, costumes, traditional swastika, emblems etc are non-performing folk arts. Folk science and technology 1) Folk science: Folk treatment, medicine, arithmetic, churning milk for preparation of butter, butter oil, curd, food, recipes, preparation of drinks from rice, palm juice, chemicals, used for colouring cloth, dye, use of fertilizer, preservation of plants, crops, trees by the folk in a manner different from botanists or agricultural scientists. 2) Folk technology: Folk architecture, houses, fences, brans, nets for fishing, carts, palanquin, duli barks, knots, armaments, smoking pipes, pottery, bags, cooking, hot cross buns, mode of stacking hay or straw, weaving and so on. Types of folklore Folklore can be divided into four areas of study: artifact (such as voodoo dolls), describable and transmissible entity (oral tradition), culture, and behavior (rituals). These areas do not stand alone, however, as often a particular item or element may fit into more than one of these areas. Georges, Robert A., Michael Owens Jones, "Folkloristics: An Introduction," pp.313 Indiana University Press, 1995. Folklore as describable and transmissible entity Folklore can contain religious or mythic elements, it equally concerns itself with the sometimes mundane traditions of everyday life. Folklore frequently ties the practical and the esoteric into one narrative package. It has often been conflated with mythology, and vice versa, because it has been assumed that any figurative story that does not pertain to the dominant beliefs of the time is not of the same status as those dominant beliefs. Thus, Roman religion is called "myth" by Christians. In that way, both "myth" and "folklore" have become catch-all terms for all figurative narratives which do not correspond with the dominant belief structure. Sometimes "folklore" is religious in nature, like the tales of the Welsh Mabinogion or those found in Icelandic skaldic poetry. Many of the tales in the Golden Legend of Jacob de Voragine also embody folklore elements in a Christian context: examples of such Christian mythology are the themes woven round Saint George or Saint Christopher. In this case, the term "folklore" is being used in a pejorative sense. That is, while the tales of Odin the Wanderer have a religious value to the Norse who composed the stories, because it does not fit into a Christian configuration it is not considered "religious" by Christians who may instead refer to it as "folklore." "Folktales" is a general term for different varieties of traditional narrative. The telling of stories appears to be a cultural universal, common to basic and complex societies alike. Even the forms folktales take are certainly similar from culture to culture, and comparative studies of themes and narrative ways have been successful in showing these relationships. Also it is considered to be an oral tale to be told for everybody. On the other hand, folklore can be used to accurately describe a figurative narrative, which has no sacred or religious content. In the Jungian view, which is but one method of analysis, it may instead pertain to unconscious psychological patterns, instincts or archetypes of the mind. This may or may not have components of the fantastic (such as magic, ethereal beings or the personification of inanimate objects). These folktales may or may not emerge from a religious tradition, but nevertheless speak to deep psychological issues. The familiar folktale, "Hansel and Gretel," is an example of this fine line. The manifest purpose of the tale may primarily be one of mundane instruction regarding forest safety or secondarily a cautionary tale about the dangers of famine to large families, but its latent meaning may evoke a strong emotional response due to the widely understood themes and motifs such as “The Terrible Mother”, “Death,” and “Atonement with the Father.” There can be both a moral and psychological scope to the work, as well as entertainment value, depending upon the nature of the teller, the style of the telling, the ages of the audience members, and the overall context of the performance. Folklorists generally resist universal interpretations of narratives and, wherever possible, analyze oral versions of tellings in specific contexts, rather than print sources, which often show the work or bias of the writer or editor. Contemporary narratives common in the Western world include the urban legend. There are many forms of folklore that are so common, however, that most people do not realize they are folklore, such as riddles, children's rhymes and ghost stories, rumors (including conspiracy theories), gossip, ethnic stereotypes, and holiday customs and life-cycle rituals. UFO abduction narratives can be seen, in some sense, to refigure the tales of pre-Christian Europe, or even such tales in the Bible as the Ascent of Elijah to heaven. Adrienne Mayor, in introducing a bibliography on the topic, noted that most modern folklorists are largely unaware of classical parallels and precedents, in materials that are only partly represented by the familiar designation Aesopica: "Ancient Greek and Roman literature contains rich troves of folklore and popular beliefs, many of which have counterparts in modern contemporary legends" (Mayor, 2000). Vladimir Propp's classic study Morphology of the Folktale (1928) became the basis of research into the structure of folklore texts. Propp discovered a uniform structure in Russian fairy tales. His book has been translated into English, Italian, Polish and other languages. The English translation was issued in USA in 1958, some 30 years after the publication of the original. It was met by approving reviews and significantly influenced later research on folklore and, more generally, structural semantics.Though his work was based on syntagmetic structure but it gave the scope to understand the structure of folktale where he discovered thirty one function of folktale L. V. Propp, Morphology of the Folktale, Second Edition, revised and edited with a Preface of Louis A. Wagner, University of Texas Press, 1968. Material culture Elements such as dolls, decorative items used in religious rituals, hand-built houses and barns, and handmade clothing and other crafts are considered to be folk artifacts, grouped within the field as "material culture." Additionally, figures that depict characters from folklore, such as statues of the three wise monkeys may be considered to be folklore artifacts, depending on how they are used within a culture. Wolfgang Mieder, "The Proverbial Three Wise Monkeys," Midwestern Journal of Language and Folklore 7 (1981):5-38. The operative definition would depend on whether the artifacts are used and appreciated within the same community in which they are made, and whether they follow a community aesthetic. Culture as folklore Folklorist William Bascom states that folklore has many cultural aspects, such as allowing for escape from societal consequences. In addition, folklore can also serve to validate a culture (romantic nationalism), as well as transmit a culture's morals and values. Folklore can also be the root of many cultural types of music. Folk, country, blues, and bluegrass all originate from American folklore. Examples of artists which have used folklore to produce beautiful music would be: Bill Monroe, Flatt and Scruggs, Old Crow Medicine Show, Jim Croce, and many others. Folklore can also be used to assert social pressures, or relieve them, in the case of humor and carnival. In addition, folklorists study medical, supernatural, religious, and political belief systems as an essential, often unspoken, part of expressive culture. Behavior as folklore Many rituals can sometimes be considered folklore, whether formalized in a cultural or religious system (e.g. weddings, baptisms, harvest festivals) or practiced within a family or secular context. For example, in certain parts of the United States (as well as other countries) one places a knife, or a pair of scissors, under the mattress to "cut the birth pains" after giving birth. Additionally, children's counting-out games can be defined as behavioral folklore. Kenneth S. Goldstein, "Strategy in Counting Out: An Ethnographic Folklore Field Study," in Elliott M. Avedon and Brian Sutton-Smith, eds., The Study of Games New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1971. Categories of folklore Genres Archetypes, stereotypes and stock characters. Ballad Blason Populaire Childlore Children's street culture Counting rhymes Costumbrismo Craft Custom Folk play Earth changes Epic poetry Factoids Festival Folk art Folk belief Folk magic Folk medicine Folk metaphor Folk narrative Anecdote Fable Fairy tale Ghost story Joke Legend Myth Parable Tall tale Urban legend Folk poetry and rhyme Folk simile Folk song Games Holiday lore and customs Mythology Riddle Saying Maxim Proverb Superstition Taunts Weather lore Xerox lore National or ethnic American folklore Canadian folklore Latin American folklore Brazilian folklore Caribbean folklore Colombian folklore United States folklore Australian folklore East Asian Chinese folklore Japanese folklore Korean folklore European Albanian folklore Alpine (Austrian and Swiss) folklore English folklore Estonian folklore Dutch folklore Finnish folklore French folklore German folklore Hungarian folklore Irish folklore Italian folklore Lithuanian folklore Maltese folklore Montenegrin folklore Romanian folklore Scandinavian folklore Scottish folklore Slavic folklore Polish folklore Russian folklore Swiss folklore Welsh folklore Near Eastern Aggadah Arab folklore Iranian folklore Jewish folklore Turkish folklore South Asian Indian folklore Pakistani folklore Southeast Asian Philippine folklore See also Applied folklore Appropriation (music) Chinook wind Folk Intangible Cultural Heritage pashto Folklore Petrosomatoglyph (image of parts of a human or animal body incised in rock) References Further reading Adrienne Mayor, "Bibliography of Classical Folklore Scholarship: Myths, Legends, and Popular Beliefs of Ancient Greece and Rome", from Folklore (April 2000) External links Folklore-BG Monthly Electronic Magazine Folklore Festivals - international listing Folk Songs and Traditional Music Round the World Africa Moralizing Tales of the Ancestors Ancient Tales of Old Dahomey Malta Maltese Folklore- feasts, plant lore, local traditions, music, dance and humour North America American 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1,524 | Hecate | Hecate (Greek: Ἑκάτη, "far-shooting" The most common, and most widely accepted proposed etymology for the name Hecate derives it from the Greek Ἑκάτη, "the feminine equivalent of Hekatos, an obscure epithet of Apollo" (Hornblower, Spawforth (Eds.) The Oxford Classical Dictionary, 1996, p671) This has been variously translated as "far shooting", "far darter" or "her that operates from afar". An alternative interpretation derives it (at least in the case of Hesiod's use) from the Greek word for will, which leads one researcher to identify "the name and function of Hecate as the one by whose will prayers are accomplished and fulfilled." (Jenny Strauss Clay, Hesiod's Cosmos, Cambridge University Press, 2003, p135). Clay lists a number of researchers who have advanced some variant of the association between Hecate's name and will (e.g. Walcot (1958), Neitzel (1975), Derossi (1975)). This interpretation also appears in Liddell-Scott, A Greek English Lexicon in the entry for Hecate, which is glossed as "lit. she who works her will". ) Hekate (Hekátê, Hekátē), or Hekat was a popular chthonian goddess attested early in Mycenaean Greece William Berg, "Hecate: Greek or 'Anatolian'?", Numen 21.2 (August 1974:128-40). and in Thrace, but possibly originating among the Carians of Anatolia, Walter Burkert, (1987) Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical, pp 171. Oxford, Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-15624-0. the region where most theophoric names invoking Hecate, such as Hecataeus or Hecatomnus, progenitor of Mausollus, are attested, Theodor Kraus, Hekate: Studien zu Wesen u. Bilde der Göttin in Kleinasien u. Griechenland (Heidelberg) 1960. Kraus offers the first modern comprehensive discussion of Hecate in monuments and material culture. and where Hecate remained a Great Goddess into historical times, at her unrivalled Berg 1974:128: Berg remarks of Hecate's endorsement of Roman hegemony in her representation on the pediment at Lagina solemnising a pact between a warrior (Rome) and an amazon (Asia) cult site in Lagina. While many researchers favor the idea that she has Anatolian origins, it has been argued that "Hecate must have been a Greek goddess." Berg 1974:134. Berg's argument for a Greek origin rests on three main points: 1. Almost all archaeological and literary evidence for her cult comes from the Greek mainland, and especially from Attica - all of which dates earlier than the 2nd century BCE. 2. In Asia Minor only one monument can be associated with Hecate prior to the 2nd century BCE. 3. The supposed connection between Hecate and attested "Carian theophoric names" is not convincing, and instead suggests an aspect of the process of her Hellenization. He concludes, "Arguments for Hecate's "Anatolian" origin are not in accord with evidence." The monuments to Hecate in Phrygia and Caria are numerous but of late date. Kraus 1960:52; list p 166f. The earliest inscription is found in late archaic Miletus, close to Caria, where Hecate is a protector of entrances. Kraus 1960:12. Regarding the nature of her cult, it has been remarked, "she is more at home on the fringes than in the centre of Greek polytheism. Intrinsically ambivalent and polymorphous, she straddles conventional boundaries and eludes definition." Hornblower, Spawforth (Eds.), The Oxford Classical Dictionary, Third Edition, Oxford University Press, 1996, p671 She has been associated with childbirth, nurturing the young, gates and walls, doorways, crossroads, magic, lunar lore, torches and dogs. William Berg observes, "Since children are not called after spooks, it is safe to assume that Carian theophoric names involving hekat- refer to a major deity free from the dark and unsavoury ties to the underworld and to witchcraft associated with the Hecate of classical Athens." Berg 1974:129. But he cautions, "The Laginetan goddess may have had a more infernal character than scholars have been willing to assume." Berg 1974:137. In Ptolemaic Alexandria and elsewhere during the Hellenistic period, she appears as a three-faced goddess associated with ghosts, witchcraft, and curses. Today she is claimed as a goddess of witches and in the context of Hellenic Polytheistic Reconstructionism. Some neo-pagans refer to her as a "crone goddess"; although this characterization appears to conflict with her original virginal status in ancient Greece, both virgin and crone are often cast in myth as dangerous female beings because of their exclusion or freedom from the reproductive cycle. For background on the relation of virgin and crone in the context of female "demons" and reproduction, see Karen Hartnup, On the Beliefs of the Greeks (Brill, 2004), p. 150 online. She closely parallels the Roman goddess Trivia. Representations The earliest Greek depictions of Hecate are single faced, not triplicate. Lewis Richard Farnell states: The evidence of the monuments as to the character and significance of Hekate is almost as full as that of the literature. But it is only in the later period that they come to express her manifold and mystic nature. Before the fifth century there is little doubt that she was usually represented as of single form like any other divinity, and it was thus that the Boeotian poet imagined her, as nothing in his verses contains any allusion to a triple formed goddess. Lewis Richard Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States, Clarendon Press, 1907, p549 Triple Hecate and the Charites, Attic, 3rd century BCE (Glyptothek, Munich) The earliest known monument is a small terracotta found in Athens, with a dedication to Hecate, in writing of the style of the sixth century. The goddess is seated on a throne with a chaplet bound round her head; she is altogether without attributes and character, and the only value of this work, which is evidently of quite a general type and gets a special reference and name merely from the inscription, is that it proves the single shape to be her earlier from, and her recognition at Athens to be earlier than the Persian invasion. Lewis Richard Farnell, (1896). "Hecate in Art," The Cults of the Greek States. Oxford University Press, Oxford. The second-century traveller Pausanias stated that Hecate was first depicted in triplicate by the sculptor Alkamenes in the Greek Classical period of the late fifth century. Greek anthropomorphic conventions of art resisted representing her with three faces: a votive sculpture from Attica of the third century BCE (illustration, left), shows three single images against a column; round the column of Hecate dance the Charites. Some classical portrayals show her as a triplicate goddess holding a torch, a key, and a serpent. Others continue to depict her in singular form. In Egyptian-inspired Greek esoteric writings connected with Hermes Trismegistus, and in magical papyri of Late Antiquity she is described as having three heads: one dog, one serpent, and one horse. In other representations her animal heads include those of a cow and a boar. Yves Bonnefoy, Wendy Doniger, Roman and European Mythologies, University of Chicago Press, 1992, p195 Hecate's triplicity is elsewhere expressed in a more Hellenic fashion in the vast frieze of the great Pergamon Altar, now in Berlin, wherein she is shown with three bodies, taking part in the battle with the Titans. In the Argolid, near the shrine of the Dioscuri, Pausanias saw the temple of Hecate opposite the sanctuary of Eileithyia; He reported the image to be the work of Scopas, stating further, "This one is of stone, while the bronze images opposite, also of Hecate, were made respectively by Polycleitus and his brother Naucydes, son of Mothon." (Description of Greece ii.22.7) A fourth century BCE marble relief from Crannon in Thessaly was dedicated by a race-horse owner. This statue is in the British Museum, inventory number 816. It shows Hecate, with a hound beside her, placing a wreath on the head of a mare. She is commonly attended by a dog or dogs, and the most common form of offering was to leave meat at a crossroads. Sometimes dogs themselves were sacrificed to her. This is sometimes offered as an indication of her non-Hellenic origin, as dogs very rarely played this role in genuine Greek ritual. "One of the features of the Lupercalia which has aroused the greatest amount of scholarly speculation is the use of a dog as sacrificial victim. Such a sacrifice was very unusual, both in Italy and in Greece." Alberta Mildred Franklin, The Lupercalia, Columbia University, 1921, p67, Franklin goes on to discuss the likelihood that dog sacrifice was closely connected with Thrace In Argonautica, a third century BCE Alexandrian epic based on early materials, Jason placates Hecate in a ritual prescribed by Medea, her priestess: bathed at midnight in a stream of flowing water, and dressed in dark robes, Jason is to dig a pit and offer a libation of honey and blood from the throat of a sheep, which was set on a pyre by the pit and wholly consumed as a holocaust, then retreat from the site without looking back (Argonautica, iii). All these elements betoken the rites owed to a chthonic deity. Mythology Hecate has been characterized as a pre-Olympian chthonic goddess. She appears in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter and in Hesiod's Theogony, where she is promoted strongly as a great goddess. The place of origin of her cult is uncertain, but it is thought that she had popular cult followings in Thrace. Her most important sanctuary was Lagina, a theocratic city-state in which the goddess was served by eunuchs. Lagina, where the famous temple of Hecate drew great festal assemblies every year, lay close to the originally Macedonian colony of Stratonikea, where she was the city's patroness. Strabo, Geography xiv.2.25; Kraus 1960. In Thrace she played a role similar to that of lesser-Hermes, namely a governess of liminal regions (particularly gates) and the wilderness, bearing little resemblance to the night-walking crone she became. Additionally, this led to her role of aiding women in childbirth and the raising of young men. Hecate, Greek goddess of the crossroads; drawing by Stephane Mallarmé in Les Dieux Antiques, nouvelle mythologie illustrée in Paris, 1880 Hesiod records that she was among the offspring of Gaia and Uranus, the Earth and Sky. In Theogony he ascribed great powers to Hecate: [...] Hecate whom Zeus the son of Cronos honored above all. He gave her splendid gifts, to have a share of the earth and the unfruitful sea. She received honor also in starry heaven, and is honored exceedingly by the deathless gods. For to this day, whenever any one of men on earth offers rich sacrifices and prays for favor according to custom, he calls upon Hecate. Great honor comes full easily to him whose prayers the goddess receives favorably, and she bestows wealth upon him; for the power surely is with her. For as many as were born of Earth and Ocean amongst all these she has her due portion. The son of Cronos did her no wrong nor took anything away of all that was her portion among the former Titan gods: but she holds, as the division was at the first from the beginning, privilege both in earth, and in heaven, and in sea. Hesiod, Theogony, (English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White) According to Hesiod, she held sway over many things: Whom she will she greatly aids and advances: she sits by worshipful kings in judgement, and in the assembly whom she will is distinguished among the people. And when men arm themselves for the battle that destroys men, then the goddess is at hand to give victory and grant glory readily to whom she will. Good is she also when men contend at the games, for there too the goddess is with them and profits them: and he who by might and strength gets the victory wins the rich prize easily with joy, and brings glory to his parents. And she is good to stand by horsemen, whom she will: and to those whose business is in the grey discomfortable sea, and who pray to Hecate and the loud-crashing Earth-Shaker, easily the glorious goddess gives great catch, and easily she takes it away as soon as seen, if so she will. She is good in the byre with Hermes to increase the stock. The droves of kine and wide herds of goats and flocks of fleecy sheep, if she will, she increases from a few, or makes many to be less. So, then, albeit her mother's only child, she is honored amongst all the deathless gods. And the son of Cronos made her a nurse of the young who after that day saw with their eyes the light of all-seeing Dawn. So from the beginning she is a nurse of the young, and these are her honors. Hesiod, Theogony, (English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White) Hesiod emphasizes that Hecate was an only child, the daughter of Perses and Asteria, a star-goddess who was the sister of Leto (the mother of Artemis and Apollo). Grandmother of the three cousins was Phoebe the ancient Titaness who personified the moon. His inclusion and praise of Hecate in Theogony has been troublesome for scholars, in that he seems to hold her in high regard, while the testimony of other writers, and surviving evidence, suggests that this was probably somewhat exceptional. It is theorized that Hesiod’s original village had a substantial Hecate following and that his inclusion of her in the Theogony was a way of adding to her prestige by spreading word of her among his readers. Johnston, Sarah Iles, (1991). Restless Dead: Encounters Between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece. ISBN 0-520-21707-1 If Hecate's cult spread from Anatolia into Greece, it is possible it presented a conflict, as her role was already filled by other more prominent deities in the Greek pantheon, above all by Artemis and Selene. This line of reasoning lies behind the widely accepted hypothesis that she was a foreign deity who was incorporated into the Greek pantheon. Other than in the Theogony, the Greek sources do not offer a consistent story of her parentage, or of her relations in the Greek pantheon: sometimes Hecate is related as a Titaness, and a mighty helper and protector of humans. Her continued presence was explained by asserting that, because she was the only Titan who aided Zeus in the battle of gods and Titans, she was not banished into the underworld realms after their defeat by the Olympians. One surviving group of stories suggests how Hecate might have come to be incorporated into the Greek pantheon without affecting the privileged position of Artemis. Here, Hecate is a mortal priestess often associated with Iphigeneia. She scorns and insults Artemis, who in retribution eventually brings about the mortal's suicide. Artemis then adorns the dead body with jewelry and commands the spirit to rise and become her Hecate, who subsequently performs a role similar to Nemesis as an avenging spirit, but solely for injured women. Such myths in which a native deity 'sponsors' or ‘creates’ a foreign one were widespread in ancient cultures as a way of integrating foreign cults. If this interpretation is correct, as Hecate’s cult grew, she was inserted into the later myth of the birth of Zeus as one of the midwives that hid the child, while Cronus consumed the deceiving rock handed to him by Gaia. There was an area sacred to Hecate in the precincts of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, where the priests, megabyzi, officiated. Strabo, Geography, xiv.1.23 Hecate also came to be associated with ghosts, infernal spirits, the dead and sorcery. Like the totems of Hermes—herms placed at borders as a ward against danger—images of Hecate (like Artemis and Diana, often referred to as a "liminal" goddess) were also placed at the gates of cities, and eventually domestic doorways. Over time, the association with keeping out evil spirits could have led to the belief that if offended, Hecate could also allow the evil spirits in. According to one view, this accounts for invocations to Hecate as the supreme governess of the borders between the normal world and the spirit world, and hence as one with mastery over spirits of the dead. Whatever the reasons, Hecate’s power certainly came to be closely associated with sorcery. One interesting passage exists suggesting that the word "jinx" might have originated in a cult object associated with Hecate. "The Byzantine polymath Michael Psellus [...] speaks of a bullroarer, consisting of a golden sphere, decorated throughout with symbols and whirled on an oxhide thong. He adds that such an instrument is called a iunx (hence "jinx"), but as for the significance says only that it is ineffable and that the ritual is sacred to Hecate." Mark Edwards, Neoplatonic saints: the Lives of Plotinus and Proclus by their Students, Liverpool University Press, 2000, p100 Hecate is one of the most important figures in the so-called Chaldaean Oracles (2nd-3rd century CE) The Chaldaean Oracles are a group of oracles (possibly oracular pronouncements made by priests of a number of gods) that date from somewhere between the 2nd century and the late 3rd century, the recording of which is traditionally attributed to one Julian the Chaldaean or his son, Julian the Theurgist. The most important of these deities was apparently Hecate. The material seems to have provided background and explanation related to the meaning of these pronouncements, and appear to have been related to the practice of theurgy, pagan magic that later became closely associated with Neoplatonism (source: Hornblower, Spawforth, The Oxford Classical Dictionary, 1996, p316). , where she is associated in fragment 194 with a strophalos (usually translated as a spinning top, or wheel, used in magic) "Labour thou around the Strophalos of Hecate." English translation used here from: William Wynn Wescott (tr.), The Chaldaean Oracles of Zoroaster, 1895 This appears to refer to a variant of the device mentioned by Psellus. "A top of Hekate is a golden sphere enclosing a lapis lazuli in its middle that is twisted through a cow-hide leather thong and having engraved letters all over it. [Diviners] spin this sphere and make invocations. Such things they call charms, whether it is the matter of a spherical object, or a triangular one, or some other shape. While spinning them, they call out unintelligible or beast-like sounds, laughing and flailing at the air. [Hekate] teaches the taketes to operate, that is the movement of the top, as if it had an ineffable power. It is called the top of Hekate because it is dedicated to her. For Hekate was a goddess among the Chaldaeans. In her right hand she held the source of the virtues. But it is all nonsense." As quoted in Frank R. Trombley, Hellenic Religion and Christianization, C. 370-529, BRILL, 1993, p319 Variations in interpretations of Hecate's role or roles can be traced in fifth-century Athens. In two fragments of Aeschylus she appears as a great goddess. In Sophocles and Euripides she is characterized as the mistress of witchcraft and the Keres. In the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, Hecate is called the "tender-hearted", a euphemism perhaps intended to emphasize her concern with the disappearance of Persephone, when she addressed Demeter with sweet words at a time when the goddess was distressed. She later became Persephone's minister and close companion in the Underworld. But Hecate was never fully incorporated among the Olympian deities. The modern understanding of Hecate has been strongly influenced by syncretic Hellenistic interpretations. Many of the attributes she was assigned in this period appear to have an older basis. For example, in the magical papyri of Ptolemaic Egypt, she is called the 'she-dog' or 'bitch', and her presence is signified by the barking of dogs. In late imagery she also has two ghostly dogs as servants by her side. However, her association with dogs predates the conquests of Alexander the Great and the emergence of the Hellenistic world. When Philip II laid siege to Byzantium she had already been associated with dogs for some time; the light in the sky and the barking of dogs that warned the citizens of a night time attack, saving the city, were attributed to Hecate Lampadephoros (the tale is preserved in the Suda). In gratitude the Byzantines erected a statue in her honor. "In 340 B.C., however, the Byzantines, with the aid of the Athenians, withstood a siege successfully, an occurrence the more remarkable as they were attacked by the greatest general of the age, Philip of Macedon. In the course of this beleaguerment, it is related, on a certain wet and moonless night the enemy attempted a surprise, but were foiled by reason of a bright light which, appearing suddenly in the heavens, startled all the dogs in the town and thus roused the garrison to a sense of their danger. To commemorate this timely phenomenon, which was attributed to Hecate, they erected a public statue to that goddess [...]" William Gordon Holmes, The Age of Justinian and Theodora, 2003 p5-6; "If any goddess had a connection with the walls in Constantinople, it was Hecate. Hecate had a cult in Byzantium from the time of its founding. Like Byzas in one legend, she had her origins in Thrace. Since Hecate was the guardian of "liminal places," in Byzantium small temples in her honor were placed close to the gates of the city. Hecate's importance to Byzantium was above all as deity of protection. When Philip of Macedon was about to attack the city, according to he legend she alerted the townspeople with her ever-present torches, and with her pack of dogs, which served as her constant companions. Her mythic qualities thenceforth forever entered the fabric of Byzantine history. A statue known as the 'Lampadephoros' was erected on the hill above the Bosphorous to commemorate Hecate's defensive aid." Vasiliki Limberis, Divine Heiress, Routledge, 1994, p126-127; this story apparently survived in the works Hesychius of Miletus, who in all probability lived in the time of Justinian. His works survive only in fragments preserved in Photius and the tenth century lexicographer Suidas. The tale is also related by Stephanus of Byzantium, and Eustathius. As with many ancient virgin goddesses she remained unmarried and had no regular consort, though in some traditions she is indicated as the mother of Scylla. Joseph Eddy Fontenrose, Python: A Study of Delphic Myth and Its Origins, Biblo & Tannen Publishers, 1974, p96 Other names and epithets Chthonia (of the earth/underworld) Jon D. Mikalson, Athenian Popular Religion, UNC Press, 1987, p76 Apotropaia (that turns away/protects) Alberta Mildred Franklin, The Lupercalia, Columbia University, 1921, p68 Enodia (on the way) Sarah Iles Johnston, Restless Dead: Encounters Between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece, University of California Press, 1999, pp 208-209 Kourotrophos (nurse of children) Liddell, Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon Propulaia/Propylaia (before the gate) Sarah Iles Johnston, Restless Dead: Encounters Between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece, University of California Press, 1999, p207 Propolos (who serves/attends) Liddell, Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon Phosphoros (bringing or giving light) Liddell, Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon Soteira (savior) Sarah Iles Johnston, Hekate Soteira, Scholars Press, 1990 Triodia/Trioditis (who frequents crossroads) Liddell, Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon Klêidouchos (holding the keys) Liddell, Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon Trimorphe (three-formed) Liddell, Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon Goddess of the crossroads Cult images and altars of Hecate in her triplicate or trimorphic form were placed at crossroads (though they also appeared before private homes and in front of city gates). Hornblower, Spawforth, Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd Edition, 1996, p671 In this form she came to be known as the goddess Trivia "the three ways" in Roman mythology. In what appears to be a 7th Century indication of the survival of cult practices of this general sort, Saint Eligius, in his Sermo warns the sick among his recently converted flock in Flanders against putting "devilish charms at springs or trees or crossroads", Amanda Porterfield, Healing in the history of Christianity, Oxford University Press, 2005, p72 and, according to Saint Ouen would urge them "No Christian should make or render any devotion to the deities of the trivium, where three roads meet...". Saint Ouen, Vita Eligii book II.16. Animals HecateWilliam Blake Dogs were closely associated with Hecate in the Classical world. "In art and in literature Hecate is constantly represented as dog-shaped or as accompanied by a dog. Her approach was heralded by the howling of a dog. The dog was Hecate's regular sacrificial animal, and was often eaten in solemn sacrament." Alberta Mildred Franklin, The Lupercalia, Columbia University, 1921, p67 The sacrifice of dogs to Hecate is attested for Thrace, Samothrace, Colophon, and Athens. Hornblower, Spawforth, The Oxford Classical Dictionary, 1996, p671 It has been claimed that her association with dogs is "suggestive of her connection with birth, for the dog was sacred to Eileithyia, Genetyllis, and other birth goddesses. Although in later times Hecate's dog came to be thought of as a manifestation of restless souls or demons who accompanied her, its docile appearance and its accompaniment of a Hecate who looks completely friendly in many pieces of ancient art suggests that its original signification was positive and thus likelier to have arisen from the dog's connection with birth than the dog's demonic associations." Sarah Iles Johnston, Restless Dead, University of California Press, 1999, pp 211-212 Athenaeus (writing in the 1st or 2nd century BCE, and drawing on the etymological speculation of Apollodorus) notes that the red mullet is sacred to Hecate, "on account of the resemblance of their names; for that the goddess is trimorphos, of a triple form." The Greek word for mullet was trigle and later trigla. He goes on to quote a fragment of verse "O mistress Hecate, Trioditis / With three forms and three faces / Propitiated with mullets". Charles Duke Yonge, tr.), The Learned Banqueters, H.G. Bohn, 1854 In relation to Greek concepts of pollution, Parker observes, "The fish that was most commonly banned was the red mullet (trigle), which fits neatly into the pattern. It 'delighted in polluted things,' and 'would eat the corpse of a fish or a man'. Blood-coloured itself, it was sacred to the blood-eating goddess Hecate. It seems a symbolic summation of all the negative characteristics of the creatures of the deep." Robert Parker, Miasma: Pollution and Purification in Early Greek Religion, Oxford University Press, 1990, pp 362-363 At Athens, it is said there stood a statue of Hecate Triglathena, to whome the red mullet was offered in sacrifice. William Martin Leake, The Topography of Athens, London, 1841, p492 The frog, significantly a creature that can cross between two elements, also is sacred to Hecate. Varner, Gary R. (2007). Creatures in the Mist: Little People, Wild Men and Spirit Beings Around the World: A Study in Comparative Mythology, p. 135. New York: Algora Publishing. ISBN 0875865461. In her three-headed representations, discussed above, Hecate often has one or more animal heads, including cow, dog, boar, serpent and horse. Yves Bonnefoy, Wendy Doniger, Roman and European Mythologies, University of Chicago Press, 1992, p195; "Hecate" article, Encylopaedia Britannica, 1823 Plants Hecate was closely associated with plant lore and the concoction of medicines and poisons. In particular she was thought to give instruction in these closely related arts. Apollonius of Rhodes, in the Argonautica mentions that Medea was taught by Hecate, "I have mentioned to you before a certain young girl whom Hecate, daughter of Perses, has taught to work in drugs." R. L. Hunter, The Argonautica of Apollonius, Cambridge University Press, 2005, p142, citing Apollonius of Rhodes The goddess is described as wearing oak in fragments of Sophocles' lost play The Root Diggers (or The Root Cutters), and an ancient commentary on Apollonius of Rhodes' Argonautica (3.1214) describes her as having a head surrounded by serpents, twining through branches of oak. Daniel Ogden, Magic, Witchcraft, and Ghosts in the Greek and Roman Worlds, Oxford University Press, 2002 pp 82-83 The yew in particular was sacred to Hecate. "Greeks held the yew to be sacred to Hecate, queen of the underworld, crone aspect of the Triple Goddess. Her attendants draped wreathes of yew around the necks of black bulls which they slaughtered in her honor and yew boughs were burned on funeral pyres. The yew was associated with the alphabet and the scientific name for yew today, taxus, was probably derived from the Greek word for yew, toxos, which is hauntingly similar to toxon, their word for bow and toxicon, their word for poison. It is presumed that the latter were named after the tree because of its superiority for both bows and poison." Matthew Suffness (Ed.), Taxol: Science and Applications, CRC Press, 1995, p28 Hecate was said to favor offerings of garlic, which was closely associated with her cult. Frederick J. Simoons, Plants of Life, Plants of Death, University of Wisconsin Press, 1998, p143; Fragkiska Megaloudi, Plants and Diet in Greece From Neolithic to Classic Periods, Archaeopress, 2006, p71 She is also sometimes associated with cypress, a tree symbolic of death and the underworld, and hence sacred to a number of chthonic deities. A number of other plants (often poisonous, medicinal and/or psychoactive) are associated with Hecate. "Hecate had a "botanical garden" on the island of Colchis where the following alkaloid plants were kept: Akoniton (Aconitum napellus), Diktamnon (Dictamnus albus), Mandragores (Mandragora officinarum), Mekon (Papaver somniferum), Melaina (Claviceps pupurea), Thryon (Atropa belladona), and Cochicum [...]" Margaret F. Roberts, Michael Wink, Alkaloids: Biochemistry, Ecology, and Medicinal Applications, Springer, 1998, p16 These include aconite (also called hecateis) Robert Graves, The Greek Myths, Penguin Books, 1977, p154 , belladonna, dittany, and mandrake. It has been suggested that the use of dogs for digging up mandrake is further corroboration of the association of this plant with Hecate; indeed, since at least as early as the first century CE, there are a number of attestations to the apparently widespread practice of using dogs to dig up plants associated with magic. Frederick J. Simoons, Plants of Life, Plants of Death, University of Wisconsin Press, 1998, pp 121-124 Places Hecate was associated with borders, city walls, doorways, crossroads and, by extension, with realms outside or beyond the world of the living. She appears to have been particularly associated with being 'between' and hence is frequently characterized as a "liminal" goddess. "Hecate mediated between regimes – Olympian and Titan - but also between mortal and divine spheres." Bonnie MacLachlan, Judith Fletcher, Virginity Revisited: Configurations of The Unpossessed Body, University of Toronto Press, 2007, p14 This liminal role is reflected in a number of her cult titles: Apotropaia (that turns away/protects); Enodia (on the way); Propulaia/Propylaia (before the gate); Triodia/Trioditis (who frequents crossroads); Klêidouchos (holding the keys), etc. As a goddess expected to avert demons from the house or city over which she stood guard and to protect the individual as she or he passed through dangerous liminal places, Hecate would naturally become known as a goddess who could also refuse to avert the demons, or even drive them on against unfortunate individuals. Sarah Iles Johnston, Restless Dead: Encounters Between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece, University of California Press, 1999, p209 It was probably her role as guardian of entrances that led to Hecate's identification by the mid fifth century with Enodia, a Thessalian goddess. Enodia's very name ("In-the-Road") suggests that she watched over entrances, for it expresses both the possibility that she stood on the main road into a city, keeping an eye on all who entered, and in the road in front of private houses, protecting their inhabitants. Sarah Iles Johnston, Restless Dead: Encounters Between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece, University of California Press, 1999, p208 This function would appear to have some relationship with the iconographic association of Hecate with keys, and might also relate to her appearance with two torches, which when positioned on either side of a gate or door illuminated the immediate area and allowed visitors to be identified. "In Byzantium small temples in her honor were placed close to the gates of the city. Hecate's importance to Byzantium was above all as a deity of protection. When Philip of Macedon was about to attack the city, according to the legend she alerted the townspeople with her ever present torches, and with her pack of dogs, which served as her constant companions." Vasiliki Limberis, Divine Heiress: The Virgin Mary And The Creation of Christian Constantinople, Routledge, 1994, pp 126-127 This suggests that Hecate's close association with dogs derived in part from the use of watchdogs, who, particularly at night, raised an alarm when intruders approached. Watchdogs were used extensively by Greeks and Romans. Hornblower, Spawforth, The Oxford Classical Dictionary, 1996, p490 Like Hecate, "[t]he dog is a creature of the threshold, the guardian of doors and portals, and so it is appropriately associated with the frontier between life and death, and with demons and ghosts which move across the frontier. The yawning gates of Hades were guarded by the monstrous watchdog Cerberus, whose function was to prevent the living from entering the underworld, and the dead from leaving it." Richard Cavendish, The Powers of Evil in Western Religion, Magic and Folk Belief, Routledge, 1975, p62 Festivals Hecate was worshipped by both the Greeks and the Romans who had their own festivals dedicated to her. According to Ruickbie (2004:19) the Greeks observed two days sacred to Hecate, one on the 13th of August and one on the 30th of November, whilst the Romans observed the 29th of every month as her sacred day. Survival in pre-modern folklore Hecate has survived in folklore as a 'hag' figure associated with witchcraft. Strmiska notes that Hecate, conflated with the figure of Diana, appears in late antiquity and in the early medieval period as part of an "emerging legend complex" associated with gatherings of women, the moon, and witchcraft that eventually became established "in the area of Northern Italy, southern Germany, and the western Balkans." Michael Strmiska, Modern paganism in world cultures, ABC-CLIO, 2005, p68 This theory of the Roman origins of many European folk traditions related to Diana or Hecate was explicitly advanced at least as early as 1807 Francis Douce, Illustrations of Shakspeare, and of Ancient Manners, 1807 p235-243 and is reflected in numerous etymological claims by lexicographers from the 17th to the 19th century, deriving "hag" and/or "hex" from Hecate by way of haegtesse (Anglo-Saxon) and hagazussa (Old High German). Minsheu and Somner (17th century), Edward Lye of Oxford (1694-1767), Johann Georg Wachter, Glossarium Germanicum (1737), Walter Whiter, Etymologicon Universale (1822) Such derivations are today proposed only by a minority e.g. Gerald Milnes, Signs, Cures, & Witchery, Univ. of Tennessee Press, 2007, p116; Samuel X. Radbill, "The Role of Animals in Infant Feeding", in American Folk Medicine: A Symposium Ed. Wayland D. Hand. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976 since being refuted by Grimm, who was skeptical of theories proposing non-Germanic origins for German folklore traditions. "Many have been caught by the obvious resemblance of the Gr. Hecate, but the letters agree to closely, contrary to the laws of change, and the Mid. Ages would surely have had an unaspirated Ecate handed down to them; no Ecate or Hecate appears in the M. Lat. or Romance writings in the sense of witch, and how should the word have spread through all German lands?" Jacob Grimm, Teutonic Mythlogy, 1835, (English translation 1900) Whatever the precise nature of Hecate's transition into folklore in late Antiquity, she is now firmly established as a figure in Neopaganism, which draws heavily on folkloric traditions associating Hecate with 'The Wild Hunt', hedges and 'hedge-riding', and other themes that parallel, but are not explicitly attested in, Classical sources. Cross-cultural parallels The figure of Hecate can often be associated with the figure of Isis in Egyptian myth, mainly due to her role as sorceress. Both were symbols of liminal points. Lucius Apuleius (c. 123 - c. 170 CE) in his work "The Golden Ass" associates Hecate with Isis: 'I am she that is the natural mother of all things, mistress and governess of all the elements, the initial progeny of worlds, chief of powers divine, Queen of heaven, the principal of the Gods celestial, the light of the goddesses: at my will the planets of the air, the wholesome winds of the Seas, and the silences of hell be disposed; my name, my divinity is adored throughout all the world in divers manners, in variable customs and in many names, [...] Some call me Juno, others Bellona of the Battles, and still others Hecate. Principally the Ethiopians which dwell in the Orient, and the Egyptians which are excellent in all kind of ancient doctrine, and by their proper ceremonies accustomed to worship me, do call me Queen Isis.[...]' Lucius Apuleius, (c.155 CE) The Golden Ass Book 11, Chap 47. Some historians ultimately compare her to the Virgin Mary. She is also comparable to Hel of Nordic myth in her underworld function. Before she became associated with Greek mythology, she had many similarities with Artemis (wilderness, and watching over wedding ceremonies) Heidel, William Arthur (1929). The Day of Yahweh: A Study of Sacred Days and Ritual Forms in the Ancient Near East, p. 514. American Historical Association. and Hera (child rearing and the protection of young men or heroes, and watching over wedding ceremonies). Hecate in literature Hecate is a character in William Shakespeare's tragedy Macbeth, which was first performed circa 1605; she commands the Three Witches, although whether she is a witch, a demon or a goddess is not known. There is some evidence to suggest that the character and the scenes or portions thereof in which she appears (Act III, Scene v, and a portion of Act IV, Scene i) were not written by Shakespeare, but were added during a revision by Thomas Middleton, Taylor, Gary, and Lavagnino, John (eds.) (2007) Thomas Middleton and Early Modern Textual Culture, pp. 384-85. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198185707. who used material from his own play The Witch, which was produced in 1615. Most modern texts of Macbeth indicate the interpolations. William Blake portrayed Hecate in a number of his paintings and poems. Notes References Primary sources Hesiod, Theogony, Works and Days. An English translation is available online Pausanias, Description of Greece Strabo, Geography Secondary sources Burkert, Walter, 1985. Greek Religion (Cambridge: Harvard University Press) Published in the UK as Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical, 1987. (Oxford: Blackwell) ISBN 0-631-15624-0. Lewis Richard Farnell, (1896). "Hecate in Art", The Cults of the Greek States. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Johnston, Sarah Iles, (1990). Hekate Soteira: A Study of Hekate's Role in the Chaldean Oracles and Related Literature. Johnston, Sarah Iles, (1991). Restless Dead: Encounters Between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece. ISBN 0-520-21707-1 Mallarmé, Stephane, (1880). Les Dieux Antiques, nouvelle mythologie illustrée. Johnston, Sarah Iles. Hekate Soteira: A Study of Hekate's Role in the Chaldean Oracles and Related Literature. 1990. Kerenyi, Karl. The Gods of the Greeks. 1951. Rabinovich,Yakov. The Rotting Goddess. 1990. A work which views Hekate from the perspective of Mircea Eliade's archetypes and substantiates its claims through cross-cultural comparisons. The work has been sharply criticized by Classics scholars, some dismissing Rabinowitz as a neo-pagan. Ruickbie, Leo. Witchcraft Out of the Shadows: A Complete History. Robert Hale, 2004. Turner, J. D. "The Figure of Hecate and Dynamic Emanationism in The Chaldaean Oracles, Sethian Gnosticism and Neoplatonism," The Second Century Journal 7:4, (1991), 221-232. Berg, William, "Hecate: Greek or "Anatolian"?", Numen 21.2 (August 1974:128-40) External links Myths of the Greek Goddess Hecate Frequently Asked Questions about Hekate Encyclopaedia Britanica 1911: "Hecate" Hekate: Guardian at the Gate The Rotting Goddess by Yakov Rabinovich, complete book included in the anthology "Junkyard of the Classics" published under the pseudonym Ellipsis Marx. 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1,525 | News | News is any single new information or information on current events which is presented by print, broadcast, Internet, or word of mouth to a third party or mass audience. Etymology One theory is that "news" was developed as a special use of the plural form of "new" in the 14th century. In Middle English, the equivalent word was newes, based on the French nouvelles. A somewhat similar development is found in at least three Slavic languages (Czech, Slovak and Polish), where there exists a word noviny ("news"), developed from the word nový ("new"). Another theory is that the word, phonetically and its written style, is based upon the Germanic word "neues". A folk etymology suggests that it is an acronym of the cardinal directions: north, east, west, and south. History of news reporting In its infancy, news gathering was primitive by today's standards. Printed news had to be phoned in to a newsroom or brought there by a reporter, where it was typed and either transmitted over wire services or edited and manually set in type along with other news stories for a specific edition. Today, the term "Breaking News" has become trite as broadcast and cable news services use live satellite technology to bring current events into consumers' homes live as they happen. Events that used to take hours or days to become common knowledge in towns or in nations are fed instantaneously to consumers via radio, television, cell phones, and the Internet. Newspapers Most large cities had morning and afternoon newspapers. As the media evolved and news outlets increased to the point of near over-saturation, afternoon newspapers were shut down except for relatively few. Morning newspapers have been gradually losing circulation, according to reports advanced by the papers themselves. Commonly, news content should contain the "Five Ws" (who, what, when, where, why, and also how) of an event. There should be no questions remaining. Newspapers normally write hard news stories, such as those pertaining to murders, fires, wars, etc. in inverted pyramid style so the most important information is at the beginning. Busy readers can read as little or as much as they desire. Local stations and networks with a set format must take news stories and break them down into the most important aspects due to time constraints. Cable news channels such as Fox News Channel, MSNBC, and CNN, are able to take advantage of a story, sacrificing other, decidedly less important stories, and giving as much detail about breaking news as possible. Objectivity in news News organizations are often expected to aim for objectivity; reporters claim to try to cover all sides of an issue without bias, as compared to commentators or analysts, who provide opinion or personal point-of-view. However, several governments impose certain constraints or police news organizations for bias. In the United Kingdom, for example, limits are set by the government agency Ofcom, the Office of Communications. Both newspapers and broadcast news programs in the United States are generally expected to remain neutral and avoid bias except for clearly indicated editorial articles or segments. Many single-party governments have operated state-run news organizations, which may present the government's views. Even in those situations where objectivity is expected, it is difficult to achieve, and individual journalists may fall foul of their own personal bias, or succumb to commercial or political pressure. Similarly, the objectivity of news organizations owned by conglomerated corporations fairly may be questioned, in light of the natural incentive for such groups to report news in a manner intended to advance the conglomerate's financial interests. Individuals and organizations who are the subject of news reports may use news management techniques to try to make a favourable impression. Because no human being can remain entirely objective (each of us has a particular point of view), it is recognized that there can be no absolute objectivity in news reporting. Newsworthiness Newsworthiness is defined as a subject having sufficient relevance to the public or a special audience to warrant press attention or coverage. Normal people are not newsworthy unless they meet an unusual circumstance or tragedy. The news divides the population into two groups; those few whose lives are newsworthy, and the multitude who are born, live out their lives and die without the news media paying them any significant notice. The news has always covered subjects that catch people's attention and differ from their "ordinary lives". The news is often used for escapism and thus normal events are not newsworthy. Whether the subject is love, birth, weather, or crime, journalists' tastes inevitably run toward the unnatural, the extraordinary. The subject and newsworthiness of a story depends on the audience, as they decide what they do and do not have an interest in. The denser the population, the more global the reported news becomes, as there is a broader range of interests involved in its selection. Only a fraction of news manages to convey the overall world development. Famous TV news broadcasters Arirang TV (Korea and Worldwide) BBC (worldwide) ABC (USA and Europe) CBS news (USA only) CNN (worldwide) CCTV (China only) Fox news (USA only) GEO News (Worldwide) MSNBC (USA only) ABC (Australia and Asia-Pacific region) NDTV (India only) Pathé News (Pathé Newsreels from 1910 until 1956) Sky News (UK and worldwide) teleSUR (Latin America) Press TV (worldwide) AlJazeera (Arabic world and worldwide) Euronews (Europe) Deutsche welle (Germany and worldwide) Famous Internet news websites BBC News (worldwide) Deutsche welle (worldwide) Yahoo News Google News news.com.au (Australia only) CNN (worldwide) Fox News (USA and Canada) MSNBC (USA and Canada) AP (Associated Press) See also News agency All-news radio Hard news & soft news News ticker News analytics Pseudo-event Weather report Positive News References Stephens, Mitchell. 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1,526 | Demographics_of_Jersey | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Jersey, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. The Bailiwick of Jersey is a British Crown dependency off the coast of Normandy, France. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population: 90,800 (June 2008 est.) Chief minister backs immigration 87,186 (2001 census) (88,200 - 2006 est.) Jersey in Figures Age structure: 0-14 years: 18% (male 8,140; female 7,563) 15-64 years: 68% (male 30,036; female 30,329) 65 years and over: 14% (male 5,454; female 7,393) (2000 est.) Population growth rate: 0.49% (average 1991-2005) Birth rate: 11.0 births/1,000 population (2005) Death rate: 8.5 deaths/1,000 population (2005) Net immigration rate: 2.81 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) Sex ratio: at birth: 1.11 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.08 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.74 male(s)/female total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.) Infant mortality rate: 4 deaths/1,000 live births (2005) Life expectancy at birth: total population: 78.48 years male: 76.07 years female: 81.07 years (2000 est.) Average age at death: men 72 women 79 Total fertility rate: 1.56 children born/woman (2000 est.) Nationality: noun: Jerseyman, Jerseywoman adjective: Jersey Ethnic groups: UK and Norman-French descent. Portuguese and Polish minorities. Religions: Anglican, Roman Catholic, Baptist, Congregational New Church, Methodist, Presbyterian Languages: See Languages of Jersey English (official), French (official), Jèrriais (unofficial: spoken more commonly in country districts, used as a first language by around 100 people). Portuguese commonly found, e.g. notices in telephone boxes, through use by migrant workers. Literacy: definition: NA total: NA male: NA female: NA References | Demographics_of_Jersey |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:3 feature:1 population:10 jersey:5 include:1 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 bailiwick:1 british:1 crown:1 dependency:1 coast:1 normandy:1 france:1 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 june:1 est:7 chief:1 minister:1 back:1 immigration:2 census:1 figure:1 age:2 structure:1 year:9 male:10 female:10 growth:1 rate:6 average:2 birth:5 death:4 net:1 migrant:2 sex:1 ratio:1 total:4 infant:1 mortality:1 live:1 life:1 expectancy:1 men:1 woman:2 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 nationality:1 noun:1 jerseyman:1 jerseywoman:1 adjective:1 ethnic:1 group:1 uk:1 norman:1 french:2 descent:1 portuguese:2 polish:1 minority:1 religion:1 anglican:1 roman:1 catholic:1 baptist:1 congregational:1 new:1 church:1 methodist:1 presbyterian:1 language:3 see:1 english:1 official:2 jèrriais:1 unofficial:1 speak:1 commonly:2 country:1 district:1 use:2 first:1 around:1 people:1 find:1 e:1 g:1 notice:1 telephone:1 box:1 worker:1 literacy:1 definition:1 na:4 reference:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 bailiwick_jersey:1 crown_dependency:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:8 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 methodist_presbyterian:1 literacy_definition:1 |
1,527 | Arabic_numerals | Numerals sans-serif The Arabic numerals are the ten digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9). They are descended from Indian numerals, and the Hindu-Arabic numeral system by which a sequence of digits such as "406" is read as a whole number was developed by Indian mathematicians. The Indian numerals were adopted by the Persian mathematicians in India, and passed on to the Arabs further west. The numerals were modified in shape as they were passed along, and developed their European shapes by the time they reached North Africa. From there they were transmitted to Europe in the Middle Ages. The use of Arabic numerals spread around the world through European trade, books and colonialism. Today they are the most common symbolic representation of numbers in the world. As befitting their history, the digits (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9) are also known as Hindu or Hindu-Arabic numerals. The reason that they are more commonly known as "Arabic numerals" in Europe and the Americas is that they were introduced to Europe in the tenth century from Arabs of North Africa. There they were (and still are) the digits used by western Arabs from Libya to Morocco. Arabs, on the other hand, call the system "Hindu numerals", referring to their origin in India. This term also includes the Eastern Arabic numerals (٠.١.٢.٣.٤.٥.٦.٧.٨.٩) used in the Mideast. In English, the term Arabic numerals can be ambiguous. It most commonly refers to the numeral system widely used in Europe and the Americas. Arabic numerals is the conventional name for the entire family of related systems of Arabic and Indian numerals. It may also be intended to mean the numerals used by Arabs, in which case it generally refers to the Eastern Arabic numerals. The decimal Hindu-Arabic numeral system was invented in India around 500 CE. Ifrah, Georges. 1999. The Universal History of Numbers : From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer, Wiley. ISBN 0-471-37568-3. O'Connor, J.J. and E.F. Robertson. 2000. 'Indian Numerals', MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, Scotland. The system was revolutionary in that it included a zero and positional notation. It is considered an important milestone in the development of mathematics. One may distinguish between this positional system, which is identical throughout the family, and the precise glyphs used to write the numerals, which vary regionally. The glyphs most commonly used in conjunction with the Latin alphabet since Early Modern times are 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9. Although the phrase "arabic numeral" is frequently capitalized, it is sometimes written in lower case, for instance in its entry in the Oxford English dictionary. "Arabic", Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition This helps distinguish it from "Arabic numerals" as the East Arabic numerals specific to the Arabs. History Origins The digits 1 to 9 in the Hindu-Arabic numeral system evolved from the Brahmi numerals. Buddhist inscriptions from around 300 BC use the symbols which became 1, 4 and 6. One century later, their use of the symbols which became 2, 7 and 9 was recorded. The first universally accepted inscription containing the use of the 0 glyph is first recorded in the 9th century, in an inscription at Gwalior in Central India dated to 870. By this time, the use of the glyph had already reached Persia, and was mentioned in Al-Khwarizmi's descriptions of Indian numerals. Numerous Indian documents on copper plates exist, with the same symbol for zero in them, dated back as far as the 6th century AD. Kaplan, Robert. (2000). The Nothing That Is: A Natural History of Zero, Oxford: Oxford University Press Brahmi numerals (lower row) in India in the 1st century AD Modern-day Arab telephone keypad with two forms of Hindu-Arabic numerals: Western Arabic/European numerals on the left and Eastern Arabic numerals on the right The numeral system came to be known to both the Persian mathematician Al-Khwarizmi, whose book On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals written about 825 in Arabic, and the Arab mathematician Al-Kindi, who wrote four volumes, "On the Use of the Indian Numerals" (Ketab fi Isti'mal al-'Adad al-Hindi) about 830. Their work was principally responsible for the diffusion of the Indian system of numeration in the Middle East and the West. The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive In the 10th century, Middle-Eastern mathematicians extended the decimal numeral system to include fractions, as recorded in a treatise by Syrian mathematician Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi in 952–53. In the Arab world—until modern times—the Arabic numeral system was used only by mathematicians. Muslim scientists used the Babylonian numeral system, and merchants used the Abjad numerals. It was not until the Italian Fibonacci's early 13th century popularization that the Arabic numeral system was used by a large population outside India. A distinctive West Arabic variant of the symbols begins to emerge around the 10th century in the Maghreb and Al-Andalus, called ghubar ("sand-table" or "dust-table") numerals, which is the direct ancestor to the modern Western Arabic numerals used throughout the world. The first mentions of the numerals in the West are found in the Codex Vigilanus of 976. Mathorigins.com From the 980s, Gerbert of Aurillac (later, Pope Sylvester II) used his office to spread knowledge of the numerals in Europe. Gerbert studied in Barcelona in his youth. He was known to have requested mathematical treatises concerning the astrolabe from Lupitus of Barcelona after he had returned to France. Common misconceptions Despite evidence to the contrary, some folkloric explanations for the origin of modern Arabic numerals persist. While these hypotheses continue to propagate due to their seemingly well-constructed arguments, they were based entirely on speculation by individuals who, while genuinely intrigued by the subject, were either ignorant of the relevant archeological facts, or simply lived in an era preceding much of their modern rediscovery. One popular example of such myths claims that the original forms of these symbols indicated their value through the quantity of angles they contained. http://www.scribd.com/doc/13244252/Number-Story http://www.slideshare.net/scanman/numbers-1184617 Cajori, Florian. ([1928] 2007). "A History of Mathematical Notations", in Vol I: Notations Mathematics, Myers Press. pp. 64-66 ISBN 1-40670-920-9. Adoption in Europe A German manuscript page teaching use of Arabic numerals (Talhoffer Thott, 1459). At this time, knowledge of the numerals was still widely seen as esoteric, and Talhoffer presents them with the Hebrew alphabet and astrology. Woodcut showing the 16th century astronomical clock of Uppsala Cathedral, with two clockfaces, one with Arabic and one with Roman numerals. Late 18th century French revolutionary "decimal" clockface. In 825 Al-Khwārizmī, the Persian scientist, wrote a treatise in Arabic, On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals, which was translated into Latin from Arabic in the 12th century as Algoritmi de numero Indorum, where Algoritmi, the translator's rendition of the author's name, gave rise to the word algorithm (Latin algorithmus, "calculation method"). Fibonacci, a mathematician born in the Republic of Pisa who had studied in Bejaia (Bougie), Algeria, promoted the Indian numeral system in Europe with his book Liber Abaci, which was written in 1202: "When my father, who had been appointed by his country as public notary in the customs at Bugia acting for the Pisan merchants going there, was in charge, he summoned me to him while I was still a child, and having an eye to usefulness and future convenience, desired me to stay there and receive instruction in the school of accounting. There, when I had been introduced to the art of the Indians' nine symbols through remarkable teaching, knowledge of the art very soon pleased me above all else and I came to understand it.." The numerals are arranged with their lowest value digit to the right, with higher value positions added to the left. This arrangement was adopted identically into the numerals as used in Europe. The Latin alphabet runs from left to right, unlike the Arabic alphabet. Hence, numerals in western texts have an inverse arrangement of their glyphs relative to the direction of writing. The European acceptance of the numerals was accelerated by the invention of the printing press, and they became widely known during the 15th century. Early uses in Britain include a 1445 inscription on the tower of Heathfield Church, Sussex; a 1448 inscription on a wooden lych-gate of Bray Church, Berkshire; and a 1487 inscription on the belfry door at Piddletrenthide church, Dorset; and in Scotland a 1470 inscription on the tomb of the first Earl of Huntly in Elgin, (Elgin, Moray) Cathedral. (See G.F. Hill, The Development of Arabic Numerals in Europe for more examples.) By the mid-16th century, they were in common use in most of Europe. Mathforum.org Roman numerals remained in use mostly for the notation of Anno Domini years, and for numbers on clockfaces. Sometimes, Roman numerals are still used for enumeration of lists (as an alternative to alphabetical enumeration), and numbering pages in prefatory material in books. Evolution of symbols The numeral system employed, known as algorism, is positional decimal notation. Various symbol sets are used to represent numbers in the Hindu-Arabic numeral system, all of which evolved from the Brahmi numerals. The symbols used to represent the system have split into various typographical variants since the Middle Ages: The widespread Western Arabic numerals used with the Latin alphabet, in the table below labelled European, descended from the West Arabic numerals developed in al-Andalus and the Maghreb. (There are two typographic styles for rendering European numerals, known as lining figures and text figures). The Arabic-Indic or Eastern Arabic numerals used with the Arabic alphabet developed primarily in what is now Iraq. A variant of the Eastern Arabic numerals used in the Persian and Urdu languages is shown as East Arabic-Indic. The Devanagari numerals used with Devanagari and related variants are grouped as Indian numerals. Table of numerals The evolution of the numerals in early Europe is shown on a table created by the French scholar J.E. Montucla in his Histoire de la Mathematique, which was published in 1757: Table of numerals The Arabic numerals are encoded in ASCII (and Unicode) at positions 48 to 57: BinaryDecimalHexadecimalGlyph0011 0000483000011 0001493110011 0010503220011 0011513330011 0100523440011 0101533550011 0110543660011 0111553770011 1000563880011 100157399 See also Hindu-Arabic numeral system Numeral system Counting rods - decimal positional numeral system with zero Chinese numerals Japanese numerals Roman numerals Notes References . . . . . External links History of Counting Systems and Numerals. Retrieved 11 December 2005. The Evolution of Numbers. 16 April 2005. O'Connor, J. J. and Robertson, E. F. Indian numerals. November 2000. History of the Numerals Arabic numerals: Hindu-Arabic numerals: Numeral & Numbers' history and curiosities: Gerbert d'Aurillac's early use of Hindu-Arabic numerals at Convergence | Arabic_numerals |@lemmatized numeral:82 sans:1 serif:1 arabic:44 ten:1 digit:6 descend:2 indian:13 hindu:13 system:22 sequence:1 read:1 whole:1 number:9 develop:4 mathematician:8 adopt:2 persian:4 india:6 pass:2 arab:9 far:2 west:5 modify:1 shape:2 along:1 european:6 time:5 reach:2 north:2 africa:2 transmit:1 europe:11 middle:4 age:2 use:30 spread:2 around:4 world:4 trade:1 book:4 colonialism:1 today:1 common:3 symbolic:1 representation:1 befit:1 history:10 also:4 know:7 reason:1 commonly:3 america:2 introduce:2 tenth:1 century:13 still:4 western:5 libya:1 morocco:1 hand:1 call:2 refer:2 origin:2 term:2 include:4 eastern:6 mideast:1 english:3 ambiguous:1 refers:1 widely:3 conventional:1 name:2 entire:1 family:2 related:2 may:2 intend:1 mean:1 case:2 generally:1 decimal:5 invent:1 ce:1 ifrah:1 george:1 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1,528 | Irgun | Irgun emblem. The map shows the land claimed by the organization for the Jewish state, which corresponds to the British Mandate of Palestine: current Israel, West Bank, Gaza Strip and Jordan Irgun (; shorthand for Ha'Irgun HaTzva'i HaLe'umi BeEretz Yisra'el, , "National Military Organization in the Land of Israel") was a militant Zionist group that operated in Palestine between 1931 and 1948. It was established as a militant offshoot of the earlier and larger Jewish paramilitary organization Haganah (Hebrew: "The Defense", ההגנה). For reasons of secrecy, people often referred to the Irgun, during that time, as Haganah Bet (Hebrew: literally "Defense 'B' " or "Second Defense", ), or alternatively as Haganah Ha'leumit () or Ha'ma'amad (). The Irgun members were absorbed into the Israel Defence Forces at the start of the 1948 Arab-Israeli war. In present-day Israel, the Irgun is commonly referred to as Etzel (), an acronym of the Hebrew initials. The Irgun was the armed expression of the nascent ideology of Revisionist Zionism founded by Ze'ev Jabotinsky. He expressed this ideology as "every Jew had the right to enter Palestine; only active retaliation would deter the Arabs and the British; only Jewish armed force would ensure the Jewish state".<ref>Howard Sachar: ''A History of the State of Israel, pps 265-266</ref> Some of the better-known attacks by the Irgun were the bombing of the King David Hotel in Jerusalem on 22 July 1946 and the Deir Yassin massacre (accomplished together with Lehi) on 9 April 1948. The Irgun was described as a terrorist organization by the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry, W. Khalidi, 1971, 'From Haven to Conquest', 598; updated 1987 to From Haven to Conquest: Readings in Zionism and the Palestine Problem Until 1948, Institute for Palestine Studies, ISBN 978-0887281556 several media sources, and a number of prominent world and Jewish figures. Irgun attacks prompted a formal declaration from the World Zionist Congress in 1946, which strongly condemned "the shedding of innocent blood as a means of political warfare". The Irgun was a political predecessor to Israel's right-wing Herut (or "Freedom") party, which led to today's Likud party. Likud has led or been part of most Israeli governments since 1977. Irgun CommandersSupreme Commander 1937-1940: Ze'ev Jabotinsky 1931-1937: Avraham Tehomi 1937: Robert Bitker 1937-1938: Moshe Rosenberg 1938-1941: David Raziel Raziel was arrested by the British on May 19, 1939 and was replaced by Hanoch Kalai. On August 31, 1939 Kalai was arrested and Benyamin Zeroni took his place until Raziel's release and return to the leadership on October 20. 1941-1943: Yaakov Meridor 1943-1948: Menachem Begin Nature of the Movement Ze'ev Jabotinsky, who formulated the movement's ideology and was Supreme Commander of the Etzel Members of the Irgun came mostly from Beitar and from the Revisionist Party both in Palestine and abroad. The Revisionist Movement made up a popular backing for the underground organization. Ze'ev Jabotinsky, founder of Revisionist Zionism, was the commander of the organization until he died. He formulated the general realm of operation, regarding Restraint and the end thereof, and was the inspiration for the organization overall. An additional major source of idealogical inspiration was the poetry of Uri Zvi Greenberg. The symbol of the organization, with the motto רק כך (Only Thus), alongside a hand holding a rifle in the foreground of all of mandatory Palestine (both sides of the Jordan River), symbolized the striving for Hebrew independence over the entire land of Israel, to be achieved only by the power of "Jewish weapons". The number of members of the Irgun varied from a few hundred to a few thousand. Most of its members were people who accepted the organization's command, under which they carried out various operations and filled positions, largely in opposition to British law. Most of them were "ordinary" people, who held regular jobs, and only a few dozen worked full time in the Irgun. The Irgun disagreed with the policy of the Yishuv and with the World Zionist Organization, both with regard to strategy and basic ideology and with regard to PR and military tactics, such as use of force for Zionist ends, attitude towards the Arabs during the riots, and relations with the British mandatory government. Therefore the Irgun tended to ignore the decisions made by the Zionist leadership and the Yishuv's institutions. This fact caused the elected bodies not to recognize the independent organization, and during most of the time of its existence the organization was seen as irresponsible, and its actions thus worthy of thwarting. Therefore the Irgun accompanied its armed operations with public relations campaigns, in order to convince the public of the Irgun's way and the problems with the official political leadership of the Yishuv. The Irgun put out numerous advertisements, an underground newspaper and even ran the first independent Hebrew radio station - Kol Zion HaLochemet. Structure, command, insignia As an underground organization, members did not normally call it by its name, but rather used other names. In the first years of its existence it was known primarily as "ההגנה הלאומית" (the National Haganah), and also by names such as "Irgun Bet", "Haganah Bet", the "Parallel Organization" and the "Rightwing Organization". Later on it was most widely known as "המעמד" (the Stand). The anthem adopted by the Irgun was "Anonymous Soldiers", http://www.betar.org.il/music/songs/hayalim.htm , http://www.betar.org.il/music/songs/musicfiles/Khaialim_Almonim.mp3 written by Avraham (Yair) Stern who was at the time a commander in the Irgun. Later on Stern defected from the Irgun and founded Lehi, and the song became the anthem of the Lehi. The Irgun's new anthem then became the third verse of the "Beitar Song", by Ze'ev Jabotinsky. In August 1933 a "Supervisory Committee" for the Irgun was established, which included representatives from most of the Zionist political parties. The members of this committee were Meir Grossman (of the Hebrew State Party), Rabbi Meir Bar Ilan (of the Mizrachi Party, either Immanuel Neumann or Yehoshua Supersky (of the General Zionists) and Ze'ev Jabotinsky or Eliyahu Ben Horin (of Hatzohar). The committee was in charge of the Irgun until 1937, when the movement split yet again. From that point on, the Irgun was under Jabotinsky's command. After his death ties were formed between the Irgun and the New Zionist Organization. These ties were broken in 1944 when the Irgun declared war on the British government. Within the Irgun, Avraham Tehomi was the first to serve as "Head of the Headquarters" or "Chief Commander". Alongside Tehomi served the "Headquarters". When the movement expanded, districts were laid out within the movement. A local Irgun unit was called a "Branch". A "Brigade" in the Irgun was made up of three sections. A section was made up of two groups, at the head of each was a "Group Head", and a deputy. Later on various newer units were established, who answered to a "Center" or "Staff"). Ranks were put into use later on and were (in ascending order) Deputy, Group Head, Sergeant (for a Section), Sergeant A (Brigade), First Sergeant (Battalion); officer ranks were "Gundar" (District of Unit Commander) and First Gundar (Senior Commander). A rank of Major was awarded to the Irgun commander Yaakov Meridor and a rank of Major General (Aluf) to David Raziel. Until his death in 1940, Jabotinsky was known as the "Military Commander of the Etzel" or the "Supreme Commander". The military nature of the organization manifested itself in two ways. First, was the execution of strict drill exercises, carrying out of ceremonies at different times, and strict attention given to discipline, formal ceremonies and military relationships between the various ranks. Another way the military nature was apparent was the organized training regime. The Irgun trained with handguns and submachine guns, hand grenade throwing, and combined attacks on targets. The Irgun put out professional publications on combat doctrine, weaponry, leadership, drill exercises, etc. Among these publications were the 240-page book "The Gun" by David Raziel and Avraham Stern, and the 284-page book "The Compiled and Expanded Guide to Drill Exercises" by Raziel. Up until the Arab Revolt of 1936-1939 the Haganah also made use of these guidebooks (afterwards the Haganah published its own military literature). Until World War II the Irgun was able to arm itself by weapons purchased in Europe, primarily Italy and Poland, and smuggled to Palestine. The Irgun also established workshops that manufactured spare parts and attachments for the weapons. Also manufactured were land mines and simple hand grenades. Another way in which the Irgun armed itself was "Confiscations" - stealing weapons from the British police and military. Prior to World War II Founding The Irgun's first steps were in the aftermath of the Riots of 1929. In the Jerusalem branch of the Haganah there were feelings of disappointment and internal unrest towards the leadership of the movements and the Histadrut (at that time the organization running the Haganah). These feelings were a result of the view that the Haganah had failed after ten years of existence in the face of murders, violence, property vandalism and Jewish abandonment of settlements and neighborhoods in light of outlaws' violence and local Arab gangs towards Jews. Likewise, critics of the leadership spoke out against alleged failures in the amount of weapons, readiness of the movement and its policy of restraint and not fighting back. On April 10, 1931, commanders and equipment managers announced that they refuse to return weapons to the Haganah that had been issued to them earlier, prior to the Nebi Musa holiday. These weapons were later returned by the commander of the Jerusalem branch, Abraham Tehomi, aka "Gideon". However, the commanders who decided to rebel against the leadership of the Haganah relayed a message regarding their resignations to the Vaad Leumi, and thus this schism created a new independent movement. At the helm of the new underground movement stood Abraham Tehomi, alongside other founding members who were all senior commanders in the Haganah, members of the Young Labor Party and of the Histadrut. Also among them was Eliyahu Ben Horin, an activist in the Revisionist Party. This group was known as the "Odessan Gang", because they previously had been members of the Haganah Ha'Atzmit of Jewish Odessa. The new movement was named Irgun Tsvai Leumi, ("National Military Organization") in order to emphasize its active nature in contrast to the Haganah. Moreover, the organization was founded with the desire to become a true military organization and not just a militia as the Haganah was at the time. In the autumn of that year the Jerusalem group merged with other armed groups affiliated with Beitar. The Beitar groups' center of activity was in Tel Aviv, and they began their activity in 1928 with the establishment of "Officers and Instructors School of Beitar". Students at this institution had broken away from the Haganah earlier, for political reasons, and the new group called itself the "National Defense", הגנה הלאומית. During the riots of 1929 Beitar youth participated in the defense of Tel Aviv neighborhoods under the command of Yermiyahu Halperin, at the behest of the Tel Aviv city hall. After the riots the Tel Avivian group expanded, and was known as "The Right Wing Organization". After the Tel Aviv expansion another branch was established in Haifa. Towards the end of 1932 the Haganah branch of Safed also defected and joined the Irgun, as well as many members of the Maccabi sports association. At that time the movement's underground newsletter, Ha'Metsudah (the Tower) also began publication, expressing the active trend of the movement. The Irgun also increased its numbers by expanding draft regiments of Beitar - groups of volunteers, committed to two years of security and pioneer activities. These regiments were based in places that from which stemmed new Irgun strongholds in the many places, including the settlements of Yesod HaMa'ala, Mishmar HaYarden, Rosh Pina, Metula and Nahariya in the north; in the center - Hadera, Binyamina, Herzliya, Netanya and Kfar Sava, and south of there - Rishon LeZion, Rehovot and Ness Ziona. Later on regiments were also active in the Old City of Jerusalem ("the Kotel Brigades") among others. Primary training centers were based in Ramat Gan, Qastina (by Kiryat Mal'akhi of today) and other places. Under Tehomi's command Avraham Tehomi, the first Commander of the Irgun In 1933 there some signs of unrest, seen by the incitement of the local Arab leadership to act against the authorities. The strong British response put down the disturbances quickly. During that time the Irgun operated in a similar manner to the Haganah and was a guarding organization. The two organizations cooperated in ways such as coordination of posts and even intelligence sharing. In protest against, and with the aim of ending Jewish immigration to Palestine, the Great Arab Revolt of 1936-1939 broke out on April 19, 1936. The riots took the form of attacks by Arab rioters ambushing main roads, bombing of roads and settlements as well as property and agriculture vandalism. In the beginning, the Irgun and the Haganah generally maintained a policy of restraint, apart from a few instances. Some expressed resentment at this policy, leading up internal unrest in the two organizations. The Irgun tended to retaliate more often, and sometimes Irgun members patrolled areas beyond their positions in order to encounter attackers ahead of time. However, there were differences of opinion regarding what to do in the Haganah, as well. Due to the joining of many Beitar Youth members, Jabotinsky (founder of Beitar) had a great deal of influence over Irgun policy. Nevertheless, Jabotinsky was of the opinion that for moral reasons violent retaliation was not to be undertaken. During the first stage of the Revolt, from April 1936 until October of that year, 80 Jews were killed, 369 were injured, 19 schools were attacked, nine orphanages and three old-age homes. 380 attacks on trains and buses were carried out, and approximately 4,000 acres (16 km²) of agricultural land were destroyed. These actions were carried out by armed Arab gangs who were joined by Syrian and Iraqi reinforcements. The Supreme Arab Committee, led by Haj Amin al-Husayni, who directed these riots, also declared a general strike on labor and trade. In the beginning of October 1936 gang activity declined due to the intervention of the British army. In November 1936 the Peel Commission was sent to inquire regarding the breakout of the riots and propose a solution to end the Revolt. In early 1937 there were still some in the Yishuv who felt the commission would recommend a partition of the land west of the Jordan River, thus creating a Jewish state on part of the land. The Irgun leadership, as well as the "Supervisory Committee" held similar beliefs, as did some members of the Haganah and the Jewish Agency. This belief strengthened the policy of restraint and led to the position that there was no room for defense institutions in the future Jewish state. Tehomi was quoted as saying: "We stand before great events: a Jewish state and a Jewish army. There is a need for a single military force". This position intensified the differences of opinion regarding the policy of restraint, both within the Irgun and within the political camp aligned with the organization. The leadership committee of the Irgun supported a merger with the Haganah. On April 24, 1937 a referendum was held among Irgun members regarding its continued independent existence. David Raziel and Avraham (Yair) Stern came out publicly in support for the continued existence of the Irgun:The Irgun has been placed... before a decision to make, whether to submit to the authority of the government and the Jewish Agency or to prepare for a double sacrifice and endangerment. Some of our friends do not have appropriate willingness for this difficult position, and have submitted to the Jewish Agency and has left the battle... all of the attempts... to unite with the leftist organization have failed, because the Left entered into negotiations not on the basis of unification of forces, but the submission of one such force to the other... Yosef Kister, The Etzel, (Hebrew) pp. 38 The first split In April 1937 the Irgun split after the referendum. Approximately 1,500-2,000 people, about half of the Irgun's membership, including the senior command staff, regional committee members, along with most of the Irgun's weapons, returned to the Haganah, which at that time was under the Jewish Agency's leadership. In their opinion, in order to remove the Haganah from the Jewish Agency's leadership to the national institutions necessitated their return. Furthermore, they no longer saw significant ideological differences between the movements. Those who remained in the Irgun were primarily young activists, mostly laypeople, who sided with the independent existence of the Irgun. In fact, most of those who remained were originally Beitar people. Moshe Rosenberg estimated that approximately 1,800 members remained. In theory, the Irgun remained an organization not aligned with a political party, but in reality the supervisory committee was disbanded and the Irgun's continued ideological path was outlined according to Ze'ev Jabotinsky's school of thought and his decisions, until the movement eventually became Revisionist Zionism's military arm. One of the major changes in policy by Jabotinsky was the end of the policy of restraint. On April 27, 1937 the Irgun founded a new headquarters, staffed by Moshe Rosenberg at the head, Avraham (Yair) Stern as secretary, David Raziel as head of the Jerusalem branch, Hanoch Kalai as commander of Haifa and Aharon Haichman as commander of Tel Aviv. On the 20th of Tammuz, (June 29) the day of Theodor Herzl's death, a ceremony was held in honor of the reorganization of the underground movement. For security purposes this ceremony was held at a construction site in Tel Aviv. Ze'ev Jabotinsky placed Col. Robert Bitker at the head of the Irgun. Bitker had previously served as Beitar commissioner in China and had military experience. A few months later, probably due to total incompatibility with the position, Jabotinsky replaced Bitker with Moshe Rosenberg. When the Peel Commission report was published a few months later, the Revisionist camp decided not to accept the commission's recommendations. Moreover, the organizations of Beitar, Hatzohar and the Irgun began to increase their efforts to bring Jews to the land of Israel, illegally. This Aliyah was known as the עליית אף על פי "Af Al Pi (Nevertheless) Aliyah". As opposed to this position, the Jewish Agency began acting on behalf of the Zionist interest on the political front, and continued the policy of restraint. From this point onwards the differences between the Haganah and the Irgun were much more obvious. Illegal Aliyah The ship Parita unloading immigrants at the beach in Tel Aviv According to Jabotinsky's "Evacuation Plan", which called for millions of European Jews to be brought to Palestine at once, the Irgun helped the illegal immigration of European Jews to the land of Israel. This was named by Jabotinsky the "National Sport". The most significant part of this immigration prior to World War II was carried out by the Revisionist camp, largely because the Yishuv institutions and the Jewish Agency shied away from such an expensive project, as well as the belief that Britain would in the future allow widespread Jewish immigration. The Irgun joined forces with Hatzohar and Beitar in September 1937, when it assisted with the Aliyah of a convoy of 54 Beitar members at Tantura Beach (near Haifa). The Irgun was responsible for discreetly bringing the Olim, or Jewish immigrants, to the beaches, and dispersing them among the various Jewish settlements. The Irgun also began participating in the organizing of the immigration enterprise and undertook the process of accompanying the ships. This began with the ship Draga which arrived at the coast of the land of Israel in September 1938. In August of the same year, an agreement was made between Ari Jabotinsky (the son of Ze'ev Jabotinsky), the Beitar representative and Hillel Kook, the Irgun representative, to coordinate the immigration (also known as Haapala). This agreement was also made in the "Paris Convention" in February 1939, at which also present were Ze'ev Jabotinsky and David Raziel. Afterwards, the "Aliyah Center" was founded, made up of representatives of Hatzohar, Beitar, and the Irgun, thereby making the Irgun a full participant in the organization and execution process. The difficult conditions on the ships demanded a high level of discipline. The people on board the ships were often split into units, led by commanders. In addition to having a daily roll call and the distribution of food and water (usually very little of either), organized talks were held to provide information regarding the actual arrival in Palestine. One of the largest ships was the Sakaria, with 2,300 Olim, who at the time made up 0.5% of the Jewish population in Palestine. The first vessel arrived on April 13, 1937, and the last on February 13, 1940. All told, about 18,000 Jews reached Palestine with the help of the Revisionist organizations and private initiatives of other Revisionists. Most were not caught by the British. End of restraint David Raziel, commander of the Irgun Irgun members continued to defend settlements, but at the same time began counter-attacks, thus ending the policy of restraint. These attacks were intended to instill fear in the Arab side, in order to cause the Arabs to wish for peace and quiet. In March 1938, David Raziel wrote in the underground newspaper "By the Sword" a constitutive article for the Irgun overall, in which he coined the term "Active Defense":The actions of the Haganah alone will never be a true victory. If the goal of the war is to break the will of the enemy - and this cannot be attained without destroying his spirit - clearly we cannot be satisfied with solely defensive operations... Such a method of defense, that allows the enemy to attack at will, to reorganize and attack again... and does not intend to remove the enemy's ability to attack a second time - is called passive defense, and ends in downfall and destruction... whoever does not wish to be beaten has no choice but to attack. The fighting side, that does not intend to oppress but to save its liberty and honor, he too has only one way available - the way of attack. Defensiveness by way of offensiveness, in order to deprive the enemy the option of attacking, is called active defense.The first operations began around April 1936, and by the end of World War II, more than 250 Arabs had been killed. The trend of activities was an attempt to respond "an eye for an eye" in the form of violent operations against Arab violence, and often to match the form of retaliation or its location to correspond to the attack that provoked it. A number of examples: After an Arab shooting at Carmel school in Tel Aviv, which resulted in the death of a Jewish child, Irgun members attacked an Arab neighborhood near Kerem Hatemanim in Tel Aviv, killing one Arab man and injuring another. On August 17, the Irgun responded to shootings by Arabs from the Jaffa-Jerusalem train towards Jews that were waiting by the train block on Herzl Street in Tel Aviv. The same day, when a Jewish child was injured by the shooting, Irgun members attacked a train on the same route, killing one Arab and injuring five. During 1936, Irgun members carried out approximately ten retaliatory operations. Throughout 1937 the Irgun continued this line of operation. On March 6, a Jew at Sabbath prayers at the Western Wall was shot by a local Arab. A few hours later, the Irgun shot at an Arab in the Jerusalem neighborhood of Rechavia. On June 29, a band of Arabs attacked an Egged bus on the Jerusalem - Tel Aviv road, killing one Jew. The following day, two Jews were also killed near Karkur. A few hours later, the Irgun carried out a number of operations. An Arab bus making its way from Lifta was attacked in Jerusalem. In two other locations in Jerusalem, Arabs were shot as well. In Tel Aviv, a hand grenade was thrown at an Arab coffee shop on Carmel St., injuring many of the patrons. Irgun members also injured an Arab on Reines St. in Tel Aviv. On September 5, the Irgun responded to the murder of a rabbi on his way home from prayer in the Old City of Jerusalem by throwing explosives at an Arab bus that had left Lifta, injuring two female passengers and a British police officer. A more complete list can be found here. At that time, however, these acts were not yet a part of a formulated policy of the Irgun. "Tagar u'Magen (Jabotinsky and the Etzel)" , Jabtotinsky Publishing, pp. 28 Not all of the aforementioned operations received a commander's approval, and Jabotinsky was not in favor of such actions at the time. Jabotinsky still hoped to establish a Jewish force out in the open that would not have to operate underground. However, the failure, in its eyes, of the Peel Commission and the renewal of violence on the part of the Arabs caused the Irgun to rethink its official policy. Increase in operations 14 November, 1937 was a watershed in Irgun activity. From that date, the Irgun increased its reprisals. Following an increase in the number of attacks aimed at Jews, including the killing of five kibbutz members near Kiryat Anavim (today kibbutz Ma'ale HaHamisha), the Irgun undertook a series of attacks in various places in Jerusalem, killing five Arabs. Operations were also undertaken in Haifa (shooting at the Arab-populated Wadi Nisnas neighborhood) and in Herzliya. The date is known as the day the policy of restraint (Havlagah) ended, or as "Black Sunday". This is when the organization fully changed its policy, with the approval of Jabotinsky and Headquarters to the policy of "active defense" in respect of Irgun actions. "The Birth of an Underground Organization", Yehuda Lapidot, pp. 62 The British responded with the arrest of Beitar and Hatzohar members as suspected members of the Irgun. Military courts were allowed to act under "Time of Emergency Regulations" and even sentence people to death. In this manner Yehezkel Altman, a guard in a Beitar battalion in the Nahalat Yizchak neighborhood of Tel Aviv, shot at an Arab bus, without his commanders' knowledge. Altman was acting in response to a shooting at Jewish vehicles on the Tel Aviv-Jerusalem road the day before. He turned himself in later and was sentenced to death, a sentence which was later commuted to a life sentence. Despite the arrests, Irgun members continued fighting. Jabotinsky lent his moral support to these activities. In a letter to Moshe Rosenberg on 18 March 1938 he wrote:Tell them: from afar I collect and save, as precious treasures, news items about your lives. I know of the obstacles that have not impeded your spirit; and I know of your actions as well. I am overjoyed that I have been blessed with such students.The Irgun continued activities such as these, however following Rosenberg's orders they were greatly curtailed. Furthermore, in fear of the British threat of the death sentence for anyone found carrying a weapon, all operations were suspended for eight months. However, opposition to this policy gradually increased. In April, 1938, responding to the killing of six Jews, in which a woman was raped and dismembered, Beitar members from the Rosh Pina Brigade went on a reprisal mission, without the consent of their commander, as described by historian Avi Shlaim:On 21 April 1938, after several weeks of planning, he and two of his colleagues from the Irgun (Etzel) ambushed an Arab bus at a bend on a mountain road near Safad. They had a hand-grenade, a gun and a pistol. Their plan was to destroy the engine so that the bus would fall off the side of the road and all the passengers would be killed. When the bus approached, they fired at it (not in the air, as Mailer has it) but the grenade lobbed by Ben Yosef did not detonate. The bus with its screaming and terrified passengers drove on. Although the incident ended without casualties, the three were caught, and one of them - Shlomo Ben-Yosef was sentenced to death. Demonstrations around the country, as well as pressure from institutions and people such as Dr. Chaim Weizmann and the Chief Rabbi of Mandatory Palestine, Yitzhak HaLevi Herzog did not reduce his sentence. In Shlomo Ben-Yosef's writings in Hebrew were later found: I am going to die and I am not sorry at all. Why? Because I am going to die for our country. Shlomo Ben-Yosef.On 29 June 1938 he was executed, and was the first of Olei Hagardom. The Irgun revered him after his death and many regarded him as an example. In light of this, and due to the anger of the Irgun leadership over the decision to adopt a policy of restraint until that point, Jabotinsky relieved Rosenberg of his post and replaced him with David Raziel, who proved to be the most prominent Irgun commander until Menachem Begin. Jabotinsky simultaneously instructed the Irgun to end its policy of restraint, leading to armed offensive operations until the end of the Arab Revolt in 1939. In this time, the Irgun mounted about 40 operations against Arabs and Arab villages, for instance: After a Jewish father and son were killed in the Old City of Jerusalem, on June 6, 1938, Irgun members threw explosives from the roof of a nearby house, killing two Arabs and injuring four. The Irgun planted land mines in a number of Arab markets, primarily in places identified by the Irgun as activity centers of armed Arab gangs. Explosives detonated in the Arab souk in Jerusalem on July 15, killed ten local Arabs. In similar circumstances, 70 Arabs were killed by a land mine planted in the Arab souk in Haifa. This action led the British Parliament to discuss the disturbances in Palestine. On 23 February 1939 the Secretary of State for the Colonies, Malcolm MacDonald revealed the British intention to cancel the mandate and establish a state that would preserve Arab rights. This caused a wave of riots and attacks by Arabs against Jews. The Irgun responded four days later with a series of attacks on Arab buses and other sites. The British used military force against the Arab rioters and in the latter stages of the revolt by the Arab community in Palestine deteriorated into a series of internal gang wars. During the same period In reality, the armed operations against Arabs were the actions of small groups, or even individual Irgun members. Most of the Irgun were involved during this time with protection and defense of settlements. By the late thirties, the Irgun comprised mainly Beitar youth (from its branches or from its work brigades), Hazohar members and the National Workers Union, youth belonging to the Maccabi youth group, members of the religious youth group "Alliance of the Hasmoneans" and students from the national unions Yavneh, Yodfat and Elal. In certain places, including settlements in Samaria (now known as the northern West Bank), the Sharon and southern Judea, these were the primary defensive forces. In some areas Irgun forces cooperated with Haganah members, such as in the setting up of Tel Tzur (now known as Even Yehuda), a tower and stockade Beitar settlement. At the same time, the Irgun also established itself in Europe. The Irgun built underground cells that participated in organizing Aliyah convoys. The cells were made up almost entirely of Beitar members, and their primary activity was military training in preparation for emigration to Palestine. Ties formed with the Polish authorities brought about courses in which Irgun commanders were trained by Polish officers in advanced military issues such as guerrilla warfare, tactics and laying land mines. Avraham (Yair) Stern was notable among the cell organizers in Europe. In 1937 the Polish authorities began to deliver large amounts of weapons to the underground. The transfer of handguns, rifles, explosives and ammunition stopped with the outbreak of World War II. Another field in which the Irgun operated was the training of pilots, so they could serve in the Air Force in the future war for independence, in the flight school in Lod. Towards the end of 1938 there was progress towards aligning the ideologies of the Irgun and the Haganah. Many rid themselves of the illusion that the land would be divided and a Jewish state would soon exist. The Haganah founded פו"מ, a special operations unit, (pronounced poom), which carried out armed operations in response to, and in order to prevent Arab violence. These operations continued into 1939. Furthermore, the opposition within the Yishuv to illegal immigration significantly decreased, and the Haganah began to bring Jews to Palestine using rented ships, as the Irgun had in the past. First operations against the British The publishing of MacDonald White Paper in May 1939 brought with it new edicts that were intended to lead to a more equitable settlement between Jews and Arabs. However, it was considered by some to have an adverse effect on the continued development of the Jewish community. Chief among these was the prohibition on selling land to Jews, and minuscule quotas for Jewish immigration. The entire Yishuv was furious at the contents of the White Paper. There were demonstrations against the "Treacherous Paper", the ultimate British betrayal of the Jews as it was thought to preclude the establishment of a homeland in the land of Israel. The Irgun began sabotaging strategic infrastructure such as electricity facilities, radio and telephone lines. It also started publicizing its activity and its goals. This was done in street announcements, newspapers, as well as the underground radio station Kol Zion HaLochemet. The British responded with numerous arrests of Beitar and Hatzohar members, some of whom were mistreated to obtain information about the Irgun. The Irgun warned that such activity would lead to a response. On August 26, 1939 the Irgun published a death sentence against Ralph Krans, a British police officer who, as head of the Jewish Department in their secret police, had tortured a number of youths who were underground members. Krans and another British officer in the secret police were killed from a hidden mine explosion by the Irgun. The British increased their efforts against the Irgun. As a result David Raziel, commander of the Irgun was arrested on May 19. On August 31 the British police arrested members meeting in the Irgun headquarters. On the next day, September 1, 1939, World War II broke out. During World War II Following the outbreak of war, Ze'ev Jabotinsky and the New Zionist Organization voiced their support for Britain and France. In mid-September 1939 Raziel was moved from his place of detention in Tzrifin. This, among other events, triggered the Irgun to announce a cessation of its activities against the British so as not to hinder Britain's effort to fight "the Hebrew's greatest enemy in the world - German Nazism". This announcement ended with the hope that after the war a Hebrew state would be founded "within the historical borders of the liberated homeland". After this announcement Irgun, Beitar and Hatzohar members, including Raziel and the Irgun leadership, were gradually released from detention. The Irgun did not rule out joining the British Army and the Jewish Brigade. Irgun members did enlist in various army units. Irgun Zeva'i Le'umi—“The National Military Organization” (Etzel, I.Z.L.) Irgun members also assisted British forces with intelligence in Romania and Bulgaria, as well as Morocco and Tunisia. An Irgun unit also operated in Syria and Lebanon. David Raziel later died in such an operation in the service of Britain. During the Holocaust Beitar members revolted numerous times against the Nazis in occupied Europe. The largest of these revolts was the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising where an armed underground organization fought, comprising Beitar, Hatzohar and Polish Irgun cell members and known as Żydowski Związek Wojskowy (Jewish Military Union). There were instances of Beitar members enlisted in the British military smuggling British weapons to the Irgun. From 1939 onwards, an Irgun delegation in the United States worked for the creation of a Jewish army made up of Jewish refugees and Jews from Palestine, to fight alongside the Allied Forces. In July 1943 the "Emergency Committee to Save the Jewish People in Europe" was formed, and worked until the end of the war to rescue the Jews of Europe from the Nazis and to garner public support. However, it was not until January 1944 that President Franklin Roosevelt established the War Refugee Board, which achieved some success in saving Jews in Europe. The second split Avraham (Yair) Stern Throughout this entire period the British continued enforcing the MacDonald White Paper's provisions, which included a ban on the sale of land to Jews, restrictions on Jewish immigration and increased vigilance against illegal immigration. Part of the reason why the British banned land sales (to anyone) was the confused state of the post Ottoman land registry; it was difficult to determine who actually owned the land that was for sale. Within the ranks of the Irgun this created much disappointment and unrest, at the center of which was disagreement with the leadership of the New Zionist Organization, David Raziel and the Irgun Headquarters. On June 18, 1939, Avraham (Yair) Stern and others of the leadership were released from prison and a rift opened between them the Irgun and Hatzohar leadership. The controversy centred on the issues of the underground movement submitting to public political leadership and those of fighting the British. On his release from prison Raziel resigned from Headquarters. To his chagrin, independent operations of senior members of the Irgun were carried out and some commanders even doubted Raziel's loyalty. In this stead, Stern was elected to the leadership. Beitar and Hatzohar members resented this appointment because it was seen as undermining Jabotinsky's authority. In the past, Stern had founded secret Irgun cells in Poland without Jabotinsky's knowledge, in opposition to his opinion. Furthermore, Stern was in favor of removing the Irgun from the authority of New Zionist Organization, whose leadership urged Raziel to return to the command of the Irgun, and he finally consented. Jabotinsky wrote to Raziel and to Stern. These letters were distributed to the branches of the Irgun: "...I call upon you: Let nothing disturb our unity. Listen to the commissioner (Raziel), whom I trust, and promise me that you and Beitar, the greatest of my life's achievements, will stand strong and united and allow me to continue with the hope for victory in the war to realize our old Maccabean dream..." Stern was sent a telegram with an order to obey Raziel, who was reappointed. However, these events did not prevent the splitting of the organization. Suspicion and distrust were rampant among the members. Out of the Irgun a new organization was created on July 17, 1940, The Split Within The Irgun which was first named "The National Military Organization in Israel" (as opposed to the "National Military Organization in the Land of Israel") and later on changed its name to Lehi, an acronym for Lohamei Herut Israel, "Fighters for the Freedom of Israel", (לח"י - לוחמי חירות ישראל). Jabotinsky died in New York, on August 4, 1940, yet this did not prevent the Lehi split. The primary difference between the Irgun and the newly formed organization was its intention to fight the British in Palestine, regardless of their war against Germany. Later, additional operational and ideological differences developed that contradicted some of the Irgun's guiding principles. For example the Lehi supported the exchange of population with regards to the local Arabs. The Irgun, on the other hand, acted according the Revisionist school of thought that said "There he shall quench his thirst with plenty and happiness, the son of Arab, son of Nazareth (i.e. Christian) and my son." Moreover, the Irgun's fight against the British was only intended to expel them from the area, and the option of future diplomatic ties with Britain was not discounted. The Lehi, however, declared total war against imperialism and the empire. Also unlike Irgun fighters, Lehi fighters would travel with their weapons on them at all times. One more striking difference was the fact that the Irgun concentrated its operations against British centres of government and its facilities in Palestine, and sometimes warned the British about impending explosions. This contrasted the Lehi's struggle that, at times, was directed towards personal attacks and the assassination of leadership, military, and police figures. Towards a change of policy The Irgun's Anthem http://www.csuohio.edu/tagar/betar.htm Tagar - Through all obstacles and enemies Whether you go up or down In the flames of revolt Carry a flame to kindle - never mind! For silence is filth Worthless is blood and soul For the sake of the hidden glory To die or to conquer the hill - Yodefet, Masada, Beitar. The split damaged the Irgun both organizationally and from a morale point of view. As their spiritual leader, Jabotinsky's death also added to this feeling. Together, these factor brought about a mass abandonment by members. The British secret police took advantage of this weakness to gather intelligence and arrest Irgun activists. The new Irgun leadership, which included Meridor, Yerachmiel Ha'Levi, Moshe Segal and others used the forced hiatus in activity to rebuild the injured organization. This period was also marked by more cooperation between the Irgun and the Jewish Agency, however Ben Gurion's uncompromising demand that Irgun accept the Agency's command foiled any further cooperation. In both the Irgun and the Haganah more voices were being heard opposing any cooperation with the British. Nevertheless, an Irgun operation carried out in the service of Britain was aimed at sabotaging pro-Nazi forces in Iraq, including the assassination of Haj Amin al-Husayni. Among others, Raziel and Yaakov Meridor participated. On April 20, 1941, during a Luftwaffe air raid on Habbaniya Airport near Baghdad, David Raziel, commander of the Irgun, was killed during the operation. In late 1943 a joint Haganah - Irgun initiative was developed, to form a single fighting body, unaligned with any political party, by the name of עם לוחם (Fighting Nation). http://www.palmach.org.il/show_item.asp?levelId=38612&itemId=5199&itemType=0 Reflections on the assassination of Sheikh Yassin | From Occupied Palestine The new body's first plan was to kidnap the British High Commissioner of Palestine, Sir Harold MacMichael and deport him to Cyprus. However the Haganah leaked the planned operation and it was thwarted before it got off the ground. Nevertheless, at this stage the Irgun ceased its cooperation with the British. As Eliyahu Lankin tells in his book: Immediately following the failure of Fighting Nation practical discussions began in the Irgun Headquarters regarding a declaration of warThe "Revolt" In 1943 the Polish II Corps, commanded by Władysław Anders, arrived in Palestine from Iraq. The British insisted that no Jewish units of the army be created. Eventually, many of the soldiers of Jewish origin that arrived with the army were released and allowed to stay in Palestine. One of them was Menachem Begin, Menachem Begin Biography whose arrival in Palestine created new-found expectations within the Irgun and Beitar. Begin had served as head of the Beitar movement in Poland, Menachem Begin - Biography and was a respected leader. Yaakov Meridor, then the commander of the Irgun, raised the idea of appointing Begin to the post. In late 1943, when Begin accepted the position, a new leadership was formed. Meridor became Begin's deputy, and other members of the board were Aryeh Ben Eliezer, Eliyahu Lankin, and Shlomo Lev Ami. The Revolt Is Proclaimed On February 1, 1944 the Irgun put up posters all around the country, proclaiming a revolt against the British mandatory government. The posters began by saying that all of the Zionist movements stood by the Allied Forces and over 25,000 Jews had enlisted in the British military. The hope to establish a Jewish army had died. Throughout the war the Middle East Arabs had favoured Germany's side. European Jewry was trapped and was being destroyed, yet Britain, for its part, did not allow any rescue missions. This part of the document ends with the following words:The White Paper is still in effect. It is enforced, despite the betrayal of the Arabs and the loyalty of the Jews; despite the mass enlisting to the British Army; despite the ceasefire and the quiet in The Land of Israel; despite the massacre of masses of the Jewish people in Europe...The facts are simple and horrible as one. Over the last four years of the war we have lost millions of the best of our people; millions more are in danger of eradication. And The Land of Israel is closed off and quarantined because the British rule it, realizing the White Paper, and strives for the destruction of our people's last hope.The Irgun then declared that, for its part, the ceasefire was over and they were now at war with the British. It demanded the transfer of rule to a Jewish government, to implement ten policies. Among these were the mass evacuation of Jews from Europe, the signing of treaties with any state that recognized the Jewish state's sovereignty, including Britain, granting social justice to the state's residents, and full equality to the Arab population. The proclamation ended with: The God of Israel, God of Hosts, will be at our side. There is no retreat. Liberty or death. ...the fighting youth will not recoil in the face of sacrifices and suffering, blood and torment. They will not surrender, so long as our days of old are not renewed, so long as our nation is not ensured a homeland, liberty, honor, bread, justice and law.The Irgun began this campaign rather weakly — the organization was only about 1,000 strong, out of which only some 200 were fighters. Weapons were also sparse. The Irgun underwent a reorganization and was redivided in different brigades: Combat Corps - the Irgun's primary fighting force; The Sea - the Irgun's special operations unit; Delek (דלק - Gasoline) - intelligence; HATAM ( חת"מ - Revolutionary Publicity Corps); and HAT (ח"ת - Planning Division). The Irgun became more secretive and its commanders assumed new identities and homes. Begin, for example, assumed a Rabbi's identity ("Yisrael Sasover"), and was sometimes known as "Ben Ze'ev" or "Dr. Kenigshopper". Struggle against the British The Irgun began a militant operation against the symbols of government, in an attempt to harm the regime's operation as well as its reputation. The Irgun made a rule for itself - no individual terror and an attempt to avoid casualties; it is a matter of debate as to whether Irgun met these rules. The first attack was on February 12, 1944 at the government immigration offices, a symbol of the immigration laws. The attacks went smoothly and ended with no casualties—as they took place on a Saturday night, when the buildings were empty—in the three largest cities: Jerusalem, Tel Aviv, and Haifa. On February 27 the income tax offices were bombed. Parts of the same cities were blown up, also on a Saturday night; prior warnings were put up near the buildings. On March 23 the national headquarters building of the British police in the Russian Compound in Jerusalem was attacked, and part of it was blown up. These attacks in the first few months were sharply condemned by the organized leadership of the Yishuv and by the Jewish Agency, who saw them as dangerous provocations. At the same time the Lehi also renewed its attacks against the British. Chapter Eight: The Struggle for the Establishment of the State of Israel The Irgun continued to attack police stations and headquarters, and Tegart Fort, a fortified police station (today the location of Latrun). One relatively complex operation was overtaking of the governmental radio station in Ramallah, on May 17, 1944. One symbolic act by the Irgun happened before Yom Kippur of 1944. They plastered notices around town, warning that no British officers should come to the Western Wall on Yom Kippur, and for the first time since the mandate began no British police officers were there to prevent the Jews from the traditional Shofar blowing at the end of the fast. http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/history/hayom/2a-2.htm After the fast that year the Irgun attacked four police stations in Arab settlements. In order to obtain weapons, the Irgun carried out "confiscation" operations - they took over British armouries and smuggled stolen weapons to their own hiding places. During this phase of activity the Irgun also cut all of its official ties with the New Zionist Organization, so as not to tie their fate in the underground organization. Begin wrote in his memoirs, The Revolt:History and experience taught us that if we are able to destroy the prestige of the British in Palestine, the regime will break. Since we found the enslaving government's weak point, we did not let go of it. Underground exiles In October 1944 the British began expelling hundreds of arrested Irgun and Lehi members to detention camps in Africa. 251 detainees from Latrun were flown on thirteen planes, on October 19 to a camp in Asmara, Eritrea. Eleven additional transports were made. Throughout the period of their detention, the detainees often initiated rebellions and hunger strikes. Many escape attempts were made until July 1948 when the exiles were returned to Israel. While there were numerous successful escapes from the camp itself, only nine men actually made it back all the way. One noted success was that of Yaakov Meridor, who escaped nine times before finally reaching Europe in April 1948. These tribulations were the subject of his book Long is the Path to Freedom: Chronicles of one of the Exiles. Hunting Season On November 6, 1944, Lord Moyne, British Deputy Resident Minister of State in Cairo was assassinated by Lehi members Eliyahu Hakim and Eliyahu Bet-Zuri. This act raised concerns within the Yishuv from the British regime's reaction to the underground's violent acts against them. Therefore the Jewish Agency decided on starting a Hunting Season, The 'Hunting Season' Besiege / Yehuda Lapidut - THE HUNTING SEASON known as the saison, (from the French "la saison de chasse"). During the Hunting Season people suspected of belonging to or supporting the Irgun or the Lehi were removed from schools, work places and the Klalit HMO. Most of the people who partook in these activities were members of the Haganah and the Palmach. They carried out surveillance, kidnapping, investigation of Irgun and Lehi members and either turned them over to the British, or provided details regarding their whereabouts. Among those turned over were members of the Irgun headquarters - Yaakov Meridor, Shlomo Lev Ami, and Eliyahu Lankin. The Hunting Season managed to paralyze the Irgun's activity for a few months, but not destroy the organization. The Irgun's recuperation was noticeable when it began to renew its cooperation with the Lehi in May 1945, when it sabotaged oil pipelines, telephone lines and railroad bridges. All in all, over 1,000 members of the Irgun and Lehi were arrested and interred in British camps during the Saison. Eventually the Hunting Season died out, and there was even talk of cooperation with the Haganah leading to the formation of The Jewish Resistance Movement. The Jewish Resistance Movement Towards the end of July 1945 the Labour party in Britain was elected to power. The Yishuv leadership had high hopes that this would change the anti-Zionist policy that the British maintained at the time. However, these hopes were quickly dashed when the government limited Aliyah with the intention that the population of Palestine west of the Jordan River would not be more than one third of the total. This, along with the stepping up of arrests and their pursuit of underground members and illegal immigration organizers led to the formation of the Jewish Resistance Movement. This body consolidated the armed resistance to the British of the Irgun, Lehi, and the Haganah. For ten months the Irgun and the Lehi cooperated and they carried out nineteen attacks and defense operations. The Haganah and the Palmach carried out ten such operations. Furthermore, the Haganah assisted in landing 13,000 illegal immigrants. Tension between the underground movements and the British increased with the increase in operations. On April 23, 1945 an operation undertaken by the Irgun in Tegart Fort went badly and gunfights broke out. One Irgun member was killed and his body was later hanged on the fort's fence. Another fighter, Yizchak Bilu, was killed as well in a diversionary ploy - an explosive device fell out of his hand, and he leapt onto it in order to save his comrades, who were also carrying explosives. A third fighter, Dov Gruner, was caught. He stood trial and was sentenced to be death by hanging, refusing to sign a pardon request. The Gallows In 1946, British relations with the Yishuv worsened, building up to Operation Agatha of June 29. The government denied the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry's recommendation to bring 100,000 Jews to Palestine at once. As a result of the discovery of documents tying the Jewish Agency to The Jewish Resistance Movement, the Irgun was asked to speed up the plans for the King David Hotel bombing of July 22. Jabotinsky Institute Archives (k-4 1/11/5) The hotel was where the documents were located, the base for the British Secretariat, the military command and a branch of the Criminal Investigation Division (police). The Irgun later said that a warning sent out ahead of time was never taken seriously. Menachem Begin, The Revolt. 1951, pp. 221 Independent struggle against the British The King David Hotel bombing and the arrest of Jewish Agency and other Yishuv leaders as part of Operation Agatha caused the Haganah to cease their armed resistance activity against the British. Yishuv and Jewish Agency leaders were released from prison at Tegart Fort. From then until the end of the British mandate the resistance was led by the Irgun and Lehi. In early September 1946 the Irgun renewed its attacks, against railroads, communication lines and bridges. One prominent operation was the attack on the train station in Jerusalem, in which Meir Feinstein was arrested and later committed suicide awaiting execution. According to the Irgun these sort of operations were legitimate, since the trains primarily served the British, for redeployment of their forces. For a while the British stopped train traffic at night. The Irgun also publicized warnings, in three languages, not to use specific trains in danger of being attacked. The Irgun also re-established many representative offices internationally, and by 1948 operated in 23 states. In these countries the Irgun sometimes acted against the local British representatives or led public relations campaigns against Britain. On October 31, 1946, in response to the British barring entry of Jews from Palestine, the Irgun blew up the British embassy in Rome. J. Bowyer Bell, Terror out of Zion (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1977). pp.181 In December 1946 a sentence of 18 years and 18 beatings was handed down to a young Irgun member. The Irgun made good on a threat they made and after the detainee was beaten, Irgun members kidnapped British officers and beat them in public. The operation, known as the "Night of the Beatings" brought an end to British beatings punishments. The British, taking these acts seriously, moved many British families in Palestine into the confines of military bases, and some moved home. On February 14, 1947 Ernest Bevin announced that the Jews and Arabs would not be able to agree on any British proposed solution for the land, and therefore the issue must be brought to the United Nations for a final decision. The Yishuv thought of the idea to transfer the issue to the UN as a British attempt to save time until a UN inquiry commission would be established, and its ideas discussed, all the while the Yishuv would weaken. Foundation for Immigration B increased the number of ships which, in fact, saved the lives of European Jews. The British still strictly enforced the policy of immigration and illegal immigrants were placed in detention camps in Cyprus, which only increased the anger of the Jewish community towards the mandate government. The Irgun stepped up its activity and from February 19 until March 3 it attacked 18 British military camps, convoy routes, vehicles, and other facilities. The most notable of these attacks was the use of a car bomb to destroy the Goldschmidt House Officers Club in Jerusalem, which was in a heavily guarded compound. The Raid On The Jerusalem Officers Club Seventeen officers were killed in the attack. As a result, a curfew was imposed over much of the country, enforced by approximately 20,000 British soldiers. Some of the British press supported a British exit from Palestine. During the martial conditions imposed by the British, the Lehi and the Irgun carried out 68 operations, many against military targets, including Camp Schneller in Jerusalem, by breaking through the outer fortifications. This attack, which succeeded in overcoming the many British security measures, created a media uproar, and the curfew was cancelled four days later. Executed Members of the IrgunShlomo Ben-Yosef Dov Gruner Mordechai El'kachi Yehiel Drezner Eliezer Kashani Yaakov Weiss Avshalom Haviv Meir Nakar The Acre Prison break On April 16, 1947 Dov Gruner, Yehiel Drezner, Eliezer Kashani, and Mordechai El'kachi were hanged, while singing Hatikvah. On April 21 Meir Feinstein and Lehi member Moshe Barazani blew themselves up, using a hand grenade, hours before their scheduled hanging. And on May 4 one of the Irgun's largest operations took place - the raid of the prison in the citadel in Acre. The operation was carried out by 23 men, commanded by Dov Cohen - AKA "Shimshon", along with the help of the Irgun and Lehi prisoners inside the prison. The raid allowed 41 underground members to escape, although some were caught outside of the prison, and some were killed in the escape. Along with the underground movement members, many Arab criminals also escaped. The operation resonated all over the world. Three of the attackers - Meir Nakar, Avshalom Haviv, and Yaakov Weiss - were caught and sentenced to death. The Sergeants affair After the three's death sentence was final the Irgun tried to save them by kidnapping hostages—British sergeants Clifford Martin and Mervyn Paice—in the streets of Netanya. British forces closed off and combed the area in search of the two, but did not find them. On July 29, 1947 in the afternoon Meir Nakar, Avshalom Haviv, and Yaakov Weiss were hanged. Approximately thirteen hours later the sergeants' death sentence was read before them, and Sergeants Mervyn Paice and Clifford Martin were hanged in a forest south of Netanya. This action caused an outcry in Britain and was condemned both there and by leaders of the Yishuv. Eye for an Eye for an Eye, Time Magazine. Aug. 11, 1947 This episode, along with the King David Hotel bombing, and the beating of the British officers is thought to be one of the deciding factors in the British final choice to leave Palestine. The United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) was also influenced by these actions. At the same time another incident was developing - the events of the ship Exodus 1947. The 4,500 Holocaust survivors on board were not allowed to enter Palestine. UNSCOP also covered the events. Some of its members were even present at Haifa port when the putative immigrants were forcefully removed from their ship onto the deportation ships, and later commented that this strong image helped them press for an immediate solution for Jewish immigration and the question of Palestine. Two weeks later, the House of Commons convened for a special debate on events in Palestine, and concluded that the British soldiers must be evacuated as soon as possible. The 1948 Palestine War UNSCOP's conclusion was a unanimous decision to end the British mandate and majority opinion to divide the area west of the Jordan River between a Jewish state and an Arab state. During the UN's deliberations regarding the committee's recommendations the Irgun avoided initiating any attacks, so as not to influence the UN negatively on the idea of a Jewish state. On November 29 the UN General Assembly voted in favor of ending the mandate and establishing two states on the land. That very same day the Irgun and the Lehi renewed their attacks on British targets. Then next day the local Arabs began attacking the Jewish community, thus beginning the first stage of the Israeli War of Independence. The first attacks on Jews were in Jewish neighborhoods of Jerusalem, in and around Jaffa, Bat Yam, Holon, and Ha'Tikvah neighborhood in Tel Aviv. In the autumn of 1947 the Irgun membership was approximately 4,000 people. The goal of the organization at that point was the conquest of the land between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea for the sake of the future Jewish state and preventing the Arab Legion from destroying the Jewish community. The Irgun became almost an overt organization, establishing military bases in Ramat Gan and Petah Tikva. Additionally it recruited openly, thus significantly increasing in size. During the war the Irgun fought alongside the Lehi and the Haganah in the front against the Arab attacks. At first the Haganah maintained a defensive policy, as it had until then, but after the Convoy of 35 incident it completely abandoned its policy of restraint: "Distinguishing between individuals is longer possible, for now - it is a war, and the even the innocent shall not be absolved." Netanel Lorech, Events of the War of Independence, Massada Publishing, 1958. pp. 85 The Irgun also began carrying out reprisal missions, as it had under David Raziel's command. At the same time though, it published announcements calling on the Arabs to lay down their weapons and maintain a ceasefire:The National Military Organization has warned you, if the murderous attacks on Jewish civilians shall continue, its soldiers will penetrate your centers of activity and plague you. You have not heeded the warning. You continued to harm our brothers and murder them in wild cruelty. Therefore soldiers of the National Military Organization will go on the attack, as we have warned you....However even in these frenzied time, when Arab and Jewish blood is spilled at the British enslaver, we hereby call upon you... to stop the attacks and create peace between us. We do not want a war with you. We are certain that neither do you want a war with us... Petition of Our Arab Neighbors: Announcement in Arabic to the Arab Rioters However the mutual attacks continued. The Irgun attacked the Arab villages of Tira near Haifa, Yehudiya ('Abassiya) in the center, and Shuafat by Jerusalem. The Irgun also attacked in the Wadi Rushmiya neighborhood in Haifa and Abu Kabir in Jaffa. On December 29 Irgun units arrived by boat to the Jaffa shore and a gunfight between them and Arab gangs ensued. The following day seven Arabs were killed, and dozens injured, near the refineries in Haifa. In response, Arab workers attacked Jews in the area, killing 41. This sparked a Haganah response in Balad al-Sheykh. The Irgun's goal in the fighting was to move the battles from Jewish populated areas to Arab populated areas. On January 1, 1948 the Irgun attacked again in Jaffa, its men entering the city dressed as British; later in the month it attacked in Beit Nabala, a base for many Arab fighters. On 5 January 1948 the Irgun detonated a lorry bomb outside Jaffa's Ottoman built Town Hall, killing 14 and injuring 19. ^ The Scotsman newspaper, 6th January 1948; Walid Khalidi states that 25 civilians killed. 'Before their diaspora', 1984. p.316, picture p.325; Benny Morris, 'The Birth of the Palestinian refugee problem, 1947-1949', Cambridge University Press, 197. ISBN 0 521 33028 9. Attributes attack to 'LHI', doesn't number dead and gives date as 4th January. p. 46 In Jerusalem, two days later, Irgun members in a stolen police van rolled a barrel bomb Larry Collins/Dominique Lapierre, 'O Jerusalem'.History Book Club/ Weidenfeld and Nicolson. London. 1972. Page 135: 'two fifty-gallon oil drums packed tight with old nails, bits of scrap iron, hinges, rusty metal filings. At their center was a core of TNT...' into a large group of civilians who were waiting for a bus by the Jaffa Gate, killing around sixteen. Collins/Lapierre. Page 138: 17 killed. Dov Joseph, 'The Faithful City - The seige of Jerusalem, 1948'. Simon and Schuster, New York, 1960. Library of Congree Number: 60-10976. page 56: 14 killed and 40 wounded.The Scotsman, 8 January 1948: 16 killed, 41 injured. In the pursuit that followed three of the attackers were killed and two taken prisoner. Collins/Lapierre name one of the survivors as Uri Cohen In February the Irgun attacked traffic near Yehudiya ('Abassiya), Yazur, and Ramle. Irgun fighters participated in fights against Arab militants in Ramle and Qalqilyah. On 29 February the Irgun blew up the Cairo to Haifa train shortly after it left Rehovot Railway Station killing 29 British soldiers. The Irgun announcement said the bombing was in retaliation for the bombing of Ben Yehuda Street, Jerusalem, a week earlier. The Scotsman March 1st, 1948. An identical attack, on 31 March, killed forty people and injured 60 'when the Haifa-Cairo express train was blown up by electrically-detonated mines near the Jewish colony of Benyamina'. The Scotsman, 1 April, 1948. Quotes Jewish sources attributing the attack to the Stern Gang. In March the Irgun attacked the village of Qaqun (near Tulkarem), which had many Arab militants among its residents. On 6 April 1948, the Irgun raided the British Army camp at Pardes Hanna killing six British soldiers and their commanding officer. The Scotsman, 7 April, 1948. 8 April: Reports Yaakov Meridor commanded the operation. The attackers were disguised as 'British police'. A quantity of guns stolen. The Deir Yassin massacre was carried out in a village west of Jerusalem that had signed a non-belligerency pact with its Jewish neighbors and the Haganah, and repeatedly had barred entry to foreign irregulars. B. Morris, 2004, 'The Birth of the Palestinian refugee problem revisited', p. 237 Jon Kimche, 'Seven Fallen Pillars - The Middle East, 1915-1950'. Secker and Warburg, London. 1950. page 217: 'Dir Yassin(sic) was one of the few Arab villages whose inhabitants had refused permission for foreign Arab volunteers to use it as a base...' On 9 April approximately 120 Irgun and Lehi members began an operation to capture the village. During the operation Irgun members shot at fleeing individuals and families. A Haganah report writes:The conquest of the village was carried out with great cruelty. Whole families - women, old people, children - were killed. ... Some of the prisoners moved to places of detention, including women and children, were murdered viciously by their captors. quoted by B. Morris, 2004, 'The Birth of the Palestinian refugee problem revisited', p. 237 The operation resulted in five Irgun members dead and 40 injured and 100 to 120 dead villagers. B. Morris, 2004, 'The Birth of the Palestinian refugee problem revisited', p. 238 Some say that this incident was an event that accelerated the Arab exodus from Palestine. BBC News | PROFILES | Menachem Begin Four days later, on April 13, the Arabs launched a strike on a medical convoy traveling to Hadassah Hospital. Around 77 doctors, nurses, and other Jewish civilians were massacred. The Irgun cooperated with the Haganah in the conquest of Haifa. At the regional commander's request, on April 21 the Irgun took over an Arab post above Hadar Ha'Carmel as well as the Arab neighborhood of Wadi Nisnas, adjacent to the Lower City. The Irgun acted independently in the conquest of Jaffa (part of the proposed Arab State according to the UN Partition Plan). On April 25 Irgun units, about 600 strong, left the Irgun base in Ramat Gan towards Arab Jaffa. Difficult battles ensued, and the Irgun faced resistance from the Arabs as well as the British. The Conquest Of Jaffa Under Amichai "Gidi" Faglin's command, the Irgun's chief operations officer, the Irgun captured the neighborhood of Manshiya, which threatened the city of Tel Aviv. Afterwards the force continued to the sea, towards the area of the port, and using mortars, shelled the southern neighborhoods. In his report concerning the fall of Jaffa the local Arab military commander, Michel Issa, writes: 'Continuous shelling with mortars of the city by Jews for four days, beginning 25 April, […] caused inhabitants of city, unaccustomed to such bombardment, to panic and flee.' W. Khalidi, 1998, 'Selected Documents on the 1948 Palestine War', J. Palestine Studies 27(3), p. 60-105 According to Morris the shelling was done by the Irgun. Their objective was 'to prevent constant military traffic in the city, to break the spirit of the enemy troops [and] to cause chaos among the civilian population in order to create a mass flight'. Morris, 2004, 'The Birth ... Revisited', p. 213 High Commissioner Cunningham wrote a few days later 'It should be made clear that IZL attack with mortars was indiscriminate and designed to create panic among the civilian inhabitants'. These actions caused many Arab residents to flee the city, and 30 Irgun members were killed in the flight. The British demanded the evacuation of the newly conquered city, however the Irgun had previously agreed with the Haganah that British pressure would not lead to withdrawal from Jaffa and that custody of captured areas would be turned over to the Haganah. The city ultimately fell on May 13 after Haganah forces entered the city and took control of the rest of the city, from the south - part of the Hametz Operation which included the conquest of a number of villages in the area. The battles in Jaffa were a great victory for the Irgun. This operation was the largest in the history of the organization, which took place in highly built up area that had many militants in shooting positions. During the battles explosives were used in order to break into homes and continue forging a way though them. Furthermore, this was the first occasion in which the Irgun had directly fought British forces, reinforced with armor and heavy weaponry. The city began these battles with a population estimated at 55,000, which shrank to some 4,100 Arab residents by the end of major hostilities. Since the Irgun captured the neighborhood of Manshiya on its own, causing the flight of many of Jaffa's residents, the Irgun took credit for the conquest of Jaffa. Integration with the IDF and the Altalena Affair On May 14, 1948 the establishment of the State of Israel was proclaimed. The declaration of independence was followed by the establishment of the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), and the process of absorbing all military organizations into the IDF started. On June 1, an agreement had been signed Between Menachem Begin and Yisrael Galili for the absorption of the Irgun into the IDF. One of the clauses stated that the Irgun had to cease all independent arms acquisition activities. Meanwhile in France, Irgun representatives purchased a ship, renamed Altalena (a pseudonym of Ze'ev Jabotinsky), and weapons. The ship sailed on June 11 and arrived to the Israeli shore on June 20. When the ship arrived, the Israeli government, headed by Ben Gurion was adamant in its demand that the Irgun surrender and hand over all of the weapons. Ben Gurion said: We must decide whether to hand over power to Begin or to order him to cease his separate activities. If he does not do so, we will open fire! Otherwise, we must decide to disperse our own army.Altalena on fire after being shelled near Tel-Aviv There were two confrontations between the newly formed IDF and the Irgun: when Altalena reached Kfar Vitkin in the late afternoon of Sunday, June 20 many Irgun members, including Begin, waited on the shore. A clash with the Alexandroni Brigade, commanded by Dan Even (Epstein), occurred. Fighting ensued and there were a number of casualties on both sides. The clash ended in a ceasefire and the transfer of the weapons on shore to the local IDF commander, and with the Ship, now reinforced with (local) Irgun members, including Begin, sailing to Tel Aviv, where the Irgun had more supporters. Many Irgun members, who joined the IDF earlier that month, left their bases and concentrated on the Tel Aviv beach. A confrontation between them and the IDF units started. In response, Ben-Gurion ordered Yigael Yadin (acting Chief of Staff) to concentrate large forces on the Tel Aviv beach and to take the ship by force. Heavy guns were transferred to the area and at four in the afternoon, Ben-Gurion ordered the shelling of the Altalena. One of the shells hit the ship, which began to burn. Sixteen Irgun fighters were killed in the confrontation with the army (all but three were veteran members and not newcomers in the ship); six were killed in the Kfar Vitkin area and ten on Tel Aviv beach. Three IDF soldiers were killed: two at Kfar Vitkin and one in Tel Aviv. After the shelling of the Altalena, more than 200 Irgun fighters were arrested. Most of them were released several weeks later. The Irgun soldiers were fully integrated with the IDF and not kept in separate units. The initial agreement for the integration of the Irgun into the IDF did not include Jerusalem, which was under siege. The Irgun operated a force known as the Jerusalem Battalion, numbering around 400 fighters. Following the assassination of Folke Bernadotte by the LEHI in September 1948, this separate unit was disbanded and integrated into the IDF. Views about Irgun Views about the Irgun have been as disparate as any other political topic in Israeli society. Leaders within the mainstream Jewish Agency, Haganah, Histadrut, as well as British authorities, routinely condemned Irgun operations as terrorist and branded it an illegal organization as a result of the group's attacks on civilian targets. However, privately at least the Haganah kept a dialogue with the dissident groups. In 1948, The New York Times published a letter signed by a number of prominent Jewish figures including Hannah Arendt, Albert Einstein, Sidney Hook, and Rabbi Jessurun Cardozo, which described Irgun as a "a terrorist, right-wing, chauvinist organization in Palestine". The letter went on to state that Irgun and the Stern gang "inaugurated a reign of terror in the Palestine Jewish community. Teachers were beaten up for speaking against them, adults were shot for not letting their children join them. By gangster methods, beatings, window-smashing, and widespread robberies, the terrorists intimidated the population and exacted a heavy tribute." Soon after World War II, Winston Churchill said "we should never have stopped immigration before the war", but that the Irgun were "the vilest gangsters" and that he would "never forgive the Irgun terrorists." A US Military Intelligence report, dated January 1948, described Irgun recruiting tactics amongst Displaced Persons (DP) in the camps across Germany: 'Irgun ... seems to be concentrating on the DP police force. This is an old technique in Eastern Europe and in all police states. By controlling the police, a small, unscrupulous group of determined people can impose its will on a peaceful and inarticulate majority; it is done by threats, intimidation, by violence and if need be bloodshed ... they have embarked upon a course of violence within the camps.' Stephen Green, 'Taking sides - America's secret relations with a militant Israel 1948/1967'. Faber and Faber, London. 1984. page 49. Quoting weekly inteligence report 87 from the Office of the Director of Intelligence (Germany), dated 10 January, 1948. Copy in publications file, Office of the Assistant Chief of Staff, G-2, Record Group 319, National Archives. Clare Hollingworth, the Daily Telegraph and Scotsman correspondent in Jerusalem during 1948 wrote several outspoken reports after spending several weeks in West Jerusalem: 'Irgun is in fact rapidly becoming the 'SS' of the new state. There is also a strong 'Gestapo' - but no-one knows who is in it.' 'The shopkeepers are afraid not so much of shells as of raids by Irgun Zvai Leumi and the Stern Gang. These young toughs, who are beyond whatever law there is have cleaned out most private houses of the richer classes & started to prey upon the shopkeepers.' Clare Hollingworth reporting on West Jerusalem June 2 1948 The Scotsman See also Pauline Rose 'The Siege of Jerusalem', Patmos Publishers, London. Introduction dated June, 1949. "The dark places in Israel are being swept clean. The prison house where my friends and I had been tortured - where women had been shot without trial - is no longer a prison house".[note plural] In 2006, Simon McDonald, the British Ambassador in Tel Aviv at the time, and John Jenkins, the Consul-General in Jerusalem at the time, wrote in response to a pro-Irgun commemoration of the King David Hotel bombing: "We do not think that it is right for an act of terrorism, which led to the loss of many lives, to be commemorated." They also called for the removal of plaques at the site which blame the deaths on "ignored warning calls." The plaques read: "For reasons known only to the British, the hotel was not evacuated,” but McDonald and Jenkins asserted that no such warning calls were made, adding that even if they had, "this does not absolve those who planted the bomb from responsibility for the deaths." Ha'aretz columnist and Israeli historian, Tom Segev, wrote of the Irgun: "In the second half of 1940, a few members of the Irgun Zvai Leumi (National Military Organization) -- the anti-British terrorist group sponsored by the Revisionists and known by its acronym Etzel, and to the British simply as the Irgun -- made contact with representatives of Fascist Italy, offering to cooperate against the British." Alan Dershowitz wrote in his book The Case for Israel that "[Removal of Arabs] certainly seems to have been the policy of the Irgun". References Further reading J. Bowyer Bell, Terror Out of Zion: Irgun Zvai Leumi, Lehi, and the Palestine Underground, 1929-1949, (Avon, 1977), ISBN 0-380-39396-4 Menachem Begin, The Revolt - Memoirs of the leader of the Irgun, Dell Books, (New York, NY, 1978) Uri Avnery, Terrorism: the infantile disease of the Hebrew revolution, self-published booklet, 1945. Lossin, Yigal. Pillar of Fire: The Rebirth of Israel trans. Zvi Ofer, Shikmona Publishing Ltd., 1983. The Irgun in FictionTintin au Pays de l'Or Noir, by Herge. Original Version, 1971.The Hope, by Herman Wouk, 1993. External links Prof. Yehuda Lapidot, Irgun website, history of Irgun History of Irgun by an American Jewish Organization Encyclopedia Britannica Entry on Irgun Letter of prominent Jews to New York Times, December 4, 1948, warning of dangers of Irgun British Security Service files on Jewish terrorist activities, The National Archives, released through Freedom of information legislation in March 2006. The Iron Wall: Zionist Revisionism from Jabotinsky to Shamir, by Lenni Brenner 1952 Assassination attempt against German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer by Irgun under Menachem Begin Arie Perliger and Leonard Weinberg, Jewish Self Defense and Terrorist Groups Prior to the Establishment of the State of Israel: Roots and Traditions. Totalitarian Movements & Political Religions'', Vol. 4, No. 3 (2003) 91-118. 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1,529 | Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans | Hispanic and Latino Americans are Americans of origins in Hispanic countries of Latin America or in Spain, except in the state of New York, where only people of Latin American origin are included. http://www.bookrags.com/highbeam/spanish-mans-lawsuit-rejected-judge-20041030-hb/ The group encompasses distinct sub–groups by national origin and race, with ancestries from all continents represented. Hispanics and Latinos constitute 15.1% of the total United States population, or 45.4 million people, forming the second largest ethnic group (which includes Afro-Latin American Latinos of African descent), after non–Hispanic White Americans. Hispanic and Latino Americans are the largest ethnic minority in the United States; African Americans, in turn, are the largest racial minority, after White Americans in general (non–Hispanic and Hispanic). United States - QT-P4. Race, Combinations of Two Races, and Not Hispanic or Latino: 2000 Mexican Americans, Cuban Americans, Colombian Americans, Dominican Americans, Puerto Rican Americans, Spanish Americans, and Salvadoran Americans are some of the Hispanic and Latino American sub–groups. People of Hispanic or Latino heritage have lived continuously in the territory of the present–day United States since the 1565 founding of St. Augustine, Florida by the Spanish, the longest among European American ethnic groups and second–longest of all U.S. ethnic groups, after American Indians. Hispanics have also lived continuously in the Southwest since near the end of the 16th century, with settlements in New Mexico that began in 1598, and which were transferred to the area of El Paso, Texas in 1680. Spanish settlement of New Mexico resumed in 1692, and new ones were established in Arizona and California in the 18th century. The Hispanic presence can even be said to date from half a century earlier than St. Augustine, if San Juan, Puerto Rico is considered to be the oldest Spanish settlement, and the oldest city, in the U.S. For the U.S. government and others, Hispanic or Latino identity is voluntary, as in the United States Census, and in some market research. Terminology Romance languages in the Americas: Green-Portuguese; Red-French; Blue-Spanish The term Hispanic was first adopted in the United States by the administration of Richard Nixon, and has since been used in local and federal employment, mass media, academia, and business market research. It has been used in the U.S. Census since 1980. Due to the popular use of "Latino" in the western portion of the United States, the government adopted this term as well in 1997, and it was used in the 2000 census. The terms "Hispanic" and "Spanish" are not to be confused. The Spanish (or Spaniards) are the people who are native to or who have origins in Spain, located in mainland Europe. Previously, Hispanics were categorized as "Spanish-Americans," "Spanish-speaking Americans," and "Spanish-surnamed Americans". These terms, however, proved misleading or inaccurate, since: Although a large majority of Hispanics have Spanish ancestry, most Hispanics are not of direct (non-Latin American) Spanish descent; many are not primarily of Spanish descent; and some Hispanics are not of Spanish descent at all. For example, there are Hispanics of other European ancestries (e.g. Italian, German, Polish), as well as Middle Eastern (e.g. Lebanese), Black, Amerindian/Native American, Asian, and mixed race ancestries — of the latter, Mestizo (White and Indigenous/Native American) and Mulatto (White and Black) are the most common. On the other hand, descendants of Spaniards such as Hispanos and Islenos, both of whose American history extends back for centuries, identify solely with the United States rather than with Spain; Most U.S. Hispanics can speak Spanish, not all; and most Spanish-speaking people are Hispanic, not all (e.g., many U.S. Hispanics by the fourth generation no longer speak Spanish, while there are some non-Hispanics who are fluent in the language); Most Hispanics have a Spanish surname, not all (a notable example of someone who does not is New Mexico governor Bill Richardson), and most Spanish-surnamed people are Hispanic, not all. For example, there are many Filipino Americans, Chamorros (Guamanians and Northern Mariana Islanders), Palauans, Micronesians (FSM), and Marshallese with Spanish surnames in the United States who, however, have their own, non-Hispanic ethnic identities. Likewise, while a number of Louisiana Creole people have Spanish surnames, they identify with the mixed Francophone and Spanish culture of the region. The terms Hispanic and Latino are held to be mutually distinct by some authorities of American English, as seen in the following quotation: "Though often used interchangeably in American English, Hispanic and Latino are not identical terms, and in certain contexts the choice between them can be significant. Hispanic, from the Latin word for "Spain," has the broader reference, potentially encompassing all Spanish-speaking peoples in both hemispheres and emphasizing the common denominator of language among communities that sometimes have little else in common. Latino—which in Spanish means "Latin" but which as an English word is probably a shortening of the Spanish word latinoamericano—refers more exclusively to persons or communities of Latin American origin. Of the two, only Hispanic can be used in referring to Spain and its history and culture; a native of Spain residing in the United States is a Hispanic, not a Latino, and one cannot substitute Latino in the phrase the Hispanic influence on native Mexican cultures without garbling the meaning. In practice, however, this distinction is of little significance when referring to residents of the United States, most of whom are of Latin American origin and can theoretically be called by either word." Neither term refers to race, as a person of Latino or Hispanic descent can be of any race. United States Census Bureau Guidance on the Presentation and Comparison of Race and Hispanic http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/compraceho.html Traditional and current data collection and classification treat race and Hispanic origin as two separate and distinct concepts in accordance with guidelines from the Office of Management and Budget (OMB). In contrast, the practice of some organizations, researchers, and media is to show race and Hispanic origin together as one concept. The introduction of the option to report more than one race added more complexity to the presentation and comparison of these data. This document provides U.S. Census Bureau guidance to the user community on how to handle the interpretation of race and Hispanic origin data. Each person has two attributes, their race (or races) and whether or not they are Hispanic. One may be Native American/Amerindian and Hispanic/Latino or white and Hispanic/Latino or black and Hispanic/Latino or Asian and Hispanic/Latino Overlap of race and Hispanic origin is the main comparability issue. For example, White Hispanics Black Hispanics (Hispanic Blacks) are included in both the number of Whites and Blacks and in the number of Hispanics/Latinos. Most people in America who are Amerindian/Native Americans/mestizo and Hispanic/Latino are listed in the US Census as either: White, Two or more races or Some other race. Also, many Hispanics/Latinos are of different ethnic groups such as: Afro-Cubans and white Cubans, black Dominicans and white Dominicans, Amerindian/mestizo Mexicans and white Mexicans and black Puerto Ricans and white Puerto Ricans, Amerindian Colombians and white Chileans and black Panamanians and Amerindian Panamanians. As officially defined in the United States, Latino does not include Brazilian Americans, and specifically refers to "Spanish culture or origin," although some dictionary definitions may include them or Brazilians in general. Furthermore, Hispanic or Latino origin is, like race, a matter of self-identification in the U.S., and government and non-government questionnaires, including the census form, (See question 7) usually contain a blank entry space wherein respondents can indicate a Spanish/Hispanic/Latino origin other than the few (Mexican, Puerto Rican, and Cuban) which are specified; presumably, any Brazilian American wishing to do so can thus self-identify as being of Latino origin (as can anyone with no Latin American background). However, the government's population reports do not include Brazilian Americans with Hispanics and Latinos. Listed here are the 28 Hispanic or Latino categories displayed in Census 2000 tabulations: Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Dominican Republic; Central American: Costa Rican, Guatemalan, Honduran, Nicaraguan, Panamanian, Salvadoran, Other Central American; South American: Argentinian, Bolivian, Chilean, Colombian, Ecuadorian, Paraguayan, Peruvian, Uruguayan, Venezuelan, Other South American; Other Hispanic or Latino: Spaniard, Spanish, Spanish American, All other Hispanic. History A continuous Hispanic/Latino presence in the territory of the United States has existed since the 16th century, earlier than any other group after the Native Americans. Spaniards pioneered the present–day United States. The first confirmed European landing in the continental U.S. was by Juan Ponce de León, who landed in 1513 at a lush shore he christened La Florida. Within three decades of Ponce de León's landing, the Spanish became the first Europeans to reach the Appalachian Mountains, the Mississippi River, the Grand Canyon and the Great Plains. Spanish ships sailed along the East Coast, penetrating to present-day Bangor, Maine, and up the Pacific Coast as far as Oregon. From 1528 to 1536, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and three other castaways from a Spanish expedition (including an African named Estevanico) journeyed all the way from Florida to the Gulf of California, 267 years before the Lewis and Clark Expedition. In 1540 Hernando de Soto undertook an extensive exploration of the present U.S., and in the same year Francisco Vásquez de Coronado led 2,000 Spaniards and Mexican Indians across today's Arizona–Mexico border and traveled as far as central Kansas, close to the exact geographic center of what is now the continental United States. Other Spanish explorers of the US make up a long list that includes, among others: Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón, Pánfilo de Narváez, Sebastián Vizcaíno, Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, Gaspar de Portolà, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, Tristán de Luna y Arellano and Juan de Oñate. In all, Spaniards probed half of today's lower 48 states before the first English colonization attempt at Roanoke Island in 1585. The Spanish created the first permanent European settlement in the continental United States, at St. Augustine, Florida, in 1565. Santa Fe, New Mexico also predates Jamestown, Virginia (founded in 1607) and Plymouth Colony (of Mayflower and Pilgrims fame; founded in 1620). Later came Spanish settlements in San Antonio, Texas, Tucson, Arizona, San Diego, California, Los Angeles, California and San Francisco, California, to name just a few. The Spanish even established a Jesuit mission in Virginia's Chesapeake Bay 37 years before the founding of Jamestown. Two iconic American stories have Spanish antecedents, too. Almost 80 years before John Smith's alleged rescue by Pocahontas, a man by the name of Juan Ortiz told of his remarkably similar rescue from execution by an Indian girl. Spaniards also held a thanksgiving — 56 years before the famous Pilgrims festival — when they feasted near St. Augustine with Florida Indians, probably on stewed pork and garbanzo beans. As late as 1783, at the end of the American Revolutionary War, Spain held claim to roughly half of today's continental United States; in 1775, Spanish ships even reached Alaska. From 1819 to 1848, the United States (through treaties, purchase, diplomacy, and the Mexican-American War) increased its area by roughly a third at Spanish and Mexican expense, acquiring three of today's four most populous states — California, Texas and Florida — and several smaller ones. Hispanics became the first American citizens in these new territories, and remained a majority in several Southwestern states until the 20th century. (See also Viceroyalty of New Spain.) Hispanic soldiers have fought in all the wars of the United States. , , See also List of Hispanic Medal of Honor recipients Demographics +Population by state (2006) StatePopulationPercentage ofstate population New Mexico860,68744.0 California13,074,15535.9 Texas8,385,11835.7 Arizona1,803,37729.2 Nevada610,05124.4 Florida3,642,98920.1 Colorado934,41019.7 New York3,139,59016.3 New Jersey1,364,69915.6 Illinois1,888,43914.7 As of July 1, 2007, Hispanics accounted for 15.1% of the national population, or around 45.4 million people. The Hispanic growth rate over the April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2007 period was 28.7% — about four times the rate of the nation's total population (at 7.2%). The growth rate from July 1, 2005 to July 1, 2006 alone was 3.4% — about three and a half times the rate of the nation's total population (at 1.0%). The projected Hispanic population of the United States for July 1, 2050 is 102.6 million people, or 24.4% of the nation’s total projected population on that date. Of the nation's total Hispanic or Latino population, 49% (21.5 million) lives in California or Texas. Not counting Puerto Rico — which is a territorial possession of the United States — New Mexico is the state with the highest ratio of Hispanics, where 44.7% is of Hispanic origin. Next are California and Texas, with 35.9% and 35.6%, respectively. The Hispanic population of Los Angeles County, California, numbering 4.7 million, is the largest of any county in the nation. It comprises 47 percent of Los Angeles County's ten million residents. As of 2000, the ten most populous places with Hispanic majorities were East Los Angeles (97% Hispanic), Laredo, Texas (94%), Brownsville, Texas (91%) Hialeah, Florida (90%), McAllen, Texas (80%), El Paso, Texas (77%), Santa Ana, California (76%), El Monte, California (72%) Oxnard, California (66%), and Miami (66%). Some 64% of the nation's Hispanic population identify themselves to be of Mexican origin (see table). Another 9% are of Puerto Rican origin, with about 3% each of Cuban, Salvadoran and Dominican origins. The remainder are of other Central American or South American origin, or of origin directly from Spain. About 7% are of unspecified national origins. It should be noted, however, that these are ethnic self-identification figures, and the same dataset (abstracted from the 2007 American Community Survey) indicates that 60.2% of self-identified Hispanics were born in the United States. Hispanics are almost uniformly Christian, with Catholicism dominating and an increasing Protestant community. +Population by national origin (2007) (self-identified ethnicity, rather than birthplace) Hispanic GroupPopulationPercentage Mexican29,189,33464.3 Puerto Rican4,114,7019.1 Cuban1,608,8353.5 Salvadoran1,473,4823.2 Dominican1,198,8492.6 Guatemalan859,8151.9 Colombian797,1951.8 Honduran527,1541.2 Ecuadorian523,1081.2 Peruvian470,5191.0 Spaniard353,0080.8 Nicaraguan306,4380.7 Argentine194,5110.4 Venezuelan174,9760.4 Panamanian138,2030.3 Costa Rican115,9600.3 Chilean111,4610.2 Bolivian82,4340.2 Uruguayan48,2340.1 Paraguayan20,4320.03Other Central American111,5130.2Other South American77,8980.2"Spanish"/"Hispanic"/"Latino"2,880,5366.3Total45,378,596100 The overwhelming majority of Mexican Americans are concentrated in the Southwest, primarily in California, Texas, Arizona, Nevada, and New Mexico. The majority of the Hispanic population in the Southeast, concentrated in Florida, are of Cuban origin. The Hispanic population in the Northeast, concentrated in New York and New Jersey, is composed mostly of Puerto Ricans; however, the Dominican population has risen considerably since the mid–1990s. The remainder of Hispanics and Latinos, composed of various Central American and South American origins, may be found throughout the country, though South Americans tend to concentrate on the East Coast (joining Puerto Ricans, Dominicans, and Cubans) and Central Americans on the West Coast (joining Mexicans). There are few recent immigrants directly from Spain. In the 2000 Census, 299,948 Americans, of whom 83% were native–born, specifically reported their ancestry as Spaniard. Additionally, in the 2000 Census some 2,187,144 Americans reported "Spanish" as their ancestry. For more about this group, see Spanish American. In northern New Mexico and southern Colorado live peoples who trace their ancestry to Spanish settlers of the late 16th century through the 17th century. People from this background often self-identify as "Hispano", "Spanish", or "Hispanic". Many of these settlers also intermarried with local Amerindians, creating a mestizo population. Likewise, southern Louisiana is home to communities of people of Canary Islands descent, known as Isleños, in addition to other people of Spanish ancestry. Race Hispanic or Latino origin is independent of race and is termed "ethnicity" by the United States Census Bureau. The racial categories are: American Indian and Alaska Native, White, Black or African American, Asian, Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, Some other race, and Two or more races. The distinction made by government agencies for those within the population of each race category is between those with Hispanic or Latino origin, and all others of Non-Hispanic or Latino origin. A majority of Hispanic and Latino Americans are white, per both sets of government estimates: 54% are white per the American Community Survey, while the ratio rises to 92% in the Population Estimates Program, which are the official estimates. The much larger official figure is due to the absence of the Some other race category from these estimates, which instead reallocate that category among the five standard, minimum, single-race categories, mostly the white category. The complete 2007 Hispanic or Latino racial breakdown is as follows: White 92% (official) or 54% (ACS); Black or African American 3.8% (official) or 1.5% (ACS); American Indian and Alaska Native 1.4% (official) or 0.8% (ACS); Asian 0.6% (official) or 0.3% (ACS); Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander 0.3% (official) or 0.07% (ACS); Some other race 40% (ACS only; not an official race); Two or more races 0.6% (official) or 3.8% (ACS). Race by Hispanic Origin (2000) Country of Origin White Black Some Other Race Mexican47.3%0.745.5 Puerto Rican47.2%5.937.9 Cuban85.0%3.67.1 Dominican16.0%11.0%72% Central American40.4%3.347.6 South American59.6%0.930.8 Other Hispanic44.1%2.042.2 Though comprising very small percentages of the overall Hispanic or Latino population, and even more so in comparison to the overall U.S. population, some of the preceding racial subgroups represent fairly large minorities among the respective racial groups. For instance, Hispanics or Latinos who are American Indian or Alaska Native compose 15% of all American Indians and Alaska Natives (per the ACS estimates). Meanwhile, the 120,000 Hispanics or Latinos who are of Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander race compose 22% of this entire race nationally (per the Population Estimates). Again, nearly a third of the overall 'Two or more race' population is Hispanic or Latino (ACS). Notable personalities and contributions Hispanic and Latino Americans have made many distinguished contributions to the United States in all major fields, such as politics, the military, music, literature, sports, business and economy, and science. On September 17, 1968, President Lyndon B. Johnson designated a week in mid–September as National Hispanic Heritage Week. In 1988, President Ronald Reagan extended that week to a month–long observance. The National Hispanic Heritage Month is a time for Americans to educate themselves about the influence Hispanic culture has had on society. Business Hispanic and Latino standouts in business include Cuban immigrant Roberto Goizueta, who rose to head of The Coca-Cola Company. Arte Moreno became the first Hispanic to own a major sports team in the United States when he purchased the Anaheim Angels baseball club. The largest Hispanic-owned food company in the U.S. is Goya Foods, which position it attained under World War II hero Joseph A. Unanue, the son of the company's founders. Angel Ramos was the founder of Telemundo, Puerto Rico's first television station and now the second largest Spanish language television network in the United States. Samuel A. Ramirez, Sr. made Wall Street history by becoming the first Hispanic to launch a successful investment banking firm. Scan of cover story in Hispanic Trends, issue of December, 2005–January 2006. Fashion design In the world of fashion, notable contributions have been made by many Hispanic and Latino designers including Oscar de la Renta, Marisol Deluna, Carolina Herrera, and Narciso Rodriguez among others. Government Hispanic Americans have held important positions at all levels of US government. Hispanics and Latinos in the Federal Cabinet include Ken Salazar, current Secretary of the Interior; Hilda Solis, current United States Secretary of Labor; Alberto Gonzales, former United States Attorney General; Carlos Gutierrez, Secretary of Commerce; Federico Peña, former Secretary of Energy; Lauro Cavazos, former Secretary of Education; Manuel Lujan, Jr., former Secretary of the Interior; and Bill Richardson, former Secretary of Energy and Ambassador to the United Nations. Governors include former governors Romualdo Pacheco, Bob Martinez, and current New Mexico governor Bill Richardson. Former senators are Octaviano Ambrosio Larrazolo, Dennis Chavez, Joseph Montoya, and Ken Salazar. Current senators are Mel Martinez and Bob Menendez. In the House of Representatives, Hispanic and Latino representatives have included Ladislas Lazaro, Antonio M. Fernández, Henry B. Gonzalez, Kika de la Garza, Herman Badillo, Romualdo Pacheco, and Manuel Lujan, Jr., out of almost two dozen former Representatives. Current Representatives include Ileana Ros-Lehtinen, Nydia Velázquez, Joe Baca, Silvestre Reyes, Rubén Hinojosa, Linda Sánchez, and John Salazar – in all, they number twenty-three. Numerous Hispanic or Latino mayors and local executives, and state and local legislators have held and currently hold office throughout the United States. The Congressional Hispanic Caucus (CHC), founded in December 1976, and the Congressional Hispanic Conference (CHC), founded on March 19, 2003, are two organizations that promote policy of importance to Americans of Hispanic descent. They are divided into the two major American political parties: The Congressional Hispanic Caucus is composed entirely of Democratic representatives, whereas the Congressional Hispanic Conference is composed entirely of Republican representatives. Literature Among the distinguished Hispanic and Latino authors and their works may be noted Isabel Allende (The House of the Spirits and City of the Beasts), Sandra Cisneros (The House on Mango Street and Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories), Junot Díaz (The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao), Alisa Valdes-Rodriguez (Haters), Tomas Rivera (...And the Earth did Not Devour Him), Oscar Hijuelos (The Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love), Richard Rodriguez (Hunger of Memory), Rudolfo Anaya (Bless Me, Ultima), Victor Villaseñor (Rain of Gold), and Ruben Salazar, journalist. Military Ret. U.S. Army Lieutenant General Ricardo Sanchez Hispanics and Latinos have participated in the military of the United States and in every major military conflict from the American Revolution onward. In some cases they have been the first to die, and as of date 43 have been awarded the nation's highest military distinction, the Medal of Honor, also known as the Congressional Medal of Honor. Hispanics and Latinos have not only distinguished themselves in the battlefields, but are also reaching the high echelons of the military, serving their country in sensitive leadership positions on domestic and foreign shores. Military recruitment is quite active in the nation's Hispanic communities. Tens of thousands of Latinos are deployed in the Iraq War, the Afghanistan War, and US military missions and bases elsewhere. The following is a list of notable Hispanics/Latinos in the military: Major General Terry de la Mesa Allen, Sr. (1888-1969) was the commanding general of the 1st Infantry Division in North Africa and Sicily during World War II, and was made commander of the 104th Infantry Division. He was the son of Colonel Samuel Edward Allen and Conchita Alvarez de la Mesa. Lieutenant General Edward D. Baca. In 1994, Baca became the first Hispanic Chief of the National Guard Bureau. Sergeant First Class Agustin Ramos Calero, the most decorated soldier in the European Theatre of World War II. Vice Admiral Richard Carmona, M.D., Public Health Service Commissioned Corps. Carmona served as the 17th Surgeon General of the United States, under President George W. Bush. Major General Luis R. Esteves, U.S. Army. In 1915, Esteves became the first Hispanic to graduate from the United States Military Academy ("West Point"). Esteves also organized the Puerto Rican National Guard. Lieutenant Jorge Farragut Mesquida (1755 – 1817) participated in the American Revolution as a lieutenant in the South Carolina Navy. David Glasgow Farragut (1801 – 1870) of Spanish descent, American Civil War hero and the first person with the rank of Admiral in the United States Navy. Major General Salvador E. Felices, U.S. Air Force. In 1953, Felices flew in 19 combat missions over North Korea, during the Korean War. In 1957, he participated in "Operation Power-Flite", a historic project that was given to the Fifteenth Air Force by the Strategic Air Command headquarters. Operation Power-Flite was the first around the world flight by an all–jet aircraft. PFC Guy Gabaldon, USMC captured over a thousand prisoners during the World War II Battle of Saipan. First Lieutenant Baldomero Lopez is the only Hispanic graduate of the United States Naval Academy ("Annapolis") to be awarded the Medal of Honor. Brigadier General Joseph V. Medina, USMC made history by becoming the first Marine Corps officer to take command of a Naval flotilla. Vice Admiral Antonia Novello, M.D., Public Health Service Commissioned Corps. In 1990, Novello became the first Hispanic (and first female) U.S. Surgeon General. First Lieutenant Oscar Francis Perdomo, of the 464th Fighter Squadron, 507th Fighter Group was the last "Ace in a Day" for the United States in World War II. Colonel Miguel E. Pino helped defeat the attempted invasion of New Mexico by the Confederate Army. Lieutenant General Elwood R. Quesada, (1904–1993) commanding general of the 9th Fighter Command, where he established advanced headquarters on the Normandy beachhead on D-Day plus one, and directed his planes in aerial cover and air support for the Allied invasion of the European continent during World War II. He was the foremost proponent of "the inherent flexibility of air power", a principle he helped prove during the war. Captain Marion Frederic Ramirez de Arellano (1913–1980), the first Hispanic submarine commanding officer during World War II. Admiral Horacio Rivero, Jr., second Hispanic four–star Admiral, was the commander of the American fleet sent by President John F. Kennedy to set up a quarantine (blockade) of the Soviet ships during the Cuban Missile Crisis. Brigadier General Angela Salinas made history when she became the first Hispanic female to obtain a general rank in the Marines. Lieutenant General Ricardo Sanchez, Commanding General of Operation Iraqi Freedom (the Iraq War) in 2003. Lieutenant General Pedro del Valle, the first Hispanic to reach the rank of Lieutenant General. He played an instrumental role in the seizure of Guadalcanal and Okinawa as Commanding General of the U.S. 1st Marine Division during World War II. Captain Linda Garcia Cubero, United States Air Force became in 1990 the first Hispanic woman graduate of the United States Air Force, and of any military academy for that matter. Performing arts There are many Hispanic American musicians that have achieved international fame, such as Christina Aguilera, Jennifer Lopez, Joan Baez, Selena, Ricky Martin, Carlos Santana, Zack de la Rocha, Fergie, Gloria Estefan, Marc Anthony, Linda Ronstadt, Ritchie Valens,Demi Lovato and Robert Trujillo. Hispanics and Latinos have also contributed prominent actors and others in the television and film industries, past and present, a few of whom includes director, producer, and cinematographer Robert Rodriguez and actors Anthony Quinn, Jessica Alba, Cameron Diaz, Martin Sheen, Salma Hayek, Rita Hayworth, Benicio Del Toro, Eva Mendes, Desi Arnaz, Zoe Saldana, George Lopez, Alexis Bledel, Edward James Olmos, Maria Montez, Erik Estrada, Eva Longoria Parker, Rosie Perez, Ricardo Montalban, Jimmy Smits, Raquel Welch, Marquita Rivera, Charlie Sheen, Rita Moreno, Frankie J, and Andy Garcia. Created in 1995, the American Latino Media Arts Award, or ALMA Award is a distinction given to Latino performers (actors, film and television directors, and musicians) by the National Council of La Raza. The most prestigious Latin music awards are the Latin Grammy Awards, launched in 2000. Billboard Magazine also honors these artists, with the Billboard Latin Music Awards. The latter's nominees and winners are a result of performance on Billboard's sales and radio charts, while the Latin Grammy Awards nominees and winners are selected by the Latin Academy of Recording Arts & Sciences (LARAS). In addition, the Latin Grammy Awards airs on Univision, while the Billboard Latin Music Awards airs on Telemundo; these are the two major Spanish–language television networks in the United States. Science and technology Among Hispanic Americans that have excelled in science we find Luis Walter Alvarez, Nobel Prize–winning physicist; his son Walter Alvarez, the geologist who first proposed the asteroid collision theory of dinosaur extinction; and Ellen Ochoa, pioneer of spacecraft technology and astronaut. Several other Latinos have made a name for themselves in aerospace: Juan R. Cruz, NASA aerospace engineer; France A. Córdova, former NASA chief scientist; Franklin Chang-Diaz holds two records for being the first Latin American (for NASA) and for most flights into space, and is the leading researcher on the plasma engine for rockets; Lieutenant Carlos I. Noriega is NASA mission specialist and computer scientist; Michael Lopez-Alegria, Sidney Gutierrez, George Zamka, Joseph Acaba, John Olivas, Jose Hernández, and Fernando Caldeiro are all current or former astronauts. Sports Many Hispanic Americans have excelled in sports. The large number of Hispanic and Latino American stars in Major League Baseball includes players Manny Ramirez, Lefty Gomez, Ivan Rodriguez, Juan Marichal, Alex Rodriguez, Orlando Hernandez, David Ortiz, Roberto Clemente, and Rod Carew, and manager Al Lopez. Boxing champion Oscar De La Hoya; National Football League (NFL) player Anthony Muñoz; soccer player Tab Ramos; tennis legend Pancho Gonzales; golfers Chi Chi Rodríguez, Nancy Lopez, and Lee Trevino; and softball player Lisa Fernandez are all Hispanic or Latino Americans who have distinguished themselves in their respective fields of sport. In 1999 Scott Gomez became the first Hispanic player in the National Hockey League and won the NHL Rookie of the Year Award. In sports entertainment we find professional wrestler Rey Mysterio Jr. Socioeconomic circumstances Education The high school graduation rate is highest among Cuban Americans (68.7 percent) and lowest among Mexican Americans (48.7 percent). The Puerto Rican rate is 63.2 percent, Central and South American Americans' is 60.4 percent, and the Dominican American is 51.7 percent. According to the 2000 census, Cuban Americans and Central and South Americans had the highest college graduation rates, with 19.4 percent of Cuban Americans and 16 percent of Central and South Americans 25 years and older possessing a 4–year college degree. On the other hand, only 6.2 percent of Mexican Americans, 9.9 of Puerto Ricans and 10.9 of Dominican Americans had achieved a 4–year degree. In comparison non–Hispanic Asian Americans (43.3 percent) and non–Hispanic White Americans (26.1 percent) had higher rates than any Hispanic American group. Non–Hispanic Black Americans (14.4 percent) had a lower graduation rate than Cuban Americans and Central and South Americans, but had a higher rate than Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Dominican Americans. Cuban Americans have the highest attainment of graduate degrees among all Hispanic or Latino groups, with 6.7 percent. The Central and South American ratio is 4.2 percent. Both are lower than those of non–Hispanic Asian Americans (15.6 percent) and non–Hispanic White Americans (8.7 percent). Non–Hispanic Black Americans (4.1 percent) have a lower percentage of graduate–level degrees than most Hispanic or Latino groups. Of Hispanics and Latinos 25 years and older, only 3.1 percent of Puerto Ricans, 1.8 percent of Dominican Americans and 1.4 percent of Mexican Americans have attained a graduate–level degree. Workforce and average income In 2002, the average individual income among Hispanic and Latino Americans was highest for Cuban Americans ($38,733), and lowest for Dominican Americans ($28,467) and Mexican Americans ($27,877). For Puerto Ricans it was $33,927, and $30,444 for Central and South Americans. In comparison, the income of the average Hispanic American is lower than the national average. Among Hispanics, Cuban Americans (28.5 percent) had the highest percentage in professional–managerial occupations. The percentage for Puerto Ricans was 20.7, Central and South Americans' was 16.8 percent, and Mexican Americans' was 13.2 percent. All these are lower than the average for non–Hispanics (36.2 percent). Poverty According to the ACS, among Hispanic groups the poverty rate is highest among Dominican Americans (28.1 percent), Honduran Americans and Puerto Ricans (23.7 percent both), and Mexican Americans (23.6 percent). It is lowest among South Americans, such as Colombian Americans (10.6 percent) and Peruvian Americans (13.6 percent), and relatively low poverty rates are also found among Salvadoran Americans (15.0 percent) and Cuban Americans (15.2 percent). In comparison, the average poverty rates for non-Hispanic White Americans (8.8 percent) and Asian Americans (7.1 percent) were lower than those of any Hispanic group. African Americans (21.3 percent) have a higher poverty rate than most Hispanic or Latino groups. Hispanophobia Hispanophobia has existed in various degrees throughout U.S. history, based largely on ethnicity, race, culture, Anti-Catholicism, and use of the Spanish language. Lynching and Violence in America: Migrant Workers press3b Steven H. Wilson | Brown over "Other White": Mexican Americans' Legal Arguments and Litigation Strategy in School Desegregation Lawsuits | Law and History Review, 21.1 | The History Cooperative Digital History In 2006, Time Magazine reported that the number of hate groups in the United States increased by 33 percent since 2000, primarily due to anti-illegal immigrant and anti-Mexican sentiment. How Immigration is Rousing the Zealots - TIME According to Federal Bureau of Investigation statistics, the number of anti–Latino hate crimes increased by 35 percent since 2003. In California, the state with the largest Latino population, the number of hate crimes against Latinos almost doubled. Democracy Now! | FBI Statistics Show Anti-Latino Hate Crimes on the Rise Political trends Hispanics and Latinos differ on their political views depending on their location and background, but the majority (57%) either identify themselves as or support the Democrats, and 23% identify themselves as Republicans. This 34 point gap as of December, 2007 was an increase from the gap of 21 points 16 months earlier. Cuban Americans and Colombian Americans tend to favor conservative political ideologies and support the Republicans, while Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Dominican Americans tend to favor liberal views and support the Democrats. However, because the latter groups are far more numerous – as, again, Mexican Americans alone are 64% of Hispanics and Latinos – the Democratic Party is considered to be in a far stronger position with the group overall. The Presidency of George W. Bush had a significant impact on the political leanings of Hispanics and Latinos. As a former Governor of Texas, Bush regarded this growing community as a potential source of growth for the conservative movement and the Republican Party, and he made some gains for the Republicans among the group. In the 1996 presidential election, 72% of Hispanics and Latinos backed President Bill Clinton, but in 2000 the Democratic total fell to 62%, and went down again in 2004, with Democrat John Kerry winning Hispanics 58–40 against Bush. Hispanics in the West, especially in California, were much stronger for the Democratic Party than in Texas and Florida. California Latinos voted 63–32 for Kerry in 2004, and both Arizona and New Mexico Latinos by a smaller 56–43 margin; but Texas Latinos were split nearly evenly (50–49 for Kerry), and Florida Latinos (mostly being Cuban American) backed Bush, by a 54–45 margin. In the 2006 midterm election, however, due to the unpopularity of the Iraq War, the heated debate concerning illegal immigration, and Republican–related Congressional scandals, Hispanics and Latinos went as strongly Democratic as they have since the Clinton years. Exit polls showed the group voting for Democrats by a lopsided 69–30 margin, with Florida Latinos for the first time split evenly. The runoff election in Texas' 23rd congressional district was seen as a bellwether of Latino politics, and Democrat Ciro Rodriguez's unexpected (and unexpectedly decisive) defeat of Republican incumbent Henry Bonilla was seen as proof of a leftward lurch among Latino voters, as heavily Latino counties overwhelmingly backed Rodriguez, and heavily Anglo counties overwhelmingly backed Bonilla. Although during 2008 the economy and employment were top concerns for Hispanics and Latinos, immigration was "never far from their minds": almost 90% of Latinos rated immigration as "somewhat important" or "very important" in a poll taken after the election. Page 1 Views on illegal immigration are not uniform among Hispanics and Latinos; for example, the "You Don't Speak for Me" group advocates greater border security and expulsion of all 12 million illegal immigrants. Nevertheless, there is "abundant evidence" that the heated Republican opposition to the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007 has done significant damage to the party's appeal to Hispanics and Latinos in the years to come, especially in the swing states such as Florida, Nevada, and New Mexico. In a Gallup poll of 4,604 registered Hispanic voters taken in the final days of June 2008, only 18% of participants identified themselves as Republicans. 2008 election In the 2008 U.S. Presidential election, Hispanics and Latinos participated in larger numbers than before in the Democratic primary, with Hillary Clinton receiving most of the group's support. Pundits discussed whether a large percentage of Hispanics and Latinos would vote for an African American candidate, in this case Barack Obama, Clinton's opponent. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/15/us/politics/15hispanic.html?n=Top/Reference/Times%20Topics/People/R/Richardson,%20Bill . Hispanics/Latinos voted 2 to 1 for Hillary,in some cases as in Texas 66% for Hillary Clinton and 32% for Obama, even among the younger demographic traditionally leaning toward Obama. http://pewhispanic.org/files/reports/86.pdf . Among Hispanics, 28% said race was involved in their decision, as opposed to 13% for whites http://pewhispanic.org/files/reports/86.pdf . Obama defeated Clinton. In the matchup between Obama and Republican candidate John McCain for the presidency, Hispanics and Latinos supported Obama with 59% to McCain's 29% in the Gallup tracking poll as of June 30, 2008. This surprised some analysts, since a higher than expected percentage of Latinos and Hispanics favored Obama over McCain, who had supported the comprehensive immigration reform. http://www.hispanictips.com/2008/11/06/mccain-lost-ground-with-hispanics-despite-immigration-stance/ However, McCain had retracted during the Republican primary, stating that he would not support the bill if it came up again. Some analysts believed that this move hurt his chances among Hispanics and Latinos. http://www.alternet.org/immigration/106749/why_john_mccain_lost_the_latino_vote/?page=2 Obama took advantage of the situation by running ads aimed at the ethnic group, in Spanish, in which he mentioned McCain's about–face. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ry9LnAazwMg In the general election, 67% of Hispanics and Latinos voted for Obama and 31% voted for McCain, http://www.cnn.com/ELECTION/2008/results/polls/#USP00p1 with a relatively stronger turnout than in previous elections in states such as Colorado, New Mexico, Nevada, and Virginia helping Obama carry those formerly Republican states. Obama won 70% of non–Cuban Hispanics and 35% of the traditionally Republican Cuban Americans that have a strong presence in Florida, while the changing state demographics towards a more non–Cuban Hispanic community also contributed to his carrying Florida's Latinos with 57% of the vote. Some political organizations associated with Hispanic and Latino Americans are LULAC, the United Farm Workers, the Cuban American National Foundation, and the National Institute for Latino Policy. Culture The geographic, political, social, economic, and racial other diversity of Hispanic and Latino Americans extends to culture, as well. Yet several features tend to unite Hispanics and Latinos from these diverse backgrounds. Media The United States is home to thousands of Spanish language media outlets, which range in size from giant commercial broadcasting networks and major magazines with circulations numbering in the millions, to low-power AM radio stations with listeners numbering in the hundreds. There are hundreds of Internet media outlets targeting U.S. Hispanic consumers, some of which are online versions of their printed counterparts and some online exclusively. Among the noteworthy Spanish–language media outlets are: Univision, the largest Spanish–language television network in the United States, with affiliates in nearly every major U.S. market, and numerous affiliates internationally; Telemundo, the second–largest Spanish-language television network in the United States, with affiliates in nearly every major U.S. market, and numerous affiliates internationally; La Opinión, a Spanish–language daily newspaper published in Los Angeles, California and distributed throughout the six counties of Southern California. It is the largest Spanish–language newspaper in the United States; El Nuevo Herald and Diario Las Americas, both Spanish–language daily newspapers serving the greater Miami, Florida market; HispanicBusiness, an English–language business magazine about Hispanics; Vida Latina, a Spanish–language entertainment magazine distributed throughout the Southern United States; ConSentido TV, a TV, radio, and newspaper network in North Texas. With respect to public television, otherwise known as non–commercial television, there are organizations that advocate a greater degree of programming from a Hispanic or Latino perspective. The National Hispanic Media Coalition (NHMC) has been a leader since its founding in 1986 in advocating for Latino inclusion in television, radio, and film. In 1999, together with numerous Latino civil rights organizations, the NHMC led a "brownout" of the national television networks after discovering that there were no Latinos in any of their new prime time shows that year. This resulted in the signing of historic diversity agreements with ABC, CBS, Fox, and NBC that have since increased the hiring of Hispanic and Latino talent and other staff in all of the networks. Also prominent in this area is Latino Public Broadcasting, which funds programs of educational and cultural significance to Hispanic Americans. These LPB–funded projects are distributed to various public television stations throughout the United States. Language With 40% of Hispanic and Latino Americans being immigrants, and with many of the 60% who are U.S.–born being the children or grandchildren of immigrants, bilingualism is the norm in the community at large: at least 69% of all Hispanic and Latino Americans over age five are bilingual in English and Spanish, whereas up to 22% are monolingual English–speakers, and 9% are monolingual Spanish–speakers; another 0.4% speak a language other than English and Spanish at home. [There were 39.5 million Hispanic and Latino Americans aged 5 or more in 2006. 8.5 million of them, or 22%, spoke only English at home, and another 156,000, or 0.4%, spoke neither English nor Spanish at home. The other 30.8 million, or 78%, spoke Spanish at home. Of these, 3.7 million spoke no English, while the overwhelming majority, 27.2 million, did, at these levels: 15.5 million "very well", 5.8 million "well", and 5.9 million "not well". These 27.2 million bilingual speakers represented 69% of all (39.5 million) Hispanic and Latino Americans aged five or over in 2006, while the 3.7 million monolingual Spanish–speakers represented 9%.] In all, a full 90% of all Hispanic and Latino Americans speak English, and at least 78% of all Hispanic and Latino Americans speak Spanish. Spanish is the oldest European language in the United States, spoken uninterruptedly for four and a half centuries, since the foundation of St. Augustine. The usual pattern is monolingual Spanish use among new migrants or older foreign–born Hispanics, complete bilingualism among long–settled immigrants and the children of immigrants, and the sole use of English, or both English and either Spanglish or colloquial Spanish by the third generation and beyond. See also Demographics of the United States Hispanidad Hispanic Australian Latin American Canadian Latin Americans in the United Kingdom Criticism of the term Latino Footnotes External links Hispanic Americans in Congress Library of Congress Hispanic Americans in the U.S. Army http://www.census.gov/prod/2001pubs/p20-535.pdf | Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans |@lemmatized hispanic:187 latino:106 american:150 origin:29 country:4 latin:19 america:5 spain:10 except:1 state:61 new:23 york:2 people:16 include:17 http:10 www:9 bookrags:1 com:5 highbeam:1 spanish:69 man:2 lawsuit:2 reject:1 judge:1 hb:1 group:25 encompass:2 distinct:3 sub:2 national:16 race:34 ancestry:8 continent:2 represent:4 constitute:1 total:6 united:50 population:25 million:19 form:2 second:5 large:17 ethnic:8 afro:2 african:7 descent:8 non:18 white:24 minority:3 turn:1 racial:6 general:22 qt:1 combination:1 two:14 mexican:23 cuban:24 colombian:5 dominican:14 puerto:22 rican:7 salvadoran:4 heritage:3 live:3 continuously:2 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1,530 | Extreme_sport | Extreme sports (also called action sport and adventure sport) is a media term for certain activities perceived as having a high level of inherent danger. These activities often involve speed, height, high level of physical exertion, highly specialized gear or spectacular stunts. At present date, there are no careful studies or statistics of deaths to separate activities with low or normal level of danger from those with high level of danger. It is instead used as a marketing term in promoting events such as the X Games. Overview While use of the term "extreme sport" has spread far and wide to describe a multitude of different activities, exactly which sports are considered 'extreme' is debatable. There are however several characteristics common to most extreme sports. While not the exclusive domain of youth, extreme sports tend to have a younger-than-average target demographic. Extreme sports are rarely sanctioned by schools. Extreme sports tend to be more solitary than traditional sports. In addition, beginning extreme athletes tend to work on their craft without the guidance of a coach (though some may hire a coach later). Activities categorized by media as extreme sports differ from traditional sports due to the relatively higher number of inherently uncontrollable variables. Athletes in these activities compete not only against other athletes, but also against environmental obstacles and challenges. These environmental variables are frequently weather and terrain related, including wind, snow, water and mountains. Because these natural phenomena cannot be controlled, they inevitably affect the outcome of the given activity or event. In a traditional sporting event, athletes compete against each other under controlled circumstances. While it is possible to create a controlled sporting event such as X Games, there are often variables that cannot be held constant for all athletes. Examples include snow conditions for snowboarders, rock and ice quality for climbers, and wave height for surfers. Whilst traditional sporting judgment criteria may be adopted when assessing performance (distance, time, score, et cetera), extreme sports performers are often evaluated on more subjective and aesthetic criteria Jungmin Lee,(2004)Extreme Sports Evaluation: Evidence from Judging Figure Skating,Econometric Society . This results in a tendency to reject unified judging methods, with different sports employing their own ideals and indeed having the ability to evolve their assessment standards with new trends or developments in the sport. History The origin of the divergence of the term "extreme sports" from "sports" may date to the 1950s in the appearance of a phrase usually, but wrongly, attributed to Ernest Hemingway . The phrase is "There are only three sports: bullfighting, motor racing, and mountaineering; all the rest are merely games." The implication of the phrase was that the word "sport" defined an activity in which one might be killed. The other activities being termed "games". The phrase may have been invented by either writer Barnaby Conrad or automotive author Ken Purdy . In recent decades the term extreme sport was further promoted by X Games, a multi-sport event created and developed by ESPN. The first X Games (known as 1995 Extreme Games) were held in Newport, Providence, Mount Snow, and Vermont in the United States. The first authoritative history of the sports was published in 2004. Amped: How Big Air, Big Dollars and a New Generation Took Sports to the Extreme was written by journalist David Browne and published by Bloomsbury. The book provided an overview of the history, culture, and business of the sports and included interviews with athletes, company owners, and marketers. Marketing Some contend, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0CE5DD133DF93BA35751C0A96E958260 | New York Times, Extreme Sport, Extreme Chic, Extreme Hype February 8, 1998 that the distinction between an extreme sport and a conventional one has as much to do with marketing as it has to do with perceptions about levels of danger involved or the amount of adrenaline generated. Furthermore a sport like rugby union, though dangerous and adrenaline-inducing, would not fall into the category of extreme sports due to its traditional image, and it does not have certain things that other extreme sports do, such as high speed and an intention to perform stunts. Demolition derby racing, predominantly an adult sport, is not usually thought of as 'extreme' while BMX racing, a youth sport, is. In addition to the generational divide, one true hallmark of an extreme sport is a counter-cultural aura--a rejection of authority and the status quo by disaffected youth. The youth of Generation Y have seized upon activities which they can claim as their own, and have begun rejecting more traditional sports in increasing numbers. The definition of extreme sports may have shifted over the years due to marketing trends. When the term first surfaced circa the late 1980s/early 1990s, it was used for adult sports such as skydiving, scuba diving, surfing, rock climbing, snow skiing, water skiing, snowboarding, mountain biking, mountaineering, storm chasing, hang gliding, and bungee jumping, many of which were undergoing an unprecedented growth in popularity at the time. Outside magazine, not the X Games, epitomized the meaning of the term, and if there was a clothing style associated with extreme sports it was an "outdoorsy" look favoring brand names associated with mountaineering or backpacking such as The North Face and Patagonia, Teva sandals or hiking boots for footwear, etc. The term nowadays applies more to youth sports like skateboarding, snowboarding, aggressive skating, FMX and BMX and is closely associated with marketing efforts aimed at the younger generation (e.g. the ad campaigns of Mountain Dew), and with their favored styles of clothing and music, especially the kind of urban baggy look associated with skateboarders, and loud, fast alternative rock. This shift in styles may also be partly a generational shift, as Baby Boomers and Generation X have aged and marketing efforts associated with extreme sports shifted toward the younger Generation Y demographic sometime in the mid to late 1990s. The term gained popularity with the advent of the X Games, a made-for-television collection of events. Advertisers were quick to recognize the appeal of the event to the public, and as a consequence competitors and organizers are not wanting for sponsorship. The high profile of extreme sports and the culture surrounding them has also led to parodies such as Extreme ironing, urban housework, extreme croquet, and house gymnastics. Adrenaline rush A feature of such activities in the view of some is their alleged capacity to induce an adrenaline rush in participants. However, the medical view is that the rush or high associated with the activity is not due to adrenaline being released as a response to fear, but due to increased levels of dopamine, endorphins and serotonin because of the high level of physical exertion. Furthermore, a recent study suggests that the link to adrenaline and 'true' extreme sports is tentative. Brymer, Eric and Gray, Tonia PhD, Extreme Sports: A Challenge to Phenomenology. University of Wollongong, Australia, 2004 The study defined 'true' extreme sports as a leisure or recreation activity where the most likely outcome of a mismanaged accident or mistake was death. This definition was designed to separate the marketing hype from the activity. Another characteristic of activities so labeled is they tend to be individual rather than team sports. Extreme sports can include both competitive and non-competitive activities. Reasons Eric Brymer PhD (2005) Brymer, Eric PHD, Extreme Dude: A Phenomenological Perspective on the Extreme sports experience . University of Wollongong, Australia, 2005 also found that the potential of various extraordinary human experiences, many of which parallel those found in activities such as meditation, was an important part of the extreme sport experience. Some of the sports have existed for decades and their proponents span generations, some going on to become well known personalities. Rock climbing and ice climbing have spawned publicly recognizable names such as Edmund Hillary, Aleister Crowley, Chris Bonington, Wolfgang Gullich and more recently Joe Simpson. Another example is surfing, invented centuries ago by the inhabitants of Hawaii. See also X Games Extremity Games Extreme tourism Gravity Games Urban Exploration Ekstremsportveko Fuel TV, a channel dedicated to extreme sports References | Extreme_sport |@lemmatized extreme:38 sport:50 also:6 call:1 action:1 adventure:1 medium:2 term:10 certain:2 activity:17 perceive:1 high:8 level:7 inherent:1 danger:4 often:3 involve:2 speed:2 height:2 physical:2 exertion:2 highly:1 specialized:1 gear:1 spectacular:1 stunt:2 present:1 date:2 careful:1 study:3 statistic:1 death:2 separate:2 low:1 normal:1 instead:1 use:3 marketing:4 promote:2 event:7 x:8 game:12 overview:2 spread:1 far:2 wide:1 describe:1 multitude:1 different:2 exactly:1 consider:1 debatable:1 however:2 several:1 characteristic:2 common:1 exclusive:1 domain:1 youth:5 tend:4 young:3 average:1 target:1 demographic:2 rarely:1 sanction:1 school:1 solitary:1 traditional:6 addition:2 begin:2 athlete:5 work:1 craft:1 without:1 guidance:1 coach:2 though:2 may:6 hire:1 later:1 categorize:1 differ:1 due:5 relatively:1 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1,531 | Linspire | Linspire, previously known as LindowsOS, was a commercial operating system based on Debian GNU/Linux and later Ubuntu. Linspire Moves from Debian to Ubuntu | LinuxElectrons Linspire was published by Linspire, Inc. and focused on ease-of-use, targeting home PC users. The last stable release of Linspire was version 6.0, which was released in October 2007. On July 1, 2008, Linspire stockholders elected to change the company's name to Digital Cornerstone, and all assets were acquired by Xandros. On August 8, 2008, Andreas Typaldos, CEO of Xandros, announced that Linspire would be discontinued in favor of Xandros, Freespire would change its base code from Ubuntu to Debian, and the Linspire brand would cease to exist. History Based in San Diego, California, Lindows, Inc. was founded in August 2001 by Michael Robertson with the goal of developing a Linux-based operating system capable of running major Microsoft Windows applications. It based its Windows compatibility on the Wine API emulation layer. The company later abandoned this approach in favor of attempting to make Linux applications easy to download, install and use. To this end a program named "CNR" was developed: based on Debian's Advanced Packaging Tool, it provides an easy-to-use graphical user interface and a slightly modified package system for an annual fee. The first public release of Lindows was version 1.0, released in late 2001. In 2002 Microsoft sued Lindows, Inc. claiming the name Lindows constituted an infringement of their Windows trademark. Microsoft's claims were rejected by the court, which asserted that Microsoft had used the term windows to describe graphical user interfaces before the Windows product was ever released, and that the windowing technique had already been implemented by Xerox and Apple Computer many years before. Microsoft sought a retrial and after this was postponed in February 2004, offered to settle the case. As part of the licensing settlement, Microsoft paid an estimated $20 million, and Lindows, Inc. transferred the Lindows trademark to Microsoft and changed its name to Linspire, Inc. On 2005-06-15, Michael Robertson stepped down as CEO of Linspire, Inc. He continues as chairman and was replaced as CEO by Kevin Carmony. Carmony resigned from Linspire on July 31, 2007. Linspire became a member of the Interop Vendor Alliance which was founded in 2006. http://www.sdtimes.com/SearchResult/31249 http://www.linuxelectrons.com/news/linux/10892/linspire-joins-interop-vendor-alliance-program http://be.sys-con.com/node/409018 http://interopvendoralliance.org/Directory.aspx On February 8, 2007 Linspire, Inc. and Canonical Ltd, the lead sponsor and developer of the Ubuntu operating system, announced plans for a new technology partnership, with Linspire aiming to "begin basing ... [their] desktop Linux offerings on Ubuntu." Linspire.com - Press Resources On 2007-06-13 Linspire and Microsoft announced an interoperability collaboration agreement with a focus on: document format compatibility, instant messaging, digital media, web search, and patent covenants for Linspire customers. This agreement has been criticised, most notably by the Groklaw website for being disingenuously short-lived and limited, and against the spirit of the GNU General Public License. Kevin Carmony, in one of the regular "Linspire Letters," asserted that the agreement would "bring even more choices to desktop Linux users [and] ... offer a "better" Linux experience." On July 10, 2007 Linspire released Linspire 6.0 based on Freespire 2.0. Linspire bases their product code names on fish found around their headquarters: Linspire/LindowsOS 4.5 was code named Coho; Linspire Five-0 (5.0 and 5.1) and Freespire 1.0, Marlin; and Freespire 2.0 and Linspire 6.0, Skipjack. CNR Linspire's CNR (originally "Click'N'Run") was a software distribution service based on Debian's APT. It was designed to serve as a GUI-based, user-accessible means of downloading and installing various applications, both free and proprietary. The service allowed users to install available applications using a single click. CNR also included a set of Click and Buy (CNB) software, which included many commercial applications to members at a discounted rate. CNR had over 38,000 different software packages, ranging from simple applications to major commercial works such as Win4Lin and StarOffice. CNR was originally subscription-based with two tiers: basic service cost $20 annually, and gold, featuring discounts on some commercial applications, $50. In 2006, Linspire announced that the basic service was to be made available for free. Linspire planned to port CNR to the Ubuntu distribution. The company announced on April 24, 2006 that CNR would be released under an open source licence. The release of the free CNR client was planned to coincide with the release of Freespire 2.0 and Linspire 6.0. On January 23, 2007, Linspire announced that it intended to provide CNR for other Linux distributions, both APT- and RPM-based, including Debian, Fedora, OpenSUSE and Ubuntu. This support was expected to appear in mid-2007. On February 8, 2007, Linspire, Inc. announced a partnership with Canonical Ltd., publisher of the Ubuntu Linux distribution. This deal would see Linspire and Freespire migrate from the unpredictable Debian release process to the semiannual Ubuntu release cycle. It was intended that the main Ubuntu distribution would become the first recipient of the opening of the Click'N'Run service to Linux distributions besides Linspire. Web software CNR.com also provided access to thousands of web-based applications, providing the Linux community with the option of local Linux and web software, available through a single source. Additional capabilities were planned to improve the web software experience (bookmarking). The community also had the capability to add new products to the already extensive library of applications available. Freespire Freespire RC1 In August 2005, Andrew Betts released a Live CD based on Linspire and named Freespire. Freespire's website. Some users mistook this for a product from Linspire, Inc. Linspire, Inc. offered users a "free Linspire" (purchase price discounted to $0) by using the coupon code "Freespire" until September 9, 2005. On April 24, 2006, Linspire announced its own project named "Freespire". This followed the model of community-oriented releases by Red Hat and Novell in the form of Fedora and openSUSE. Freespire was a community-driven and -supported project tied to the commercial Linspire distribution, and included previously proprietary elements from Linspire, such as the CNR Client, while other elements, which Linspire, Inc. licenses but does not own, like the Windows Media Audio compatibility libraries, remain closed-source. Consequently there are two versions of Freespire, one with the closed source libraries, and one, called Freespire OSS Edition, that includes only open-source components. Freespire 1.0 was released on August 7, 2006, three weeks ahead of schedule. It is now known that Freespire will change its code base from Ubuntu to Debian on any future releases. Contributions Linspire, Inc. sponsors open source projects including the Pidgin and Kopete instant messaging clients, the Mozilla Firefox web browser, the ReiserFS file system, the Nvu WYSIWYG website editor, and the KDE-Apps.org and KDE-Look.org websites. KDE-Apps.org and KDE-Look.org. In the past, Linspire has hosted several Linux and open source events, such as the annual Desktop Linux Summit, DebConf and the KDE Developers Conference. In addition, Linspire maintains an online system to allow people to submit translations of Linspire and other open source software. Known as IRMA (Internationalization Resource Management Application), it currently supports over 50 languages and claims to have over 2,500 translators. Criticism Linspire has drawn some criticism from the free software community. This has included criticism for including proprietary software, with GNU founder Richard Stallman commenting: "No other GNU/Linux distribution has backslided so far away from freedom. Switching from MS Windows to Linspire does not bring you to freedom, it just gets you a different master." In addition, following the initial Freespire announcement Pamela Jones of the Groklaw website published an article entitled "Freespire: A Linux Distro For When You Couldn't Care Less About Freedom;" that was highly critical of Linspire, Inc., and the Freespire project, for including closed-source components and advertising them as a favourable point—an action she classed as ignoring FOSS community values in a "community-driven" distribution, asserting that "Free Software isn't about proprietary drivers" and that "proprietary codecs, drivers and applications are not Open Source or open in any way." In response, Linspire, Inc. CEO Kevin Carmony stated via a journalist on the LXer website that in ten years of holding out, the FOSS community has made relatively few gains, that many users are already using proprietary software and, although some would hold out, most would prefer to have something that works rather than nothing. He also asserted that the company believed in OSS, but also in the freedom of individuals to choose whatever software they want. Linspire has also been criticized for recommending that users use root privileges on their accounts, which is a potential security risk. See also Comparison of Linux distributions References External links Linspire official website Freespire official website Freespire wiki LugRadio podcast featuring an interview with Kevin Carmony | Linspire |@lemmatized linspire:51 previously:2 know:3 lindowsos:2 commercial:5 operating:3 system:6 base:16 debian:8 gnu:4 linux:17 later:2 ubuntu:11 move:1 linuxelectrons:2 publish:2 inc:14 focus:2 ease:1 use:8 target:1 home:1 pc:1 user:10 last:1 stable:1 release:15 version:3 october:1 july:3 stockholder:1 elect:1 change:4 company:4 name:8 digital:2 cornerstone:1 asset:1 acquire:1 xandros:3 august:4 andreas:1 typaldos:1 ceo:4 announce:8 would:9 discontinue:1 favor:2 freespire:22 code:5 brand:1 cease:1 exist:1 history:1 san:1 diego:1 california:1 lindows:6 found:2 michael:2 robertson:2 goal:1 develop:2 capable:1 run:3 major:2 microsoft:8 window:6 application:11 compatibility:3 wine:1 api:1 emulation:1 layer:1 abandon:1 approach:1 attempt:1 make:3 easy:2 download:2 install:2 end:1 program:2 cnr:12 advance:1 packaging:1 tool:1 provide:4 graphical:2 interface:2 slightly:1 modify:1 package:2 annual:2 fee:1 first:2 public:2 late:1 sue:1 claim:3 constitute:1 infringement:1 trademark:2 reject:1 court:1 assert:4 term:1 windows:1 describe:1 product:4 ever:1 windowing:1 technique:1 already:3 implement:1 xerox:1 apple:1 computer:1 many:3 year:2 seek:1 retrial:1 postpone:1 february:3 offer:3 settle:1 case:1 part:1 licensing:1 settlement:1 pay:1 estimated:1 million:1 transfer:1 step:1 continue:1 chairman:1 replace:1 kevin:4 carmony:5 resign:1 become:2 member:2 interop:2 vendor:2 alliance:2 http:4 www:2 sdtimes:1 com:5 searchresult:1 news:1 join:1 sys:1 con:1 node:1 interopvendoralliance:1 org:5 directory:1 aspx:1 canonical:2 ltd:2 lead:1 sponsor:2 developer:2 plan:4 new:2 technology:1 partnership:2 aim:1 begin:1 desktop:3 offering:1 press:1 resource:2 interoperability:1 collaboration:1 agreement:3 document:1 format:1 instant:2 messaging:2 medium:2 web:6 search:1 patent:1 covenant:1 customer:1 criticise:1 notably:1 groklaw:2 website:8 disingenuously:1 short:1 live:2 limited:1 spirit:1 general:1 license:2 one:3 regular:1 letter:1 bring:2 even:1 choice:1 well:1 experience:2 fish:1 find:1 around:1 headquarters:1 coho:1 five:1 marlin:1 skipjack:1 originally:2 click:4 n:2 software:12 distribution:10 service:5 apt:2 design:1 serve:1 gui:1 accessible:1 mean:1 instal:1 various:1 free:6 proprietary:6 allow:2 available:4 single:2 also:7 include:9 set:1 buy:1 cnb:1 discounted:1 rate:1 different:2 range:1 simple:1 work:2 staroffice:1 subscription:1 two:2 tier:1 basic:2 cost:1 annually:1 gold:1 feature:2 discount:2 port:1 april:2 open:7 source:10 licence:1 client:3 coincide:1 january:1 intend:2 rpm:1 fedora:2 opensuse:2 support:3 expect:1 appear:1 mid:1 publisher:1 deal:1 see:2 migrate:1 unpredictable:1 process:1 semiannual:1 cycle:1 main:1 recipient:1 opening:1 besides:1 access:1 thousand:1 community:8 option:1 local:1 additional:1 capability:2 improve:1 bookmarking:1 add:1 extensive:1 library:3 andrew:1 betts:1 cd:1 mistake:1 purchase:1 price:1 coupon:1 september:1 project:4 follow:2 model:1 orient:1 red:1 hat:1 novell:1 form:1 driven:2 tie:1 element:2 like:1 audio:1 remain:1 closed:2 consequently:1 call:1 os:2 edition:1 component:2 three:1 week:1 ahead:1 schedule:1 future:1 contribution:1 pidgin:1 kopete:1 mozilla:1 firefox:1 browser:1 reiserfs:1 file:1 nvu:1 wysiwyg:1 editor:1 kde:5 apps:2 look:2 past:1 host:1 several:1 event:1 summit:1 debconf:1 conference:1 addition:2 maintain:1 online:1 people:1 submit:1 translation:1 irma:1 internationalization:1 management:1 currently:1 language:1 translator:1 criticism:3 draw:1 founder:1 richard:1 stallman:1 commenting:1 backslide:1 far:1 away:1 freedom:4 switch:1 get:1 master:1 initial:1 announcement:1 pamela:1 jones:1 article:1 entitle:1 distro:1 care:1 less:1 highly:1 critical:1 close:1 advertise:1 favourable:1 point:1 action:1 class:1 ignore:1 fo:2 value:1 driver:2 codecs:1 way:1 response:1 state:1 via:1 journalist:1 lxer:1 ten:1 hold:2 relatively:1 gain:1 although:1 prefer:1 something:1 rather:1 nothing:1 believe:1 individual:1 choose:1 whatever:1 want:1 criticize:1 recommend:1 root:1 privilege:1 account:1 potential:1 security:1 risk:1 comparison:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:2 wiki:1 lugradio:1 podcast:1 interview:1 |@bigram debian_gnu:1 gnu_linux:2 linspire_inc:11 san_diego:1 microsoft_window:1 graphical_user:2 user_interface:2 http_www:2 instant_messaging:2 messaging_client:1 mozilla_firefox:1 web_browser:1 richard_stallman:1 external_link:1 |
1,532 | Economy_of_Guadeloupe | The economy of Guadeloupe depends on agriculture, tourism, light industry, and services. It also depends on France for large subsidies and imports. Tourism is a key industry; an increasingly large number of cruise ships visit the islands. The traditional sugarcane crop is slowly being replaced by other crops, such as bananas (which now supply about 50% of export earnings), eggplant, and flowers. Other vegetables and root crops are cultivated for local consumption, although Guadeloupe is still dependent on imported food, mainly from France. Light industry features sugar and rum production. Most manufactured goods and fuel are imported. Unemployment is especially high among the young. Hurricanes periodically devastate the economy. Primary industries Agriculture In Guadeloupe, agriculture constituted 6 percent of GDP and employed 15 percent of the work-force in 1997, which equaled approximately 120,000. The main crops are sugarcane & bananas. Large sugar plantations that produce for both export and local consumption purposes continue to dominate. Sugarcane is grown on western and central parts of Grande-Terre due to its flat lands and rainfall of 1500 to 2500 mm. & on northeast section of Basse-Terre. There are rum distilleries to produce rum from sugar. Bananas are grown mainly on the western sides of the mountains on Basse-Terre & on the eastern coast of Basse-Terre. The growing of bananas for export began as early as 1922 but the trade grew rapidly when farmers planted bananas to replace their coffee and cocoa which had been destroyed by a hurricane in 1928. In 2000, 121,758 tons of bananas were exported, 72 percent of which were purchased by the French metropolis. In 1999, Guadeloupe formed 8.2% of the banana production in the Caribbean. Other export crops are coffee, cocoa & citrus fruit. Animal husbandry Cattle, goats, pigs & poultry are raised for local consumption and provided most of the requirements of animal products. The rearing of animals is done both on Grande-Terre & Basse-Terre. Fishing Offshore fishing is a traditional source of food, and the main catches. By the end of the 1990s, 11 fishing farms were registered in Guadeloupe and experiments are under way to catch and market fish in order to respond to growing demand. The 1997 catch was 10,518 tons, mainly marine fish with some small amounts of crustaceans and molluscs. Industry Manufacturing In 1997, industry in Guadeloupe constituted 9 percent of GDP and provided employment for 17 percent of the labor force. Major industrial activities include sugar refining, rum distilling, food processing, cement and brick manufacture, mineral water bottling, beverage making, chemical making, textile manufacture & electronics assembly. Jarry has an industrial free-port. Construction The construction industry employs 12 percent of the workforce in Guadeloupe. Most of the construction sector is dominated by government in the form of public works. Such works provide an enormous boost to the economy and help relieve unemployment. Indeed, the 5,500 public work enterprises in the construction sector comprise 19 percent of all industrial enterprises and engage approximately 10 percent of the entire labor force. Construction has boomed with tourism to construct hotels, apartments and cottages. Tertiary industries In 1997, the service sector in Guadeloupe contributed 85 percent of GDP and provided employment for 68 percent of the labor force. Tourism Tourism accounted for 7 percent of GDP in Guadeloupe in 2000. Tourism is the major money earner for Guadeloupe. In 2000, the number of tourists to Guadeloupe reached 623,000, a decrease from 693,000 tourists in 1998. A high percentage of tourists are from France. 350 cruise ships visited Guadeloupe in 1998. Pointe-à-Pitre is a cruise ship port. Tourism provides jobs such as hoteliers, waiters, tour guides & taxi drivers. Retail There are many shopping centers especially in Pointe-à-Pitre where French perfumes, cosmetics & leather goods are sold along with local handicrafts as souvenirs. There is foreign direct investment such as McDonald's, KFC, and Subway have established operations in Guadeloupe. There are a number of small and medium sized retail outlets. In 2000, three hundred new outlets, mostly in the leisure and supermarket sectors, were created in Guadeloupe alone. Economic data GDP: real exchange rate - US$9.74 billion (in 2006) GDP - real growth rate: NA% GDP - per capita: real exchange rate - US$21,780 (in 2006) GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 15% industry: 17% services: 68% (2002 est.) Population below poverty line: NA% Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA% Labour force: 125,900 (1997) Labour force - by occupation: agriculture 15%, industry 20%, services 65% (2002) Unemployment rate: 27.8% (1998) Budget: revenues: $296,3 million expenditures: $296,3 million, including capital expenditures of $112,5 million (1996) Industries: construction, cement, rum, sugar, tourism Industrial production growth rate: NA% Electricity - production: 1,165 kWh (2003) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 100% hydro: 0% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1998) Electricity - consumption: 1,084 TWh (2003) Electricity - exports: 0 kWh (2003) Electricity - imports: 0 kWh (2003) Agriculture - products: bananas, sugarcane, tropical fruits and vegetables; cattle, pigs, goats Exports: US$676 million (in 2005) Exports - commodities: bananas, sugar, rum Exports - partners: France 60%, Martinique 18%, US 4% (1997) Imports: US$3.102 billion (in 2005) Imports - commodities: foodstuffs, fuels, vehicles, clothing and other consumer goods, construction materials Imports - partners: France 63%, Germany 4%, US 3%, Japan 2%, Netherlands Antilles 2% (1997) Debt - external: $NA Economic aid - recipient: $NA; note - substantial annual French subsidies Currency: 1 Euro (currency sign: €; banking code: EUR) = 100 cents Exchange rates: euros per US$1 - 1, 3002 (February 2005), 0.9867 (January 2000), 0.9386 (1999); French francs (F) per US$1 - 5.65 (January 1999), 5.8995 (1998), 5.8367 (1997), 5.1155 (1996), 4.9915 (1995) Fiscal year: calendar year References | Economy_of_Guadeloupe |@lemmatized economy:3 guadeloupe:14 depends:1 agriculture:6 tourism:8 light:2 industry:11 service:4 also:1 depend:1 france:5 large:3 subsidy:2 import:7 key:1 increasingly:1 number:3 cruise:3 ship:3 visit:2 island:1 traditional:2 sugarcane:4 crop:5 slowly:1 replace:2 banana:9 supply:1 export:9 earnings:1 eggplant:1 flower:1 vegetable:2 root:1 cultivate:1 local:4 consumption:5 although:1 still:1 dependent:1 food:3 mainly:3 feature:1 sugar:6 rum:6 production:5 manufactured:1 good:3 fuel:3 unemployment:3 especially:2 high:3 among:1 young:1 hurricane:2 periodically:1 devastate:1 primary:1 constitute:2 percent:11 gdp:8 employ:2 work:4 force:6 equal:1 approximately:2 main:2 plantation:1 produce:2 purpose:1 continue:1 dominate:2 grow:5 western:2 central:1 part:1 grande:2 terre:6 due:1 flat:1 land:1 rainfall:1 mm:1 northeast:1 section:1 basse:4 distillery:1 side:1 mountain:1 eastern:1 coast:1 begin:1 early:1 trade:1 rapidly:1 farmer:1 plant:1 coffee:2 cocoa:2 destroy:1 ton:2 purchase:1 french:4 metropolis:1 form:2 caribbean:1 citrus:1 fruit:2 animal:3 husbandry:1 cattle:2 goat:2 pig:2 poultry:1 raise:1 provide:5 requirement:1 product:2 rearing:1 fish:3 offshore:1 fishing:2 source:2 catch:3 end:1 farm:1 register:1 experiment:1 way:1 market:1 order:1 respond:1 demand:1 marine:1 small:2 amount:1 crustacean:1 mollusc:1 manufacturing:1 employment:2 labor:3 major:2 industrial:4 activity:1 include:2 refining:1 distilling:1 processing:1 cement:2 brick:1 manufacture:2 mineral:1 water:1 bottling:1 beverage:1 making:2 chemical:1 textile:1 electronics:1 assembly:1 jarry:1 free:1 port:2 construction:7 workforce:1 sector:5 government:1 public:2 enormous:1 boost:1 help:1 relieve:1 indeed:1 enterprise:2 comprise:1 engage:1 entire:1 boom:1 construct:1 hotel:1 apartment:1 cottage:1 tertiary:1 contribute:1 account:1 money:1 earner:1 tourist:3 reach:1 decrease:1 percentage:2 pointe:2 à:2 pitre:2 job:1 hotelier:1 waiter:1 tour:1 guide:1 taxi:1 driver:1 retail:2 many:1 shopping:1 center:1 perfume:1 cosmetic:1 leather:1 sell:1 along:1 handicraft:1 souvenir:1 foreign:1 direct:1 investment:1 mcdonald:1 kfc:1 subway:1 establish:1 operation:1 medium:1 size:1 outlet:2 three:1 hundred:1 new:1 mostly:1 leisure:1 supermarket:1 create:1 alone:1 economic:2 data:1 real:3 exchange:3 rate:6 u:8 billion:2 growth:2 na:7 per:3 caput:1 composition:1 est:1 population:1 poverty:1 line:1 household:1 income:1 share:1 low:1 labour:2 occupation:1 budget:1 revenue:1 million:4 expenditure:2 capital:1 electricity:5 kwh:3 fossil:1 hydro:1 nuclear:1 twh:1 tropical:1 commodity:2 partner:2 martinique:1 foodstuff:1 vehicle:1 clothing:1 consumer:1 material:1 germany:1 japan:1 netherlands:1 antilles:1 debt:1 external:1 aid:1 recipient:1 note:1 substantial:1 annual:1 currency:2 euro:1 sign:1 banking:1 code:1 eur:1 cent:1 euros:1 february:1 january:2 franc:1 f:1 fiscal:1 year:2 calendar:1 reference:1 |@bigram export_earnings:1 sugar_plantation:1 grande_terre:2 basse_terre:4 rum_distillery:1 sugar_banana:1 coffee_cocoa:2 citrus_fruit:1 animal_husbandry:1 goat_pig:1 pig_poultry:1 taxi_driver:1 retail_outlet:1 per_caput:1 household_income:1 unemployment_rate:1 kwh_electricity:2 fossil_fuel:1 fuel_hydro:1 hydro_nuclear:1 electricity_consumption:1 consumption_twh:1 twh_electricity:1 export_kwh:1 import_kwh:1 kwh_agriculture:1 fruit_vegetable:1 cattle_pig:1 export_commodity:1 commodity_foodstuff:1 netherlands_antilles:1 |
1,533 | Davros | Davros is a character from the long-running British science fiction television series Doctor Who. Davros is an archenemy of the Doctor and is responsible for the creation of the Doctor's deadliest enemies, the Daleks. Davros was created by screenwriter Terry Nation. Davros is a scientist from the planet Skaro whose people, the Kaleds, were engaged in a bitter thousand-year war of attrition with their enemies, the Thals. He is horribly scarred and crippled for reasons that are never explained on-screen, with only one functioning arm and one cybernetic eye mounted on his forehead; for much of his existence he depends completely upon a self-designed mobile life-support chair which encloses the lower half of his body. It would become an obvious inspiration for his eventual design of the Dalek. Davros's voice, like those of the Daleks, is electronically distorted. His manner of speech is generally soft and contemplative, but when angered or excited he is prone to ranting outbursts that resemble the hysterical, staccatissimo speech of his creations. Davros is a megalomaniac who believes that through his creations, the Daleks, he can become the supreme being and ruler of the universe. He is a brilliant scientist who has demonstrated mastery of robotics, metallurgy, chemistry, artificial intelligence, cloning, genetic engineering, biology, physics, military tactics and cybernetics. Character history The Kaled/Thal Conflict Michael Wisher as Davros in Genesis of the Daleks. Davros first appeared in the 1975 serial Genesis of the Daleks, written by Terry Nation. Nation, creator of the Dalek concept, had deliberately modeled elements of the Daleks' character on Nazi ideology, and conceived of their creator as a scientist with strong fascist tendencies. The physical appearance of Davros was developed by visual effects designer Peter Day and sculptor John Friedlander, who based Davros' chariot on the lower half of a Dalek. Producer Philip Hinchcliffe told Friedlander to consider a design similar to The Mekon from the Eagle comic Dan Dare, with a large dome-like head and a withered body. Cast in the role of Davros was Michael Wisher, who had previously appeared in several different roles on Doctor Who and had provided Dalek voices in the serials Frontier in Space, Planet of the Daleks and Death to the Daleks. Wisher based his performance as Davros on the philosopher Bertrand Russell. In order to prepare for filming under the heavy mask, Wisher rehearsed wearing a paper bag over his head. Friedlander's mask was cast in hard latex, with only the mouth revealing Wisher's features; make-up artist Sylvia James shaded the mask's tones and blackened Wisher's lips and teeth to hide the transition. When he first encounters the Fourth Doctor in Genesis of the Daleks, Davros is the chief scientist of the Kaleds, heading the Elite Scientific Division. Davros realises that contamination from the nuclear and biological weapons used in the war is mutating the Kaled race, and artificially accelerates the process to examine the ultimate evolutionary end product. The mutations are weak and crippled: no more than brains with tentacular appendages and with no hope of survival on their own. His solution is to remove all emotions pertaining to weakness, a category in which he groups such emotions as compassion, mercy and kindness, and place the mutants in tank-like "Mark III travel machines" partly based on the design of his wheelchair. He later names these creatures Daleks, an anagram of Kaleds. Davros quickly becomes obsessed with his creations, considering them to be the ultimate form of life, superior to all others. To stop his own people from shutting down his Dalek project, he arranges for them to be wiped out by the Thals. The Daleks then almost exterminate the Thal victors, but ultimately turn on Davros and apparently kill him at the conclusion of the serial. War with the Movellans Davros proved too effective a character to be kept dead and was resurrected four years later in 1979's Destiny of the Daleks (played by David Gooderson using the mask Friedlander made for Wisher. The mask had to be split into sections and rejoined to get as good a fit as possible). The Daleks unearth their creator — who had apparently been in suspended animation since his "death" in Genesis — to help them break a logical impasse in their war against the android Movellans. However, the Dalek force is destroyed by the Doctor, and Davros is captured and imprisoned by the humans. Release In the Fifth Doctor story Resurrection of the Daleks, a small Dalek force aided by human mercenaries and Dalek duplicates liberates Davros (now played by Terry Molloy, with a new mask designed by Stan Mitchell) from his space station prison, needing his expertise to find an antidote for a Movellan-created virus that has all but wiped them out. Believing his creations to be treacherous, Davros begins using mind control on Daleks and humans, ultimately releasing the virus to kill off the Daleks before they can exterminate him. Davros expresses a desire to build a new and improved race of Daleks. However, at the end of the story, he apparently succumbs to the virus himself before he can escape, his physiology being close enough to that of the Daleks for the virus to affect him. The hypothetical creation of a viral weapon had been the subject of a discussion between the Fourth Doctor and Davros in Genesis of the Daleks. The Great Healer Davros emerges as "The Great Healer" of the funeral and cryogenic preservation centre Tranquil Repose on the planet Necros in the Sixth Doctor story Revelation of the Daleks, where he uses frozen bodies to engineer a new variety of Daleks loyal to him, distinguished from the original Daleks by their white and gold livery and slightly changed design. In this story there appear to be two Davroses: one is a head in a tank and apparently a decoy for assassins; the other is in his usual chair (which can now hover), emerging from hiding when the decoy is assassinated. Davros can now move his neck and fire electric bolts from his hand, although the hand is shot off shortly before his original creations arrive to defeat the new Daleks and transport Davros to face trial on Skaro. In this serial and his next appearance, Davros was again played by Molloy, wearing a mask cast from Stan Mitchell's mould. The Dalek Civil War Davros as the Emperor Dalek, from Remembrance of the Daleks. Davros appears as the Emperor Dalek in Remembrance of the Daleks, with his white and gold Daleks now based on Skaro and termed "Imperial Daleks", fighting against the grey "Renegade Dalek" faction. By this time, Davros is physically transplanted into a customised Dalek casing. Both Skaro and the Imperial Dalek mothership are apparently destroyed when the Seventh Doctor tricks Davros into using the Time Lord artefact known as the Hand of Omega. However, a Dalek on the bridge of Davros' ship reports that the Emperor's escape pod is being launched and a white light is seen speeding away from the ship moments before its destruction, leaving a clear route to bring Davros back in the future. Time War and beyond In the 2005 series, the Daleks and the Time Lords had engaged in a mutually destructive Time War. An article by Russell T Davies in the Doctor Who Annual 2006 states that one of the "Dalek Puppet Emperors" openly declared his hostilities towards the Time Lords and their planet, Gallifrey. The Dalek Emperor, a mutant Dalek floating in a tank of fluid connected to a giant Dalek shell, survived to build a new race of Daleks. In the first three seasons of the revival, Davros is referred to (albeit not by name) twice: first in the episode "Dalek" by the Ninth Doctor, who explains that the Daleks were created by "a man who was king of his own little world", and again by the Tenth Doctor in the episode "Evolution of the Daleks", where he refers to the Daleks' creator as believing that "removing emotions made a race stronger". Return Davros returned in the final two episodes of the 2008 series of Doctor Who played by Julian Bleach. Concept artist Peter McKinstry and prosthetics designer Neill Gorton decided to base Davros' appearance on the original Michael Wisher version, which they felt was "somehow creepier — more sinister" than subsequent incarnations. McKinstry's design made the character "more sturdy" than previous versions. Gorton then translated McKinstry's drawings into a mould with a cast of Julian Bleach's face on the inside and a clay Davros face on the outside. This mould was used to cast silicone gel masks which were more responsive than the hard latex used in the original series, which had to be discarded after each day's filming. In "The Stolen Earth", it is explained that Davros is believed to have died during the first year of the Time War, when his ship "flew into the jaws of the Nightmare Child." Dalek Caan was able to use an emergency temporal shift to travel back in time to the events of the Time War, a feat thought impossible due to the events being 'time-locked', and saved Davros at the cost of his own sanity and blessed with prophecial sight. Now equipped with a new cybernetic hand, replacing the one that was destroyed in Revelation, Davros uses cells from his own body to breed a new Dalek race, enough so that he has little skin and flesh left on his chest and his ribcage and internal organs are visible. Under his guidance, the Daleks 'steal' twenty-seven planets, including Earth, and hide them in the Medusa Cascade, one second out of sync with the rest of the universe. In "Journey's End", however, it is implied by the Doctor that Davros is not in control of the Daleks and is instead being kept prisoner in the Vault, having been overthrown (again) and kept around to give his scientific knowledge. The Doctor taunts him as being their "pet". With Davros' knowledge, the Daleks have created a "reality bomb," a wavelength transmitted by the stolen planets which cancels out the electrical field binding atoms, reducing the whole of creation to nothingness except for the Daleks and the Crucible: he declares this to be his "ultimate victory". It turns out, however, that he and the Daleks are being misled and betrayed by Dalek Caan, who is using his prophecies and influence to bring the Doctor and Donna Noble together, causing the Daleks' destruction. Though the Doctor offers to take him to safety, Davros furiously refuses and accuses the Doctor of being responsible for the destruction, saying to him, "I name you forever: you are the 'destroyer of worlds'!"; previously taunting the Doctor for turning his companions into killers and having caused the deaths of countless people out of comparison to himself. Thus the Doctor is forced to leave Davros to his fate as the Crucible self destructs. During Doctor Who Confidential Russell T Davies explained how he believes Davros to have survived the Crucible's destruction in some way, not specifically showing his death for this reason. He explained that he would not like to be the one to kill off one of the Doctor's greatest enemies. Other appearances Comic strips Doctor Who Magazine printed several comics stories involving Davros. The first, "Nemesis of the Daleks" (#152-155), with the Seventh Doctor, features an appearance of a Dalek Emperor. Speaking with the Emperor, the Doctor addresses him as Davros, but the Emperor responds "Who is Davros?" The Doctor initially assumes Davros' personality has been totally subsumed, but in the later strip "Emperor of the Daleks" (#197-202) this Emperor is shown as a different entity from Davros. Set prior to Remembrance of the Daleks in Davros' timeline, but after in the timeline of the Doctor, the latter, accompanied by Bernice Summerfield, together with help from the Sixth Doctor, ensures that Davros will survive the wrath of the Daleks so that he can assume the title of Emperor, allowing history to take its course. "Up Above the Gods" (#227), a vignette following up on this, features the Sixth Doctor and Davros having a conversation in the TARDIS. Audio plays Terry Molloy has reprised his role as Davros in the spin-off audio plays produced by Big Finish Productions, mostly notably Davros (taking place during the Sixth Doctor's era), which, through flashbacks, explored the scientist's life prior to his crippling injury, which is attributed to a Thal nuclear attack (an idea that first appeared in Terrance Dicks' novelisation of Genesis of the Daleks). Davros, which does not feature the Daleks, fills in the gaps between Resurrection of the Daleks and Revelation of the Daleks, and has the scientist trying to manipulate the galaxy's economy into a war footing similar to Skaro's. The Sixth Doctor manages to defeat his plans, and Davros is last heard when his ship explodes, an event obliquely mentioned in Revelation. The Big Finish miniseries I, Davros, (set before Davros' trial after Revelation) also starring Molloy, further explores Davros' early life. The subsequent play The Juggernauts similarly takes place between Revelation and Remembrance. There, Davros adds human nervous tissue to robotic Mechanoids to create the Juggernauts of the play's title; he hopes to use these as an army to destroy the Daleks. At the end of the story, the self-destruct mechanism of Davros' life-support chair explodes, destroying an entire human colony. It is not clear how Davros survives to become the Dalek Emperor as seen in Remembrance. However in the DVD, the Davros Connections, director Gary Russell points out that the explosion of Davros' life-support chair leaves the listener to believe there is little of Davros left. This fits chronologically the fact that in "Remembrance" Davros is seen as a head inside the Emperor Dalek. The Davros Connections DVD By the time of the Eighth Doctor audio play Terror Firma (set after Remembrance), Davros is commanding a Dalek army which has successfully conquered the Earth. His mental instability has grown to the point where "Davros" and "the Emperor" exist within him as different personalities. His Daleks recognize this instability and rebel against Davros. By the story's end the Emperor personality is dominant, and the Daleks agree to follow him and leave Earth. Novels Terror Firma seemed to contradict the events of the Eighth Doctor Adventures novel War of the Daleks by John Peel, in which an unmerged Davros is placed on trial by the Dalek Prime, a combination of the Dalek Emperor and the Dalek Supreme. In the novel the Dalek Prime reveals that the planet Antalin had been terraformed to resemble Skaro and was destroyed in its place. It also claimed that the Dalek/Movellan war (and indeed most of Dalek history before the destruction of "Skaro") was actually faked for Davros' benefit; the Daleks had discovered records of Skaro's destruction during their conquest of Earth, but, unable to change history, had developed an elaborate plot to bring the recorded events about while ensuring Skaro's survival. However, Antalin is later seen to be intact and undamaged, and one character notes that it is quite possible the Dalek Prime is lying in order to weaken Davros' claim to leadership of the Daleks. War of the Daleks, like the comic strips and audio plays, is of uncertain canonicity when it comes to the television series. At the conclusion of War, Davros was seemingly disintegrated by a Spider Dalek on the order of the Dalek Prime. However, Davros had previously recruited one of the Spider Daleks as a sleeper agent for just such an eventuality, and even he was not certain in the end if he was being disintegrated or being teleported away to safety, leaving the possibility open for his return. Short fiction Paul Cornell's dark vignette in the Doctor Who Magazine Brief Encounters series, "An Incident Concerning the Bombardment of the Phobos Colony" occurs sometime between "Resurrection of the Daleks" and his assumption of the role of Emperor. Theatre In 1993, Michael Wisher, the original Davros, with Peter Miles, who had played his confederate, Nyder, reprised the role in an unlicensed one-off amateur stage production, The Trial of Davros. The plot of the play involved the Time Lords putting Davros on trial, with Nyder as a witness. During the production, specially shot footage portrayed Dalek atrocities. Terry Molloy played Davros in the remounting of the play, again with Peter Miles for another one-off production, mounted in 2005. In 2008, Julian Bleach appeared live as Davros at the Doctor Who Prom, announcing that the Royal Albert Hall would become his new palace, and the audience his "obedient slaves". List of appearances Television Genesis of the Daleks: March 8 – April 12, 1975 Destiny of the Daleks: September 1 – September 22, 1979 Resurrection of the Daleks: February 8 – February 15, 1984 Revelation of the Daleks: March 23 – March 30, 1985 Remembrance of the Daleks: October 5 – October 26, 1988 "The Stolen Earth"/"Journey's End": June 28 – July 5, 2008 Comic strips Nemesis of the Daleks, Doctor Who Magazine (suggested but later contradicted) Emperor of the Daleks, Doctor Who Magazine Up Above the Gods, Doctor Who Magazine Audio plays Davros The Juggernauts Terror Firma I, Davros: Innocence I, Davros: Purity I, Davros: Corruption I, Davros: Guilt Masters of War (Doctor Who Unbound series, out of normal Doctor Who continuity) Short fiction An Incident Concerning the Continual Bombardment of the Phobos Colony by Paul Cornell, Doctor Who Magazine #168 Original novels War of the Daleks by John Peel (Eighth Doctor Adventures) Theatrical productions The Trial of Davros, mounted 1994, 2005 Doctor Who Prom, July 27, 2008 DVD/Big Finish box set On the November 26, 2007, a Davros boxset was released featuring the following TV stories; Genesis of the Daleks Destiny of the Daleks Resurrection of the Daleks Revelation of the Daleks Remembrance of the Daleks Two Disc Special Edition And the following Big Finish audios; Davros The Juggernauts Terror Firma I, Davros: Innocence I, Davros: Purity I, Davros: Corruption I, Davros: Guilt The Davros Mission See also History of the Daleks Dalek variants References External links Some quotes from Genesis of the Daleks. First History of the Daleks (and Second). Information on I, Davros on Big Finish's website BBC Norfolk — Watch interview with Terry Molloy discussing I Davros — November '06 BBC Norfolk — Davros gallery with Terry Molloy interviews The Davros Connections DVD, documentary included in the Davros Collection DVD box set, goes into depth about the Davros audios by Big Finish. | Davros |@lemmatized davros:99 character:6 long:1 run:1 british:1 science:1 fiction:3 television:3 series:7 doctor:44 archenemy:1 responsible:2 creation:8 deadliest:1 enemy:3 daleks:71 create:5 screenwriter:1 terry:7 nation:3 scientist:6 planet:7 skaro:9 whose:1 people:3 kaleds:3 engage:2 bitter:1 thousand:1 year:3 war:16 attrition:1 thals:2 horribly:1 scar:1 cripple:2 reason:2 never:1 explain:5 screen:1 one:12 functioning:1 arm:1 cybernetic:2 eye:1 mount:3 forehead:1 much:1 existence:1 depend:1 completely:1 upon:1 self:3 design:7 mobile:1 life:6 support:3 chair:4 enclose:1 low:2 half:2 body:4 would:3 become:4 obvious:1 inspiration:1 eventual:1 dalek:38 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1,534 | Hermann_Kolbe | Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe (September 27, 1818 – November 25, 1884) was a German chemist. He never used the first two of his given names, preferring to be known simply as Hermann Kolbe. Life Kolbe was born in Elliehausen, near Göttingen, Kingdom of Hanover (Germany) as the eldest son of a Protestant pastor. At the age of 13 he entered the Göttingen Gymnasium, residing at the home of one of the professors. He obtained the leaving certificate (the Abitur) six years later. He had become passionate about the study of chemistry, matriculating at the University of Göttingen in the spring of 1838 in order to study with the famous chemist Friedrich Wöhler. In 1842 he became an assistant to Robert Bunsen at the University of Marburg; he took his doctoral degree there in 1843. A new opportunity arose in 1845, when he became assistant to Lyon Playfair at the new Museum of Economic Geology in London, where he became a close friend of Edward Frankland. From 1847 he was engaged in editing the Handwörterbuch der reinen und angewandten Chemie (Dictionary of Pure and Applied Chemistry) edited by Justus von Liebig, Wöhler, and Johann Christian Poggendorff, and he also wrote an important textbook. In 1851 Kolbe succeeded Bunsen as professor of chemistry at Marburg, and in 1865 he was called to the University of Leipzig. In 1853 he married Charlotte, the daughter of General-Major Wilhelm von Bardeleben. His wife died in 1876 after 23 years of happy marriage. They had four children. Work As late as the 1840s, and despite Friedrich Wöhler's synthesis of urea in 1828, some chemists still believed in the doctrine of vitalism, according to which a special life-force was necessary to create organic compounds. Kolbe developed the idea that organic compounds could be derived from inorganic ones, directly or indirectly, by substitution processes. He validated his theory by converting carbon disulfide, in several steps, to acetic acid (1843-45). Introducing a modified idea of structural radicals, he contributed to the establishment of structural theory. One of the more dramatic successes of his theory was his prediction of the existence of secondary and tertiary alcohols, a conjecture that was soon confirmed by the synthesis of these substances. He worked on the electrolysis of the salts of fatty and other acids (Kolbe electrolysis) and prepared salicylic acid, a building block of aspirin in a process called Kolbe synthesis or Kolbe-Schmitt reaction . A certain method for the synthesis of nitriles is called the Kolbe nitrile synthesis. Hermann Kolbe was the first person to use the word synthesis in the present day meaning. With Edward Frankland he found that nitriles can be hydrolyzed to the corresponding acids. Conflicts As editor of the Journal für praktische Chemie (Journal of practical chemistry, from 1870 to 1884), Kolbe was sometimes so severely critical of the work of others, especially after about 1874, that some wondered whether he might have been suffering a mental illness. He was intolerant of what he regarded as loose speculation parading as theory, and sought through his writings to save his beloved science of chemistry from what he regarded as the scourge of modern structural theory. His rejection of structural chemistry, especially the theories of the structure of benzene by August Kekulé, the theory of the asymmetric carbon atom by J.H. van't Hoff, and the reform of chemical nomenclature by Adolf von Baeyer, resulted in vituperative articles in the Journal für Praktische Chemie. Some translated quotes illustrate his manner of articulating the deep conflict between his interpretation of chemistry and that of the structural chemists: "...Baeyer is an excellent experimentor, but he is only an empiricist, lacking sense and capability, and his interpretations of his experiments show particular deficiency in his familiarity with the principles of true science..." The violence of his language worked unfairly to limit his posthumous reputation. He died of a heart attack, in Leipzig. References Further reading | Hermann_Kolbe |@lemmatized adolph:1 wilhelm:2 hermann:3 kolbe:11 september:1 november:1 german:1 chemist:4 never:1 use:2 first:2 two:1 give:1 name:1 prefer:1 know:1 simply:1 life:2 bear:1 elliehausen:1 near:1 göttingen:3 kingdom:1 hanover:1 germany:1 eldest:1 son:1 protestant:1 pastor:1 age:1 enter:1 gymnasium:1 reside:1 home:1 one:3 professor:2 obtain:1 leave:1 certificate:1 abitur:1 six:1 year:2 later:1 become:4 passionate:1 study:2 chemistry:7 matriculate:1 university:3 spring:1 order:1 famous:1 friedrich:2 wöhler:3 assistant:2 robert:1 bunsen:2 marburg:2 take:1 doctoral:1 degree:1 new:2 opportunity:1 arise:1 lyon:1 playfair:1 museum:1 economic:1 geology:1 london:1 close:1 friend:1 edward:2 frankland:2 engage:1 edit:2 handwörterbuch:1 der:1 reinen:1 und:1 angewandten:1 chemie:3 dictionary:1 pure:1 applied:1 justus:1 von:3 liebig:1 johann:1 christian:1 poggendorff:1 also:1 write:1 important:1 textbook:1 succeed:1 call:3 leipzig:2 marry:1 charlotte:1 daughter:1 general:1 major:1 bardeleben:1 wife:1 die:2 happy:1 marriage:1 four:1 child:1 work:4 late:1 despite:1 synthesis:6 urea:1 still:1 believe:1 doctrine:1 vitalism:1 accord:1 special:1 force:1 necessary:1 create:1 organic:2 compound:2 develop:1 idea:2 could:1 derive:1 inorganic:1 directly:1 indirectly:1 substitution:1 process:2 validate:1 theory:7 convert:1 carbon:2 disulfide:1 several:1 step:1 acetic:1 acid:4 introduce:1 modified:1 structural:5 radical:1 contribute:1 establishment:1 dramatic:1 success:1 prediction:1 existence:1 secondary:1 tertiary:1 alcohol:1 conjecture:1 soon:1 confirm:1 substance:1 electrolysis:2 salt:1 fatty:1 prepared:1 salicylic:1 building:1 block:1 aspirin:1 schmitt:1 reaction:1 certain:1 method:1 nitrile:3 person:1 word:1 present:1 day:1 meaning:1 find:1 hydrolyze:1 corresponding:1 conflict:2 editor:1 journal:3 für:2 praktische:2 practical:1 sometimes:1 severely:1 critical:1 others:1 especially:2 wonder:1 whether:1 might:1 suffer:1 mental:1 illness:1 intolerant:1 regard:2 loose:1 speculation:1 parading:1 seek:1 writing:1 save:1 beloved:1 science:2 scourge:1 modern:1 rejection:1 structure:1 benzene:1 august:1 kekulé:1 asymmetric:1 atom:1 j:1 h:1 van:1 hoff:1 reform:1 chemical:1 nomenclature:1 adolf:1 baeyer:2 result:1 vituperative:1 article:1 translated:1 quote:1 illustrate:1 manner:1 articulate:1 deep:1 interpretation:2 excellent:1 experimentor:1 empiricist:1 lack:1 sense:1 capability:1 experiment:1 show:1 particular:1 deficiency:1 familiarity:1 principle:1 true:1 violence:1 language:1 unfairly:1 limit:1 posthumous:1 reputation:1 heart:1 attack:1 reference:1 far:1 reading:1 |@bigram eldest_son:1 friedrich_wöhler:2 robert_bunsen:1 doctoral_degree:1 pure_applied:1 justus_von:1 von_liebig:1 wöhler_synthesis:1 synthesis_urea:1 organic_compound:2 directly_indirectly:1 carbon_disulfide:1 acetic_acid:1 secondary_tertiary:1 fatty_acid:1 salicylic_acid:1 mental_illness:1 carbon_atom:1 van_hoff:1 |
1,535 | Patrick_Rafter | Patrick "Pat" Michael Rafter (born 28 December 1972) is a retired Australian former World No. 1 tennis player. He twice won the men's singles title at the US Open and was twice the runner-up at Wimbledon. Rafter was elected to the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 2006. He was known for his natural serve-and-volley style of play. Tennis career Rafter turned professional in 1991 and won his first career singles title in 1994 in Manchester. Prior to 1997, this was the only ATP singles title he had won. Rafter's breakthrough came in 1997, beginning at the French Open, where he reached the semifinals, falling in four sets to Sergi Bruguera. Later in the year, he won the US Open, defeating Greg Rusedski in a four-set final and Andre Agassi and Michael Chang, among others, in earlier rounds. This was his first Grand Slam title. 1998 was a particularly strong year for Rafter, winning two ATP Masters Series back-to-back singles titles in Toronto and Cincinnati. (Only Andre Agassi, in 1995, and Andy Roddick, in 2003, also have won both these tournaments in the same year.) Rafter defeated ninth ranked Richard Krajicek in the Toronto final and second ranked Pete Sampras in the Cincinnati final. Rafter then won a US Open warm-up tournament in Long Island, New York. Entering the US Open as the defending champion, he reached the final again, defeating Sampras in a five-set semifinal. He then defeated fellow Aussie player Mark Philippoussis in four sets. Altogether, Rafter won six tournaments in 1998. Rafter reached the Wimbledon semifinals for the first time in 1999, where he lost in straight sets to Agassi, the first of three consecutive years that the two met in the Wimbledon semifinals. July 1999 saw Rafter holding the world No. 1 men's singles ranking for one week, making him the shortest-reigning world No. 1 in ATP tour history. As the two-time defending US Open champion, Rafter lost in the first round of the tournament, retiring in the fifth set against Cédric Pioline after succumbing to shoulder tendinitis. Rafter's ranking then plummeted, and his shoulder injury wound up being serious enough to necessitate surgery. Pat Rafter By the time he reached the Wimbledon final in July 2000, his ranking had fallen to No. 52. Rafter won the Australian Open men's doubles title in 1999 (partnering Jonas Björkman). He and Björkman also won doubles titles at the ATP Masters Series events in Canada (1999) and Indian Wells (1998). In 2000, Rafter reached the men's singles final at Wimbledon. In the semifinals, Rafter defeated Agassi 7–5, 4–6, 7–5, 4–6, 6–3. The match was hailed as a classic, particularly because of their contrasting playing styles, with Agassi playing primarily from the baseline and Rafter attacking the net. 2000 - Pat Rafter (Aus) beat Andre Agassi (US) Rafter faced Sampras in the final, who was gunning for a record-breaking seventh Wimbledon title overall (and seven in the past eight years). While Rafter made a strong start to the match and took the first set, after the match he would claim that he had "choked" part way through the second set, and was then not able to get back into his game. Sampras won in four sets. In 2001, Rafter reached the semifinals of the Australian Open, but despite holding a two sets to one lead and having the support of the home crowd, Rafter lost the match to Agassi in five sets. Survival of the fittest Later in the year, Rafter again reached the Wimbledon final. For the third straight year, he faced Agassi in the semifinals and won in yet another five-setter, 2–6, 6–3, 3–6, 6–2, 8–6. Much like the previous year's semifinal, this match also received praise for the quality of play that the two men displayed. Rafter charges into final Back for more In the final, he squared off against Goran Ivanišević, who had reached the Wimbledon final three times before but had slid down the rankings to World No. 125 following injury problems. In a five-set struggle that lasted just over three hours, Ivanišević prevailed. Rafter was on the Australian Davis Cup Team that lost in the final in 2000 (to Spain) and 2001 (to France). Ironically, he was unable to play in the 1999 Davis Cup final – where Australia beat France to win the cup – because of injury (though he won important matches in the earlier rounds to help the team qualify). Rafter was on the Australian teams that won the World Team Cup in 1999 and 2001. He retired from the professional tour at the end of 2002 after winning a total of 11 singles titles and 10 doubles titles. He returns to the courts annually to play World Team Tennis for the Philadelphia Freedoms. On Australia Day 2008, Pat Rafter was inducted into the Australian Open Hall of Fame. Personal and family life Rafter was born in Mount Isa, Queensland, and is third-youngest in a family of nine children. He began playing tennis at the age of five with his father and three older brothers. In April 2004, Rafter married his girlfriend Lara Feltham (with whom he had a son, Joshua) at a resort in Fiji. Their daughter, India, was born in May 2005. Because of the white patch in his hair, his nickname amongst mates is "Skunky." In 2002, he won the Australian of the Year award. This created some controversy as he had spent much of his career residing in Bermuda. Rafter donated half of the prize money from his 1997 and 1998 US Open wins to the Starlight Children's Foundation. He has created his own charity organisation that raises funds for children's causes each year. He is a fan of both the Brisbane Broncos and Brisbane Lions and has occasionally played reserve grade Australian rules in the Sydney AFL for the North Shore Bombers. Grand Slam singles finals Wins (2) Year |width="200"|ChampionshipOpponent in Final |width="200"|Score in Final 1997 US Open Greg Rusedski 6–3, 6–2, 4–6, 7–5 1998 US Open Mark Philippoussis 6–3, 3–6, 6–2, 6–0 Runner-ups (2) Year |width="200"|ChampionshipOpponent in Final |width="200"|Score in Final 2000 Wimbledon Pete Sampras 6–7, 7–6, 6–4, 6–2 2001 Wimbledon Goran Ivanišević 6–3, 3–6, 6–3, 2–6, 9–7 Singles performance timeline Tournament 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Career SR Grand Slam tournaments Australian Open1R1R3R4R2R1R3R3RASF0 / 9 French OpenALQ4R1R1RSF2R3R2R1R0 / 8 WimbledonLQ3R2R1R4R4R4RSFFF0 / 9 US OpenLQ1R3R2R1RWW1R1R4R2 / 9SR0 / 10 / 30 / 40 / 40 / 41 / 41 / 40 / 40 / 30 / 42 / 35 Year-End ChampionshipTennis Masters CupAAAAARRAAARR0 / 2 ATP Masters Series Indian Wells MastersA1R3R3RA1R2R2R2RQF0 / 8 Miami MastersALQSF2RA1R1R3R4RSF0 / 7 Monte Carlo MastersAAA1RAAAAAA0 / 1 Rome MastersAA1R1RA2R1RF1RA0 / 6 Hamburg MastersAAA2RAAAA1RA0 / 2 Canada MastersAA1R2RQF2RWQFQFF1 / 8 Cincinnati MastersA1R1R3R2R3RWFAF1 / 8 Stockholm/Stuttgart MastersAA2RAASF2RA2RA0 / 4 Paris MastersAA1RAA2R2RA3RA0 / 4 Masters Series SR0 / 00 / 20 / 70 / 70 / 20 / 72 / 70 / 50 / 70 / 42 / 48 Year End Ranking243662066622416157N/A A = did not attend LQ = lost in qualifying draw ATP Masters Series singles finals Wins (2) Year |width="175"|ChampionshipOpponent in Final |width="150"|Score in Final 1998 Toronto Richard Krajicek 7–6, 6–4 1998 Cincinnati Pete Sampras 1–6, 7–6, 6–4 Runner-ups (4) Year |width="175"|ChampionshipOpponent in Final |width="150"|Score in Final 1999 Rome Gustavo Kuerten 6–4, 7–5, 7–6 1999 Cincinnati Pete Sampras 7–6, 6–3 2001 Montreal Andrei Pavel 7–6, 2–6, 6–3 2001 Cincinnati Gustavo Kuerten 6–1, 6–3 Career finals (43) Singles (25) Wins (11) Legend Grand Slam (2) Tennis Masters Cup (0) ATP Masters Series (2) ATP Championship Series (1) ATP Tour (6)Titles by Surface Hard (7) Grass (4) Clay (0) Carpet (0) No.DateTournamentSurfaceOpponent in FinalScore in Final 1. 20 June 1994 Manchester Open, Manchester, United Kingdom Grass Wayne Ferreira 7–6(5), 7–6(4) 2. 8 September 1997 US Open, New York City Hard Greg Rusedski 6–3, 6–2, 4–6, 7–5 3. 13 April 1998 Gold Flake Open, Madras, India Hard Mikael Tillström 6–3, 6–4 4. 22 June 1998 Heineken Trophy, 's-Hertogenbosch, Netherlands Grass Martin Damm 7–6(2), 6–2 5. 10 August 1998 du Maurier Open, Toronto, Canada Hard Richard Krajicek 7–6(3), 6–4 6. 17 August 1998 Great American Insurance ATP Championship, Cincinnati, U.S. Hard Pete Sampras 1–6, 7–6(2), 6–4 7. 31 August 1998 Hamlet Cup, Long Island, U.S. Hard Félix Mantilla 7–6(3), 6–2 8. 14 September 1998 US Open, New York City Hard Mark Philippoussis 6–3, 3–6, 6–2, 6–0 9. 21 June 1999 Heineken Trophy, 's-Hertogenbosch, Netherlands Grass Andrei Pavel 3–6, 7–6(7), 6–4 10. 26 June 2000 Heineken Trophy, 's-Hertogenbosch, Netherlands Grass Nicolas Escudé 6–1, 6–3 11. 20 August 2001 RCA Championships, Indianapolis, U.S. Hard Gustavo Kuerten 4–2 retired Runner-ups (14) No.DateTournamentSurfaceOpponent in FinalScore in Final 1. 18 April 1994 Salem Open, Hong Kong Hard Michael Chang 6–1, 6–3 2. 3 March 1997 Advanta Championships, Philadelphia, U.S. Hard (i) Pete Sampras 5–7, 7–6(4), 6–3 3. 14 April 1997 Salem Open, Hong Kong Hard Michael Chang 6–3, 6–3 4. 26 May 1997 Internationaler Raiffeisen Grand Prix, St. Poelten, Austria Clay Marcelo Filippini 7–6(2), 6–2 5. 18 August 1997 Pilot Pen International, New Haven, U.S. Hard Yevgeny Kafelnikov 7–6(4), 6–4 6. 25 August 1997 Waldbaum's Hamlet Cup, Long Island, U.S. Hard Carlos Moyà 6–4, 7–6(1) 7. 6 October 1997 Grand Slam Cup, Munich Carpet Pete Sampras 6–2, 6–4, 7–5 8. 17 May 1999 Italian Open, Rome Clay Gustavo Kuerten 6–4, 7–5, 7–6(6) 9. 16 August 1999 Great American Insurance ATP Championship, Cincinnati, U.S. Hard Pete Sampras 7–6(7), 6–3 10. 10 July 2000 Wimbledon, London Grass Pete Sampras 6–7(10), 7–6(5), 6–4, 6–2 11. 13 November 2000 Grand Prix de Tennis de Lyon, Lyon, France Carpet Arnaud Clément 7–6(2), 7–6(5) 12. 9 July 2001 Wimbledon, London Grass Goran Ivanišević 6–3, 3–6, 6–3, 2–6, 9–7 13. 6 August 2001 Tennis Masters Canada, Montréal Hard Andrei Pavel 7–6(3), 2–6, 6–3 14. 13 August 2001 Masters Series Cincinnati, U.S. Hard Gustavo Kuerten 6–1, 6–3 Doubles (18) Wins (10) No.DateTournamentSurfacePartnerOpponents in FinalScore in Final 1. 23 May 1994 Bologna Open, Bologna, Italy Clay John Fitzgerald Vojtech Flegl Andrew Florent 6–3, 6–3 2. 9 January 1995 Australian Hardcourt Championships, Adelaide, Australia Hard Jim Courier Byron Black Grant Connell 7–6, 6–4 3. 13 May 1996 U.S. Men's Clay Court Championships, Pinehurst, U.S. Clay Pat Cash Ken Flach David Wheaton 6–2, 6–3 4. 6 January 1997 Australian Hardcourt Championships, Adelaide, Australia Hard Bryan Shelton Todd Woodbridge Mark Woodforde 6–4, 1–6, 6–3 5. 16 June 1997 The Stella Artois Grass Court Championships, London Grass Mark Philippoussis Sandon Stolle Cyril Suk 6–2, 4–6, 7–5 6. 16 March 1998 Newsweek Champions Cup, Indian Wells, U.S. Hard Jonas Björkman Todd Martin Richey Reneberg 6–4, 7–6 7. 3 August 1998 Mercedes-Benz Cup, Los Angeles Hard Sandon Stolle Jeff Tarango Daniel Vacek 6–4, 6–4 8. 1 February 1999 Australian Open, Melbourne Hard Jonas Björkman Mahesh Bhupathi Leander Paes 6–3, 4–6, 6–4, 6–7(10), 6–4 9. 14 June 1999 Gerry Weber Open, Halle, Germany Grass Jonas Björkman Paul Haarhuis Jared Palmer 6–3, 7–5 10. 9 August 1999 du Maurier Open, Montreal, Canada Hard Jonas Björkman Byron Black Wayne Ferreira 7–6, 6–4 Runner-ups (8) No.DateTournamentSurfacePartnerOpponents in FinalScore in Final 1. 18 April 1994 Salem Open, Hong Kong Hard Jonas Björkman Jim Grabb Brett Steven walkover 2. 24 October 1994 Grand Prix de Tennis de Lyon, Lyon, France Carpet Martin Damm Jakob Hlasek Yevgeny Kafelnikov 6–7, 7–6, 7–6 3. 16 October 1995 IPB Czech Indoor, Ostrava, Czech Republic Carpet Guy Forget Jonas Björkman Javier Frana 6–7, 6–4, 7–6 4. 22 April 1996 Bermuda Open, Bermuda Clay Pat Cash Jan Apell Brent Haygarth 3–6, 6–1, 6–3 5. 17 March 1997 Newsweek Champions Cup, Indian Wells, U.S. Hard Mark Philippoussis Mark Knowles Daniel Nestor 7–6, 4–6, 7–5 6. 21 April 1997 Japan Open Tennis Championships, Tokyo Hard Justin Gimelstob Martin Damm Daniel Vacek 2–6, 6–2, 7–6 7. 11 August 1997 Great American Insurance ATP Championship, Cincinnati, U.S. Hard Mark Philippoussis Todd Woodbridge Mark Woodforde 7–6, 4–6, 6–4 8. 18 June 2001 Gerry Weber Open, Halle, Germany Grass Max Mirnyi Daniel Nestor Sandon Stolle 6–4, 6–7(5), 6–1 ATP Tour career earnings Year Majors ATP wins Total wins Earnings ($) Money list rank19971012,923,519319981562,867,017319990111,254,574122000011814,5861620010111,670,5927Career291111,127,05821 Video Wimbledon 2000 Semi-Final - Agassi vs. Rafter (2003) Starring: Andre Agassi, Patrick Rafter; Standing Room Only, DVD Release Date: 16 August 2005, Run Time: 213 minutes, ASIN: B000A343QY. Wimbledon 2001 Final: Rafter Vs Ivanisevic Standing Room Only, DVD Release Date: 30 October 2007, Run Time: 195 minutes, ASIN: B000V02CT6. References External links International Tennis Hall of Fame profile 2002 Australian of the Year Pat Rafter Cherish the Children (Charity) | Patrick_Rafter |@lemmatized patrick:2 pat:7 michael:4 rafter:34 born:1 december:1 retired:1 australian:13 former:1 world:6 tennis:11 player:2 twice:2 win:24 men:6 single:11 title:11 u:25 open:28 runner:5 wimbledon:14 elect:1 international:3 hall:3 fame:3 know:1 natural:1 serve:1 volley:1 style:2 play:7 career:6 turn:1 professional:2 first:6 manchester:3 prior:1 atp:14 breakthrough:1 come:1 begin:2 french:2 reach:8 semifinal:8 fall:2 four:4 set:12 sergi:1 bruguera:1 later:2 year:18 defeat:5 greg:3 rusedski:3 final:30 andre:4 agassi:10 chang:3 among:1 others:1 early:2 round:3 grand:8 slam:5 particularly:2 strong:2 two:5 master:10 series:8 back:4 toronto:4 cincinnati:10 andy:1 roddick:1 also:3 tournament:6 ninth:1 ranked:1 richard:3 krajicek:3 second:2 rank:3 pete:9 sampras:12 warm:1 long:3 island:3 new:4 york:3 enter:1 defend:2 champion:4 five:5 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1,536 | J.E.B._Stuart | James Ewell Brown "Jeb" Stuart (February 6, 1833 – May 12, 1864) was a U.S. Army officer from Virginia and a Confederate States Army general during the American Civil War. He was known to his friends as "Jeb", from the initials of his given names. Stuart was a cavalry commander known for his mastery of reconnaissance and the use of cavalry in support of offensive operations. While he cultivated a cavalier image (red-lined gray cape, yellow sash, hat cocked to the side with a peacock feather, red flower in his lapel, often sporting cologne), his serious work made him the trusted eyes and ears of Robert E. Lee's army and inspired Southern morale. Stuart graduated from West Point in 1854 and served in Texas and Kansas with the U.S. Army, a veteran of the frontier conflicts with Native Americans and the antebellum violence of Bleeding Kansas. He participated in the capture of John Brown at Harpers Ferry. Resigning when his home state of Virginia seceded, he served first under Stonewall Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley, but then in increasingly important cavalry commands of the Army of Northern Virginia, playing a role in all of that army's campaigns until his death. He established a reputation as an audacious cavalry commander and on two occasions (during the Peninsula Campaign and the Maryland Campaign) circumnavigated the Union Army of the Potomac, bringing fame to himself and embarrassment to the North. At the Battle of Chancellorsville, he distinguished himself as a temporary commander of the wounded Stonewall Jackson's infantry corps. Arguably Stuart's most famous campaign, Gettysburg was marred when he was surprised by a Union cavalry attack at the Battle of Brandy Station and by his separation from Lee's army for an extended period, leaving Lee unaware of Union troop movements and arguably contributing to the Confederate defeat at the Battle of Gettysburg. Stuart received significant criticism from the Southern press as well as the postbellum proponents of the Lost Cause movement, but historians have failed to agree on whether Stuart's exploit was entirely the fault of his judgment or simply bad luck and Lee's less than explicit orders. During the 1864 Overland Campaign, Union Maj. Gen. Philip Sheridan's cavalry launched an offensive to defeat Stuart, who was mortally wounded at the Battle of Yellow Tavern. Early life Stuart was born at Laurel Hill Farm, a plantation in Patrick County, Virginia, near the border with North Carolina. He was the eighth of eleven children and the oldest of the five sons to survive past early age. Wert, pp. 5-6, lists the children as Nancy Anne Dabney, born in 1818, Bethenia Pannill in 1819, Mary Tucker in 1821, David Pannill in 1823, William Alexander in 1826, John Dabney in 1828, Columbia Lafayette in 1830, James in 1833, an unnamed son who died at the age of three months in 1834, Virginia Josephine in 1836, and Victoria Augusta in 1838. Thomas, p. 7, claims that James was the youngest son of ten [unnamed] children. His great grandfather, Major Alexander Stuart, commanded a regiment at the Battle of Guilford Court House during the American Revolutionary War. Thomas, p. 5. His father, Archibald Stuart, was a War of 1812 veteran, slaveholder, attorney, and Democrat politician who represented Patrick County in both houses of the Virginia General Assembly, and also served one term in the United States House of Representatives. Wert, p. 5. Archibald was a cousin of Alexander Hugh Holmes Stuart. Elizabeth Letcher Pannill Stuart, Jeb's mother, who was known as a strict religious woman with a good sense for business, ran the family farm. Education Stuart was educated at home by his mother and tutors until the age of 12, when he left Laurel Hill to be educated by various teachers in Wytheville, Virginia, and at the home of his aunt Anne (Archibald's sister) and her husband Judge James Ewell Brown (Stuart's namesake) at Danville. Thomas, pp. 11-12; Wert, p. 8. He attended Emory & Henry College when he was 15, from 1848 to 1850. Wert, p. 10. During the summer of 1848, Stuart attempted to enlist in the U.S. Army, but was rejected as underaged. He obtained an appointment in 1850 to the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, from Representative Thomas Hamlet Averett, the man who had defeated his father in the 1848 election. Wert, p. 11; Davis, p. 19. Stuart was a popular student and was happy at the Academy. Although not handsome in his teen years, his classmates called him by the nickname "Beauty", which they described as his "personal comeliness in inverse ratio to the term employed." Thomas, p. 18. He possessed a chin "so short and retiring as positively to disfigure his otherwise fine countenance." He quickly grew a beard after graduation and a fellow officer remarked that he was "the only man he ever saw that [a] beard improved." Davis, p. 33; Wert, p. 15. Robert E. Lee was appointed superintendent of the Academy in 1852, and Stuart became friends with the Lee family, seeing them socially on frequent occasions. Lee's nephew, Fitzhugh Lee, also arrived at the academy in 1852. In Stuart's final year, in addition to achieving the cadet rank of second captain of the corps, he was one of eight cadets designated as honorary "cavalry officers" for his skills in horsemanship. Wert, p. 18. Stuart graduated 13th in his class of 46 in 1854. He ranked tenth in his class in cavalry tactics. Although he enjoyed the civil engineering curriculum at the academy and did well in mathematics, his poor drawing skills hampered his engineering studies, and he finished 29th in that discipline. There is a Stuart family tradition that says he deliberately degraded his academic performance in his final year to avoid service in the elite, but dull, Corps of Engineers. Thomas, pp. 18-32; Davis, p. 27. United States Army Stuart was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant assigned to the U.S. Mounted Rifles in Texas. After an arduous journey, he reached Fort Davis on January 28, 1855, and was a leader for three months on scouting missions over the San Antonio to El Paso Road. Wert, pp. 22-23. He was soon transferred to the newly formed 1st U.S. Cavalry Regiment at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas Territory, where he became regimental quartermaster Thomas, pp. 40-41. and commissary officer under the command of Col. Edwin V. Sumner. Wert, p. 25. He was promoted to first lieutenant in 1855. Also in 1855, Stuart met Flora Cooke, the daughter of the commander of the 2nd U.S. Dragoon Regiment, Lt. Col. Philip St. George Cooke. Burke Davis described Flora as "an accomplished horsewoman, and though not pretty, an effective charmer," to whom "Stuart succumbed with hardly a struggle." Davis, p. 36. They became engaged in September, less than two months after meeting. Stuart humorously wrote of his rapid courtship in Latin, "Veni, Vidi, Victus sum" (I came, I saw, I was conquered). Although a gala wedding was planned for Fort Riley, Kansas, the death of Stuart's father on September 20 caused a change of plans and the marriage on November 14 was small and limited to family witnesses. Thomas, pp. 41-43; Davis, p. 37; Wert, pp. 26-29. In 1857, the Stuarts' first child, a daughter, died in childbirth. The couple owned two slaves until 1859, one inherited from his father's estate, the other purchased. Wert, pp. 30-31. Stuart's ability to lead was soon recognized. He was a veteran of the frontier conflicts with Native Americans and the antebellum violence of Bleeding Kansas. He was wounded on July 29, 1857, while fighting at Solomon River, Kansas, against the Cheyenne. Sumner ordered a charge with drawn sabers against a wave of Indian arrows. Scattering the warriors, Stuart and three other lieutenants chased one down, whom Stuart wounded in the thigh with his pistol. The Cheyenne turned and fired at Stuart with an old-fashioned pistol, striking him in the chest with a bullet, which did little more damage than to pierce the skin. Davis, p. 40; Wert, pp. 33-35. Stuart returned in September to Fort Leavenworth and was reunited with his wife. On November 14, 1857, Flora gave birth to a daughter, whom the parents named Flora. The family relocated in early 1858 to Fort Riley, where they remained for three years. Wert, p. 35. In 1859, Stuart developed a new piece of cavalry equipment, for which he received patent number 25,684 on October 4—a saber hook, or an "improved method of attaching sabers to belts." The U.S. government paid Stuart $5,000 for a "right to use" license and Stuart contracted with Knorr, Nece and Co. of Philadelphia to manufacture his hook. While in Washington, D.C., to discuss government contracts, and in conjunction with his application for an appointment into the quartermaster department, Stuart heard about John Brown's raid on the U.S. Arsenal at Harpers Ferry. Stuart volunteered to be aide-de-camp to Col. Robert E. Lee and accompanied Lee with a company of U.S. Marines from the Washington Navy Yard and four companies of Maryland militia. While delivering Lee's written surrender ultimatum to the leader of the group, who had been calling himself Isaac Smith, Stuart recognized "Old Ossawattomie Brown" from his days in Kansas. Wert, pp. 37-39. Stuart was promoted to captain on April 22, 1861, but resigned from the U.S. Army on May 3, 1861, to join the Confederate States Army, following the secession of Virginia. (His letter of resignation, sent from Cairo, Illinois, was accepted by the War Department on May 14.) Wert, pp. 45, 52; Davis, pp. 47-40. Upon learning that his father-in-law, Col. Cooke, would remain in the U.S. Army during the coming war, Stuart wrote to his brother-in-law (future Confederate Brig. Gen. John Rogers Cooke), "He will regret it but once, and that will be continuously." Thomas, p. 95. On June 26, 1860, Flora gave birth to a son, Philip St. George Cooke Stuart, but his father changed the name to James Ewell Brown Stuart, Jr. ("Jimmie"), in late 1861 out of disgust with his father-in-law. Wert, pp. 42, 76. Confederate Army Early service Stuart was commissioned as a lieutenant colonel of Virginia Infantry in the Confederate Army on May 10, 1861. Maj. Gen. Robert E. Lee, now commanding the armed forces of Virginia, ordered him to report to Col. Thomas J. Jackson at Harper's Ferry. Jackson chose to ignore Stuart's infantry designation and assigned him on July 4 to command all the cavalry companies of the Army of the Shenandoah, organized as the 1st Virginia Cavalry Regiment. Wert, p. 49; Davis, pp. 51-52. He was promoted to colonel on July 16. After early service in the Shenandoah Valley, Stuart led his regiment in the First Battle of Bull Run, and participated in the pursuit of the retreating Federals. He then commanded the Army's outposts along the upper Potomac River until given command of the cavalry brigade for the army then known as the Army of the Potomac (later named the Army of Northern Virginia). He was promoted to brigadier general on September 24, 1861. Peninsula In 1862, the Union Army of the Potomac began its Peninsula Campaign against Richmond, Virginia, and Stuart's cavalry brigade assisted Gen. Joseph E. Johnston's army as it withdrew up the Virginia Peninsula in the face of superior numbers. Stuart fought at the Battle of Williamsburg, but in general the terrain and weather on the Peninsula did not lend themselves to cavalry operations. However, when Gen. Robert E. Lee became commander of the Army of Northern Virginia, he requested that Stuart perform reconnaissance to determine whether the right flank of the Union army was vulnerable. Stuart set out with 1,200 troopers on the morning of June 12 and, having determined that the flank was indeed vulnerable, took his men on a complete circumnavigation of the Union army, returning after 150 miles on July 15 with 165 captured Union soldiers, 260 horses and mules, and various quartermaster and ordnance supplies. His men met no serious opposition from the more decentralized Union cavalry, coincidently commanded by his father-in-law, Col. Cooke. The maneuver was a public relations sensation and Stuart was greeted with flower petals thrown in his path at Richmond. He had become as famous as Stonewall Jackson in the eyes of the Confederacy. Wert, pp. 93-101; Davis, pp. 111-30. Northern Virginia Early in the Northern Virginia Campaign, Stuart was promoted to major general on July 25, 1862, and his command was upgraded to the Cavalry Division. He was nearly captured and lost his signature plumed hat and cloak to pursuing Federals during a raid in August, but in a retaliatory raid at Catlett's Station the following day, managed to overrun Union army commander Maj. Gen. John Pope's headquarters, and not only captured Pope's full uniform, but also intercepted orders that provided Lee with valuable intelligence concerning reinforcements for Pope's army. Wert, pp. 125-29; Davis, pp. 167-72. At the Second Battle of Bull Run (Second Manassas), Stuart's cavalry followed the massive assault by Longstreet's infantry against Pope's army, protecting its flank with artillery batteries. Stuart ordered Brig. Gen. Beverly Robertson's brigade to pursue the Federals and in a sharp fight against Brig. Gen. John Buford's brigade, Col. Thomas T. Munford's 2nd Virginia Cavalry was overwhelmed until Stuart sent in two more regiments as reinforcements. Buford's men, many of whom were new to combat, retreated across Lewis's Ford and Stuart's troopers captured over 300 of them. Stuart's men harassed the retreating Union columns until the campaign ended at the Battle of Chantilly. Wert, pp. 136-37; Davis, pp. 183-84. Maryland During the Maryland Campaign of September 1862, Stuart's cavalry screened the army's movement north. He bears some responsibility for Robert E. Lee's lack of knowledge of the position and celerity of the pursuing Army of the Potomac under George B. McClellan. For a five-day period, Stuart rested his men and entertained local civilians at a gala ball at Urbana, Maryland. His reports make no reference to intelligence gathering by his scouts or patrols. Wert, p. 144. As the Union Army drew near to Lee's divided army, Stuart's men skirmished at various points on the approach to Frederick and Stuart was not able to keep his brigades concentrated enough to resist the oncoming tide. He misjudged the Union routes of advance, ignorant of the Union force threatening Turner's Gap, and required assistance from the infantry of Maj. Gen. D.H. Hill to defend the South Mountain passes in the Battle of South Mountain. Wert, pp. 147-50. His horse artillery bombarded the flank of the Union army as it opened its attack in the Battle of Antietam. By mid-afternoon, Stonewall Jackson ordered Stuart to command a turning movement with his cavalry against the Union right flank and rear, which if successful would be followed up by an infantry attack from the West Woods. Stuart began probing the Union lines with more artillery barrages, which were answered with "murderous" counterbattery fire and the cavalry movement intended by Jackson was never launched. Wert, pp. 156-58; Davis, pp. 205-06. After Lee's army had withdrawn back to Virginia, Stuart performed another of his audacious circumnavigations of the Army of the Potomac—120 miles in under 60 hours, from Leesburg, Virginia, to as far north as Chambersburg, Pennsylvania—once again embarrassing his Union opponents and seizing horses and supplies, but at the expense of exhausted men and animals, without gaining much military advantage. Jubal Early referred to it as "the greatest horse stealing expedition" that only "annoyed" the enemy. Wert, pp. 167-76; Thomas, pp. 173-80; Davis, pp. 215-37. Stuart gave his friend Jackson a fine, new officer's tunic, trimmed with gold lace, commissioned from a Richmond tailor, which he thought would give Jackson more of the appearance of a proper general (something to which Jackson was notoriously indifferent). Robertson, pp. 653-54; Thomas, pp. 172-73. McClellan pushed his army slowly south, urged by President Lincoln to pursue Lee, crossing the Potomac starting on October 26. As Lee began moving to counter this, Stuart screened Longstreet's Corps and skirmished numerous times in early November against Union cavalry and infantry around Mountville, Aldie, and Upperville. On November 6, Stuart received sad news by telegram that his daughter Flora had died just before her fifth birthday of typhoid fever on November 3. Wert, pp. 179-83. Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville In the December 1862 Battle of Fredericksburg, Stuart and his cavalry—most notably his horse artillery under Major John Pelham—protected Stonewall Jackson's flank at Hamilton's Crossing. General Lee commended his cavalry, which "effectually guarded our right, annoying the enemy and embarrassing his movements by hanging on his flank, and attacking when the opportunity occurred." Stuart reported to Flora the next day that he had been shot through his fur collar but was unhurt. Wert, pp. 190-93; Davis, pp. 253-58. After Christmas, Lee ordered Stuart to conduct a raid north of the Rappahannock River to "penetrate the enemy's rear, ascertain if possible his position & movements, & inflict upon him such damage as circumstances will permit." Assigning 1,800 troopers and a horse artillery battery to the operation, Stuart's raid reached as far north as 4 miles south of Fairfax Court House, seizing 250 prisoners, horses, mules, and supplies. Tapping telegraph lines, his signalmen intercepted messages between Union commanders and Stuart sent a personal telegram to Union Quartermaster General Montgomery C. Meigs, "General Meigs will in the future please furnish better mules; those you have furnished recently are very inferior." Wert, pp. 195-98; Davis, pp. 261-63. On March 17, 1863, Stuart's cavalry clashed with a Union raiding party at Kelly's Ford. The minor victory was marred by the death of Major Pelham, which caused Stuart profound grief, as he thought of him as close as a younger brother. He wrote to a Confederate Congressman, "The noble, the chivalric, the gallant Pelham is no more. ... Let the tears of agony we have shed, and the gloom of mourning throughout my command bear witness." Flora was pregnant at the time and Stuart told her that if it were a boy, he wanted him to be named John Pelham Stuart. (Virginia Pelham Stuart was born October 9.) Longacre, Lee's Cavalrymen, pp. 169-74; Wert, pp. 207-10, 321; Davis, pp. 267-76; Thomas, p. 270. At the Battle of Chancellorsville, Stuart accompanied Stonewall Jackson on his famous flanking march of May 2, 1863, and started to pursue the retreating soldiers of the Union XI Corps when he received word that both Jackson and his senior division commander, Maj. Gen. A.P. Hill, had been wounded. Hill, bypassing the next most senior infantry general in the corps, Brig. Gen. Robert E. Rodes, sent a message ordering Stuart to take command of the Second Corps. Although the delays associated with this change of command effectively ended the flanking attack the night of May 2, Stuart performed credibly as an infantry corps commander the following day, launching a strong and well-coordinated attack against the Union right flank at Chancellorsville. When Union troops abandoned Hazel Grove, Stuart had the presence of mind to quickly occupy it and bombard the Union positions with artillery. Stuart relinquished his infantry command on May 6 when Hill returned to duty. Wert, pp. 222-31; Davis, pp. 290-98. Stephen W. Sears wrote: Stonewall Jackson died on May 10 and Stuart was once again devastated by the loss of a close friend, telling his staff that the death was a "national calamity." Jackson's wife, Mary Anna, wrote to Stuart on August 1, thanking him for a note of sympathy: "I need not assure you of which you already know, that your friendship & admiration were cordially reciprocated by him. I have frequently heard him speak of Gen'l Stuart as one of his warm personal friends, & also express admiration for your Soldierly qualities." Wert, p. 233. Brandy Station Returning to the cavalry for the Gettysburg Campaign, Stuart endured the two low points in his career, starting with the Battle of Brandy Station, the largest predominantly cavalry engagement of the war. By June 5, two of Lee's infantry corps were camped in and around Culpeper. Six miles northeast, holding the line of the Rappahannock River, Stuart bivouacked his cavalry troopers, mostly near Brandy Station, screening the Confederate Army against surprise by the enemy. Stuart requested a full field review of his troops by Gen. Lee. This grand review on June 5 included nearly 9,000 mounted troopers and 4 batteries of horse artillery, charging in simulated battle at Inlet Station, about two miles (3 km) southwest of Brandy Station. Longacre, Cavalry at Gettysburg, pp. 39-40; Sears, Gettysburg, pp. 62-64; Wert, pp. 238-39. Lee was not able to attend the review, however, so it was repeated in his presence on June 8, although the repeated performance was limited to a simple parade without battle simulations. Longacre, Cavalry at Gettysburg, pp. 40-41; Sears, Gettysburg, pp. 62-64. Despite the lower level of activity, some of the cavalrymen and the newspaper reporters at the scene complained that all Stuart was doing was feeding his ego and exhausting the horses. Lee ordered Stuart to cross the Rappahannock the next day and raid Union forward positions, screening the Confederate Army from observation or interference as it moved north. Anticipating this imminent offensive action, Stuart ordered his tired troopers back into bivouac around Brandy Station. Salmon, p. 193; Wert, p. 239. Army of the Potomac commander Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker interpreted Stuart's presence around Culpeper to be indicative of preparations for a raid on his army's supply lines. In reaction to this, he ordered his cavalry commander, Maj. Gen. Alfred Pleasonton, to take a combined arms force of 8,000 cavalrymen and 3,000 infantry on a "spoiling raid" to "disperse and destroy" the 9,500 Confederates. Salmon, p. 198; Wert, p. 240. Pleasanton's force crossed the Rappahannock in two columns on June 9, 1863, the first crossing at Beverly's Ford (Brig. Gen. John Buford's division) catching Stuart by surprise, waking him and his staff to the sound of gunfire. The second crossing, at Kelly's Ford, surprised Stuart again, and the Confederates found themselves assaulted from front and rear in a spirited melee of mounted combat. A series of confusing charges and countercharges swept back and forth across Fleetwood Hill, which had been Stuart's headquarters the previous night. After 10 hours of fighting, Pleasonton ordered his men to withdraw across the Rappahannock. Salmon, pp. 199-203; Wert, pp. 241-48; Davis, pp. 305-12. Although Stuart claimed a victory because the Confederates held the field, Brandy Station is considered a tactical draw, and both sides came up short. Pleasonton was not able to disable Stuart's force at the start of an important campaign and he withdrew before finding the location of Lee's infantry nearby. However, the fact that the Southern cavalry had not detected the movement of two large columns of Union cavalry, and that they fell victim to a surprise attack, was an embarrassment that prompted serious criticism from fellow generals and the Southern press. The fight also revealed the increased competency of the Union cavalry, and foreshadowed the decline of the formerly invincible Southern mounted arm. Longacre, Cavalry at Gettysburg, pp. 65-86; Wert, pp. 249-52. Stuart's ride in the Gettysburg Campaign Following a series of small cavalry battles in June as Lee's army began marching north through the Shenandoah Valley, Stuart may have had in mind the glory of circumnavigating the enemy army once again, desiring to erase the stain on his reputation of the surprise at Brandy Station. General Lee gave orders to Stuart on June 22 on how he was to participate in the march north, and the exact nature of those orders has been argued by the participants and historians ever since, but the essence was that he was instructed to guard the mountain passes with part of his force while the Army of Northern Virginia was still south of the Potomac and that he was to cross the river with the remainder of the army and screen the right flank of Ewell's Second Corps. Instead of taking a direct route north near the Blue Ridge Mountains, however, Stuart chose to reach Ewell's flank by taking his three best brigades (those of Brig. Gen. Wade Hampton, Brig. Gen. Fitzhugh Lee, and Col. John R. Chambliss, the latter replacing the wounded Brig. Gen. W.H.F. "Rooney" Lee) between the Union army and Washington, moving north through Rockville to Westminster and on into Pennsylvania, hoping to capture supplies along the way and cause havoc near the enemy capital. Stuart and his three brigades departed Salem Depot at 1 a.m. on June 25. Sears, Gettysburg, pp. 104-06; Longacre, pp. 148-52; Gottfried, p. 28; Coddington, p. 108. Unfortunately for Stuart's plan, the Union army's movement was underway and his proposed route was blocked by columns of Federal infantry, forcing him to veer farther to the east than either he or General Lee had anticipated. This prevented Stuart from linking up with Ewell as ordered and deprived Lee of the use of his prime cavalry force, the "eyes and ears" of the army, while advancing into unfamiliar enemy territory. Coddington, pp. 108-13; Longacre, pp. 152-53; Sears, Gettysburg, p. 106; Gottfried, p. 28. Stuart's command crossed the Potomac River at 3 a.m. on June 28. At Rockville they captured a wagon train of 140 brand-new, fully loaded wagons and mule teams. This wagon train would prove to be a logistical hindrance to Stuart's advance, but he interpreted Lee's orders as placing importance on gathering supplies. The proximity of the Confederate raiders provoked some consternation in the national capital and two Union cavalry brigades and an artillery battery were sent to pursue the Confederates. Stuart supposedly said that were it not for his fatigued horses "he would have marched down the 7th Street Road [and] took Abe & Cabinet prisoners." Wittenberg & Petruzzi, pp. 19-32; Longacre, pp. 154-56; Sears, Gettysburg, pp. 106, 130-31. In Westminster on June 29, his men clashed briefly with and overwhelmed two companies of Union cavalry, chasing them a long distance on the Baltimore road, which Stuart claimed caused a "great panic" in the city of Baltimore. Coddington, pp. 199-200; Longacre, pp. 156-58; Wittenberg & Petruzzi, pp. 47-64. The head of Stuart's column encountered Brig. Gen. Judson Kilpatrick's cavalry as it passed through Hanover and scattered it on June 30; the Battle of Hanover ended after Kilpatrick's men regrouped and drove the Confederates out of town. Stuart's brigades had been better positioned to guard their captured wagon train than to take advantage of the encounter with Kilpatrick. After a 20 mile trek in the dark, his exhausted men reached Dover on the morning of July 1, as the Battle of Gettysburg was commencing without them. Coddington, pp. 200-01; Wittenberg & Petruzzi, pp. 65-117; Longacre, pp. 161, 172-79. Stuart headed next for Carlisle, hoping to find Ewell. He lobbed a few shells into town during the early evening of July 1 and burned the Carlisle Barracks before withdrawing to the south towards Gettysburg. He and the bulk of his command reached Lee at Gettysburg the afternoon of July 2. He ordered Wade Hampton to cover the left rear of the Confederate battle lines, and Hampton fought with Brig. Gen. George Armstrong Custer at the Battle of Hunterstown before joining Stuart at Gettysburg. Wittenberg & Petruzzi, pp. 139-78; Longacre, pp. 193-202. Gettysburg and its aftermath When Stuart arrived at Gettysburg on the afternoon of July 2—bringing with him the caravan of captured Union supply wagons—he received a rare rebuke from Lee. (No one witnessed the private meeting between Lee and Stuart, but reports circulated at headquarters that Lee's greeting was "abrupt and frosty." Colonel Edward Porter Alexander wrote, "Although Lee said only, 'Well, General, you are here at last,' his manner implied rebuke, and it was so understood by Stuart." Sears, Gettysburg, pp. 257-58. Longacre, pp. 215-16, argues that a bitter confrontation never took place. ) On the final day of the battle, Stuart was ordered to get into the enemy's rear and disrupt its line of communications at the same time Pickett's Charge was sent against the Union positions on Cemetery Ridge, but his attack on East Cavalry Field was repulsed by Union cavalry under Brig. Gens. David Gregg and George Custer. Longacre, Cavalry at Gettysburg, pp. 220-31. During the retreat from Gettysburg, Stuart devoted his full attention to supporting the army's movement, successfully screening against aggressive Union cavalry pursuit and escorting thousands of wagons with wounded men and captured supplies over difficult roads and through inclement weather. Numerous skirmishes and minor battles occurred during the screening and delaying actions of the retreat. Stuart's men were the final units to cross the Potomac River, returning to Virginia in "wretched condition—completely worn out and broken down." Longacre, Lee's Cavalrymen, pp. 223-37; Wert, pp. 292-98. The Gettysburg Campaign was the most controversial of Stuart's career. He became one of the scapegoats (along with James Longstreet) blamed for Lee's loss at Gettysburg by proponents of the postbellum Lost Cause movement, such as Jubal Early. Coddington, p. 207. This was fueled in part by opinions of less partisan writers, such as Stuart's subordinate, Thomas L. Rosser, who stated after the war that Stuart did, "on this campaign, undoubtedly, make the fatal blunder which lost us the battle of Gettysburg." In General Lee's report on the campaign, he wrote Modern scholarship remains divided on Stuart's culpability. Edward G. Longacre argues that Lee deliberately gave Stuart wide discretion in his orders and had no complaints about Stuart's tardy arrival at Gettysburg because he established no date by which the cavalry was required to link up with Ewell. The 3 1/2 brigades of cavalry left with the main army were adequate for Lee to negotiate enemy territory safely and that his choice not to use these brigades effectively cannot be blamed on Stuart. Edwin B. Coddington refers to the "tragedy" of Stuart in the Gettysburg Campaign and judges that when Fitzhugh Lee raised the question of "whether Stuart exercised the discretion undoubtedly given to him, judiciously," the answer is no. Nevertheless, replying to historians who maintain that Stuart's absence permitted Lee to be surprised at Gettysburg, Coddington points out that the Union commander, Maj. Gen. George Meade, was just as surprised, and the initial advantage lay with Lee. Eric J. Wittenberg and J. David Petruzzi have concluded that there was "plenty of blame to go around" and the fault should be divided between Stuart, the lack of specificity in Lee's orders, and Richard S. Ewell, who might have tried harder to link up with Stuart northeast of Gettysburg. Jeffry D. Wert acknowledges that Lee, his officers, and fighting by the Army of the Potomac bear the responsibility for the Confederate loss at Gettysburg, but states that "Stuart failed Lee and the army in the reckoning at Gettysburg. ... Lee trusted him and gave him discretion, but Stuart acted injudiciously." Longacre, Lee's Cavalrymen, pp. 215-16; Longacre, Cavalry at Gettysburg, p. 271; Coddington, pp. 205-08; Wittenberg & Petruzzi, pp. 263-98; Wert, pp. 299-302. Although Stuart was not reprimanded or disciplined in any official way for his role in the Gettysburg campaign, it is noteworthy that his appointment to corps command on September 9, 1863, did not carry with it a promotion to lieutenant general. Edward Bonekemper wrote that since all other corps commanders in the Army of Northern Virginia carried this rank, Lee's decision to keep Stuart at major general rank, while at the same time promoting Stuart's subordinates Wade Hampton and Fitzhugh Lee to major generals, could be considered an implied rebuke. Bonekemper, p. 139. Jeffry D. Wert wrote that there is no evidence Lee considered Stuart's performance during the Gettysburg Campaign and that it is "more likely that Lee thought the responsibilities in command of a cavalry corps did not equal those of an infantry corps." Wert, pp. 308-09. Fall 1863 and the 1864 Overland Campaign Lee reorganized his cavalry on September 9, creating a Cavalry Corps for Stuart with two divisions of three brigades each. In the Bristoe Campaign, Stuart was assigned to lead a broad turning movement in an attempt to get into the enemy's rear, but General Meade skillfully withdrew his army without leaving opportunities to take advantage. On October 13, Stuart blundered into the rear guard of the Union III Corps near Warrenton. Ewell's corps was sent to rescue him, but Stuart hid his troopers in a wooded ravine until the unsuspecting III Corps moved on, and the assistance was not necessary. As Meade withdrew towards Manassas Junction, brigades from the Union II Corps fought a rearguard action against Stuart's cavalry and the infantry of Brig. Gen. Harry Hays's division near Auburn on October 14. Stuart's cavalry boldly bluffed Warren's infantry and escaped disaster. After the Confederate repulse at Bristoe Station and an aborted advance on Centreville, Stuart's cavalry shielded the withdrawal of Lee's army from the vicinity of Manassas Junction. Judson Kilpatrick's Union cavalry pursued Stuart's cavalry along the Warrenton Turnpike but were lured into an ambush near Chestnut Hill and routed. The Federal troopers were scattered and chased five miles (8 km) in an affair that came to be known as the "Buckland Races". The Southern press began to mute its criticism of Stuart's following his successful performance during the fall campaign. Wert, pp. 313-21; Davis, pp. 360-67. The Overland Campaign, Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant's offensive against Lee in the spring of 1864, began at the Battle of the Wilderness, where Stuart aggressively pushed Thomas L. Rosser's Laurel Brigade into a fight against George Custer's better-armed Michigan Brigade, resulting in significant losses. General Lee sent a message to Stuart: "It is very important to save your Cavalry & not wear it out. ... You must use your good judgment to make any attack which may offer advantages." As the armies maneuvered toward their next confrontation at Spotsylvania Court House, Stuart's cavalry fought delaying actions against the Union cavalry. His defense at Laurel Hill, also directing the infantry of Brig. Gen. Joseph B. Kershaw, skillfully delayed the advance of the Federal army for nearly 5 critical hours. Wert, pp. 338-46; Davis, pp. 378-84. Yellow Tavern and death The commander of the Army of the Potomac, Maj. Gen. George Meade, and his cavalry commander, Maj. Gen. Philip Sheridan, quarreled about the Union cavalry's performance in the first two engagements of the Overland Campaign. Sheridan heatedly asserted that he wanted to "concentrate all of cavalry, move out in force against Stuart's command, and whip it." Meade reported the comments to Grant, who replied "Did Sheridan say that? Well, he generally knows what he is talking about. Let him start right out and do it." Sheridan immediately organized a raid against Confederate supply and railroad lines close to Richmond, which he knew would bring Stuart to battle. Wert, p. 346; Davis, p. 384. Sheridan moved aggressively to the southeast, crossing the North Anna River and seizing Beaver Dam Station on the Virginia Central Railroad, where his men liberated a train carrying 3,000 Union prisoners and destroyed more than one million rations and medical supplies destined for Lee's army. Stuart dispatched a force of about 3,000 cavalrymen to intercept Sheridan's cavalry, more than three times their numbers. As he rode in pursuit, accompanied by his aide, Maj. Andrew R. Venable, they were able to stop briefly along the way to be greeted by Stuart's wife, Flora, and his children, Jimmie and Virginia. Venable wrote of Stuart, "He told me he never expected to live through the war, and that if we were conquered, that he did not want to live." Wert, pp. 346-49. The Battle of Yellow Tavern occurred May 11, at an abandoned inn located six miles (10 km) north of Richmond. The Confederate troopers tenaciously resisted from the low ridgeline bordering the road to Richmond, fighting for over three hours. A countercharge by the 1st Virginia Cavalry pushed the advancing Union troopers back from the hilltop as Stuart, mounted on horseback, shouted encouragement. As the 5th Michigan Cavalry streamed in retreat past Stuart, a dismounted Union private, 48-year-old John A. Huff, a former sharpshooter, turned and shot Stuart with his .44-caliber pistol, from a distance of 10-30 yards. Smith, p. 242; Salmon, p. 283; Starr, p. 107; Rhea, pp. 209, 390; Thomas, p. 292; Edward G. Longacre, writing in a June 2004 Civil War Times article, claims that Huff's shot was from away, an arguably impressive feat with a pistol; in his book, Lincoln's Cavalrymen (p. 268), Longacre states that Huff was able to advance "close enough" to Stuart to shoot him in the abdomen, although he was not aware at the time that his victim was Stuart. Private Huff was killed a month later at the Battle of Haw's Shop. Wert, pp. 347-58, disputes the possibility that Huff fired the mortal shot, stating that the evidence points to an unnamed trooper in either the 1st or 7th Michigan. The pistol wound proved mortal, striking Stuart in the left side, slicing through his stomach, and passing out his back, 1 inch to the right of his spine. Smith, p. 357. Taken to Richmond to await the arrival of his wife at the home of his brother-in-law, Dr. Charles Brewer, Stuart ordered his sword and spurs be given to his son. His last whispered words were: "I am resigned; God's will be done." He died at 7:38 p.m. on May 12, the following day. He was 31 years old. Stuart was buried in Richmond's Hollywood Cemetery. Upon learning of Stuart's death, General Lee is reported to have said that he could hardly keep from weeping at the mere mention of Stuart's name and that Stuart had never given him a bad piece of information. Smith, p. 244; Wert, pp. 357-62. Flora wore the black of mourning for the remainder of her life, and never remarried. She lived in Saltville, Virginia, for 15 years after the war, where she opened and taught at a school in a log cabin. She worked from 1880 to 1898 as principal of the Virginia Female Institute in Staunton, Virginia, a position for which Robert E. Lee had recommended her. In 1907, the Institute was renamed Stuart Hall School in her honor. Upon the death of her daughter Virginia, from complications in childbirth in 1898, Flora resigned from the Institute and moved to Norfolk, Virginia, where she helped Virginia's widower, Robert Page Waller, in raising her grandchildren. She died in Norwalk on May 10, 1923, after striking her head in a fall on a city sidewalk. She is buried alongside her husband and their daughter, Little Flora, in Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond. Wert, pp. 368-69. Legacy and memorials Like his intimate friend, Stonewall Jackson, General J.E.B. Stuart was a legendary figure and is considered one of the great cavalry commanders of American history. His friend and West Point classmate, Union Maj. Gen. John Sedgwick said that Stuart was "the greatest cavalry officer ever foaled in America." Wert, pp. 371-72. Jackson and Stuart, both of whom were killed in battle, had colorful public images, although the latter seems to have been more deliberately crafted. Jeffry D. Wert wrote about Stuart: A statue of General J.E.B. Stuart by sculptor Frederick Moynihan was dedicated on Richmond's famed Monument Avenue at Stuart Circle in 1907. Like General Stonewall Jackson, his equestrian statue faces north, indicating that he died in the war. In 1884 the town of Taylorsville, Virginia, was renamed Stuart. The British Army named two models of American-made World War II tanks, the M3 and M5, the Stuart tank in General Stuart's honor. High schools in Falls Church, Virginia, and Jacksonville, Florida, are named for him. In December 2006, a personal Confederate battle flag, sewn by Flora Stuart, was sold at auction for a world-record price for any Confederate flag, for $956,000 (including buyer's premium). Antique Trader, December 27, 2006, p1, p. 15 (online auction site) The 34-inch by 34-inch flag was hand-sewn for Stuart by Flora in 1862 and Stuart carried it into some of his most famous battles. However, in December of that year it fell from a tent front into a campfire and was damaged. Stuart returned it to his wife with a letter describing the accident and telling of his despondency over the banner's damage. Davis, p. 261. The flag remained with the Stuart family until 1969 when it was given to Stuart Hall, Staunton, Virginia, by a granddaughter of the Confederate general. The school quietly sold the flag and letter to a private collector in 2000. In 2006, the flag and letter, which had been displayed in a single frame in the Stuart Hall front parlor, sold separately at auction. Stuart's birthplace, Laurel Hill, located in Patrick County, Virginia, was purchased by the J.E.B. Stuart Birthplace Preservation Trust, Inc., in 1992 to preserve and interpret it. Laurel Hill website. In popular media In the long running comic book G.I. Combat, featuring "The Haunted Tank," published by DC Comics from the 1960s through the late 1980s, the ghost of General Stuart guided a tank crew (the tank being, at first, a Stuart, later a Sherman) commanded by his namesake "Lt. Jeb Stuart." Joseph Fuqua played Stuart in the films Gettysburg and Gods and Generals. IMDb. Stuart, along with his warhorse Skylark, is featured prominently in the novel Traveller by Richard Adams. Errol Flynn played Stuart in the movie Santa Fe Trail, depicting his antebellum life, confronting John Brown in Kansas and at Harper's Ferry. The movie has become infamous for its many historical inaccuracies, one of which was that Stuart, George Armstrong Custer, and Philip Sheridan were firm friends and all attended West Point together in 1854. IMDb. In the alternate-history novel How Few Remain by Harry Turtledove, Stuart is the commanding Confederate general in charge of the occupation and defense of the recently purchased Mexican provinces of Sonora and Chihuahua. See also List of American Civil War generals References Bonekemper, Edward H. III, How Robert E. Lee Lost the Civil War, Sergeant Kirkland's Press, 1998, ISBN 1-887901-15-9. Coddington, Edwin B., The Gettysburg Campaign; a study in command, Scribner's, 1968, ISBN 0-684-84569-5. Davis, Burke, Jeb Stuart: The Last Cavalier, Random House, 1957, ISBN 0-517-18597-0. Eicher, John H., and Eicher, David J., Civil War High Commands, Stanford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8047-3641-3. Longacre, Edward G., The Cavalry at Gettysburg, University of Nebraska Press, 1986, ISBN 0-8032-7941-8. Longacre, Edward G., Lee's Cavalrymen: A History of the Mounted Forces of the Army of Northern Virginia, Stackpole Books, 2002, ISBN 0-8117-0898-5. Perry, Thomas D., J. E. B. Stuart's Birthplace: The History of the Laurel Hill Farm, Laurel Hill Publishing, 2008, ISBN 978-1438239347. Rhea, Gordon C., The Battles for Spotsylvania Court House and the Road to Yellow Tavern May 7–12, 1864, Louisiana State University Press, 1997, ISBN 0-8071-2136-3. Robertson, James I., Jr., Stonewall Jackson: The Man, The Soldier, The Legend, MacMillan Publishing, 1997, ISBN 0-02-864685-1. Salmon, John S., The Official Virginia Civil War Battlefield Guide, Stackpole Books, 2001, ISBN 0-8117-2868-4. Sears, Stephen W., Chancellorsville, Houghton Mifflin, 1996, ISBN 0-395-87744-X. Sears, Stephen W., Gettysburg, Houghton Mifflin, 2003, ISBN 0-395-86761-4. Smith, Derek, The Gallant Dead: Union & Confederate Generals Killed in the Civil War, Stackpole Books, 2005, ISBN 0-8117-0132-8. Starr, Stephen Z., The Union Cavalry in the Civil War, Volume II: The War in the East from Gettysburg to Appomattox 1863–1865, Louisiana State University Press, 1981, ISBN 978-0-8071-3292-0. Thomas, Emory M., Bold Dragoon: The Life of J.E.B. Stuart, University of Oklahoma Press, 1986, ISBN 0-8061-3193-4. Wert, Jeffry D., Cavalryman of the Lost Cause: A Biography of J.E.B. Stuart, Simon & Schuster, 2008, ISBN 978-0-7432-7819-5. Wittenberg, Eric J., and Petruzzi, J. David, Plenty of Blame to Go Around: Jeb Stuart's Controversial Ride to Gettysburg, Savas Beatie, 2006, ISBN 1-932714-20-0. Notes Further reading Brown, Kent Masterson, Retreat from Gettysburg: Lee, Logistics, & the Pennsylvania Campaign, University of North Carolina Press, 2005, ISBN 0-8078-2921-8. McClellan, Henry B., and Burke Davis (ed.), I Rode with Jeb Stuart: The Life and Campaigns of Maj. Gen. Jeb Stuart, Da Capo Press, 1994, ISBN 978-0-3068-0605-6. Perry, Thomas D., Laurel Hill Teachers' Guide, 2005. Wittenberg, Eric J., J. David Petruzzi, and Michael F. Nugent, One Continuous Fight: The Retreat from Gettysburg and the Pursuit of Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, July 4-14, 1863, Savas Beatie, 2008, ISBN 978-1-932714-43-2. 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1,537 | Interior_Gateway_Routing_Protocol | Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) is a distance vector interior routing protocol (IGP) invented by Cisco. It is used by routers to exchange routing data within an autonomous system. IGRP is a proprietary protocol. IGRP was created in part to overcome the limitations of RIP (maximum hop count of only 15, and a single routing metric) when used within large networks. IGRP supports multiple metrics for each route, including bandwidth, delay, load, MTU, and reliability; to compare two routes these metrics are combined together into a single metric, using a formula which can be adjusted through the use of pre-set constants. The maximum hop count of IGRP-routed packets is 255 (default 100), and routing updates are broadcast every 90 seconds (by default). IGRP is considered a classful routing protocol. Because the protocol has no field for a subnet mask, the router assumes that all interface addresses within the same Class A, Class B, or Class C network have the same subnet mask as the subnet mask configured for the interfaces in question. This contrasts with classless routing protocols that can use variable length subnet masks. Classful protocols have become less popular as they are wasteful of IP address space. Advancement In order to address the issues of address space and other factors, Cisco created EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol). EIGRP adds support for VLSM (variable length subnet mask) and adds the Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL) in order to improve routing and provide a loopless environment. EIGRP has completely replaced IGRP, making IGRP an obsolete routing protocol. In Cisco IOS versions 12.3 and greater, IGRP is completely unsupported. In the new Cisco CCNA curriculum (version 4), IGRP is mentioned only briefly, as an "obsolete protocol". refer to the network administrators, this is the best protocol at the moment External links Cisco - An Introduction to IGRP | Interior_Gateway_Routing_Protocol |@lemmatized interior:3 gateway:2 rout:6 protocol:11 igrp:11 distance:1 vector:1 igp:1 invent:1 cisco:5 use:5 router:2 exchange:1 data:1 within:3 autonomous:1 system:1 proprietary:1 create:2 part:1 overcome:1 limitation:1 rip:1 maximum:2 hop:2 count:2 single:2 routing:5 metric:4 large:1 network:3 support:2 multiple:1 route:2 include:1 bandwidth:1 delay:1 load:1 mtu:1 reliability:1 compare:1 two:1 combine:1 together:1 formula:1 adjust:1 pre:1 set:1 constant:1 packet:1 default:2 update:2 broadcast:1 every:1 second:1 consider:1 classful:2 field:1 subnet:5 mask:5 assume:1 interface:2 address:4 class:3 b:1 c:1 configure:1 question:1 contrast:1 classless:1 variable:2 length:2 become:1 less:1 popular:1 wasteful:1 ip:1 space:2 advancement:1 order:2 issue:1 factor:1 eigrp:3 enhanced:1 add:2 vlsm:1 diffusing:1 algorithm:1 dual:1 improve:1 provide:1 loopless:1 environment:1 completely:2 replace:1 make:1 obsolete:2 io:1 version:2 great:1 unsupported:1 new:1 ccna:1 curriculum:1 mention:1 briefly:1 refer:1 administrator:1 best:1 moment:1 external:1 link:1 introduction:1 |@bigram routing_protocol:2 subnet_mask:5 ip_address:1 external_link:1 |
1,538 | Camel | Camel headcount in 2003 Camels are even-toed ungulates within the genus Camelus. The dromedary, one-humped or Arabian camel has a single hump and is well known for its healthy low fat milk, and the Bactrian camel has two humps. They are native to the dry desert areas of western Asia, and central and east Asia, respectively. The term camel is also used more broadly to describe any of the dumb camel like creatures in the family Camelidae: the two true camels, and the four South American camelids, the llama, alpaca, guanaco, and vicuña. The average life expectancy of a camel is 40 to 50 years. A fully grown adult camel stands at the shoulder and at the hump. The hump rises about 30 inches (75 cm) out of its body. Camels can run up to in short bursts and sustain speeds of up to . Fossil evidence indicates that the ancestors of modern camels evolved in North America during the Palaeogene period, and later spread to most parts of Asia. Humans first domesticated camels before 2000 BC. —Note that Bulliet has many more references to early use of camels The dromedary and the Bactrian camel are both still used for milk, meat, and as beasts of burden—the dromedary in western Asia and in Africa north of the sub-Saharan savannahs, and the Bactrian camel further to the north and east in central Asia. Distribution and numbers The almost 14 million dromedaries alive today are domesticated animals (mostly living in Somalia, the Sahel, Maghreb, Middle East and Indian subcontinent). An estimated half of the worlds camel population are found in Somalia and in the Somali Region of Ethiopia, where the camel is an important part of nomadic Somali life. They provide the Somali people with milk, food and transportation. The Bactrian camel is now reduced to an estimated 1.4 million animals, mostly domesticated. It is thought that there are about 1000 wild Bactrian camels in the Gobi Desert in China and Mongolia. Wild Bactrian Camel, Animal Info There is a substantial feral population of dromedaries estimated at up to 700,000 in central parts of Australia, National plan sought to manage camel population ABC (2005) descended from individuals introduced as transport animals in the 19th century and early 20th century. This population is growing at approximately 11% per year. The government of South Australia has decided to cull the animals using aerial marksmen, because the camels use too much of the limited resources needed by sheep farmers. For more information, see Australian feral camel. A small population of introduced camels, dromedaries and Bactrians, survived in the Southwest United States until the 1900s. These animals, imported from Turkey, were part of the US Camel Corps experiment and used as draft animals in mines and escaped or were released after the project was terminated. A descendant of one of these was seen by a backpacker in Los Padres National Forest in 1972. Twenty-three Bactrian camels were brought to Canada during the california gold rush and Cariboo Gold Rush. Genetics The karyotypes of different camelid species have been studied by many groups, but no agreement on chromosome nomenclature of camelids has been reached. See also: and and and and The most recent study used flow-sorted camel chromosomes building undoubtedly the camel's karyotype (2n=74) that consists of one metacentric, three submetacentric and 32 acrocentric autosomes. The Y is a small metacentric chromosome, while the X is a large metacentric chromosome. According to molecular data, the New World and Old World camelids diverged 11 million years ago. In spite of this, these species turned out to be conserved sufficiently to hybridize and produce live offspring (cama). The dromedary-guanaco interspecific hybrid provided the ideal platform to compare the karyotypes of Old World and New World camels. Camelus dromedarius, Wadi Rum, Jordan The cama is a camel-llama hybrid bred by scientists who wanted to see how closely related the parent species were. The dromedary is six times the weight of a llama, hence artificial insemination was required to impregnate the llama female (llama male to dromedary female attempts have proven unsuccessful). Though born even smaller than a llama cria, the cama had the short ears and long tail of a camel, and no hump. At four years old, the cama became sexually mature and attracted to llama and guanaco females and showed interest in mating with both. A second cama (female) has since been produced using artificial insemination. Because camels and llamas both have 74 chromosomes, scientists hope that the cama will be fertile. If so, there is potential for increasing size, meat/wool yield and pack/draft ability in South American camels. The cama apparently inherited the poor temperament of both parents as well as demonstrating the relatedness of the New World and Old World camelids. Dromedary-Bactrian hybrids are called bukhts in Kazakhstan, are larger than either parent, have a single hump and are good draft camels. The females can be mated back to a Bactrian to produce ¾-bred riding camels. These hybrids are found in Kazakhstan. Eco-behavioural adaptations A camel's thick coat is one of their many adaptations that aid them in desert-like conditions. Domesticated camel calves in Dubai Exhibition camels munching neem leaves on a street at Guntur City, Andhra Pradesh, India Camels do not store water in their humps as is commonly believed; the humps are actually a reservoir of fatty tissue. Concentrating body fat in their humps minimizes heat-trapping insulation throughout the rest of their body, which may be an adaptation to living in hot climates. When this tissue is metabolized, it acts as a source of energy, and would yield more than 1 g of water for each 1 g of fat converted through reaction with oxygen from air. This process of fat metabolization generates a net loss of water through respiration for the oxygen required to convert the fat. What secrets lie within the camel's hump?, Lund University, Sweden. Retrieved 7 January 2008. Their ability to withstand long periods without water is due to a series of physiological adaptations. Their red blood cells have an oval shape, unlike those of other mammals, which are circular. This is to facilitate their flow in a dehydrated state. These cells are also more stable in order to withstand high osmotic variation without rupturing when drinking large amounts of water ( to in one drink). Dromedary, Hannover Zoo. Retrieved 8 January 2008. Camels are able to withstand changes in body temperature and water content that would kill most other animals. Their temperature ranges from at night up to during the day, and only above this threshold will they begin to sweat. The upper body temperature range is often not reached during the day in milder climatic conditions, and therefore, the camel may not sweat at all during the day. Evaporation of their sweat takes place at the skin level, not at the surface of their coat, thereby being very efficient at cooling the body compared to the amount of water lost through sweating. This ability to fluctuate body temperature and the efficiency of their sweating allows them to preserve about five litres of water a day. A feature of their nostrils is that a large amount of water vapor in their exhalations is trapped and returned to their body fluids, thereby reducing the amount of water lost through respiration. They can withstand at least 20-25% weight loss due to sweating (most mammals can only withstand about 3-4% dehydration before cardiac failure results from the thickened blood). A camel's blood remains hydrated, even though the body fluids are lost, until this 25% limit is reached. Camels eating green herbage can ingest sufficient moisture in milder conditions to maintain their bodies' hydrated state without the need for drinking. FAO Camels, Camel information from The Food and Agriculture Organization of the U.N. A camel's thick coat reflects sunlight, and also insulates them from the intense heat radiated from desert sand. A shorn camel has to sweat 50% more to avoid overheating. Their long legs help by keeping them further from the hot ground. Camels have been known to swim. Their mouth is very sturdy, able to chew thorny desert plants. Long eyelashes and ear hairs, together with sealable nostrils, form a barrier against sand. Their gait and their widened feet help them move without sinking into the sand. The kidneys and intestines of a camel are very efficient at retaining water. Urine comes out as a thick syrup, and their feces are so dry that they can fuel fires. Domsticated camels at the Pyramids of Giza All camelids have an unusual immune system. In all mammals, the Y-shaped antibody molecules consist of two heavy (or long) chains along the length of the Y, and two light (or short) chains at each tip of the Y. Camels also have antibody molecules that have only two heavy chains, which makes them smaller and more durable. These heavy chain-only antibodies, which were discovered in 1993, probably developed 50 million years ago, after camelids split from ruminants and pigs, according to biochemist Serge Muyldermans. The camel is the only animal to have replaced the wheel (mainly in North Africa) where the wheel had already been established. The camel did not lose that distinction until the wheel was combined with the internal combustion engine in the 20th century. In order to prevent dehydration, camels do not vomit any of their organs, vital or not, contrary to popular belief. Camel farming Over the past few decades camels have regained recognition for their food-producing potential in arid and semi-arid areas of Sudan. After having been dismissed as uneconomical by the Sudanese government, their vital role in supporting human populations in some of the poorest and frequently drought-stricken areas of the world has now been widely acknowledged (Hjort af Ornäs, 1988). The devastating African drought in 1984-1985 demonstrated that camel ownership can give pastoralists a competitive edge and an excellent chance for survival. Whereas entire herds of cattle, sheep and goats succumbed to the arid conditions, camel populations survived relatively unscathed. Consequently, some pastoral groups with deeply ingrained traditions of cattle herding, such as the Samburu in northern Kenya, started to acquire camels (Sperling, 1987), a fact which has come to the attention of development agencies and international organizations. Military uses English Imperial Camel Corps Brigade in Egypt Attempts have been made to employ camels as cavalry and dragoon mounts and as freight animals instead of horses and mules. In some places, such as Australia, some of the camels have become feral and are considered to be dangerous to travelers on camels. The camels were mostly used in combat because of their ability to scare off horses in close ranges, a quality famously employed by the Achaemenid Persians when fighting Lydia, although the Persians usually used camels as baggage trains for arrows and equipment. The horses detest the smell of camels, and therefore, the horses in the vicinity become harder to control. The United States Army had an active camel corps stationed in California in the 19th century, and the brick stables may still be seen at the Benicia Arsenal in Benicia, California, now converted to artists' and artisans' studio spaces. Camels have been used in wars throughout Africa, and also in the East Roman Empire as auxiliary forces known as Dromedarii recruited in desert provinces. During the American Civil War, camels were used at an experimental stage, but were not used any further, as they were unpopular with the men. Cuisine Dairy Camel calf feeding from her mother's milk Camel milk is a staple food of desert nomad tribes and is richer in fat and protein than cow milk. Camel milk cannot be made into butter in the traditional churning method. It can be made if it is soured first, churned, and a clarifying agent added, or if it is churned at 24–25 °C (75–76 °F), but times will vary greatly in achieving results. The milk can readily be made into yogurt. Butter or yogurt made from camel milk is said to have a very faint greenish tinge. Camel milk is said to have many healthful properties and is used as a medicinal product in India; Bedouin tribes believe that camel milk has great curative powers if the camel's diet consists of certain plants. In Ethiopia, the milk is considered an aphrodisiac. Camel milk, until recently, was impossible to make into traditional cheese since rennet was unable to coagulate the milk proteins to allow the collection of curds. Under the commission of the FAO, Professor J.P. Ramet of the École Nationale Supérieure d'Agronomie et des Industries Alimentaires (ENSAIA) was able to produce curdling by the addition of calcium phosphate and vegetable rennet. Fresh from your local drome'dairy'? Food and Agriculture Organization, July 6, 2001 The cheese produced from this process has low levels of cholesterol and lactose. The sale of camel cheese is limited owing to the low yield of cheese from milk and the uncertainty of pasteurization levels for camel milk which makes adherence to dairy import regulations difficult. Camelus dromedarius in the Singapore Zoo Meat A camel carcass can provide a substantial amount of meat. The male dromedary carcass can weigh or more, while the carcass of a male Bactrian can weigh up to . The carcass of a female camel weighs less than the male, ranging between 250 and 350 kg (550–770 lb), but can provide a substantial amount of meat. The brisket, ribs and loin are among the preferred parts, but the hump is considered a delicacy and is most favored. It is reported that camel meat tastes like coarse beef, but older camels can prove to be tough and less flavorful. Camel meat has been eaten for centuries. It has been recorded by ancient Greek writers as an available dish in ancient Persia at banquets, usually roasted whole. The ancient Roman emperor Heliogabalus enjoyed camel's heel. Camel meat is still eaten in certain regions including Somalia, where it is called Hilib geyl, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Libya, Sudan, Kazakhstan and other arid regions where alternative forms of protein may be limited or where camel meat has had a long cultural history. In the Middle East, camel meat is the rarest and most prized source of pastırma. Not just the meat, but also blood is a consumable item as is the case in northern Kenya, where camel blood is a source of iron, vitamin D, salts and minerals. The camel is also considered a novelty in Australia - for example, a camel lasagne is available in Alice Springs). Fossil camel footprint (a trace fossil) from the Miocene (Barstovian) of southern California Health issues A 2005 report issued jointly by the Saudi Ministry of Health and the United States Center for Disease Control details cases of human bubonic plague resulting from the ingestion of raw camel liver. Cultural prohibitions on consuming camel products According to Jewish tradition, camel meat and milk are not kosher. Camels possess only one of the two Kosher criteria; although they chew their cuds, they do not possess cloven hooves. (See: Taboo food and drink) See also Camel racing Camel troops Wal-Mart camel References Camels and Camel Milk. Report Issued by FAO, United Nations. (1982) The Technology of Making Cheese from Camel Milk (Camelus dromedarius) Animal Production and Health Paper Issued by FAO, United Nations. (2001) External links Use of camels by South African police National Camel Research Centre, Bikaner (Rajasthan), India The A-Z of Camels Camels: God's gift to the Bedouin Livius.org: Camels and dromedaries | Camel |@lemmatized camel:108 headcount:1 even:3 toed:1 ungulate:1 within:2 genus:1 camelus:4 dromedary:13 one:6 hump:12 arabian:1 single:2 well:2 know:3 healthy:1 low:3 fat:6 milk:19 bactrian:10 two:6 native:1 dry:2 desert:7 area:3 western:2 asia:5 central:3 east:5 respectively:1 term:1 also:9 use:15 broadly:1 describe:1 dumb:1 like:3 creature:1 family:1 camelidae:1 true:1 four:2 south:4 american:3 camelids:6 llama:7 alpaca:1 guanaco:3 vicuña:1 average:1 life:2 expectancy:1 year:5 fully:1 grow:2 adult:1 stand:1 shoulder:1 rise:1 inch:1 cm:1 body:10 run:1 short:3 burst:1 sustain:1 speed:1 fossil:3 evidence:1 indicate:1 ancestor:1 modern:1 evolve:1 north:4 america:1 palaeogene:1 period:2 later:1 spread:1 part:5 human:3 first:2 domesticate:4 bc:1 note:1 bulliet:1 many:4 reference:2 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1,539 | Enya | Enya (born Eithne Patricia Ní Bhraonáin on 17 May 1961 in Gaoth Dobhair, also known as Gweedore, County Donegal) is an Irish singer, instrumentalist and composer. Her name is sometimes presented in the media as Enya Brennan, while Enya is an approximate transliteration of how Eithne is pronounced in her native Irish, in Donegal dialect, more commonly and officially known as Ulster Irish. Enya Fan Studio > Enya > Personal > Enya's Name She began her musical career in 1980, when she briefly joined her family band Clannad, before leaving to pursue her solo career. Her album Watermark, which was released in 1988, propelled her to international recognition and Enya became known for her unique sound, which was characterized by voice-layering, folk melodies, synthesized backdrops and ethereal reverberations. She continued to enjoy steady success during the 1990s and 2000s; her 2000 album A Day Without Rain achieved tremendous record sales (15 million) and she was named the world's biggest selling female artist of 2001. http://www.theonering.net/torwp/2002/03/08/14783-enya-wins-best-selling-female-at-world-music-awards/ She is Ireland's best-selling solo artist http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=99190609 and is officially the country's second biggest musical export after the band U2. Enya Music (Used, New, Hard-to-Find) - Alibris Her album sales stand at 70 million as of 2009. Her work has earned her, among other things, an Academy Award nomination and she is known for performing in 10 different languages during her career thus far. http://worldmusic.about.com/od/bandsartistsaz/p/Enya.htm Biography Musical upbringing and Clannad Enya was born into a musical family, the sixth of nine children. Her grandparents were in a band that played throughout Ireland, her father was the leader of the Slieve Foy Band before opening a pub, and her mother played in a dance band and later taught music at the Pobalscoil Ghaoth Dobhair. Enya attended Loreto Community School Milford County Donegal. Enya has four brothers and four sisters, several of whom formed the band An Clann As Dobhar in 1968. They renamed the band Clannad in the 1970s. Enya (front row, right) on the cover of Clannad's 1981 album Fuaim. In 1980, Enya worked with Clannad, the band composed of her siblings Máire (Moya), Pól, and Ciarán and twin uncles Noel and Padraig Duggan. Enya played the keyboard and provided backing vocals on their album Crann Úll (1980), although she was not officially a member of the group until the 1981 release Fuaim, when she appeared on the cover. In 1982, shortly before Clannad became famous for "Theme From Harry's Game," producer and manager Nicky Ryan left the group and Enya joined him to start her own solo career. Enya then formed her own recording studio, named "Aigle", which is French for "Eagle". Solo career Enya recorded two solo instrumental pieces called "An Gaoth Ón Ghrian" ("The Solar Wind") and "Miss Clare Remembers" that were released on the 1983 album Touch Travel. She was first credited as Enya (as opposed to Eithne) for writing some of the music for the 1984 movie The Frog Prince, which was released on a soundtrack album of the same title. Another early appearance on record followed in 1987, where Enya provided spoken (not sung) vocals on Sinéad O'Connor's debut album, The Lion and the Cobra. The title of the album is a partial English translation of Enya's Gaelic reading of Psalms 91:13 (KJV: "Thou shalt tread on the lion and the adder . .") in the song "Never Get Old". Enya was contracted to provide music for the soundtrack of the 1986 BBC television documentary The Celts. The music she produced was featured on her first solo album, Enya (1987), but it attracted little attention at the time. The B-Side single "Eclipse" is actually a reversed and modified version of Enya's song "Deireadh An Tuath", from this 1987 album Enya. 'Eclipse' reversal referenced on official Enya site The song "Boadicea", also from this album, would later be sampled by The Fugees on their single "Ready or Not" (1996), causing a brief stir because the group neither sought permission from Enya nor gave her credit initially, and by Mario Winans, who did give her credit (the Winans track, "I Don't Wanna Know" which features a rap by P. Diddy and is officially credited to all three artists, became Enya's highest charting single in the U.S., when it peaked at #2 on the Hot 100 in 2004). International breakthrough Enya achieved a breakthrough in her career in 1988 with the album Watermark, which featured the hit song "Orinoco Flow" (sometimes incorrectly known as "Sail Away"). "Orinoco Flow", featuring Jay Tyree, reported to be named after Orinoco Studios (now Miloco Studios), where it was conceived (although one of the longest rivers in South America is the Orinoco River, which might be the true origin of its name), topped the charts in the United Kingdom, peaked at number 2 in Germany and the Watermark album sold eight million copies. Three years later, she followed with another hit album, Shepherd Moons, which sold ten million copies and earned Enya her first Grammy Award. The songs "On Your Shore" and "Exile" (from Watermark) and "Epona" (from Enya) were featured in the 1991 film L.A. Story. "Ebudae" was also featured on the soundtrack to the Robin Williams film Toys, while the 1990 film Green Card had "River", "Watermark", and "Storms In Africa". "Book Of Days" was featured prominently in the movie Far and Away, with an English-lyric version created for the film then replacing the old Gaelic-language version on all pressings of the Shepherd Moons album from 1993 onwards. In 1993, her recording of "Marble Halls" from Shepherd Moons was featured in the Martin Scorsese film, The Age of Innocence. In 1992, a re-mastered version of the Enya album was released as The Celts including a longer, modified version of "Portrait", which was re-named as "Portrait (Out of the Blue)". Four years after Shepherd Moons, she released the Grammy-winning The Memory of Trees (1995), another Top Five success in both the UK and Germany, as well as her first Top 10 album in the U.S. Singles released from the album were "Anywhere Is" and "On My Way Home". In 1997, Enya released her greatest hits collection, Paint The Sky With Stars: The Best of Enya, again a Top Five smash in the UK and Germany, which featured two new songs: "Paint the Sky With Stars" and "Only If..."; "Only If..." later became a single. ("Only If You Want To", is an early version of "Only If...". It appears on a promotional Japanese CD called, The Best of Enya, and does not include the French lyrics. Enya FAQ at fansites.hollywood.com ) She was offered the chance to compose the score for James Cameron's 1997 film Titanic, but declined. The eventual choice of Norwegian vocalist Sissel Kyrkjebø, whose style is similar to Enya's, resulted in work that some sources erroneously credited to Enya, although in interviews, the songs were officially credited as the sound of Clannad. A 1989 recording of Enya singing an Irish language version of "Silent Night" ("Oíche Chiúin") has been reissued many times over the years, including The Christmas EP (which otherwise contained several non-holiday related previously issued recordings by Enya) and the 1997 edition of the charity album A Very Special Christmas. Ansett Australia extensively used "Storms in Africa" for promotional purposes when the airline re-branded itself in the 1990s. The advertisements featuring portions of the song can be found on YouTube. The 1992 film Sleepwalkers features "Boadicea" as the film's signature tune. Return and A Day Without Rain Following a five-year break, Enya released the Grammy winning album A Day Without Rain in 2000, featuring 37 minutes of new material (34 minutes on the U.S. version). The album is Enya's most successful to date, peaking at #2 on the U.S. Billboard Album charts. The first single, "Only Time", was used in the film Sweet November and received U.S. radio airplay in late 2000. In May 2001, NBC began using "Only Time" to accompany commercials for their television series Friends, which helped the song get airplay on top-40 radio. After the September 11, 2001 attacks, "Only Time" was used as a soundtrack in many radio and television reports about the attacks. Enya initially disapproved of this use, especially when bootlegged versions of "Only Time", mixed with sound effects from the attacks, were produced. Enya eventually released a special edition of the song, and a maxi single was issued on 20 November 2001 featuring a pop mix, with proceeds donated to the families of victims. Only Time peaked at #10 on the U.S. Hot 100, #12 on the Pop Chart and hit #1 on the Adult Contemporary and Hot Adult Contemporary charts. In Germany, Only time re-entered the German single charts at number 1 | INFINITY CHARTS: German Top 20 and the album A Day Without Rain reached Number One some weeks later. Enya won the Echo Award for best selling international single in Germany of 2001, and received a nomination for best selling album. In 2001, Enya recorded May It Be, which featured in the first installment of the Lord of the Rings film trilogy, Fellowship of the Ring, and was her second consecutive single to enter the German charts at number 1. The video features scenes from the Oscar-nominated Peter Jackson film. Enya, self-admittedly, composes music slowly. | Enya ecard was brought to you by the Joy Luck Club A new song called "Sumiregusa" ("Wild Violet") was based around a Japanese poem by Roma Ryan. In September 2004, the song was used in Japan as part of an advertising campaign for Panasonic. Warner Music Japan stated that Enya's next album was scheduled for release in Japan in mid-November. Enya issued a press release on her official Web site on 19 September stating that this was a mistake and no new album was immediately forthcoming. Amarantine to And Winter Came In November 2005, a new album, entitled Amarantine, was released. It reached the Top 10 in both the UK and the U.S., and peaked at number 3 in Germany. The album won the Grammy Award for Best New Age Album for 2007, Enya's fourth. In 2006, Enya released several Christmas-themed CDs with newly recorded material. On 10 October 2006, Sounds of the Season: The Enya Holiday Collection was released containing six songs: the previously released "Oíche Chiúin" (a.k.a. "Silent Night") and "Amid the Falling Snow", new recordings of the standards "Adeste Fideles" (a.k.a. "Oh Come All Ye Faithful") and "We Wish You a Merry Christmas" as well as two original songs, "Christmas Secrets" and "The Magic of the Night". This CD was released only in the United States in an exclusive partnership with the NBC television network and the Target department store chain. Enya was awarded the World's Best-Selling Irish Act award at the World Music Awards in London on 19 November 2006. In late November, two new editions of Amarantine were released. In the UK it was reissued as Amarantine - Special Christmas Edition with a second disc containing the four new Christmas songs previously issued on Sounds of the Season (the original album already had "Amid the Falling Snow" while "Oíche Chiúin" is a recording dating back to 1988, which had already been featured on numerous collections). The U.S. received a special version of this release (Amarantine - Deluxe Collector's Edition), which also included three postcards and a copy of Roma Ryan's book Water Shows the Hidden Heart, which is referenced on the original album. Canadian fans could choose from the Special Christmas Edition of Amarantine or an EP entitled Christmas Secrets, which contained only the four new songs. Coinciding with these releases was the re-launch of Enya's official website on 2 November 2006. On 16 November 2006, Enya mentioned on ITV1's that she was working on a new album. A month later, in a Japanese interview Enya said that the album would be a complete Christmas album and would be released in 2007 which led to widespread fan speculation, such as on the official enya.com forum; ultimately, no release occurred at that time. By mid-2007, Enya claimed to have sold 70 million albums. An American businessperson has coined the phrase "enyanomics" to explain Enya's ability to sell millions of records without giving any live performances. Article at news.independent.co.uk On 29 June 2007, Enya received an honorary doctorate from the National University of Ireland, Galway. Enya received honorary doctorate from NUI Shortly after, on 10 July 2007, (date also stated at Enya's official website under News) Enya received a second honorary doctorate from the University of Ulster. Enya receives second doctorate UU Honours Musician Enya On 1 September 2008, Enya's website launched "The Loxian Games." The competition is a way for fans of Enya to win four grand prizes, which have yet to be revealed. Thirty more prizes will be awarded to runners-up. In past Enya.com Online Competitions, winners were awarded autographed Enya albums. The launch of "The Loxian Games" and a brand new website have recently come out. In 7 November 2008, Enya's new album, And Winter Came..., was released. The album is a Christmas and Winter themed album. Musical style and other projects Much of her music shows influence of Irish music and classical music. As a musical group, Enya represents a partnership between three people: Enya herself, who composes and performs the music; Nicky Ryan, who produces the albums; and Roma Ryan, who writes the lyrics in various languages. Enya FAQ at enya.com Enya performs all percussion, instruments, and vocals in her pieces unless specified. Although there are certain pieces where acoustic instruments are featured, almost all sounds of her pieces are created by a synthesizer, specifically the Roland D-50. Her trademark sound is achieved by layering her voice as much as 80 times. Enya on IMDB She has stated in an interview that she has once dubbed her voice to about 500 times. The vocals are each performed individually, and are layered together to form a virtual choir, although all the voices are Enya herself. In "Cursum Perficio" of the album Watermark, Enya reaches a C an octave below middle C. Later in the piece, she sings a high A-flat above the treble clef. She is described as a mezzo-soprano. Enya bio On the album Amarantine, Enya sings in Japanese and Loxian, a language invented by Roma Ryan. While most of her songs are sung in English, some of Enya's songs are sung entirely in Irish or Latin. Enya has also sung songs written entirely or partially in Welsh, Spanish, French, and even languages created by J. R. R. Tolkien. Enya has performed songs relating to J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, including 1991's "Lothlórien" (instrumental), 2001's "May It Be" (sung in English and Quenya), and "Aníron" (in Sindarin)—the last two, which she composed, appearing on the soundtrack of Peter Jackson's movie The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring. Enya has given several live performances on various television shows, events and ceremonies (her most recent appearance was in Gaoth Dobhair in the summer of 2005, which coincided with a tribute event to the Brennan family that took place in Letterkenny), but she has yet to do a concert. She has said, though, that she would love to do it someday, and would consider it a great challenge. Although her Grammys were for "Best New Age Album", Enya does not personally classify her music as belonging to the New Age genre. When asked what genre she would classify her music as belonging to, she would reply, "Enya". Selected discography For a full listing of albums, singles and chart positions see Enya discography. Albums Enya (1987) 2.85m sales, later re-issued as The Celts Watermark U.S.#25 UK#5 (1988) 11m sales Billboard Album Rankings - Enya Shepherd Moons U.S.#17 UK#1 (1991) 12m sales The Celts (1992) 6.7m sales The Memory of Trees U.S.#9 (1995) 10m sales Paint the Sky with Stars U.S.#30 UK#4 (1997) 10.5m sales A Day Without Rain U.S.#2 UK#6 (2000) 15m sales Amarantine U.S.#6 UK#8 (2005; expanded edition released 2006) 6.2m sales And Winter Came... U.S.#8 UK#6 (2008) 2.1m sales DVD releases In 2000, Warner Music released Enya: The Video Collection on DVD in Europe, South Africa and Asia, collecting all her videos from "Orinoco Flow" up to and including "Wild Child", except for the video from "Book of Days", which was replaced by a live TV performance due to licensing complications relating to the video's use of footage from the film Far and Away. This release was a successor to an earlier collection of videos entitled Moonshadows, which was released on VHS and laserdisc in 1992. The DVD release also included interviews and features on the making of two videos. A North American (Region 1) release of the Video Collection DVD was announced on several occasions during 2000-2001, but it did not occur; the reason for which has never been officially stated. At one point it was announced that the release had been delayed in order to allow the inclusion of the video for "May it Be", while the (now defunct) Enya.org fan site reported that a dispute over the sound quality of the release led to it being withdrawn. As of 2005, The Collection was still considered to be "coming soon" by some North American online retailers although bootleg copies from Asia have circulated at the retail level in some parts of Region 1 since 2000. Despite the release of a new CD by Enya in November 2005, the Region 1 edition of the DVD collection remains in limbo and there has been no announcement of an updated DVD release in other parts of the world. As of 2009, the only official release of an Enya video on DVD in North America has been "May it Be", which was first included on the DVD release of The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring. Personal life As a member of her family's band Clannad, Enya formed a friendship with producer/manager Nicky Ryan. After working with Ryan for seven years, Clannad began looking for another producer. Differences in opinion about the future marketing of the band, coupled with a degree of jealousy towards Enya resulted in an acrimonious split among the group, causing Ryan and Enya to part company with Clannad to pursue a solo career. Following the split, Nicky and Roma Ryan became akin to surrogate parents to Enya as she moved in with them and constructed a small studio in a shed. Enya began giving piano lessons to earn some income, while the Ryans waited for inspiration to strike. Eventually a call from the BBC resulted in a commission to write music for The Celts television series, and larger success would slowly follow. The Telegraph article - Enya talks about her album And Winter Came The unhappy split with her family, in addition to increasing public attention has served only to reinforce Enya's reclusive behaviour. Beginning with Watermark, Enya began to attract the attention of stalkers, several of whom succeeded in breaking into her castle and attacking some of the staff. As a result, Enya spent an estimated €250,000 on security measures for her home, Manderley Castle in Killiney, County Dublin (named after Maxim de Winter's house in her favourite book and black and white movie, Rebecca). In 1996, an Italian man, who had been seen in Dublin wearing her photograph around his neck, stabbed himself after being ejected from her parents' pub in Gweedore, County Donegal. In 2006, Enya made it to the number three spot in the ranks of wealthy British and Irish entertainers with an estimated fortune of €109 million (i.e., £75 million or US$136 million). This was enough to take her to number 95 in the Sunday Times Rich List 2006 of the 250 Wealthiest Irish People. Times Online article - not found on 14 February 2007 She describes herself as a devout Roman Catholic Church member, and performed at a concert to commemorate the passing of Pope John Paul II. Enya loves cats. In an interview published in 1988, when asked about pets, she replied: "I've got a cat. I love cats; at one stage I had 12. It was just bliss. They'd all lie around in the sun and then come up and climb around my neck." Number One magazine, 2 November 1988. Enya's favourite classical composer is Sergei Rachmaninoff. Her hobbies include watching romantic black and white films, collecting artwork, reading, and painting. Notable awards Enya has won four Grammy Awards for Best New Age Album to date: Grammy Awards of 1993, Best New Age Album for Shepherd Moons Grammy Awards of 1997, Best New Age Album for The Memory of Trees Grammy Awards of 2002, Best New Age Album for A Day Without Rain Grammy Awards of 2007, Best New Age Album for Amarantine Also, "May It Be" was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Song at the 2002 ceremonies, but it lost to Randy Newman's "If I Didn't Have You" from ''Monsters, Inc. See also Mononymous persons References External links Official website Official german website the Official Discography with Lyrics Northern Skyline - Enya, Clannad & Moya Brennan news blog Billboard Singles Rankings - Enya Enya at NPR Music Related information | Enya |@lemmatized enya:111 born:1 eithne:3 patricia:1 ní:1 bhraonáin:1 may:7 gaoth:3 dobhair:3 also:9 know:5 gweedore:2 county:4 donegal:4 irish:9 singer:1 instrumentalist:1 composer:2 name:8 sometimes:2 present:1 medium:1 brennan:3 approximate:1 transliteration:1 pronounce:1 native:1 dialect:1 commonly:1 officially:6 ulster:2 fan:5 studio:5 personal:2 begin:6 musical:6 career:7 briefly:1 join:2 family:6 band:10 clannad:11 leave:2 pursue:2 solo:7 album:53 watermark:8 release:36 propel:1 international:3 recognition:1 become:5 known:1 unique:1 sound:8 characterize:1 voice:4 layering:1 folk:1 melody:1 synthesize:1 backdrop:1 ethereal:1 reverberation:1 continue:1 enjoy:1 steady:1 success:3 day:8 without:7 rain:6 achieve:3 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1,540 | John_Calvin | Sixteenth-century portrait of John Calvin by an unknown artist. From the collection of the Bibliothèque de Genève (Library of Geneva) John Calvin né Jean Cauvin (10 July 1509 – 27 May 1564) was an influential French theologian and pastor during the Protestant Reformation. He was a principal figure in the development of the system of Christian theology later called Calvinism. Originally trained as a humanist lawyer, he suddenly broke from the Roman Catholic Church in the 1520s. After religious tensions provoked a violent uprising against Protestants in France, Calvin fled to Basel, Switzerland, where in 1536 he published the first edition of his seminal work Institutes of the Christian Religion. Calvin was invited by William Farel to help reform the church in Geneva. The city council resisted the implementation of Calvin and Farel's ideas, and both men were expelled. At the invitation of Martin Bucer, Calvin proceeded to Strasbourg, where he became the minister of a church of French refugees. He continued to support the reform movement in Geneva, and was eventually invited back to lead its church. Following his return, he introduced new forms of church government and liturgy, despite the opposition of several powerful families in the city who tried to curb his authority. During this period, Michael Servetus, a Spaniard known for his heretical views, arrived in Geneva. He was denounced by Calvin and executed by the city council. Following an influx of supportive refugees and new elections to the city council, Calvin's opponents were forced out. Calvin spent his final years promoting the Reformation both in Geneva and throughout Europe. Calvin was a tireless polemic and apologetic writer who generated much controversy. He also exchanged cordial and supportive letters with many reformers including Philipp Melanchthon and Heinrich Bullinger. In addition to the Institutes, he wrote commentaries on most books of the Bible as well as theological treatises and confessional documents, and he regularly gave sermons throughout the week in Geneva. Calvin was influenced by the Augustinian tradition, which led him to expound the doctrine of predestination and the absolute sovereignty of God in salvation. Calvin's writing and preaching provided the seeds for the branch of theology that bears his name. The Presbyterian and other Reformed churches, which look to Calvin as a chief expositor of their beliefs, have spread throughout the world. Calvin's thought exerted considerable influence over major religious figures and entire religious movements, such as Puritanism, and his ideas have been cited as contributing to the rise of capitalism, individualism, and representative democracy in the West. __TOC__ Early years (1509–1535) Calvin was born Jean Cauvin on 10 July 1509 in Noyon, a small town in the Picardie region of France. He was the second of three sons who survived infancy. His father, Gérard Cauvin, had a prosperous career as the cathedral notary and registrar to the ecclesiastical court. His mother, Jeanne le Franc, was the daughter of an innkeeper from Cambrai. She died a few years after Calvin's birth. Gérard intended his three sons—Charles, Jean, and Antoine—for the priesthood. Jean was particularly precocious; by the age of twelve, he was employed by the bishop as a clerk and received the tonsure, cutting his hair to symbolise his dedication to the Church. He also won the patronage of an influential family, the Montmors. ; Through their assistance, Calvin was able to attend the Collège de la Marche in Paris, where he learned Latin from one of its greatest teachers, Mathurin Cordier. ; ; . states that Nicolas Colladon was the source that he attended Collège de la Marche which McGrath disputes. Once he completed the course, he entered the Collège de Montaigu as a philosophy student. ; Calvin was originally destined for the priesthood, but he changed course to study law in Orléans and Bourges. Painting titled Portrait of Young John Calvin from the collection of the Library of Geneva. In 1525 or 1526, Gérard withdrew his son from Montaigu and enrolled him in the University of Orléans to study law. According to contemporary biographers Theodore Beza and Nicolas Colladon, Gérard believed his son would earn more money as a lawyer than as a priest. . According to , there may have been a family conflict with the clergy in Noyon. After a few years of quiet study, Calvin entered the University of Bourges in 1529. He was intrigued by the presence of Andreas Alciati, a humanist lawyer. Humanism was a European intellectual movement which stressed classical studies. During his eighteen-month stay in Bourges Calvin learned Greek, a necessity for studying the New Testament. ; Sometime during this period Calvin experienced a sudden religious conversion. Not much is known of the surrounding circumstances, but he made one reference to it in the preface to his Commentary on the Book of Psalms: "God by a sudden conversion subdued and brought my mind to a teachable frame, which was more hardened in such matters than might have been expected from one at my early period of life." J. Calvin, preface to Commentary on the Book of Psalms, trans. James Anderson, vol. 1 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1948), pp. xl-xli as quoted in . The translation by Anderson is available at See also . Scholars have argued about the precise interpretation of this statement, but it is agreed that his conversion corresponded with his break from the Roman Catholic Church. ; ; ; According to , Ganoczy in his book Le Jeune Calvin. Genèse et evolution de sa vocation réformatrice, Wiesbaden: F. Steiner, 1966 p. 302, argues that Calvin conversion took place over several years and that it was not a biographical or chronological event. Cottret quotes Olivier Millet, Calvin et la dynamique de la Parole. Essai de rhétorique réformée, Paris: H. Champion 1992 p. 522, noting a typological rather than a biographical perspective of the account of his conversion. The biographical argument is promoted by D. Fischer, "Conversion de Calvin", Etudes Theéologiques et Religieuses 58 (1983) pp. 203–220. According to Parker is in sympathy with Ganoczy’s view, but in his investigations, he concluded that a certain period for his conversion could be determined. By 1532, he received his licentiate in law and published his first book, a commentary on Seneca's De Clementia. After uneventful trips to Orléans and his hometown of Noyon, Calvin returned to Paris in October 1533. During this time, tensions rose at the Collège Royal (later to become the Collège de France) between the humanists/reformers and the conservative senior faculty members. One of the reformers, Nicolas Cop, was rector of the university. On 1 November 1533 he devoted his inaugural address to the need for reform and renewal in the Catholic Church. The address provoked a strong reaction from the faculty, who denounced it as heretical, forcing Cop to flee to Basel. Calvin, a close friend of Cop, was implicated in the offense, and for the next year he was forced into hiding. He remained on the move, sheltering with his friend Louis du Tillet in Angoulême and taking refuge in Noyon and Orléans. He was finally forced to flee France during the Affair of the Placards in mid-October 1534. In that incident, unknown reformers had posted placards in various cities attacking the Catholic Mass, which provoked a violent backlash against Protestants. In January 1535, Calvin joined Cop in Basel, a city under the influence of the reformer Johannes Oecolampadius. ; ; ; Reform work commences (1536–1538) In March 1536, Calvin published the first edition of his Institutio Christianae Religionis or Institutes of the Christian Religion. The work was an apologia or defense of his faith and a statement of the doctrinal position of the reformers. He also intended it to serve as an elementary instruction book for anyone interested in the Christian religion. The book was the first expression of his theology. Calvin updated the work and published new editions throughout his life. ; ; Shortly after its publication, he left Basel for Ferrara, Italy, where he briefly served as secretary to Princess Renée of France. By June he was back in Paris with his brother Antoine, who was resolving their father's affairs. Following the Edict of Coucy, which gave a limited six-month period for heretics to reconcile with the Catholic faith, Calvin decided that there was no future for him in France. In August he set off for Strasbourg, a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire and a refuge for reformers. Due to military manoeuvres of imperial and French forces, he was forced to make a detour to the south, bringing him to Geneva. Calvin had only intended to stay a single night, but William Farel, a fellow French reformer residing in the city, implored Calvin to stay and assist him in reforming the church there. Calvin quietly accepted without any preconditions on his tasks or duties. ; ; The office to which he was initially assigned is unknown. He was eventually given the title of "reader", which most likely meant that he could give expository lectures on the Bible. Sometime in 1537 he was selected to be a "pastor", although he never received any pastoral consecration. For the first time, the lawyer-theologian took up pastoral duties such as baptisms, weddings, and church services. William Farel was the reformer who convinced Calvin to stay in Geneva. Throughout the fall of 1536, Farel drafted a confession of faith while Calvin wrote separate articles on reorganising the church in Geneva. On 16 January 1537, Farel and Calvin presented their Articles concernant l'organisation de l'église et du culte à Genève (Articles on the Organisation of the Church and its Worship at Geneva) to the city council. The document described the manner and frequency of their celebrations of the Eucharist, the reason for and the method of excommunication, the requirement to subscribe to the confession of faith, the use of congregational singing in the liturgy, and the revision of marriage laws. The council accepted the document on the same day. ; Throughout the year, however, Calvin and Farel's reputation with the council began to suffer. The council was reluctant to enforce the subscription requirement as only a few citizens had subscribed to their confession of faith. On 26 November, the two ministers heatedly debated the council over the issue. Furthermore, France was taking an interest in forming an alliance with Geneva and as the two ministers were Frenchmen, councillors began to question their loyalty. Finally, a major ecclesiastical-political quarrel developed when Bern, Geneva’s ally in the reformation of the Swiss churches, proposed to introduce uniformity in the church ceremonies. One proposal required the use of unleavened bread for the Eucharist. The two ministers were unwilling to follow Bern's lead and delayed the use of such bread until a synod in Zürich could be convened to make the final decision. The council ordered Calvin and Farel to use unleavened bread for the Easter Eucharist; in protest, the ministers did not administer communion during the Easter service. This caused a riot during the service and the next day, the council told the ministers to leave Geneva. ; ; Farel and Calvin went to Bern and Zürich to plead their case. The synod in Zürich placed most of the blame on Calvin for not being sympathetic enough toward the people of Geneva. However, it asked Bern to mediate with the aim of restoring the ministers. The Geneva council refused to readmit the two men, who took refuge in Basel. Subsequently Farel received an invitation to lead the church in Neuchâtel. Calvin was invited to lead a church of French refugees in Strasbourg by that city's leading reformers, Martin Bucer and Wolfgang Capito. Initially Calvin refused because Farel was not included in the invitation, but when Bucer appealed to him Calvin relented. By September, Calvin had taken up his new position in Strasbourg, fully expecting that this time it would be permanent; a few months later, he applied for and was granted citizenship of the city. ; Minister in Strasbourg (1538–1541) Calvin ministered to four or five hundred members in his church. He preached or lectured every day with two sermons on Sunday. Communion was celebrated monthly and congregational psalms singing was encouraged. He also worked on the second edition of the Institutes. Although the first edition sold out within a year, Calvin was dissatisfied with its structure as a catechism, a primer for young Christians. For the second edition, published in 1539, Calvin dropped this format in favour of systematically presenting the main doctrines from scripture. In the process, the book was enlarged from six chapters to seventeen. He concurrently worked on another book, the Commentary on Romans, which was published in March 1540. The book was a model for his later commentaries: it included his own Latin translation from the Greek rather than the Latin Vulgate, an exegesis, and an exposition. In the dedicatory letter, Calvin praised the work of his predecessors Philipp Melanchthon, Heinrich Bullinger, and Martin Bucer, but he also took care to state that his own work was distinct and courteously criticised some of the shortcomings of these three major reformers. Martin Bucer invited Calvin to Strasbourg after he was expelled from Geneva. Illustration by Jean-Jacques Boissard Calvin's friends soon began to urge him to marry. Calvin took a prosaic view on the issue of his own marriage, writing to one correspondent, "I, who have the air of being so hostile to celibacy, I am still not married and do not know whether I will ever be. If I take a wife it will be because, being better freed from numerous worries, I can devote myself to the Lord." Several candidates were presented to him including one young woman from a noble family. Reluctantly, Calvin agreed to the marriage, on the condition that she would learn French. Although a wedding date was planned for sometime in March 1540, he remained reluctant and the wedding never took place. He later wrote that he would never think of marrying her, "unless the Lord had entirely bereft me of my wits". Instead, in August of that year, he married Idelette de Bure, a widow who had two children from her first marriage. ; Meanwhile Geneva had begun to reconsider its expulsion of Calvin. Church attendance had dwindled and the political climate had changed; as Bern and Geneva quarreled over land, their alliance frayed. When Cardinal Jacopo Sadoleto wrote a letter to the city council inviting Geneva to return to the Catholic faith, the council searched for an ecclesiastical authority to respond to him. At first Pierre Viret was consulted, but when he refused, the council asked Calvin. He agreed and his Responsio ad Sadoletum (Letter to Sadoleto), while courteous, strongly defended Geneva's position concerning reforms in the church. ; ; On 21 September 1540 the council commissioned one of its members, Ami Perrin, to find a way to recall Calvin. An embassy reached Calvin while he was at a colloquy, a conference to settle religious disputes, in Worms. His reaction to the suggestion of returning to Geneva was one of horror in which he wrote, "Rather would I submit to death a hundred times than to that cross on which I had to perish daily a thousand times over." Despite his hesitation, he also wrote that he was prepared to follow the Lord's calling. A plan was drawn up in which Viret would be appointed to take temporary charge in Geneva for six months while Bucer and Calvin would visit the city to determine the next steps. However, the city council pressed for the immediate appointment of Calvin in Geneva. By summer 1541, it was finally decided that Strasbourg would lend Calvin to Geneva for six months. Calvin returned on 13 September 1541 and quite unlike his first entry into Geneva as a refugee, he arrived with an official escort and a wagon for his family. Reform in Geneva (1541–1549) In supporting Calvin's proposals for reforms, the council of Geneva passed the Ordonnances ecclésiastiques (Ecclesiastical Ordinances) on 20 November 1541. The ordinances defined four orders of ministerial function: pastors to preach and to administer the sacraments; doctors to instruct believers in the faith; elders to provide discipline; and deacons to care for the poor and needy. They also called for the creation of the Consistoire (Consistory), an ecclesiastical court composed of the lay elders and the ministers. The city government retained the power to summon persons before the court and the Consistory could judge only ecclesiastical matters having no civil jurisdiction. Originally, the court had the power to mete out sentences, with excommunication as its most severe penalty. However, the government contested this power and on 19 March 1543 the council decided that all sentencing would be carried out by the government. ; Calvin preached at St. Pierre Cathedral, the main church in Geneva. In 1542, Calvin adapted a service book used in Strasbourg, publishing La Forme des Prières et Chants Ecclésiastiques (The Form of Prayers and Church Hymns). Calvin recognised the power of music and he intended that it be used to support scripture readings. The original Strasbourg psalter contained twelve psalms by Clément Marot and Calvin added several more hymns of his own composition in the Geneva version. At the end of 1542, Marot became a refugee in Geneva and contributed nineteen more psalms. Louis Bourgeois, also a refugee, lived and taught music in Geneva for sixteen years and Calvin took the opportunity to add his hymns, the most famous being the Old Hundredth. ; In the same year of 1542, Calvin published Catéchisme de l'Eglise de Genève (Catechism of the Church of Geneva), which was inspired by Bucer's Kurze Schrifftliche Erklärung of 1534. Calvin had written an earlier catechism during his first stay in Geneva which was largely based on Martin Luther's Large Catechism. The first version was arranged pedagogically, describing Law, Faith, and Prayer. The 1542 version was rearranged for theological reasons, covering Faith first, then Law and Prayer. During his ministry in Geneva, Calvin preached over two thousand sermons. Initially he preached twice on Sunday and three times during the week. This proved to be too heavy a burden and late in 1542 the council allowed him to preach only once on Sunday. However, in October 1549, he was again required to preach twice on Sundays and, in addition, every weekday of alternate weeks. His sermons lasted more than an hour and he did not use notes. An occasional secretary tried to record his sermons, but very little of his preaching was preserved before 1549. In that year, professional scribe Denis Raguenier, who had learned or developed a system of shorthand, was assigned to record all of Calvin's sermons. An analysis of his sermons by T. H. L. Parker suggests that Calvin was a consistent preacher and his style changed very little over the years. ; See also Very little is known about Calvin's personal life in Geneva. His house and furniture were owned by the council. The house was big enough to accommodate his family as well as Antoine's family and some servants. On 28 July 1542, Idelette gave birth to a son, Jacques, but he was born prematurely and survived only briefly. Idelette fell ill in 1545 and died on 29 March 1549. Calvin never married again. He expressed his sorrow in a letter to Viret: I have been bereaved of the best friend of my life, of one who, if it has been so ordained, would willingly have shared not only my poverty but also my death. During her life she was the faithful helper of my ministry. From her I never experienced the slightest hindrance. Throughout the rest of his life in Geneva, he maintained several friendships from his early years including Montmor, Cordier, Cop, Farel, Melanchthon, and Bullinger. ; Discipline and opposition (1546–1553) Calvin encountered bitter opposition to his work in Geneva. Around 1546, the uncoordinated forces coalesced into an identifiable group whom he referred to as the libertines. According to Calvin, these were people who felt that after being liberated through grace, they were exempt from both ecclesiastical and civil law. The group consisted of wealthy, politically powerful, and interrelated families of Geneva. ; At the end of January 1546, Pierre Ameaux, a maker of playing cards who had already been in trouble with the Consistory, attacked Calvin by calling him a "Picard", an epithet denoting anti-French sentiment, and accused him of false doctrine. Ameaux was punished by the council and forced to make expiation by parading through the city and begging God for forgiveness. ; A few months later Ami Perrin, the man who had brought Calvin to Geneva, moved into open opposition. Perrin had married Françoise Favre, daughter of François Favre, a well-established Genevan merchant. Both Perrin's wife and father-in-law had previous quarrels with the Consistory. The court noted that many of Geneva's notables, including Perrin, had breached a law against dancing. Initially, Perrin ignored the court when he was summoned, but after receiving a letter from Calvin, he acquiesced and appeared quietly before the Consistory. By 1547, opposition to Calvin and other French refugee ministers had grown to constitute the majority of the syndics, the civil magistrates of Geneva. On 27 June an unsigned threatening letter in Genevan dialect was found at the pulpit of St. Pierre Cathedral where Calvin preached. Suspecting a plot against both the church and the state, the council appointed a commission to investigate. Jacques Gruet, a Genevan member of Favre's group, was arrested and incriminating evidence was found when his house was searched. Under torture, he confessed to several crimes including writing the letter left in the pulpit which threatened God and his ambassadors and endeavouring to subvert church order. The civil court condemned him to death and with Calvin's consent, he was beheaded on 26 July. ; ; ; The libertines continued their opposition, taking opportunities to stir up discontent, to insult the ministers, and to defy the authority of the Consistory. The council straddled both sides of the conflict, alternately admonishing and upholding Calvin. When Perrin was elected first syndic in February 1552, Calvin's authority appeared to be at its lowest point. After some losses before the council, Calvin believed he was defeated; on 24 July 1553 he asked the council to allow him to resign. Although the libertines controlled the council, his request was refused. The opposition realised that they could curb Calvin's authority, but they did not have enough power to banish him. Michael Servetus (1553) Michael Servetus exchanged many letters with Calvin until Calvin decided he was a heretic. The turning point in Calvin's fortunes occurred when Michael Servetus, a fugitive from ecclesiastical authorities, appeared in Geneva on 13 August 1553. Servetus was a Spaniard who boldly criticised Christian dogma. In particular, he rejected the doctrine of the Trinity. In July 1530 he disputed with Johannes Oecolampadius in Basel and was eventually expelled. He went to Strasbourg where he published a pamphlet against the Trinity. Bucer publicly refuted it and asked Servetus to leave. After returning to Basel, Servetus published Dialogorum de Trinitate libri duo (Two Books of Dialogues on the Trinity) which caused a sensation among Reformers and Catholics alike. The Inquisition in Spain ordered his arrest. ; Calvin and Servetus were first brought into contact in 1546 through a common acquaintance, Jean Frellon of Lyon. They exchanged letters debating doctrine until Calvin lost patience and refused to respond; by this time Servetus had written around thirty letters to Calvin. When Servetus mentioned that he would come to Geneva if Calvin agreed, Calvin wrote a letter to Farel on 13 February 1547 noting that if Servetus were to come, he would not assure him safe conduct: "for if he came, as far as my authority goes, I would not let him leave alive." ; In 1553 when the inquisitor-general of France learned that Servetus was hiding in Vienne under an assumed name, he contacted Cardinal François de Tournon, the secretary of the archbishop of Lyon, to take up the matter. Servetus was arrested and taken in for questioning. His letters to Calvin were presented as evidence of heresy, but he denied having written them. He managed to escape from prison, and the Catholic authorities sentenced him in absentia to death by slow burning. On his way to Italy, Servetus stopped in Geneva for unknown reasons and attended one of Calvin's sermons in St Pierre. Calvin had him arrested and composed a list of accusations that was submitted before the court. The prosecutor was Philibert Berthelier, a member of a libertine family and son of a famous Geneva patriot, and the sessions were led by Pierre Tissot, Perrin's brother-in-law. The libertines allowed the trial to drag on in an attempt to harass Calvin. The difficulty in using Servetus as a weapon against Calvin was that the heretical reputation of Servetus was widespread and most of the cities in Europe were observing and awaiting the outcome of the trial. This posed a dilemma for the libertines, so on 21 August the council decided to write to other Swiss churches for their opinions, thus mitigating their own responsibility for the final decision. While waiting for the responses, the council also asked Servetus if he preferred to be judged in Vienne or in Geneva. He begged to stay in Geneva. On 20 October the replies from Zürich, Basel, Bern, and Schaffhausen were read and the council condemned Servetus as a heretic. The following day he was sentenced to burning at the stake, the same sentence as in Vienne. Calvin and other ministers asked that he be beheaded instead of burnt. This plea was refused and on 27 October, Servetus was burnt alive at the Plateau of Champel at the edge of Geneva. ; ; Securing the Reformation (1553–1555) After the death of Servetus, Calvin was acclaimed a defender of Christianity, but his ultimate triumph over the libertines was still two years away. He had always insisted that the Consistory retain the power of excommunication, despite the council's past decision to take it away. During Servetus's trial, Philibert Berthelier asked the council for permission to take communion, as he had been excommunicated the previous year for insulting a minister. Calvin protested that the council did not have the legal authority to overturn Berthelier's excommunication. Unsure of how the council would rule, he hinted in a sermon on 3 September 1553 that he might be dismissed by the authorities. The council decided to re-examine the Ordonnances and on 18 September it voted in support of Calvin—excommunication was within the jurisdiction of the Consistory. Berthelier applied for reinstatement to another Genevan administrative assembly, the Deux Cents (Two Hundred), in November. This body reversed the council's decision and stated that the final arbiter concerning excommunication should be the council. However, the ministers continued to protest and as in the case of Servetus, the opinions of the Swiss churches were sought. The affair dragged on through 1554. Finally, on 22 January 1555, the council announced the decision of the Swiss churches: the original Ordonnances were to be kept and the Consistory was to regain its official powers. ; The libertines' downfall began with the February 1555 elections. By then, many of the French refugees had been granted citizenship and with their support, Calvin's partisans elected the majority of the syndics and the councillors. The libertines plotted to make trouble and on 16 May they set off to burn down a house that was supposedly full of Frenchmen. The syndic Henri Aulbert tried to intervene, carrying with him the baton of office that symbolised his power. Perrin made the mistake of seizing the baton, thereby signifying that he was taking power, a virtual coup d'état. The insurrection was over as soon as it started when another syndic appeared and ordered Perrin to go with him to the town hall. Perrin and other leaders were forced to flee the city. With the approval of Calvin, the other plotters who remained in the city were found and executed. The opposition to Calvin's church polity came to an end. ; Final years (1555–1564) John Calvin at 53-years-old in an engraving by René Boyvin. Calvin's authority was practically uncontested during his final years, and he enjoyed an international reputation as a reformer distinct from Martin Luther. Initially, Luther and Calvin had mutual respect for each other. However, a doctrinal conflict had developed between Luther and Zürich reformer Huldrych Zwingli on the interpretation of the Eucharist. Calvin's opinion on the issue forced Luther to place him in Zwingli's camp. Calvin actively participated in the polemics that were exchanged between the Lutheran and Reformed branches of the Reformation movement. At the same time, Calvin was dismayed by the lack of unity among the reformers. He took steps toward rapprochement with Bullinger by signing the Consensus Tigurinus, a concordat between the Zürich and Geneva churches. He reached out to England when Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer called for an ecumenical synod of all the evangelical churches. Calvin praised the idea, but ultimately Cranmer was unable to bring the idea to fruition. Calvin's greatest contribution toward the English-speaking community was through his sheltering of Marian exiles in Geneva starting in 1555. Under the city's protection, they were able to form their own reformed church under John Knox and William Whittingham and eventually carried Calvin's ideas on doctrine and polity back to England and Scotland. However, Calvin was most interested in reforming his homeland, France. He supported the building of churches by distributing literature and providing ministers. Between 1555 to 1562, over one hundred ministers were sent to France. These efforts were funded entirely by the church in Geneva, as the city council had refused to become involved in missionary activities at the time. Henry II severely persecuted Protestants under the Edict of Chateaubriand and when the French authorities complained about the missionary activities, Geneva was able to disclaim responsibility. ; The Collège Calvin is now a college preparatory school for the Swiss Maturité. Within Geneva, Calvin's main concern was the creation of a collège, an institute for the education of children. A site for the school was selected on 25 March 1558 and it opened the following year on 5 June 1559. Although the school was a single institution, it was divided into two parts: a grammar school called the collège or schola privata and an advanced school called the académie or schola publica. Calvin tried to recruit two professors for the institute, Mathurin Cordier, his old friend and Latin scholar who was now based in Lausanne, and Emmanuel Tremellius, the Regius professor of Hebrew in Cambridge. Neither were available, but he succeeded in obtaining Theodore Beza as rector. Within five years there were 1,200 students in the grammar school and 300 in the advanced school. The collège eventually became the Collège Calvin, one of the college preparatory schools of Geneva, while the académie became the University of Geneva. ; ; ; Traditional grave of Calvin in the Cimetière de Plainpalais in Geneva; the exact location of his grave is unknown. In autumn 1558, Calvin became ill with a fever. Since he was afraid that he might die before completing the final revision of the Institutes, he forced himself to work. The final edition was greatly expanded to the extent that Calvin referred to it as a new work. The expansion from twenty-one chapters of the previous edition to eighty was due to the extended treatment of existing material rather than the addition of new topics. Shortly after he recovered, he strained his voice while preaching, which brought on a violent fit of coughing. He burst a blood-vessel in his lungs, and his health steadily declined. He preached his final sermon in St. Pierre on 6 February 1564. On 25 April, he made his will, in which he left small sums to his family and to the collège. A few days later, the ministers of the church came to visit him, and he bid his final farewell, which was recorded in Discours d'adieu aux ministres. He recounted his life in Geneva, sometimes recalling bitterly some of the hardships he had suffered. Calvin died on 27 May 1564. At first his body was laid in state, but since so many people came to see it, the reformers were afraid that they would be accused of fostering a new saint's cult. On the following day, he was buried in an unmarked grave in the Cimetière de Plainpalais. ; ; While the exact location of the grave is unknown, a stone was added in the 19th century to mark a grave traditionally thought to be Calvin's. ; Theology Calvin develops his theology in his biblical commentaries as well as his sermons and treatises, but the most concise expression of his views is found in his magnum opus, the Institutes of the Christian Religion. He intended that the book be used as a summary of his views on Christian theology and that it be read in conjunction with his commentaries. ; The various editions of that work span nearly his entire career as a reformer, and the successive revisions of the book show that his theology changed very little from his youth to his death. ; ; The first edition from 1536 consisted of only six chapters. The second edition, published in 1539, was three times as long because he added chapters on subjects that appear in Melanchthon's Loci Communes. In 1543, he again added new material and expanded a chapter on the Apostles' Creed. The final edition of the Institutes appeared in 1559. By then, the work consisted of four books of eighty chapters, and each book was named after statements from the creed: Book 1 on God the Creator, Book 2 on the Redeemer in Christ, Book 3 on receiving the Grace of Christ through the Holy Spirit, and Book 4 on the Society of Christ or the Church. ; ; ; ; The first statement in the Institutes acknowledges its central theme. It states that the sum of human wisdom consists of two parts: the knowledge of God and of ourselves. ; ; Calvin argues that the knowledge of God is not inherent in humanity nor can it be discovered by observing this world. The only way to obtain it is to study scripture. Calvin writes, "For anyone to arrive at God the Creator he needs Scripture as his Guide and Teacher." He does not try to prove the authority of scripture but rather describes it as autopiston or self-authenticating. He defends the trinitarian view of God and, in a strong polemical stand against the Catholic Church, argues that images of God lead to idolatry. ; ; At the end of the first book, he offers his views on providence, writing, "By his Power God cherishes and guards the World which he made and by his Providence rules its individual Parts." ; Humans are unable to fully comprehend why God performs any particular action, but whatever good or evil people may practise, their efforts always result in the execution of God's will and judgments. ; The second book includes several essays on the original sin and the fall of man, which directly refer to Augustine, who developed these doctrines. He often cited the Church Fathers in order to defend the reformed cause against the charge that the reformers were creating new theology. . According to Gerrish, Calvin put his defense against the charge of novelty in the preface of every edition of the Institutes. The original preface of the first edition was addressed to the King of France, Francis I. The defense expressed his opinion that patristic authority favoured the reformers and that allegation of the reformers deviating from the patristic consensus was a fiction. See also . In Calvin's view, sin began with the fall of Adam and propagated to all of humanity. The domination of sin is complete to the point that people are driven to evil. ; Thus fallen humanity is in need of the redemption that can be found in Christ. But before Calvin expounded on this doctrine, he described the special situation of the Jews who lived during the time of the Old Testament. God made a covenant with Abraham and the substance of the promise was the coming of Christ. Hence, the old covenant was not in opposition to Christ, but was rather a continuation of God's promise. Calvin then describes the New Covenant using the passage from the Apostles' Creed that describes Christ's suffering under Pontius Pilate and his return to judge the living and the dead. For Calvin, the whole course of Christ's obedience to the Father removed the discord between humanity and God. In the third book, Calvin describes how the spiritual union of Christ and humanity is achieved. He first defines faith as the firm and certain knowledge of God in Christ. The immediate effects of faith are repentance and the remission of sin. This is followed by spiritual regeneration, which returns the believer to the state of holiness before Adam's transgression. However, complete perfection is unattainable in this life, and the believer should expect a continual struggle against sin. ; Several chapters are then devoted to the subject of justification by faith alone. He defined justification as "the acceptance by which God regards us as righteous whom he has received into grace." In this definition, it is clear that it is God who initiates and carries through the action and that people play no role; God is completely sovereign in salvation. ; Near the end of the book, Calvin describes and defends the doctrine of predestination, a doctrine advanced by Augustine in opposition to the teachings of Pelagius. Fellow theologians who followed the Augustinian tradition on this point included Thomas Aquinas and Martin Luther. The principle, in Calvin's words, is that "God adopts some to the hope of life and adjudges others to eternal death." The final book describes what he considers to be the true Church and its ministry, authority, and sacraments. He denied the papal claim to primacy and the accusation that the reformers were schismatic. For Calvin, the Church was defined as the body of believers who placed Christ at its head. By definition, there was only one "catholic" or "universal" Church. Hence, he argued that the reformers, "had to leave them in order that we might come to Christ." ; The ministers of the Church are described from a passage from Ephesians, and they consisted of apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors, and doctors. Calvin regarded the first three offices as temporary, limited in their existence to the time of the New Testament. The latter two offices were established in the church in Geneva. Although Calvin respected the work of the ecumenical councils, he considered them to be subject to God's Word, the teaching of scripture. He also believed that the civil and church authorities were separate and should not interfere with each other. Calvin defined a sacrament as an earthly sign associated with a promise from God. He accepted only two sacraments as valid under the new covenant: baptism and the Lord's Supper (in opposition to the Catholic acceptance of seven sacraments). He completely rejected the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation and the treatment of the Supper as a sacrifice. He also could not accept the Lutheran doctrine of sacramental union in which Christ was "in, with and under" the elements. His own view was close to Zwingli's symbolic view, but it was not identical. Rather than holding a purely symbolic view, Calvin noted that with the participation of the Holy Spirit, faith was nourished and strengthened by the sacrament. In his words, the Eucharistic rite was "a secret too sublime for my mind to understand or words to express. I experience it rather than understand it." ; ; ; ; Calvin's theology was not without controversy. Pierre Caroli, a Protestant minister in Lausanne accused Calvin as well as Viret and Farel of Arianism in 1536. Calvin was forced to defend his beliefs on the Trinity in Confessio de Trinitate propter calumnias P. Caroli. ; In 1551 Jérôme-Hermès Bolsec, a physician in Geneva, attacked Calvin’s doctrine of predestination and accused him of making God the author of sin. Bolsec was banished from the city, and after Calvin’s death, he wrote a biography which severely maligned Calvin’s character. ; ; In the following year, Joachim Westphal, a Gnesio-Lutheran pastor in Hamburg, condemned Calvin and Zwingli as heretics in denying the Eucharistic doctrine of the union of Christ's body with the elements. Calvin's Defensio sanae et orthodoxae doctrinae de sacramentis (A Defence of the Sober and Orthodox Doctrine of the Sacrament) was his response in 1555. ; Following the execution of Servetus, a close associate of Calvin, Sebastian Castellio broke with him on the issue of the maltreatment of heretics. In Castellio's Treatise on Heretics (1554), he argued for a focus on Christ's moral teachings in place of the vanity of theology, and he afterward developed a theory of tolerance based on biblical principles. Selected works Calvin's first published work was a commentary of Seneca the Younger's De Clementia. Published at his own expense in 1532, it showed that he was a humanist in the tradition of Erasmus with a thorough understanding of classical scholarship. ; ; His first theological work, the Psychopannychia, attempted to refute the doctrine of soul sleep as promulgated by the Anabaptists. Calvin probably wrote it during the period following Cop's speech, but it was not published until 1542 in Strasbourg. ; Calvin wrote many letters to religious and political leaders throughout Europe, including this one sent to Edward VI of England. Calvin produced commentaries on most of the books of the Bible. His first commentary on Romans was published in 1540, and he planned to write commentaries on the entire New Testament. Six years passed before he wrote his second, a commentary on I Corinthians, but after that he devoted more attention to reaching his goal. Within four years he had published commentaries on all the Pauline epistles, and he also revised the commentary on Romans. He then turned his attention to the general epistles, dedicating them to Edward VI of England. By 1555 he had completed his work on the New Testament, finishing with the Acts and the Gospels (he omitted only the brief second and third Epistles of John and the Book of Revelation). For the Old Testament, he wrote commentaries on Isaiah, the books of the Pentateuch, the Psalms, and Joshua. The material for the commentaries often originated from lectures to students and ministers that he reworked for publication. However, from 1557 onwards, he could not find the time to continue this method, and he gave permission for his lectures to be published from stenographers' notes. These Praelectiones covered the minor prophets, Daniel, Jeremiah, Lamentations, and part of Ezekiel. ; Calvin also wrote many letters and treatises. Following the Responsio ad Sadoletum, Calvin wrote an open letter at the request of Bucer to Charles V in 1543, Supplex exhortatio ad Caesarem, defending the reformed faith. This was followed by an open letter to the pope (Admonitio paterna Pauli III) in 1544, in which Calvin admonished Paul III for depriving the reformers of any prospect of rapprochement. The pope proceeded to open the Council of Trent, which resulted in decrees against the reformers. Calvin refuted the decrees by producing the Acta synodi Tridentinae cum Antidoto in 1547. When Charles tried to find a compromise solution with the Augsburg Interim, Bucer and Bullinger urged Calvin to respond. He wrote the treatise, Vera christiannae pacificationis et Ecclesiae reformandae ratio in 1549, in which he described the doctrines that should be upheld, including justification by faith. Calvin provided many of the foundational documents for reformed churches, including documents on the catechism, the liturgy, and church governance. He also produced several confessions of faith in order to unite the churches. In 1559, he drafted the French confession of faith, the Gallic Confession, and the synod in Paris accepted it with few changes. The Belgic Confession of 1561, a Dutch confession of faith, was partly based on the Gallic Confession. Legacy Portrait of Calvin by Titian. After the deaths of Calvin and his successor, Beza, the Geneva city council gradually gained control over areas of life that were previously in the ecclesiastical domain. Increasing secularisation was accompanied by the decline of the church. Even the Geneva académie was eclipsed by universities in Leiden and Heidelberg, which became the new strongholds of Calvin's ideas, first identified as "Calvinism" by Joachim Westphal in 1552. By 1585, Geneva, once the wellspring of the reform movement, had become merely its symbol. ; However, Calvin had always warned against describing him as an "idol" and Geneva as a new "Jerusalem". He encouraged people to adapt to the environments in which they found themselves. Even during his polemical exchange with Westphal, he advised a group of French-speaking refugees, who had settled in Wesel, Germany, to integrate with the local Lutheran churches. Despite his differences with the Lutherans, he did not deny that they were members of the true Church. Calvin’s recognition of the need to adapt to local conditions became an important characteristic of the reformation movement as it spread across Europe. Due to Calvin's missionary work in France, his programme of reform eventually reached the French-speaking provinces of the Netherlands. Calvinism was adopted in the Palatinate under Frederick III, which led to the formulation of the Heidelberg Catechism in 1563. This and the Belgic Confession were adopted as confessional standards in the first synod of the Dutch Reformed Church in 1571. Leading divines, either Calvinist or those sympathetic to Calvinism, settled in England (Martin Bucer, Peter Martyr, and Jan Laski) and Scotland (John Knox). During the English Civil War, the Calvinistic Puritans produced the Westminster Confession, which became the confessional standard for Presbyterians in the English-speaking world. Having established itself in Europe, the movement continued to spread to other parts of the world including North America, South Africa, and Korea. ; Calvin did not live to see the foundation of his work grow into an international movement; but his death allowed his ideas to break out of their city of origin, to succeed far beyond their borders, and to establish their own distinct character. Calvin's legacy in modern times has produced a variety of opinions. Certainly the execution of Servetus has left a negative view of Calvin. Voltaire mentions the event in his Poème sur la loi naturelle (Poem on Natural Law, 1756) and Dialogues chrétiens (Christian Dialogues, 1760). For Voltaire, Calvin’s philosophy had not produced any improvement over the intolerance presented in previous revealed religions. Calvin is viewed in a more positive light in Max Weber’s classic work The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism in which he argues that Calvin's teachings provided ideological impetus for the development of capitalism. Political historians have recognised his contributions to the development of representative democracy in general and the American system of government in particular; the doctrine of sin and human fallibility, for instance, lent support to a division of authority in a system of checks and balances, and Calvin's ideas on Christian liberty contributed to the growth of religious freedom and the openness of society. See also History of Protestantism Swiss Reformation Corpus Reformatorum John Calvin's views on Mary Genevan psalter Notes References . Translation from the original Calvin: Biographie, Editions Jean-Claude Lattès, 1995. . . . . . . . . . . . . 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1,541 | Bela_Lugosi | Béla Lugosi (20 October 1882 – 16 August 1956) was a Hungarian-born American actor of stage and screen, well known for playing Count Dracula in the Broadway play and subsequent film version. In the last years of his career he featured in several of Ed Wood's low budget films. Early life Lugosi, the youngest of four children Referenced information is from an essay in the book written by his son Bela G. Lugosi. , was born as Béla Ferenc Dezső Blaskó in Lugos near the western border of Transylvania, at the time part of Austria–Hungary (now Lugoj, Romania), to Paula de Vojnich and István Blasko, a banker. IMdb and Biography Channel He later based his last name on his hometown. He and his sister Vilma were raised in a Roman Catholic family. At the age of 12, Lugosi dropped out of school and left home to pursue an acting career. He began acting on stage in several Shakespearean plays and in other major roles, and when appearing in Hungarian silent films he used the stage name Arisztid Olt. He became the number-one ranked actor in Hungary and toured with the National Theater of Budapest. He once played the role of Jesus Christ. During World War I, he served as an infantry lieutenant in the Austro-Hungarian Army. There he rose to the rank of captain in the ski patrol and was awarded a medal equivalent to the Purple Heart for being wounded at the Russian front. In 1917, Lugosi married Ilona Szmick. The marriage ended in 1920 in divorce, reputedly over political differences with Szmick's parents. Due to his activism in the actors union in Hungary during the time of the Hungarian Revolution of 1919, he was forced to flee his homeland. He first went to Vienna, Austria, and then settled in Germany where he continued acting. Eventually, he traveled to New Orleans in the United States as a crewman aboard a merchant ship. From there, he made his way to New York City, and later, going through the immigration process at Ellis Island, he became a naturalized U.S. citizen. He has a son named Bela G. Lugosi. Early films Lugosi's first film appearance was in the 1917 movie Az ezredes (known in English as The Colonel). Lugosi would make twelve films in Hungary between 1917 and 1918 before leaving for Germany. Following the collapse of Béla Kun's Hungarian Soviet Republic in 1919, left-wingers and trade unionists became vulnerable. Lugosi was proscribed from acting due to his participation in the formation of an actor's union. In exile in Germany, he began appearing in a small number of well received films, including adaptations of the Karl May novels, Auf den Trümmern des Paradieses (On the Brink of Paradise), and Die Todeskarawane (The Caravan of Death), opposite the ill-fated Jewish actress Dora Gerson. Lugosi left Germany in October 1920, intending to emigrate to the United States, and illegally entered the country at New Orleans in December 1920. He was finally legally inspected at Ellis Island in March 1921. On his arrival in America, the 6 foot 1 inch (1.85 m), 180 lb. (82 kg) Béla worked for some time as a laborer, then entered the theater in New York City's Hungarian immigrant colony. His first major American role came in the 1923 J. Gordon Edwards directed melodrama The Silent Command opposite actors Edmund Lowe and Carl Harbaugh. In 1929, Lugosi took his place in Hollywood society and scandal when he married wealthy San Francisco widow Beatrice Weeks, but divorced 3 days later. Weeks cited actress Clara Bow as the "other woman". Lugosi was approached to star in a stage production adapted by Hamilton Deane and John L. Balderston from Bram Stoker's novel Dracula. The Horace Liveright production was successful. Despite his critically acclaimed performance on stage Lugosi was not the Universal Pictures first choice for the role of Dracula when the company optioned the rights to the Deane play and began production in 1930. A persistent rumor asserts that director Tod Browning's long-time collaborator Lon Chaney was Universal's first choice for the role, and that Lugosi was chosen only due to Chaney's death shortly before production. This is questionable, because Chaney had been under long-term contract to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer since 1925, and had negotiated a lucrative new contract just before his death. Chaney and Browning had worked together on several projects (including four of Chaney's final five releases), but Browning was only a last-minute choice to direct the movie version of Dracula after the untimely death of director Paul Leni, who was originally slated to direct. In reality, Universal's initial choice was probably Conrad Veidt, who had some acclaim at the studio after appearing in their production of The Man Who Laughs (1928). Following the success of Dracula (1931), Lugosi received a studio contract with Universal. On June 26, 1931, the actor became a naturalized citizen of the United States. In 1933 he married Lillian Arch, his third wife. They had a child, Bela G. Lugosi. Lillian and Bela would divorce 20 years later in 1953. Typecasting Through his association with Dracula (in which he appeared with minimal makeup, using his natural, heavily accented voice), Lugosi found himself typecast as a horror villain in such movies as Murders in the Rue Morgue, The Raven, and Son of Frankenstein for Universal, and the independent White Zombie. His accent, while a part of his image, limited the roles he could play. Lugosi did attempt to break type by auditioning for other roles. He lost out to Lionel Barrymore for the role of Rasputin in Rasputin and the Empress (1932); C. Henry Gordon for the role of Surat Khan in Charge of the Light Brigade; Basil Rathbone for the role of Commissar Dimitri Gorotchenko in Tovarich (a role Lugosi had played on stage). It is an erroneous popular belief that Lugosi declined the offer to appear in Frankenstein. Lugosi may not have been happy with the onerous makeup job and lack of dialogue. Nonetheless, James Whale, the film's director, replaced Lugosi and would do this again in Bride of Frankenstein (Lugosi was supposed to play the role of Dr. Pretorius). A recent Lugosi scrapbook (see external link below) surfaced with a news clipping listing both Lugosi and Boris Karloff in the film together. This gives credence to the possibility that Lugosi was going to play the role of Dr. Frankenstein, as envisioned by Robert Florey (a contender to direct the film). Cinematographer Paul Ivano, who shot test footage of Lugosi for the role of the monster, said that Lugosi was happy with the role, and had given him a box of cigars. Ivano and Robert Florey both noted that Lugosi's performance was not dissimilar to that of his replacement, Boris Karloff. Regardless of controversy, five films at Universal, The Black Cat (1934), The Raven (1935), The Invisible Ray (1936), Son of Frankenstein (1939), Black Friday (1940) (plus minor cameo performances in 1934's Gift of Gab) and one at RKO Pictures, The Body Snatcher (1945) paired Lugosi with Karloff. Despite the relative size of their roles, Lugosi inevitably got second billing, below Karloff. Lugosi's attitude toward Karloff is the subject of contradictory reports, some claiming that he was openly resentful of Karloff's long-term success and ability to get good roles beyond the horror arena, while others suggested the two actors were—for a time, at least—good friends. Karloff himself in interviews suggested that Lugosi was initially mistrustful of him when they acted together, believing that the Englishman would attempt to upstage him. When this proved not to be the case, according to Karloff, Lugosi settled down and they worked together amicably (though some have further commented that Karloff's on-set demand to break from filming for mid-afternoon tea annoyed Lugosi). Attempts were made to give Lugosi more heroic roles, as in The Black Cat (1934), The Invisible Ray (1936), and a romantic role in the adventure serial The Return of Chandu, but his typecasting problem was too entrenched for those roles to help. And unlike with fellow Hungarian actors Peter Lorre and Paul Lukas, Lugosi's thick accent also hindered the variety of roles he was offered. Career path A number of factors worked against Lugosi's career in the mid-1930s. Universal changed management in 1936, and per a British ban on horror films, dropped them from their production schedule; Lugosi found himself consigned to Universal's non-horror B-film unit, at times in small roles where he was obviously used for "name value" only. Throughout the 1930s Lugosi, experiencing a severe career decline despite popularity with audiences (Universal executives always preferred his rival Karloff), accepted many leading roles from independent producers like Nat Levine, Sol Lesser, and Sam Katzman. These low-budget thrillers indicate that Lugosi was less discriminating than Boris Karloff in selecting screen vehicles, but the exposure helped Lugosi financially if not artistically. Lugosi tried to keep busy with stage work, but had to borrow money from the Actors' Fund to pay hospital bills when his only child, Bela George Lugosi, was born in 1938. His career was given a second chance by Universal's Son of Frankenstein in 1939, when he played the plum character role of Ygor, a sly hunchback, in heavy makeup and beard. The same year saw Lugosi playing a straight character role in a major motion picture: he was a stern commissar in MGM's Greta Garbo comedy Ninotchka. This small but prestigious role could have been a turning point for the actor, but within the year he was back on Hollywood's Poverty Row, playing leads for Sam Katzman. These horror, comedy, psycho, and mystery B-films were released by Monogram Pictures. At Universal, he often received star billing for what amounted to a supporting part. The Gorilla had him playing straight man to Patsy Kelly, in a role she told Bose Hadleigh was her finest. Ostensibly due to injuries received during military service, Lugosi developed severe, chronic sciatica. Though at first he was treated with pain remedies such as asparagus juice, doctors increased the medication to opiates. The growth of his dependence on pain-killers, particularly morphine and methadone, was directly proportional to the dwindling of screen offers. In 1943, he finally played the role of Frankenstein's monster in Universal's Frankenstein Meets the Wolfman, which this time contained dialogue (Lugosi's voice had been dubbed over Lon Chaney, Jr's, line readings at the end of 1942's The Ghost of Frankenstein because Ygor's brain had been transplanted into the Monster). Lugosi continued to play the Monster with Ygor's consciousness but with groping gestures because the Monster was now blind. Ultimately, all of the Monster's dialogue and all references to his sightlessness were edited out of the released film, leaving a strange, maimed performance characterized by unexplained gestures and lip movements with no words coming out. He also got to recreate the role of Dracula a second and last time on film in Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein in 1948. By this time, Lugosi's drug use was so notorious that the producers weren't even aware that Lugosi was still alive, and had penciled in actor Ian Keith for the role. Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein was Bela Lugosi's last "A" movie. For the remainder of his life he appeared—less and less frequently—in relatively obscure, low-budget features. During the early 1950s he made personal appearances and did stage work, including a theatrical engagement in England. While there he co-starred in a lowbrow comedy, Mother Riley Meets the Vampire (also known as Vampire over London and My Son, the Vampire). Upon his return to America, Lugosi was interviewed for television, and revealed his ambition to play more comedy, though wistfully noting, "Now I am the boogie man." Independent producer Jack Broder took Lugosi at his word, casting him in a jungle-themed comedy, Bela Lugosi Meets a Brooklyn Gorilla. Another opportunity for comedy came when Red Skelton invited Lugosi to appear in a sketch on his live CBS program. Lugosi memorized the script for the skit, but became confused on the air when Skelton began to ad lib. This was depicted in the Tim Burton film Ed Wood, with Martin Landau as Lugosi. Though Burton did not actually identify the comedian in the biopic, the events depicted were correct. Late in his life, Bela Lugosi again received star billing in movies when filmmaker Edward D. Wood, Jr., a fan of Lugosi, found him living in obscurity and near-poverty and offered him roles in his films, such as Glen or Glenda and as a Dr. Frankenstein-like mad scientist in Bride of the Monster. During post-production of the latter, Lugosi decided to seek treatment for his addiction, and the premiere of the film was said to be intended to help pay for his hospital expenses. According to Kitty Kelley's biography of Frank Sinatra, when the entertainer heard of Lugosi's problems, he helped with expenses and visited at the hospital. Lugosi would recall his amazement, since he didn't even know Sinatra. The extras on an early DVD release of Plan 9 from Outer Space include an impromptu interview with Lugosi upon his exit from the treatment center in 1955, which provide some rare personal insights into the man. During the interview, Lugosi states that he is about to go to work on a new Ed Wood film, The Ghoul Goes West. This was one of several projects proposed by Wood, including The Phantom Ghoul and Dr. Acula. With Lugosi in his famed Dracula cape, Wood shot impromptu test footage, with no storyline in mind, in front of Tor Johnson's home, a suburban graveyard and in front of Lugosi's apartment building on Carlton Way. This footage ended up in Plan 9 from Outer Space. Lugosi married Hope Linninger in 1955, as his fourth wife. Following his treatment, Lugosi made one final film, in late 1955, The Black Sleep, for Bel-Air Pictures, which was released in the summer of 1956 through United Artists with a promotional campaign that included several personal appearances. To his disappointment, however, his role in this film was of a mute, with no dialogue. Death and posthumous performance Lugosi died of a heart attack on August 16, 1956 while lying on a couch in his Los Angeles home. He was 73. Rumor has it that Lugosi was clutching the script for The Final Curtain, a planned Ed Wood project, at the exact moment of his death. However, this is not true. Lugosi was buried wearing one of the Dracula stage play costumes, per the request of his son and fourth wife, in the Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City, California. Contrary to popular belief, Lugosi never requested to be buried in his cloak; Bela Lugosi, Jr. has confirmed on numerous occasions that he and his mother, Lillian, made the decision. One of Lugosi's roles was released posthumously. Ed Wood's Plan 9 from Outer Space features footage of Lugosi interspersed with a double. Wood had taken a few minutes of silent footage of Lugosi, in his Dracula cape, for a planned vampire picture but was unable to find financing for the project. When he later conceived Plan 9, Wood wrote the script to incorporate the Lugosi footage and hired his wife's chiropractor to double for Lugosi in additional shots. The double is thinner than Lugosi, and in every shot covers the lower half of his face with his cape, as Lugosi sometimes did in Abbott & Costello Meet Frankenstein. As Leonard Maltin put it in early editions of his movies guide book, "Lugosi died during production, and it shows." Legacy In 1979, the Lugosi v. Universal Pictures decision by the California Supreme Court held that Bela Lugosi's personality rights could not pass to his heirs, as a copyright would have. The court ruled that any rights of publicity, and rights to his image, terminated with Lugosi's death. California's descendibility statute for rights of publicity, Civil Code Section 990, was enacted in 1988, and Lugosi's estate now licenses the commercial use of his name and image. The right of publicity in some states endures for 50, 70, 75, or 100 years past the death of the celebrity. Lugosi is mentioned prominently in the song "Celluloid Heroes" by The Kinks. In 1979, Lugosi became the subject of a song by gothic rock band Bauhaus titled "Bela Lugosi's Dead". In 2006, French bossa nova band Nouvelle Vague released their version on their second album Bande à Part. Voltaire has produced a song called "Vampire Club" which mentions "Béla Lugosi's still undead". The German musician Bela B. was inspired by Bela Lugosi to his pseudonym. Tim Burton's 1994 biographical film Ed Wood is a sentimental interpretation of the relationship between Lugosi and Wood. Lugosi is played by Martin Landau in a good-natured and sometimes moving interpretation for which Landau received an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. Lugosi's son, Bela Lugosi, Jr., initially disapproved of his father's portrayal in the film despite never having seen it. After a long correspondence with Landau, Lugosi, Jr. was persuaded to view the film in Landau's company, after which he declared that Landau had "honored" his father with his portrayal. A musical about Ed Wood, called The Worst, created and recorded by American humorist, songwriter, and author Josh Alan Friedman, features two songs about Bela Lugosi, namely "Bela Lugosi" and "Bela's Funeral Dirge". Both pieces feature Texas-based gypsy jazz combo Cafe Noir. Three Lugosi projects were featured on the television show Mystery Science Theater 3000. The Corpse Vanishes was used in episode 105, the serial The Phantom Creeps was used throughout season two and the Ed Wood production Bride of the Monster appeared in episode 423. Screener Frank Conniff also championed the use of Bela Lugosi Meets A Brooklyn Gorilla for the show, but the remaining producers and writers rejected it for its poor quality. An episode of Sledge Hammer titled Last of the Red Hot Vampires was an homage of Béla Lugosi. At the end of the episode, it was dedicated to "Mr. Blaskó". One of the members of Mistula is named Bella Lugosi. In 2006, British rock band The Jalapeños included "For Bela" and "Hubcaps Over Hollywood" (about the Ed Wood films) on their CD "Go Ape!". They had contacted Lugosi Jr. with a view to using a Lugosi portrait on the album cover, but were told that they would have to pay Lugosi Jr.'s agent. Also the Dutch industrial glamrock band "Outerspace Overdose" has made a tribute to Bela Lugosi by quoting one of his lines from the movie Glen or Glenda in their song Disco Bloodbath on their album "Pull the stringk". In 2001, BBC Radio 4 broadcast There Are Such Things by Steven McNicoll and Mark McDonnell. Focusing on Lugosi and his well documented struggle to escape from the role that had typecast him, the play went on to receive The Hamilton Dean award for best dramatic presentation from the Dracula Society in 2002. A statue of Lugosi can be seen today on one of the corners of the Vajdahunyad Castle in Budapest. The Ellis Island Immigration Museum in New York City features a live, 30 minute play that focuses on Lugosi's illegal entry into the country and then his arrival at Ellis Island to enter the country legally. The cape Lugosi wore in the 1931 film Dracula still survives today in the ownership of Universal Studios. The theatrical play Lugosi - a vámpír árnyéka (Lugosi - the Shadow of the Vampire, in Hungarian) is based on the life of Lugosi, telling the story of his life as he becomes associated with Dracula to the extent that he does not get other roles and as his drug addiction becomes more severe. He was played by one of Hungary's most renowned actors, Ivan Darvas. Filmography Further reading Bela Lugosi: Dreams and Nightmares by Gary D. Rhodes, with Richard Sheffield, (2007) Collectables/Alpha Video Publishers, ISBN 0977379817 (hardcover) The Immortal Count: The Life and Films of Bela Lugosi by Arthur Lennig (2003), ISBN 0813122732 (hardcover) Bela Lugosi (Midnight Marquee Actors Series) by Gary Svehla and Susan Svehla (1995) ISBN 1887664017 (paperback) Bela Lugosi: Master of the MacAbre by Larry Edwards (1997), ISBN 188111709X (paperback) Films of Bela Lugosi by Richard Bojarski (1980) ISBN 0806507160 (hardcover) Sinister Serials of Boris Karloff, Bela Lugosi and Lon Chaney, Jr. by Leonard J. Kohl (2000) ISBN 1887664319 (paperback) Vampire over London: Bela Lugosi in Britain by Frank J. Dello Stritto (2000) ISBN 0970426909 (hardcover) References External links Official Bela Lugosi website, maintained by the Lugosi family Watch Bela Lugosi in White Zombie (1932) Lugosi: Hollywood's Dracula Bela Lugosi Honored Lugosi Scrapbook Vertlieb's Views: Bela Lugosi | Bela_Lugosi |@lemmatized béla:6 lugosi:126 october:2 august:2 hungarian:8 born:1 american:3 actor:14 stage:9 screen:3 well:3 know:4 play:22 count:2 dracula:14 broadway:1 subsequent:1 film:30 version:3 last:6 year:5 career:6 feature:7 several:5 ed:9 wood:15 low:4 budget:3 early:5 life:6 young:1 four:2 child:3 reference:3 information:1 essay:1 book:2 write:2 son:8 bela:31 g:3 bear:2 ferenc:1 dezső:1 blaskó:2 lugos:1 near:2 western:1 border:1 transylvania:1 time:9 part:4 austria:2 hungary:5 lugoj:1 romania:1 paula:1 de:2 vojnich:1 istván:1 blasko:1 banker:1 imdb:1 biography:2 channel:1 later:5 base:3 name:6 hometown:1 sister:1 vilma:1 raise:1 roman:1 catholic:1 family:2 age:1 drop:2 school:1 leave:5 home:3 pursue:1 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1,542 | Demographics_of_Martinique | Demographics of Martinique. Population: 436 131 (July 2006 est.) Age structure: 0-14 years: 22,1% (male 48 988; female 47 525) 15-64 years: 67.3% (male 147 082; female 146 470) 65 years and over: 10.6% (male 20 791; female 25 275) (2006 est.) Population growth rate: 0.72% (2006 estimate) Birth rate: 12.74 births/1,000 population (2006 est.) Death rate: 6.48 deaths/1,000 population (2006 est.) Net migration rate: -0.03 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2006 est.) Sex ratio: at birth: 1.02 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.03 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.82 male(s)/female total population: 0.99 male(s)/female (2006 est.) Infant mortality rate: 6,95 deaths/1,000 live births (2006 est.) Life expectancy at birth: total population: 79.18 years male: 79.5 years female: 78.85 years (2006 est.) Total fertility rate: 1.79 children born/woman (2006 est.) HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate: NA% HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS: NA HIV/AIDS - deaths: NA Nationality: noun: Martiniquais (singular and plural) adjective: Martiniquais Ethnic groups: African and African-white-Indian mixture 90%, white 5%, Indian Tamil or East Indian, Chinese less than 5% Religions: Roman Catholic 95%, Hindu and pagan African 5% Languages: French, Creole patois Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 97,7% male: 97,3% female: 98,1% (2003 est.) | Demographics_of_Martinique |@lemmatized demographic:1 martinique:1 population:8 july:1 est:10 age:2 structure:1 year:9 male:10 female:10 growth:1 rate:7 estimate:1 birth:5 death:4 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 total:4 infant:1 mortality:1 live:2 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 hiv:4 aid:4 adult:1 prevalence:1 na:3 people:1 nationality:1 noun:1 martiniquais:2 singular:1 plural:1 adjective:1 ethnic:1 group:1 african:3 white:2 indian:3 mixture:1 tamil:1 east:1 chinese:1 less:1 religion:1 roman:1 catholic:1 hindu:1 pagan:1 language:1 french:1 creole:1 patois:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 |@bigram male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 hiv_aid:4 adult_prevalence:1 nationality_noun:1 singular_plural:1 literacy_definition:1 |
1,543 | Management | Management in all business and human organization activity is simply the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals. Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and controlling an organization (a group of one or more people or entities) or effort for the purpose of accomplishing a goal. Resourcing encompasses the deployment and manipulation of human resources, financial resources, technological resources, and natural resources. Management can also refer to the person or people who perform the act(s) of management. Overview The verb manage comes from the Italian maneggiare (to handle — especially a horse), which in turn derives from the Latin manus (hand). The French word mesnagement (later ménagement) influenced the development in meaning of the English word management in the 17th and 18th centuries. Oxford English Dictionary Some definitions of management are: Organization and coordination of the activities of an enterprise in accordance with certain policies and in achievement of clearly defined objectives. Management is often included as a factor of production along with machines, materials, and money. According to the management guru Peter Drucker (1909–2005), the basic task of a management is twofold: marketing and innovation. Practice of modern management owes its origin to the 16th century enquiry into low-efficiency and failures of certain enterprises, conducted by the English statesman Sir Thomas More (1478–1535). Directors and managers who have the power and responsibility to make decisions to manage an enterprise. As a discipline, management comprises the interlocking functions of formulating corporate policy and organizing, planning, controlling, and directing the firm's resources to achieve the policy's objectives. The size of management can range from one person in a small firm to hundreds or thousands of managers in multinational companies. In large firms the board of directors formulates the policy which is implemented by the chief executive officer. Theoretical scope Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933), who wrote on the topic in the early twentieth century, defined management as "the art of getting things done through people". She also described management as philosophy. Vocational Business: Training, Developing and Motivating People by Richard Barrett - Business & Economics - 2003. - Page 51. One can also think of management functionally, as the action of measuring a quantity on a regular basis and of adjusting some initial plan; or as the actions taken to reach one's intended goal. This applies even in situations where planning does not take place. From this perspective, Frenchman Henri Fayol Administration industrielle et générale - prévoyance organisation - commandement, coordination – contrôle, Paris : Dunod, 1966 considers management to consist of seven functions: planning organizing leading co-ordinating controlling staffing motivating Some people, however, find this definition, while useful, far too narrow. The phrase "management is what managers do" occurs widely, suggesting the difficulty of defining management, the shifting nature of definitions, and the connection of managerial practices with the existence of a managerial cadre or class. One habit of thought regards management as equivalent to "business administration" and thus excludes management in places outside commerce, as for example in charities and in the public sector. More realistically, however, every organization must manage its work, people, processes, technology, etc. in order to maximize its effectiveness. Nonetheless, many people refer to university departments which teach management as "business schools." Some institutions (such as the Harvard Business School) use that name while others (such as the Yale School of Management) employ the more inclusive term "management." English speakers may also use the term "management" or "the management" as a collective word describing the managers of an organization, for example of a corporation. Historically this use of the term was often contrasted with the term "Labor" referring to those being managed. Nature of managerial work In for-profit work, management has as its primary function the satisfaction of a range of stakeholders. This typically involves making a profit (for the shareholders), creating valued products at a reasonable cost (for customers), and providing rewarding employment opportunities (for employees). In nonprofit management, add the importance of keeping the faith of donors. In most models of management/governance, shareholders vote for the board of directors, and the board then hires senior management. Some organizations have experimented with other methods (such as employee-voting models) of selecting or reviewing managers; but this occurs only very rarely. In the public sector of countries constituted as representative democracies, voters elect politicians to public office. Such politicians hire many managers and administrators, and in some countries like the United States political appointees lose their jobs on the election of a new president/governor/mayor. Public, private, and voluntary sectors place different demands on managers, but all must retain the faith of those who select them (if they wish to retain their jobs), retain the faith of those people that fund the organization, and retain the faith of those who work for the organization. If they fail to convince employees of the advantages of staying rather than leaving, they may tip the organization into a downward spiral of hiring, training, firing, and recruiting. Management also has the task of innovating and of improving the functioning of organizations. Historical development Difficulties arise in tracing the history of management. Some see it (by definition) as a late modern (in the sense of late modernity) conceptualization. On those terms it cannot have a pre-modern history, only harbingers (such as stewards). Others, however, detect management-like-thought back to Sumerian traders and to the builders of the pyramids of ancient Egypt. Slave-owners through the centuries faced the problems of exploiting/motivating a dependent but sometimes unenthusiastic or recalcitrant workforce, but many pre-industrial enterprises, given their small scale, did not feel compelled to face the issues of management systematically. However, innovations such as the spread of Arabic numerals (5th to 15th centuries) and the codification of double-entry book-keeping (1494) provided tools for management assessment, planning and control. Given the scale of most commercial operations and the lack of mechanized record-keeping and recording before the industrial revolution, it made sense for most owners of enterprises in those times to carry out management functions by and for themselves. But with growing size and complexity of organizations, the split between owners (individuals, industrial dynasties or groups of shareholders) and day-to-day managers (independent specialists in planning and control) gradually became more common. Early writing While management has been present for millennia, several writers have created a background of works that assisted in modern management theories. Sun Tzu's The Art of War Written by Chinese general Sun Tzu in the 6th century BC, The Art of War is a military strategy book that, for managerial purposes, recommends being aware of and acting on strengths and weaknesses of both a manager's organization and a foe's. Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince Believing that people were motivated by self-interest, Niccolò Machiavelli wrote The Prince in 1513 as advice for the leadership of Florence, Italy. Machiavelli recommended that leaders use fear—but not hatred—to maintain control. Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations Written in 1776 by Adam Smith, a Scottish moral philosopher, The Wealth of Nations aims for efficient organization of work through Specialization of labor. Smith described how changes in processes could boost productivity in the manufacture of pins. While individuals could produce 200 pins per day, Smith analyzed the steps involved in manufacture and, with 10 specialists, enabled production of 48,000 pins per day. 19th century Classical economists such as Adam Smith (1723 - 1790) and John Stuart Mill (1806 - 1873) provided a theoretical background to resource-allocation, production, and pricing issues. About the same time, innovators like Eli Whitney (1765 - 1825), James Watt (1736 - 1819), and Matthew Boulton (1728 - 1809) developed elements of technical production such as standardization, quality-control procedures, cost-accounting, interchangeability of parts, and work-planning. Many of these aspects of management existed in the pre-1861 slave-based sector of the US economy. That environment saw 4 million people, as the contemporary usages had it, "managed" in profitable quasi-mass production. By the late 19th century, marginal economists Alfred Marshall (1842 - 1924), Léon Walras (1834 - 1910), and others introduced a new layer of complexity to the theoretical underpinnings of management. Joseph Wharton offered the first tertiary-level course in management in 1881. 20th century By about 1900 one finds managers trying to place their theories on what they regarded as a thoroughly scientific basis (see scientism for perceived limitations of this belief). Examples include Henry R. Towne's Science of management in the 1890s, Frederick Winslow Taylor's The Principles of Scientific Management (1911), Frank and Lillian Gilbreth's Applied motion study (1917), and Henry L. Gantt's charts (1910s). J. Duncan wrote the first college management textbook in 1911. In 1912 Yoichi Ueno introduced Taylorism to Japan and became first management consultant of the "Japanese-management style". His son Ichiro Ueno pioneered Japanese quality assurance. The first comprehensive theories of management appeared around 1920. The Harvard Business School invented the Master of Business Administration degree (MBA) in 1921. People like Henri Fayol (1841 - 1925) and Alexander Church described the various branches of management and their inter-relationships. In the early 20th century, people like Ordway Tead (1891 - 1973), Walter Scott and J. Mooney applied the principles of psychology to management, while other writers, such as Elton Mayo (1880 - 1949), Mary Parker Follett (1868 - 1933), Chester Barnard (1886 - 1961), Max Weber (1864 - 1920), Rensis Likert (1903 - 1981), and Chris Argyris (1923 - ) approached the phenomenon of management from a sociological perspective. Peter Drucker (1909 – 2005) wrote one of the earliest books on applied management: Concept of the Corporation (published in 1946). It resulted from Alfred Sloan (chairman of General Motors until 1956) commissioning a study of the organisation. Drucker went on to write 39 books, many in the same vein. H. Dodge, Ronald Fisher (1890 - 1962), and Thornton C. Fry introduced statistical techniques into management-studies. In the 1940s, Patrick Blackett combined these statistical theories with microeconomic theory and gave birth to the science of operations research. Operations research, sometimes known as "management science" (but distinct from Taylor's scientific management), attempts to take a scientific approach to solving management problems, particularly in the areas of logistics and operations. Some of the more developments include the Theory of Constraints, management by objectives, reengineering, Six Sigma and various information-technology-driven theories such as agile software development, as well as group management theories such as Cog's Ladder. As the general recognition of managers as a class solidified during the 20th century and gave perceived practitioners of the art/science of management a certain amount of prestige, so the way opened for popularised systems of management ideas to peddle their wares. In this context many management fads may have had more to do with pop psychology than with scientific theories of management. Towards the end of the 20th century, business management came to consist of six separate branches, namely: Human resource management Operations management or production management Strategic management Marketing management Financial management Information technology management responsible for management information systems 21st century In the 21st century observers find it increasingly difficult to subdivide management into functional categories in this way. More and more processes simultaneously involve several categories. Instead, one tends to think in terms of the various processes, tasks, and objects subject to management. Branches of management theory also exist relating to nonprofits and to government: such as public administration, public management, and educational management. Further, management programs related to civil-society organizations have also spawned programs in nonprofit management and social entrepreneurship. Note that many of the assumptions made by management have come under attack from business ethics viewpoints, critical management studies, and anti-corporate activism. As one consequence, workplace democracy has become both more common, and more advocated, in some places distributing all management functions among the workers, each of whom takes on a portion of the work. However, these models predate any current political issue, and may occur more naturally than does a command hierarchy. All management to some degree embraces democratic principles in that in the long term workers must give majority support to management; otherwise they leave to find other work, or go on strike. Despite the move toward workplace democracy, command-and-control organization structures remain commonplace and the de facto organization structure. Indeed, the entrenched nature of command-and-control can be seen in the way that recent layoffs have been conducted with management ranks affected far less than employees at the lower levels of organizations. In some cases, management has even rewarded itself with bonuses when lower level employees have been laid off. Craig, S. (2009, January 29). Merrill Bonus Case Widens as Deal Struggles. Wall Street Journal. Management topics Basic functions of management Management operates through various functions, often classified as planning, organizing, leading/motivating, and controlling. Planning: Deciding what needs to happen in the future (today, next week, next month, next year, over the next 5 years, etc.) and generating plans for action. Organizing: (Implementation) making optimum use of the resources required to enable the successful carrying out of plans. Staffing: Job Analyzing, recruitment, and hiring individuals for appropriate jobs. Leading: Determining what needs to be done in a situation and getting people to do it. Controlling: Monitoring, checking progress against plans, which may need modification based on feedback. Motivating: the process of stimulating an individual to take action that will accomplish a desired goal. Formation of the business policy The mission of the business is its most obvious purpose -- which may be, for example, to make soap. The vision of the business reflects its aspirations and specifies its intended direction or future destination. The objectives of the business refers to the ends or activity at which a certain task is aimed. The business's policy is a guide that stipulates rules, regulations and objectives, and may be used in the managers' decision-making. It must be flexible and easily interpreted and understood by all employees. The business's strategy refers to the coordinated plan of action that it is going to take, as well as the resources that it will use, to realize its vision and long-term objectives. It is a guideline to managers, stipulating how they ought to allocate and utilize the factors of production to the business's advantage. Initially, it could help the managers decide on what type of business they want to form. How to implement policies and strategies All policies and strategies must be discussed with all managerial personnel and staff. Managers must understand where and how they can implement their policies and strategies. A plan of action must be devised for each department. Policies and strategies must be reviewed regularly. Contingency plans must be devised in case the environment changes. Assessments of progress ought to be carried out regularly by top-level managers. A good environment and team spirit is required within the business. The missions, objectives, strengths and weaknesses of each department must be analysed to determine their roles in achieving the business's mission. The forecasting method develops a reliable picture of the business's future environment. A planning unit must be created to ensure that all plans are consistent and that policies and strategies are aimed at achieving the same mission and objectives. Contingency plans must be developed, just in case. All policies must be discussed with all managerial personnel and staff that is required in the execution of any departmental policy. Organizational change is strategically achieved through the implementation of the eight-step plan of action established by John P. Kotter: Increase urgency, get the vision right, communicate the buy-in, empower action, create short-term wins, don't let up, and make change stick. Kotter, John P. and Dan S. Cohen. The Heart of Change. Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing, Where policies and strategies fit into the planning process They give mid- and lower-level managers a good idea of the future plans for each department. A framework is created whereby plans and decisions are made. Mid- and lower-level management may add their own plans to the business's strategic ones. Managerial levels and hierarchy The management of a large organization may have three levels: Senior management (or "top management" or "upper management") Middle management Low-level management, such as supervisors or team-leaders Foreman Rank and File Top-level management Require an extensive knowledge of management roles and skills. They have to be very aware of external factors such as markets. Their decisions are generally of a long-term nature Their decisions are made using analytic, directive, conceptual and/or behavioral/participative processes They are responsible for strategic decisions. They have to chalk out the plan and see that plan may be effective in the future. They are executive in nature. Middle management Mid-level managers have a specialized understanding of certain managerial tasks. They are responsible for carrying out the decisions made by top-level management. Lower management This level of management ensures that the decisions and plans taken by the other two are carried out. Lower-level managers' decisions are generally short-term ones. Foreman / lead hand They are people who have direct supervision over the working force in office factory, sales field or other workgroup or areas of activity. Rank and File The responsibilities of the persons belonging to this group are even more restricted and more specific than those of the foreman. Areas and categories and implementations of management Accounting management Agile management Association management Capability Management Change management Conflict management Commercial operations management Communication management Constraint management Cost management Crisis management Critical management studies Customer relationship management Decision making styles Design management Disaster management Distributed management Earned value management Educational management Environmental management Facility management Financial management Forecasting Human resources management Hospital management Information technology management Innovation management Interim management Inventory management Knowledge management Land management Leadership management Logistics management Lifecycle management Management on demand Marine fuel management Marketing management Materials management Office management Operations management Organization development Perception management Practice management Program management Project management Process management Performance management Product management Public administration Public management Quality management Records management Relationship management Research management Resource management Risk management Rural management Skills management Social entrepreneurship Spend management Spiritual management Strategic management Stress management Supply chain management Systems management Talent management Time management Technological Management Visual management See also Articles Adhocracy Administration Certified Business Manager Collaboration Collaborative method Corporate governance Design management Engineering management Evidence-based management Forecasting Futures studies Growth Knowledge visualization Leadership Management consulting Management control Management cybernetics Management development Management fad Managerial Psychology Management science Management styles Management system Managerialism Micromanagement Macromanagement Middle management Music management Organizational Behavior Management Organizational studies Predictive analytics Project management Public administration Risk Risk management Team building Scientific management Senior management Social entrepreneurship Virtual management Peter Drucker's management by objectives Eliyahu M. Goldratt's Theory of Constraints Pointy Haired Boss — a negative stereotype of managers Lists List of basic management topics List of management topics List of marketing topics List of human resource management topics List of economics topics List of finance topics List of accounting topics List of information technology management topics List of production topics List of business law topics List of business ethics, political economy, and philosophy of business topics List of business theorists List of economists List of corporate leaders Timeline of management techniques References External links Association of Professionals in Business Management (APBM) Chartered Management Institute (CMI) Management Courses at MIT Sloan, OpenCourseWare Research on Organizations: Bibliography Database and Maps (United States) Academy of Management: dedicated to the scholarship and practice of management Institute of Certified Professional Managers be-x-old:Мэнэджмэнт | Management |@lemmatized 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1,544 | Hayling_Island | Hayling Island is an island off the south coast of England, in the borough of Havant in the county of Hampshire. It is twinned with Gorron, Mayenne, France. Geography Hayling Island is a true island, completely surrounded by natural watercourses at all states of the tide. Looking at its north to south orientation, it is shaped like an inverted T, about 6.5 kilometres (4 miles) long and 6.5 kilometres wide. A road bridge connects its northern end to the mainland of England. A small passenger ferry connects it to the neighbouring island of Portsea where the city of Portsmouth is located. To the west is Langstone Harbour and to the east is Chichester Harbour. The natural beach at Hayling was predominantly sandy but in recent years it has been mechanically topped with shingle dredged from the bed of the Solent in an effort to reduce beach erosion and reduce the potential to flood low lying land. At low tide, the West Winner sandbank is visible, extending a mile out to sea. The coastline in this area has substantially changed since Roman times: it is believed much land has been lost from the coasts of Hayling and Selsey by erosion and subsequent flooding. Location and area Latitude: 050 47N Longitude: 000 58W Area: 30 km² (11.6 square miles) Leisure activities Although largely residential, Hayling is also a holiday, windsurfing and sailing centre. Hayling has a strong claim to being the site where windsurfing was invented. Different courts in different jurisdictions have recognized different inventors, clouding any possibility of clear attribution. However in 1985, British courts recognized prior art by Peter Chilvers, who as a young boy on Hayling Island assembled his first board combined with a sail, in 1958. Intended to be steered by a rudder, it did not incorporate the curved wishbone booms of the modern windsurfer, but rather a "straight split boom". The courts found that later innovations were "merely an obvious extension". It is worthy of note that this court case set a significant precedent for patent law in the United Kingdom, in terms of Inventive step and non-obviousness; the court upheld the defendant's claim based on film footage. A funfair (Funlands) situated at Beachlands, is open year round, as is the East Hayling Light Railway which runs from the funfair to Eastoke corner. The Hayling Billy Trail is just one of many footpaths with attractive views enjoyed by walkers. The Ordnance Survey Explorer 120 map covers the area and the Tourist Information Office at Beachlands tel 023 92467111 can supply leaflets of local interest walks. The island supports several churches of different denominations including 3 Anglican churches; St Peter's at Northney, St Mary's at Gable Head and the more recently built St Andrew's in South Hayling. Construction of Northwode Chapel by the monks of Jumiéges, Normandy, began in about 1140 and this became the present St Peter's Church and now the oldest surviving church on the Island. It has been claimed that St Peter's three bells, cast in about 1350, have one of the oldest peals in England. The grave of Princess Youriesvsky (1890-1959) who was a member of the ill-fated Russian Royal family and who lived in North Hayling for many years, may be found in the churchyard. Church booklet - Guide to St Peter's Church North Hayling 2003. St Mary's Church is a standard design of the churches of its era, but upon close examination the walls have been constructed from a mortar of local shells and beach pebbles. The churchyard features a yew tree that is believed to be over 800 years old. The grave of Scotsman George Sandeman, the founder of Sandeman Port is prominently featured in the north-east part of the graveyard. Local hotels, holiday centres, bed and breakfast accommodation, holiday homes and caravans for rent, all support this year-round tourist resort. Transport Due to lack of use, the ferry service to and from Portsea island is subsidised by the local authorities. This leaves the ferry under constant threat of closure due to limited resources. Other than the ferry, the only public connection between Hayling Island and the mainland is a single carriageway A road linking Northney to Langstone, Havant. In summer in particular, this road can become very congested rendering the journey between the bridge and South Hayling (the most populated area) anything from 30 minutes to an hour. Until 1963 when the line was closed, Terrier steam locomotives pulled carriages along the 5 mile track from Havant station on the mainland to a station which was located at the northern end of Staunton Avenue, passing through Langstone where there was a Halt. (The Hayling Billy Line) "The Book of Hayling Island-more than a millennium"Rogers,P: Tiverton, Halsgrove, 2000 ISBN 1841140783 . Beaches at Hayling Island. A tourist attraction - the East Hayling Light Railway - is a 2 foot (610 mm) gauge railway that runs for just over a mile from Beachlands Station to Eastoke Corner with aspirations to extend the route to Ferry Point within the next few years. Interesting facts An iron-age shrine in the north of Hayling Island was later developed into a Roman temple in the first century BC and was first recorded in Richard Scott's Topographical and Historical Account of Hayling Island published in 1826. The site was excavated between 1897 and 1907 and again from 1976 to 1978. Remains are no longer visible and are buried beneath cultivated farmland. The Hayling Island Temple Third Interim Report on the Excavation of the Iron Age and Roman Temple 1976-78 Robert Downey, Anthony King, Grahame Soffe. Salt production was an industry on the island from the 11th century (the Domesday Book recorded a saltpan on the island for this purpose) until the late 19th century. At the Northwest corner of the island lies the Hayling Oysterbeds Local Nature Reserve. Hayling Island was the location of a mock invasion during the military exercise Fabius in May 1944, rehearsing the preparations for D-Day Southampton and D-Day. Ingrid Peckham. 1994. ISBN 1 872649 04 1 The phantom church The inundations of the 14th century caused much land to be lost to the sea from the south coast of Hayling. A History of the County of Hampshire: Volume 3 published 1908 The losses included a church dedicated to All Saints and as in similar situations, local legends tell of ghostly church bells still ringing out from the sea-bed. Hayling Oysterbeds Oysters have been farmed on the Hayling Oysterbeds since as early as 1819, right up until the 1970s and became a delicacy that was exported throughout the country under the classification of “Emsworth Oysters”. Large complexes consisting of several pens separated by a series of bund walls were built to contain the oysters at varying stages of growth. Although large sections of the bund walls have since collapsed into the harbour, much of shape and scale of the beds can still be seen today. In 1996, the oyster beds on the north west coast of Hayling Island were restored by the Havant Borough Council, creating a wildlife haven which has become an important seabird breeding site. The Design Council awarded this project 'Millennium Product' status for the renovation. Paris To Hayling Charity Cycle Ride The island is the home of the famous Paris To Hayling Charity Cycle Ride. This event run entirely by local unpaid volunteers, was started in 1986 and has been run every year since. Up to 2007 just over £1,100,000 has been collected for more than 400 good causes. Entrants have come from 15 different countries on 5 continents. Population Population Date ~300 1086 (Domesday Book) 578 1801 (census) >1,600 1901 >5,500 1950 16,887 2001 (census, usually resident population) List of settlements Mengham Northney Eastoke West Town Sinah Sandy Point South Hayling Gable Head Ferry Point Mill Rythe Tournerbury Stoke Tye Places of interest Hayling Island Sailing Club, Sandy Point (AKA Black Point) Northney Marina Sparkes Yacht Harbour Hayling Billy Trail East Hayling Light Railway Station Theatre Ham Field Seacourt Tennis Club St Marys Church, Gable Head St. Peter's Church, Northney The Kench, near Ferry Point The RNLI Lifeboat station at Sandy Point The Hayling Ferry Funland Gallery References External links Hayling Island Community Board Hayling.co.uk (local community website) The Hayling College Hayling Surf Cam Paris To Hayling Charity Cycle Ride Sandy point RNLI Lifeboat Station Hayling Directory Bird Watching Hayling Island | Hayling_Island |@lemmatized hayling:41 island:24 south:6 coast:4 england:3 borough:2 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1,545 | Intel_80386 | The Intel 80386, otherwise known as the i386 or just 386, is a microprocessor with just 275,000 transistors, which has been used as the central processing unit (CPU) of many personal computers and workstations since 1985 As the original implementation of the 32-bit form of the 8086-architecture, the i386 instruction set, programming model, and binary encodings is still the common denominator for all 32-bit x86 processors. The range of processors compatible with the 80386 is often collectively termed x86 or the i386 architecture; today, Intel prefers the name IA-32 however. During its design phase the processor was code-named simply P3, the third-generation processor in the x86 line. As such, it has remained virtually unchanged for over 20 years, enabling modern processors to run most programs written for earlier chips, all the way back to the original 16-bit 8086 of 1978. Successively newer implementations of this same architecture have become several hundred times faster than the original i386 chip during these years (or thousands of times faster than the 8086). A 33 MHz i386 was reportedly measured to operate at about 11.4 MIPS. The i386 was launched in October 1985, but full-function chips were first delivered in 1986. Mainboards for 386-based computer systems were at first expensive to produce but were rationalized upon the 386's mainstream adoption. The first personal computer to make use of the 386 was designed and manufactured by Compaq. In May 2006 Intel announced that production of the 386 would cease at the end of September 2007. Although it had long been obsolete as a personal computer CPU, Intel and others had continued to manufacture the chip for embedded systems, including aerospace technology. Architecture Block diagram of the i386 microarchitecture. The processor was a significant evolution in a long line of processors that stretched back to the Intel 8008. The predecessor of the 80386 was the Intel 80286, a 16-bit processor with a segment-based memory management and protection system. The 80386 added a 32-bit architecture and a paging translation unit, which made it much easier to implement operating systems which used virtual memory. It also has hardware debugging support. The 80386 featured three operating modes: real mode, protected mode and virtual mode. The protected mode which debuted in the 286 was extended to allow the 386 to address up to 4 GB of memory. The all new virtual 8086 mode (or VM86) made it possible to run one or more real mode programs in a protected environment. Though Intel would shortly introduce the 80486 and eventually the Intel Pentium line of processors, the support in the 386 for the 32-bit flat memory model would arguably be the most important feature change for the x86 processor family until AMD released x86-64 in 2003. Chief architect in the development of the 80386 was John H. Crawford See . He was responsible for the 32-bit extension of the 80286 architecture and instruction set, and then led the microprogram development for the 80386 chip. The i386SX variant The Intel 80386SX processor of a Compaq Deskpro Computer In 1988, Intel introduced the i386SX, a low cost version with a 16-bit data bus (although the CPU remained fully 32-bit internally) intended to simplify circuit board layout and reduce total cost, similar to how the 8088 (used in the original IBM PC) simplified designs, but hampered performance, compared to the 8086. Only 24 pins were connected to the address bus, therefore limiting addressing to 16 MB (similar to the 68000), but this was not a critical constraint at the time. Performance differences were due not only to differing databus-widths, but also to the performance-enhancing cache memories often employed on boards using the original chip. The original i386 was subsequently renamed i386DX to avoid confusion, though this would rather cause confusion later when the DX in the name i486DX instead indicated floating-point capability. The i387SX was a compatible i387 part (i.e. with a 16-bit databus) available as an optional math-coprocessor. The 386SX was packaged in a surface-mount QFP, and sometimes offered in a socket to allow for an upgrade. The i386SL variant Intel i386 SL 20 MHz version. The i386SL was introduced as a power efficient version for laptop computers. The processor offered several power management options (e.g. SMM), as well as different "sleep" modes to conserve battery power. It also contained support for an external cache of 16 to 64 kB. The extra functions and circuit implementation techniques caused this variant to have over 3 times as many transistors as the i386DX. The i386SL was first available at 20 MHz clock speed , with the 25 MHz model later added. Business importance The first PC company to design and manufacture a PC based on the 386 was Compaq, rather than IBM, which had been dominant until that time. IBM was offered use of the processor, but relied instead on earlier processors to which it had manufacturing rights. The success of the Compaq 386 PC played an important role in legitimizing the PC "clone" industry, and to establishing Intel (and Microsoft) as central component suppliers to it. Andy Grove, Intel's CEO at the time, made the decision not to encourage other manufacturers to produce the processor as second sources, a decision that was ultimately crucial to Intel's success in the market.. From a business perspective, the i386 was significant because it was the first significant microprocessor to be single-sourced– it was available only from Intel Corp (at least initially; IBM later became a second source). Prior to this, the difficulty of making chips and the uncertainty of reliable supply required that any mass-market semiconductor be multi-sourced, that is, made by two or more manufacturers, the second and subsequent ones manufacturing under license from the designer. Single-sourcing the i386 allowed Intel greater control over its development and substantially greater profits in later years. However, AMD introduced its compatible Am386 processor in March 1991 after overcoming legal obstacles, thus ending Intel's monopoly on 32-bit 386-compatible processors. Compatibles IBM 80386DX 25 MHz with Intel core. The AMD Am386DX/SX were more or less an exact clone of the 80386. After being held up in the courtroom for several years, AMD's 40MHz part became very popular with computer enthusiasts as a low cost and low power alternative to the 25MHz 486SX. The power draw was further reduced in the "notebook models" (Am386 DXL/SXL/DXLV/SXLV) which could cope with 3.3V and was implemented in fully static CMOS circuitry. Chips and Technologies Super386 38600DX/38600SX was developed using reverse engineering. It sold poorly, due to some technical errors or incompatibilities as well as its late appearance on the market, and was therefore a short-lived product. Cyrix Cx486SLC/Cx486DLC can be (simplistically) described as a kind of 386/486 hybrid chip that included a small amount of on-chip cache. It was popular among computer enthusiasts but did poorly with OEMs. The Cyrix Cx486SLC and Cyrix Cx486DLC processors were pin-compatible with 80386SX and 80386DX respectively. These processors were also sold (and manufactured) by Texas Instruments. IBM 386SLC and 486SLC/DLC were variants of Intel's design which contained a large amount of on-chip cache (8 kB, and later 16 kB). The agreement with Intel limited their use to IBM's own line of computers and upgrade boards only, so they were not available on the open market. Typical 386 Upgrade CPUs from Cyrix and Texas Instruments. Early Problems Intel originally intended for the i386 to debut at 16MHz, but due to poor yields was instead introduced at 12MHz. Early in production, Intel found a bug that could cause a system to unexpectedly halt when running 32-bit software. Not all of the processors already manufactured were affected, so Intel tested its inventory. Processors that were found to be bug-free were marked with a double-sigma (ΣΣ), whilst affected processors were marked "16 BIT S/W ONLY" and sold as otherwise-good parts, since at the time 32 bit software was not relevant for most users. Such chips are now extremely rare. The i387 Math-Coprocessor was not ready in time for the introduction of the i386, and so many of the early 386 motherboards instead provided sockets to make use of an 80287. In this configuration the FPU would operate asynchronously to the CPU, usually with a clock rate of 10MHz. The original Compaq Deskpro 386 is an example of such design. However, this was an annoyance to those who depended on FPUs as the performance of the 287 was nowhere near that of the 387. Upgrades Intel offered a modified version of its later 80486DX in 80386 packaging, branded as the Intel RapidCAD, to provide an upgrade path for 80386 users. The upgrade worked as a pair of chips that replaced both the 386 and 387, although since the 80486DX contained an FPU itself the chip that replaced the 387 served no purpose except to appear like a coprocessor, so that the system board would be configured correctly. The CAD branding can be explained by the massive increase in floating point performance offered; integer performance increase was around 30%. A wide range of 3rd party upgrades were also available for both SX and DX systems. The most popular ones were based on the Cyrix 486DLC/SLC core, which typically offered a substantial speed improvement via more efficient instruction pipeline and 1 kB (or sometimes 8 kB in the TI variant) internal L1 SRAM cache. Some of these upgrade chips (such as the 486DRx2/SRx2) were marketed by Cyrix themselves, but were more commonly found in kits offered by upgrade specialists such as Kingston, Evergreen and Improve-It Technologies. Some of the fastest CPU upgrade modules featured IBM SLC/DLC family (notable for its 16 kB L1 cache), or even the Intel 486 itself. Many 386 upgrade kits were advertised as being simple drop-in replacements, but often required complicated software to control the cache and/or clock doubling. Overall it was very difficult to configure upgrades to produce the results advertised on the packaging and often less than 100% stable/compatible. See also Computer science Notes and references External links Intel 80386 Programmer's Reference Manual 1986 (PDF) CPU-INFO: 80386, indepth processor history Intel 80386 processor family Intel 386 manuals | Intel_80386 |@lemmatized intel:29 otherwise:2 know:1 microprocessor:2 transistor:2 use:9 central:2 processing:1 unit:2 cpu:7 many:4 personal:3 computer:10 workstation:1 since:3 original:7 implementation:3 bit:14 form:1 architecture:6 instruction:3 set:2 program:3 model:4 binary:1 encoding:1 still:1 common:1 denominator:1 processor:24 range:2 compatible:6 often:4 collectively:1 termed:1 today:1 prefers:1 name:3 ia:1 however:3 design:6 phase:1 code:1 simply:1 third:1 generation:1 line:4 remain:2 virtually:1 unchanged:1 year:4 enable:1 modern:1 run:3 write:1 early:5 chip:15 way:1 back:2 successively:1 new:2 become:3 several:3 hundred:1 time:8 faster:2 thousand:1 mhz:5 reportedly:1 measure:1 operate:4 mips:1 launch:1 october:1 full:1 function:2 first:6 deliver:1 mainboards:1 base:4 system:7 expensive:1 produce:3 rationalize:1 upon:1 mainstream:1 adoption:1 make:7 manufacture:6 compaq:5 may:1 announce:1 production:2 would:6 cease:1 end:2 september:1 although:3 long:2 obsolete:1 others:1 continue:1 embedded:1 include:2 aerospace:1 technology:2 block:1 diagram:1 microarchitecture:1 significant:3 evolution:1 stretch:1 predecessor:1 segment:1 memory:5 management:2 protection:1 add:2 paging:1 translation:1 much:1 easy:1 implement:2 virtual:3 also:6 hardware:1 debug:1 support:3 feature:3 three:1 mode:7 real:2 protect:1 protected:2 debut:2 extend:1 allow:3 address:3 gb:1 possible:1 one:3 environment:1 though:2 shortly:1 introduce:5 eventually:1 pentium:1 flat:1 arguably:1 important:2 change:1 family:3 amd:4 release:1 chief:1 architect:1 development:3 john:1 h:1 crawford:1 see:2 responsible:1 extension:1 lead:1 microprogram:1 variant:5 deskpro:2 low:3 cost:3 version:4 data:1 bus:2 fully:2 internally:1 intend:2 simplify:2 circuit:2 board:4 layout:1 reduce:2 total:1 similar:2 ibm:8 pc:5 hamper:1 performance:6 compare:1 pin:2 connect:1 therefore:2 limit:2 mb:1 critical:1 constraint:1 difference:1 due:3 differ:1 databus:2 width:1 enhance:1 cache:7 employ:1 subsequently:1 rename:1 avoid:1 confusion:2 rather:2 cause:3 later:4 dx:2 instead:4 indicate:1 float:2 point:2 capability:1 part:3 e:2 available:5 optional:1 math:2 coprocessor:3 package:1 surface:1 mount:1 qfp:1 sometimes:2 offer:7 socket:2 upgrade:12 sl:1 power:5 efficient:2 laptop:1 option:1 g:1 smm:1 well:2 different:1 sleep:1 modes:1 conserve:1 battery:1 contain:3 external:2 kb:6 extra:1 technique:1 clock:3 speed:2 business:2 importance:1 company:1 dominant:1 rely:1 manufacturing:1 right:1 success:2 play:1 role:1 legitimize:1 clone:2 industry:1 establish:1 microsoft:1 component:1 supplier:1 andy:1 grove:1 ceo:1 decision:2 encourage:1 manufacturer:2 second:3 source:5 ultimately:1 crucial:1 market:5 perspective:1 single:2 corp:1 least:1 initially:1 prior:1 difficulty:1 uncertainty:1 reliable:1 supply:1 require:2 mass:1 semiconductor:1 multi:1 two:1 subsequent:1 license:1 designer:1 great:2 control:2 substantially:1 profit:1 late:3 march:1 overcome:1 legal:1 obstacle:1 thus:1 monopoly:1 compatibles:1 core:2 sx:2 less:2 exact:1 hold:1 courtroom:1 popular:3 enthusiast:2 alternative:1 draw:1 far:1 notebook:1 dxl:1 sxl:1 dxlv:1 sxlv:1 could:2 cope:1 static:1 cmos:1 circuitry:1 develop:1 reverse:1 engineering:1 sell:3 poorly:2 technical:1 error:1 incompatibility:1 appearance:1 short:1 lived:1 product:1 cyrix:6 simplistically:1 describe:1 kind:1 hybrid:1 small:1 amount:2 among:1 oems:1 respectively:1 texas:2 instrument:2 dlc:2 large:1 agreement:1 open:1 typical:1 problem:1 originally:1 poor:1 yield:1 find:3 bug:2 unexpectedly:1 halt:1 software:3 already:1 affected:1 test:1 inventory:1 free:1 mark:2 double:1 sigma:1 σς:1 whilst:1 affect:1 w:1 good:1 relevant:1 user:2 extremely:1 rare:1 ready:1 introduction:1 motherboards:1 provide:2 configuration:1 fpu:2 asynchronously:1 usually:1 rate:1 example:1 annoyance:1 depend:1 fpus:1 nowhere:1 near:1 modified:1 packaging:2 brand:1 rapidcad:1 path:1 work:1 pair:1 replace:2 serve:1 purpose:1 except:1 appear:1 like:1 configure:2 correctly:1 cad:1 branding:1 explain:1 massive:1 increase:2 integer:1 around:1 wide:1 party:1 slc:2 typically:1 substantial:1 improvement:1 via:1 pipeline:1 ti:1 internal:1 sram:1 commonly:1 kit:2 specialist:1 kingston:1 evergreen:1 improve:1 technologies:1 fast:1 module:1 notable:1 even:1 advertise:2 simple:1 drop:1 replacement:1 complicate:1 doubling:1 overall:1 difficult:1 result:1 stable:1 science:1 note:1 reference:2 link:1 programmer:1 manual:2 pdf:1 info:1 indepth:1 history:1 |@bigram virtually_unchanged:1 protected_mode:1 intel_pentium:1 compaq_deskpro:2 ibm_pc:1 avoid_confusion:1 math_coprocessor:2 cache_kb:2 short_lived:1 kb_cache:1 external_link:1 |
1,546 | Egalitarianism | Egalitarianism (derived from the French word égal, meaning equal) or Equalism is a political doctrine that holds that all people should be treated as equals and have the same political, economic, social, and civil rights. Generally it applies to being held equal under the law and society at large. In actual practice, one may be considered an egalitarian in most areas listed below, even if not subscribing to equality in every possible area of individual difference. Applications of egalitarianism Egalitarianism is considered by some a protean doctrine; as a social philosophy it has been applied to society in a wide variety of different ways. Common forms of egalitarianism include economic egalitarianism, legal egalitarianism, luck egalitarianism, political egalitarianism, gender egalitarianism, racial equality, asset-based egalitarianism, and Christian egalitarianism. Christian egalitarianism The Christian egalitarian view holds that the Bible teaches the fundamental equality of men and women of all racial and ethnic groups, all economic classes, and all age groups, based on the teachings and example of Jesus Christ and the overarching principles of scripture. Egalitarianism with regard to the doctrine of grace is taught throughout the Bible. In both the Tanakh and New Testament, repeated reference is made to the doctrine. Scholars argue that the system of laws used in Ancient Israel outlined a basis for human rights that was egalitarian at its core: "Do not show partiality in judging; hear both small and great alike…" (), discussing the economy of grace by which God deals with his subjects. In the NT, the Apostle Peter in a post-resurrection appearance says, "I now realize how true it is that God does not show favoritism…" (). Ultimately, Christian egalitarianism holds that all human people are equal in fundamental worth and moral status. A significant source of this trend of thought is the Christian notion that humankind were created in the living image of God (Imago Dei) and that God loves all human beings equally, regardless of their individual differences in gender, race, status, position, etc. Illustrative of efforts to institutionalize this notion are these excerpts from an organizational Statement of Faith: We believe in the equality and essential dignity of men and women of all ethnicities, ages, and classes. We recognize that all persons are made in the image of God and are to reflect that image in the community of believers, in the home, and in society. We believe that men and women are to diligently develop and use their God-given gifts for the good of the home, church and society. Political egalitarianism The framers of various modern governments made references to the Enlightenment principles of egalitarianism i.e. "inalienable rights endowed by their Creator," in the moral principles by which they lived, and which formed the basis for their legacy. Broadly egalitarian philosophies At a cultural level, egalitarian theories have developed in sophistication and acceptance during the past two hundred years. Among the notable broadly egalitarian philosophies are Socialism, Communism, Left-Libertarianism, Progressivism, and Human Rights, which promote economic, political, and legal egalitarianism, respectively. Several egalitarian ideas enjoy wide support among intellectuals and in the general populations of many countries. Whether any of these ideas have been significantly implemented in practice, however, remains a controversial question. For instance, some argue that modern representative democracy is a realization of political egalitarianism, while others believe that, in reality, most political power still resides in the hands of a ruling class, rather than in the hands of the people. Egalitarianism in young adults and children A study of American college students published in Nature showed that people are willing to pay to reduce inequality. Dawes, Christopher T., James H. Fowler, Tim Johnson, Richard McElreath, Oleg Smirnov. Egalitarian Motives in Humans. Nature 446: 794-796, doi:10.1038/nature05651 (12 April 2007) When subjects were placed into groups and given random amounts of income, they spent their own money to reduce the incomes of the highest earners and increase the incomes of the lowest earners. Critics argued that no experiments have been made on working adults whereupon they might not be generous with redistribution of their income. In a follow-up study, Swiss children showed a significant increase in sharing between the ages of 3 and 8. It has not been determined whether the results of either of these experiments are due to an innate instinct, or exposure to and adoption of the customs of other people. As Kids Grow Older, Egalitarianism Honed by Jon Hamilton. All Things Considered, NPR. 27 Aug 2008. Criticism and support A society that meets the meritocratic goal of equal opportunity might still be a harsh environment for those who lack the physical or mental capabilities to compete. It has been argued that policies that go beyond the meritocratic ideals are ineffective. John Schar (1967) "Equality of Opportunity--and Beyond" Various other anti-egalitarian views have been brought forward, among others in the discussion on the distribution of income. To the contrary, John Rawls has argued that the welfare of a society depends on the welfare of the worst-off individual because society is better off if one improves the welfare of others. Joseph E. Stiglitz (2000) "Frontiers of Development Economics: The Future in Perspective" Moreover, research shows that lower inequality (i.e. high egalitarianism) is correlated with better environmental maintenance and a higher quality of life. http://popdev.hampshire.edu/projects/dt/8 Minnesota, the most egalitarian state, ranked seventh in the country in the strength of its environmental policies, eleventh in environmental quality, and had the fourth lowest premature death rate. By contrast, Mississippi, the most inegalitarian state, ranked 46th in environmental policy, 42nd in environmental quality, and 49th in its premature death rate. http://popdev.hampshire.edu/projects/dt/8 See also "All men are created equal" Asset-based egalitarianism Basic income Deep ecology Discrimination Equality of outcome Equal opportunity Gender equality Gift economy Harrison Bergeron Inequity aversion Jock Tamson's Bairns Liberalism Liberté, égalité, fraternité Reciprocal altruism Social equality Socialism Tall poppy syndrome a pejorative term used in the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand Jante Law References and external links Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Egalitarianism, by R. Arneson (2002). Equality, by S. Gosepath (2007). Equality of opportunity, by R. Arneson (2002). Lepowsky, Maria. 1993. Fruit of the Motherland: Gender in an Egalitarian Society. New York: Columbia University Press. The Equality Studies Centre Twin Oaks Intentional Community Federation of Egalitarian Communities Notes External links | Egalitarianism |@lemmatized egalitarianism:23 derive:1 french:1 word:1 égal:1 mean:1 equal:7 equalism:1 political:7 doctrine:4 hold:4 people:5 treat:1 economic:4 social:3 civil:1 right:4 generally:1 apply:2 law:3 society:8 large:1 actual:1 practice:2 one:2 may:1 consider:3 egalitarian:12 area:2 list:1 even:1 subscribe:1 equality:11 every:1 possible:1 individual:3 difference:2 application:1 protean:1 philosophy:4 wide:2 variety:1 different:1 way:1 common:1 form:2 include:1 legal:2 luck:1 gender:4 racial:2 asset:2 base:3 christian:5 view:2 bible:2 teach:2 fundamental:2 men:4 woman:3 ethnic:1 group:3 class:3 age:3 teaching:1 example:1 jesus:1 christ:1 overarching:1 principle:3 scripture:1 regard:1 grace:2 throughout:1 tanakh:1 new:3 testament:1 repeat:1 reference:3 make:4 scholar:1 argue:5 system:1 use:3 ancient:1 israel:1 outline:1 basis:2 human:5 core:1 show:5 partiality:1 judging:1 hear:1 small:1 great:1 alike:1 discuss:1 economy:2 god:6 deal:1 subject:2 nt:1 apostle:1 peter:1 post:1 resurrection:1 appearance:1 say:1 realize:1 true:1 favoritism:1 ultimately:1 worth:1 moral:2 status:2 significant:2 source:1 trend:1 thought:1 notion:2 humankind:1 create:2 living:1 image:3 imago:1 dei:1 love:1 equally:1 regardless:1 race:1 position:1 etc:1 illustrative:1 effort:1 institutionalize:1 excerpt:1 organizational:1 statement:1 faith:1 believe:3 essential:1 dignity:1 ethnicity:1 recognize:1 person:1 reflect:1 community:3 believer:1 home:2 diligently:1 develop:2 give:2 gift:2 good:3 church:1 framer:1 various:2 modern:2 government:1 enlightenment:1 e:3 inalienable:1 endow:1 creator:1 live:1 legacy:1 broadly:2 cultural:1 level:1 theory:1 sophistication:1 acceptance:1 past:1 two:1 hundred:1 year:1 among:3 notable:1 socialism:2 communism:1 leave:1 libertarianism:1 progressivism:1 promote:1 respectively:1 several:1 idea:2 enjoy:1 support:2 intellectual:1 general:1 population:1 many:1 country:2 whether:2 significantly:1 implement:1 however:1 remain:1 controversial:1 question:1 instance:1 representative:1 democracy:1 realization:1 others:3 reality:1 power:1 still:2 reside:1 hand:2 ruling:1 rather:1 young:1 adult:2 child:2 study:3 american:1 college:1 student:1 publish:1 nature:2 willing:1 pay:1 reduce:2 inequality:2 dawes:1 christopher:1 jam:1 h:1 fowler:1 tim:1 johnson:1 richard:1 mcelreath:1 oleg:1 smirnov:1 motif:1 doi:1 april:1 place:1 random:1 amount:1 income:6 spend:1 money:1 high:3 earner:2 increase:2 low:3 critic:1 experiment:2 work:1 whereupon:1 might:2 generous:1 redistribution:1 follow:1 swiss:1 share:1 determine:1 result:1 either:1 due:1 innate:1 instinct:1 exposure:1 adoption:1 custom:1 kid:1 grow:1 old:1 hone:1 jon:1 hamilton:1 thing:1 npr:1 aug:1 criticism:1 meet:1 meritocratic:2 goal:1 opportunity:4 harsh:1 environment:1 lack:1 physical:1 mental:1 capability:1 compete:1 policy:3 go:1 beyond:2 ideal:1 ineffective:1 john:2 schar:1 anti:1 bring:1 forward:1 discussion:1 distribution:1 contrary:1 rawls:1 welfare:3 depend:1 bad:1 improve:1 joseph:1 stiglitz:1 frontier:1 development:1 economics:1 future:1 perspective:1 moreover:1 research:1 correlate:1 environmental:5 maintenance:1 quality:3 life:1 http:2 popdev:2 hampshire:2 edu:2 project:2 dt:2 minnesota:1 state:2 rank:2 seventh:1 strength:1 eleventh:1 fourth:1 premature:2 death:2 rate:2 contrast:1 mississippi:1 inegalitarian:1 see:1 also:1 basic:1 deep:1 ecology:1 discrimination:1 outcome:1 harrison:1 bergeron:1 inequity:1 aversion:1 jock:1 tamson:1 bairn:1 liberalism:1 liberté:1 égalité:1 fraternité:1 reciprocal:1 altruism:1 tall:1 poppy:1 syndrome:1 pejorative:1 term:1 united:1 kingdom:1 australia:1 zealand:1 jante:1 external:2 link:2 stanford:1 encyclopedia:1 r:2 arneson:2 gosepath:1 lepowsky:1 maria:1 fruit:1 motherland:1 york:1 columbia:1 university:1 press:1 centre:1 twin:1 oaks:1 intentional:1 federation:1 note:1 |@bigram racial_equality:1 jesus_christ:1 socialism_communism:1 reciprocal_altruism:1 external_link:2 stanford_encyclopedia:1 |
1,547 | Line_of_scrimmage | American football line of scrimmage, prior to a play Canadian football line of scrimmage, prior to a play In American and Canadian football a line of scrimmage is an imaginary transverse line crossing the football field across its narrower dimension, beyond which a team cannot cross until the next play has begun. Its location is based on the spot where the ball is placed after the end of the most recent play and following the assessment of any penalty yards. A line of scrimmage is parallel to the goal lines and touches one edge of the ball where it sits on the ground prior to the snap. Under NFL and NCAA rules, there are actually two lines of scrimmage at the outset of each play: one that restricts the offense and one that restricts the defense. The area between the two lines (representing the length of the ball as extended to both sidelines) is called the neutral zone. Only the center, the offensive player who snaps the ball, is allowed to have any part of his body in the neutral zone. In order for there to be a legal beginning of a play, a certain number of the players on the offensive team, including certain eligible receivers, must be at, on or within a few inches of their line of scrimmage. In Canadian football, the team on defense must line up no nearer than a yard to the line of scrimmage. In American football, they must only be beyond the line. Many fans and commentators refer colloquially to the entire neutral zone as the "line of scrimmage," although this is technically not correct. Others use the general term to refer specifically to the defensive line of scrimmage, since it is the line relevant to the measurement of progress toward the goal. Referees, when explaining a penalty, will refer to "the previous spot" instead of the "line of scrimmage" in order to avoid confusion. Sportvision provides a product called 1st & Ten which allows broadcasts of American football to include a visible line which may represent the line of scrimmage or the minimum distance that the ball must be moved for the offensive team to achieve a first down. See also Glossary of American football Comparison of Canadian and American football | Line_of_scrimmage |@lemmatized american:6 football:9 line:18 scrimmage:11 prior:3 play:6 canadian:4 imaginary:1 transverse:1 cross:2 field:1 across:1 narrow:1 dimension:1 beyond:2 team:4 cannot:1 next:1 begin:1 location:1 base:1 spot:2 ball:5 place:1 end:1 recent:1 follow:1 assessment:1 penalty:2 yard:2 parallel:1 goal:2 touch:1 one:3 edge:1 sit:1 ground:1 snap:2 nfl:1 ncaa:1 rule:1 actually:1 two:2 outset:1 restrict:2 offense:1 defense:2 area:1 represent:2 length:1 extend:1 sideline:1 call:2 neutral:3 zone:3 center:1 offensive:3 player:2 allow:2 part:1 body:1 order:2 legal:1 beginning:1 certain:2 number:1 include:2 eligible:1 receiver:1 must:4 within:1 inch:1 nearer:1 many:1 fan:1 commentator:1 refer:3 colloquially:1 entire:1 although:1 technically:1 correct:1 others:1 use:1 general:1 term:1 specifically:1 defensive:1 since:1 relevant:1 measurement:1 progress:1 toward:1 referee:1 explain:1 previous:1 instead:1 avoid:1 confusion:1 sportvision:1 provide:1 product:1 ten:1 broadcast:1 visible:1 may:1 minimum:1 distance:1 move:1 achieve:1 first:1 see:1 also:1 glossary:1 comparison:1 |@bigram line_scrimmage:11 eligible_receiver:1 avoid_confusion:1 |
1,548 | A.D._Police_Files | AD Police Files is a three-part original video animation produced by Artmic and AIC. The story is set five years before the events of Bubblegum Crisis. The series showcases three early cases of the AD Police and features the origin of Leon McNichol. Episodes File Title Release date http://www.anime-int.com/works/adpolice/ova/story.html References External links | A.D._Police_Files |@lemmatized ad:2 police:2 file:2 three:2 part:1 original:1 video:1 animation:1 produce:1 artmic:1 aic:1 story:2 set:1 five:1 year:1 event:1 bubblegum:1 crisis:1 series:1 showcases:1 early:1 case:1 feature:1 origin:1 leon:1 mcnichol:1 episode:1 title:1 release:1 date:1 http:1 www:1 anime:1 int:1 com:1 work:1 adpolice:1 ovum:1 html:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram bubblegum_crisis:1 http_www:1 external_link:1 |
1,549 | Donald_Knuth | Donald Ervin Knuth ( "Frequently Asked Questions" at Stanford site. Gives the pronunciation of his name as "Ka-NOOTH". ) (born January 10, 1938) is a renowned computer scientist and Professor Emeritus of the Art of Computer Programming http://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~knuth/. at Stanford University. Author of the seminal multi-volume work The Art of Computer Programming ("TAOCP"), http://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~uno/taocp.html. Knuth has been called the "father" of the analysis of algorithms, contributing to the development of, and systematizing formal mathematical techniques for, the rigorous analysis of the computational complexity of algorithms, and in the process popularizing asymptotic notation. In addition to fundamental contributions in several branches of theoretical computer science, Knuth is the creator of the TeX computer typesetting system, the related METAFONT font definition language and rendering system, and the Computer Modern family of typefaces. A prolific writer and scholar, Knuth's CV Knuth created the WEB/CWEB computer programming systems designed to encourage and facilitate literate programming, and designed the MMIX instruction set architecture. Education and academic work Knuth was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, where his father owned a small printing business and taught bookkeeping at Milwaukee Lutheran High School, which he attended. He was an excellent student, earning achievement awards. He applied his intelligence in unconventional ways, winning a contest when he was in eighth grade by finding over 4,500 words that could be formed from the letters in "Ziegler's Giant Bar." This won him a television set for his school and a candy bar for everyone in his class. Knuth had a difficult time choosing physics over music as his major at Case Institute of Technology (now part of Case Western Reserve University). He then switched from physics to mathematics, and in 1960 he received his bachelor of science degree, simultaneously receiving his master of science degree by a special award of the faculty who considered his work outstanding. At Case, he managed the basketball team and applied his talents by constructing a formula for the value of each player. This novel approach was covered by Newsweek and by Walter Cronkite on the CBS television network. Kenneth H. Rosen, Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications 4th Ed., McGraw-Hill. 1999. p.82 While doing graduate studies, Knuth worked as a consultant, writing compilers for different computers. In 1963, he earned a Ph.D. in mathematics (advisor: Marshall Hall) from the California Institute of Technology, where he became a professor and began work on The Art of Computer Programming, originally planned to be a single book, and then planned as a six, and then seven-volume series. In 1968, he published the first volume. That same year, he joined the faculty of Stanford University, having turned down a job offer from the National Security Agency (NSA). In 1971, Knuth was the recipient of the first ACM Grace Murray Hopper Award. He has received various other awards including the Turing Award, the National Medal of Science, the John von Neumann Medal and the Kyoto Prize. After producing the third volume of his series in 1976, he expressed such frustration with the nascent state of the then newly developed electronic publishing tools (esp. those which provided input to phototypesetters) that he took time out to work on typesetting and created the TeX and METAFONT tools. In recognition of Knuth's contributions to the field of computer science, in 1990 he was awarded the one-of-a-kind academic title of Professor of The Art of Computer Programming, which has since been revised to Professor Emeritus of The Art of Computer Programming. In 1992 he became an associate of the French Academy of Sciences. Also that year, he retired from regular research and teaching at Stanford University in order to finish The Art of Computer Programming. In 2003 he was elected as a foreign member of the Royal Society. , the first three volumes of his series have been re-issued, and Knuth is currently working on volume four, excerpts of which are released periodically on his website. Meanwhile, Knuth gives informal lectures a few times a year at Stanford University, which he calls Computer Musings. He is also a visiting professor at the Oxford University Computing Laboratory in the United Kingdom. In addition to his writings on computer science, Knuth, a devout Lutheran, Love at First Byte. Stanford Magazine, May/June 2006. is also the author of 3:16 Bible Texts Illuminated (1991), ISBN 0-89579-252-4, in which he attempts to examine the Bible by a process of stratified sampling, namely an analysis of chapter 3, verse 16 of each book. Each verse is accompanied by a rendering in calligraphic art, contributed by a group of calligraphers under the leadership of Hermann Zapf. He is also the author of Surreal Numbers (1974) ISBN 0-201-03812-9, a mathematical novelette on John Conway's set theory construction of an alternate system of numbers. Instead of simply explaining the subject, the book seeks to show the development of the mathematics. Knuth wanted the book to prepare students for doing original, creative research. On January 1, 1990, Knuth announced to his colleagues that he would no longer have an e-mail address, so that he might concentrate on his work. Knuth, Donald Knuth versus Email last changed on 2005-09-23, Retrieved on 2008-12-29. In 2006, Knuth was diagnosed with prostate cancer. He underwent surgery in December that year and started "a little bit of radiation therapy [...] as a precaution but the prognosis looks pretty good," as he reported in his video autobiography. Great Lives - Donald Knuth, Coping with cancer. Awards First ACM Grace Murray Hopper Award, 1971 Turing Award, 1974 National Medal of Science, 1979 John von Neumann Medal, 1995 Harvey Prize from the Technion, 1995 http://www.admin.technion.ac.il/harvey/1995-2.html Kyoto Prize, 1996 Knuth’s humor Knuth is known for his "professional humor". One of Knuth’s reward checks He used to pay a finder’s fee of $2.56 for any typographical errors or mistakes discovered in his books, because “256 pennies is one hexadecimal dollar”, and $.32 for “valuable suggestions”. (His bounty for errata in 3:16 Bible Texts Illuminated, is, however, $3.16). According to an article in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s Technology Review, these Knuth reward checks are “among computerdom’s most prized trophies”. Knuth had to stop sending such checks in 2008 due to bank fraud, and instead now gives each error finder a publicly listed balance in his fictitious "Bank of San Serriffe". “Rewriting the Bible in 0’s and 1’s” in the Technology Review of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Version numbers of his TeX software approach the transcendental number , in that versions increment in the style 3, 3.1, 3.14. 3.141, and so on. Version numbers of Metafont approach the important number e similarly. He once warned a correspondent, “Beware of bugs in the above code; I have only proved it correct, not tried it.” All appendices in the Computers and Typesetting series have titles that begin with the letter identifying the appendix. TAOCP v3 (Second Edition) has the index entry “Royalties, use of, 407”. Page 407 has no explicit mention of royalties, but however does contain a diagram of an “organ-pipe arrangement” in Figure 2. Apparently the purchase of the pipe organ in his home was financed by royalties from TAOCP. “Pipe Organ” at Stanford site (In the first edition of the work, the relevant page is 405.) The preface of Concrete Mathematics includes the following anecdote: “When Knuth taught Concrete Mathematics at Stanford for the first time, he explained the somewhat strange title by saying that it was his attempt to teach a math course that was hard instead of soft. He announced that, contrary to the expectations of some of his colleagues, he was not going to teach the "Theory of aggregates" [ Aggregate functions or Aggregate (composite) ], nor "Stone's embedding theorem", nor even the Stone–Čech compactification theorem. (Several students from the civil engineering department got up and quietly left the room.)” (Concrete and aggregates are important topics in civil engineering.) Knuth published his first “scientific” article in a school magazine in 1957 under the title “Potrzebie System of Weights and Measures.” In it, he defined the fundamental unit of length as the thickness of MAD magazine #26, and named the fundamental unit of force “whatmeworry.” MAD magazine bought the article and published it in the #33, June 1957 issue. Knuth's first “mathematical” article was a short paper submitted to a “science talent search” contest for high-school seniors in 1955, and published in 1960, in which he discussed number systems where the radix was negative. He further generalized this to number systems where the radix was a complex number. In particular, he defined the quater-imaginary base system, which uses the imaginary number 2i as the base, having the unusual feature that every complex number can be represented with the digits 0, 1, 2, and 3, without a sign. Knuth’s article about the computational complexity of songs, "The Complexity of Songs", was reprinted twice in computer science journals. To explain the concept, Knuth intentionally referred 'Circular definition' and 'Definition, circular' to each other in the index of The Art of Computer Programming vol. 1. Works A short list of his works A complete list is also available: "Books" at Stanford site : Donald E. Knuth, The Art of Computer Programming, Volumes 1–4, Addison-Wesley Professional Volume 1: Fundamental Algorithms (3rd edition), 1997. Addison-Wesley Professional, ISBN 0-201-89683-4 Volume 2: Seminumerical Algorithms (3rd Edition), 1997. Addison-Wesley Professional, ISBN 0-201-89684-2 Volume 3: Sorting and Searching (2nd Edition), 1998. Addison-Wesley Professional, ISBN 0-201-89685-0 Volume 4: Combinatorial Algorithms, in preparation Donald E. Knuth, The Art of Computer Programming, fascicles: Volume 1, Fascicle 1: MMIX — A RISC Computer for the New Millennium, 2005. ISBN 0-201-85392-2 Volume 4, Fascicle 0: Introduction to Combinatorial Algorithms and Boolean Functions. 2008. ISBN 0-321-53496-4 Volume 4, Fascicle 1: Bitwise Tricks & Techniques; Binary Decision Diagrams. 2009. ISBN 0-321-58050-8 Volume 4, Fascicle 2: Generating All Tuples and Permutations, 2005. ISBN 0-201-85393-0 Volume 4, Fascicle 3: Generating All Combinations and Partitions, 2005. ISBN 0-201-85394-9 Volume 4, Fascicle 4: Generating All Trees -- History of Combinatorial Generation, 2006. ISBN 0-321-33570-8 Donald E. Knuth, The TeXbook (Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley), 1984. ISBN 0-201-13448-9 Donald E. Knuth, The METAFONTbook (Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley), 1986. ISBN 0-201-13444-6 Ronald L. Graham, Donald E. Knuth, Oren Patashnik, Concrete Mathematics: A Foundation for Computer Science, 2nd edition (Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley), 1994. ISBN 0-201-55802-5 Selected papers series: "Selected Papers" at Stanford site Donald E. Knuth, Literate Programming (Center for the Study of Language and Information — Lecture Notes), 1992. ISBN 0-937073-80-6 Donald E. Knuth, Selected Papers on Computer Science (Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information — CSLI Lecture Notes, no. 59), 1996. ISBN 1-881526-91-7 Donald E. Knuth, Digital Typography (Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information — CSLI Lecture Notes, no. 78), 1999. ISBN 1-57586-010-4 Donald E. Knuth, Selected Papers on Analysis of Algorithms (Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information — CSLI Lecture Notes, no. 102), 2000. ISBN 1-57586-212-3 Donald E. Knuth, Selected Papers on Computer Languages (Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information — CSLI Lecture Notes, no. 139), 2003. ISBN 1-57586-381-2 (cloth), ISBN 1-57586-382-0 (paperback) Donald E. Knuth, Selected Papers on Discrete Mathematics (Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information — CSLI Lecture Notes, no. 106), 2003. ISBN 1-57586-249-2 (cloth), ISBN 1-57586-248-4 (paperback) Donald E. Knuth, Selected Papers on Design of Algorithms (publication planned after Vol 4 Fasc 1) Donald E. Knuth, Selected Papers on Fun and Games (publication planned after Vol 4 Fasc 1) Donald E. Knuth, 3:16 Bible Texts Illuminated (Madison, Wisconsin: A-R Editions), 1990. ISBN 0-89579-252-4 Donald E. Knuth, Things a Computer Scientist Rarely Talks About (Center for the Study of Language and Information — CSLI Lecture Notes no 136), 2001. ISBN 1-57586-326-X Interviews and lectures TUG'95 (St Petersburg, FL, USA) Questions and answers with Prof. Donald E. Knuth. TUGboat 17 (1), 1996 Woehr, J. An interview with Donald Knuth Dr. Dobb's Journal, April 1996, p. 16-22. Donald Knuth on The Art of Computer Programming Addison-Wesley Innovations, 1996 Questions and Answers with Prof. Donald E. Knuth. Czech TUG, Charles University, Prague, 1996 Knuth meets NTG members, Amsterdam, March 13, 1996. Knuth Comments on Code, Byte magazine, September 1996. Donald Knuth: A life's work in the art of programming Amazon.com, 1997. U.K. TUG, Oxford, September 12, 1999: Question & Answer Session with Donald Knuth. TUGboat, 22 (1/2), 2001. Dr. Dobb's Audio & Video Archive of Knuth's MMIX and God & Computers Lectures @ MIT, Fall 1999 Donald Knuth: MMIX, A RISC Computer for the New Millennium. Audio recording of a presentation at the monthly meeting of the Boston ACM December 30, 1999 Wallace, Mark. The art of Don E. Knuth Interview on salon.com, 1999. Things A Computer Scientist Rarely Talks About - Lecture 1: Introduction, October 6, 1999 Advogato, 2000, also available as HTML Version AMS, 2001 Oslo, 2002 c't, 2002 (in German) NZZ Folio, 2002 (in German) Donald Knuth, Founding Artist of Computer Science. Audio interview by David Kestenbaum on National Public Radio; or Transcript, March 14, 2005. Free Software Magazine interview by Gianluca Pignalberi, August 2005. (Donald Knuth, telling his life story, in 2007) InformIT Interview by Andrew Binstock, April 2008. Communications of the ACM, Vol.51,7 pp.35-39, Interview, part 1 by Len Shustek, July 2008 (An edited extract from the 2007 interview above.) See also Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm Knuth shuffle Knuth's up-arrow notation Asymptotic notation Knuth-Bendix completion algorithm Man or boy test Trabb Pardo-Knuth algorithm Dancing Links Robinson–Schensted algorithm Knuth -yllion The Complexity of Songs Knuth Prize List of science and religion scholars References External links Donald Knuth’s home page at Stanford University. Oral history interview with Donald E. Knuth at Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. “Love at First Byte,” Kara Platoni, with photography by Timothy Archibald, STANFORD Magazine, May/June 2006. A retrospective of Knuth’s life and work, with some rare, recent photos. Donald Knuth: Leonard Euler of Computer Science (Softpanorama) Videos of presentations w/ Donald Knuth The Potrzebie System of Weights and Measures Finite Semifields and Projective Planes - Donald Knuth's Ph.D. dissertation Letter sent in February 1994 by Donald Knuth to the Patent and Trademark Office Donald E. Knuth, "Algorithmic Themes", in AMS History of Mathematics, Volume 1: A Century of Mathematics in America, AMS, Providence, RI, 1988. Donald E. Knuth Knuth email A cartoon mentioning Donald Knuth Oral History of Donald Knuth Donald Knuth video autobiography Kill Yr Idols - Donald Knuth - a critique of Donald Knuth by Adequacy.org Waychoff, Richard, "Stories of the B5000 and People Who Were There", September 27, 1979. 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1,550 | Omaha_hold_'em | Omaha hold 'em (or Omaha holdem or simply Omaha) is a community card poker game similar to Texas hold 'em, where each player is dealt four cards and must make his best hand using exactly two of them, plus exactly three of the five community cards. The exact origination of the game is unknown, but casino executive Robert Turner first brought Omaha into a casino setting when he introduced the game to Bill Boyd who offered it as a game at the Las Vegas Golden Nugget Casino (calling it "Nugget Hold'em".) Explanation In North American casinos, the term "Omaha" can refer to several poker games. The original game is also commonly known as "Omaha High". A high-low split version called "Omaha Hi-Lo", or sometimes "Omaha eight-or-better" or "Omaha/8", is also played. In Europe, "Omaha" still typically refers to the high version of the game, usually played pot-limit. Pot-limit Omaha is often abbreviated as "PLO." Pot-limit and no-limit Omaha eight-or-better can be found in some casinos and online, though no-limit is rarer. It is often said that Omaha is a game of "the nuts", i.e. the best possible high or low hand, because it frequently takes "the nuts" to win a showdown. It is also a game where between the cards in his hand and the community cards a player may have drawing possibilities to multiple different types of holdings. For example, a player may have both a draw to a flush and a full house using different combinations of cards. At times, even seasoned players may need additional time to figure what draws are possible for their hand. The basic differences between Omaha and Texas hold 'em are these: first, each player is dealt four cards to his private hand instead of two. The betting rounds and layout of community cards are identical. At showdown, each player's hand is the best five-card hand he can make from exactly three of the five cards on the board, plus exactly two of his own cards. Unlike Texas hold 'em, a player cannot play four or five of the cards on the board with fewer than two of his own, nor can a player use three or four hole cards to disguise a strong hand. Some specific things to notice about Omaha hands are: As in Texas hold 'em, three or more suited cards on the board makes a flush possible, but unlike that game a player always needs two of that suit in his hand to play a flush. For example, with a board of K♠ 9♠ Q♠ Q♥ 5♠, a player with A♠ 2♥ 4♥ 5♣ cannot play a flush using his ace as he could in Texas hold 'em; he must play two cards from his hand and only three from the board (so instead, this player's best hand is two pair: Q♠ Q♥ 5♠ 5♣ A♠). A player with 2♠ 3♠ K♦ J♦ can play the spade flush. Two pair on the board does not make a full house for anyone with a single matching card as it does in Texas hold 'em. For example, with a board of J♠ J♦ 9♦ 5♥ 9♣, a player with a hand of A♠ 2♠ J♥ K♦ cannot play a full house; he can only use his A-J to play J♠ J♥ J♦ A♠ 9♣, since he must play three of the board cards. A player with 2♣ 5♣ 9♠ 10♠ can use his 9-5 to play the full house 9♠ 9♣ 9♦ 5♥ 5♣. Likewise, with three of a kind on the board, a player must have a pair in his hand to make a full house. For example, with a board of J♠ J♦ A♦ J♥ K♣, a player with A♠ 2♠ 3♥ K♦ does not have a full house, he only has three jacks with an ace-king kicker, and will lose to a player with only a pair of deuces. This is probably the most frequently misread hand in Omaha. (Naturally, a person with the fourth jack in his hand can make four jacks because any other card in his hand can act as the fifth card, or "kicker".) Omaha Hi-Lo In high-low split, each player makes a separate five-card high hand and five-card ace-to-five low hand (eight-high or lower to qualify), and the pot is split between the high and low (which may be the same player). To qualify for low, a player must be able to play an 8-7-6-5-4 or lower (this is why it is called "eight-or-better", or simply "Omaha/8"). A few casinos play with a 9-low qualifier instead, but this is rare. Each player can play any two of his four hole cards to make his high hand, and any two of his four hole cards to make his low hand. If there is no qualifying low hand, the high hand wins (scoops) the whole pot. The brief explanation above belies the complexity of the game, so a number of examples will be useful here to clarify it. The table below shows a five-card board of community cards at the end of play, and then lists for each player the initial private four-card hand dealt to him or her, and the best five-card high hand and low hand each player can play on showdown: Board: 2♠ 5♣ 10♥ 7♦ 8♣ Player Hand High LowMikeA♠ 4♠ 5♥ K♣5♥ 5♣ A♠ 10♥ 8♣7♦ 5♣ 4♠ 2♠ A♠BrianA♥ 3♥ 10♠ 10♣10♠ 10♣ 10♥ 8♣ 7♦ 7♦ 5♣ 3♥ 2♠ A♥Jess7♣ 9♣ J♠ Q♠J♠ 10♥ 9♣ 8♣ 7♦Cannot qualifyTony 4♥ 6♥ K♠ K♦8♣ 7♦ 6♥ 5♣ 4♥7♦ 6♥ 5♣ 4♥ 2♠Emily</td>A♦ 3♦ 6♦ 9♥10♥ 9♥ 8♣ 7♦ 6♦7♦ 5♣ 3♦ 2♠ A♦ In the deal above, Jess wins the high-hand half of the pot with his J-high straight, and Brian and Emily split the low half (getting a quarter of the pot each) with 7-5-3-2-A. Some specific things to notice about Omaha eight-or-better hands are: In order for anyone to qualify low, there must be at least three cards of differing ranks 8 or below on the board. For example, a board of K-8-J-7-5 makes low possible (the best low hand would be A-2, followed by A-3, 2-3, etc.) A board of K-8-J-8-5, however, cannot make any qualifying low (the best low hand possible would be J-8-5-2-A, which doesn't qualify). Statistically, around 60% of the time a low hand is possible. Low hands often tie, and high straights occasionally tie as well, as do, even more rarely, full houses. It is possible to win as little as a 14th of a pot (though this is extraordinarily rare). Winning a quarter of the pot is quite common, and is called "getting quartered." One dangerous aspect of playing for the low pot is the concept of 'counterfeiting'. To illustrate, if a player has, for example, 2-3 and two other cards in his hand and the flop is A-6-7, that player has flopped the 'nut low'. However, if either a 2 or a 3 hit the board on the turn or the river, the hand is 'counterfeited' and the nut low hand is lost (the player still has a much weaker low hand however). This is why there is significant extra value in possessing the 'protected' nut low. To illustrate this, if the player has 2-3-4 in his hand his low is protected, i.e. if a 2 or 3 hits the board he still has the lowest possible hand. To lose the nut low in this case either a 2 and a 3, a 2 and a 4, or a 3 and a 4 would have to hit the board on the turn and the river (giving the nut low to a player holding 4-5, 3-5 and 2-5, respectively), an unlikely possibility. For similar reasons it is significantly better to possess the protected nut low draw over the low draw. For example, this could be having A-2-3 with a flop of 7-8-9; any low card below 7 on the turn or river gives the player the best low. When four or five low cards appear on the board, it can become very difficult to read the low hands properly. For example with a board of 2♦ 6♥ A♣ 5♣ 8♠, the hand 2♥ 4♠ 5♠ K♦ is playing a 6-5-4-2-A (either his 2-4 with the board's A-5-6, or his 4-5 with the board's A-2-6--either way makes the same hand). In this situation he is often said to be playing his "live" 4, that is, his 4, plus some other low card that matches the board but still makes a low because the one on the board isn't needed. A player with 3♠ 5♠ 10♥ J♦ is playing a "live" 3, for a low of 6-5-3-2-A, which makes a better low. However, a player with 3♣ 7♦ Q♦ Q♠ can only play 7-5-3-2-A low; even though he has a "live" 3, he must play two low cards from his hand, and so he must play his 7-3, and cannot make a 6-high low hand. Starting hands with three or four cards of one rank are very bad. In fact, the worst possible hand in the game is 2♠ 2♣ 2♥ 2♦. Since the only possible combination of two cards from this hand is 2-2, it is impossible to make low. As no deuce remains to appear on the board, it will be impossible to make three deuces or deuces full, and anyone with any matching card to the board will make a higher pair. Likewise, starting with four cards of one suit makes it less likely that you will be able to make a flush. Starting with four different suits yields no chance for a flush, and starting with four disconnected cards reduces straight possibilities. Computer analysis of the best starting hands has proven that the best starting hand for Omaha is A-A-K-K with both Ks suited to the As. For the Hi-Lo variation, the most valuable starting holding is A-2 (suited), A-3 (suited). Hands to avoid tend to contain mainly middle ranked cards, which are of little use for any low splits and which tend to generate lower pairs and sets, weaker flushes and lower straights and can be very expensive. Low hand ranks from best to worst: 5-4-3-2-A ('the wheel'), 6-4-3-2-A, 6-5-3-2-A, 6-5-4-2-A, ... , 8-7-6-5-4. Low hands can thus be read as numbers between 54,321 and 87,654 (with the exception of any number that has a pair, i.e. 54,322). The lowest number that any player can make is the best possible low hand in play. See also ace-to-five low Pot-limit Omaha Pot-limit Omaha (also called PLO) is popular in Europe, online, and in high-stakes "mixed games" played in some American casinos. It is more often played high only, but can also be played high low. Even more so than Limit Omaha Hi-Lo, PLO is a game of drawing, if you are drawing, to the nut hand. Second best flushes and straights can be, and frequently are, beaten. Furthermore, because of the exponential growth of the pot size in pot-limit play, seeing one of these hands to the end can be very expensive. Redraws A great hand to have in PLO is the nuts with a redraw. For example, if the board is Q♠ J♠ <font color=red>10♥</font>, and you have A♠ K♣ Q♣ <font color=red> Q♥</font>, then not only do you have the current nuts (your ace-king), but you also have a redraw with the two queens in your hand because if the board pairs, you will make queens full, or four queens. If your hand is A♠ K♠ Q♣ <font color=red>Q♥ </font>, your hand is even better because you have flush and royal flush redraws as well. In fact, with the Q♠ J♠ <font color=red>10♥</font> board, A♠ K♠ Q♣ <font color=red>Q♥ </font> is approximately an 80-20 money favorite over a random hand containing ace-king. Even a pair of queens with any two spades is better than 55-45 against a random ace-king hand. Flopped nut straights, flushes and even sets can often be a double-edged sword in pot-limit Omaha. Variations Sometimes the high-low split game is played with a 9 or a 7 -high qualifier instead of 8-high. It can also be played with five cards dealt to each player instead of four. In that case, the same rules for making a hand apply: exactly two from the player's hand, and exactly three from the board. In the game of "Courchevel", popular in Europe, instead of betting on the initial four cards and then flopping three community cards for the second round, the first community card is dealt before the first betting round, so that each player has four private cards and the single community card on his first bet. Then two more community cards are dealt, and play proceeds exactly as in Omaha. Pot Limit Omaha high can also be played with more than four hole cards, the most common variety being six card Omaha which can be found in many casinos across the UK. See also Poker probability (Omaha) Notes External links Strategy from 1999 World Series of Poker Omaha champion Steve Badger Strategy from 2004 World Series of Poker Omaha champion Annie Duke Omaha Recommended Starting Hands Strategy Lou Krieger Omaha Articles from Card Player Magazine Jeff Hwang | Omaha_hold_'em |@lemmatized omaha:32 hold:9 em:8 holdem:1 simply:2 community:9 card:49 poker:5 game:16 similar:2 texas:6 player:37 dealt:3 four:18 must:8 make:23 best:13 hand:64 use:7 exactly:7 two:17 plus:3 three:13 five:12 exact:1 origination:1 unknown:1 casino:8 executive:1 robert:1 turner:1 first:5 bring:1 setting:1 introduce:1 bill:1 boyd:1 offer:1 la:1 vega:1 golden:1 nugget:2 call:5 explanation:2 north:1 american:2 term:1 refer:1 several:1 original:1 also:10 commonly:1 know:1 high:24 low:53 split:6 version:2 hi:4 lo:4 sometimes:2 eight:5 good:7 play:32 europe:3 still:4 typically:1 refers:1 usually:1 pot:16 limit:11 often:6 abbreviate:1 plo:4 find:2 online:2 though:3 rare:3 say:2 nut:12 e:3 possible:11 frequently:3 take:1 win:5 showdown:3 may:4 draw:6 possibility:3 multiple:1 different:3 type:1 holding:2 example:10 flush:12 full:9 house:7 combination:2 time:3 even:7 season:1 need:3 additional:1 figure:1 basic:1 difference:1 private:3 instead:6 bet:3 round:3 layout:1 identical:1 board:30 unlike:2 cannot:6 hole:4 disguise:1 strong:1 specific:2 thing:2 notice:2 suited:1 always:1 suit:6 k:17 q:15 ace:7 could:2 pair:9 j:20 spade:2 anyone:3 single:2 match:3 since:2 likewise:2 kind:1 jack:3 king:4 kicker:2 lose:3 deuce:4 probably:1 misread:1 naturally:1 person:1 fourth:1 act:1 fifth:1 separate:1 qualify:5 able:2 qualifier:2 scoop:1 whole:1 brief:1 belies:1 complexity:1 number:4 useful:1 clarify:1 table:1 show:1 end:2 list:1 initial:2 deal:4 lowmikea:1 briana:1 qualifytony:1 emily:2 td:1 jess:1 half:2 straight:6 brian:1 get:2 quarter:3 order:1 least:1 differ:1 rank:4 would:3 follow:1 etc:1 however:4 qualifying:1 statistically:1 around:1 tie:2 occasionally:1 well:3 rarely:1 little:2 extraordinarily:1 quite:1 common:2 one:5 dangerous:1 aspect:1 concept:1 counterfeit:2 illustrate:2 flop:5 either:4 hit:3 turn:3 river:3 much:1 weak:2 significant:1 extra:1 value:1 possess:2 protect:2 case:2 give:2 respectively:1 unlikely:1 reason:1 significantly:1 protected:1 appear:2 become:1 difficult:1 read:2 properly:1 way:1 situation:1 live:3 start:6 bad:2 fact:2 impossible:2 remain:1 less:1 likely:1 yield:1 chance:1 disconnected:1 reduces:1 computer:1 analysis:1 starting:2 prove:1 variation:2 valuable:1 avoid:1 tend:2 contain:2 mainly:1 middle:1 generate:1 set:2 expensive:2 worst:1 wheel:1 thus:1 exception:1 see:3 popular:2 stake:1 mixed:1 drawing:1 second:2 beaten:1 furthermore:1 exponential:1 growth:1 size:1 redraws:2 great:1 redraw:2 font:10 color:5 red:5 current:1 queen:4 royal:1 approximately:1 money:1 favorite:1 random:2 double:1 edge:1 sword:1 rule:1 apply:1 courchevel:1 betting:1 proceeds:1 variety:1 six:1 many:1 across:1 uk:1 probability:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 strategy:3 world:2 series:2 champion:2 steve:1 badger:1 annie:1 duke:1 recommend:1 lou:1 krieger:1 article:1 magazine:1 jeff:1 hwang:1 |@bigram em_omaha:1 la_vega:1 hi_lo:4 font_color:5 straight_flush:1 card_dealt:1 betting_round:1 external_link:1 |
1,551 | Banjo | The banjo is a stringed instrument developed by enslaved Africans in the United States, adapted from several African instruments. Bluegrass Music: The Roots." IBMA. Retrieved on 2006-08-25 The name banjo is commonly thought to be derived from the Kimbundu term mbanza. Some etymologists derive it from a dialectal pronunciation of "bandore", though recent research suggests that it may come from a Senegambian term for a bamboo stick formerly used for the instrument's neck. History African Slaves in the American South and Appalachia fashioned banjos after instruments they had been familiar with in Africa, with some of the earliest instruments being referred to now as "gourd banjos". Other instruments similar to the banjo have existed in India (the ravenastron) and Egypt (where it was known as a banit) but other names associated with it include bangie, banza, banjer and banjar. Another likely ancestor of the banjo is the akonting, a spike folk lute played by the Jola tribe of Senegambia. Other similar instruments include the xalam of Senegal and the ngoni of the Wassoulou region including parts of Mali, Guinea, and Côte d'Ivoire.. It is probable that the banjo has migrated across continents, mutating from form to form for centuries. The modern banjo was popularized by the American minstrel performer Joel Sweeney in the 1830s. Banjos were introduced in Britain in the 1840s by Sweeney's group, the American Virginia Minstrels, and became very popular in music halls. Information on the banjo and development of the Zither-banjo Modern forms The modern banjo comes in a variety of forms, including four- and five-string versions. A six-string version, tuned and played similar to a guitar, has been gaining popularity. In almost all of its forms, the banjo's playing is characterized by a fast arpeggiated plucking, although there are many different playing styles. The body, or "pot", of a modern banjo typically consists of a circular rim (generally made of wood), a metal tone ring, and a tensioned head, similar to a drum head. Traditionally the head was made from animal skin, but is often made of various synthetic materials today. Some banjos have a separate resonator plate on the back of the pot, while others have an open back. There are also electric banjos. Usage Today, the banjo is commonly associated with country, folk and bluegrass music. Historically, however, the banjo occupied a central place in African American traditional music, as well as in the minstrel shows of the 19th century. In fact, African Americans exerted a strong, early influence on the development of both country and bluegrass through the introduction of the banjo, and as well through the innovation of musical techniques in the playing of both the banjo and fiddle. Winship, David."The African American Music Tradition in Country Music." BCMA, Birthplace of Country Music Alliance. Retrieved 02-08-2007. "Old-time (oldtimey) Music What is it?." TML, A Traditional Music Library. Retrieved 02-08-2007. Recently, the banjo has enjoyed inclusion in a wide variety of musical genres, including pop crossover music and Celtic punk. Five-string banjo The instrument is available in many forms. The five-string banjo was popularized by Joel Walker Sweeney, an American minstrel performer from Appomattox Court House, Virginia. Metro Voloshin, The Banjo, from Its Roots to the Ragtime Era: An Essay and Bibliography Music Reference Services Quarterly, Vol. 6(3) 1998. In the 1830s Sweeney became the first white man to play the banjo on stage. His version of the instrument replaced the gourd body of the banjar with a drum-like sound box and included four full-length strings alongside the short fifth-string drone string. There is no proof, however, that Sweeney invented either innovation. This new banjo came to be tuned g'cgbd'. This is a feaure that forms a different mode of tuning from the e'aeg#b' tuning of the banjar (note the G# has been flattened) . The banjo can be played in several styles and is used in various forms of music. American old-time music typically uses the five-string open back banjo. It is played in a number of different styles, the most common of which are called clawhammer or frailing, characterised by the use of a downward rather than upward motion when striking the strings with a fingernail. Frailing techniques use the thumb to catch the fifth string for a drone after each strum or twice in each action ("double thumbing"), or to pick out additional melody notes in what is known as "drop-thumb." Pete Seeger popularised a folk style by combining clawhammer with "up picking", usually without the use of fingerpicks. Typical Banjo. Bluegrass music, which uses the five-string resonator banjo almost exclusively, is played in several common styles. These include Scruggs style, named after Earl Scruggs; melodic, or Keith style; and three-finger style with single string work, also called Reno style after Don Reno, legendary father of Don Wayne Reno. In these styles the emphasis is on arpeggiated figures played in a continuous eighth-note rhythm. All of these styles are typically played with fingerpicks. Many tunings are used for the five-string banjo. Probably the most common, particularly in bluegrass, is the open G tuning (g'dgbd'). In earlier times, the tuning gCGBd was commonly used instead. Other tunings common in old-time music include double C (g'cgc'd'), sawmill or mountain minor (g'dgc'd') also called Modal or Mountain Modal, old-time D (a'dad'e') a step up from double C, often played with a violin accompaniment, and open D (f#'df#ad'). These tunings are often taken up a tone, either by tuning up or using a capo. The fifth (drone) string is the same gauge as the first, but it is generally five frets shorter, three quarters the length of the rest. One notable exception is the long-necked Pete Seeger model, where the additional three frets are not added to the fifth string. The short fifth string means that unlike many string instruments, the strings on a five string banjo do not go in order from lowest to highest from one side of the neck to the other. Instead, in order from low to high the strings are the fourth, third, second, first, and then fifth. The short fifth string presents special problems for using a capo to change the pitch of the instrument. For small changes (going up or down one or two semitones, for example) it is possible simply to re-tune the fifth string. Otherwise various devices, known as fifth string capos, are available effectively to shorten the string. Many banjo players favour the use of model railroad spikes or titanium spikes (usually installed at the seventh fret and sometimes at others), under which the string can be hooked to keep it pressed down on the fret. While the five-string banjo has been used in classical music since the turn of the century, contemporary and modern works have been written for the instrument by Béla Fleck, Tim Lake, George Crumb, Modest Mouse, Jo Kondo, Paul Elwood, Hans Werner Henze (notably in his Sixth Symphony), Beck, J.P. Pickens, Peggy Honeywell, Norfolk & Western,The Avett Brothers and Sufjan Stevens. Chris Thile recently composed an extended suite for bluegrass instruments, including the banjo, called "The Blind Leaving the Blind" (Punch, 2008). While the size of the five string banjo is largely standardized, there are smaller and larger sizes available, including the 'long neck' or 'Seeger neck' variation discussed above. Petite variations on the 5-string banjo have been available since the 1890s. S.S. Stewart introduced the banjeaurine, tuned one fourth above a standard five-string. Piccolo banjos are smaller, and tuned one octave above a standard banjo. Four-string banjo Four-string banjo Plectrum banjo from Gold Tone Irish tenor banjo from Gold Tone Cello banjo from Gold Tone The plectrum banjo has four strings, lacking the shorter fifth drone string, and around 22 frets; it is usually tuned cgbd'. As the name suggests, it is usually played with a guitar-style pick (that is, a single one held between thumb and forefinger), unlike the five-string banjo, which is either played with a thumbpick and two fingerpicks, or with bare fingers. The plectrum banjo evolved out of the five-string banjo, to cater to styles of music involving strummed chords. Eddie Peabody was possibly the greatest proponent of the plectrum banjo style in the early to mid twentieth century. Rhapsody in Blue by George Gershwin, in its original jazz orchestra arrangement has a part for a plectrum banjo. The plectrum is also featured in many early jazz recordings and arrangements. A further development is the tenor banjo, which also has four strings and is also typically played with a plectrum. It has a shorter neck with around 19 frets and a scale length of 21 3/4" - 23" on shorter models, and 25 1/2" to 26 3/4" on longer ones. It is usually tuned cgd'a', like a viola or mandola, but has also been tuned Gdae′ like an octave mandolin which produces a more mellow tone. Tenor Banjos also come in short scale with 17 frets and are used by players who use fiddle fingering, in the Gdae′ tuning. These tunings became popular around the turn of the century due to the growing popularity of the mandolin. Another alternative, called "Chicago" tuning is dgbe' (like the first four strings of a guitar) which is now regaining popularity due to the number of guitarists who double on banjo. The tenor banjo has become a standard instrument for Irish traditional music. The tenor banjo was also a common rhythm instrument in early jazz and dance bands throughout the 1920s and 1930s. Its volume and timbre suited early jazz (and jazz-influenced popular music styles) and could both compete with other instruments (such as brass instruments and saxophones) and be heard clearly on acoustic recordings. However, as the guitar gained in popularity in the 1930s, the tenor banjo moved out of mainstream jazz and popular music finding a place in traditional jazz and Dixieland jazz. Harry Reser was arguably the best tenor banjoist of the early twentieth century and wrote a large number of works for tenor banjo as well as instructional material. The tenor banjo is regaining popularity as Dixieland jazz finds its way back into experimental improvisational music. Its rise to popularity is being supported by the recent manufacturing of tenors at a working musician's price. Rarer than either the tenor or plectrum banjo is the cello banjo. Normally tuned CGda, one octave below the tenor banjo, it matches the cello and mandocello in range. It played a role in banjo orchestras in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Bass banjos have been produced in both upright bass formats and with standard, horizontally-carried banjo bodies. Four-string banjo playing (in addition to rhythm playing) can include single string playing, chord melody (in which a succession of chords are played where the highest note forms a melody), a tremolo style (both of chords and single strings) and a complicated technique called duo style which combines single string tremolo and rhythm chords. Roy Smeck was an influential performer on many fretted instruments including banjo. He also wrote a number of solos and instructional books. In the United Kingdom, Frank Lawes was one of the most prolific composers of four string Banjo music. Johnny Biar and Buddy Wachter are prominent four-string banjoists currently working professionally. Banjo variants Old 6-string zither banjo A British innovation was the 6-string banjo, developed by William Temlett, one of England's earliest banjo makers, who opened his shop in London in 1846. American Alfred Davis Cammeyer (1862-1949), a young violinist-turned banjo concert player, devised the 5/6-string Zither banjo around 1880, which had a wood resonator and metal "wire" strings (the 1st and 2nd melody strings and 5th "thumb" string; the 3rd melody string was gut and the 4th was silk covered) as well as frets and guitar-style tuning machines. A Zither banjo is a 5 string banjo that has 6 tuning heads because they used guitar tuning heads which at that time contained 3 tuning heads in one solid piece. The banjos could also be somewhat easily converted over to a 6 string banjo. British opera diva Adelina Patti advised Cammeyer that the zither-banjo might be popular with English audiences, and Cammeyer went to London in 1888. After convincing the British that banjos could be used for more sophisticated music than was normally played by blackface minstrels, he was soon performing for London society, where he met Sir Arthur Sullivan, who recommended that Cammeyer progress from writing banjo arrangements of music to composing his own music. (Interesting to note that, supposedly unbeknownst to Cammeyer, William Temlett had patented a 7-string closed back banjo in 1869, and was already marketing it as a "zither-banjo.") In the early 1990s Scott Vestal and Phil Davidson developed a modern 5-string version of the zither banjo with the 5th string "tunnelled" through the neck. It is arguable that Arthur O. Windsor had much influence in creating and perfecting the Zither banjo and creating the open-back banjo http://www.zither-banjo.org/pages/windsornew.htm along with other modifications to the banjo type instruments, such as the non-solid attached resonator that banjos' today have (Gibson lays claim to this modification on the American Continent). Windsor claims to be the first in creating the hollow neck banjo with a truss rod, and he buried the 5th string in the neck after the 5th fret so to put the tuning peg on the peg-head rather than in the neck. Gibson lays claim to perfecting the banjo with the tone rings. The first 5-string electric solid-body banjo was developed by Charles (Buck) Wilburn Trent, Harold "Shot" Jackson, and David Jackson in 1960. The six-string or guitar-banjo was the instrument of the early jazz great Johnny St. Cyr, as well as of jazzmen Django Reinhardt, Danny Barker, Papa Charlie Jackson and Clancy Hayes, as well as the blues and gospel singer The Reverend Gary Davis. Nowadays, it sometimes appears under such names as guitanjo, guitjo, ganjo, banjitar, or bantar. A number of hybrid instruments exist, crossing the banjo with other stringed instruments. Most of these use the body of a banjo, often with a resonator, and the neck of the other instrument. Examples include the banjo mandolin, the Banjolin, and the banjo ukulele or banjolele. These were especially popular in the early decades of the twentieth century, and were probably a result of a desire either to allow players of other instruments to jump on the banjo bandwagon at the height of its popularity, or to get the natural amplification benefits of the banjo resonator in an age before electric amplification. Instruments using the five-string banjo neck on a wooden body (for example, that of a bouzouki or resonator guitar) have also been made, such as the banjola. A 20th-Century Turkish instrument very similar to the banjo is called cümbüs. Rhythm guitarist Dave Day of 1960's proto-punks The Monks replaced his guitar with a six-string, gut-strung banjo upon which he played guitar chords. This instrument sounds much more metallic, scratchy and wiry than a standard electric guitar, due to its amplification via a small microphone stuck inside the banjo's body. References See also African American music List of banjo players Bluegrass music Country music Prewar Gibson banjo Double-neck guitjo Stringed instrument tunings Irish Music Banjo (samba) Further reading Banjo history Conway, Cecelia (1995). African Banjo Echoes in Appalachia: A Study of Folk Traditions, University of Tennessee Press. Paper: ISBN 0-87049-893-2; cloth: ISBN 0-87049-892-4. A study of the influence of African Americans on banjo playing throughout U.S. history. Gura, Philip F. and James F. Bollman (1999). America's Instrument: The Banjo in the Nineteenth Century. The University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-2484-4. The definitive history of the banjo, focusing on the instrument's development in the 1800s. Katonah Museum of Art (2003). The Birth of the Banjo. Katonah Museum of Art, Katonah, New York. ISBN 0-915171-64-3. Linn, Karen (1994). That Half-Barbaric Twang: The Banjo in American Popular Culture. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-06433-X. Scholarly cultural history of the banjo, focusing on how its image has evolved over the years. Tsumura, Akira (1984). Banjos: The Tsumura Collection. Kodansha International Ltd. ISBN 0-87011-605-3. An illustrated history of the banjo featuring the world's premier collection. Webb, Robert Lloyd (1996). Ring the Banjar!. 2nd edition. Centerstream Publishing. ISBN 1-57424-016-1. A short history of the banjo, with pictures from an exhibition at the MIT Museum. Instructional (5-String Banjo) Old Time Banjo Free frailing banjo instructional video with Pat & Patrick Costello Bailey, Jay. "Historical Origin and Stylistic Development of the Five-String Banjo." The Journal of American Folklore 85.335 (1972): 58-65. Costello, Patrick (2003). The How and the Tao of Old Time Banjo. Pik-Ware Publishing. ISBN 0-9744190-0-1. Instruction in frailing banjo. Available online under a Creative Commons license on several web sites including ezfolk. Richards, Tobe A. The Bluegrass Banjo Chord Bible: Open G Tuning 2,160 Chords. Cabot Books (2008) ISBN 978-1-906207-08-3. Comprehensive chord dictionary featuring 2,160 chords, moveable shapes, slash chords, tuning diagrams, historical fact-file etc. 94 pages. Scruggs, Earl. "Earl Scruggs and the 5-String Banjo". Hal Leonard Corporation. ISBN 0-634-06042-2. Instruction in Scruggs or 3 finger style 5 string banjo. Seeger, Mike (2005). "Old-Time Banjo Styles". Homespun Tapes. . Seeger teaches several old-time picking techniques - clawhammer, two-finger, three-finger, up-picking and others. Seeger, Pete (1969). How to Play the 5-String Banjo. 3rd edition. Music Sales Corporation. ISBN 0-8256-0024-3. The seminal instruction book, still in print decades later. Seeger has since recorded an instruction video, available on DVD. Wernick, Pete (1985 DVD). Beginning Bluegrass Banjo. Full course in the basics of Scruggs style. Wernick, Pete & Trischka, Tony (2000). Masters of the Five-String Banjo. Acutab Publications. ISBN 0-7866-5939-4. 70 banjo pieces from Scruggs, Reno, Osborne and Crowe to Fleck, Munde, and Cloud. Technique, improvising, set-up, learning, backup, favorite banjos, practice tips, equipment. Winans, Robert B. "The Folk, the Stage, and the Five-String Banjo in the Nineteenth Century." The Journal of American Folklore 89. 354 (1976): 407-37. 14 Sep. 2006. Instructional (Tenor Banjo) Bay, Mel (1990). Complete Tenor Banjo Method. Porcupine Press. ISBN 1-56222-018-7. An instructional guide. Bay, Mel (1973). Deluxe Encyclopedia of Tenor Banjo Chords. Porcupine Press. ISBN 0-87166-877-7. A comprehensive chord dictionary for CGDA or standard tuning. Nichols, Fox (1985). "I Do Declare That Tenors Are Cool: But They are for Chumps". Grill Books. ISBN 0-756842-445-1. A comprehensive guide for dislikement of tenors. O'Connor, Gerry. 50 solos for Irish tenor banjo: (featuring jigs, reels and hornpipes arranged for E, A, D, G and A, D, G, C tuning). Soodlum, Waltons Mfg. Ltd. ISBN 978-1857201482. Richards, Tobe A. (2006). The Tenor Banjo Chord Bible: CGDA Standard Jazz Tuning 1,728 Chords. Cabot Books. ISBN 0-9553944-4-9. A comprehensive chord dictionary in standard jazz tuning. Richards, Tobe A. (2006). The Irish Tenor Banjo Chord Bible: GDAE Irish Tuning 1,728 Chords. Cabot Books. ISBN 0-9553944-6-5. A comprehensive chord dictionary in Irish tuning. Wachter, Buddy (2005). Learning Tenor Banjo. Homespun. ISBN 1-59773-078-5. An instructional guide. Instructional (Plectrum Banjo) Richards, Tobe A. (2007). The Plectrum Banjo Chord Bible: CGBD Standard Tuning 1,728 Chords. Cabot Books. ISBN 978-1-906207-07-6. A comprehensive chord dictionary in standard tuning. External links The International Bluegrass Music Museum Banjo Music & Theory Old-Time Banjo Music from Rural America Chord finder for 4-string banjos Banjo-L The Banjo Hangout The Banjo Newsletter Cybergrass - The Internet's Bluegrass Music News Magazine. Chords for Banjo 5 string. To Hear Your Banjo Play, 1947 Alan Lomax film (16 minutes) be-x-old:Банджа | Banjo |@lemmatized banjo:149 stringed:2 instrument:30 develop:4 enslaved:1 african:9 united:2 state:1 adapt:1 several:5 bluegrass:11 music:34 root:2 ibma:1 retrieve:3 name:5 commonly:3 think:1 derive:2 kimbundu:1 term:2 mbanza:1 etymologist:1 dialectal:1 pronunciation:1 bandore:1 though:1 recent:2 research:1 suggest:2 may:1 come:4 senegambian:1 bamboo:1 stick:2 formerly:1 use:19 neck:12 history:7 slave:1 american:15 south:1 appalachia:2 fashion:1 familiar:1 africa:1 early:13 refer:1 gourd:2 similar:5 exist:2 india:1 ravenastron:1 egypt:1 know:3 banit:1 associate:2 include:14 bangie:1 banza:1 banjer:1 banjar:4 another:2 likely:1 ancestor:1 akonting:1 spike:3 folk:5 lute:1 play:20 jola:1 tribe:1 senegambia:1 xalam:1 senegal:1 ngoni:1 wassoulou:1 region:1 part:2 mali:1 guinea:1 côte:1 ivoire:1 probable:1 migrate:1 across:1 continent:2 mutate:1 form:9 century:11 modern:6 popularize:2 minstrel:5 performer:3 joel:2 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1,552 | Minor_Threat | Minor Threat was an American hardcore punk band that formed in Washington, D.C. in 1980 and disbanded in 1983. Despite being so short-lived, the band had a strong influence on the hardcore punk music scene. Minor Threat's song "Straight Edge" became the eventual basis of the straight edge movement, while the band often professed their own "straight edge" ideals.<ref> Hargus, Billy Bob " Ian MacKaye Interview" Perfect Sound Forever'. Retrieved on June 09, 2007.</ref> Allmusic referred to Minor Threat's music as "iconic," Raggett, Ned. "Out of Step" Allmusic. Retrieved on January 06, 2006. and have noted that their "groundbreaking" music "has held up better than [that of] most of their contemporaries." Erlewine, Stephen Thomas "Complete Discography" Allmusic. Retrieved on January 06, 2006. Along with the fellow Washington DC hardcore band Bad Brains, Minor Threat set the standard for many hardcore punk bands in the 1980s and 1990s. They produced short, often astonishingly fast songs, eventually with high production quality, which at the time was lacking in most punk and alternative rock. All of Minor Threat's records were released on Ian MacKaye and Jeff Nelson's own Dischord Records label. History Early years Minor Threat at the Wilson Center, Washington, DC 1981 While at Wilson High School, Ian MacKaye and Jeff Nelson were in the Washington DC punk band The Slinkees, which was soon renamed The Teen Idles. After that band broke up, MacKaye decided to switch from bass guitar to vocals, and organized Minor Threat with drummer Nelson, bassist Brian Baker and guitarist Lyle Preslar. Minor Threat's first performance was in December 1980, opening on a bill with Bad Brains, Phfat Raskals, and SOA. Their first 7" EPs, Minor Threat and In My Eyes, were released in 1981. The group became popular regionally, and toured the United States east coast and Midwest. "Straight Edge" a song on the first EP, helped to inspire the straight edge movement. The song seemed to be a call for abstinence from alcohol and other drugs— a new thing in rock music, which initially found a small, but dedicated following. Other prominent groups that subsequently advocated the straight edge stance included SS Decontrol and 7 Seconds. Another Minor Threat song from the second EP, "Out of Step", further demonstrates the belief: "Don't smoke/Don't drink/Don't fuck/At least I can fucking think/I can't keep up/I'm out of step with the world." The "I" in the lyrics was only implied (mainly because it didn't quite fit the rhythm of the song), and some in Minor Threat -- Jeff Nelson in particular -- took exception to what they saw as MacKaye's imperious attitude on the song. Minor Threat's song "Guilty of Being White" led to some accusations of racism, but MacKaye has strongly denied such intentions and said that some listeners misinterpreted his words. The song was inspired by his experiences at Wilson high school, which had a 70 percent black student population, where he and his friends would get picked on by black students on a regular basis. Slayer later covered the song, with the last iteration of the lyric "Guilty of being white" changed to "Guilty of being right." In an interview MacKaye has stated that he was offended that some perceived racist overtones in the lyrics; "To me, at the time and now, it seemed clear it's an antiracist song, of course, it didn't occur to me at the time I wrote it that anybody outside of my twenty or thirty friends who I was singing to would ever have to actually ponder the lyrics or even consider them." Hiatus In the time between the release of the band's second seven inch EP and the Out of Step record the band briefly split when guitarist Lyle Preslar moved to Illinois for college – during his semester at Northwestern University, Preslar was a member of Big Black for a few tempestuous rehearsals. During this same period, MacKaye and Nelson put together a studio-only project called Skewbald/Grand Union; in a reflection of the slowly increasing disagreements between the two musicians, they were unable to decide on one name. The group recorded three untitled songs which would be released posthumously as Dischord's 50th release. During this period Brian Baker also briefly played guitar for Government Issue and appeared on the Make An Effort EP. In March 1981, at the urging of Bad Brains' H.R., Preslar left college to reform Minor Threat. Shortly afterwards, Minor Threat and In My Eyes were re-released as First two 7"s on a 12". The reunited band featured an expanded lineup - Steve Hansgen joined as the band's bassist and Baker switched to second guitar. When "Out of Step" was re-recorded for the LP Out of Step, MacKaye inserted a spoken section explaining, "This is not a set of rules..." An ideological door was already opened, however, and by 1982, some straight-edge punks, such as followers of the band SS Decontrol, were swatting beers out of people's hands at clubs. Minor Threat, however, did not promote such behavior. Break-up Minor Threat broke up in 1983. One contributing factor was disagreement over musical direction. MacKaye was allegedly skipping practice sessions towards the end of the band's career, and he wrote the lyrics to the songs on the Salad Days E.P. in the studio. This was quite the contrast between the earlier recordings as he had written and co-written the music for much of the band's early material. Minor Threat, who had returned to a four-piece at the departure of Hansgen, played their last show on September 23, 1983 with go-go band Trouble Funk and the Big Boys, ending with "Last Song", which was the original title of "Salad Days". Subsequent activities MacKaye went on to found Embrace with former members of the Faith, the obscure Egg Hunt with Jeff Nelson and later Fugazi and the Evens, as well as collaborating on Pailhead. Brian Baker went on to play in Junkyard, The Meatmen, Dag Nasty, Government Issue, and currently plays in Bad Religion. Lyle Preslar was briefly a member of Glenn Danzig's Samhain and his playing appears on a few songs on the band's first record. He joined The Meatmen in 1984, along with other Minor Threat member Brian Baker. He later ran Caroline Records, signing and working with, among others, Peter Gabriel, Ben Folds, Chemical Brothers and Idaho, and ran marketing for Sire Records. He currently lives in New Jersey and graduated from Rutgers University law school. Jeff Nelson played less frantic alternative rock with Three and The High-Back Chairs before retiring from live performance; he also runs his own label, Adult Swim Records, distributed by Dischord, and is a graphic artist and a political activist in Toledo, Ohio. The band's own Dischord Records released material by many bands from the Washington, D.C. area, such as Government Issue, Void, Scream, Fugazi, Artificial Peace, Rites of Spring, Gray Matter, and Dag Nasty, and has become a respected independent record label. Steve Hansgen formed Second Wind with Minor Threat roadie Rich Moore. He also worked with Tool in 1992 on the production of their first EP - Opiate. Copyright issues "Major Threat" In 2005, a mock up of the cover of Minor Threat's first EP (also used on the First Two 7"s on a 12" LP and Complete Discography CD) was copied by athletic footwear manufacturer Nike for use on a promotional poster for a skateboarding tour called "Major Threat". Nike also altered Minor Threat's distinctive logo (designed by Jeff Nelson) for the same campaign, as well as featuring Nike shoes in the new picture, rather than the combat boots worn by Ian MacKaye's younger brother Alec on the original. MacKaye issued a press statement condemning Nike's actions and said that he would discuss legal options with the other members of the band. Meanwhile, fans, at the encouragement of Dischord, organized a letter-writing campaign protesting Nike's infringement. On June 27, 2005, Nike issued a statement apologizing to Minor Threat, Dischord Records, and their fans for the "Major Threat" campaign and said that all promotional artwork (print and digital) that they could acquire were destroyed. Nike Skateboarding "Major Threat East Coast Tour Poster" Nike. Retrieved on March 17, 2007. "Salad Days" On October 29, 2005, Fox played the first few seconds of Minor Threat's "Salad Days" during an NFL broadcast. Use of the song was not cleared by Dischord Records or any of the members of Minor Threat. Fox claimed that the clip was too short to have violated any copyrights. Moyer, Justin "Fox Uses "Salad Days" on NFL Broadcast" EconoCulture. Retrieved on March 17, 2007. Wheelhouse Pickles In 2007, Brooklyn-based company Wheelhouse Pickles marketed a pepper sauce named "Minor Threat Sauce". Wheelhouse Pickles Requesting only that the original label design (which was based on the "Bottled Violence" artwork) Gothamist: MacKaye Mildly Endorses Minor Threat Hot Sauce be amended, Ian MacKaye gave the product his endorsement. Pitchfork: Minor Threat Turns Condiment, But Ian Doesn't Mind A small mention of this was made in music magazine Revolver, where MacKaye commented "I don't really like hot sauce but I like the Minor Threat stuff". Members Ian MacKaye - vocals (1980-1983) Lyle Preslar - guitar (1980-1983) Brian Baker - bass (1980-1982, 1983); guitar (1982-1983) Steve Hansgen - bass (1982-1983) Jeff Nelson - drums (1980-1983) Discography Albums Out of Step (1983) EPs Minor Threat (1981) In My Eyes (1981) Salad Days (1985) Compilation appearances Flex Your Head (1982) - "Stand Up", "12XU" 20 Years of Dischord (2002) - "Screaming at a Wall", "Straight Edge", "Understand", "Asshole Dub" Left of the Dial: Dispatches from the '80s Underground (2004) - "Straight Edge" American Hardcore: The History of American Punk Rock 1980-1986 (2006) - "Filler" Other releases First Two 7"s on a 12" (1984) Complete Discography (1989) First Demo Tape (2003) References Further reading Long Washington Post Express interview with Brian Baker from 2007 Andersen, Mark & Jenkins, Mark (2001), Dance of Days: Two Decades of Punk in the Nation's Capitol, New York, NY: Akashic Books, ISBN 1888451440. Azerrad, Michael (2001), Our Band Could Be Your Life: Scenes From the American Indie Underground, 1981-1991, Boston, MA: Little Brown, ISBN 9780316787536 . Connolly, Cynthia; Clague, Leslie & Cheslow, Sharon (1988), Banned in DC: Photos and Anecdotes From the DC Punk Underground 1979-85, Washington, DC: Sun Dog Propaganda, ISBN 9780962094408 . External links Minor Threat Profile by Dischord Records Minor Threat Profile by Southern Records Minor Threat article from Rekindling the Punk Flame by Shana Ting Lipton. 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1,553 | Jackal | The jackal (from Turkish çakal, via Persian shaghal ultimately from Sanskrit sṛgālaḥ American Heritage Dictionary - Jackal entry Online Etymology Dictionary - Jackal entry ) is a member of any of three (sometimes four) small to medium-sized species of the family Canidae, found in Africa, Asia and southeastern Europe. Ivory, A. 1999. "Canis aureus" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed January 18, 2007 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Canis_aureus.html. Jackals fill a similar ecological niche to the coyote in North America, that of predators of small to medium-sized animals, scavengers, and omnivores. Their long legs and curved canine teeth are adapted for hunting small mammals, birds and reptiles. Big feet and fused leg bones give them a long-distance runner's physique, capable of maintaining speeds of for extended periods of time. They are crepuscular, most active at dawn and dusk. In jackal society the social unit is that of a monogamous pair which defends its territory from other pairs. These territories are defended by vigorously chasing intruding rivals and marking landmarks around the territory with urine and feces. The territory may be large enough to hold some young adults who stay with their parents until they establish their own territory. Jackals may occasionally assemble in small packs, for example to scavenge a carcass, but normally hunt alone or as a pair. Taxonomy and relationships In 1816 in the third volume of Lorenz Oken’s Lehrbuch der Naturgeschichte, the author found sufficient similarities in the dentition of jackals and the North American coyotes to place these species into a new separate genus Thos after the classical Greek word θώς= . Oken’s idiosycratic nomenclatorial ways however, aroused the scorn of a number of zoological systematists. Nearly all the descriptive words used to justify the genus division were relative terms without a reference measure and that the argument did not take into account the size differences between the species which can be considerable. Angel Cabrera, in his 1932 monograph on the mammals of Morocco, briefly touched upon the question whether or not the presence of a cingulum on the upper molars of the jackals and its corresponding absence in the rest of Canis could justify a subdivision of the genus Canis. In practice, he chose the undivided-genus alternative and referred to the jackals as Canis. Oken’s Thos theory had little immediate impact on taxonomy and/or taxonomic nomenclature, though it was revived in 1914 by Edmund Heller who embraced the new genus theory. Heller’s name and the designations he gave to various jackal species and subspecies live on, though the genus has been changed from Thos to Canis. Thos vs Canis Modern research has clarified the relationships between the "jackal" species. Despite their outward similarity, they are not all closely related to one another. The side-striped jackal and the black-backed jackal are close to each other, but separated from the other African and Eurasian wild dogs and wolves by some six or seven mya. The golden jackal and Ethiopian wolf are part of a group also including the grey wolf, domestic dog and coyote Lindblad-Toh et al. 2005. Genome sequence, comparative analysis and haplotype structure of the domestic dog. Nature 438: 803-819. . Breeding experiments in Germany with poodles, jackals, and later on with the resulting hybrids showed that unlike wolfdogs, jackal/dog hybrids show a decrease in fertility, significant communication problems as well as an increase of genetic diseases after three generations of interbeeding, much like coydogs. Doris Feddersen-Petersen, Hundepsychologie, 4. Auflage, 2004, Franck-Kosmos-Verlag 2004 Species: Golden jackal (Canis aureus) Side-striped jackal (Canis adustus) Black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas) Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis) - sometimes called the red or Simian jackal, but increasingly regarded as a wolf Ancient use The Ancient Egyptian god of embalming and the underworld, Anubis, was depicted as a man with a jackal's head. Today they are one of the more commonly seen animals on safaris, and are found outside of national parks and do well in human altered landscapes and even near and in human settlements. Use in slang A golden jackal The popular, although rather inaccurate image of jackals is as scavengers, and this has resulted in a somewhat negative image. The expression "jackalling" is sometimes used to describe the work done by a subordinate in order to save the time of a superior. (For example, a junior lawyer may peruse large quantities of material on behalf of a barrister). This came from the tradition that the jackal will sometimes lead a lion to its prey. In other languages, the same word is sometimes used to describe the behavior of persons who try to scavenge scraps from the misfortunes of others; for example, by looting a village from which its inhabitants have fled because of a disaster. In Nonviolent Communication, "jackal language" refers to communication that labels, judges, and criticizes. Zebra and jackal in Ngorongoro Crater, Tanzania References The New Encyclopedia of Mammals edited by David Macdonald, Oxford University Press, 2001; ISBN 0-19-850823-9 Cry of the Kalahari, by Mark and Delia Owens, Mariner Books, 1992. The Velvet Claw: A Natural History of the Carnivores, by David MacDonald, BBC Books, 1992. Foxes, Wolves, and Wild Dogs of the World, by David Alderton, Facts on File, 2004. See also Bardi - shapechanging spirit in Trebizond folklore (feminine jackal) Anubis - Egyptian god with the head of a jackal External links Jackal: Wildlife summary from the African Wildlife Foundation Footnotes | Jackal |@lemmatized jackal:29 turkish:1 çakal:1 via:1 persian:1 shaghal:1 ultimately:1 sanskrit:1 sṛgālaḥ:1 american:2 heritage:1 dictionary:2 entry:2 online:1 etymology:1 member:1 three:2 sometimes:5 four:1 small:4 medium:2 sized:1 specie:6 family:1 canidae:1 find:3 africa:1 asia:1 southeastern:1 europe:1 ivory:1 canis:10 aureus:2 line:1 animal:3 diversity:1 web:1 access:1 january:1 http:1 animaldiversity:1 ummz:1 umich:1 edu:1 site:1 account:2 information:1 html:1 fill:1 similar:1 ecological:1 niche:1 coyote:3 north:2 america:1 predator:1 size:2 scavenger:2 omnivore:1 long:2 leg:2 curve:1 canine:1 teeth:1 adapt:1 hunt:2 mammal:3 bird:1 reptile:1 big:1 foot:1 fuse:1 bone:1 give:2 distance:1 runner:1 physique:1 capable:1 maintain:1 speed:1 extended:1 period:1 time:2 crepuscular:1 active:1 dawn:1 dusk:1 society:1 social:1 unit:1 monogamous:1 pair:3 defend:2 territory:5 vigorously:1 chase:1 intrude:1 rival:1 mark:2 landmark:1 around:1 urine:1 feces:1 may:3 large:2 enough:1 hold:1 young:1 adult:1 stay:1 parent:1 establish:1 occasionally:1 assemble:1 pack:1 example:3 scavenge:2 carcass:1 normally:1 alone:1 taxonomy:2 relationship:2 third:1 volume:1 lorenz:1 oken:3 lehrbuch:1 der:1 naturgeschichte:1 author:1 sufficient:1 similarity:2 dentition:1 place:1 new:3 separate:2 genus:6 tho:3 classical:1 greek:1 word:3 θώς:1 idiosycratic:1 nomenclatorial:1 way:1 however:1 arouse:1 scorn:1 number:1 zoological:1 systematist:1 nearly:1 descriptive:1 use:5 justify:2 division:1 relative:1 term:1 without:1 reference:2 measure:1 argument:1 take:1 difference:1 considerable:1 angel:1 cabrera:1 monograph:1 morocco:1 briefly:1 touch:1 upon:1 question:1 whether:1 presence:1 cingulum:1 upper:1 molar:1 corresponding:1 absence:1 rest:1 could:1 subdivision:1 practice:1 choose:1 undivided:1 alternative:1 refer:1 theory:2 little:1 immediate:1 impact:1 taxonomic:1 nomenclature:1 though:2 revive:1 edmund:1 heller:2 embrace:1 name:1 designation:1 various:1 subspecies:1 live:1 change:1 thos:1 vs:1 modern:1 research:1 clarify:1 despite:1 outward:1 closely:1 relate:1 one:2 another:1 side:2 strip:2 black:2 back:2 close:1 african:2 eurasian:1 wild:2 dog:5 wolf:6 six:1 seven:1 mya:1 golden:3 ethiopian:2 part:1 group:1 also:2 include:1 grey:1 domestic:2 lindblad:1 toh:1 et:1 al:1 genome:1 sequence:1 comparative:1 analysis:1 haplotype:1 structure:1 nature:1 breed:1 experiment:1 germany:1 poodle:1 later:1 result:2 hybrid:2 show:2 unlike:1 wolfdogs:1 decrease:1 fertility:1 significant:1 communication:3 problem:1 well:2 increase:1 genetic:1 disease:1 generation:1 interbeeding:1 much:1 like:1 coydog:1 doris:1 feddersen:1 petersen:1 hundepsychologie:1 auflage:1 franck:1 kosmos:1 verlag:1 adustus:1 mesomelas:1 simensis:1 call:1 red:1 simian:1 increasingly:1 regard:1 ancient:2 egyptian:2 god:2 embalm:1 underworld:1 anubis:2 depict:1 man:1 head:2 today:1 commonly:1 see:2 safari:1 outside:1 national:1 park:1 human:2 alter:1 landscape:1 even:1 near:1 settlement:1 slang:1 popular:1 although:1 rather:1 inaccurate:1 image:2 somewhat:1 negative:1 expression:1 jackalling:1 describe:2 work:1 subordinate:1 order:1 save:1 superior:1 junior:1 lawyer:1 peruse:1 quantity:1 material:1 behalf:1 barrister:1 come:1 tradition:1 lead:1 lion:1 prey:1 language:2 behavior:1 person:1 try:1 scrap:1 misfortune:1 others:1 loot:1 village:1 inhabitant:1 flee:1 disaster:1 nonviolent:1 refers:1 label:1 judge:1 criticizes:1 zebra:1 ngorongoro:1 crater:1 tanzania:1 encyclopedia:1 edit:1 david:3 macdonald:2 oxford:1 university:1 press:1 isbn:1 cry:1 kalahari:1 delia:1 owen:1 mariner:1 book:2 velvet:1 claw:1 natural:1 history:1 carnivore:1 bbc:1 fox:1 world:1 alderton:1 fact:1 file:1 bardi:1 shapechanging:1 spirit:1 trebizond:1 folklore:1 feminine:1 external:1 link:1 wildlife:2 summary:1 foundation:1 footnote:1 |@bigram umich_edu:1 ecological_niche:1 canine_teeth:1 dawn_dusk:1 monogamous_pair:1 lehrbuch_der:1 jackal_canis:4 closely_relate:1 et_al:1 wolf_canis:1 external_link:1 |
1,554 | Kvass | A glass of mint kvass. Kvass or kvas (literally "leaven"; borrowed in the 16th century from Russian квас (kvas) Serjeantson, Mary Sidney. A History of Foreign Words in English. Page 210. ), sometimes translated into English as bread drink, is a fermented mildly alcoholic beverage made from black rye or rye bread (which attributes to its light or dark colour). It is popular in Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Lithuania, Poland and other Eastern and Central European countries as well as in all ex-Soviet states, like Uzbekistan, where one can see many kvass vendors in the streets. Michael Jackson's Beer Hunter - Porter and kvass in St. Petersburg Its origins go back 5,000 years to the beginnings of beer production. A Civilised Drink The alcohol content is so low (0.05-1.44%) that it is considered acceptable for consumption by children. It is often flavoured with fruits or herbs such as strawberries or mint. Kvass is also used for preparing a summer cold soup, okroshka. History Kvas street vendor in Kaliningrad (early 1990s) Kvas street vendor in Kiev (2005) Kvass has been a common drink in Eastern Europe since ancient times. It was first mentioned in Old Russian Chronicles in the year 989. In Russia, under Peter the Great, it was the most common non-alcoholic drink in every class of society. Later, in the 19th century, it was reported to be consumed in excess by peasants, low-class citizens, and monks; it was, it is sometimes said, usual for them to drink more kvass than water. It has been both a commercial product and homemade. It used to be consumed widely in most Slavic countries, where in almost every city there are kvass vendors on the street. Today it forms the basis of a multimillion-dollar industry. Kvass was once sold during the summer only, but is now produced, packaged, and sold year-round. Russia's patriotic kvas drinkers say no to cola-nisation. The New Zealand Herald. BUSINESS; General. July 12, 2008. The town of Zvenigorod, west of Moscow, is known for its authentic, preservative-free kvass, which is brewed in the basement of the town's Orthodox monastery. Manufacturing Kvass being fermented in a jar Kvass is made by the natural fermentation of bread made from wheat, rye, or barley, and sometimes flavoured with fruit, berries, raisins or birch sap collected in the early spring. Modern homemade kvass most often uses black or rye bread, usually dried, baked into croutons (called suhari), or fried, with the addition of sugar or fruit (e.g. apples or raisins), and with a yeast culture and zakvasska ("kvass fermentation starter"). Commercial kvass, especially less expensive varieties, is occasionally made like many other soft drinks, using sugar, carbonated water, malt extract, and flavourings. Better brands, often made by beer rather than soft drink manufacturers, usually use a variation of the traditional process to brew their products. Kvass is commonly served unfiltered, with the yeast still in it, which adds to its unique flavour as well as its high vitamin B content. Kvass in Russia Bottled kvass Although western soft drinks such as Coca-Cola and Pepsi previously smothered the commercial sale of kvass in Russia, currently kvass is being marketed as a patriotic alternative to cola, sparking a recent "kvas revival." For example, the Russian company Nikola (whose name sounds like "not cola" in Russian) has promoted its brand of kvass with an advertising campaign emphasizing "anti cola-nisation." Moscow-based Business Analytica reported in 2008 that bottled kvass sales had tripled since 2005 and estimated that per-capita consumption of kvass in Russia would reach three liters in 2008. Between 2005 and 2007, cola's share of the Moscow soft drink market fell from 37% to 32%. Meanwhile, kvass's share more than doubled over the same time period, reaching 16% in 2007. In response, Coca-Cola launched its own brand of kvass in May 2008. This is the first time a foreign company has made a significant entrance into the Russian kvass market. Pepsi has also signed an agreement with a Russian kvass manufacturer to act as a distribution agent. The development of new technologies for storage and distribution, and heavy advertising, have contributed to this surge in popularity; three new major brands have been introduced since 2004. Kvass in Latvia Rīga kvass street vendor (1977) After the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, the street vendors disappeared from the streets of Latvia due to new health laws that banned its sale on the street and economic disruptions forced many kvass factories to close. The Coca-Cola company moved in and quickly dominated the market for soft drinks, but in 1998 the local soft drink industry fought back by selling bottled kvass and launching an aggressive marketing campaign. This surge was further stimulated by the fact that kvass sold for about half the price of Coca-Cola. In just three years, kvass constituted as much as 30% of the soft drink market in Latvia, while the market share of Coca-Cola fell from 65% to 44%. The Coca-Cola company had losses in Latvia of about $1 million in 1999 and 2000. The situation was similar in the other Baltic countries and in Russia. Coca-Cola retaliated by buying kvass manufacturers and also started making kvass at their soft drink plants. The real thing?: Coke cashes in by producing nostalgic, Soviet-era drink Latvian Mailer - June 2, 2001 Coca-Cola HBC - Products and Marketing Coca-Cola ups stake in Estonia - Atlanta Business Chronicle: Similar beverages Other beverages from around the world that are traditionally low-alcohol and lacto-fermented include: Kombucha Chicha Ibwatu Pulque Toddy Malta Rivella References in Literature In Fyodor Dostoevsky's The Brothers Karamazov, monastery kvass is mentioned in the dinner scene as being famous throughout the neighborhood. The Brothers Karamazov. Fyodor Dostoevsky. p. 85. Farrar, Straus and Giroux (June 14, 2002). ISBN 0374528373. In Leo Tolstoy's The Death of Ivan Ilyich and Other Stories, kvass is also mentioned. <ref>The Death of Ivan Ilyich and Other Stories'. Leo Tolstoy. p. 127 Penguin Classics (May 27, 2008). ISBN 0140449612.</ref> In Anton Chekhov's The Cherry Orchard. In Ivan Goncharov's Oblomov and in Tolstoy's Anna Karenina'', kvass is repeatedly mentioned. References | Kvass |@lemmatized glass:1 mint:2 kvass:38 kvas:6 literally:1 leaven:1 borrow:1 century:2 russian:6 квас:1 serjeantson:1 mary:1 sidney:1 history:2 foreign:2 word:1 english:2 page:1 sometimes:3 translate:1 bread:4 drink:14 fermented:1 mildly:1 alcoholic:2 beverage:3 make:7 black:2 rye:4 attribute:1 light:1 dark:1 colour:1 popular:1 russia:7 belarus:1 ukraine:1 lithuania:1 poland:1 eastern:2 central:1 european:1 country:3 well:2 ex:1 soviet:3 state:1 like:3 uzbekistan:1 one:1 see:1 many:3 vendor:6 street:8 michael:1 jackson:1 beer:3 hunter:1 porter:1 st:1 petersburg:1 origin:1 go:1 back:2 year:4 beginning:1 production:1 civilised:1 alcohol:2 content:2 low:3 consider:1 acceptable:1 consumption:2 child:1 often:3 flavour:3 fruit:3 herb:1 strawberry:1 also:4 use:5 prepare:1 summer:2 cold:1 soup:1 okroshka:1 kaliningrad:1 early:2 kiev:1 common:2 europe:1 since:3 ancient:1 time:3 first:2 mention:4 old:1 chronicle:2 peter:1 great:1 non:1 every:2 class:2 society:1 later:1 report:2 consume:2 excess:1 peasant:1 citizen:1 monk:1 say:2 usual:1 water:2 commercial:3 product:3 homemade:2 widely:1 slavic:1 almost:1 city:1 today:1 form:1 basis:1 multimillion:1 dollar:1 industry:2 sell:4 produce:2 package:1 round:1 patriotic:2 drinker:1 cola:14 nisation:2 new:4 zealand:1 herald:1 business:3 general:1 july:1 town:2 zvenigorod:1 west:1 moscow:3 know:1 authentic:1 preservative:1 free:1 brew:2 basement:1 orthodox:1 monastery:2 manufacturing:1 ferment:2 jar:1 natural:1 fermentation:2 wheat:1 barley:1 berry:1 raisin:2 birch:1 sap:1 collect:1 spring:1 modern:1 usually:2 dry:1 bake:1 crouton:1 call:1 suhari:1 fry:1 addition:1 sugar:2 e:1 g:1 apple:1 yeast:2 culture:1 zakvasska:1 starter:1 especially:1 less:1 expensive:1 variety:1 occasionally:1 soft:8 carbonated:1 malt:1 extract:1 flavouring:1 good:1 brand:4 rather:1 manufacturer:3 variation:1 traditional:1 process:1 commonly:1 serve:1 unfiltered:1 still:1 add:1 unique:1 high:1 vitamin:1 b:1 bottle:2 although:1 western:1 coca:9 pepsi:2 previously:1 smother:1 sale:3 currently:1 market:6 alternative:1 spark:1 recent:1 revival:1 example:1 company:4 nikola:1 whose:1 name:1 sound:1 promote:1 advertising:2 campaign:2 emphasize:1 anti:1 base:1 analytica:1 triple:1 estimate:1 per:1 caput:1 would:1 reach:2 three:3 liter:1 share:3 fell:2 meanwhile:1 double:1 period:1 response:1 launch:2 may:2 significant:1 entrance:1 sign:1 agreement:1 act:1 distribution:2 agent:1 development:1 technology:1 storage:1 heavy:1 contribute:1 surge:2 popularity:1 major:1 introduce:1 latvia:4 rīga:1 fall:1 union:1 disappear:1 due:1 health:1 law:1 ban:1 economic:1 disruption:1 force:1 factory:1 close:1 move:1 quickly:1 dominate:1 local:1 fight:1 bottled:1 aggressive:1 marketing:2 far:1 stimulate:1 fact:1 half:1 price:1 constitute:1 much:1 loss:1 million:1 situation:1 similar:2 baltic:1 retaliate:1 buy:1 start:1 plant:1 real:1 thing:1 coke:1 cash:1 nostalgic:1 era:1 latvian:1 mailer:1 june:2 hbc:1 ups:1 stake:1 estonia:1 atlanta:1 around:1 world:1 traditionally:1 lacto:1 include:1 kombucha:1 chicha:1 ibwatu:1 pulque:1 toddy:1 malta:1 rivella:1 reference:2 literature:1 fyodor:2 dostoevsky:2 brother:2 karamazov:2 dinner:1 scene:1 famous:1 throughout:1 neighborhood:1 p:2 farrar:1 straus:1 giroux:1 isbn:2 leo:2 tolstoy:3 death:2 ivan:3 ilyich:2 story:2 ref:2 penguin:1 classic:1 anton:1 chekhov:1 cherry:1 orchard:1 goncharov:1 oblomov:1 anna:1 karenina:1 repeatedly:1 |@bigram alcoholic_beverage:1 belarus_ukraine:1 st_petersburg:1 alcoholic_drink:1 multimillion_dollar:1 wheat_rye:1 rye_barley:1 soft_drink:8 malt_extract:1 coca_cola:9 cola_pepsi:1 per_caput:1 surge_popularity:1 soviet_union:1 fyodor_dostoevsky:2 brother_karamazov:2 farrar_straus:1 straus_giroux:1 leo_tolstoy:2 penguin_classic:1 anton_chekhov:1 cherry_orchard:1 anna_karenina:1 |
1,555 | Irish_traditional_music_session | Irish traditional music sessions are mostly-informal gatherings at which people play Irish traditional music. The Irish language word for "session" is seisiún. This article discusses tune-playing, although "session" can also refer to a singing session or a mixed session (tunes and songs). The "Field Guide to the Irish Music Session" defines a session as: ...a gathering of Irish traditional musicians for the purpose of celebrating their common interest in the music by playing it together in a relaxed, informal setting, while in the process generally beefing up the mystical cultural mantra that hums along uninterruptedly beneath all manifestations of Irishness worldwide. Social and cultural aspects The general session scheme is that someone starts a tune, and those who know it join in. Good session etiquette requires not playing if one does not know the tune, and waiting until a tune one knows comes along. In an "open" session, anyone who is able to play Irish music is welcome. Most often there are more-or-less recognized session leaders; sometimes there are no leaders. At times a song will be sung or a slow air played by a single musician between sets. The objective in a session is not to provide music for an audience of passive listeners; although the punters (non-playing attendees) often come for the express purpose of listening, the music is most of all for the musicians themselves. "Audience" requests for a particular song or tune of the players can be considered rude. The session is an experience that's shared, not a performance that's bought and sold. The sessions are a key aspect of traditional music; some say it is the main sphere in which the music is formulated and innovated. Further, the sessions enable less advanced musicians to practice in a group. Socially, sessions have often been compared to an evening of playing card games, where the conversation and camaraderie are an essential component. In many rural communities in Ireland, sessions are an integral part of community life. Musical aspects Typically, the first tune is followed by another two or three tunes in a set. The art of putting together a set is hard to put into words, but the tunes must flow from one to another in terms of key and melodic structure, without being so similar as to all sound the same. The tunes of a set will usually all be of the same sort, i.e. all jigs or all reels, although on rare occasions and amongst a more skilled group of players a complementary tune of a different sort will be included, such as a slip jig amongst the jigs. Although bands sometimes arrange sets of reels and jigs together, this is uncommon in an Irish session context. Some sets are specific to a locale, or even to a single session, whilst others, like the "Coleman set" of reels ("The Tarbolton"/"The Longford Collector"/The Sailor's Bonnet"), represent longstanding combinations that have been played together for decades. Sets are sometimes thrown together ad hoc, which sometimes works brilliantly and sometimes fails on the spot. After the set ends, someone will usually start another. Locations and Times A Dublin pub session Sessions are usually held in public houses (often with the hope that listeners will buy drink for the musicians). A pub owner might have one or two musicians paid to come regularly in order for the session to have a base. Sunday afternoons and weekday nights (especially Tuesday and Wednesday) are common times for sessions to be scheduled, on the theory that these are the least likely times for dances and concerts to be held, and therefore the times that professional musicians will be most able to show. Sessions can be held in homes or at various public places in addition to pubs; often at a festival sessions will be got together in the beer tent or in the vendor's booth of a music-loving craftsman or dealer. When a particularly large musical event "takes over" an entire village, spontaneous sessions may erupt on the street corners. See also List of All-Ireland Champions Irish traditional music Pub session Video of Irish traditional music session | Irish_traditional_music_session |@lemmatized irish:9 traditional:6 music:12 session:28 mostly:1 informal:2 gathering:2 people:1 play:7 language:1 word:2 seisiún:1 article:1 discuss:1 tune:11 playing:2 although:4 also:2 refer:1 singing:1 mixed:1 song:3 field:1 guide:1 define:1 musician:7 purpose:2 celebrate:1 common:2 interest:1 together:6 relaxed:1 setting:1 process:1 generally:1 beef:1 mystical:1 cultural:2 mantra:1 hum:1 along:2 uninterruptedly:1 beneath:1 manifestation:1 irishness:1 worldwide:1 social:1 aspect:3 general:1 scheme:1 someone:2 start:2 know:3 join:1 good:1 etiquette:1 require:1 one:4 wait:1 come:3 open:1 anyone:1 able:2 welcome:1 often:5 less:2 recognize:1 leader:2 sometimes:5 time:5 sing:1 slow:1 air:1 single:2 set:9 objective:1 provide:1 audience:2 passive:1 listener:2 punter:1 non:1 attendee:1 express:1 listening:1 request:1 particular:1 player:2 consider:1 rude:1 experience:1 share:1 performance:1 bought:1 sell:1 key:2 say:1 main:1 sphere:1 formulate:1 innovate:1 far:1 enable:1 advanced:1 practice:1 group:2 socially:1 compare:1 evening:1 card:1 game:1 conversation:1 camaraderie:1 essential:1 component:1 many:1 rural:1 community:2 ireland:2 integral:1 part:1 life:1 musical:2 typically:1 first:1 follow:1 another:3 two:2 three:1 art:1 put:2 hard:1 must:1 flow:1 term:1 melodic:1 structure:1 without:1 similar:1 sound:1 usually:3 sort:2 e:1 jig:4 reel:3 rare:1 occasion:1 amongst:2 skilled:1 complementary:1 different:1 include:1 slip:1 band:1 arrange:1 uncommon:1 context:1 specific:1 locale:1 even:1 whilst:1 others:1 like:1 coleman:1 tarbolton:1 longford:1 collector:1 sailor:1 bonnet:1 represent:1 longstanding:1 combination:1 decade:1 thrown:1 ad:1 hoc:1 work:1 brilliantly:1 fail:1 spot:1 end:1 location:1 dublin:1 pub:3 hold:3 public:2 house:1 hope:1 buy:1 drink:1 owner:1 might:1 pay:1 regularly:1 order:1 base:1 sunday:1 afternoon:1 weekday:1 night:1 especially:1 tuesday:1 wednesday:1 schedule:1 theory:1 least:1 likely:1 dance:1 concert:1 therefore:1 professional:1 show:1 home:1 various:1 place:1 addition:1 pubs:1 festival:1 get:1 beer:1 tent:1 vendor:1 booth:1 love:1 craftsman:1 dealer:1 particularly:1 large:1 event:1 take:1 entire:1 village:1 spontaneous:1 may:1 erupt:1 street:1 corner:1 see:1 list:1 champion:1 video:1 |@bigram jig_reel:1 ad_hoc:1 sunday_afternoon:1 tuesday_wednesday:1 |
1,556 | Warm-blooded | In biology, a warm-blooded animal species is one whose members maintain thermal homeostasis; that is, they keep their body temperature at a roughly constant level, regardless of the ambient temperature. This involves the ability to cool down or produce more body heat. Warm-blooded animals mainly control their body temperature by regulating their metabolic rates (e.g. increasing their metabolic rate as the surrounding temperature begins to decrease). Both the terms "warm-blooded" and "cold-blooded" have fallen out of favor with scientists, because of the vagueness of the terms, and due to an increased understanding in this field. Body temperature types do not fall into simple either/or categories. Each term may be replaced with one or more variants (see: Definitions of warm-bloodedness). Body temperature maintenance incorporates a wide range of different techniques that result in a body temperature continuum, with the traditional ideals of warm-blooded and cold-blooded being at opposite ends of the spectrum. Definitions of warm-bloodedness Warm-bloodedness generally refers to three separate aspects of thermoregulation. Endothermy is the ability of some creatures to control their body temperatures through internal means such as muscle shivering or fat burning (Greek: endon = "within", thermē = "heat"). Some writers restrict the meaning of "endothermy" to mechanisms which directly raise the animal's metabolic rate in order to produce heat. The opposite of endothermy is ectothermy. Homeothermy is thermoregulation that maintains a stable internal body temperature regardless of external influence. This temperature is often (though not necessarily) higher than the immediate environment (Greek: homoios = "similar", thermē = "heat"). The opposite is poikilothermy. Tachymetabolism is the kind of thermoregulation used by creatures that maintain a high resting metabolism (Greek: tachys/tachus = "fast, swift", metabolēn = "throw beyond"). Tachymetabolic creatures are, essentially, "on" all the time. Though their resting metabolism is still many times slower than their active metabolism, the difference is often not as large as that seen in bradymetabolic creatures. Tachymetabolic creatures have greater difficulty dealing with a scarcity of food. A large proportion of the creatures traditionally called "warm-blooded" (mammals and birds) fit all three of these categories. However, over the past 30 years, studies in the field of animal thermophysiology have revealed many species belonging to these two groups that don't fit all these criteria. For example, many bats and small birds are poikilothermic and bradymetabolic when they sleep for the night (or day, as the case may be). For these creatures, another term was coined: heterothermy. Further studies on animals that were traditionally assumed to be cold-blooded have shown that most creatures incorporate different variations of the three terms defined above, along with their counterparts (ectothermy, poikilothermy and bradymetabolism), thus creating a broad spectrum of body temperature types (see temperature control in cold-blooded animals). Even some fish have "warm-blooded" features. Swordfish and some sharks have circulatory mechanisms that keep their brains and eyes at above ambient temperatures, and thus increase their ability to detect and react to prey. Hot Eyes for Cold Fish -- Wong 2005 (110): 2 -- ScienceNOW Tunas and some sharks have similar mechanisms in their muscles, improving their stamina when swimming at high speed. Mechanisms Generating and conserving heat The creatures traditionally regarded as warm-blooded have a larger number of mitochondria per cell, which enables them to generate heat by increasing the rate at which they "burn" fats and sugars. This requires a much greater quantity of food than is needed by cold-blooded animals in order to replace the fat and sugar reserves. In many endothermic a controlled state of hypothermia called hibernation, or torpor. This conserves energy by lowering the body temperature. Many birds' and small mammals' (e.g. tenrecs) body temperature drops during daily inactivity, such as at night for diurnal animals or during the day for nocturnal animals thus reducing the energy cost of maintaining body temperature. Human metabolism also slows down slightly during sleep. Heat loss is a major threat to smaller creatures as they have a larger ratio of surface area to volume. Most small warm-blooded animals have insulation in the form of fur or feathers. Aquatic warm-blooded animals generally have deep layers of fat under the skin for insulation, since fur or feathers would spoil their streamlining. Penguins have both feathers and fat, since their need for streamlining limits the degree of insulation which feathers alone can give them. Birds, especially waders, have blood-vessels in their lower legs which act as heat exchangers - veins are right next to arteries and thus extract heat from the arteries and carry it back into the trunk. Many warm-blooded animals blanche (become paler) in response to cold, which reduces heat loss by reducing the blood flow to the skin. Avoiding over-heating In equatorial climates and during temperate summers over-heating is as great a threat as cold. In hot conditions many warm-blooded animals increase heat loss by panting and or flushing (increasing the blood flow to the skin). Hairless and short-haired mammals also sweat, since the evaporation of sweat consumes a lot of heat. Elephants keep cool by using their huge ears like radiators in automobiles: they flap their ears to increase the airflow over them. Warm-blooded vs. cold-blooded Advantages of a fast metabolism The overall speed of an animal's metabolism increases by a factor of about 2 for every 10 C° rise in temperature (limited by the need to avoid hyperthermia). Warm-bloodedness does not provide greater speed than cold-bloodedness - cold-blooded animals can move as fast as warm-blooded animals of the same size and build. But warm-blooded animals have much greater stamina than cold-blooded creatures of the same size and build, because their faster metabolisms quickly regenerate energy supplies (especially ATP) and break down muscular waste products (especially lactate). This enables warm-blooded predators to run down cold-blooded prey, warm-blooded prey to outrun cold-blooded predators (provided they avoid the initial charge or ambush) and warm-blooded animals to be much more successful foragers. Advantages of homeothermy Enzymes have strong temperature preferences and their efficiency is much reduced outside their preferred ranges. A creature with a fairly constant body temperature can therefore use enzymes which are efficient at that temperature. Another advantage of a homeothermic animal would be its ability to maintain its constant body temperature even in freezing cold weather. A poikilotherm must either operate well below optimum efficiency most of the time or spend extra resources making a wider range of enzymes to cover the wider range of body temperatures. Disadvantages of warm-bloodedness Because warm-blooded animals use enzymes which are specialised for a narrow range of body temperatures, over-cooling rapidly leads to torpor and then death. Also, the energy required to maintain the homeothermic temperature comes from food - this results in homeothermic animals needing to eat much more food than poikilothermic animals. Thermographic image: a coldblooded snake is eating a warmblooded mouse Shivering and fat-burning to maintain temperature are very energy-intensive, for example: in winter many small birds lose one third of their body weight overnight. in general a warm-blooded animal requires 5 to 10 times as much food as a cold-blooded animal of the same size and build, so cold-blooded animals are better at surviving in barren environments. Temperature control in cold-blooded animals Scientific understanding of thermal regulation regimes has advanced greatly since the original distinction was made between warm- and cold-blooded animals, and the issue has been studied much more extensively. Many cold-blooded animals use behavioral means to adjust their internal temperatures: lizards and snakes bask in the sun in the early morning and late evening, and seek shelter around noon. many species of bees and moths flap their wings vigorously to raise the temperature of their flight muscles before taking off. bees in large hives will cool the hive in hot periods by going to its entrances and using their wings as fans to draw cooling air through the hive. They will warm the hive in cool periods by gathering in the middle and shivering to produce heat. termite mounds are usually oriented in a north-south direction so that they absorb as much heat as possible around dawn and dusk and minimise heat absorption around noon. Some other cold-blooded creatures use internal mechanisms to maintain body temperatures significantly above the ambient level: Tuna and Swordfish. Fish have long been thought to be cold blooded. Tuna and swordfish dive deep into the ocean where the water is very cold. Swordfish are able to raise the temperature of their brains and eyes, which allows faster eye movements when hunting. Tuna are able to warm their entire bodies through a heat exchange mechanism called the rete mirabile, which helps keep heat inside the body, and minimizes the loss of heat through the gills. They also have their swimming muscles near the center of their bodies instead of near the surface, which minimises heat loss. "Warm-blooded" sharks (e.g. mako and white sharks), to minimize heat loss through their gills, pass their blood through rete mirabile heat exchangers before it enters into the gills and after it exits from them: Veins are right next to arteries and thus extract heat from the arteries and carry it back into the body. Large sea turtles exhibit inertial homeothermy (Gigantothermy) - their low ratio of surface area to volume minimises heat loss. See also Cold-blooded (ectotherm) Evolutionary physiology Gigantothermy Physiology of dinosaurs Thermoregulation References External links www.earthlife.net Dinosauria.com: What is Warm-bloodedness anyway? The Reptipage: What is cold-blooded? | Warm-blooded |@lemmatized biology:1 warm:29 blood:39 animal:28 specie:3 one:3 whose:1 member:1 maintain:8 thermal:2 homeostasis:1 keep:4 body:22 temperature:30 roughly:1 constant:3 level:2 regardless:2 ambient:3 involve:1 ability:4 cool:6 produce:3 heat:23 blooded:4 mainly:1 control:4 regulate:1 metabolic:3 rate:4 e:3 g:3 increase:8 surround:1 begin:1 decrease:1 term:5 cold:25 fall:2 favor:1 scientist:1 vagueness:1 due:1 understanding:2 field:2 type:2 simple:1 either:2 category:2 may:2 replace:2 variant:1 see:4 definition:2 bloodedness:7 maintenance:1 incorporate:2 wide:2 range:5 different:2 technique:1 result:2 continuum:1 traditional:1 ideal:1 opposite:3 end:1 spectrum:2 generally:2 refers:1 three:3 separate:1 aspect:1 thermoregulation:4 endothermy:3 creature:13 internal:4 mean:2 muscle:4 shivering:2 fat:6 burning:2 greek:3 endon:1 within:1 thermē:2 writer:1 restrict:1 meaning:1 mechanisms:1 directly:1 raise:3 order:2 ectothermy:2 homeothermy:3 stable:1 external:2 influence:1 often:2 though:2 necessarily:1 high:3 immediate:1 environment:2 homoios:1 similar:2 poikilothermy:2 tachymetabolism:1 kind:1 use:7 resting:2 metabolism:7 tachys:1 tachus:1 fast:4 swift:1 metabolēn:1 throw:1 beyond:1 tachymetabolic:2 essentially:1 time:4 still:1 many:10 slow:2 active:1 difference:1 large:6 bradymetabolic:2 great:5 difficulty:1 deal:1 scarcity:1 food:5 proportion:1 traditionally:3 call:3 mammal:3 bird:5 fit:2 however:1 past:1 year:1 study:3 thermophysiology:1 reveal:1 belong:1 two:1 group:1 criterion:1 example:2 bat:1 small:5 poikilothermic:2 sleep:2 night:2 day:2 case:1 another:2 coin:1 heterothermy:1 assume:1 show:1 variation:1 define:1 along:1 counterpart:1 bradymetabolism:1 thus:5 create:1 broad:1 even:2 fish:3 feature:1 swordfish:4 shark:4 circulatory:1 mechanism:5 brain:2 eye:4 detect:1 react:1 prey:3 hot:3 wong:1 sciencenow:1 tuna:4 improve:1 stamen:2 swimming:2 speed:3 generate:2 conserve:2 regard:1 number:1 mitochondrion:1 per:1 cell:1 enable:2 burn:1 sugar:2 require:3 much:8 quantity:1 need:4 reserve:1 endothermic:1 controlled:1 state:1 hypothermia:1 hibernation:1 torpor:2 energy:5 lower:1 tenrec:1 drop:1 daily:1 inactivity:1 diurnal:1 nocturnal:1 reduce:4 cost:1 human:1 also:5 slightly:1 loss:7 major:1 threat:2 ratio:2 surface:3 area:2 volume:2 insulation:3 form:1 fur:2 feather:4 aquatic:1 deep:2 layer:1 skin:3 since:4 would:2 spoil:1 streamlining:1 penguin:1 streamline:1 limit:2 degree:1 alone:1 give:1 especially:3 wader:1 vessel:1 low:2 leg:1 act:1 exchanger:2 vein:2 right:2 next:2 artery:4 extract:2 carry:2 back:2 trunk:1 blanche:1 become:1 paler:1 response:1 flow:2 avoid:3 heating:2 equatorial:1 climate:1 temperate:1 summer:1 condition:1 pant:1 flushing:1 hairless:1 short:1 haired:1 sweat:2 evaporation:1 consumes:1 lot:1 elephant:1 huge:1 ear:2 like:1 radiator:1 automobile:1 flap:2 airflow:1 v:1 advantage:3 overall:1 factor:1 every:1 c:1 rise:1 hyperthermia:1 provide:2 move:1 size:3 build:3 faster:1 quickly:1 regenerate:1 supply:1 atp:1 break:1 muscular:1 waste:1 product:1 lactate:1 predator:2 run:1 outrun:1 initial:1 charge:1 ambush:1 successful:1 forager:1 enzyme:4 strong:1 preference:1 efficiency:2 outside:1 preferred:1 fairly:1 therefore:1 efficient:1 homeothermic:3 freeze:1 weather:1 poikilotherm:1 must:1 operate:1 well:2 optimum:1 spend:1 extra:1 resource:1 make:2 wider:1 cover:1 disadvantage:1 specialise:1 narrow:1 rapidly:1 lead:1 death:1 come:1 eat:2 thermographic:1 image:1 coldblooded:1 snake:2 warmblooded:1 mouse:1 intensive:1 winter:1 lose:1 third:1 weight:1 overnight:1 general:1 survive:1 barren:1 scientific:1 regulation:1 regimes:1 advance:1 greatly:1 original:1 distinction:1 issue:1 extensively:1 behavioral:1 adjust:1 lizard:1 bask:1 sun:1 early:1 morning:1 late:1 evening:1 seek:1 shelter:1 around:3 noon:2 bee:2 moth:1 wing:2 vigorously:1 flight:1 take:1 hive:4 period:2 go:1 entrance:1 fan:1 draw:1 air:1 gather:1 middle:1 shiver:1 termite:1 mound:1 usually:1 orient:1 north:1 south:1 direction:1 absorb:1 possible:1 dawn:1 dusk:1 minimise:2 absorption:1 significantly:1 long:1 think:1 dive:1 ocean:1 water:1 able:2 allow:1 movement:1 hunt:1 entire:1 exchange:1 rete:2 mirabile:2 help:1 inside:1 minimize:2 gill:3 near:2 center:1 instead:1 mako:1 white:1 pass:1 enter:1 exit:1 sea:1 turtle:1 exhibit:1 inertial:1 gigantothermy:2 minimises:1 ectotherm:1 evolutionary:1 physiology:2 dinosaur:1 reference:1 link:1 www:1 earthlife:1 net:1 dinosauria:1 com:1 anyway:1 reptipage:1 |@bigram ambient_temperature:2 warm_blooded:4 blooded_animal:4 warm_bloodedness:6 heat_exchanger:2 thermographic_image:1 lizard_snake:1 dawn_dusk:1 external_link:1 |
1,557 | Kingdom_of_Judah | Judea is a term used for the mountainous southern part of the historic Land of Israel. The United Kingdom of Solomon breaks up, with Jeroboam ruling over the Northern Kingdom of Israel (in green on the map) The Kingdom of Judah () existed at two periods in Jewish history. According to the Hebrew Bible, a kingdom emerged in Judah after the death of Saul, when the tribe of Judah elevated David, who came from the Tribe of Judah, to rule over it. After seven years David became king of a reunited Kingdom of Israel. During this period, Jerusalem became the capital of the united kingdom. () However, in about 930 BCE the united kingdom split, with ten of the twelve Tribes of Israel rejecting David's grandson Rehoboam as their king. The reformed Kingdom of Judah was one of the successor states, and the other entity continuing to be called the Kingdom of Israel, or Israel. This Kingdom of Judah is also often referred to as the Southern Kingdom, while the Kingdom of Israel following the split is referred to as the Northern Kingdom. Judah existed until 586 BCE, when it was conquered by the Babylonian Empire under Nebuzar-adan, captain of Nebuchadnezzar's body-guard. () With the deportation of the population and the destruction of the Temple and of Jerusalem, the destruction of the kingdom was complete. The Davidic dynasty began when the tribe of Judah made David its king, following the death of Saul. The Davidic line continued when David became king of the reunited Kingdom of Israel. When the united kingdom split, Judah and Benjamin continued to be loyal to the Davidic line, which ruled it until the kingdom was destroyed in 586 BCE. However, the Davidic line continued to be respected by the exiles in Babylon, who regarded the Exilarchs as kings-in-exile. Territory Map of the southern Levant, c.830s BCE. The Kingdom of Judah comprised the territories of the tribes of Judah, Simeon, and Benjamin, an area of about . Its capital was Jerusalem, which was in the territory of the tribe of Benjamin. The area that comprised the kingdom consisted of the area known as Har Yehudah ("the mountain (district) of the gorge(s)"). The area seems to have originally been occupied by Kenites, Calebites, Othnielites, and in Jerusalem Jebusites. History Jewish king and soldiers in ancient Judah The United Monarchy was a union of the twelve Israelite tribes living in the area that presently comprises modern Israel and Palestine. It existed from around 1030-930 BCE. After the death of Solomon in 931 BCE, the ten northern tribes refused to accept Rehoboam as their king, and instead in about 930 BCE chose Jeroboam as their king, who was not of the Davidic line. The northern kingdom continued to be called the Kingdom of Israel or Israel. The revolt took place at Shechem, and at first only the tribe of Judah remained loyal to the house of David. But very soon after the tribe of Benjamin joined Judah, and Jerusalem (which was in Benjamin's territory: ) became the capital of the new kingdom. The southern kingdom was called the kingdom of Judah, or Judah. also says that members of the tribes of Ephraim, Manasseh and Simeon "fled" to Judah during the reign of Asa of Judah. For the first sixty years, the kings of Judah tried to re-establish their authority over the northern kingdom, and there was perpetual war between them. For the following eighty years, there was no open war between them, and, for the most part, they were in friendly alliance, co-operating against their common enemies, especially against Damascus. Israel existed as an independent state until around 720 BCE when it was conquered by the Assyrian Empire. The Bible relates that all Israelites were exiled, becoming known as the The Ten Lost Tribes. However, it is estimated that only a fifth of the population (about 40,000) were actually resettled out of the area during the two deportation periods under Tiglath-Pileser III and Sargon II. Finkelstein & Silberman 2001,The Bible Unearthed. Many Israelites also fled south to Jerusalem, which appears to have expanded in size fivefold during this period, requiring a new wall to be built, and a new source of water (Siloam) to be provided by King Hezekiah. After the destruction of Israel, Judah continued to exist for about a century and a half until being conquered by the Babylonians. King Hezekiah of Judah (727-698 BCE) is noted in the Bible for initiating reforms that enforced Jewish laws against idolatry (in this case, the worship of Ba'alim and Asherah, among other traditional Near Eastern divinities). http://scholar.cc.emory.edu:80/scripts/ASOR/BA/Borowski.html In his reign is also dated the Siloam inscription in Old Hebrew alphabet. Manasseh of Judah (698-642 BCE), sacrificed his son to Molech, . He and his son Amon (reigned 642-640 BCE) reversed Hezekiah's reforms and officially revived idolatry. According to later rabbinical accounts, Manasseh placed a grotesque, four-faced idol in the Holy of Holies. The reign of king Josiah (640-609 BCE) was accompanied by a religious reformation. According to the Bible, while repairs were made on the Temple, a 'Book of the Law' was discovered (possibly the book of Deuteronomy). See also , , In 586 BCE, the Babyloníans, under king Nebuchadnezzar II, captured Jerusalem. The First Temple was destroyed as was the city of Jerusalem. To this day, the destruction is remembered by Jews on the 9th of Av, or Tisha B'Av. The Jewish Agency For Israel Homepage Following this conquest, much of the population of Judah was deported from the land and dispersed throughout the Babylonian Empire, and the independent Kingdom of Judah came to an end. The House of David continued to be respected and recognised as leaders of the Babylonian Jewish community as Exilarchs. A Jewish kingdom was revived by the Maccabees four centuries later, in a modified form. Prophets of Judah Amos, born in Judah but prophesied in Israel Habakkuk Isaiah, cousin of king Uzziah Jeremiah Joel Micah Obadiah Zechariah Zephaniah The Kings of Judah The genealogy of the kings of Judah, along with the kings of Israel. For this period, most historians follow either of the older chronologies established by William F. Albright or Edwin R. Thiele, or the newer chronologies of Gershon Galil or Kenneth Kitchen, all of which are shown below. All dates are BCE. AlbrightThieleGalilKitchenCommon/Biblical nameRegnal Name and styleNotes<small>1000–962 <small>1010–970<small>1010–970Davidדוד בן-ישי מלך ישראלDavid ben Yishai, <small>Melekh Ysra’el<small>Reigned over Israel & Judah in Jerusalem for 33 years and 7 years in Hebron, 40 years in total.Death: natural causes<small>962–922 <small>970–931<small>971–931Solomonשלמה בן-דוד מלך ישראלShelomoh ben David, <small>Melekh Ysra’el<small>Reigned over Israel & Judah in Jerusalem for 40 years.Death: natural causesSon of David by Bathsheba, his rights of succession were disputed by his older half-brother Adonijah<small>922–915 <small>931–913<small>931–914<small>931–915Rehoboamרחבעם בן-שלמה מלך יהודהRehav’am ben Shlomoh, <small>Melekh Yehudah <small> Reigned over Judah in Jerusalem for 17 years.Death: natural causes<small>915–913<small>913–911<small>914–911<small>915–912Abijamאבים בן-רחבעם מלך יהודה ’Aviyam ben Rehav’am, <small>Melekh Yehudah<small>Reigned over Judah in Jerusalem for 3 years.Death: natural causes<small>913–873<small>911–870<small>911–870<small>912–871Asaאסא בן-אבים מלך יהודה ’Asa ben ’Aviyam, <small>Melekh Yehudah<small>Reigned over Judah in Jerusalem for 41 years.Death: severe foot disease<small>873–849<small>870–848<small>870–845<small>871–849Jehoshaphatיהושפט בן-אסא מלך יהודה Yehoshafat ben ’Asa, <small>Melekh Yahudah<small>Reigned over Judah in Jerusalem for 25 years.Death: natural causes<small>849–842<small>848–841<small>851–843<small>849–842Jehoram יהורם בן-יהושפט מלך יהודהYehoram ben Yehoshafat, <small>Melekh Yahudah<small>Reigned over Judah in Jerusalem for 8 years.Death: severe stomach disease<small>842–842<small>841–841<small>843–842<small>842–841Ahaziahאחזיהו בן-יהורם מלך יהודה ’Ahazyahu ben Yehoram, <small>Melekh Yehudah<small>Reigned over Judah in Jerusalem for 1 year.Death: killed by Jehu, who usurped the throne of Israel<small>842–837<small>841–835<small>842–835<small>841–835Athaliah עתליה בת-עמרי מלכת יהודה‘Atalyah bat ‘Omri, <small>Malkat Yehudah<small>Reigned over Judah in Jerusalem for 6 years.Death: killed by the troops assigned by Jehoiada the Priest to protect Joash.Queen Mother, widow of Jehoram and mother of Ahaziah<small>837–800<small>835–796<small>842–802<small>841–796Jehoashיהואש בן-אחזיהו מלך יהודה Yehoash ben ’Ahazyahu, <small>Melekh Yehudah<small>Reigned over Judah in Jerusalem for 40 years.Death: killed by his officials namely: Zabad, son of Shimeath, a Moabite Woman, and Jehozabad, son of Shimrith, a Moabite Woman.<small>800–783<small>796–767<small>805–776<small>796–776Amaziahאמציה בן-יהואש מלך יהודה ’Amatzyah ben Yehoash, <small>Melekh Yehudah<small>Reigned over Judah in Jerusalem for 29 years.Death: killed in Lachish by the men sent by his officials who conspired against him.<small>783–742<small>767–740<small>788–736<small>776–736Uzziah(Azariah)עזיה בן-אמציה מלך יהודה‘Uziyah ben ’Amatzyah, Melekh Yehudahעזריה בן-אמציה מלך יהודה‘Azaryah ben ’Amatzyah, <small>Melekh Yehudah<small>Reigned over Judah in Jerusalem for 52 years.Death: TzaraasGeorge Syncellus wrote that the First Olympiad took place in Uzziah's 48th regnal year.<small>742–735<small>740–732<small>758–742<small>750–735/30Jothamיותם בן-עזיה מלך יהודה Yotam ben ‘Uziyah, <small>Melekh Yehudah<small>Reigned over Judah in Jerusalem for 16 years.Death: natural causes<small>735–715<small>732–716<small>742–726<small>735/31–715Ahazאחז בן-יותם מלך יהודה’Ahaz ben Yotam, <small>Melekh Yehudah<small>Reigned over Judah in Jerusalem for 16 years.Death: natural causesThe Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser III records he received tribute from Ahaz; compare 2 Kings 16:7-9<small>715–687<small>716–687<small>726–697<small>715–687Hezekiahחזקיה בן-אחז מלך יהודהHizqiyah ben ’Ahaz, <small>Melekh Yehudah <small>Reigned over Judah in Jerusalem for 29 years.Death: Natural CausesContemporary with Sennacherib of Assyria and Merodach-Baladan of Babylon.<small>687–642<small>687–643<small>697–642<small>687–642Manassehמנשה בן-חזקיה מלך יהודהMenasheh ben Hizqiyah, <small>Melekh Yehudah <small>Reigned over Judah in Jerusalem for 55 years.Death: natural causesMentioned in Assyrian records as a contemporary of Esarhaddon<small>642–640<small>643–641<small>642–640<small>642–640Amonאמון בן-מנשה מלך יהודה’Amon ben Menasheh, <small>Melekh Yehudah<small>Reigned over Judah in Jerusalem for 2 years.Death: killed by his officials, which were killed later on by the people of Judah.<small>640–609<small>641–609<small>640–609<small>640–609Josiahיאשיהו בן-אמון מלך יהודהYo’shiyahu ben ’Amon, <small>Melekh Yehudah<small>Reigned over Judah in Jerusalem for 31 years.Death: shot by archers during the battle against Neco of Egypt. He died upon his arrival on Jerusalem.<small>609<small>609<small>609<small>609Jehoahazיהואחז בן-יאשיהו מלך יהודהYeho’ahaz ben Yo’shiyahu, Melekh Yehudah<small>Reigned over Judah in Jerusalem for 3 months.Death: Neco, king of Egypt, dethroned him and was replaced by his brother, Eliakim. Carried off to Egypt, where he died.<small>609–598<small>609–598<small>609–598<small>609–598Jehoiakimיהויקים בן-יאשיהו מלך יהודהYehoyaqim ben Yo’shiyahu, <small>Melekh Yehudah<small>Reigned over Judah in Jerusalem for 11 years.Death: Natural CausesThe Battle of Carchemish occurred in the fourth year of his reign (Jeremiah 46:2)<small>598<small>598<small>598–597<small>598–597Jehoiachin(Jeconiah)יהויכין בן-יהויקים מלך יהודהYehoyakhin ben Yehoyaqim, Melekh Yehudahיכניהו בן-יהויקים מלך יהודהYekhonyahu ben Yehoyaqim, <small>Melekh Yehudah<small>Reigned over Judah in Jerusalem for 3 months & 10 days.Death: King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon sent for him and brought him to Babylon, where he lived and died.Jerusalem was captured by the Babylonians and Jehoiachin deposed on 16 March, 597 BCE. Called Jeconiah in Jeremiah and Esther<small>597–587<small>597–586<small>597–586<small>597–586Zedekiahצדקיהו בן-יהויכין מלך יהודהTzidqiyahu ben Yo’shiyahu, <small>Melekh Yehudah<small>Reigned over Judah in Jerusalem for 11 years.Death: unknown.His reign saw the second rebellion against Nebuchadnezzar (588-586 BCE). Jerusalem was captured after a lengthy siege, the temple burnt, Zedekiah blinded and taken into exile, and Judah reduced to a province. From the end of the kingdom to the present After the end of the ancient kingdom the area passed into foreign rule, apart from brief periods, under the following powers: 586–539 BCE: Babylonian Empire 539–332 BCE: Persian Empire 332–305 BCE: Empire of Alexander the Great 305–198 BCE: Ptolemaics 198–141 BCE: Seleucids 141–37 BCE: The Hasmonean kingdom in Israel established by the Maccabees, after 63 BCE under Roman supremacy 37 BCE–70 CE: Herodian Dynasty ruling Judea under Roman supremacy (37 BCE-6 CE and 41-44 CE), interchanging with direct Roman rule (6-41 CE and 44-66 CE). This ended in the first Jewish Revolt of 66-73 AD, which saw the Temple destroyed in 70 CE. 6 CE Census of Quirinius and establishment of Roman Iudaea Province 70–395: province of Roman Empire first called Judea, after 135 called Palaestina. In 395 the Roman Empire is split into a Western and an Eastern part. 395–638: Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire 638–1099: Arab Caliphates and subject rulers 1099–1187: Crusader states, most notably the Kingdom of Jerusalem 1187–1260: dominated by the Ayyubids of Egypt and Damascus 1260–1516: dominated by the Mamluks of Egypt 1516–1917: Ottoman Turks, having previously conquered the Byzantine Empire in 1453 1918–1948: British mandate of Palestine under, first, League of Nations, then, successor United Nations; the Emirate of Trans-Jordan was separated from the rest of Palestine in 1922, and the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan became independent upon the expiration of the League of Nations Mandate in 1946. May 1948 to present: independent State of Israel References See also Government of ancient Israel History of ancient Israel and Judah Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy) Kingdom of Israel (Samaria) Israel Judah Judea Knanaya External links The Jewish History Resource Center Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Complete Bible Genealogy A synchronized chart of the kings of Judah and Israel | Kingdom_of_Judah |@lemmatized judea:4 term:1 use:1 mountainous:1 southern:4 part:3 historic:1 land:2 israel:27 united:7 kingdom:34 solomon:2 break:1 jeroboam:2 ruling:1 northern:5 green:1 map:2 judah:55 exist:5 two:2 period:6 jewish:9 history:5 accord:3 hebrew:3 bible:6 emerge:1 death:25 saul:2 tribe:12 elevate:1 david:9 come:2 rule:5 seven:1 year:27 become:6 king:22 reunited:2 jerusalem:35 capital:3 however:3 bce:25 split:4 ten:3 twelve:2 reject:1 grandson:1 rehoboam:2 reformed:1 one:1 successor:2 state:4 entity:1 continue:7 call:6 also:6 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1,558 | Henry_the_Fowler | Henry met by a delegation offering the crown while trapping birds. This depiction of the legend was painted by Hermann Vogel in 1900. Henry I the Fowler ( or Heinrich der Vogler; ) (876 – 2 July 936) was the duke of Saxony from 912 and king of the Germans from 919 until his death. First of the Ottonian Dynasty of German kings and emperors, he is generally considered to be the founder and first king of the medieval German state, known until then as East Francia. An avid hunter, he obtained the epithet "the Fowler" A fowler is one who hunts wildfowl. because he was allegedly fixing his birding nets when messengers arrived to inform him that he was to be king. Family Born in Memleben, in what is now Saxony-Anhalt, Henry was the son of Otto the Illustrious, duke of Saxony, and his wife Hedwiga, daughter of Henry of Franconia and Ingeltrude and a great-great-granddaughter of Charlemagne. In 906 he married Hatheburg, daughter of the Saxon count Erwin, but divorced her in 909, after she had given birth to his son Thankmar. Later that year he married St Matilda of Ringelheim, daughter of Dietrich, count in Westphalia. St Matilda bore him one son called Otto and two daughters, Hedwige and Gerberga and founded many religious institutions, including the abbey of Quedlinburg where Henry is buried, and was later canonized. Succession Henry became duke of Saxony upon his father's death in 912. An able ruler, he continued to strengthen Saxony, frequently in conflict with his neighbors to the South, the dukes of Franconia. In 918 Conrad I, king of East Francia and duke of Franconia, died. Although they had been at odds with each other from 912–15 over the title to lands in Thuringia, before he died Conrad had recommended Henry as his successor and king. Conrad's choice was conveyed by Duke Eberhard of Franconia, Conrad's brother and heir, at the Reichstag of Fritzlar in 919. The assembled Franconian and Saxon nobles duly elected Henry to be king. Henry refused to be anointed by a high church official — the only king of his time not to undergo that rite — allegedly because he did not wish to be king by the church's but by the people's acclaim. Duke Burchard II of Swabia soon swore fealty to the new king, but duke Arnulf of Bavaria did not submit until Henry invaded Bavaria in 921. Policy Henry regarded the kingdom as a confederation of stem duchies rather than as a feudal kingdom and saw himself as primus inter pares. Instead of seeking to administer the empire through counts, as Charlemagne had done and as his successors had attempted, Henry allowed the dukes of Franconia, Swabia and Bavaria to maintain complete internal control of their holdings. In 925 he defeated Giselbert, duke of Lotharingia (Lorraine), and brought that realm, which had been lost in 910, back into the German kingdom as the fifth stem duchy (the others being Saxony, Franconia, Swabia, and Bavaria). Allowing Giselbert to remain in power as duke of Lotharingia, Henry arranged the marriage of his daughter Gerberga of Saxony to his new vassal in 928. Henry was an able military leader. In 924 he paid a tribute to the Magyars (Hungarians), who had repeatedly raided Germany, and thereby secured a ten-year truce so that he could fortify towns and train a new elite cavalry force. During the truce with the Magyars, Henry conquered the Havelli and the Daleminzi in 928 and put down a rebellion in Bohemia in 929. When the Magyars began raiding again, he led an army of all German tribes to victory at the battle of Riade in 933 near the river Unstrut, stopping their advance into Germany. He also pacified territories to the north, where the Danes had harried the Frisians by sea. The monk and historian Widukind of Corvey in his Res gestae Saxonicae reports that the Danes were subjects of Henry the Fowler. Henry incorporated into his kingdom territories held by the Wends, who together with the Danes had attacked Germany, and also conquered Schleswig in 934. Death and aftermath Henry died of a cerebral stroke on 2 July 936 in his palatium in Memleben, one of his favourite places. By then all German tribes were united in a single kingdom. Henry I is therefore considered the first German king and the founder of the eventual Holy Roman Empire. He has sometimes been considered as Henry I, Holy Roman Emperor. His son Otto succeeded him as Emperor. His second son, Henry, became duke of Bavaria. A third son, Brun (or Bruno), became archbishop of Cologne. His son from his first marriage, Thankmar, rebelled against his half-brother Otto and was killed in battle in 936. After the death of her husband Duke Giselbert of Lotharingia, Henry's daughter Gerberga of Saxony married King Louis IV of France. His youngest daughter, Hedwige of Saxony, married Duke Hugh the Great of France and was the mother of Hugh Capet, the first Capetian king of France. Henry returned to public attention as a character in Richard Wagner's opera, Lohengrin (1850). There are indications that Heinrich Himmler imagined himself the reincarnation of the first king of Germany. Frischauer, Willi. Himmler, the Evil Genius of the Third Reich. London: Odhams, 1953, pages 85-88; Kersten, Felix. The Kersten Memoirs: 1940-1945. New York: Macmillan, 1957, page 238. Ancestry Ancestors of Henry the Fowler See also Kings of Germany family tree. He was related to every other king of Germany. Notes |- | Henry_the_Fowler |@lemmatized henry:24 meet:1 delegation:1 offer:1 crown:1 trap:1 bird:2 depiction:1 legend:1 paint:1 hermann:1 vogel:1 fowler:5 heinrich:2 vogler:1 july:2 duke:14 saxony:9 king:16 german:7 death:4 first:6 ottonian:1 dynasty:1 emperor:3 generally:1 consider:3 founder:2 medieval:1 state:1 know:1 east:2 francia:2 avid:1 hunter:1 obtain:1 epithet:1 one:3 hunt:1 wildfowl:1 allegedly:2 fix:1 net:1 messenger:1 arrive:1 inform:1 family:2 bear:1 memleben:2 anhalt:1 son:7 otto:4 illustrious:1 wife:1 hedwiga:1 daughter:7 franconia:6 ingeltrude:1 great:3 granddaughter:1 charlemagne:2 marry:4 hatheburg:1 saxon:2 count:3 erwin:1 divorce:1 give:1 birth:1 thankmar:2 later:2 year:2 st:2 matilda:2 ringelheim:1 dietrich:1 westphalia:1 bore:1 call:1 two:1 hedwige:2 gerberga:3 found:1 many:1 religious:1 institution:1 include:1 abbey:1 quedlinburg:1 bury:1 canonize:1 succession:1 become:3 upon:1 father:1 able:2 ruler:1 continue:1 strengthen:1 frequently:1 conflict:1 neighbor:1 south:1 conrad:4 die:3 although:1 odds:1 title:1 land:1 thuringia:1 recommend:1 successor:2 choice:1 convey:1 eberhard:1 brother:2 heir:1 reichstag:1 fritzlar:1 assembled:1 franconian:1 noble:1 duly:1 elect:1 refuse:1 anoint:1 high:1 church:2 official:1 time:1 undergo:1 rite:1 wish:1 people:1 acclaim:1 burchard:1 ii:1 swabia:3 soon:1 swore:1 fealty:1 new:4 arnulf:1 bavaria:5 submit:1 invade:1 policy:1 regard:1 kingdom:5 confederation:1 stem:2 duchy:2 rather:1 feudal:1 saw:1 primus:1 inter:1 pares:1 instead:1 seek:1 administer:1 empire:2 attempt:1 allow:2 maintain:1 complete:1 internal:1 control:1 holding:1 defeat:1 giselbert:3 lotharingia:3 lorraine:1 bring:1 realm:1 lose:1 back:1 fifth:1 others:1 remain:1 power:1 arrange:1 marriage:2 vassal:1 military:1 leader:1 pay:1 tribute:1 magyar:3 hungarian:1 repeatedly:1 raid:2 germany:6 thereby:1 secure:1 ten:1 truce:2 could:1 fortify:1 town:1 train:1 elite:1 cavalry:1 force:1 conquer:2 havelli:1 daleminzi:1 put:1 rebellion:1 bohemia:1 begin:1 lead:1 army:1 tribe:2 victory:1 battle:2 riade:1 near:1 river:1 unstrut:1 stop:1 advance:1 also:3 pacify:1 territory:2 north:1 dane:3 harry:1 frisian:1 sea:1 monk:1 historian:1 widukind:1 corvey:1 gestae:1 saxonicae:1 report:1 subject:1 incorporate:1 hold:1 wends:1 together:1 attack:1 schleswig:1 aftermath:1 cerebral:1 stroke:1 palatium:1 favourite:1 place:1 unite:1 single:1 therefore:1 eventual:1 holy:2 roman:2 sometimes:1 succeed:1 second:1 third:2 brun:1 bruno:1 archbishop:1 cologne:1 rebel:1 half:1 kill:1 husband:1 louis:1 iv:1 france:3 young:1 hugh:2 mother:1 capet:1 capetian:1 return:1 public:1 attention:1 character:1 richard:1 wagner:1 opera:1 lohengrin:1 indication:1 himmler:2 imagine:1 reincarnation:1 frischauer:1 willi:1 evil:1 genius:1 reich:1 london:1 odhams:1 page:2 kersten:2 felix:1 memoir:1 york:1 macmillan:1 ancestry:1 ancestor:1 see:1 tree:1 relate:1 every:1 note:1 |@bigram duke_saxony:3 ottonian_dynasty:1 saxony_anhalt:1 primus_inter:1 inter_pares:1 franconia_swabia:2 pay_tribute:1 archbishop_cologne:1 hugh_capet:1 richard_wagner:1 heinrich_himmler:1 third_reich:1 |
1,559 | Norse_mythology | "Thor's battle against the jötnar" (1872) by Mårten Eskil Winge. "Odin, the Wanderer" (1886) by Georg von Rosen. Norse or Scandinavian mythology comprises the myths of North Germanic pre-Christian religion. Most of the written sources for Norse mythology were assembled in medieval Iceland in Old Norse, notably as the Edda. Norse mythology is the best-preserved version of wider Germanic paganism, which also includes the closely related Anglo-Saxon and Continental varieties. Germanic mythology can be shown to preserve certain aspects attributed to common Indo-European mythology. Norse mythology has its roots in Proto-Norse Iron Age Scandinavian prehistory. It flourishes during the Viking Age and following the Christianization of Scandinavia during the High Middle Ages passed into Scandinavian folklore, some aspects surviving to the modern day. The mythology from the Romanticist Viking revival came to be an influence on modern literature and popular culture. Sources The title page of Olive Bray's English translation of the Poetic Edda depicting the tree Yggdrasil and a number of its inhabitants (1908) by W. G. Collingwood. Most of the existing records on Norse mythology date from the 11th to 18th century, having gone through more than two centuries of oral preservation in what was at least officially a Christian society. At this point scholars started recording it, particularly in the Eddas and the Heimskringla by Snorri Sturluson, who believed that pre-Christian deities trace real historical people. There is also the Danish Gesta Danorum by Saxo Grammaticus, where the Norse gods are more strongly Euhemerized. The Prose or Younger Edda was written in the early 13th century by Snorri Sturluson, who was a leading skald, chieftain, and diplomat in Iceland. It may be thought of primarily as a handbook for aspiring skalds. It contains prose explications of traditional "kennings," or compressed metaphors found in poetry. These prose retellings make the various tales of the Norse gods systematic and coherent. The Poetic Edda (also known as the Elder Edda) was committed to writing about 50 years after the Prose Edda. It contains 29 long poems, of which 11 deal with the Germanic deities, the rest with legendary heroes like Sigurd the Volsung (the Siegfried of the German version Nibelungenlied). Although scholars think it was transcribed later than the other Edda, the language and poetic forms involved in the tales appear to have been composed centuries earlier than their transcription. Besides these sources, there are surviving legends in Scandinavian folklore. Some of these can be corroborated with legends appearing in other Germanic literatures e.g. the tale related in the Anglo-Saxon Battle of Finnsburgh and the many allusions to mythological tales in Deor. When several partial references and tellings survive, scholars can deduce the underlying tale. Additionally, there are hundreds of place names in Scandinavia named after the gods. A few runic inscriptions, such as the Rök Runestone and the Kvinneby amulet, make references to the mythology. There are also several runestones and image stones that depict scenes from Norse mythology, such as Thor's fishing trip, scenes depicting Sigurd (Sigfried) the dragon slayer, Odin and Sleipnir, Odin being devoured by Fenrir, and one of the surviving stones from the Hunnestad Monument appears to show Hyrrokkin riding to Baldr's funeral (DR 284). In Denmark, one image stone depicts Loki with curled dandy-like mustaches and lips that are sewn together and the British Gosforth cross shows several mythological images. There are also smaller images, such as figurines depicting the god Odin (with one eye), Thor (with his hammer) and Freyr (with his enormous phallus). Cosmology "The Wolves Pursuing Sol and Mani" (1909) by J. C. Dollman. In Norse mythology there are 'nine worlds' (níu heimar), that many scholars summarize as follows: Ásgarðr, world of the Æsir. Vanaheimr, world of the Vanir. Miðgarðr, world of humans. Muspellheim, world of the primordial element of fire. Niflheimr, world of the primordial element of ice Svartálfaheim, world of the Svartálfar (black elves). Álfheimr, world of the Álfar (elves). Hel, underground world of the dead. Jötunheimr, world of the jötnar. Note the boundaries between Niflheim, Jötunheimr, Hel, Niðavellir, Svartálfaheimr, and several other significant places like Utgarðr remain uncertain. Each world also had significant places within. Valhalla is Odin's hall located in Asgaard. It was also home of the Einherjar, who were the souls of the greatest warriors. These warriors were selected by the Valkyries, Odin's mounted female messengers. The Einherjar would help defend the gods during Ragnarok. Niflhel is a hellish place in Hel, where oathbreakers and other criminals suffer torments. These worlds are connected by Yggdrasil, the world tree, a giant tree with Asgard at its top. Chewing at its roots in Niflheim is Nidhogg, a ferocious serpent or dragon. Asgard can also be reached by Bifrost, a rainbow bridge guarded by Heimdall, a god who can see and hear a thousand miles. Supernatural beings "Ydun" (1858) by Herman Wilhelm Bissen. There are several "clans" of Vættir or animistic nature spirits: the Æsir and Vanir, understood as gods, plus the Jötnar, the Álfar and Dvergar. To this list can be added the dead in the Underworld. The distinction between Æsir and Vanir is relative, for the two are said to have made peace, exchanged hostages, intermarried and reigned together after the events of the Æsir-Vanir War, and afterward the gods are generally referred to collectively as Æsir. In addition, there are many other beings: Fenrir the gigantic wolf, Jörmungandr the sea-serpent (or "worm") that is coiled around Midgard, and Hel, ruler of Helgardh. These three monsters are described as the progeny of Loki. Other creatures include Hugin and Munin (thought and memory, respectively), the two ravens who keep Odin, the chief god, apprised of what is happening on earth, since he gave his eye to the Well of Mimir in his quest for wisdom, Sleipnir, Loki's eight legged horse son belonging to Odin and Ratatosk, the squirrel which scampers in the branches of Yggdrasil. Völuspá In the Poetic Edda poem Völuspá ("Prophecy [spá] of the völva"), Odin, the chief god of the Norse pantheon, has conjured up the spirit of a dead völva and commanded this spirit to reveal the past and the future. She is reluctant: "What do you ask of me? Why tempt me?"; but since she is already dead, she shows no fear of Odin, and continually taunts him: "Well, would you know more?" But Odin insists: if he is to fulfill his function as king of the gods, he must possess all knowledge. Once the völva has revealed the secrets of past and future, she falls back into oblivion: "I sink now". Abiogenesis and anthropogenesis Ask and Embla as depicted on a Faroe Islands postage stamp (2003) by Anker Eli Petersen. According to Norse myth, the beginning of life was fire and ice, with the existence of only two worlds: Muspelheim and Niflheim. When the warm air of Muspelheim hit the cold ice of Niflheim, the jötunn Ymir and the icy cow Audhumla were created. Ymir's foot bred a son and a man and a woman emerged from his armpits, making Ymir the progenitor of the Jötnar. Whilst Ymir slept, the intense heat from Muspelheim made him sweat, and he sweated out Surtr, a jötunn of fire. Later Ymir woke and drank Audhumbla's milk. Whilst he drank, the cow Audhumbla licked on a salt stone. On the first day after this a man's hair appeared on the stone, on the second day a head and on the third day an entire man emerged from the stone. His name was Búri and with an unknown jötunn female he fathered Bor, the father of the three gods Odin, Vili and . When the gods felt strong enough they killed Ymir. His blood flooded the world and drowned all of the jötunn, except two. But jötnar grew again in numbers and soon there were as many as before Ymir's death. Then the gods created seven more worlds using Ymir's flesh for dirt, his blood for the Oceans, rivers and lakes, his bones for stone, his brain as the clouds, his skull for the heaven. Sparks from Muspelheim flew up and became stars. One day when the gods were walking they found two tree trunks. They transformed them into the shape of humans. Odin gave them life, Vili gave them mind and Ve gave them the ability to hear, see, and speak. The gods named them Ask and Embla and built the kingdom of Middle-earth for them; and, to keep out the jötnar, the gods placed a gigantic fence made of Ymir's eyelashes around Middle-earth. The völva goes on to describe Yggdrasil and three norns, Urðr (Wyrd), Verðandi and Skuld. She then describes the war between the Æsir and Vanir and the murder of Baldr, Odin's handsome son whom everyone but Loki loved. (The story is that everything in existence promised not to hurt him except mistletoe. Taking advantage of this weakness, Loki made a projectile of mistletoe and tricked Höðr, Odin's blind son and Baldr's brother, into using it to kill Baldr. Hel said she would revive him if everyone in the nine worlds wept. A female jötunn - Thokk, who may have been Loki in shape-shifted form - did not weep.) After that she turns her attention to the future. Ragnarök Ragnarök refers to a series of major events, including a great battle foretold to ultimately result in the death of a number of major figures (including the gods Odin, Thor, Freya, Heimdall, and the jötunn Loki), the occurrence of various natural disasters, and the subsequent submersion of the world in water. Afterwards, the world resurfaces anew and fertile, the surviving gods meet, and the world is repopulated by two human survivors. Kings and heroes The Ramsund carving depicting passages from the Völsunga saga The mythological literature relates the legends of heroes and kings, as well as supernatural creatures. These clan and kingdom founding figures possessed great importance as illustrations of proper action or national origins. The heroic literature may have fulfilled the same function as the national epic in other European literatures, or it may have been more nearly related to tribal identity. Many of the legendary figures probably existed, and generations of Scandinavian scholars have tried to extract history from myth in the sagas. Sometimes the same hero resurfaces in several forms depending on which part of the Germanic world the epics survived such as Weyland/Völund and Siegfried/Sigurd, and probably Beowulf/Bödvar Bjarki. Other notable heroes are Hagbard, Starkad, Ragnar Lodbrok, Sigurd Ring, Ivar Vidfamne and Harald Hildetand. Notable are also the shieldmaidens who were ordinary women who had chosen the path of the warrior. These women function both as heroines and as obstacles to the heroic journey. Norse worship Centres of faith Gamla Uppsala, the centre of worship in Sweden until the temple was destroyed in the late 11th century. The Germanic tribes rarely or never had temples in a modern sense. The Blót, the form of worship practiced by the ancient Germanic and Scandinavian people, resembled that of the Celts and Balts. It occurred either in sacred groves, at home, or at a simple altar of piled stones known as a "horgr". However, there seem to have been a few more important centres, such as Skiringssal, Lejre and Uppsala. Adam of Bremen claims that there was a temple in Uppsala (see Temple at Uppsala) with four wooden statues of Thor, Odin,Loki and Freyr. Priests While a kind of priesthood seems to have existed, it never took on the professional and semi-hereditary character of the Celtic druidical class. This was because the shamanistic tradition was maintained by women, the Völvas. It is often said that the Germanic kingship evolved out of a priestly office. This priestly role of the king was in line with the general role of godi, who was the head of a kindred group of families (for this social structure, see norse clans), and who administered the sacrifices. Human sacrifice A unique eye-witness account of Germanic human sacrifice survives in Ibn Fadlan's account of a Rus ship burial, where a slave-girl had volunteered to accompany her lord to the next world. More indirect accounts are given by Tacitus, Saxo Grammaticus and Adam von Bremen. However, the Ibn Fadlan account is actually a burial ritual. Current understanding of Norse mythology suggests an ulterior motive to the slave-girl's 'sacrifice'. It is believed that in Norse mythology a woman who joined the corpse of a man on the funeral pyre would be that man's wife in the next world. For a slave girl to become the wife of a lord was an obvious increase in status. Although both religions are of the Indo-European tradition, the sacrifice described in the Ibn Fadlan account is not to be confused with the practice of Sati. The Heimskringla tells of Swedish King Aun who sacrificed nine of his sons in an effort to prolong his life until his subjects stopped him from killing his last son Egil. According to Adam of Bremen, the Swedish kings sacrificed male slaves every ninth year during the Yule sacrifices at the Temple at Uppsala. The Swedes had the right not only to elect kings but also to depose them, and both king Domalde and king Olof Trätälja are said to have been sacrificed after years of famine. Odin was associated with death by hanging, and a possible practice of Odinic sacrifice by strangling has some archeological support in the existence of bodies such as Tollund Man that perfectly preserved by the acid of the Jutland peatbogs, into which they were cast after having been strangled. However, scholars possess no written accounts that explicitly interpret the cause of these stranglings, which could obviously have other explanations. Interactions with Christianity "Ansgarius predikar Christna läran i Sverige" (1839) by Hugo Hamilton. An 1830 portrayal of Ansgar, a Christian missionary invited to Sweden by its king Björn at Hauge in 829. An important note in interpreting this mythology is that often the closest accounts that scholars have to "pre-contact" times were written by Christians. The Younger Edda and the Heimskringla were written by Snorri Sturluson in the 13th century, over two hundred years after Iceland became Christianized. This results in Snorri's works carrying a large amount of Euhemerism. Virtually all of the saga literature came out of Iceland, a relatively small and remote island, and even in the climate of religious tolerance there, Snorri was guided by an essentially Christian viewpoint. The Heimskringla provides some interesting insights into this issue. Snorri introduces Odin as a mortal warlord in Asia who acquires magical powers, settles in Sweden, and becomes a demi-god following his death. Having undercut Odin's divinity, Snorri then provides the story of a pact of Swedish King Aun with Odin to prolong his life by sacrificing his sons. Later in the Heimskringla, Snorri records in detail how converts to Christianity such as Saint Olaf Haraldsson brutally converted Scandinavians to Christianity. One form of execution occurred during the Christianization of Norway. King Olaf Tryggvason had male völvas (sejdmen) tied and left on a skerry at ebb to drown in the sea. (1897 illustration by Halfdan Egedius) Trying to avert civil war, the Icelandic parliament voted in Christianity, but for some years tolerated heathenry in the privacy of one's home. Sweden, on the other hand, had a series of civil wars in the 11th century, which ended with the burning of the Temple at Uppsala. In England, Christianization occurred earlier and sporadically, rarely by force. Conversion by coercion was sporadic throughout the areas where Norse gods had been worshipped. However, the conversion did not happen overnight. Christian clergy did their utmost to teach the populace that the Norse gods were demons, but their success was limited and the gods never became evil in the popular mind in most of Scandinavia. The length of time Christianization took is illustrated by two centrally located examples of Lovön and Bergen. Archaeological studies of graves at the Swedish island of Lovön have shown that the Christianisation took 150-200 years, and this was a location close to the kings and bishops. Likewise in the bustling trading town of Bergen, many runic inscriptions have been found from the 13th century, among the Bryggen inscriptions. One of them says may Thor receive you, may Odin own you, and a second one is a galdra which says I carve curing runes, I carve salvaging runes, once against the elves, twice against the trolls, thrice against the thurs. The second one also mentions the dangerous Valkyrie Skögul. There are few accounts from the 14th to the 18th century, but the clergy, such as Olaus Magnus (1555) wrote about the difficulties of extinguishing the old beliefs. The story related in Þrymskviða appears to have been unusually resilient, like the romantic story of Hagbard and Signy, and versions of both were recorded in the 17th century and as late as the 19th century. In the 19th and early 20th century Swedish folklorists documented what commoners believed, and what surfaced were many surviving traditions of the gods of Norse mythology. However, the traditions were by then far from the cohesive system of Snorri's accounts. Most gods had been forgotten and only the hunting Odin and the jötunn-slaying Thor figure in numerous legends. Freyja is mentioned a few times and Baldr only survives in legends about place names. Other elements of Norse mythology survived without being perceived as such, especially concerning supernatural beings in Scandinavian folklore. Moreover, the Norse belief in destiny has been very firm until modern times. Since the Christian hell resembled the abode of the dead in Norse mythology one of the names was borrowed from the old faith, Helvíti i.e. Hel's punishment. Many elements of the Yule traditions persevered, such as the Swedish tradition of slaughtering the pig at Christmas (Christmas ham), which originally was part of the sacrifice to Freyr. Modern influences Day (Old Norse) Meaning Mánadagr Moon's day Týsdagr Tyr's day Óðinsdagr Odin's day Þórsdagr Thor's day Frjádagr Freyja's day Laugardagr Washing day Sunnudagr/Dróttinsdagr Sun's day/The Lord's day The Germanic gods have left numerous traces in modern vocabulary and elements of every day western life in most Germanic language speaking countries. An example of this is some of the names of the days of the week: modelled after the names of the days of the week in Latin (named after Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, and Saturn), the names for Tuesday through to Friday were replaced with Germanic equivalents of the Roman gods and the names for Monday and Sunday after the Sun and Moon. In English, Saturn was not replaced, while Saturday is named after the sabbath in German. Viking revival "Heimdallr returns the necklace Brísingamen to Freyja" by Swedish painter Nils Blommér. Early modern editions of Old Norse literature begins in the 16th century, e.g. Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus (Olaus Magnus, 1555) and the first edition of the 13th century Gesta Danorum (Saxo Grammaticus), in 1514. The pace of publication increased during the 17th century with Latin translations of the Edda (notably Peder Resen's Edda Islandorum of 1665). The renewed interest of Romanticism in the Old North had political implications. Myths about a glorious and brave past is said to have given the Swedes the courage to retake Finland, which had been lost in 1809 during the war between Sweden and Russia. The Geatish Society, of which Geijer was a member, popularized this myth to a great extent. A focus for early British enthusiasts was George Hicke, who published a Linguarum vett. septentrionalium thesaurus in 1703–5. In the 1780s, Denmark offered to cede Iceland to Britain in exchange for Crab Island (West Indies), and in the 1860s Iceland was considered as a compensation for British support of Denmark in the Slesvig-Holstein conflicts. During this time, British interest and enthusiasm for Iceland and Nordic culture grew dramatically. Germanic Neopaganism Romanticist interest in the Old North gave rise to Germanic mysticism involving various schemes of occultist "Runology", notably following Guido von List and his Das Geheimnis der Runen (1908) in the early 20th century. Since the 1970s, there have been revivals of the old Germanic religion as Germanic neopaganism (Ásatrú) in both Europe and the United States. Modern popular culture Norse mythology also influenced Richard Wagner's use of literary themes from it to compose the four operas that make up Der Ring des Nibelungen (The Ring of the Nibelung). Mats Wendt based his neo-romantic 16-hour symphonic suite Eddan – the invincible sword of the elf-smith on the chronological reconstruction of the Norse myths by Viktor Rydberg Subsequently, J. R. R. Tolkien's writings, especially The Silmarillion, were heavily influenced by the indigenous beliefs of the pre-Christian Northern Europeans. As his related novel The Lord of the Rings became popular, elements of its fantasy world moved steadily into popular perceptions of the fantasy genre. In many fantasy novels today can be found such Norse creatures as elves, dwarves, and frost jötnar. Subsequently, Norse mythology has also greatly influenced popular culture, in literature and modern fiction. (See Marvel Comics' The Mighty Thor or Neil Gaiman's The Sandman (Vertigo) also Neil Gaiman's novel American Gods) Norse mythology is a recurring theme in Heavy metal lyrics. Bands like Manowar, Therion, Bathory, Amon Amarth, among others, composed concept albums with songs based on the Eddas and Norse paganism. The story in the video game Too Human is a science-fictional futuristic retelling of Norse Mythology, where godlike powers are granted by using cybernetic upgrades. In the video game Tomb Raider: Underworld, many references to Norse mythology is made. In fact, most of the plot centers around Lara searching for Thor's Hammer to help her in her quest to find her mother. In the video game series Final Fantasy there are many references to the Norse mythology, such as FFVII where Cloud's bike is named Fenrir, and many Norse places, such as Midgar are used as main locations in the world map. The Final Fantasy series's quite often draw upon Norse mythology for story lines, characters, and locations. In the video game series Soulcalibur the character "Siegfried" is from Norse mythology. However, he is in shining crystal armor in Soulcalibur and in mythology, he is wearing only leggings. In the video game Age of Empires: Mythologies the Norse are a playable nation. In the popular PC based MMORPG game World of Warcraft: Wrath of the Lich King, much of the storyline and characters are named after and or based on popular parts of Norse Mythology. Bibliography Notes Primary sources The Prose Edda The Poetic Edda Gesta Danorum Ynglinga saga Sagas General secondary works (1998). A Piece of Horse Liver: Myth, Ritual and Folklore in Old Icelandic Sources (translated by Terry Gunnell & Joan Turville-Petre). Reykjavík: Félagsvísindastofnun. ISBN 9979542640. (editors) (2006). Old Norse Religion in Long-Term Perspectives: Origins, Changes and Interactions. Lund: Nordic Academic Press. ISBN 918911681X. (1980). Gods of the North. London: Thames and Hudson. (Revised from an earlier hardback edition of 1955). ISBN 0-500-27177-1. (2002). The Norsemen in the Viking Age. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell. ISBN 1405149647. (1994). Prolonged Echoes: Old Norse Myths in Medieval Northern Society, vol. 1: The Myths. Odense: Odense Univ. Press. ISBN 8778380081. (1964). Gods and Myths of Northern Europe. Baltimore: Penguin. New edition 1990 by Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-013627-4. (Several runestones) —— (1969). Scandinavian Mythology. London and New York: Hamlyn. ISBN 0-87226-041-0. Reissued 1996 as Viking and Norse Mythology. New York: Barnes and Noble. —— (1988). Myths and Symbols in Pagan Europe. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse Univ. Press. ISBN 0815624387. —— (1993). The Lost Beliefs of Northern Europe. London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415049377. Altgermanische Religionsgeschichte, 2 vols., 2nd. ed., Grundriss der germanischen Philogie, 12–13. Berlin: W. de Gruyter. (1999). Nordic Religions in the Viking Age. Philadelphia: Univ. Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0812217144. (1973). Gods of the Ancient Northmen. Ed. & trans. Einar Haugen. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03507-0. (1888). Teutonic Mythology, 4 vols. Trans. S. Stallybras. London. Reprinted 2003 by Kessinger. ISBN 0-7661-7742-4, ISBN 0-7661-7743-2, ISBN 0-7661-7744-0, ISBN 0-7661-7745-9. Reprinted 2004 Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-43615-2 (4 vols.), ISBN 0-486-43546-6, ISBN 0-486-43547-4, ISBN 0-486-43548-2, ISBN 0-486-43549-0. Northvegr: Grimm's Teutonic Mythology (1988). Scandinavian Mythology: An Annotated Bibliography, Garland Folklore Bibliographies, 13. New York: Garland. ISBN 0-8240-9173-6. —— (2001). Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515382-0. (A dictionary of Norse mythology.) (2006). Treasure of Norse Mythology Volume I ISBN 978-3-922800-99-6. (1996). The King, the Champion and the Sorcerer: A Study in Germanic Myth. Wien: Fassbaender. ISBN 3900538573. (2007). From Asgard to Valhalla : the remarkable history of the Norse myths. London: I. B. Tauris. ISBN 1845113578. (1997). Cassell's Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend. London: Cassell. ISBN 0-304-36385-5. (1990). Norse Myths (The Legendary Past). London: British Museum; and Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-75546-5. (2002). The Viking Way: Religion and War in Late Iron Age Scandinavia. Uppsala: Dissertation, Dept. Archaeology & Ancient History. ISBN 9150616269. (1993). Dictionary of Northern Mythology. Trans. Angela Hall. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer. ISBN 0-85991-369-4. New edition 2000, ISBN 0-85991-513-1. (1853–1855) Handbuch der deutschen Mythologie. (2003). Decolonizing the Viking Age. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell. ISBN 9122020063(v. 1); 9122020071(v. 2). (1964). Myth and Religion of the North: The Religion of Ancient Scandinavia. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. Reprinted 1975, Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-8371-7420-1. Romanticism (1875). Norse Mythology, or, The Religion of Our Forefathers. Chicago: S.C. Griggs. (1909). Myths of the Norsemen: From the Eddas and Sagas. London: George G. Harrap. Reprinted 1992, Mineola, N.Y.: Dover. ISBN 0-486-27348-2. (1909), The Heroes of Asgard. New York: Macmillan Company. Reprinted 1982 by Smithmark Pub. ISBN 0-8317-4475-8. Reprinted 1979 by Pan Macmillan ISBN 0-333-07802-0. Baldwin Project: The Heroes of Asgard (1901). Norse Stories Retold from the Eddas. Mead and Company. Reprinted 1999, New York: Hippocrene Books. ISBN 0-7818-0770-0. Baldwin Project: Norse Stories Retold from the Eddas (1912). Teutonic Myth and Legend. New York: W H Wise & Co. 1934. Reprinted 2003 by University Press of the Pacific. ISBN 1-4102-0740-4. Sacred Texts: Teutonic Myth and Legend. (1889). Teutonic Mythology, trans. Rasmus B. Anderson. London: Swan Sonnenschein & Co. Reprinted 2001, Elibron Classics. ISBN 1-4021-9391-2. Reprinted 2004, Kessinger Publishing Company. ISBN 0-7661-8891-4. Rydberg's Teutonic Mythology (Displayed by pages) (1930). The British Edda. London: Chapman & Hall. Modern retellings (1920). The Children of Odin: A Book of Northern Myths, illustrated by Willy Pogány. New York, Macmillan. Reprinted 2004 by Aladdin, ISBN 0-689-86885-5. Sacred Texts: The Children of Odin. (Illustrated.) (1981). The Norse Myths. New York: Pantheon Books. ISBN 0-394-74846-8. Also released as The Penguin Book of Norse Myths: Gods of the Vikings. Harmondsworth: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-025869-8. (1967). "d'Aulaire's Book of Norse Myths". New York, New York Review of Books. (1927). Norse Mythology: Legends of Gods and Heroes, Scandinavian Classics. Trans. Sigurd Bernhard Hustvedt (1963). New York: American-Scandinavian Foundation. ISBN 0-404-04538-3. etext of Munch See also Spelling of names in Norse mythology often varies depending on the nationality of the source material. For more information see Old Norse orthography. Alliterative verse Numbers in Norse mythology Project Runeberg - a Nordic equivalent to Project Gutenberg Ásatrú The modern practice of Norse beliefs External links A collection of most of the standard texts in English translation (northvegr.org) Old Norse Prose and Poetry (heimskringla.no) Jörmungrund: Skálda- & vísnatal Norrœns Miðaldkveðskapar Index of Old Norse/Icelandic Skaldic Poetry (in Icelandic) Bibliography of recent scholarship on Norse Mythology & Religion be-x-old:Скандынаўская міталёгія | Norse_mythology |@lemmatized thor:10 battle:3 jötnar:7 mårten:1 eskil:1 winge:1 odin:26 wanderer:1 georg:1 von:3 rosen:1 norse:62 scandinavian:12 mythology:44 comprise:1 myth:23 north:5 germanic:18 pre:4 christian:9 religion:10 write:7 source:6 assemble:1 medieval:2 iceland:7 old:15 notably:3 edda:19 best:1 preserve:3 version:3 wider:1 paganism:2 also:16 include:4 closely:1 related:2 anglo:2 saxon:2 continental:1 variety:1 show:5 certain:1 aspect:2 attribute:1 common:1 indo:2 european:4 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1,560 | Ford_Madox_Brown | Ford Madox Brown self portrait 1850 Work Ford Madox Brown (16 April 1821 – 6 October 1893) was an English painter of moral and historical subjects, notable for his distinctively graphic and often Hogarthian version of the Pre-Raphaelite style. Life and Work Brown was born in Calais and studied art in Antwerp under Egide Charles Gustave Wappers. In 1843 he submitted work to the Westminster Cartoon Competition, for compositions to decorate the new Palace of Westminster. He was not successful. His early works were, however, greatly admired by the young Dante Gabriel Rossetti, who asked him to become his tutor. Through Rossetti Brown came into contact with the artists who went on to form the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood (PRB). Though closely linked to them, he was never actually a member of the brotherhood itself. Nevertheless, he remained close to Rossetti, with whom he also joined William Morris's design company, Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co., in 1861. Brown was also the main organiser of the Hogarth Club, a short lived replacement for the PRB which existed between 1858 and 1861. One of his most famous images is The Last of England, a portrait of a pair of stricken emigrants as they sail away on the ship that will take them from England forever. It was inspired by the departure of the Pre-Raphaelite sculptor Thomas Woolner, who had left for Australia. The painting is structured with Brown's characteristic linear energy, and emphasis on apparently grotesque and banal details, such as the cabbages hanging from the ship's side. Brown's most important painting was Work (1852–1865), which he showed at a special exhibition. It attempted to depict the totality of the mid-Victorian social experience in a single image, depicting 'navvies' digging up a road, Heath Street in Hampstead, London, and disrupting the old social hierarchies as they did so. The image erupts into proliferating details from the dynamic centre of the action, as the workers tear a hole in the road – and, symbolically, in the social fabric. Each character represents a particular social class and role in the modern urban environment. Brown wrote a catalogue to accompany the special exhibition of Work. This publication included an extensive explanation of Work that nevertheless leaves many questions unanswered. Brown's major achievement after Work was the "Manchester Murals", a cycle of twelve paintings in the Great Hall of Manchester Town Hall depicting the history of the city. These present a partly ironic and satirical view of Mancunian history. His son Oliver Madox Brown (1855–1874) showed promise both as an artist and poet, but died of blood poisoning. He was the grandfather of novelist Ford Madox Ford and great-grandfather of Labour Home Secretary Frank Soskice. Brown is buried in London in the St Pancras and Islington Cemetery, close to Muswell Hill. Gallery Books The diary of Ford Madox Brown (1981, ISBN 0300027435) See also List of paintings by Ford Madox Brown. :Category:Ford Madox Brown paintings British art English school of painting External links The iBiblio Web Museum exhibit on Brown Some of his paintings in the Carol Gerten Fine Art library Birmingham Museums & Art Gallery's Pre-Raphaelite Online Resource includes many works by Ford Madox Brown Waiting: An English fireside of 1854–5 Spartacus Educational: Ford Madox Brown Chronology on Britain Unlimited Some stained glass designs by Ford Madox Brown Ford Madox Brown in the "History of Art" Phryne's list of pictures in public galleries "The secret love of Ford Madox Brown": essay on Ford Madox Brown and Mathilde Blind, from TLS, October 8 2008 Photo of Ford Madox Brown's grave and a brief article about his time in Finchley The Pre-Raph Pack Discover more about the artists, the techniques they used and a timeline spanning 100 years. | Ford_Madox_Brown |@lemmatized ford:14 madox:14 brown:22 self:1 portrait:2 work:9 april:1 october:2 english:3 painter:1 moral:1 historical:1 subject:1 notable:1 distinctively:1 graphic:1 often:1 hogarthian:1 version:1 pre:5 raphaelite:4 style:1 life:1 bear:1 calais:1 studied:1 art:5 antwerp:1 egide:1 charles:1 gustave:1 wappers:1 submit:1 westminster:2 cartoon:1 competition:1 composition:1 decorate:1 new:1 palace:1 successful:1 early:1 however:1 greatly:1 admire:1 young:1 dante:1 gabriel:1 rossetti:3 ask:1 become:1 tutor:1 come:1 contact:1 artist:3 go:1 form:1 brotherhood:2 prb:2 though:1 closely:1 link:2 never:1 actually:1 member:1 nevertheless:2 remain:1 close:2 also:3 join:1 william:1 morris:2 design:2 company:1 marshall:1 faulkner:1 co:1 main:1 organiser:1 hogarth:1 club:1 short:1 lived:1 replacement:1 exist:1 one:1 famous:1 image:3 last:1 england:2 pair:1 stricken:1 emigrant:1 sail:1 away:1 ship:2 take:1 forever:1 inspire:1 departure:1 sculptor:1 thomas:1 woolner:1 leave:2 australia:1 painting:6 structure:1 characteristic:1 linear:1 energy:1 emphasis:1 apparently:1 grotesque:1 banal:1 detail:2 cabbage:1 hang:1 side:1 important:1 show:2 special:2 exhibition:2 attempt:1 depict:3 totality:1 mid:1 victorian:1 social:4 experience:1 single:1 navvy:1 dig:1 road:2 heath:1 street:1 hampstead:1 london:2 disrupt:1 old:1 hierarchy:1 erupt:1 proliferate:1 dynamic:1 centre:1 action:1 worker:1 tear:1 hole:1 symbolically:1 fabric:1 character:1 represent:1 particular:1 class:1 role:1 modern:1 urban:1 environment:1 write:1 catalogue:1 accompany:1 publication:1 include:2 extensive:1 explanation:1 many:2 question:1 unanswered:1 major:1 achievement:1 manchester:2 mural:1 cycle:1 twelve:1 great:2 hall:2 town:1 history:3 city:1 present:1 partly:1 ironic:1 satirical:1 view:1 mancunian:1 son:1 oliver:1 promise:1 poet:1 die:1 blood:1 poisoning:1 grandfather:2 novelist:1 labour:1 home:1 secretary:1 frank:1 soskice:1 bury:1 st:1 pancras:1 islington:1 cemetery:1 muswell:1 hill:1 gallery:3 book:1 diary:1 isbn:1 see:1 list:2 category:1 british:1 school:1 paint:1 external:1 ibiblio:1 web:1 museum:2 exhibit:1 carol:1 gerten:1 fine:1 library:1 birmingham:1 online:1 resource:1 waiting:1 fireside:1 spartacus:1 educational:1 chronology:1 britain:1 unlimited:1 stained:1 glass:1 phryne:1 picture:1 public:1 secret:1 love:1 essay:1 mathilde:1 blind:1 tl:1 photo:1 grave:1 brief:1 article:1 time:1 finchley:1 raph:1 pack:1 discover:1 technique:1 use:1 timeline:1 span:1 year:1 |@bigram ford_madox:13 madox_brown:13 pre_raphaelite:4 palace_westminster:1 dante_gabriel:1 gabriel_rossetti:1 raphaelite_brotherhood:1 short_lived:1 madox_ford:1 st_pancras:1 external_link:1 spartacus_educational:1 stained_glass:1 |
1,561 | John_Sigismund,_Elector_of_Brandenburg | John Sigismund, Margrave of Brandenburg John Sigismund, Duke of Prussia John Sigismund (; 8 November, 1572 – 23 December, 1619) was a Prince-elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg from the House of Hohenzollern. He also served as a Duke of Prussia. John Sigismund was born in Halle an der Saale to Joachim Frederick, Elector of Brandenburg, and his first wife Catherine, Princess of Brandenburg-Küstrin. He succeeded his father as Margrave of Brandenburg in 1608. He gave the Reichshof Castrop to his teacher and educator Carl Friedrich von Bordelius. John Sigismund received the territories of Cleves, Mark, and Ravensberg in the Treaty of Xanten in 1614. He succeeded his father-in-law Albert Frederick as Duke of Prussia in 1618, but died the following year. Religious policy John Sigismund's most significant action was his conversion from Lutheranism to Calvinism. He was probably won over to the faith during a visit to Heidelberg in 1606, but it was not until 1613 that he publicly took communion according to the Calvinist rite. The vast majority of his subjects in Brandenburg remained deeply Lutheran, however, and after the Elector and his Calvinist court officials drew up plans for mass conversion of the population to the new faith in February 1614 there were serious protests. Resistance was so strong that in 1615, John Sigismund backed down and relinquished any attempt at forcible conversion, allowing his subjects to be either Lutheran or Calvinist according to the dictates of their own consciences. Henceforward, Brandenburg-Prussia would be a bi-confessional state. Christopher Clark The Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia 1600-1947 (Penguin, 2007) pp.115-121 Family and children On 30 October, 1594, John Sigismund married Anna of Prussia, daughter of Albert Frederick, Duke of Prussia (1553–1618). They were parents to eight children: George William (13 November, 1595 – 1 December, 1640). His successor. Anne Sophia of Brandenburg (15 March, 1598 – 19 December, 1659). Married Frederick Ulrich, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg. Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg (11 November, 1599 – 28 March, 1655). Married Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden. They were parents of Christina of Sweden. Catharina of Brandenburg (28 May, 1602 – 27 August, 1644). Married first Gabriel Bethlen, Prince of Transylvania and secondly Franz Karl of Saxe-Lauenburg. Joachim Sigismund of Brandenburg (25 July, 1603 – 22 February, 1625). Agnes of Brandenburg (31 August, 1606 – 12 March, 1607). John Frederick of Brandenburg (18 August, 1607 – 1 March, 1608). Albrecht Christian of Brandenburg (7 March – 14 March, 1609). |- References External links Settlement of Dortmund between Brandenburg and Palatinate-Neuburg and the conflict of succession in Jülich, in full text | John_Sigismund,_Elector_of_Brandenburg |@lemmatized john:9 sigismund:9 margrave:2 brandenburg:15 duke:5 prussia:7 november:3 december:3 prince:2 elector:3 margraviate:1 house:1 hohenzollern:1 also:1 serve:1 bear:1 halle:1 der:1 saale:1 joachim:2 frederick:5 first:2 wife:1 catherine:1 princess:1 küstrin:1 succeed:2 father:2 give:1 reichshof:1 castrop:1 teacher:1 educator:1 carl:1 friedrich:1 von:1 bordelius:1 receive:1 territory:1 clef:1 mark:1 ravensberg:1 treaty:1 xanten:1 law:1 albert:2 die:1 following:1 year:1 religious:1 policy:1 significant:1 action:1 conversion:3 lutheranism:1 calvinism:1 probably:1 win:1 faith:2 visit:1 heidelberg:1 publicly:1 take:1 communion:1 accord:2 calvinist:3 rite:1 vast:1 majority:1 subject:2 remain:1 deeply:1 lutheran:2 however:1 court:1 official:1 draw:1 plan:1 mass:1 population:1 new:1 february:2 serious:1 protest:1 resistance:1 strong:1 back:1 relinquish:1 attempt:1 forcible:1 allow:1 either:1 dictate:1 conscience:1 henceforward:1 would:1 bi:1 confessional:1 state:1 christopher:1 clark:1 iron:1 kingdom:1 rise:1 downfall:1 penguin:1 pp:1 family:1 child:2 october:1 marry:4 anna:1 daughter:1 parent:2 eight:1 george:1 william:1 successor:1 anne:1 sophia:1 march:6 ulrich:1 brunswick:1 lüneburg:1 maria:1 eleonora:1 gustavus:1 adolphus:1 sweden:2 christina:1 catharina:1 may:1 august:3 gabriel:1 bethlen:1 transylvania:1 secondly:1 franz:1 karl:1 saxe:1 lauenburg:1 july:1 agnes:1 albrecht:1 christian:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 settlement:1 dortmund:1 palatinate:1 neuburg:1 conflict:1 succession:1 jülich:1 full:1 text:1 |@bigram margrave_brandenburg:2 elector_margraviate:1 margraviate_brandenburg:1 joachim_frederick:1 elector_brandenburg:1 brandenburg_küstrin:1 carl_friedrich:1 vast_majority:1 forcible_conversion:1 brandenburg_prussia:1 brunswick_lüneburg:1 gustavus_adolphus:1 adolphus_sweden:1 external_link:1 |
1,562 | Alkyne | Alkyne|A 3D model of acetylene, the simplest alkyne Alkynes are hydrocarbons that have a triple bond between two carbon atoms, with the formula CnH2n-2. Alkynes are traditionally known as acetylenes, although the name acetylene also refers specifically to C2H2, known formally (but rarely) as ethyne using IUPAC nomenclature. Like other hydrocarbons, alkynes are generally hydrophobic but tend to be more reactive. Chemical properties Alkynes are characteristically more unsaturated than alkenes. Thus they add two equivalents of bromine whereas an alkene adds only one equivalent. Other reactions are listed below. Alkynes are usually more reactive than alkenes. They show greater tendency to polymerize or oligomerize than do alkenes. The resulting polymers, called polyacetylenes (which do not contain alkyne units) are conjugated and can exhibit semiconducting properties. Structure and bonding In acetylene, the H-C≡C bond angles are 180°. By virtue of this bond angle, alkynes tend to be rod-like. Correspondingly, cyclic alkynes are rare. Benzyne is highly unstable. The C≡C bond distance of 121 picometers is much shorter than the C=C distance in alkenes (134 pm) or the C-C bond in alkanes (153 pm). Illustrative alkynes: a, two depictions of propyne, b, the naturally-occurring 1-phenylhepta-1,3,5-heptatriyne, and c, the strained cycloheptyne. The triple bond is very strong with a bond strength of 839 kJ/mol. The sigma bond contributes 369 kJ/mol, the first pi bond contributes 268 kJ/mol and the second pi bond of 202 kJ/mol bond strength. Bonding usually discussed in the context of molecular orbital theory, which recognizes the triple bond as arising from overlap of s and p orbitals. In the language of valence bond theory, the carbon atoms in an alkyne bond are sp hybridized: they each have two unhybridized p orbitals and two sp hybrid orbitals. Overlap of an sp orbital from each atom forms one sp-sp sigma bond. Each p orbital on one atom overlaps one on the other atom, forming two pi bonds, giving a total of three bonds. The remaining sp orbital on each atom can form a sigma bond to another atom, for example to hydrogen atoms in the parent acetylene]. The two sp orbitals project on opposite sides of the carbon atom. Terminal and internal alkynes Internal alkynes feature carbon substituents on each acetylenic carbon. Symmetrical examples include diphenyl acetylene and 3-hexyne. A representative unsymmetrical internal alkyne is propiolic acid. Terminal alkynes have a hydrogen atom bonded to at least one of the sp hybridized carbons (those involved in the triple bond. An example would be methylacetylene (propyne using IUPAC nomenclature). Terminal alkynes and acetylene are mildly acidic. The acidic hydrogen on terminal alkynes can be replaced by a variety of groups resulting in halo-, silyl-, and alkoxoalkynes, but such species are rarely encountered. Synthesis Commercially, the dominant alkyne is acetylene itself, which is used as a fuel and a precursor to other compounds, e.g., acrylates. Hundreds of millions of kilograms are produced annually by dehydrogenation of natural gas: 2 CH4 → HC≡CH + 3 H2 Propyne, also industrially useful, is also prepared by thermal cracking of hydrocarbons. Most other industrially useful alkyne derivatives are prepared from acetylene, e.g. via condensation with formaldehyde. Peter Pässler, Werner Hefner, Klaus Buckl, Helmut Meinass, Andreas Meiswinkel, Hans-Jürgen Wernicke, Günter Ebersberg, Richard Müller, Jürgen Bässler, Hartmut Behringer, Dieter Mayer “Acetylene” in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2008, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. . Article Online Posting Date: October 15, 2008 Specialty alkynes are prepared by dehydrohalogenation of vicinal alkyl dihalides or vinyl halides. Metal acetylides can be coupled with primary alkyl halides. Via the Fritsch-Buttenberg-Wiechell rearrangement, alkynes are prepared from vinyl bromides. Alkynes can be prepared from aldehydes using the Corey-Fuchs reaction and from aldehydes or ketones by the Seyferth-Gilbert homologation. In the alkyne zipper reaction, alkynes are generated from other alkynes by treatment with a strong base. Reactions Featuring a reactive functional group, alkynes participate in many organic reactions. Addition of hydrogen, halogens, and related reagents Alkynes characteristically undergo reactions that show that they are "doubly unsaturated," meaning that each alkyne unit is capable of adding two equivalents of H2, halogens or related HX reagents (X = halide, pseudohalide, etc.). Depending on catalysts and conditions, alkynes add one or two equivalents of hydrogen. Hydrogenation to the alkene is usually more desirable since alkanes are less useful: RC≡CR' + H2 → cis-RCH=CR'H The largest scale application of this technology is the conversion of acetylene to ethylene catalysts in refineries. The steam cracking of alkanes affords a few percent acetylene, which is selectively hydrogenated in the presence of a palladium/silver catalyst. For more complex alkynes, the Lindlar catalyst is widely recommended to avoid formation of the alkane, for example in the conversion of phenylacetylene to styrene. Application Lindlar Catalyst. Similarly, halogenation of alkynes gives the vinyl dihalides or alkyl tetrahalides: RC≡CR' + 2 Br2 → RCBr2CRBr2 The addition of nonpolar E-H bonds across C≡C is general for silanes, boranes, and related hydrides. The hydroboration of alkynes gives vinylic boranes which oxidize to the corresponding aldehyde or ketone. Hydrohalogenation gives the corresponding vinyl halides or alkyl dihalides, again depending on the number of equivalents of HX added. The addition of water to alkynes is a related reaction except the initial enol intermediate converts to the ketone or aldehyde. Illustrative is the hydration of phenylacetylene gives acetophenone, and the (Ph3P)AuCH3-catalyzed hydration of 1,8-nonadiyne to 2,8-nonanedione: PhC≡CH + H2O → PhCOCH3 HC≡CC6H12C≡CH + 2H2O → CH3COC6H12COCH3 Cycloadditions and oxidation Alkynes undergo diverse cycloaddition reactions. Most notable is the Diels-Alder reaction with 1,3-dienes to give 1,4-cyclohexadienes. This general reaction has been extensively developed and electrophilic alkynes are especially effective dienophiles. The "cycloadduct" derived from the addition of alkynes to 2-pyrone eliminates carbon dioxide to give the aromatic compound. Other specialized cycloadditions include multicomponent reactions such as alkyne trimerisation to give aromatic compounds and the [2+2+1]cycloaddition of an alkyne, alkene and carbon monoxide in the Pauson–Khand reaction. Non-carbon reagents also undergo cyclization, e.g. Azide alkyne Huisgen cycloaddition to give triazoles. Cycloaddition processes involving alkynes are often catalyzed by metals, e.g. enyne metathesis and alkyne metathesis, which allows the scrambling of carbyne (RC) centers: RC≡CR + R'C≡CR' 2 RC≡CR' Oxidative cleavage of alkynes proceeds via cycloaddition to metal oxides. Most famously, potassium permanganate converts alkynes to a pair of carboxylic acids. Reactions specific for terminal alkynes In addition to undergoing the reactions characteristic of internal alkynes, terminal alkynes are reactive as weak acids, with pKa values (25) between that of ammonia (35) and ethanol (16). The acetylide conjugate base to be stabilized as a result of the high s character of the sp orbital, in which the electron pair resides. Electrons in an s orbital benefit from closer proximity to the positively charged atom nucleus, and are therefore lower in energy. Treatment of terminal alkynes with a strong base gives the corresponding metal acetylides: RC≡CH + MX → RC≡M + HX (MX = NaNH2, LiBu, RMgX) The reactions of alkynes with certain metal cations, e.g. Ag+ also gives acetylides. Thus, few drops of diamminesilver(I) hydroxide (Ag(NH3)2OH) reacts with terminal alkynes signaled by formation of a white precipitate of the silver acetylide. Acetylide derivatives are synthetically useful nucleophiles that participate in C-C bond forming reactions, as illustrated in the area called "Reppe Chemistry". In the Favorskii reaction, terminal alkynes add to carbonyl compounds to give the hydroxyalkyne. Coupling of terminal alkynes to give di-alkynes is effected in the Cadiot-Chodkiewicz coupling, Glaser coupling, and the Eglinton coupling reactions. Alkynes in nature and medicine Alkynes are relatively rare in nature. Triynes, species with the linkage RC≡C-C≡C-C≡CR', occur in certain plants (Ichthyothere, Chrysanthemum, and Asteraceae). These compounds are highly bioactive, e.g. as nematocides. J. Lam, H. Breteler, T. Arnason, and L. Hansen, Eds. Chemistry and Biology of Naturally-occurring Acetylenes and Related Compounds" Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1988. ISBN:0-444-87115-2. 1-Phenylhepta-1,3,5-triyne is illustrative of a naturally occurring triyne. Alkynes occur in some pharmaceuticals, including the contraceptive norethynodrel. Molecules called ene-diynes feature a ring containing an alkene ("ene") between two alkyne groups ("diyne"). These compounds, e.g. calicheamicin, are some of the most aggressive antitumor drugs known, so much so that the ene-diyne subunit is sometimes referred to as a "warhead." Ene-diynes undergo rearrangement via the Bergman cyclization, generating highly reactive radical intermediates that attack DNA within the tumor. References See also -yne cycloalkyne | Alkyne |@lemmatized alkyne:57 model:1 acetylene:13 simple:1 hydrocarbon:3 triple:4 bond:23 two:10 carbon:9 atom:11 formula:1 traditionally:1 know:3 although:1 name:1 also:6 refer:2 specifically:1 formally:1 rarely:2 ethyne:1 use:4 iupac:2 nomenclature:2 like:2 generally:1 hydrophobic:1 tend:2 reactive:5 chemical:1 property:2 characteristically:2 unsaturated:2 alkene:8 thus:2 add:6 equivalent:5 bromine:1 whereas:1 one:6 reaction:18 list:1 usually:3 show:2 great:1 tendency:1 polymerize:1 oligomerize:1 result:3 polymer:1 call:3 polyacetylenes:1 contain:2 unit:2 conjugate:2 exhibit:1 semiconducting:1 structure:1 bonding:1 h:4 c:18 angle:2 virtue:1 rod:1 correspondingly:1 cyclic:1 rare:2 benzyne:1 highly:3 unstable:1 distance:2 picometer:1 much:2 short:1 pm:2 alkane:4 illustrative:3 depiction:1 propyne:3 b:1 naturally:3 occur:5 phenylhepta:2 heptatriyne:1 strained:1 cycloheptyne:1 strong:3 strength:2 kj:4 mol:4 sigma:3 contribute:2 first:1 pi:3 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ebersberg:1 richard:1 müller:1 bässler:1 hartmut:1 behringer:1 dieter:1 mayer:1 ullmann:1 encyclopedia:1 industrial:1 chemistry:3 wiley:1 vch:1 weinheim:1 article:1 online:1 post:1 date:1 october:1 specialty:1 dehydrohalogenation:1 vicinal:1 alkyl:4 dihalides:3 vinyl:4 halide:4 metal:5 acetylides:3 couple:2 primary:1 fritsch:1 buttenberg:1 wiechell:1 rearrangement:2 bromide:1 aldehyde:4 corey:1 fuchs:1 ketone:3 seyferth:1 gilbert:1 homologation:1 zipper:1 generate:2 treatment:2 base:3 functional:1 participate:2 many:1 organic:1 addition:5 halogen:2 related:4 reagent:3 undergo:5 doubly:1 meaning:1 capable:1 relate:1 hx:3 x:1 pseudohalide:1 etc:1 depend:2 catalyst:5 condition:1 hydrogenation:1 desirable:1 since:1 less:1 rc:8 cr:7 cis:1 rch:1 large:1 scale:1 application:2 technology:1 conversion:2 ethylene:1 refinery:1 steam:1 affords:1 percent:1 selectively:1 hydrogenate:1 presence:1 palladium:1 silver:2 complex:1 lindlar:2 widely:1 recommend:1 avoid:1 formation:2 phenylacetylene:2 styrene:1 similarly:1 halogenation:1 tetrahalide:1 nonpolar:1 across:1 general:2 silanes:1 boranes:2 hydride:1 hydroboration:1 vinylic:1 oxidize:1 corresponding:3 hydrohalogenation:1 number:1 water:1 except:1 initial:1 enol:1 intermediate:2 convert:2 hydration:2 acetophenone:1 catalyzed:1 nonadiyne:1 nonanedione:1 phc:1 cycloadditions:2 oxidation:1 diverse:1 cycloaddition:5 notable:1 diels:1 alder:1 dienes:1 cyclohexadienes:1 extensively:1 developed:1 electrophilic:1 especially:1 effective:1 dienophiles:1 cycloadduct:1 derive:1 pyrone:1 eliminate:1 dioxide:1 aromatic:2 specialized:1 multicomponent:1 trimerisation:1 monoxide:1 pauson:1 khand:1 non:1 cyclization:2 azide:1 huisgen:1 triazoles:1 process:1 often:1 catalyze:1 enyne:1 metathesis:2 allow:1 scrambling:1 carbyne:1 center:1 r:1 oxidative:1 cleavage:1 proceeds:1 oxide:1 famously:1 potassium:1 permanganate:1 pair:2 carboxylic:1 specific:1 characteristic:1 weak:1 pka:1 value:1 ammonia:1 ethanol:1 acetylide:3 stabilize:1 high:1 character:1 electron:2 resides:1 benefit:1 close:1 proximity:1 positively:1 charge:1 nucleus:1 therefore:1 low:1 energy:1 mx:2 libu:1 rmgx:1 certain:2 cation:1 ag:2 drop:1 diamminesilver:1 hydroxide:1 reacts:1 signal:1 white:1 precipitate:1 synthetically:1 nucleophiles:1 forming:1 illustrate:1 area:1 reppe:1 favorskii:1 carbonyl:1 hydroxyalkyne:1 coupling:3 di:1 effect:1 cadiot:1 chodkiewicz:1 glaser:1 eglinton:1 nature:2 medicine:1 relatively:1 triynes:1 linkage:1 plant:1 ichthyothere:1 chrysanthemum:1 asteraceae:1 bioactive:1 nematocides:1 j:1 lam:1 breteler:1 arnason:1 l:1 hansen:1 ed:1 biology:1 elsevier:1 amsterdam:1 isbn:1 triyne:2 pharmaceutical:1 contraceptive:1 norethynodrel:1 molecule:1 ene:4 diynes:2 ring:1 diyne:2 calicheamicin:1 aggressive:1 antitumor:1 drug:1 subunit:1 sometimes:1 warhead:1 bergman:1 radical:1 attack:1 dna:1 within:1 tumor:1 reference:1 see:1 yne:1 cycloalkyne:1 |@bigram carbon_atom:3 iupac_nomenclature:2 kj_mol:4 molecular_orbital:1 valence_bond:1 sp_sp:1 hydrogen_atom:2 terminal_alkyne:9 hans_jürgen:1 ullmann_encyclopedia:1 wiley_vch:1 vch_weinheim:1 alkyl_halide:1 aldehyde_ketone:2 rc_cr:4 ketone_aldehyde:1 diels_alder:1 alder_reaction:1 carbon_dioxide:1 aromatic_compound:2 carbon_monoxide:1 potassium_permanganate:1 carboxylic_acid:1 acid_pka:1 positively_charge:1 carbonyl_compound:1 elsevier_amsterdam:1 |
1,563 | Memory_leak | In computer science, a memory leak is a particular type of unintentional memory consumption by a computer program where the program fails to release memory when no longer needed. This condition is normally the result of a bug in a program that prevents it from freeing up memory that it no longer needs. Memory is allocated to a program, and that program subsequently loses the ability to access it due to program logic flaws. A memory leak has symptoms similar to a number of other problems (see below) and generally can only be diagnosed by a programmer with access to the program source code; however, many people refer to any unwanted increase in memory usage as a memory leak, even if this is not strictly accurate. Consequences A memory leak can diminish the performance of the computer by reducing the amount of available memory. Eventually, in the worst case, too much of the available memory may become allocated and all or part of the system or device stops working correctly, the application fails, or the system slows down unacceptably due to thrashing. Memory leaks may not be serious or even detectable by normal means. In modern operating systems, normal memory used by an application is released when the application terminates. This means that a memory leak in a program that only runs for a short time is rarely serious. Cases where leaks are much more serious include: where the program is left running, and consumes more and more memory over time (such as background tasks, on servers, but especially in embedded devices which may be left running for many years); where new memory is allocated frequently, such as when rendering the frames of a computer game or animated video where the program is able to request memory (e.g. shared memory) that is not released, even when the program terminates; where the leak is happening inside the operating system where the leak is happening in a system critical driver where memory is very limited e.g. in an embedded system or portable device where running on operating systems (such as AmigaOS) where memory may not be automatically released on termination, and if lost can only be reclaimed by a reboot A layman's example This example, written in pseudocode, is intended to show how a memory leak can come about, and its effects, without needing any programming knowledge. The program in this case is part of some very simple software designed to control a lift (elevator). This part of the program is run whenever anyone inside the lift presses the button for a floor. When a button is pressed: Get some memory, which will be used to remember the floor number Put the floor number into the memory Are we already on the target floor? If so, we have nothing to do: finished Otherwise: Wait until the lift is idle Go to the required floor Release the memory we used to remember the floor number The memory leak would occur if the floor's number pressed is the same floor that the lift is on; the condition for releasing the memory would be skipped. Each time this case occurs, more memory would be leaked. Cases like this wouldn't usually have any immediate effects. People do not often press the button for the floor they are already on, and in any case, the lift might have enough spare memory that this could happen a hundred or a thousand times. However, the lift will eventually run out of memory. This could take months or years, so it might never be discovered by even relatively thorough testing. The consequences in this case would be unpleasant; at the very least, the lift would stop responding to requests to move to another floor. If the program needs memory to open the lift door, then someone may also be trapped inside, since there is no memory available for that door to open. The memory leak would only last as long as the program was running. For example: if the lift's power were turned off the program would stop running. When power was turned on again, the program would restart and all the memory would be available again, and the slow process of leaking would start again. Programming issues Memory leaks are a common error in programming, especially when using languages that have no built-in automatic garbage collection, such as C and C++. Typically, a memory leak occurs because dynamically allocated memory has become unreachable. The prevalence of memory leak bugs has led to the development of a number of debugging tools to detect unreachable memory. IBM Rational Purify, BoundsChecker, Valgrind, Insure++ and memwatch are some of the more popular memory debuggers for C and C++ programs. Garbage collection capabilities can be added to any programming language that lacks it as a built-in feature, and libraries for doing this are available for C and C++ programs. Languages that provide automatic memory management, like Java, C#, VB.NET or LISP, are not immune to memory leaks. For example, a program could continue to add entries to a list, but then forget to remove them when done. The memory manager would not know if the entry will be referenced again, unless the program does something to indicate it is no longer needed. Normally, this is done by removing any reference to the item in question. This is similar to people placing items on a pile or in a drawer, and then forgetting about them. Although the memory manager can recover memory that has become unreachable and therefore logically useless, it cannot free memory that is still reachable and therefore potentially still useful. Modern memory managers therefore provide techniques for programmers to semantically mark memory with varying levels of usefulness, which correspond to varying levels of reachability. The memory manager does not free an object that is strongly reachable. An object is strongly reachable if it is reachable either directly by a strong reference or indirectly by a chain of strong references. (A strong reference is a reference that, unlike a weak reference, prevents an object from being garbage collected.) To prevent this type of memory leak, the developer is responsible for cleaning up references after use, typically by setting the reference to null once it is no longer needed and, if necessary, by unregistering any event listeners that maintain strong references to the object. In general, automatic memory management is more robust and convenient for developers, as they don't need to implement freeing routines or worry about the sequence in which cleanup is performed or be concerned about whether or not an object is still referenced. It is easier for a programmer to know when a reference is no longer needed than to know when an object is no longer referenced. However, automatic memory management can impose a performance overhead, and it does not eliminate all of the programming errors that cause memory leaks. RAII RAII, short for Resource Acquisition Is Initialization, is an approach to the problem commonly taken in C++, D, and Ada. It involves associating scoped objects with the acquired resources, and automatically releasing the resources once the objects are out of scope. Unlike garbage collection, RAII has the advantage of knowing when objects exists and when do not. Compare the following C and C++ examples: /* C version */ #include <stdlib.h> void f() { int *array = calloc(1024, sizeof(int)); /* Do some work with array here */ free(array); } // C++ version #include <vector> void f() { std::vector<int> array(1024); // Do some work with array here } The C version, as implemented in the example, requires explicit deallocation; the array is allocated from the heap, and continues to exist until explicitly freed. It should be noted, however, that this is only an example. C has the concept of automatic storage duration, and it would be perfectly possible, for example, to declare the array as a local array of integers, which would be deallocated automatically when leaving the function. The C++ version requires no explicit deallocation; it will always occur automatically as soon as the object array goes out of scope. This avoids the overhead of garbage collection schemes, and can even be applied to resources other than memory such as: file handles, which mark-and-sweep garbage collection does not handle as gracefully windows that have to be closed icons in the notification area that have to be hidden synchronisation primitives like monitors, critical sections, etc. which must be released to allow other threads to obtain them Windows registry handles that are open network connections Windows GDI objects etc. However, using RAII correctly is not as easy as garbage collection and it has its own pitfalls. For instance, in C++, if one is not careful, it is possible to create dangling pointers (or references) by returning data by reference, only to have that data be deleted when its containing object goes out of scope. D uses a combination of RAII and garbage collection, employing automatic destruction when it is clear that an object cannot be accessed outside its original scope, and garbage collection otherwise. Reference counting and cyclic references More modern garbage collection schemes are often based on a notion of reachability - if you don't have a usable reference to the memory in question, it can be collected. Other garbage collection schemes can be based on reference counting, where an object is responsible for keeping track of how many references are pointing to it. If the number goes down to zero, the object is expected to release itself and allow its memory to be reclaimed. The flaw with this model is that it doesn't cope with cyclic references, and this is why nowadays we are prepared to accept the burden of the more costly mark and sweep type of systems. The following code illustrates the canonical reference-counting memory leak. Dim A, B Set A = CreateObject("Some.Thing") Set B = CreateObject("Some.Thing") ' At this point, the two objects each have one reference, Set A.member = B Set B.member = A ' Now they each have two references. Set A = Nothing ' You could still get out of it... Set B = Nothing ' You now have a memory leak. In practice, this trivial example would be spotted straight away and fixed. In most real examples, the cycle of references spans more than two objects, and is more difficult to detect. A well-known example of this kind of leak came to prominence with the rise of AJAX programming techniques in web browsers. Javascript code which associated a DOM element with an event handler and failed to remove the reference before exiting, would leak memory. (AJAX web pages keep a given DOM alive for a lot longer than traditional web pages, so this leak was much more apparent.) Effects If a program has a memory leak and its memory usage is steadily increasing, there will not usually be an immediate symptom. Every physical system has a finite amount of memory, and if the memory leak is not contained (for example, by restarting the program with the leak) it will sooner or later start to cause problems. Most modern consumer desktop operating systems have both main memory which is physically housed in RAM microchips, and secondary storage such as a hard drive. Memory allocation is dynamic - each process gets as much memory as it requests. Active pages are transferred into main memory for fast access; inactive pages are pushed out to secondary storage to make room, as needed. When a single process starts consuming a large amount of memory, it usually occupies more and more of main memory, pushing other programs out to secondary storage - usually significantly slowing performance of the system. Even if the leaking program is terminated, it may take some time for other programs to swap back into main memory, and for performance to return to normal. When all the memory on a system is exhausted (whether there is virtual memory or only main memory, such as on an embedded system) any attempt to allocate more memory will fail. This usually causes the program attempting to allocate the memory to terminate itself, or to generate a segmentation fault. Some programs are designed to recover from this situation (possibly by falling back on pre-reserved memory). The first program to experience the out-of-memory may or may not be the program that has the memory leak. Some multi-tasking operating systems have special mechanisms to deal with an out-of-memory condition, such as killing processes at random (which may affect "innocent" processes), or killing the largest process in memory (which presuambly is the one causing the problem). Some operating systems have a per-process memory limit, to prevent any one program from hogging all of the memory on the system. The disadvantage to this arrangement is that the operating system sometimes must be re-configured to allow proper operation of programs that legitimately require large amounts of memory, such as those dealing with graphics, video, or scientific calculations. If the memory leak is in the kernel, the operating system itself will likely fail. Computers without sophisticated memory management, such as embedded systems, may also completely fail from a persistent memory leak. Publicly accessible systems such as web servers or routers are prone to denial-of-service attacks if an attacker discovers a sequence of operations which can trigger a leak. Such a sequence is known as an exploit. Other memory consumers Note that constantly increasing memory usage is not necessarily evidence of a memory leak. Some applications will store ever increasing amounts of information in memory (e.g. as a cache). If the cache can grow so large as to cause problems, this may be a programming or design error, but is not a memory leak as the information remains nominally in use. In other cases, programs may require an unreasonably large amount of memory because the programmer has assumed memory is always sufficient for a particular task; for example, a graphics file processor might start by reading the entire contents of an image file and storing it all into memory, something that is not viable where a very large image exceeds available memory. To put it another way, a memory leak arises from a particular kind of programming error, and without access to the program code, someone seeing symptoms can only guess that there might be a memory leak. It would be better to use terms such as "constantly increasing memory use" where no such inside knowledge exists. Simple C example The following C function deliberately leaks memory by losing the pointer to the allocated memory. Since the program loops forever calling the defective function, malloc() will eventually fail (returning NULL) when no more memory is available to the program. The address of each allocation is stored in a local variable that only exists inside the function; this address is lost when the function returns, so it is impossible to free any of the previously allocated blocks. #include <stdio.h> #include <stdlib.h> void f(void) { void* s; s = malloc(50); /* get memory */ return; /* memory leak - see note below */ /* * Memory was available and pointed to by s, but not saved. * After this function returns, the pointer is destroyed, * and the allocated memory becomes unreachable. * * To "fix" this code, either the f() function itself * needs to add "free(s)" somewhere or the s needs * to be returned from the f() and the caller of f() needs * to do the free(). */ } int main(void) { /* this is an infinite loop calling the above function */ while (1) f(); /* Malloc will return NULL sooner or later, due to lack of memory */ return 0; } See also Buffer overflow Memory management Memory debugger References External links Detecting a Memory Leak (Using MFC Debugging Support) Article "Memory Leak Detection in C++" by Cal Erickson Article "Memory Leak Detection in Embedded Systems" by Cal Erickson Why doesn't my application release the memory? (Java FAQ) Article "Fixing Memory Leaks in KDE" by Harri Porten Article "Finding and Fixing Memory Leaks on Mac OS X" | Memory_leak |@lemmatized computer:5 science:1 memory:113 leak:42 particular:3 type:3 unintentional:1 consumption:1 program:39 fail:7 release:10 longer:6 need:12 condition:3 normally:2 result:1 bug:2 prevent:4 free:9 allocate:7 subsequently:1 lose:4 ability:1 access:5 due:3 logic:1 flaw:2 symptom:3 similar:2 number:7 problem:5 see:4 generally:1 diagnose:1 programmer:4 source:1 code:5 however:5 many:3 people:3 refer:1 unwanted:1 increase:5 usage:3 even:6 strictly:1 accurate:1 consequence:2 diminish:1 performance:4 reduce:1 amount:6 available:8 eventually:3 bad:1 case:8 much:4 may:12 become:4 allocated:3 part:3 system:21 device:3 stop:3 work:3 correctly:2 application:5 slow:3 unacceptably:1 thrash:1 serious:3 detectable:1 normal:3 mean:2 modern:4 operate:4 use:11 terminate:4 run:6 short:2 time:5 rarely:1 include:5 leave:3 running:2 consume:2 background:1 task:3 server:2 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1,564 | IEEE_802 | IEEE 802 refers to a family of IEEE standards dealing with local area networks and metropolitan area networks. More specifically, the IEEE 802 standards are restricted to networks carrying variable-size packets. (By contrast, in cell-based networks data is transmitted in short, uniformly sized units called cells. Isochronous networks, where data is transmitted as a steady stream of octets, or groups of octets, at regular time intervals, are also out of the scope of this standard.) The number 802 was simply the next free number IEEE could assign, though “802” is sometimes associated with the date the first meeting was held — February 1980. The services and protocols specified in IEEE 802 map to the lower two layers (Data Link and Physical) of the seven-layer OSI networking reference model. In fact, IEEE 802 splits the OSI Data Link Layer into two sub-layers named Logical Link Control (LLC) and Media Access Control (MAC) , so that the layers can be listed like this: Data link layer LLC Sublayer MAC Sublayer Physical layer The IEEE 802 family of standards is maintained by the IEEE 802 LAN/MAN Standards Committee (LMSC). The most widely used standards are for the Ethernet family, Token Ring, Wireless LAN, Bridging and Virtual Bridged LANs. An individual Working Group provides the focus for each area. See its working groups: name description note IEEE 802.1 Bridging (networking) and Network Management IEEE 802.2 Logical link control inactive IEEE 802.3 Ethernet IEEE 802.4 Token bus disbanded IEEE 802.5 Defines the MAC layer for a Token Ring inactive IEEE 802.6 Metropolitan Area Networks disbanded IEEE 802.7 Broadband LAN using Coaxial Cable disbanded IEEE 802.8 Fiber Optic TAG disbanded IEEE 802.9 Integrated Services LAN disbanded IEEE 802.10 Interoperable LAN Security disbanded IEEE 802.11 a/b/g/n Wireless LAN & Mesh (Wi-Fi certification) IEEE 802.12 demand priority disbanded IEEE 802.13 Not used (officially) IEEE 802.14 Cable modems disbanded IEEE 802.15 Wireless PAN IEEE 802.15.1 Bluetooth certification IEEE 802.15.4 ZigBee certification IEEE 802.16 Broadband Wireless Access (WiMAX certification) IEEE 802.16e (Mobile) Broadband Wireless Access IEEE 802.16.1 Local Multipoint Distribution Service IEEE 802.17 Resilient packet ring IEEE 802.18 Radio Regulatory TAG IEEE 802.19 Coexistence TAG IEEE 802.20 Mobile Broadband Wireless Access IEEE 802.21 Media Independent Handoff IEEE 802.22 Wireless Regional Area Network IEEE 802.23 Broadband ISDN system experimentalh See also Computer network References IEEE Std 802-1990: IEEE Standards for Local and Metropolitan Networks: Overview and Architecture New York:1990 External links 802 Committee website IEEE 802 Standards | IEEE_802 |@lemmatized ieee:38 refers:1 family:3 standard:8 deal:1 local:3 area:5 network:12 metropolitan:3 specifically:1 restrict:1 carry:1 variable:1 size:2 packet:2 contrast:1 cell:2 base:1 data:5 transmit:2 short:1 uniformly:1 unit:1 call:1 isochronous:1 steady:1 stream:1 octet:2 group:3 regular:1 time:1 interval:1 also:2 scope:1 number:2 simply:1 next:1 free:1 could:1 assign:1 though:1 sometimes:1 associate:1 date:1 first:1 meeting:1 hold:1 february:1 service:3 protocol:1 specify:1 map:1 low:1 two:2 layer:8 link:6 physical:2 seven:1 osi:2 reference:2 model:1 fact:1 split:1 sub:1 name:2 logical:2 control:3 llc:2 medium:2 access:4 mac:3 list:1 like:1 sublayer:2 maintain:1 lan:7 man:1 committee:2 lmsc:1 widely:1 use:3 ethernet:2 token:3 ring:3 wireless:7 bridging:2 virtual:1 bridged:1 individual:1 working:1 provide:1 focus:1 see:2 work:1 description:1 note:1 management:1 inactive:2 bus:1 disband:8 define:1 broadband:5 coaxial:1 cable:2 fiber:1 optic:1 tag:3 integrated:1 interoperable:1 security:1 b:1 g:1 n:1 mesh:1 wi:1 fi:1 certification:4 demand:1 priority:1 officially:1 modem:1 pan:1 bluetooth:1 zigbee:1 wimax:1 mobile:2 multipoint:1 distribution:1 resilient:1 radio:1 regulatory:1 coexistence:1 independent:1 handoff:1 regional:1 isdn:1 system:1 experimentalh:1 computer:1 std:1 overview:1 architecture:1 new:1 york:1 external:1 website:1 |@bigram steady_stream:1 layer_osi:1 mac_sublayer:1 token_ring:2 wireless_lan:2 ieee_ethernet:1 disband_ieee:8 coaxial_cable:1 fiber_optic:1 wi_fi:1 cable_modem:1 broadband_wireless:3 ieee_std:1 std_ieee:1 external_link:1 |
1,565 | Andhra_Pradesh | Andhra Pradesh () (, translation: Province of Andhras), abbreviated A.P.,is a state situated on eastern coast of India. It is India's fourth largest state by area and fifth largest by population. Its capital and largest city is Hyderabad. The State has the longest coastline (972 km) among all the States in India. Andhra Pradesh lies between 12°41' and 22°N latitude and 77° and 84°40'E longitude, and is bordered by Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh and Orissa in the north, the Bay of Bengal in the East, Tamil Nadu to the south and Karnataka to the west. Andhra Pradesh is historically called the "Rice Bowl of India". It is currently the second largest producer of rice in India after West Bengal. http://www.irri.org/science/ricestat/data/may2008/WRS2008-Table07.pdf Two major rivers, the Godavari and the Krishna run across the state. The small enclave (12 sq mi (30 km²)) of the Yanam district of Pondicherry state lies in the Godavari Delta in north-east of the state. Historically the region comprising the state was known as Andhraapatha, Andhradesa, Andhraavani, and Andhra vishaya. A Study of Telugu Place-names By S. S. Ramachandra Murthy, P. 10 Andhra Pradesh was formed from Andhra State on 1 November 1956. Andhra Pradesh State Symbols State language Telugu (తెలుగు) State symbol Poorna Kumbham (పూర్ణకుంభం) State song Maa Telugu Thalliki (మా తెలుగు తల్లికి మల్లె పూదండ) by Sankarambadi Sundarachari State animal Black Buck, (కృష్ణ జింక) State bird Indian Roller, (పాల పిట్ట) State tree Neem (వేప) State sport Kabaddi (చెడుగుడు) State dance Kuchipudi (కూచిపూడి) State flower Water lily (కలువ పువ్వు) History An Andhra Kingdom was mentioned in the Sanskrit epics such as Aitareya Brahmana (B.C.800) and Mahabharata. The Natyasastra of Bharatha (1st Century B.C.E.) also mentioned the "Andhra" race. Antiquity of Andhra race: http://teluguuniversity.ac.in/Language/prachina_telugu_note.html The roots of the Telugu language have been traced to inscriptions found at Bhattiprolu. Antiquity of Telugu: http://www.hindu.com/2007/12/20/stories/2007122054820600.htm Megasthenese, who visited the Court of Chandragupta Maurya (B.C.322–297), mentioned that Andhra country had 30 fortified towns and an army of 1,000,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry and 1,000 elephants. Buddhist books reveal that Andhras established their kingdoms on the Godavari belt at that time. Asoka referred in his 13th rock edict that Andhras were his subordinates. http://www.aponline.gov.in/quick links/hist-cult/history.html Inscriptional evidence shows that there was an early kingdom in coastal Andhra ruled by Kuberaka, with Pratipalapura (Bhattiprolu) as his capital. This is probably the oldest known kingdom in India. Around the same time Dhanyakatakam/Dharanikota (present day Amaravati) appears to have been an important place, which was visited by Gautama Buddha. According to the ancient Tibetan scholar Taranatha: "On the full moon of the month Chaitra in the year following his enlightenment, at the great stupa of Dhanyakataka, the Buddha emanated the mandala of 'The Glorious Lunar Mansions' (Kalachakra)". Helmutt Hoffmann, "Buddha's Preaching of the Kalachakra Tantra at the Stupa of Dhanyakataka," in: German Scholars on India, Vol. I. PP. 136-140. (Varanasi, 1973) Taranatha; http://www.kalacakra.org/history/khistor2.htm Kakatiya sculpture at Warangal. The Mauryans extended their rule over Andhra in 4th century BCE. With the fall of the Mauryan Empire Andhra Satavahanas became independent in 3rd century BCE. After the decline of the Satavahanas in 220 CE, Ikshvaku dynasty, Pallavas, Vishnukundinas, Ananda Gotrikas and Cholas ruled the Telugu land. Inscriptional evidence of Telugu language was found during the rule of Renati Cholas (Kadapa region) in 5th century CE. Indian Epigraphy, R. Saloman, Oxford University Press, 1998, ISBN 0195099842, p. 106 During this period Telugu emerged as a popular medium undermining the predominance of Prakrit and Sanskrit. Epigraphica Indica, 27: 220-228 Telugu was made the official language by the Vishnukundina kings who ruled from their capital Vinukonda. Eastern Chalukyas ruled for a long period after the decline of Vishnukundinas from their capital in Vengi. As early as 1st century CE, Chalukyas were mentioned as being vassals and chieftains under the Satavahanas and later under Ikshvakus. The Chalukya ruler Rajaraja Narendra ruled Rajahmundry around 1022 CE. The battle of Palnadu resulted in the weakening of Eastern Chalukyan power and emergence of the Kakatiya dynasty in the 12th and the 13th centuries CE. The Kakatiyas were at first feudatories of the Rashtrakutas ruling over a small territory near Warangal. All the Telugu lands were united by the Kakatiyas. In 1323 CE, Delhi Sultan Ghiaz-ud-din Tughlaq sent a large army under Ulugh Khan to conquer the Telugu country and capture Warangal. King Prataparudra was taken prisoner. Musunuri Nayaks recaptured Warangal from the Delhi Sultanate in 1326 CE and ruled for fifty years. Inspired by their success, the Vijayanagar empire, one of the greatest empires in the history of Andhra Pradesh and India, was founded by Harihara and Bukka, who served as treasury officers of the Kakatiyas of Warangal. Robert Sewell, A Forgotten Empire (Vijayanagar): A contribution to the history of India, Chapter 2 (http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext02/fevch10.txt In 1347 CE, an independent Muslim state, the Bahmani kingdom, was established in south India by Alla-ud-din Hasan Gangu as a revolt against the Delhi Sultanate. The Qutb Shahi dynasty held sway over the Andhra country for about two hundred years from the early part of the 16th century to the end of the 17th century. Charminar in Hyderabad Mecca Masjid In Colonial India, Northern Circars became part of the British Madras Presidency. Eventually this region emerged as the Coastal Andhra region. Later the Nizam had ceded five territories to the British which eventually emerged as Rayalaseema region. The Nizams retained control of the interior provinces as the Princely state of Hyderabad, acknowledging British rule in return for local autonomy. Meanwhile, the French had occupied Yanam (Yanaon), in the Godavari Delta, and (save for periods of British control) would hold it until 1954. India became independent from the United Kingdom in 1947. The Muslim Nizam of Hyderabad wanted to retain his independence from India, but the people of the region launched the movement to join the Indian Union. The state of Hyderabad was forced to become part of the Republic of India in 1948 after Operation Polo which lasted 5 days and had popular support from the people of the Hyderabad State. In an effort to gain an independent state, and protect the interests of the Telugu people of Madras State, Amarajeevi Potti Sriramulu fasted until death. Public outcry and civil unrest after his death forced the government to announce the formation of a new state for Telugu speaking people. Andhra attained statehood on 1 October 1953, with Kurnool as its capital. On 1 November 1956, Andhra State merged with the Telangana region of Hyderabad State to form the state of Andhra Pradesh. Hyderabad, the former capital of the Hyderabad State, was made the capital of the new state Andhra Pradesh. Yanam was relinquished by the French in 1954, but one condition of the treaty was the retention of the district's separate and distinct identity, which also applied to the other South Indian enclaves constituting today's puducherry state. Geography and Climate Divisions Andhra Pradesh districts map Andhra Pradesh can be divided into three regions, namely Coastal Andhra, Rayalaseema and Telangana. AP Cabinet approves four regional planning boards. Andhra Pradesh has 23 districts: Adilabad, Anantapur, Chittoor, Kadapa, East Godavari, Guntur, Hyderabad, Karimnagar, Khammam, Krishna, Kurnool, Mahbubnagar, Medak, Nalgonda, Sri Potti Sreeramulu Nellore, Nizamabad, Prakasam, Rangareddy, Srikakulam, Visakhapatnam, Vizianagaram, Warangal and West Godavari. Each district is divided into multiple mandals and each mandal is a group of a few Villages. Hyderabad is the capital and, along with the adjoining twin city Secunderabad, is the largest city in the state. Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh's main seaport, is the second largest city of the state and is home to the Indian Navy's Eastern Naval Command. Vijayawada due to its location and proximity to major rail and road routes is a major trading center and the third largest city of the state. Other important cities and towns are: Warangal, Guntur , Tirupati, Kakinada, Rajahmundry, Nellore, Ongole, Kurnool, Anantapur, Karimnagar, Nizamabad,Tadepalligudem, Mahaboobnagar, Nijamabad and Eluru. Demographics Telugu Other languages Total Hindu 85% 1% 86% Muslim 1% 10% 11% Christian 1% 1% 2% Other religions 0.5% 0.5% 1% Total 87.5% 12.5% 100% mainly Hindi mainly Urdu mainly Tamil Telugu is the official language of the state, spoken by 86.75% of the population. Telugu is the third most spoken language in India. The major linguistic minority groups in the state include the speakers of Urdu (8.63%) and Hindi (3.23%) and Tamil (1.01%). The Indian government designated Telugu as a classical and ancient language on November 1, 2008. Other languages spoken in Andhra Pradesh by less than 1% each are Kannada (0.94%), Marathi (0.84%), Oriya (0.42%), Gondi (0.21%) and Malayalam (0.1%). Languages spoken by less than 0.1% are the states residents include Gujarati (0.09%), Savara (0.09%), Koya (0.08%), Jatapu (0.04%), Punjabi (0.04%), Kolami (0.03%), Konda (0.03%), Gadaba (0.02%), Sindhi (0.02%), Gorkhali/Nepali (0.01%) and Khond/Kondh (0.01%). The main ethnic group of Andhra Pradesh is the Telugu people who primarily belong to the Dravidian peoples. Economy Agriculture has been the chief source of income for the state's economy. Four important rivers of India, the Godavari , Krishna ,Penna and Thungabhadra flow through the state, providing irrigation. Rice, sugarcane, cotton, mirchi (chilli pepper), mango and tobacco are the local crops. Recently, crops used for vegetable oil production such as sunflower and peanuts have gained favour. There are many multi-state irrigation projects in development, including Godavari River Basin Irrigation Projects and Nagarjuna Sagar Dam, the world's highest masonry dam. Cyber towers at Hyderabad, the state capital and largest city in the state. The state has also started to focus on the fields of information technology and biotechnology. In 2004–2005, Andhra Pradesh was at the fifth position in the list of top IT exporting states of India. The IT exports from the State were Rs.82,700 million in 2004-2005($ 1,800 million) http://finance.indiainfo.com/news/2005/05/11/1105it-exports.html . The IT sector is expanding at a rate of 52.3% every year. The IT exports reached Rs.190,000 million ($4.5 billion) in 2006–2007, contributed to 14 per cent of total IT exports of the nation and ranked fourth in India http://www.pppinindia.com/business-opportunities-andhra-pradesh.asp . The service sector of the state already accounts for 43% of the gross state domestic product (GSDP) and employs 20% of the work force. The state capital, Hyderabad is considered to be bulk drug capital of the country. 50% of the top 10 companies in Pharmaceutical field are from the state. The state also commands a very prominent place in the infrastructure space, with many companies from the state being up there at the fore-front. Andhra Pradesh is a mineral rich state, ranking second in India in terms of mineral wealth. The state has about one third of India's limestone reserves, estimated at about 30 billion tonnes.The Krishna-godavari basin has huge reserves of natural gas and petroleum reserves. The state is also blessed with huge amount of coal reserves. The state ranks first nationwide in hydro electricity generation with national market share of over 11%. Andhra Pradesh's GSDP for 2005 was estimated at $62 billion in current prices. This is a chart of trend of GSDP of Andhra Pradesh at market prices estimated by Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation with figures in millions of Indian Rupees. Accordingly, the state ranks fourth in terms of overall GSDP http://mospi.nic.in/6_gsdp_cur_9394ser.htm and fourth in per capita GSDP among the major states of India. According to another metric, the state ranks third in terms of Gross State Product among all the states of the Indian Union. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_between_Indian_states_and_countries_by_GDP_(PPP) Year State GDP (Rs. MM) 1980 81,910 1985 152,660 1990 333,360 1995 798,540 2000 1,401,190 2007 2,294,610 Government and politics The Andhra Pradesh State Legislative Assembly at the centre of Hyderabad City. Andhra Pradesh has a Legislative Assembly of 294 seats. The state has 60 members in the Parliament of India; 18 in the Rajya Sabha, the Upper House and 42 in the Lok Sabha, the Lower House. Andhra Pradesh had a series of governments headed by Indian National Congress (INC) Party until 1982. Kasu Brahmananda Reddy held the record for the longest serving chief minister which was broken by N.T. Rama Rao in 1983. P.V. Narasimha Rao also served as the chief minister of the state, who later went on to become the Prime Minister of India in 1991. Among the notable chief ministers of the state are Tanguturi Prakasam, Chief Minister (CM) of Andhra State (the first CM of the present Andhra Pradesh was Neelam Sanjiva Reddy) others include Kasu Brahmananda Reddy, Marri Chenna Reddy, Jalagam Vengal Rao, Nedurumalli Janardhana Reddy, Nadendla Bhaskara Rao, Kotla Vijaya Bhaskara Reddy, N.T. Rama Rao, Nara Chandrababu Naidu and Y.S. Rajasekhara Reddy. High Court at Hyderabad, the main judicial body for the State. In 1983 the Telugu Desam Party (TDP) won the State elections and N.T. Rama Rao (NTR) became the chief minister of the state for the first time introducing a formidable second political party to Andhra Pradesh's politics and thus breaking the single party monopoly on Andhra Pradesh's politics. After a few months, Nadendla Bhaskar Rao usurped power when NTR was away in the United States for medical treatment. After coming back, NTR successfully convinced the then State Governor to dissolve the Assembly and call for a fresh election. TDP won the elections with a large majority. In 1989 group elections ended the 7-year rule of NTR with INC party returning to power with Dr. Marri Chenna Reddy at the helm of affairs. He was replaced by N. Janardhan Reddy who was in turn replaced by Kotla Vijaya Bhasker Reddy. In 1994, Andhra Pradesh gave a mandate to TDP again and saw NTR becoming the chief minister again. Chandrababu Naidu who was the Son In Law of NTR took power by political maneuvering. TDP won election in 1999 before he was defeated by the INC-led coalition spearheaded by YS Rajasekhara Reddy in the May 2004 polls. In 2008 Praja Rajyam Party (PRP) was formed by movie star Chiranjeevi and led to a triangular fight in the 2009 elctions. Inspite of the immense media hype and expections, it was unable to be a game changer and managed to win only 18 seats. The silver lining is that it managed to win 17 percent of the total votes as against the 36 percent by congress and 25 percent by Telugu Desam. YS Rajasekhara Reddy became the CM again by fending off Praja Rajyam Party and mega alliance of TDP, TRS, CPI and CPM. YSR Reddy became the first CM in AP history to complete 5 full years as CM in one term. Culture Cultural institutions Andhra Pradesh has many museums, including the Archaeological Museum at Amaravati near Guntur City that features relics of nearby ancient sites, the Salar Jung Museum in Hyderabad, which features a varied collection of sculptures, paintings, and religious artifacts and the Visakha Museum in Visakhapatnam, which displays the history of the pre-Independence Madras Presidency in a rehabilitated Dutch bungalow. Victoria Jubilee Museum in Vijayawada has a good collection of ancient sculptures, paintings, idols, weapons, cutlery and inscriptions. Victoria Jubilee Museum: http://www.indiatourism.com/andhra-pradesh-museums/victoria-jubilee-museum.html . The other important museum at Nagarjunakonda, a unique Island museum, situated in the midst of the man-made Nagarjunasagar lake. Constructed In the shape of a Buddhist Vihara, the museum houses a stupendous collection of relics of Buddhist art and culture. Famous relics include a small tooth and an ear-ring believed to be of the Buddha. The main stupa of Nagarjunakonda called Mahachaitya is believed to contain the sacred relics of lhe Buddha. A partly ruined monolithic statue of the Buddha, that's at once a striking-image of peace and poise, is the main attraction at the museum. The relics of Buddhist civilisation dating back to the 3rd Century A.D were excavated here. The excavated remains of the Buddhist civilization have been reconstructed and are carefully preserved. Cuisine Hyderabadi biryani served with other Indian dishes. The cuisine of Andhra Pradesh is reputedly one of the spiciest of all Indian cuisine. There are many variations to the Andhra cuisine depending on geographical regions, caste, traditions etc. Pickles and chutneys, called pachchadi in Telugu are particularly popular in Andhra Pradesh and many varieties of pickles and chutneys are unique to the State. Chutneys are made from practically every vegetable including tomatoes, brinjals (eggplant), and roselle (Gongura). The mango pickle Aavakaaya is probably the best known of the Andhra pickles. Rice is the staple food and is used in a wide variety of ways. Typically, rice is either boiled and eaten with curry, or made into a batter for use in a crepe-like dish called attu (pesarattu - made of a mixture of this batter and mung beans) or dosas. Meat, vegetables and greens are prepared with different spices (masala) into a variety of strongly flavoured dishes. Hyderabadi cuisine is influenced by the Muslims who arrived in Telangana in the 14th century. Much of the cuisine revolves around meat. It is rich and aromatic, with a liberal use of exotic spices and ghee (clarified butter). Lamb, chicken and fish are the most widely used meats in the non-vegetarian dishes. The biryani is perhaps the most distinctive and popular of Hyderabadi dishes. Dance Kuchipudi, the traditional dance of Andhra Pradesh. Jayapa Senani (Jayapa Nayudu) is the first person who wrote about the dances prevalent in Andhra Pradesh. Ntitya Ratnavali (http://www.telugupeople.com/discussion/article.asp?id=111 Both Desi and Margi forms of dances have been included in his Sanskrit treatise 'Nritya Ratnavali'. It contains eight chapters. Folk dance forms like Perani, Prenkhana, Suddha Nartana, Carcari, Rasaka, Danda Rasaka, Shiva Priya, Kanduka Nartana, Bhandika Nrityam, Carana Nrityam, Chindu, Gondali and Kolatam are described. In the first chapter the author deals with discussion of the differences between Marga and Desi, Tandava and lasya, Natya and Nritta. In the 2nd and 3rd chapters he deals with Angi-kabhinaya, Caris, Sthanakas and Mandalas. In the 4th Chapter Karnas, angaharas and recakas are described. In following chapters he described the local dance forms i.e. desi nritya. In the last chapter he deals with art and practice of dance. Classical dance in Andhra can be performed by both men and women; however women tend to learn it more often. Kuchipudi is the state's best-known classical dance form. The various dance forms that existed through the state's history are Chenchu Bhagotham, Kuchipudi, Bhamakalapam, Burrakatha, Veeranatyam, Butta bommalu, Dappu, Tappeta Gullu, Lambadi, Bonalu, Dhimsa, Kolattam and chindu . Festivals Sankranthi in January. Maha Shivaratri in February/March. Holi in March. Ugadi or the Telugu New Year in March/April. Sri Rama Navami celebrated in March/April, 9 days after Ugadi. Varalakshmi Vratham in August. Vinayaka Chavithi in August Dasara in September/October. Atla Tadde 3rd day in bright half of Aswiyuja month (falls in September/October in Gregorian calendar) Deepavali in October/November 20days after Dasara. Eid ul-Fitr, Bakr-Id, Muharram. Bonalu in Sravanam. (Celebrated in Telangana region). Bathukamma celebrated for 9 days during Durgastami called as Nava ratri-Dasara in Telangana region. Nowruz Christmas Literature Nannayya, Tikkana, and Yerrapragada form the trinity who translated the great Sanskrit epic Mahabharatha into Telugu. Bommera Potana is another poet who composed the classic SriMad Andhra Maha Bhagavatamu, a Telugu translation of Sri Bhagavatham authored by Veda Vyasa in Sanskrit. Nannayya is called Adikavi and was patronized by the king Rajarajanarendra who ruled from Rajamahendravaram (Rajahmundry). The Vijayanagara emperor Krishna Deva Raya wrote Amuktamalyada. Telugu poet Vemana, a native of Kadapa, is also notable for his philosophical poems. Telugu literature after Kandukuri Veeresalingam is termed modern literature. Known as Gadya Tikkana, Satyavathi Charitam was the author Telugu-language social novel, Satyavathi Charitam. Other modern writers include Jnanpith Award winners Sri Viswanatha Satya Narayana and Dr. C. Narayana Reddy. The Andhra Pradesh native and revolutionary poet Sri Sri brought new forms of expressionism into Telugu literature. Sample Poetry of Yogi Vemana: Uppu Kappurambu nokka polika nundu Chooda chooda ruchulu jaada veru Purushulandu Punya purushulu veraya Viswadhaabhiraama, Vinura Vema' Salt and camphor look similar, but closer observation shows their taste is different Among men, virtuous people stand apart Beloved of the Bounteous, Vema, listen! Gangi govu paalu garitadainanu chaalu Kadivedainanemi kharamu paalu Bhakti kalugu koodu pattedainanu chaalu Viswadhaabhiraama, Vinura Vema' A ladleful of a Sacred cow's milk is enough Of what worth is even a potful of donkey's milk Even a little food given with respect is sumptuous Beloved of the Bounteous, Vema, listen! Shri Puttaparthi Narayanacharyulu is also one of the most famous scholar poets of Telugu literature. He was a contemporary of Shri Vishwanatha Satyanarayana. Shri Puttaparthy Narayanacharyulu wrote the famous books Sivatandavam and Panduranga Mahatyam as dwipadakavyam. Other notable writers from Andhra Pradesh include Srirangam Sreenivasarao, Gurram Jashuva, Chinnaya Suri, and Viswanatha Satyanarayana. Movies Andhra Pradesh is the state with the most cinema halls in India, at around 2700. The state also produces about 200 movies a year. It has around 40%, 330 cinema halls out of 930 DTS cinema halls in India of all the Dolby digital theatres in India. Now it also houses an IMax theatre with a big 3D screen and also 3-5 multiplexes. Tollywood produces the largest number of movies in india. Music The state has a rich musical heritage. Many legends of the Carnatic music including Trinity of Carnatic music - Thyagaraja, Annamacharya, Kshetrayya, and Bhadrachala Ramadasu were of Telugu descent. Great Mandolin player, Mandolin Srinivas is also from Andhra Pradesh. Folk songs are also popular in the rural areas of the state. A great Carnatic singer, who invented some more Ragas in Carnatic Music, the great Sri Mangalampalli Balamuralikrishna is of Telugu descent. Religion Andhra Pradesh is home to Hindu saints of all castes. An important backward-caste figure is, Sant Yogi Sri Potuluri Veera Brahmendra Swami was born in Vishwabrahmin (Gold Smith) caste who had Brahmin, Harijan and Muslim disciples. Fisherman Raghu was also a Sudra. Sant Kakkayya was a chura (cobbler) Harijan saint. Several important Hindu modern-day saints are from Andhra Pradesh. These include Nimbarka who founded Dvaitadvaita, Mother Meera who advocated Indian independence, and Aurobindo Mission Bala Sai Baba who advocates religious unity in worship, Satya Sai Baba who does the same, and Swami Sundara Chaitanyanandaji. Satya Sai Baba is from a Kshatriya family and was born on 23 November 1926 in Puttaparthi. He is believed by some to be the avatar of Shirdi Sai Baba. The Sathya Sai Organization has many branches worldwide. Pilgrimages and Religious Sites Tirumala Venkateswara Temple, a very important pilgrimage site located in Tirupati. Tirupati or Tirumala is a very important pilgrimage for Hindus throughout India. It is the richest piligrimage city (of any religious faith) in the world. Its main temple is dedicated to the god Venkateswara. Tirpuathi is located in Chittoor district. Satyanarayana swamy temple famous in Annavaram in East Godavari district. Simhachalam is another very popular pilgrmage of national importance. Simhachalam is said in mythology to be the abode of the savior-god Narasimha, who rescued Prahlada from abusive father Hiranyakasipu. Kanaka Durga Temple is one of the famous in Andhra Pradesh which is situated in Vijayawada city. Sri Kalahasti is one of the important ancient siva temples and is located on the banks of river Swarnamukhi in Chittoor district. Shown here is a famous Hindu Temple - Birla Mandir. Simhachalam is a hill shrine 16 km away from Visakhapatnam on the other side of the Hill on the north of the city. One of the most exquisitely sculpted shrines of Andhra Pradesh, Simhachalam temple is situated 16 km from Vizag among thickly wooded hills. The beautifully-carved 16-pillared Natya mantapa and the 96-pillared Kalyana mantapa bear testimony to the architectural brilliance of the temple. The image of the presiding deity, Sri Lakshminarasimha Swamy, is covered by a thick layer of sandalwood paste. This is one of the oldest temple in India dedicated to Narasimha, one of the incarnations of Vishnu, built in 11th century by Kullotunga, a Chola king. One Vijaya stamba is erected by Sri Krishna Deva Raya emerged victorious over the Gajapati kings of Orissa. One will find ancient telugu inscriptions in this temple. This temple is one of the most famous temples in India. Its architecture is Dravida (South Indian). There is a popular belief that this lord is protecting Vizag from natural disasters like floods, cyclones, earthquakes and tsunamis. Not even a single death occurred due to natural calamities to this date. Couples just before marriage go to this temple as a ritual. This temple is one of the most crowded temples of Andhra Pradesh. Statue of Buddha on the Hussain Sagar Lake. Srisailam is another major temple in Andhra Pradesh of national importance. It is dedicated to Lord Shiva. It is one of the locations of the various Jyothirlingams. The Skanda Purana has a chapter called "Srisaila Kandam" dedicated to it, which points to the ancient origin. This is confirmed also by the fact that Tamil saints of the past millennia have sung praises of this temple. It is said that Adi Sankara visited this temple and at that time he composed his "Sivananda Lahiri". Shiva's sacred bull Vrishabha is said to have performed penance at the Mahakali temple till Shiva and Parvati appeared before him as Mallikarjuna and Brahmaramba. The temple is one of the 12 hallowed jyotirlingas; Lord Rama himself installed the Sahasralinga, while the Pandavas lodged the Panchapandava lingas in the temple courtyard. Srisailam is located in Kurnool district. Mandapam at Simhachalam Temple. Bhadrachalam is known for the Sri Rama temple and the Godavari river. This is the place where the famous Bhakta Ramadasu (originally - Kancherla Gopanna) wrote his devotional songs dedicated to lord Rama. It was believed that lord Rama spent some years on the banks of river Godavari here in tretayug. Bhadra (a mounatin ), after a severe penance asked Rama to have a permanent residence on him. Lord Rama along with his wife Sita and brother Lakshmana settled on Bhadragiri. Bhadrachalam is located in Khammam district. Gopanna constructed the temple for Rama by raising funds from the people during the reign of Tanisha in 17 th century. He started celebrating the marriage of lord Rama and Sita. From then Sri Rama Navami is celebrated every year. Government of Andhra Pradesh sends pearls for the event at Bhadrachalam every year. Basar - Saraswathi temple is another famous place for Saraswathi — goddess of education. Basara is located in Adilabad district. Yaaganti Caves is also an important pilgrim center in Andhra Pradesh. Apart from that Mahanandi, Kurnool Dt is another piligrim center which is full of greenary. The famous Hindu Birla Mandir and Ramappa Temple, Muslim Mecca Masjid and Charminar as well as the statue of Buddha on the Hussain Sagar Lake are wonderful religious monuments in Andhra Pradesh. Ramappa Temple Kanakadurga temple is a famous temple in Andhra Pradesh, India. It is located on the Indrakeeladri hill in the city of Vijayawada on the banks of Krishna River. According to a legend, the now verdant Vijayawada was once a rocky region strewn with hillocks that were obstructing the flow of River Krishna. The land was thus rendered unfit for habitation or cultivation. Invocation to Lord Siva led to His directing the hills to give way to river Krishna. And lo! the river started flowing unimpeded with all its might, through the tunnels or "Bejjam" bored into the hills by Lord Siva. That is how the place got its name Bezawada. One of the many mythologies associated with this place is that Arjuna prayed to Lord Siva on top of Indrakeela hill to win His blessings and the city derived its name "Vijayawada" after this victory. Yet another popular legend is about the triumph of goddess Kanakadurga over the demon king Mahishasura. It is said that once upon a time, the growing menace of demons became unendurable for the natives living in this region. Sage Indrakila performed severe penance and when the goddess appeared, the sage begged Her to reside on his head and keep vigil on the wicked demons. As per his wishes, after killing the demons, goddess Durga made Indrakila Her permanent abode. Later, She slayed the demon king Mahishasura, freeing the people of Vijayawada from the evil clutches of the demon. Special pujas are performed during Dasara also called Navaratri. The most significant are Saraswati puja and Theppotsavam. The festival of Dasara for Goddess Durga is celebrated here every year. A large number of pilgrims attend the colourful celebrations and take a holy dip in the Krishna river. Other cultural elements Bapu's paintings, Nanduri Subbarao's Yenki Paatalu (Songs on/by a washerwoman called Yenki), mischievous Budugu (a character by Mullapudi), Annamayya's songs, Aavakaaya (a variant of mango pickle in which the kernel of mango is retained), Gongura (a chutney from Roselle plant), Atla Taddi (a seasonal festival predominantly for teenage girls), banks of river Godavari, Dudu basavanna (The ceremonial ox decorated for door-to-door exhibition during the harvest festival Sankranti) have long defined Telugu culture. The village of Durgi is known for stone craft, carvings of idols in soft stone that must be exhibited in the shade because they are prone to weathering. 'Kalankari' is an ancient art form dating back to the Harappan civilization. Andhra is also famous for doll making. Dolls are made from wood, mud, dry grass, and light weight metal alloys. Tirupathi is famous for redwood carvings. Kondapalli is famous for mud toys with rich colors.eetikoppaka located in vizag is famous for toys. Nirmal paintings are expressive and are usually painted over a black background. Story telling in Andhra is an art form by itself. 'Yaksha ganam', 'Burra katha' (usually done by three people, telling stories using three different musical instruments), 'Jangama kathalu', 'Hari kathalu', 'Chekka bajana', 'Urumula natyam' (usually done in festivals, where a group of people dance in circles for loud music), 'Ghata natyam' (performances done with earthen pots over one's head) are all folk dances unique to Andhrapradesh palumamba festival in Visaka famous. Education Indian School of Business Andhra Pradesh is served by more than 20 institutes of higher education. All major arts, humanities, science, engineering, law, medicine, business and veterinary science are offered, leading to first degrees as well as postgraduate awards. Advanced research is conducted in all major areas. Andhra Pradesh has 1330 arts, science and commerce colleges; 1000 MBA and MCA colleges; 500 engineering colleges; and 53 medical colleges. The student to teacher ratio is 19:1 in higher education. According to the 2001 census, Andhra Pradesh has an overall literacy rate of 60.5%. While the male literacy rate is at 70.3%, the female literacy rate is only at 50.4%, a cause for concern. The state has recently made strides in setting up several institutes. Andhra Pradesh is home to the prestigious Birla Institute of Technology and Science, (BITS Pilani Hyderabad Campus) and IIT Hyderabad. International Institute of Information Technology, Hyderabad (IIIT-H), University of Hyderabad(Hyderabad Central University) and the Indian School of Business (ISB) are gaining national attention for their standards. The National Institute of Fashion Technology and The Institute of Hotel Management, Catering Technology and Applied Nutrition (NIFT) are also located in Hyderabad. The Government of Andhra Pradesh has the distinction of establishing the first University of Health Sciences fulfilling the recommendations of several committees.Thus the “Andhra Pradesh University of Health Sciences” was established by the Act.No. 6 of the Andhra Pradesh legislature and was inaugurated on 9-4-1986 by the late Sri N.T. Rama Rao, the then Chief Minister of Andhra Pradesh.The University of Health Sciences started functioning at Vijayawada from 01-11-1986. After the death of its founder Sri N.T. Rama Rao the University was named after him as NTR University of Health Sciences, Andhra Pradesh with effect from 2.2.98 vide Act No.4 of 1998. Newspapers Andhra Pradesh has several newspapers. Some of them are: Telugu Newspapers - Eenadu, Andhra Jyothi, Sakshi, Prajasakti, Vaartha, Andhra Bhoomi, Visalandra, Suryaa,Lawyer and Andhra Prabha. Urdu Newspapers - Siasat Daily, Munsif Daily, Rehnuma-e-Deccan, Itimad Urdu Daily, Awam and The Milap Daily. English Newspapers - Deccan Chronicle, The Hindu, The Times of India, The New Indian Express, The Economic Times, The Business Line. Tourism Second Largest Temple in Andhra Pradesh Kanaka Durga temple Araku valley Borra caves (stalagmites and stalactites) Belum Caves Andhra Pradesh is promoted by tourism department as "Kohinoor of India." Andhra Pradesh is the home of many religious pilgrim centres. Tirupati, the abode of Lord Venkateswara, is most visited religious center (of any faith) in the world. Srisailam, nestled in the Nallamala Hills is the abode of Sri Mallikarjuna and is one of twelve Jyothirlingalu in India. Amaravati's Siva temple is one of the Pancharamams, as is Yadagirigutta, the abode of an avatara of Vishnu, Sri Lakshmi Narasimha. The Ramappa temple and Thousand Pillars temple in Warangal are famous for their temple carvings. The state has numerous Buddhist centres at Amaravati, Nagarjuna Konda, Bhattiprolu, Ghantasala, Nelakondapalli, Dhulikatta, Bavikonda, Thotlakonda, Shalihundam, Pavuralakonda, Sankaram, Phanigiri and Kolanpaka. The Badami Chalukyas (Badami is in Karnataka) in 6th century built the Alampur Bhrama temples , an excellent examples of Chalukya art and sculpture. The Vijayanagar Empire built number of monuments, the Srisailam temple and Lepakshi temples. The golden beaches at Visakhapatnam, the one-million-year old limestone caves at Borra, picturesque Araku Valley, hill resorts of Horsley Hills, river Godavari racing through a narrow gorge at Papi Kondalu, waterfalls at Ettipotala, Kuntala and rich bio-diversity at Talakona, are some of the natural attractions of the state. Kailashagiri is near the sea in Visakhapatnam. A park is on the hill top of Kailashagiri. Visakhapatnam is home to many tourist attactions like INS Karasura Submarine museum (The only one of its kind in India), the longest Beach Road in India, Yarada Beach, Araku Valley, VUDA Park, and Indira Gandhi Zoological Gardens. Borra caves Rishikonda beach The Borra Caves are located in the Anatagiri Hills of Eastern Ghats, near Vishakapatnam, Andhra Pradesh State in India. They are at a height of about 800 to 1300 metres above Mean Sea Level and are famous for million-year-old stalactite and stalagmite formations. They were discovered by William King George, the British geologist in the year 1807. The caves get their name from a formation inside the caves that looks like the human brain, which in the local language, Telugu, is known as borra. Similarly, the Belum caves were formed due to erosion in limestone deposits in the area by Chitravati River, millions of years ago. These limestone caves was formed due to action of carbonic acid — or weakly acidic groundwater formed due to reaction between limestone and water. The Belum Caves are the second largest cave system in the Indian sub-continent. The Belum Caves derives their name from Bilum, the Sanskrit word for caves. In Telugu, the caves are known as Belum Guhalu. The Belum Caves have a length of 3229 meters, making them the second largest natural caves on the Indian subcontinent. The Belum Caves have long passages, spacious chambers, fresh water galleries and siphons. The caves' deepest point is from the entrance and is known as at Patalganaga. Horsley Hills Horsley Hills, elevation 1,265 m, is a famous summer hill resort in Andhra Pradesh, about 160 km from Bangalore, India and 144 km from Tirupati. The town of Madanapalle lies nearby. Major tourist attractions include the Mallamma temple and the Rishi valley school. Horsely Hills is the departure point for the Koundinya Wildlife Sanctuary at a distance of 87 km. • Mahendragiri hills : The 4920(1500m) feet high Mahendragiri hills, situated in the middle of Eastern Ghats in the Paralakhemundi sub-division of Gajapati district is 175 km from Berhampur. Though the major part of this hill range now comes under Andhra Pradesh, the 4,943 feet high peak Mahendragiri is actually located within the district of Gajapati, 51 km. to the south-west of Brahmapur. The place is 26 km. from the sea and lies exposed to the sea-breeze. The river Mahendratanaya flows down the mountain in the east through Mandasa and joins the Bay of Bengal at Barua which was once an important ancient port . Mahendragiri is foremost of the seven Kulagiris or principal mountains of India. The reference of Mahendra mountain in the ancient literature, accounts and epigraphy is wide-ranging and vivid. It finds mention in the works of poets Kalidas, Sarala Das and Radhanath Ray. Archaeological remains at Mahendragiri make an interesting study for the scholars. Sivaratri is the main festival here which draws a large crowd. This testifies the fact that it was once a centre of Saivite culture. The place is visited by about 1,600 tourists annually. Charminar, Golconda Fort, Chandragiri Fort, Chowmahalla Palace and Falaknuma Palace are some of the monuments in the state. Kanaka Durga Temple in Vijayawada in Krishna District,Venkateswara Temple in Dwarakatirumala, West Godavari District (It is also called as Chinna Tirupathi), Surya temple in Arasavelli in Srikakulam District and also so many places to watch in Andhra Pradesh. Annavaram satayannarayana swami temple in East Godavari Transport Major road links of Andhra Pradesh Visakhapatnam seaport A total of 1,46,944 km of road are maintained by the State, of which State Highways comprise 42,511 km, National Highways 2,949 km and District Roads 1,01,484 km. The Growth rate of Vehicles in Andhra Pradesh is highest in the country with 16%. Andhra Pradesh State Road Transport Corporation (APSRTC) is the major public transport corporation owned by the government of Andhra Pradesh connecting all the cities and villages. APSRTC also has the distinction of being in the Guinness book of World records for having the largest fleet of vehicles, and the longest area covered/commuted daily. Apart from these, thousands of private operators run buses connecting major cities and towns of the state. Private vehicles like cars, motorised scooters and bicycles occupy a major share of the local transport in the cities and adjoining villages. There are five airports in the state: Hyderabad (Rajiv Gandhi International) (the largest in the state), Visakhapatnam, Vijayawada, Rajahmundry and Tirupati. The government also have plans to start airports in six other cities: Sri Potti Sreeramulu Nellore, Warangal, Kadapa, Tadepalligudem, Ramagundam and Ongole. Andhra Pradesh has two major ports of India at Visakhapatnam and Kakinada and three minor ports, Machilipatnam, Nizampatnam(Guntur) and Krishnapatnam. One more private port is being developed at Gangavaram, in Visakhapatnam. This deep sea port can accommodate ocean liners up to 200,000-250,000 DWT, allowing big ocean liners to enter into Indian shores. See also List of people from Andhra Pradesh History of India Middle kingdoms of India Andhra state Rivalry and Tribute: Society and Ritual in a Telugu village in South India by Bruce Elliot Tapper Yanam Guntur division Notes External links Andhra Pradesh Government Official Portal Kanaka Durga Temple Official Portal Second Largest temple in Andhra Pradesh Kanaka Durga Temple Official Portal | Andhra_Pradesh |@lemmatized andhra:96 pradesh:71 translation:2 province:2 andhras:3 abbreviate:1 p:4 state:91 situate:5 eastern:6 coast:1 india:43 fourth:4 large:19 area:5 fifth:2 population:2 capital:11 city:18 hyderabad:23 long:7 coastline:1 km:13 among:6 lie:4 n:7 latitude:1 e:4 longitude:1 border:1 maharashtra:1 chhattisgarh:1 orissa:2 north:3 bay:2 bengal:3 east:6 tamil:4 nadu:1 south:6 karnataka:2 west:5 historically:2 call:11 rice:5 bowl:1 currently:1 second:8 producer:1 http:12 www:8 irri:1 org:4 science:9 ricestat:1 data:1 pdf:1 two:3 major:15 river:15 godavari:16 krishna:11 run:2 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1,566 | Demographics_of_Egypt | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Egypt, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Egypt is the most populous country in the Middle East and the second-most populous on the African continent (after Nigeria). Nearly 100% of the country's 78,887,007 (2006 est.) people live in three major regions of the country: Cairo and Alexandria and elsewhere along the banks of the Nile; throughout the Nile delta, which fans out north of Cairo; and along the Suez Canal. These regions are among the world's most densely populated, containing an average of over 3,820 persons per square mile (1,540 per km².), as compared to 181 persons per sq. mi. for the country as a whole. Small communities spread throughout the desert regions of Egypt are clustered around oases and historic trade and transportation routes. The government has tried with mixed success to encourage migration to newly irrigated land reclaimed from the desert. However, the proportion of the population living in rural areas has continued to decrease as people move to the cities in search of employment and a higher standard of living. Overview Egypt has endured as a unified state for more than 5,000 years, and archaeological findings show that primitive tribes lived along the Nile long before the dynastic history of the pharaohs began. In about 3150 BC, Egypt was united under a single ruler known as Mena, or Menes, who inaugurated the 30 pharaonic dynasties into which Egypt's ancient history is divided—the Old and Middle Kingdoms and the New Empire. The pyramids at Giza (near Cairo), which were built in the fourth dynasty, testify to the power of the pharaonic religion and state. The Great Pyramid, the tomb of Pharaoh Khufu (also known as Cheops), is the only surviving monument of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Ancient Egypt reached the peak of its power, wealth, and territorial extent in the period called the New Empire (1567-1085 BC). The last native dynasty fell to the Persians in 341 BC, who in turn were successively replaced by Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, Turks and British. Almost fully independent from Britain in 1922, Egypt acquired full sovereignty following World War II. The completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1971 and the resultant Lake Nasser have altered the time-honored place of the Nile River in the agriculture and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly growing population, limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress society. The government has struggled to ready the economy for the new millennium through economic reform and massive investment in communications and physical infrastructure. Population Demographics of Egypt, Data of FAO, year 2005; number of inhabitants in thousands. Egypt has a population of 78,887,007 (2006 est.). The vast majority of the population of Egypt consists of ethnic Egyptians (94% of the population or 74.1 million according to the CIA Factbook, 72.5 million according to Al-Ahram Weekly). The vast majority of Egyptians are native speakers of modern Egyptian Arabic (Masri). According to the CIA World factbook, approximately 90% of the population is Muslim and 10% is Christian (9% Coptic Orthodox, 1% other Christian). Ethnic minorities in Egypt include the Bedouin Arab tribes of the Sinai Peninsula and the eastern desert, the Berber-speaking community of the Siwa Oasis and the Nubian people clustered along the Nile in the southernmost part of Egypt. There are also sizable minorities of Beja and Dom. The country was host to many different communities during the colonial period, including Greeks, Italians, Syrians, Jews and Armenians, though most either left or were compelled to leave after political developments in the 1950s. The country still hosts some 90,000 refugees and asylum seekers, mostly Palestinians and Sudanese. Education The literacy rate in modern Egyptian society is about 71% of the adult population. Education is free through university and compulsory from ages six through 15. Rates for primary and secondary education have strengthened in recent years. Ninety-three percent of children enter primary school and about one-quarter drop out after the sixth year; in 1994-95, 87% entered primary school and about half dropped out after the sixth year. There are 20,000 primary and secondary schools with some 10 million students, 13 major universities with more than 500,000 students, and 67 teacher colleges. Major universities include Cairo University (100,000 students), Ain Shams University, Alexandria University, and the 1,000-year-old Al-Azhar University, one of the world's major centers of Islamic learning.Also the quality of Education in Egypt is deteriorating very slowly. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 81,713,900 (feb 2009 est.) Age structure 0-14 years: 31.8% (male 13,292,961/female 12,690,711) 15-64 years: 63.5% (male 26,257,440/female 25,627,390) 65 years and over: 4.7% (male 1,636,560/female 2,208,455) (2008 est.) Median Age Total: 24 (2007) Male: 24 (2007) Female: 24 (2007) Population growth rate 1.75% (2006 est.) Birth rate 22.12 births/1,000 population (2008 est.) Death rate 5.23 deaths/1,000 population (2006 est.) Net migration rate -0.21 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2006 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.74 male(s)/female total population: 1.02 male(s)/female (2006 est.) Infant mortality rate 31.33 deaths/1,000 live births (2006 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 71.29 years male: 68.77 years female: 73.93 years (2006 est.) Total fertility rate 2.83 children born/woman (2006 est.) Nationality noun: Egyptian(s) adjective: Egyptian Ethnic groups Egyptian 99.6%, other 0.4% (2006 census). Ethnic minorities include Bedouins (Beja, ca. 1 million), Nubians (ca. 300,000 in 1996), Dom (ca. 230,000 in 1996), Greeks (ca. 40,000), Berbers (ca. 5,000). Religions International Religious Freedom Report 2006 - Egypt International Religious Freedom Report 2007 - Egypt CIA World Factbook - Egypt Muslim 90% (Sunni > 89%, Shia < 1%) Christianity 10% (Coptic Christian 9%, other Christian 1%) Other estimates range between 8% and 12% Christians. Bahá'í: less than 2,000 individuals (< 0.003%). Judaism: less than 200 individuals (< 0.0003%). Languages Arabic (official; see also Egyptian Arabic), English and French widely understood by educated classes. Literacy definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 71.4% male: 83% female: 59.4% (2005 est.),,,, References See also Health in Egypt Egypt Egyptians List of cities in Egypt | Demographics_of_Egypt |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:4 feature:1 population:19 egypt:21 include:5 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:5 level:1 health:2 populace:1 economic:2 status:1 religious:3 affiliation:1 aspect:1 populous:2 country:6 middle:2 east:1 second:1 african:1 continent:1 nigeria:1 nearly:1 est:13 people:3 live:3 three:2 major:4 region:3 cairo:4 alexandria:2 elsewhere:1 along:4 bank:1 nile:6 throughout:2 delta:1 fan:1 north:1 suez:1 canal:1 among:1 world:8 densely:1 populated:1 contain:1 average:1 person:2 per:3 square:1 mile:1 compare:1 sq:1 mi:1 whole:1 small:1 community:3 spread:1 desert:3 cluster:2 around:1 oasis:2 historic:1 trade:1 transportation:1 route:1 government:2 try:1 mixed:1 success:1 encourage:1 migration:2 newly:1 irrigate:1 land:2 reclaim:1 however:1 proportion:1 living:2 rural:1 area:1 continue:2 decrease:1 move:1 city:2 search:1 employment:1 high:2 standard:1 overview:1 endure:1 unified:1 state:2 year:15 archaeological:1 finding:1 show:1 primitive:1 tribe:2 long:1 dynastic:1 history:2 pharaoh:2 begin:1 bc:3 unite:1 single:1 ruler:1 know:2 mena:1 menes:1 inaugurate:1 pharaonic:2 dynasty:3 ancient:3 divide:1 old:2 kingdom:1 new:3 empire:2 pyramid:2 giza:1 near:1 build:1 fourth:1 testify:1 power:2 religion:2 great:1 tomb:1 khufu:1 also:5 cheops:1 survive:1 monument:1 seven:1 wonder:1 reach:1 peak:1 wealth:1 territorial:1 extent:1 period:2 call:1 last:1 native:2 fell:1 persian:1 turn:1 successively:1 replace:1 greek:3 roman:1 byzantine:1 arab:2 turk:1 british:1 almost:1 fully:1 independent:1 britain:1 acquire:1 full:1 sovereignty:1 follow:1 war:1 ii:1 completion:1 aswan:1 dam:1 resultant:1 lake:1 nasser:1 alter:1 time:1 honored:1 place:1 river:1 agriculture:1 ecology:1 rapidly:1 grow:1 limit:1 arable:1 dependence:1 overtax:1 resource:1 stress:1 society:2 struggle:1 ready:1 economy:1 millennium:1 reform:1 massive:1 investment:1 communication:1 physical:1 infrastructure:1 data:1 fao:1 number:1 inhabitant:1 thousand:1 vast:2 majority:2 consists:1 ethnic:4 egyptian:8 million:4 accord:3 cia:5 factbook:5 al:2 ahram:1 weekly:1 speaker:1 modern:2 arabic:3 masri:1 approximately:1 muslim:2 christian:5 coptic:2 orthodox:1 minority:3 bedouin:2 sinai:1 peninsula:1 eastern:1 berber:2 speak:1 siwa:1 nubian:2 southernmost:1 part:1 sizable:1 beja:2 dom:2 host:2 many:1 different:1 colonial:1 italian:1 syrian:1 jew:1 armenian:1 though:1 either:1 leave:2 compel:1 political:1 development:1 still:1 refugee:1 asylum:1 seeker:1 mostly:1 palestinian:1 sudanese:1 literacy:2 rate:8 adult:1 free:1 university:7 compulsory:1 age:4 six:1 primary:4 secondary:2 strengthen:1 recent:1 ninety:1 percent:1 child:2 enter:2 school:3 one:2 quarter:1 drop:2 sixth:2 half:1 student:3 teacher:1 college:1 shams:1 azhar:1 center:1 islamic:1 learning:1 quality:1 deteriorate:1 slowly:1 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 feb:1 structure:1 male:11 female:11 median:1 total:5 growth:1 birth:5 death:3 net:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 infant:1 mortality:1 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 bear:1 woman:1 nationality:1 noun:1 adjective:1 group:1 census:1 ca:5 international:2 freedom:2 report:2 sunni:1 shia:1 christianity:1 estimate:1 range:1 bahá:1 í:1 less:2 individual:2 judaism:1 language:1 official:1 see:2 english:1 french:1 widely:1 understand:1 educated:1 class:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 reference:1 egyptians:1 list:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 nile_delta:1 suez_canal:1 densely_populated:1 sq_mi:1 archaeological_finding:1 pyramid_giza:1 arable_land:1 vast_majority:2 cia_factbook:1 al_ahram:1 ahram_weekly:1 coptic_orthodox:1 sinai_peninsula:1 siwa_oasis:1 sizable_minority:1 refugee_asylum:1 asylum_seeker:1 al_azhar:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:10 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 sunni_shia:1 bahá_í:1 literacy_definition:1 |
1,567 | Dynamite | Diagram of dynamite. A. Sawdust (or any other type of absorbent material) soaked in nitroglycerin. B. Protective coating surrounding the explosive material. C. Blasting cap. D. Electrical cable connected to the blasting cap. Dynamite is an explosive based on the explosive potential of nitroglycerin, initially using diatomaceous earth (kieselgur: United States spelling; kieselguhr: UK spelling) or another absorbent substance such as sawdust as an absorbent. It was invented by Swedish chemist and engineer Alfred Nobel in 1866 in Krümmel (Geesthacht, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany), and patented in 1867. It is usually sold in the form of a stick 20 centimetres (roughly 8 inches) long and 2.5 centimetres (1 inch) in diameter, but other sizes also exist. Dynamite is considered a high explosive, which means it detonates rather than deflagrates. Another form of dynamite consists of nitroglycerin dissolved in nitrocellulose and a small amount of ketone. This form of dynamite is similar to cordite. This form of dynamite is much safer than the simple mix of nitroglycerin and diatomaceous earth/kieselgur. Uses Preparation of dynamite during the construction of the Douglas Dam, 1942. Dynamite is predominantly used in the mining, quarrying, and construction industries and has had historical use in warfare, but its unstable nature, especially if subjected to freezing, has rendered it obsolete for modern military use. Dynamite has been replaced for combat purposes by military dynamite, a mixture of TNT, RDX, inert binders and anti-freeze agents. Military dynamite has approximately 60% of the strength of nitroglycerin-based, commercial dynamite. While not technically dynamite, it is called this as a slang term. Army TM 9-1300-214, p. 8-135. History Alfred Nobel's 1864 patent application for nitroglycerin. Dynamite was invented by Alfred Nobel and was the first safely manageable explosive stronger than black powder. Nobel obtained patents for his invention: in England on 7 May 1867 and in Sweden on 19 October 1867. Schück & Sohlman (1929), page 101. He originally sold dynamite as "Nobel's Blasting Powder". After its introduction, dynamite rapidly gained popularity as a safe alternative to gunpowder and nitroglycerin. Nobel tightly controlled the patent, and unlicensed duplicators were quickly shut down. However, a few American businessmen got around the patent by using a slightly different formula. Manufacture Dynamite consists of 3 parts nitroglycerin, one part diatomaceous earth and a small admixture of sodium carbonate. This mixture is formed into short sticks and wrapped in paper. Nitroglycerin by itself is a very strong explosive, and in its pure form it is shock-sensitive (physical shock can cause it to explode), degrading over time to even more unstable forms. This makes it highly dangerous to transport or use in its pure form. Absorbed onto diatomaceous earth, nitroglycerin is less shock-sensitive. Over time, the dynamite will "weep" or "sweat" its nitroglycerin, which can then pool in the bottom of the box or storage area. Crystals will form on the outside of the sticks. This creates a very dangerous situation. While the actual possibility of explosion without a blasting cap is minimal, old dynamite is still dangerous. South Africa For several decades from the 1940s, the biggest producer of dynamite in the world was the Republic of South Africa, where De Beers established a factory in 1902 at Somerset West. The explosives factory was later operated by AECI (African Explosives and Chemical Industries). The demand for the product came mainly from the country's vast gold mines, centered on the Witwatersrand. The factory at Somerset West was in operation in 1903 and by 1907 was already producing 340,000 cases (22 kilograms (50 lb) each) annually. In addition, a rival factory at Modderfontein was producing another 200,000 cases per year. An MBendi Profile: South Africa - History of the Chemical Industry One of the drawbacks of dynamite was that it was dangerous to manufacture. There were two large explosions at the Somerset West plant in the 1960s. Some workers died, but loss of life was limited by the modular design of the factory and earth works and plantations of trees that directed the blasts upwards. Pressure from trade unions forced AECI, after 1985, to phase out production of dynamite. The factory then went on to solely supply ammonium nitrate emulsion based explosives that are far safer to manufacture. United States Advertisement for the Aetna Explosives Company of New York. In the United States, in 1885, chemist Russell S. Penniman invented ammonium dynamite, a form which used ammonium nitrate in addition to the more costly nitroglycerin. These dynamites were marketed with the trade name "Extra". Ammonium nitrate has 85% of the energy of "straight" nitroglycerin. Dynamite was manufactured by the E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Company, Inc. until the mid-1970s. Other U.S. dynamite makers of the era included Hercules, Atlas, Trojan-US Powder, Austin, and several other smaller firms. Dynamite was eventually phased out in favor of water gel explosives, which are cheaper to manufacture and in many ways safer to handle. DuPont Heritage: Explosives Difference from TNT It is a common misconception that TNT and dynamite are the same thing http://lyricwiki.org/AC/DC:TNT . Though both are high explosives, there is no other similarity between them. While dynamite is an absorbent mixture soaked in nitroglycerin, then compacted into a cylindrical shape and wrapped in paper, TNT is a specific chemical compound called 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene. A stick of dynamite contains roughly 2.1 million joules of energy. Classroom Energy The energy density (joules/kilogram) of dynamite is approximately 7.5 megajoules/kilogram, compared to 4.6 megajoules/kilogram of TNT. See also Nitroglycerin Nobel Prize The Wages of Fear Titadine TNT Tovex Patent References Footnotes Sources Cartwright, A. P. (1964). The Dynamite Company: The Story of African Explosives and Chemical Industries Limited. Cape Town: Purnell & Sons (S.A.) (Pty) Ltd. Schück, H. and Sohlman, R.(1929). The Life of Alfred Nobel. London: William Heinemann Ltd. External links Alfred Nobel Oregon State Police - Arson and Explosives Section (Handling instructions and photos) Big bang Detonator cables | Dynamite |@lemmatized diagram:1 dynamite:32 sawdust:2 type:1 absorbent:4 material:2 soak:2 nitroglycerin:15 b:1 protective:1 coating:1 surround:1 explosive:13 c:1 blast:3 cap:3 electrical:1 cable:2 connect:1 blasting:2 base:3 potential:1 initially:1 use:8 diatomaceous:4 earth:5 kieselgur:2 united:3 state:4 spell:2 kieselguhr:1 uk:1 another:3 substance:1 invent:3 swedish:1 chemist:2 engineer:1 alfred:5 nobel:9 krümmel:1 geesthacht:1 schleswig:1 holstein:1 germany:1 patent:6 usually:1 sell:2 form:10 stick:4 centimetre:2 roughly:2 inch:2 long:1 diameter:1 size:1 also:2 exist:1 consider:1 high:2 mean:1 detonate:1 rather:1 deflagrates:1 consists:2 dissolve:1 nitrocellulose:1 small:3 amount:1 ketone:1 similar:1 cordite:1 much:1 safe:3 simple:1 mix:1 preparation:1 construction:2 douglas:1 dam:1 predominantly:1 mining:1 quarrying:1 industry:4 historical:1 warfare:1 unstable:2 nature:1 especially:1 subject:1 freezing:1 render:1 obsolete:1 modern:1 military:3 replace:1 combat:1 purpose:1 mixture:3 tnt:7 rdx:1 inert:1 binder:1 anti:1 freeze:1 agent:1 approximately:2 strength:1 commercial:1 technically:1 call:2 slang:1 term:1 army:1 tm:1 p:2 history:2 application:1 first:1 safely:1 manageable:1 strong:2 black:1 powder:3 obtain:1 invention:1 england:1 may:1 sweden:1 october:1 schück:2 sohlman:2 page:1 originally:1 introduction:1 rapidly:1 gained:1 popularity:1 alternative:1 gunpowder:1 tightly:1 control:1 unlicensed:1 duplicator:1 quickly:1 shut:1 however:1 american:1 businessmen:1 get:1 around:1 slightly:1 different:1 formula:1 manufacture:5 part:2 one:2 admixture:1 sodium:1 carbonate:1 short:1 wrap:2 paper:2 pure:2 shock:3 sensitive:2 physical:1 cause:1 explode:1 degrade:1 time:2 even:1 make:1 highly:1 dangerous:4 transport:1 absorb:1 onto:1 less:1 weep:1 sweat:1 pool:1 bottom:1 box:1 storage:1 area:1 crystal:1 outside:1 create:1 situation:1 actual:1 possibility:1 explosion:2 without:1 minimal:1 old:1 still:1 south:3 africa:3 several:2 decade:1 big:2 producer:1 world:1 republic:1 de:2 beer:1 establish:1 factory:6 somerset:3 west:3 later:1 operate:1 aeci:2 african:2 chemical:4 demand:1 product:1 come:1 mainly:1 country:1 vast:1 gold:1 mine:1 center:1 witwatersrand:1 operation:1 already:1 produce:2 case:2 kilogram:4 lb:1 annually:1 addition:2 rival:1 modderfontein:1 per:1 year:1 mbendi:1 profile:1 drawback:1 two:1 large:1 plant:1 worker:1 die:1 loss:1 life:2 limit:2 modular:1 design:1 work:1 plantation:1 tree:1 direct:1 upwards:1 pressure:1 trade:2 union:1 force:1 phase:2 production:1 go:1 solely:1 supply:1 ammonium:4 nitrate:3 emulsion:1 far:1 advertisement:1 aetna:1 explosives:2 company:3 new:1 york:1 russell:1 penniman:1 costly:1 market:1 name:1 extra:1 energy:4 straight:1 e:1 du:1 pont:1 nemours:1 inc:1 mid:1 u:2 maker:1 era:1 include:1 hercules:1 atlas:1 trojan:1 austin:1 firm:1 eventually:1 favor:1 water:1 gel:1 cheap:1 many:1 way:1 safer:1 handle:2 dupont:1 heritage:1 difference:1 common:1 misconception:1 thing:1 http:1 lyricwiki:1 org:1 ac:1 dc:1 though:1 similarity:1 compact:1 cylindrical:1 shape:1 specific:1 compound:1 trinitrotoluene:1 contains:1 million:1 joule:2 classroom:1 density:1 megajoules:2 compare:1 see:1 prize:1 wage:1 fear:1 titadine:1 tovex:1 reference:1 footnote:1 source:1 cartwright:1 story:1 cape:1 town:1 purnell:1 son:1 pty:1 ltd:2 h:1 r:1 london:1 william:1 heinemann:1 external:1 link:1 oregon:1 police:1 arson:1 section:1 instruction:1 photo:1 bang:1 detonator:1 |@bigram absorbent_material:1 protective_coating:1 blasting_cap:2 diatomaceous_earth:4 schleswig_holstein:1 centimetre_inch:1 mining_quarrying:1 render_obsolete:1 sodium_carbonate:1 kilogram_lb:1 ammonium_nitrate:3 du_pont:1 de_nemours:1 ac_dc:1 stick_dynamite:1 nobel_prize:1 pty_ltd:1 external_link:1 big_bang:1 |
1,568 | Baltic_languages | The Baltic languages are a group of related languages belonging to the Indo-European language family and spoken mainly in areas extending east and southeast of the Baltic Sea in Northern Europe. The language group is sometimes divided into two sub-groups: Western Baltic, containing only extinct languages, and Eastern Baltic, containing both extinct and the two living languages in the group: Lithuanian (including both Standard Lithuanian and Samogitian) and Latvian (including both literary Latvian and Latgalian). While related, the Lithuanian, the Latvian, and particularly the Old Prussian vocabularies differ substantially from each other and are not mutually intelligible. The now-extinct Old Prussian language has been considered the most archaic of the Baltic languages. Branches Western Baltic languages † Galindian † Old Prussian † Sudovian (Yotvingian) † Skalvian † Eastern Baltic languages Latvian (~2 - 2.5 million speakers (~1.39 million native speakers, 0.5 - 1million ethnic Russian speakers, 0.15 million others) Latgalian (150 thousand speakers; usually considered a dialect of Latvian) Lithuanian (~3.9 million speakers) Samogitian (~0.5 million speakers; usually considered a dialect of Lithuanian) Old Curonian † (sometimes considered Western Baltic) New Curonian (nearly extinct; status as Eastern / Western Baltic is disputed) Selonian † Semigallian † (†—Extinct language) Geographic distribution Distribution of the Baltic languages in the Baltic (simplified). Speakers of modern Baltic languages Though included among the Baltic states, the language of Estonia (the Estonian language) is a Finno-Ugric language and is not related to the Baltic languages, which are Indo-European. are generally concentrated within the borders of Lithuania and Latvia, and in emigrant communities in the United States, Canada, Australia and former Soviet states. Historically the languages were spoken over a larger area: West to the mouth of the Vistula river in present-day Poland, at least as far East as the Dniepr river in present-day Belarus, perhaps even to Moscow, perhaps as far south as Kiev. Key evidence of Baltic language presence in these regions is found in hydronyms (names of bodies of water) in the regions that are characteristically Baltic. Use of hydronyms is generally accepted to determine the extent of these cultures' influence, but not the date of such influence. Historical expansion of the usage of Slavic languages in the South and East, and Germanic languages in the West reduced the geographic distribution of Baltic languages to a fraction of the area which they had formerly covered. Prehistory and history Although the various Baltic tribes were mentioned by ancient historians as early as 98 B.C., the first attestation of a Baltic language was in about 1350, with the creation of the Elbing Prussian Vocabulary, a German to Prussian translation dictionary. It is also believed that Baltic languages are among the most archaic of the remaining Indo-European languages, despite their late attestation. Lithuanian was first attested in a hymnal translation in 1545; the first printed book in Lithuanian, a Catechism by Martynas Mažvydas was published in 1547. Latvian appeared in a hymnal in 1530 and in a printed Catechism in 1585. One reason for the late attestation is that the Baltic peoples resisted Christianization longer than any other Europeans, which delayed the introduction of writing and isolated their languages from outside influence. With the establishment of a German state in Prussia, and the relocation of much of the Baltic Prussian population in the 13th century, Prussians began to be assimilated, and by the end of the 17th century, the Prussian language had become extinct. During the years of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569-1795), official documents were written in Polish, Ruthenian and Latin, with Lithuanian being mostly an oral language, with small quantities of written documents. After the Partitions of Poland, much of the Baltic lands were under the rule of the Russian Empire, where the native languages were sometimes prohibited from being written down, or used publicly. Relationship with other Indo-European languages The Baltic languages are of particular interest to linguists because they retain many archaic features, which are believed to have been present in the early stages of the Proto-Indo-European language. Linguists disagree regarding the relationship of the Baltic languages to other languages in the Indo-European family. Such relationships are discerned primarily by the Comparative method, which seeks to reconstruct the chronology of the languages' divergence from each other in phonology and lexicon. Language kinship is generally determined by the identification of linguistic innovations that are held in common by two languages or groups. Several of the extinct Baltic languages have a limited or nonexistent written record, their existence being known only from the records of ancient historians and personal or place names; all of the languages in the Baltic group (including the living ones) were first written down relatively late in their probable existence as distinct languages. These two factors combined with others have obscured the history of the Baltic languages, leading to a number of theories regarding their position in the Indo-European family. The Baltic languages show closest relationship with the Slavic languages, and are commonly reconstructed to have passed through common Proto-Balto-Slavic stage, during which numerous Common Balto-Slavic lexical, phonological, morphological and accentological isoglosses developed. Gray, Russell D., and Clayton Atkinson. 2003. "Language-tree divergence times support Anatolian theory of Indo-European Origins," Nature 426 (27 November): 435-439. Comparative Balto-Slavic accentology is one of the most active branches of Indo-European studies nowadays, with numerous mysteries still waiting to be solved. Even the commonly accepted facts - such as Winter's law, identical reflexes of Proto-Indo-European syllabic sonorants or development of Balto-Slavic mobile paradigms - have many intricate problems in their formulations. Most linguists agree however that Baltic languages do not represent a genetic node in Indo-European family. There are virtually no non-trivial isoglosses that connect Baltic languages with respect to Proto-Indo-European and leave Slavic languages aside; West and East Baltic languages seem to differ from each other as much as each of them differs from Proto-Slavic, and all major isoglosses that differ Slavic from Baltic that are usually mentioned are either Proto-Indo-European archaisms preserved in Baltic or later innovations in Slavic that occurred during Common Slavic period, and not some "Common Baltic" innovations. Thus, there was most likely no "Proto-Baltic" stage, and Baltic languages would thus represent an archaic remnant of former Balto-Slavic dialect continuum, the last Proto-Indo-European branch to finally split around 1500-1000 BCE. See also Historical linguistics Language families and languages Baltic peoples Balto-Slavic languages External links Ethnologue Report on Baltic languages Baltic Online from the University of Texas at Austin Notes References Ernst Fraenkel, Die baltischen Sprachen, Carl Winter, Heidelberg, 1950; Joseph Pashka, Proto Baltic and Baltic languages (1994) Lituanus Linguistics Index (1955-2004) provides a number of articles on modern and archaic Baltic languages. Mallory, J.P. (1991). In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth. New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd. ISBN 0-500-27616-1 Algirdas Girininkas. The monuments of the stone Age in the Historical Baltic region. In Baltų archeologija, N.1, 1994 (English summary, p. 22). ISSN 1392-0189 Algirdas Girininkas (1994). Origin of the Baltic culture. Summary. In Baltų kultūros ištakos, Vilnius, "Savastis", p. 259. ISBN 9986-420-00-8 Edmund Remys, General distinguishing features of various Indo-European languages and their relationship to Lithuanian. Berlin, New York: Indogermanische Forschungen, Vol. 112, 2007. | Baltic_languages |@lemmatized baltic:45 language:54 group:6 related:1 belong:1 indo:16 european:17 family:5 speak:2 mainly:1 area:3 extend:1 east:4 southeast:1 sea:1 northern:1 europe:1 sometimes:3 divide:1 two:4 sub:1 western:4 contain:2 extinct:7 eastern:3 living:2 lithuanian:10 include:4 standard:1 samogitian:2 latvian:6 literary:1 latgalian:2 relate:2 particularly:1 old:4 prussian:8 vocabulary:2 differ:3 substantially:1 mutually:1 intelligible:1 consider:4 archaic:5 branch:3 galindian:1 sudovian:1 yotvingian:1 skalvian:1 million:5 speaker:7 native:2 ethnic:1 russian:2 others:2 thousand:1 usually:3 dialect:3 curonian:2 new:3 nearly:1 status:1 dispute:1 selonian:1 semigallian:1 geographic:2 distribution:3 simplified:1 modern:2 though:1 among:2 state:4 estonia:1 estonian:1 finno:1 ugric:1 generally:3 concentrate:1 within:1 border:1 lithuania:1 latvia:1 emigrant:1 community:1 united:1 canada:1 australia:1 former:2 soviet:1 historically:1 large:1 west:3 mouth:1 vistula:1 river:2 present:3 day:2 poland:2 least:1 far:2 dniepr:1 belarus:1 perhaps:2 even:2 moscow:1 south:2 kiev:1 key:1 evidence:1 presence:1 region:3 find:1 hydronyms:2 name:2 body:1 water:1 characteristically:1 use:2 accept:1 determine:2 extent:1 culture:2 influence:3 date:1 historical:3 expansion:1 usage:1 slavic:13 germanic:1 reduce:1 fraction:1 formerly:1 cover:1 prehistory:1 history:2 although:1 various:2 tribe:1 mention:2 ancient:2 historian:2 early:2 b:1 c:1 first:4 attestation:3 creation:1 elbing:1 german:2 translation:2 dictionary:1 also:2 believe:2 remain:1 despite:1 late:4 attest:1 hymnal:2 printed:2 book:1 catechism:2 martynas:1 mažvydas:1 publish:1 appear:1 one:3 reason:1 people:2 resist:1 christianization:1 longer:1 delay:1 introduction:1 writing:1 isolate:1 outside:1 establishment:1 prussia:1 relocation:1 much:3 population:1 century:2 begin:1 assimilate:1 end:1 become:1 year:1 polish:2 commonwealth:1 official:1 document:2 write:5 ruthenian:1 latin:1 mostly:1 oral:1 small:1 quantity:1 partition:1 land:1 rule:1 empire:1 prohibit:1 publicly:1 relationship:5 languages:3 particular:1 interest:1 linguist:3 retain:1 many:2 feature:2 stage:3 proto:9 disagree:1 regard:2 discern:1 primarily:1 comparative:2 method:1 seek:1 reconstruct:2 chronology:1 divergence:2 phonology:1 lexicon:1 kinship:1 identification:1 linguistic:1 innovation:3 hold:1 common:5 several:1 limited:1 nonexistent:1 record:2 existence:2 know:1 personal:1 place:1 relatively:1 probable:1 distinct:1 factor:1 combine:1 obscure:1 lead:1 number:2 theory:2 position:1 show:1 close:1 commonly:2 pass:1 balto:6 numerous:2 lexical:1 phonological:1 morphological:1 accentological:1 isoglosses:3 develop:1 gray:1 russell:1 clayton:1 atkinson:1 tree:1 time:1 support:1 anatolian:1 origin:2 nature:1 november:1 accentology:1 active:1 study:1 nowadays:1 mystery:1 still:1 wait:1 solve:1 accepted:1 fact:1 winter:2 law:1 identical:1 reflex:1 syllabic:1 sonorants:1 development:1 mobile:1 paradigm:1 intricate:1 problem:1 formulation:1 agree:1 however:1 represent:2 genetic:1 node:1 virtually:1 non:1 trivial:1 connect:1 respect:1 leave:1 aside:1 seem:1 differs:1 major:1 either:1 archaism:1 preserve:1 occur:1 period:1 thus:2 likely:1 would:1 remnant:1 continuum:1 last:1 finally:1 split:1 around:1 bce:1 see:1 linguistics:2 external:1 link:1 ethnologue:1 report:1 online:1 university:1 texas:1 austin:1 note:1 reference:1 ernst:1 fraenkel:1 die:1 baltischen:1 sprachen:1 carl:1 heidelberg:1 joseph:1 pashka:1 lituanus:1 index:1 provide:1 article:1 mallory:1 j:1 p:3 search:1 archaeology:1 myth:1 york:2 thames:1 hudson:1 ltd:1 isbn:2 algirdas:2 girininkas:2 monument:1 stone:1 age:1 baltų:2 archeologija:1 n:1 english:1 summary:2 issn:1 kultūros:1 ištakos:1 vilnius:1 savastis:1 edmund:1 remys:1 general:1 distinguishing:1 berlin:1 indogermanische:1 forschungen:1 vol:1 |@bigram indo_european:16 baltic_sea:1 lithuanian_latvian:1 mutually_intelligible:1 latvian_lithuanian:1 finno_ugric:1 lithuania_latvia:1 vistula_river:1 polish_lithuanian:1 lithuanian_commonwealth:1 proto_indo:5 balto_slavic:6 phonological_morphological:1 reflex_proto:1 external_link:1 texas_austin:1 thames_hudson:1 distinguishing_feature:1 |
1,569 | Actium | A map showing Actium. Actium (modern name: Punta) was the ancient name of a promontory of western Greece in northwestern Acarnania, at the mouth of the Sinus Ambracius (Gulf of Arta) opposite Nicopolis, built by Augustus on the north side of the strait. On the promontory was an ancient temple of Apollo Actius, which was enlarged by Augustus, who, to memorialize the Battle of Actium, instituted or renewed the quinquennial games known as Actia or Ludi Actiaci. Actiaca Aera was a computation of time from the battle. There was on the promontory a small town, or rather village, also called Actium. History Actium belonged originally to the Corinthian colonists of Anactorium, who probably founded the worship of Apollo Actius and the Actia games; in the 3rd century BC it fell to the Acarnanians, who subsequently held their synods there. Actium is chiefly famous as the site of Octavian's decisive victory over Mark Antony (September 2, 31 BC). This battle ended a long series of ineffectual operations. The final conflict was provoked by Antony, who is said to have been persuaded by his lover, the queen Cleopatra of Egypt, to retire to her land and give battle to mask his retreat; but lack of provisions and the growing demoralization of his army would eventually account for this decision. An ancient Roman festival, Actia, was named after Actium. See also Battle of Actium | Actium |@lemmatized map:1 show:1 actium:8 modern:1 name:3 punta:1 ancient:3 promontory:3 western:1 greece:1 northwestern:1 acarnania:1 mouth:1 sinus:1 ambracius:1 gulf:1 arta:1 opposite:1 nicopolis:1 build:1 augustus:2 north:1 side:1 strait:1 temple:1 apollo:2 actius:2 enlarge:1 memorialize:1 battle:5 institute:1 renew:1 quinquennial:1 game:2 know:1 actia:3 ludi:1 actiaci:1 actiaca:1 aera:1 computation:1 time:1 small:1 town:1 rather:1 village:1 also:2 call:1 history:1 belong:1 originally:1 corinthian:1 colonist:1 anactorium:1 probably:1 found:1 worship:1 century:1 bc:2 fell:1 acarnanians:1 subsequently:1 hold:1 synod:1 chiefly:1 famous:1 site:1 octavian:1 decisive:1 victory:1 mark:1 antony:2 september:1 end:1 long:1 series:1 ineffectual:1 operation:1 final:1 conflict:1 provoke:1 say:1 persuade:1 lover:1 queen:1 cleopatra:1 egypt:1 retire:1 land:1 give:1 mask:1 retreat:1 lack:1 provision:1 grow:1 demoralization:1 army:1 would:1 eventually:1 account:1 decision:1 roman:1 festival:1 see:1 |@bigram battle_actium:2 decisive_victory:1 |
1,570 | Banshee | The Banshee (, ), from the Irish bean sí ("woman of the síde" or "woman of the fairy mounds") is a female spirit in Irish mythology, usually seen as an omen of death and a messenger from the Otherworld. Her Scottish counterpart is the bean shìth (also spelled bean-shìdh). The aos sí ("people of the mounds," "people of peace") are variously believed to be the survivals of pre-Christian Gaelic deities, spirits of nature, or the ancestors. Some Theosophists and Celtic Christians have also referred to the aos sí as "fallen angels". They are commonly referred to in English as "fairies", and the banshee can also be described as a "fairy woman". The bean-sidhe (woman of the fairy) may be an ancestral spirit appointed to forewarn members of certain ancient Irish families of their time of death. According to tradition, the banshee can only cry for five major Irish families: the O'Neills, the O'Briens, the O'Connors, the O'Gradys and the Kavanaghs. Intermarriage has since extended this select list. Whatever her origins, the banshee chiefly appears in one of three guises: a young woman, a stately matron or a raddled old hag. These represent the triple aspects of the Celtic goddess of war and death, namely Badhbh, Macha and Mor-Rioghain.) She usually wears either a grey, hooded cloak or the winding sheet or grave robe of the unshriven dead. She may also appear as a washer-woman, and is seen apparently washing the blood stained clothes of those who are about to die. In this guise she is known as the bean-nighe (washing woman). Although not always seen, her mourning call is heard, usually at night when someone is about to die. In 1437, King James I of Scotland was approached by an Irish seeress or banshee who foretold his murder at the instigation of the Earl of Atholl. This is an example of the banshee in human form. There are records of several human banshees or prophetesses attending the great houses of Ireland and the courts of local Irish kings. In some parts of Leinster, she is referred to as the bean chaointe (keening woman) whose wail can be so piercing that it shatters glass. In Kerry, the keen is experienced as a "low, pleasant singing"; in Tyrone as "the sound of two boards being struck together"; and on Rathlin Island as "a thin, screeching sound somewhere between the wail of a woman and the moan of an owl". The banshee may also appear in a variety of other forms, such as that of a hooded crow, stoat, hare and weasel - animals associated in Ireland with witchcraft. Banshee in Irish mythology In Irish legend, a banshee wails around a house if someone in the house is about to die. There are particular families who are believed to have banshees attached to them, and whose cries herald the death of a member of that family. Ontolchik, M., Irish Folklore, Shenanigans, and Oddities. ISBN 0-532-73461-X p.36-37: "Banshee Attachment" Traditionally, when a citizen of an Irish village died, a woman would sing a lament (in Irish: caoineadh, or , "caoin" meaning "to weep, to wail") at their funeral. These women singers are sometimes referred to as "keeners" and the best keeners would be in much demand. Legend has it that, for five great Gaelic families: the O'Gradys, the O'Neills, the O'Briens, the O'Connors, and the Kavanaghs, the lament would be sung by a fairy woman; having foresight, she would sing the lament when a family member died, even if the person had died far away and news of their death had not yet come, so that the wailing of the banshee was the first warning the household had of the death. In later versions the banshee might appear before the death and warn the family by wailing. When several banshees appeared at once, it indicated the death of someone great or holy. Yeats, W. B. "Fairy and Folk Tales of the Irish Peasantry" in A Treasury of Irish Myth, Legend, and Folklore. ISBN 0-517-489904-X p.108 The tales sometimes recounted that the woman, though called a fairy, was a ghost, often of a specific murdered woman, or a woman who died in childbirth. Briggs, Katharine, An Encyclopedia of Fairies, Hobgoblins, Brownies, Boogies, and Other Supernatural Creatures. ISBN 0-394-73467-X p.14-16: "Banshee" Banshees are frequently described as dressed in white or grey, and often having long, fair hair which they brush with a silver comb, a detail scholar Patricia Lysaght attributes to confusion with local mermaid myths. This comb detail is also related to the centuries-old traditional romantic Irish story that, if you ever see a comb lying on the ground in Ireland, you must never pick it up, or the banshees (or mermaids - stories vary), having placed it there to lure unsuspecting humans, will spirit such gullible humans away. Other stories portray banshees as dressed in green, red or black with a grey cloak. They are common in Irish and Scottish folk stories such as those recorded by Irish-American writer Herminie T. Kavanagh. They enjoy the same mythical status in Ireland as fairies and leprechauns. Banshees continue to appear in modern fiction that deals with mythology, folklore or the supernatural. There is a similar spirit in Welsh folklore, known as the Hag of the mist. http://books.google.com/books?id=SiC8opYctHQC&pg=PA142&lpg=PA142&dq=%22Hag+of+the+mist%22&source=bl&ots=94S6DHl0rC&sig=tTf-DZkrjfxx-1ie0LydPdhVKL8&hl=en&ei=7FCuSaKaKpmktQO4-LygDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=result References External links MovilleInishowen.com: The Legend of the Banshee, Leo Bowes Irish Culture and Customs: Creepy Irish Creatures, Bridget Haggerty | Banshee |@lemmatized banshee:21 irish:18 bean:6 sí:3 woman:15 síde:1 fairy:9 mound:2 female:1 spirit:5 mythology:3 usually:3 see:4 omen:1 death:8 messenger:1 otherworld:1 scottish:2 counterpart:1 shìth:1 also:6 spell:1 shìdh:1 aos:2 people:2 peace:1 variously:1 believe:2 survival:1 pre:1 christian:2 gaelic:2 deity:1 nature:1 ancestor:1 theosophist:1 celtic:2 refer:4 fall:1 angel:1 commonly:1 english:1 describe:2 sidhe:1 may:3 ancestral:1 appoint:1 forewarn:1 member:3 certain:1 ancient:1 family:7 time:1 accord:1 tradition:1 cry:2 five:2 major:1 neills:2 briens:2 connors:2 gradys:2 kavanaghs:2 intermarriage:1 since:1 extend:1 select:1 list:1 whatever:1 origin:1 chiefly:1 appear:6 one:1 three:1 guise:2 young:1 stately:1 matron:1 raddled:1 old:2 hag:2 represent:1 triple:1 aspect:1 goddess:1 war:1 namely:1 badhbh:1 macha:1 mor:1 rioghain:1 wear:1 either:1 grey:3 hood:1 cloak:2 winding:1 sheet:1 grave:1 robe:1 unshriven:1 dead:1 washer:1 apparently:1 wash:2 blood:1 stain:1 clothes:1 die:7 know:2 nighe:1 although:1 always:1 mourn:1 call:2 hear:1 night:1 someone:3 king:2 james:1 scotland:1 approach:1 seeress:1 foretell:1 murder:2 instigation:1 earl:1 atholl:1 example:1 human:4 form:2 record:2 several:2 prophetess:1 attend:1 great:3 house:3 ireland:4 court:1 local:2 part:1 leinster:1 chaointe:1 keen:2 whose:2 wail:5 pierce:1 shatter:1 glass:1 kerry:1 experience:1 low:1 pleasant:1 singing:1 tyrone:1 sound:2 two:1 board:1 strike:1 together:1 rathlin:1 island:1 thin:1 screech:1 somewhere:1 moan:1 owl:1 variety:1 hooded:1 crow:1 stoat:1 hare:1 weasel:1 animal:1 associate:1 witchcraft:1 legend:4 around:1 particular:1 attach:1 herald:1 ontolchik:1 folklore:4 shenanigan:1 oddity:1 isbn:3 x:4 p:3 attachment:1 traditionally:1 citizen:1 village:1 would:4 sing:3 lament:3 caoineadh:1 caoin:1 meaning:1 weep:1 funeral:1 singer:1 sometimes:2 keeners:2 best:1 much:1 demand:1 foresight:1 even:1 person:1 far:1 away:2 news:1 yet:1 come:1 wailing:1 first:1 warn:2 household:1 late:1 version:1 might:1 indicate:1 holy:1 yeats:1 w:1 b:1 folk:2 tale:2 peasantry:1 treasury:1 myth:2 recount:1 though:1 ghost:1 often:2 specific:1 childbirth:1 briggs:1 katharine:1 encyclopedia:1 hobgoblin:1 brownie:1 boogie:1 supernatural:2 creature:2 frequently:1 dress:2 white:1 long:1 fair:1 hair:1 brush:1 silver:1 comb:3 detail:2 scholar:1 patricia:1 lysaght:1 attribute:1 confusion:1 mermaid:2 relate:1 century:1 traditional:1 romantic:1 story:4 ever:1 lie:1 ground:1 must:1 never:1 pick:1 vary:1 place:1 lure:1 unsuspecting:1 gullible:1 portray:1 green:1 red:1 black:1 common:1 american:1 writer:1 herminie:1 kavanagh:1 enjoy:1 mythical:1 status:1 leprechaun:1 continue:1 modern:1 fiction:1 deal:1 similar:1 welsh:1 mist:2 http:1 book:2 google:1 com:2 id:1 pg:1 lpg:1 dq:1 source:1 bl:1 ots:1 sig:1 ttf:1 dzkrjfxx:1 hl:1 en:1 ei:1 lygdg:1 sa:1 oi:1 resnum:1 ct:1 result:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 movilleinishowen:1 leo:1 bowes:1 culture:1 custom:1 creepy:1 bridget:1 haggerty:1 |@bigram rathlin_island:1 id_pg:1 pg_lpg:1 lpg_dq:1 bl_ots:1 ots_sig:1 hl_en:1 en_ei:1 x_oi:1 oi_resnum:1 resnum_ct:1 external_link:1 |
1,571 | Abdülaziz | Abdülaziz I or Abd Al-Aziz, His Imperial Majesty (Ottoman Turkish: `Abdü´l-Âzīz-i evvel عبد العزيز) (February 9/18 1830 4 June 1876) was the 32nd Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and reigned between 25 June 1861 and 30 May 1876. He was the son of Sultan Mahmud II and succeeded his brother Abdülmecid I in 1861. Chambers Biographical Dictionary, ISBN 0-550-18022-2, page 2 Born at Eyüb Palace, Istanbul, on 9/18 February 1830, Abdülaziz received an Ottoman education but was nevertheless an ardent admirer of the material progress that was made in the West. He was interested in literature and was also a classical music composer. Some of his compositions have been collected in the album "European Music at the Ottoman Court" by the London Academy of Ottoman Court Music. Family His parents were Mahmud II and Valide Sultan Pertevniyal, (1812 - 1883), originally named Bezime. His profile in the Ottoman Web Site The name of his mother is also spelled as "Partav-Nihal". Daniel T. Rogers, "All my relatives: Valide Sultana Partav-Nihal" By 1868, Pertevniyal was settled in the Dolmabahçe Palace. That year Abdülaziz led the visiting Eugénie de Montijo, Empress of France to see his mother. Pertevniyal perceived the presence of a foreign woman within her quarters of the seraglio as an insult. She reportedly slapped Eugénie across the face, almost resulting in an international incident. "Women in Power" 1840-1870, entry: "1861-76 Pertevniyal Valide Sultan of The Ottoman Empire" The Pertevniyal Valide Sultan Mosque was built under the patronage of his mother. The construction work began in November 1869 and the mosque was finished in 1871. His paternal grandparents were Abdul Hamid I and Naksh-i-Dil. Several accounts identify his paternal grandmother with Aimée du Buc de Rivéry, a cousin of Joséphine de Beauharnais. Christine Isom-Verhaaren, "Royal French Women in the Ottoman Sultans' Harem: The Political Uses of Fabricated Accounts from the Sixteenth to the Twenty-first Century" Pertevniyal was reportedly a sister of Hoshiar (Khushiyar), third wife of Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt. Hoshiar and Ibrahim were the parents of Isma'il Pasha. Christopher Buyers, "The Muhammad 'Ali Dynasty Genealogy" Non European Royalty Website, entry:"Egypt" "Women in Power" 1840-1870, entry: "1863-79 Valida Pasha Khushiyar of Egypt" Rulers from the House of Mohammed Aly Genealogical entry: "Hoshiar Walda Pasha" Reign Between 1861 and 1871, the Tanzimat reforms which began during the reign of his brother Abdülmecid were continued under the leadership of his able chief ministers, Keçecizade Mehmed Fuad Pasha and Mehmed Emin Aali Pasha. New administrative districts (vilayets) were set up in 1864 and a Council of State was established in 1868. Public education was organized on the French model and the Istanbul University was reorganized as a modern institution in 1861. Abdülaziz cultivated good relations with the Second French Empire and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and was the first Ottoman sultan to visit Western Europe, in 1867, which included a visit to England, where he was made a Knight of the Garter by Queen Victoria and shown a Royal Navy Fleet Review with his Khedive of Egypt. He travelled by a private rail car, which today can be found in the Rahmi M. Koç Museum in Istanbul. His fellow Knights of the Garter created in 1867 were Charles Gordon-Lennox, 6th Duke of Richmond, Charles Manners, 6th Duke of Rutland, Henry Somerset, 8th Duke of Beaufort, Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn, Franz Joseph I of Austria and Alexander II of Russia. In 1869, Abdülaziz received visits from Eugénie de Montijo, Empress consort of Napoleon III of France and other foreign monarchs on their way to the opening of the Suez Canal. The Prince of Wales, the future Edward VII of the United Kingdom, twice visited Istanbul. By 1871 both ʿAlī Pasha and Fuʿād Pasha were dead. The Second French Empire, his Western European model, had been defeated in the Franco-Prussian War by the North German Confederation under the leadership of the Kingdom of Prussia. In foreign policy, Abdülaziz turned to the Russian Empire for friendship, as turmoil in the Balkan provinces continued. In 1875, the Herzegovinian rebellion was the beginning of further unrest in the Balkan provinces. In 1876, the April Uprising saw insurrection spreading among the Bulgarians. Ill feeling mounted against Russia for its encouragement of the rebellions. The crop failure of 1873, the sultan's lavish expenditures for the Ottoman Navy and the new palaces which he built, and the mounting public debt had also heightened public discontent. Abdülaziz was deposed by his ministers on 30 May 1876; his death at Feriye Palace, Istanbul, a few days later was attributed to suicide, although he might have been murdered. He was buried in Istanbul. Achievements The biggest achievement of Abdülaziz was to modernize the Ottoman Navy. In 1875, the Ottoman Navy had 21 battleships and 173 warships of other types, ranking as the third largest navy in the world after the British and French navies. He also established the first Ottoman railroad network and Sirkeci Train Station in Istanbul, terminus of the Orient Express. Impressed by the museums in London, Paris and Vienna, he established the Istanbul Archaeological Museum. Under Abdülaziz's reign, Turkey's first postage stamps were issued in 1863, and Turkey joined the Universal Postal Union in 1875 as a founding member. He was made the 756th Knight of the Order of the Garter in 1867 and the 127th Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword. Marriages and issue Bedroom of Sultan Abdül Aziz in Dolmabahçe Palace. Ten children survived him. i339.html First marriage and issue He married firstly at the Dolmabahçe Palace in Istanbul, in 1856 to Georgian HH Dürrünev Kadın Efendi (Batumi, 15 March 1835 - Istanbul, Üsküdar, Çamlıca Palace, 4 December 1892), and had: HIH Prince Şehzade Yusuf Izzeddin Efendi (Dolmabahçe Palace, 10 October 1857 - 1 February 1916), married firstly at the Beşiktaş Palace in Beşiktaş, Istanbul, on 20 May 1885 to Georgian HH Cavidan Hanım Efendi (Kars, 12 January 1870 - 1935), without issue, married secondly at the Beşiktaş Palace, on 6 July 1886 to Abkhaz HH Emine Nazikedâ Hanım Efendi (Sukhumi, Abkhazia, 30 May 1872 - 1946), without issue, married thirdly at the Beşiktaş Palace, on 15 October 1892 to Georgian HH Tazende Hanım Efendi (Poti, 10 October 1875 - Istanbul, Ortaköy, 1950), without issue, and married fourthly at the Çamlıca Palace in Üsküdar, Istanbul, on 4 February 1904 to Georgian HH Leman Ünlüsoy Hanım Efendi (Batumi, 6 June 1888 - Çamlıca Palace, 3 August 1953), and had two daughters and one son: HH HIH Princess Hadice Sükriye Sultan Hanım Efendi (Çamlıca Palace, 24 February 1906 - Cairo, 1 April 1972), married firstly at the Nişantaşı Palace in Nişantaşı, Istanbul, on 14 November 1923 and divorced in 1927 as his first wife her cousin HIH Prince Şehzade Muhammed Sharifuddin Efendi (Ortaköy Palace in Ortaköy, Istanbul, 19 May 1904 - Beirut, 1966), without issue, and married secondly in Cairo on 4 September 1935 and divorced in 1937 HH Sheikh Ahmad I Al-Jaber Al-Sabah (1885 - Dasman Palace, Kuwait, 29 January 1950), created HH in 1937, Emir of Kuwait from 1921 to 1950, without issue HIH Prince Şehzade Mehmed Nizameddin Efendi (10 January 1909 - Orsellina, 21 March 1933 and buried in Turkey in 1967), unmarried and without issue HH HIH Princess Mihriban Mihrishah Sultan Hanım Efendi (Beşiktaş Palace, Istanbul, 1 June 1916 - Istanbul, 25 January 1987), married in Alexandria on 31 July 1948 as his second wife to her cousin HIH Prince Şehzade Ömer Faruk Efendi (Ortaköy Palace, Istanbul, 27 February 1898 - 1969/1971), without issue HIH Princess Fatma Saliha Sultan (Dolmabahçe Palace, Istanbul, 9 August 1862 - Cairo, 1941), married to HE Damat Kürt Ismail Pasha Beyefendi, without issue HIH Princess Emine Sultan (30 November 1866 - 23 January 1867) Second marriage and issue He married secondly at the Dolmabahçe Palace in 1861 to HH Edâdil Kadın Efendi (1845 - Dolmabahçe Palace, 12 December 1875), and had: HIH Prince Şehzade Mahmud Celaleddin Efendi (Dolmabahçe Palace, 16 November 1862 - 1 September 1888), married to Sherifa Shams bint Sultan Ibn Muhammad (Istanbul, 11 November 1870 - 28 September 1895), who descended from the Hashemite Sharifs of Mecca, deriving from Hasan ibn Ali, the oldest grandson of the Muhammad, and so was related to the Jordanian royal house, and had one daughter: HIH Princess Fehime Sultan (Istanbul, Mermer Köşkü, 6 January 1889 - Haskovo, 31 August 1971), married to HE Damat Mehmed Ali Pasha Beyefendi, and had one daughter: HH HH Princess Nemzade Hatice Hanımsultan Hanım Efendi (Istanbul, Mermer Köşkü, 22/23 July 1913 - Babaeski, 3 November 2000), grew up in Haskovo, Bulgaria, after being exiled since she was 11 years old, when the Ottoman family was exiled from Istanbul, married at Vrana Palace on 18 July 1934 to her cousin HIH Prince Şehzade Mehmed Şaban Osmanoğlu Efendi (Istanbul, Kurut Ceşme, 13 April 1909 - Babaeski), left Turkey in 1924 and emigrated to Bulgaria, returning to Turkey with his family in 1980, settling in Thrace, and had issue HIH Prince Şehzade Mehmed Selim Efendi (28 September 1866 - 21 October 1867) Third marriage and issue He married thirdly in 1872 to Circassian HH Gevherin Nedaxe Kadın Efendi (Caucasus, 8 July 1856 - Ortaköy Palace, Ortaköy, Istanbul, 20 September 1894), and had: HIH Prince Şehzade Mehmed Seyfeddin Efendi (Beşiktaş Palace or Dolmabahçe Palace, 21/22 September 1874 - Nice, 19 October 1927), Rear Admiral of the Ottoman Navy, married firstly at the Ortaköy Palace, on 4 December 1899 to Georgian HH Necem Felek Hanım Efendi (Kutaisi, 5 January 1880 - Nice, 1930), and had one son, and married secondly at the Ortaköy Palace, on 23 February 1902 Georgian HH Nervaliter Hanım Efendi (Caucasus, 27 March 1885 - Nice, 1935), and had two sons and one daughter: Mehmed Abdulaziz II HIH Prince Şehzade Mahmud Sevket Efendi (Ortaköy Palace, Istanbul, 20 July 1903 - 1 February 1973), excluded from the Imperial House in 1931, married in Shkodër on 4 May 1922 and divorced in 1928 his cousin HH HH Princess Adile Hanımsultan Hanım Efendi (Ortaköy Palace, 12 November 1900 - February 1979), and had one daughter: HIH Princess Hamide Nermin Nezahat Sultan (Shkodër, 27 January 1923 - 7 November 1998), unmarried and without issue HIH Prince Şehzade Ahmed Tevhid Efendi (Çamlıca Palace, Üsküdar, Istanbul, 30 November 1904 - Beirut, 24 April 1966), twin with the below, unmarried and without issue HIH Princess Fatma Gevheri Sultan (Çamlıca Palace, 30 November 1904 - 10 December 1980), twin with the above, unmarried and without issue HIH Princess Gwaschemasch'e Kadın Efendi (Istanbul, Çırağan Palace, 21 June 1877 - ?) Fourth marriage and issue He married fourthly at the Dolmabahçe Palace, Istanbul, on 21 September 1866 to Georgian HH Hayranidil Kadın Efendi (Kars, 2 November 1846 - Ortaköy Palace, Istanbul, 26 November 1898), and had: HIH Princess Nazima Sultan (Dolmabahçe Palace, 14 February 1866 - Beirut, 1947), married to HE Damat Halit Pasha Beyefendi, without issue Abdülmecid II Fifth marriage and issue He married fifthly at the Dolmabahçe Palace, in 1868 to HH Nesherek Haseki Kadın Efendi (1848 - 11 June 1876), and had: HIH Prince Şehzade Mehmed Salâhaddin Efendi (25 March 1870 - 29 August 1900/1916), unmarried and without issue Sixth marriage and issue He married sixthly to Georgian HH Nesrin Kadın Efendi (Tbilisi, 1860 - Ortaköy Palace, Istanbul, 29 September 1895), and had: HIH Prince Şehzade Muhammed Shefket Efendi (Beşiktaş Palace, Istanbul, 5 June 1872 - Ortaköy Palace, Istanbul, 22 October 1899), married at the Yıldız Palace, Istanbul, on 3 April 1890 to HH Fatma Ruhnaz Hanım Efendi (Bandırma, 2 January 1873 - Ortaköy Palace, Istanbul, 1935), and had one son: HIH Prince Şehzade Muhammed Cemaleddin Efendi (Yıldız Palace, Istanbul, 28 October 1890 - Beirut, 18 November 1946), married at the Ortaköy Palace, on 2 March 1913 to Georgian HH Cemile Destaviz Hanım Efendi (Batumi, 13 August 1895 - ?), and had two sons: HIH Prince Şehzade Mahmud Husameddin Efendi (Ortaköy Palace, 1 September 1916 - Beirut, 7 August 1966), unmarried and without issue HIH Prince Shehzade Suleyman Saadeddin Efendi (Ortaköy Palace, 20 November 1917 - 8 May 1985), married in Beirut on 1 April 1956 to HH Lamia Baba Saoui Hanım Efendi (Beirut, 1930 -), and had one son and two daughters: HIH Prince Şehzade Orhan İbrahim Suleiman Saadeddin Efendi (b. Beirut, 16 July 1959), married to HH Rita Eid Hanım Efendi (b. 1966), without issue HIH Princess Perihan Suleiman Saadeddin Sultan (b. Beirut, 2 October 1963), unmarried and without issue HIH Princess Gülhan Suleiman Saadeddin Sultan (b. Beirut, 30 January 1968), unmarried and without issue HIH Princess Esma Sultan (Dolmabahçe Palace, 21 March 1873 - 7 May 1899), married at the Yıldız Palace, Istanbul, on 20 April 1889 to HE Damat Cerkes Mehmed Pasha Beyefendi (Istanbul, 1856 - 24 April 1909), created Damat in 1889, and had four sons and one daughter: HH Prince Beyzade Sultanzade Hasan Bedreddin Beyefendi (1890 - 29 January 1909), unmarried and without issue HH Prince Beyzade Sultanzade Husain Hayreddin Beyefendi (Istanbul, 1890 - Istanbul, 1956), unmarried and without issue HH Princess Fatma Sidika Hanımsultan (1894 - 1894) HH Prince Beyzade Sultanzade Saadeddin Mohamed Beyefendi (Istanbul, 14 June 1895 - Beirut, 1976), unmarried and without issue HH Prince Beyzade Sultanzade Abdullah Beyefendi (7 May 1899 - 7 May 1899) HIH Princess Emine Sultan (Dolmabahçe Palace, 24 August 1874 - 29 January 1920), married to HE Damat Mehmet Bey Beyefendi, without issue Seventh marriage and issue He married seventhly to HH Yıldız Kadın Efendi, sister of HH Safinaz Kadın Efendi, a wife of Sultan Abdul Hamid II, and had: HIH Princess Fatma Gevheri Sultan (1874 - 1875) HIH Princess Munire Sultan (1877 - 1877), born posthumously References http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Ne%C5%9Ferek_Haseki_kad%C4%B1n_Efendi.jpg http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nesherek_Haseki_Kadin_Efendi External links | Abdülaziz |@lemmatized abdülaziz:9 abd:1 al:3 aziz:2 imperial:2 majesty:1 ottoman:15 turkish:1 abdü:1 l:1 âzīz:1 evvel:1 عبد:1 العزيز:1 february:10 june:8 sultan:25 empire:5 reign:4 may:10 son:8 mahmud:5 ii:6 succeed:1 brother:2 abdülmecid:3 chamber:1 biographical:1 dictionary:1 isbn:1 page:1 bear:2 eyüb:1 palace:50 istanbul:41 receive:2 education:2 nevertheless:1 ardent:1 admirer:1 material:1 progress:1 make:3 west:1 interested:1 literature:1 also:4 classical:1 music:3 composer:1 composition:1 collect:1 album:1 european:3 court:2 london:2 academy:1 family:3 parent:2 valide:4 pertevniyal:6 originally:1 name:2 bezime:1 profile:1 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leadership:2 able:1 chief:1 minister:2 keçecizade:1 mehmed:10 fuad:1 emin:1 aali:1 new:2 administrative:1 district:1 vilayets:1 set:1 council:1 state:1 establish:3 public:3 organize:1 model:2 university:1 reorganize:1 modern:1 institution:1 cultivate:1 good:1 relation:1 second:4 united:2 kingdom:3 great:1 britain:1 ireland:1 western:2 europe:1 include:1 england:1 knight:3 garter:3 queen:1 victoria:1 show:1 navy:7 fleet:1 review:1 khedive:1 travel:1 private:1 rail:1 car:1 today:1 find:1 rahmi:1 koç:1 museum:3 fellow:1 create:3 charles:2 gordon:1 lennox:1 duke:4 richmond:1 manner:1 rutland:1 henry:1 somerset:1 beaufort:1 prince:22 arthur:1 connaught:1 strathearn:1 franz:1 joseph:1 austria:1 alexander:1 russia:2 consort:1 napoleon:1 iii:1 monarch:1 way:1 opening:1 suez:1 canal:1 wale:1 future:1 edward:1 vii:1 twice:1 ʿalī:1 fuʿād:1 dead:1 defeat:1 franco:1 prussian:1 war:1 north:1 german:1 confederation:1 prussia:1 policy:1 turn:1 russian:1 friendship:1 turmoil:1 balkan:2 province:2 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1,572 | Id_Software | id Software (officially ) is an American video game development company from Mesquite, Texas. The company was founded in 1991 by four members of the computer company Softdisk: programmers John Carmack and John Romero, game designer Tom Hall, and artist Adrian Carmack (no relation to John Carmack). It is now considered the most influential of the many game development companies in the Dallas area, known as the Dallas Gaming Mafia. History The founders of id Software met in the offices of Softdisk developing multiple games for Softdisk's monthly publishing. These included Dangerous Dave and other titles. In September 1990, John Carmack developed an efficient way to perform rapid side-scrolling graphics on the PC. Upon making this breakthrough, Carmack and Hall stayed up late into the night making a replica of the first level of the popular 1990 NES game Super Mario Bros. 3, inserting stock graphics of Romero's Dangerous Dave character in lieu of Mario. When Romero saw the demo, entitled "Dangerous Dave in Copyright Infringement", he realized that Carmack's breakthrough could mean fame and fortune, and the id Software guys immediately began moonlighting, going so far as to "borrow" company computers that were not being used over the weekends and at nights while they whipped together a full-scale carbon copy of Super Mario Bros. 3 for the PC, hoping to license it to Nintendo. Despite their work, Nintendo turned them down, saying they had no interest in expanding to the PC market. Around this time, Scott Miller of Apogee Software learned of the group and their exceptional talent, having played one of John Romero's Softdisk games, Pyramids of Egypt, and contacted Romero under the guise of multiple fan letters that Romero came to realize all originated from the same address. When he confronted Miller, Miller explained that the deception was necessary since companies at that time were very protective of their talent and it was the only way he could get Romero to initiate contact with him. Miller suggested that they develop shareware games that he would distribute. As a result, the id Software team began the development of Commander Keen, a Mario-style side-scrolling game for the PC, once again "borrowing" company computers to work on it at odd hours at the lake house at which they lived in Shreveport, Louisiana. On December 14 1990, the first episode was released as shareware by Miller's company, Apogee, and orders began rolling in. Shortly after this, Softdisk management learned of the team's deception and suggested that they form a new company together, but the administrative staff at Softdisk threatened to resign if such an arrangement were made. In a legal settlement, the team was required to provide a game to Softdisk every two months for a certain period of time, but they would do so on their own. On February 1 1991, id Software was founded. The shareware distribution method was initially employed by id Software through Apogee Software to sell their products, such as the Commander Keen, Wolfenstein and Doom games. They would release the first part of their trilogy as shareware, then sell the other two installments by mail order. Only later (about the time of the release of Doom II) did id release their games via more traditional shrink-wrapped boxes in stores (through other game publishers). id Technology Starting with their first shareware game series, Commander Keen, id Software has licensed the core source code for the game, or what is more commonly known as the engine. Brainstormed by John Romero, id held a weekend session titled "The id Summer Seminar" in the summer of 1991 with prospective buyers including Scott Miller, George Broussard, Ken Rogoway, Jim Norwood and Todd Replogle. One of the nights, id Software put together an impromptu game known as "Wac-Man" to demonstrate not only the technical prowess of the Keen engine, but also how it worked internally. Since then, id Software has licensed the Keen engine, Wolfenstein 3D engine, Shadowcaster engine , DOOM engine, the Quake, Quake II, and Quake III engines, as well as their latest technology that was used in making Doom 3. These engines have powered numerous notable titles, with their most successful engine being the Quake III engine. In conjunction with his self-professed affinity for sharing source code, John Carmack has open-sourced most of the major id Software engines under the GPL license. Historically, the source code for each engine has been released once the code base is 5 years old. Consequently, many home grown projects have sprung up porting the code to different platforms, cleaning up the source code, or providing major modifications to the core engine. Wolfenstein 3D, DOOM and Quake engine ports are ubiquitous to nearly all platforms capable of running games, such as hand-held PCs, iPods, the PSP, the Nintendo DS and more. Impressive core modifications include Darkplaces which adds stencil shadow volumes into the original Quake engine along with a more efficient network protocol. Another such project is ioQuake3, which maintains a goal of cleaning up the source code, adding features and fixing bugs. The source code to the Quake III engine was previously supposed to have been released around the end of 2004. However, John Carmack announced that the GPL release had been put on hold in order to maintain a grace period, since the Quake III engine was still being licensed to commercial customers who would otherwise become upset over the sudden loss in value of their recent investment. The Quake III source code was released under the GPL on August 19 2005. Id Software has publicly stated they will not support the Wii console, although they have since indicated that there may, in fact, be properties that can be brought to the platform. "id Properties Coming to Wii" from Cubed3 Since id Software revealed their new engine id Tech 5, they will be calling all their technology "id Tech", followed by the version of the technology. Film production Id Software became involved in film development when they were in the production team of the film adaption of their Doom franchise in 2005. In August 2007, Todd Hollenshead stated at QuakeCon 2007 that a Return to Castle Wolfenstein movie is in development which re-teams the Silent Hill writer/producer team, Roger Avary as writer and director and Samuel Hadida as producer. Linux id Software's Linux games have been some of the most popular of the platform. Many id Software games won the Readers' and Editors' Choice awards of Linux Journal. Some id titles ported to Linux are Doom (the first id game to be ported), Quake, Quake II, Quake III Arena, Return to Castle Wolfenstein, Wolfenstein: Enemy Territory, Doom 3, Quake 4, and Enemy Territory: Quake Wars. Since id Software and licencees released the source code for some of their previous games, several games which were not ported (such as Wolfenstein 3D, Spear of Destiny, Heretic, Hexen, and Rise of the Triad) can run on Linux and other operating systems by the use of source ports. Game series Commander Keen Screenshot of a Commander Keen game, Keen Must Die!. The Commander Keen series, a platform game introducing one of the first smooth side-scrolling game engines for the PC, brought id Software into the gaming mainstream. The game was very successful and spawned a whole series of titles. It was also the series of id Software that designer Tom Hall was most affiliated with. Wolfenstein 3D The company's breakout product was 1992's Wolfenstein 3D, a first person shooter (FPS) with smooth 3D graphics that were unprecedented in computer games, and with violent game play that many gamers found engaging. After essentially founding an entire genre with this game, id created Doom, Doom II, Quake, Quake II, Quake III Arena,Quake 4 and Doom 3. Each of these first person shooters featured progressively higher levels of graphical technology (and progressively higher minimum system requirements). Wolfenstein 3D spawned a prequel and a sequel, the prequel called Spear of Destiny, and the second, Return to Castle Wolfenstein, used the id Tech 3 engine. A third Wolfenstein sequel is being developed by Raven Software, using the Doom 3 engine. Doom A screenshot from the first episode of Doom. Eighteen months after their release of Wolfenstein 3D, in 1993 id released Doom which would again set new standards for graphic quality and graphic violence in computer gaming. Id redefined the benchmark for realism for the first-person shooter genre, which they popularized with Wolfenstein 3D. Doom featured a sci-fi/horror setting with graphic quality that had never been seen on personal computers or even video game consoles (in fact, the later console ports of the game featured notably poorer graphics than the original DOS version). Doom became a cultural phenomenon and its violent theme would eventually launch a new wave of criticism decrying the dangers of violence in video games. Doom was ported to numerous platforms, inspired many knock-offs and was eventually followed by the technically similar Doom II. Though popularizing the genre with Wolfenstein 3D, id really made its mark in video game history with the shareware release of Doom, and eventually revisited the theme of this game in 2004 with their release of Doom 3. John Carmack said in an interview at QuakeCon 2007 that there will be a Doom 4, it has been in development since May 7, 2008 QuakeCon 2007: John Carmack Talks Rage, id Tech 5 And More Quake The June 22 1996 release of Quake marked the second milestone in id history. Quake combined a cutting edge fully 3D engine with a distinctive art style to create what was at the time regarded as a feast for the eyes. Audio was not neglected either, having recruited Nine Inch Nails frontman Trent Reznor to facilitate unique sound-effects and ambient music for the game. (A small homage was paid to Nine Inch Nails in the form of the band's logo appearing on an ammunition box.) It also included the work of Michael Abrash. Furthermore, Quake'''s main innovation—the capability to play a deathmatch (competitive gameplay between living opponents instead of against computer-run characters) over the Internet (especially through the add-on QuakeWorld) seared the title into the minds of gamers as another smash hit. In 2008 id was honored at the 59th Annual Technology & Engineering Emmy Awards for the pioneering work Quake represented in user modifiable games. 2008 Tech Emmy Winners from Kotaku.com Id is the only game development company ever honored twice by the National Academy of Television Arts & Sciences, having been given an Emmy Award in 2007 for creation of the 3D technology that underlies modern shooter computer games. Rage Todd Hollenshead announced in May 2007 that id had begun working on an all new series that would be using a new engine that is currently being developed by John Carmack. Hollenshead also mentioned that the title would be completely developed in-house, marking the first game since 2004's Doom 3 to be done so. At 2007's WWDC, John Carmack showed the new engine called id Tech 5. Later that year, at QuakeCon 2007, the title of the new game was revealed as Rage. Most recently, on July 14, 2008, id announced at the 2008 E3 event that they would be publishing Rage through EA, and not id's longtime publisher Activision. Company name The name of the company is currently written with a lowercase id, which is pronounced as in "did" or "kid", and is presented by the company as a reference to the id, a psychological concept introduced by Sigmund Freud. Evidence of the reference can be found as early as Wolfenstein 3D with the statement "that's Id, as in the id, ego, and superego in the psyche" appearing in the game's documentation. Even today, id's History page makes a direct reference to Freud. id's History page However, when working at Softdisk, the team that later founded id Software took the name "Ideas from the Deep" (a company created by John Romero and Lane Roathe in 1989), attributing themselves as the "IFD guys". Since "id" can be seen as a shortening of IFD to "ID", some have been led to believe that it can be pronounced "eye-dee". The I was later made lowercase in the release of the second Commander Keen series, eventually followed by the D. Since Wolfenstein 3D used the "id" pronunciation together with the mixed-case "iD", it can be argued that the capitalization is purely a stylistic choice. Key figures In 2003, the book Masters of Doom chronicled the development of id Software, concentrating on the personalities and interaction of John Carmack and John Romero. Below are the key people involved with id's success. John Carmack The lead programmer for id Software is John Carmack, whose skill at 3D programming is widely recognized in the software industry. He is the last of the original founders still employed by the company. John Romero John Romero, who was forced to resign after the release of Quake, later formed the ill-fated company Ion Storm. There, he became infamous through the development of Daikatana, which got mediocre reception from reviewers and gamers alike upon release. Romero now heads the Cyberathlete Professional League Board of Directors and is currently developing a MMOG for his new company, Slipgate Ironworks. Both Tom Hall and John Romero have reputations as designers and idea men who have helped shape some of the key PC gaming titles of the 1990s. Tom Hall Tom Hall was forced to resign by id Software during the early days of Doom development, but not before he had some impact; he was responsible, for example, for the inclusion of teleporters in the game. He was let go before the shareware release of Doom and then went to work for Apogee, developing Rise of the Triad with the "Developers of Incredible Power". When he finished work on that game, he found he was not compatible with the Prey development team at Apogee, and therefore left to join his ex-id compadre John Romero at Ion Storm. Hall has frequently commented that if id Software ever sold him the rights to Commander Keen he would immediately develop another Keen title. Sandy Petersen Sandy Petersen was a level designer for 19 of the 27 levels in the original Doom title as well as 17 of the 32 levels of Doom II. As a fan of H.P. Lovecraft, his influence is apparent in the Lovecraftian feel of the monsters for Quake, and he created the fourth and final "episode" of the game. He left Id during the production of Quake II and most of his work was scrapped before the title was released. American McGee American McGee was a level designer for Doom II, The Ultimate Doom, Quake, and Quake II. After he was fired during the development of Quake II, he moved to Rogue Entertainment where he gained industry notoriety with the development of his own game American McGee's Alice. Rogue Entertainment operated in the same building as id Software. When Rogue shut down, he became president of his own company, The Mauretania Import Export Company, which licenses the American McGee name to games with which he has little to no creative input, including Scrapland and the critically panned game Bad Day L.A.. Co-owners John Carmack, Technical director Kevin Cloud, artist Tim Willits, lead designer Todd Hollenshead, CEO Games by id Software Developer (Note: Dangerous Dave is a solo project of John Romero predating id's formation, but id produced its first sequel and it is sometimes regarded as an early id title. Later Dangerous Dave sequels were not made by id, nor were later Catacomb titles)Dangerous Dave (1988) Commander KeenEpisode 1: Marooned on Mars (1990) Episode 2: The Earth Explodes (1991) Episode 3: Keen Must Die (1991)Keen Dreams (1991) Episode 4: Secret of the Oracle (1991) Episode 5: The Armageddon Machine (1991) Episode 6: Aliens Ate My Baby Sitter (1991)Dangerous Dave in the Haunted Mansion (1991)Rescue Rover (1991)Rescue Rover 2 (1991)Shadow Knights (1991)Hovertank 3D (1991)Catacomb 3D: A New Dimension (1991) re-released as Catacomb 3-D: The DescentWolfenstein 3D (1992)Spear of Destiny (1992)Doom (1993)The Ultimate Doom (1995) Doom II: Hell on Earth (1994)Master Levels for Doom II (1995)Final Doom (1996)Quake (1996)Quake II (1997)Quake III Arena (1999)Quake III: Team Arena (2000)Doom 3 (2004)Doom 3: Resurrection of Evil (2005)Quake Live (2009 - Beta)Rage (TBA)Doom 4 (TBA) Announcement of Doom 4 from official id home page Publisher / Producer Heretic - Raven Software (1994)HeXen - Raven Software (1995)HeXen II - Raven Software (1997) Quake Expansion PacksScourge of Armagon - Ritual Entertainment (1997)Dissolution of Eternity - Rogue Entertainment (1997) Quake II Expansion PacksThe Reckoning - Gray Matter Interactive (1998)Ground Zero - Rogue Entertainment (1998)Return to Castle Wolfenstein - Gray Matter Interactive, Nerve Software (multiplayer) (2001)Wolfenstein: Enemy Territory - Splash Damage (2003)Doom 3: Resurrection of Evil - Nerve Software (2005)Quake 4 - Raven Software (2005)Doom RPG - Fountainhead Entertainment (2005)Orcs & Elves - Fountainhead Entertainment (2006)Enemy Territory: Quake Wars - Splash Damage (2007)Wolfenstein - Raven Software (2009) Additional reading Kushner, David (2003). Masters of Doom: How Two Guys Created an Empire and Transformed Pop Culture, New York: Random House. ISBN 0-375-50524-5. Trivia In the ENDOOM WAD lump of Doom and The Ultimate Doom, id Software said that they enjoyed making the Doom game. In the MS-DOS version of the very first Quake game, id Software says that they love their customers almost as much as God does. On the back cover of the French, Italian, and Spain packaging of The Ultimate Doom, the id Software people are said to be "fiendish geniuses", and on the back cover of Master Levels for Doom II'', they are described as being "the demented minds of id Software". Many of id Software's games have humorous quit messages, and the difficulty levels in the games are just comical declarative sentences written in first-person, as though the protagonist is saying them. References External links Official id Software website id Software profile at MobyGames Articles "E3 2007: id Into the Future" "The Wizardry of Id" article by David Kushner from IEEE Spectrum Online "A Chat With id Software", a GameSpy interview with people at id Software "A Look Back at Commander Keen" at 3D Realms, includes some details on the history of id "Q&A with id Software's Kevin Cloud and Steve Nix" "id Software's Todd Hollenshead and Tim Willits on Games for Windows, digital distribution and the studio's future." "Interview: id Software's Kevin Cloud & Steve Nix" "A look inside id Software with High Definition video and pictures." | Id_Software |@lemmatized id:81 software:49 officially:1 american:5 video:5 game:54 development:13 company:20 mesquite:1 texas:1 found:4 four:1 member:1 computer:8 softdisk:8 programmer:2 john:23 carmack:16 romero:16 designer:6 tom:5 hall:7 artist:2 adrian:1 relation:1 consider:1 influential:1 many:6 dallas:2 area:1 know:3 gaming:3 mafia:1 history:6 founder:2 meet:1 office:1 develop:9 multiple:2 monthly:1 publishing:2 include:6 dangerous:7 dave:7 title:14 september:1 efficient:2 way:2 perform:1 rapid:1 side:3 scroll:1 graphic:7 pc:7 upon:2 make:9 breakthrough:2 stay:1 late:3 night:3 replica:1 first:14 level:9 popular:2 ne:1 super:2 mario:4 bros:2 insert:1 stock:1 character:2 lieu:1 saw:1 demo:1 entitle:1 copyright:1 infringement:1 realize:2 could:2 mean:1 fame:1 fortune:1 guy:3 immediately:2 begin:4 moonlight:1 go:3 far:1 borrow:1 use:7 weekend:2 whip:1 together:4 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1,573 | Christmas_tree | The Christmas tree is one of the most popular traditions associated with the celebration of Christmas. Normally an evergreen coniferous tree that is brought into a home or used in the open, a Christmas tree is decorated with Christmas lights and colourful ornaments during the days around Christmas. An angel or star is often placed at the top of the tree, representing the host of angels or the Star of Bethlehem from the Nativity story. __toc__ History Pre-Christian roots There has historically been opposition to the custom of the Christmas tree because of its pagan origins. Thus, Oliver Cromwell preached against "the heathen traditions" of Christmas carols and decorated trees. In 1851, parishioners in Cleveland, Ohio, USA condemned as a pagan practice the actions of the pastor, Henry Schwan, for decorating what was likely the first Christmas tree in an American Christian church. There are various legends regarding the origin of the Christmas tree, often relating to Saint Boniface. Thus, in one version, Boniface disrupted a pagan child sacrifice at an oak tree, flattening the oak with a blow of his fist. A small fir sprang up in place of the oak, which Boniface told the pagans represented Christ. Hewitt (2007), p. 12. Though Christmas traditions in general were often associated with paganism in 19th century scholarship , Francis Weisler, in his book Handbook of Christian Feasts and Customs, argues that “It is completely Christian in origin. Historians have never been able to connect it with ancient Germanic or Asiatic mythology.” Francis Weisler, Handbook of Christian Feasts and Customs, 1958, p. 81; http://www.scribd.com/doc/3957343/Handbook-of-Christian-Feasts-and-Customs Robert Chambers in his 1832 Book of Days asserts that the festivities of Christmas "originally derived from the Roman Saturnalia, had afterwards been intermingled with the ceremonies observed by the British Druids at the period of winter-solstice, and at a subsequent period became incorporated with the grim mythology of the ancient Saxons. Two popular observances belonging to Christmas are more especially derived from the worship of our pagan ancestors—the hanging up of the mistletoe and the burning of the Yule log." Regarding the Christmas tree itself, Chambers assumes that it "seems to be a very ancient custom in Germany, and is probably a remnant of the splendid and fanciful pageants of the Middle Ages." However, Weisler also dismantles the hypothesis of the pagan origin of the Yule log as well, saying, "The Yule tree had no direct pagan connotation, and never acquired any Christian religious meaning in later times." (Francis Weisler, Handbook of Christian Feasts and Customs, 1958, p. 81) He then goes on to reveal its true origin, devoid of any connection with the Yule tree. Other traditions relating to Christmas that may derive from Germanic pagan practices include the Christmas ham, Yule Goat, stuffing stockings, elements of Santa Claus and his nocturnal ride through the sky, and elements of Alpine folklore. Siefker, Phyllis. Santa Claus, Last of the Wild Men: The Origins and Evolution of Saint Nicholas, Spanning 50,000 Years (chap. 9, esp. 171-173) (2006) ISBN 0786429585 There are also some accounts that place the earliest Christmas trees in the Baltic (variously Estonia or Latvia), while in actuality the custom was introduced there in the 1920s. Kevin O'Connor, Culture and Customs of the Baltic States, Greenwood Publishing Group (2006) ISBN 9780313331251, p. 93 Origin A Christmas tree from 1900. The custom of erecting a Christmas tree can be traced to 16th century Germany, though neither an inventor nor a single town can be identified as the sole origin for the tradition. The earliest that a pine tree was ever used and decorated for Christmas was in 1521 in Germany (in the region of Alsace). From this singular point in time, we see the rapid spread of this tradition throughout Germany and eventually the world. "It was not until the beginning of the nineteenth century, however, that it spread rapidly and grew into a general German custom, which was soon accepted also by the Slavic people of Eastern Europe…" Francis Weisler, Handbook of Christian Feasts and Customs, 1958, p. 82-83 In the Cathedral of Strasbourg in 1539, the church record mentions the erection of a Christmas tree. In that period, the guilds started erecting Christmas trees in front of their guildhalls: Ingeborg Weber-Kellermann (Marburg professor of European ethnology) found a Bremen guild chronicle of 1570 which reports how a small fir was decorated with apples, nuts, dates, pretzels and paper flowers, and erected in the guild-house, for the benefit of the guild members' children, who collected the dainties on Christmas Day. Ingeborg Weber-Kellermann reference. Another early reference is from Basel, where the tailor apprentices carried around town a tree decorated with apples and cheese in 1597. In some accounts, Martin Luther is credited with adding lights and decoration to fir branches traditionally hung from ceilings. Suzanne Lieurance, Cogwriter quoting Lieurance, Suzanne. The First Christmas Tree Lights. The Junto Society, 2002 During the 17th century, the custom entered family homes. One Strasbourg priest, Johann Konrad Dannerstuart, complains about the custom as distracting from the Word of God. 18th and 19th century By the early 18th century, the custom had become common in towns of the upper Rhineland, but it had not yet spread to rural areas. Wax candles are attested from the late 18th century. The Christmas tree remained confined to the upper Rhineland for a relatively long time. It was regarded as a Protestant custom by the Roman Catholic majority along the lower Rhine and was spread there only by Prussian officials who were moved there in the wake of the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Just like Christmas (Germanic Yuletide), the Christmas tree was "adopted" by the Roman Catholic Church because it could not prevent its use. In the early 19th century, the custom became popular among the nobility and spread to royal courts as far as Russia. Princess Henrietta of Nassau-Weilburg introduced the Christmas tree to Vienna in 1816, and the custom spread across Austria in the following years. In France, the first Christmas tree was introduced in 1840 by the duchesse d'Orléans. The Queen's Christmas tree at Osborne House. The engraving republished in Godey's Lady's Book, Philadelphia, December 1850 In Britain, the Christmas tree was introduced in the time of the personal union with Hanover, by George III's Queen Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz but the custom did not spread much beyond the royal family. Queen Victoria as a child was familiar with the custom. In her journal for Christmas Eve 1832, the delighted 13-year-old princess wrote, "After dinner...we then went into the drawing-room near the dining-room...There were two large round tables on which were placed two trees hung with lights and sugar ornaments. All the presents being placed round the trees...". After her marriage to her German cousin, Prince Albert, the custom became even more widespread. In 1847, Prince Albert wrote: "I must now seek in the children an echo of what Ernest [his brother] and I were in the old time, of what we felt and thought; and their delight in the Christmas-trees is not less than ours used to be". A woodcut of the royal family with their Christmas tree at Osborne House, initially published in the Illustrated London News of December 1848, was copied in the United States at Christmas 1850 (illustration, left). Such patriotic prints of the British royal family at Christmas celebrations helped popularise the Christmas tree in Britain and among the Anglophile American upper class. Several cities in the United States with German connections lay claim to that country's first Christmas tree: Windsor Locks, Connecticut, claims that a Hessian soldier put up a Christmas tree in 1777 while imprisoned at the Noden-Reed House, while the "First Christmas Tree in America" is also claimed by Easton, Pennsylvania, where German settlers purportedly erected a Christmas tree in 1816. In his diary, Matthew Zahm of Lancaster, Pennsylvania, recorded the use of a Christmas tree in 1821 -- leading Lancaster to also lay claim to the first Christmas tree in America. Other accounts credit Charles Follen, a German immigrant to Boston, for being the first to introduce to America the custom of decorating a Christmas tree. Professor Brought Christmas Tree to New England August Imgard, a German immigrant living in Wooster, Ohio, is the first to popularise the practice of decorating a tree with candy canes. In 1847, Imgard cut a blue spruce tree from a woods outside town, had the Wooster village tinsmith construct a star, and placed the tree in his house, decorating it with paper ornaments and candy canes. The National Confectioners' Association officially recognises Imgard as the first ever to put candy canes on a Christmas tree; the canes were all-white, with no red stripes. Imgard is buried in the Wooster Cemetery, and every year, a large pine tree above his grave is lit with Christmas lights. 20th century Rockefeller Center treeTaiwanese aboriginals, tutored by Christian missionaries, celebrate with trees (Cunninghamia lanceolata) outside their homes. Many cities, towns, and department stores put up public Christmas trees outdoors, such as the Rich's Great Tree in Atlanta, the Rockefeller Center Christmas Tree in New York City and the large Christmas tree at Victoria Square in Adelaide. During most of the 1970s and 1980s, the largest Christmas tree in the world was put up every year on the property of The National Enquirer in Lantana, Florida. This tradition grew into one of the most spectacular and celebrated events in the history of southern Florida, but was discontinued on the death of the paper's founder in the late 1980s. In some cities Festival of Trees are organised around the decoration and display of multiple trees as charity events. In some cases the trees represent special commemorative gifts, such as in Trafalgar Square in London, where the City of Oslo, Norway presents a tree to the people of London as a token of appreciation for the British support of Norwegian resistance during the Second World War; in Boston, where the tree is a gift from the province of Nova Scotia, in thanks for rapid deployment of supplies and rescuers to the 1917 ammunition ship explosion that levelled the city of Halifax; and in Newcastle upon Tyne, where the 15 m-tall main civic Christmas tree is an annual gift from the city of Bergen, Norway, in thanks for the part played by soldiers from Newcastle in liberating Bergen from Nazi occupation. Newcastle City Council Town twinning: Bergen, Norway Norway also annually gifts a Christmas tree to Washington D.C. as a symbol of friendship between Norway and the US and as an expression of gratitude from Norway for the help received from the US during World War II. The United States' National Christmas Tree is lit each year on the South Lawn of the White House. Today, the lighting of the National Christmas Tree is part of what has become a major holiday event at the White House. President Jimmy Carter lit only the crowning star atop the Tree in 1979 in honour of the Americans being held hostage in Iran. The same was true in 1980, except the tree was fully lit for 417 seconds, one second for each day the hostages had been in captivity. "Lighting of the National Christmas Tree - History", President's Park - White House, nps.gov, accessed April 5, 2009. The term Charlie Brown Christmas tree is used in the United States and Canada to describe any poor-looking or malformed little tree. Some tree buyers intentionally adopt such trees, feeling sympathetic to their plights. The term comes from the appearance of Charlie Brown's Christmas tree in the TV special A Charlie Brown Christmas. In New Zealand, Pōhutukawa trees are described as "natural Christmas trees", as they bloom at Christmas time, and look like Christmas trees with their red flowers and green foliage. New Year tree decoration depicting cosmonaut (USSR, 1960s) In Russia, the Christmas tree was banned soonly after the October Revolution but then reinstalled again as a New-year fir-tree (Новогодняя ёлка) in 1935. It became a fully secular attribute of the New year holiday, e.g. the crowning star was regarded not as a symbol of Bethlehem Star, but that of Communism. Decorations, such as figures of airplanes, bicycles, space rockets, cosmonauts, along with characters of Russian fairy tales, were produced. This tradition persists after fall of USSR, with the New Year holiday outweighting the Christmas (7 January) for a wide majority of Russians. Social Evolution of the Christmas Tree Throughout the history of Christmas Trees, the human significance of bringing a living evergreen (or facsimile, see artificial trees) into the home represents the continuation of Life through the cold and darkness of winter. The choice of the evergreen is universal through all cultures that have adopted the winter celebration, such that "the holidays" have become a human festival as well as a Christian festival. Thus the term "holiday tree" serves the purpose of engaging larger groups of people regardless of their practiced or non-practiced religions. The primary decoration is light (originally produced by candle flame), which celebrates light in the darkness of the winter. The Christian roots of the Christmas Tree are logical from this social evolution standpoint. Most cultures and religions celebrate light over darkness, and life over death. The tree represents Life in winter, Light in Darkness, Hope of coming Spring, etc, in the same way that the Infant Jesus does by his birth -- regardless of the actual date. Thus across all cultures and climates, the adoption of Christmas trees and celebrations is in addition to, rather than separate from, the various celebrations that take place around the winter solstice. Dates Christmas trees lit by candles, Denmark. Both setting up and taking down a Christmas tree are associated with specific dates. In Europe, when the practise of setting up evergreen trees originated in pagan times, the practice was associated with the Winter Solstice, around December 21. A solstitial date also marked the rebirth of the sun gods Mithras or sol invictus, with whom no tree symbolism was connected. Tree decoration was later adopted into Christian practise after the Church set December 25 as the birth of Christ, thereby supplanting the pagan celebration of the solstice. Traditionally, Christmas trees were not brought in and decorated until Christmas Eve (24 December), and then removed the day after twelfth night (6 January); to have a tree up before or after these dates was even considered bad luck. Modern commercialisation of Christmas has resulted in trees being put up much earlier; in shops often as early as late October (in the UK, Selfridge's Christmas department is up by early September, complete with Christmas trees). Some households in the U.S. do not put up the tree until the second week of December, and leave it up until the 6th of January (Epiphany). In Germany, traditionally the tree is put up on the 24th of December and taken down on the 7th of January, though many start one or two weeks earlier, and in Roman Catholic homes the tree may be kept until late January. In Australia, the Christmas tree is usually put up on the 1st of December, which occurs about a week before the school summer holidays; except for South Australia, where most people put up their tree after the Adelaide Credit Union Christmas Pageant in early November. Some traditions suggest that Christmas trees may be kept up until no later than the 2nd of February, the feast of the Presentation of Jesus in the Temple (Candlemas), when the Christmas season effectively closes. Customs of the Weeks after Epiphany Superstitions say it's a bad sign if Christmas greenery is not removed by Candlemas Eve. Christmas Superstitions, December 2006] ] Types of trees used A sheared tree's fuller, more conical shape. An unsheared Christmas tree from 1951, in a home in New York State. Shopping for Christmas trees, Seattle, Washington, United States, 2007. A grower in Waterloo, Nova Scotia prunes Balsam Fir trees in October. The tree must experience three frosts to stabilize the needles before cutting. Natural trees The most commonly used species are fir (Abies), which have the benefit of not shedding their needles when they dry out, as well as retaining good foliage colour and scent; but species in other genera are also used. In northern Europe most commonly used are: Silver Fir Abies alba (the original species) Nordmann Fir Abies nordmanniana (as in the photo) Noble Fir Abies procera Norway Spruce Picea abies (generally the cheapest) Serbian Spruce Picea omorika Scots Pine Pinus sylvestris Stone Pine Pinus pinea (as small table-top trees) Swiss Pine Pinus cembra In North America, Central America and South America most commonly used are: Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga menziesii Balsam Fir Abies balsamea Fraser Fir Abies fraseri Grand Fir Abies grandis Guatemalan Fir Abies guatemalensis Noble Fir Abies procera Red Fir Abies magnifica Colorado Pine Pinus edulis Jeffrey Pine Pinus jeffreyi Scots Pine Pinus sylvestris Stone Pine Pinus pinea (as small table-top trees) Norfolk Island pine Araucaria heterophylla Several other species are used to a lesser extent. Less-traditional conifers are sometimes used, such as Giant Sequoia, Leyland Cypress, Monterey Cypress and Eastern Juniper. Various types of spruce tree are also used for Christmas trees; but spruces (unlike firs) begin to lose their needles rapidly upon being cut, and many spruces, such as Blue Spruce have very sharp needles, making decorating uncomfortable. Virginia Pine is still available on some tree farms in the southeastern United States, however its winter colour is faded. The long-needled Eastern White Pine is also used there, though it is an unpopular Christmas tree in most parts of the country, owing also to its faded winter coloration and limp branches, making decorating difficult with all but the lightest ornaments. Norfolk Island pine is sometimes used, particularly in Oceania, and in Australia some species of the genera Casuarina and Allocasuarina are also occasionally used as Christmas trees but by far the most common tree is the Monterey Pine. Adenanthos sericeus or Albany Woolly Bush is commonly sold in southern Australia as a potted living Christmas tree. Hemlock species are generally considered unsuitable as Christmas trees due to their poor needle retention and inability to support the weight of lights and ornaments. Some trees are sold live with roots and soil, often from a nursery, to be planted later outdoors and enjoyed (and often decorated) for years or decades. Others are produced in a container and sometimes as topiary for a porch or patio. However, the combination of root loss on digging, and the indoor environment of high temperature and low humidity is very detrimental to the tree's health, and the survival rate of these trees is low. These trees must be kept inside only for a few days (a maximum of ten), as the warmth will bring them out of dormancy, leaving them little protection when put back outside into the midwinter cold in most areas. To prolong the dormancy of a tree indoors, keep it in a cool corner away from heat sources, as the heat will lower the humidity around it. During planting, do not add non-native soil (ie. bagged nursery dirt), otherwise the tree will have difficulty adapting to the surrounding land. European tradition prefers the open aspect of naturally-grown, unsheared trees, while in North America (outside western areas where trees are often wild-harvested on public lands US Bureau of Land Management: Christmas tree permits ) there is a preference for close-sheared trees with denser foliage, but less space to hang decorations. The shearing also damages the highly attractive natural symmetry of unsheared trees. In the past, Christmas trees were often harvested from wild forests, but now almost all are commercially grown on tree farms. Almost all Christmas trees in the United States are grown on Christmas tree farms where they are cut after about ten years of growth and new trees planted. According to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) agriculture census for 2002 (the census is done every five years) there were 21,904 farms were producing conifers for the cut Christmas tree market in America, were planted in Christmas trees, and 13,849 farms harvested cut trees. The top 5 percent of the farms (40 hectares / 100 acres or more) sold 61 percent of the trees. The top 26 percent of the farms (8 hectares / 20 acres or more) sold 84 percent of the trees. Farms less than 0.8 hectare (two acres) comprised 21 percent of the farms, and sold an average of 115 trees per farm. US National Christmas Tree Association: Statistics A tree with fibre optic lights The life cycle of a Christmas tree from the seed to a tree takes, depending on species and treatment in cultivation, between 8 and 12 years. First, the seed is extracted from cones harvested from older trees. These seeds are then usually grown in nurseries and then sold to Christmas tree farms at an age of 3–4 years. The remaining development of the tree greatly depends on the climate, soil quality, as well as the cultivation and tendance by the Christmas tree farmer. MK Weihnachtsbaumkulturen Artificial trees The first artificial Christmas trees were developed in Germany during the 19th century, Hewitt, pp. 33-36. though earlier examples exist. These "trees" were made using goose feathers that were dyed green. Forbes, Bruce David. Christmas: A Candid History, (Google Books), University of California Press, 2007, pp. 121-22, (ISBN 0520251040) The German feather trees were one response by Germans to continued deforestation in Germany. Feather Christmas trees ranged widely in size, from a small tree to a large tree sold in department stores during the 1920s. Silverthorne, Elizabeth. Christmas in Texas, (Google Books), Texas A&M University Press, 1994, p. 62, (ISBN 0890965781). Often, the tree branches were tipped with artificial red berries which acted as candle holders. Marling, Karal Ann. Merry Christmas!: Celebrating America's Greatest Holiday, (Google Books), Harvard University Press, 2000, pp. 58-62, (ISBN 0674003187). A vintage aluminium tree, lit by a rotating colour wheel. Over the years other styles of artificial Christmas trees have evolved, and become popular. In 1930 the U.S.-based Addis Brush Company created the first artificial Christmas tree made from brush bristles. Cole, Peter, et al. Christmas Trees: Fun and Festive Ideas, (Google Books), Chronicle Books, 2002, p. 23, (ISBN 0811835774). Another type of tree, the aluminum Christmas tree, is made from aluminum. The trees were manufactured in the United States, first in Chicago in 1958, Fortin, Cassandra A. "It's beginning to look a lot like Christmas (1958)", The Baltimore Sun, October 26, 2008, accessed December 21, 2008. and later in Manitowoc, Wisconsin, where the majority of the trees were produced. Andrews, Candice Gaukel. Great Wisconsin Winter Weekends, (Google Books), Big Earth Publishing, 2006, p. 178, (ISBN 1931599718) Most modern artificial Christmas trees are made from polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or other plastics. The manufacture of PVC requires petroleum and despite being plastic most artificial trees are not recyclable or biodegradable.<ref name=livescience>Berry, Jennifer. Fake Christmas Trees Not So Green", LiveScience.com, December 9, 2008, accessed December 21, 2008.</ref> Other gimmicks have developed as well. Fiber optic Christmas trees come in two major varieties, one resembles a traditional Christmas tree. Neer, Katherine. "How Christmas Trees Work", howstuffworks.com, December 2006, accessed December 21, 2008. One Dallas-based company offers "holographic mylar" trees in many hues. Perkins, Broderick. "Faux Christmas Tree Crop Yields Special Concerns", Realty Times, December 12, 2003, accessed December 21, 2008. Tree-shaped objects made from such materials as cardboard, "Table-top Christmas Tree", (Google Books), Popular Mechanics January 1937, p. 117. glass, "Glass Christmas Tree", Diablo Glass School, one-day course listing, accessed December 21, 2008. ceramic or other materials can be found in use as tabletop decorations. Upside-down artificial Christmas trees became popular for a short time and were originally introduced as a marketing gimmick; they allowed consumers to get closer to ornaments for sale in retail stores as well as opened up floor space for more products. "Demand Grows for Upside Down Christmas Tree", (Audio), National Public Radio, "All Things Considered", November 9, 2005, accessed December 21, 2008. Artificial trees became increasingly popular during the late 20th century. Users of artificial Christmas trees assert that they are more convenient, and, because they are reusable, much cheaper than their natural alternative. Between 2001 and 2007 artificial Christmas tree sales jumped from 7.3 million to 17.4 million. Hayes, Sharon Caskey. "Grower says real Christmas trees are better for environment than artificial ones", Kingsport Times-News (Kingsport, Tennessee), November 26, 2008, accessed December 21, 2008. Environmental issues Artificial An artificial Christmas tree. The debate about the environmental impact of artificial trees is ongoing. Generally, natural tree growers contend that artificial trees are more environmentally harmful than their natural counterpart. On the other side of the debate, trade groups such as the American Christmas Tree Association, continue to refute that artificial trees are more harmful to the environment and maintain that the PVC used in Christmas trees has excellent recyclable properties. "Facts on PVC Used in Artificial Christmas Trees", American Christmas Tree Association, official site, accessed December 21, 2008. Lead, often used as a stabilizer in PVC, and its use in Chinese imported artificial trees has been an issue of concern among politicians and scientists over recent years. A 2004 study found that while in general artificial trees pose little health risk from lead contamination, there do exist "worst-case scenarios" where major health risks to young children exist. Maas, Richard P. et al. Artificial Christmas trees: how real are the lead exposure risks? (Abstract via PubMed) Journal of Environmental Health, December 2004; 67(5): 20-4, 32, accessed December 21, 2008. Another report, this time a 2008 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency report, found that as the PVC in artificial Christmas trees aged it began to degrade. The report determined that of the 50 million artificial trees in the United States approximately 20 million were 9 or more years old, the point where dangerous lead contamination levels are reached. Levin, Ronnie, et al. "Lead Exposures in U.S. Children, 2008: Implications for Prevention", Environmental Health Perspective October 2008; 116(10): 1285–1293, accessed December 21, 2008. A small amount of real-tree material is used in some artificial trees. For instance, the bark of a real tree can be used to surface an artificial trunk. Grist environmental commentary: Christmas trees Natural Natural Christmas trees on the other hand are entirely biodegradable and are often reused by tree farms or local governments as woodchips or mulch. A common misunderstanding about natural Christmas trees is that cutting one results in the loss of a tree. Christmas tree farms exist as long as people purchase real trees. Today, as fewer people are buying trees, many farms are going out of business and the land is being used for other purposes, sometimes for development. Real trees are used only for a short time, but can be recycled and used as mulch or used to prevent erosion. Engineer Update: Old Christmas trees protect town beach Real trees are carbon-neutral, they emit no more carbon dioxide by being cut down and disposed of than they absorb while growing. Biello, David."I'm Dreaming of a Green Christmas (Tree)", Scientific American, transcript, podcast, December 4, 2008, accessed December 22, 2008. Some people use potted trees, so they plant it later to help ease the CO2 levels, making it the greenest choice. Farmed trees are considered by many environmentalists better for the environment. David Suzuki is quoted as saying, "I would give a lump of coal to someone who buys an artificial Christmas tree this year. I also would like to commend all privately owned and operated Christmas Tree Farms, especially those in the Lower Mainland of British Columbia's Fraser Valley." Live trees are typically grown as a crop and replanted in rotation after cutting, often providing suitable habitat for wildlife. In some cases management of Christmas tree crops can result in poor habitat since it sometimes involves heavy input of pesticides. Decoration and ornaments Tree trimming decorations A bauble decorating a Christmas tree Tinsel and several types of garland or ribbon are commonly used to decorate a Christmas tree. Delicate mould-blown and painted coloured glass Christmas ornaments were a speciality of the glass factories in the Thuringian Forest especially in Lauscha in the late 19th century, and have since become a large industry, complete with famous-name designers. Lighting with candles or electric lights (fairy lights) is commonly done and a tree topper, traditionally either an angel or a star, completes the ensemble. Silvered saran based tinsel was introduced later, which many have found to be unsatisfactory, since it did not drape well, leading to the demise of tinsel in tree decorating in the United States (it remains popular in many European countries). Baubles are another extremely common decoration, and usually consist of a fairly small hollow glass or plastic sphere coated with a thin metallic layer to make them reflective, and then with a further coating of a thin pigmented polymer in order to provide colouration. A toy bear Christmas decoration. Individuals' decorations vary widely, typically being an eclectic mix of family traditions and personal tastes; even a small unattractive ornament, if passed down from a parent or grandparent, may come to carry considerable emotional value and be given a place of pride on the tree. Conversely, trees decorated by professional designers for department stores and other institutions will usually have a "theme"; a set of predominant colours, multiple instances of each type of ornament, and larger decorations that may be more complicated to set up correctly. Some churches decorate with Chrismon trees, which use handmade ornaments depicting various Chrismon symbols. Many people also decorate outdoor trees with food that birds and other wildlife will enjoy, such as garlands made from unsalted popcorn or cranberries, orange halves, and seed-covered suet cakes. Tree mats and skirts A tree of poinsettias in San Diego Since candles were used to light trees until electric bulbs came about, a mat (UK) or "skirt" (US) was often placed on the floor below the tree to protect it by catching the dripping candle wax, and also to collect any needles that fall. Even when dripless candles, electric lights and artificial trees have been used, a skirt is still usually used as a decorative feature: among other things, it hides the tree stand, which may be unsightly but which is an important safety feature of home trees. What began as ordinary cloth has now often become much more ornate, some having embroidery or being put together like a quilt. A nativity scene, model train, or Christmas village may be placed on the mat or skirt. As Christmas presents arrive, they are generally placed underneath the tree on the tree skirt (depending on tradition, all Christmas gifts, or those too large to be hung on the tree, as in "presents on the tree" of the song "I'll Be Home for Christmas"). Generally, the difference between a mat and skirt is simply that a mat is placed under the tree stand, while a skirt is placed over it, having a hole in the middle for the trunk, with a slot cut to the outside edge so that it can be placed around the tree (beneath the branches) easily. A plain mat of fabric or plastic may also be placed under the stand and skirt to protect the floor from scratches or water. Flocking In the 1940s and 1950s flocking was very popular on the West Coast of the United States. There were home flocking kits that could be used with vacuum cleaners. In the 1980s some trees were sprayed with fluffy white flocking to simulate snow. Typically it would be sprayed all over the tree from the sides, which produced a look different from real snow, which settles in clumps atop branches. Flocking can be done with a professional sprayer at a tree lot (or the manufacturer if it is artificial), or at home from a spray can, and either can be rather messy. This tradition seems to be most popular on the West Coast and Southern parts of the United States. Because flock contains flame retardants, a flocked tree can be placed in a public building in accordance with local fire codes. Controversy The Christmas tree has seen an amount of controversy, mainly involving the secular and non-secular usage of the tree as well as groups who oppose usage of the tree on the grounds of interpretation of scripture and pagan origins and/or pagan character of the custom. There are also those who view it as a Christian symbol. In 2005, the Seattle-Tacoma International Airport removed all of its Christmas trees in the middle of the night rather than allow a rabbi to put up a menorah near the largest tree display. "Nativity to be Allowed in Capitol Rotunda: Lawsuit Settlement Calls for Fair Treatment for Christian Beliefs". WorldNetDaily.com, October 23, 2007. Officials feared that one display would open the door for other religious displays, and, in 2006, they opted to display a grove of birches in Dacron snow rather than religious symbols or Christmas trees. In 2005, the city of Boston renamed the spruce tree used to decorate the Boston Common a "Holiday Tree" rather than a "Christmas Tree". The name change drew a poor response from the public and was changed back to "Christmas Tree" after being threatened with several lawsuits by Rev. Jerry Falwell and the Alliance Defense Fund. In the same year, Speaker of the House, Dennis Hastert, R-Ill., asked that the tree that decorates the Capitol grounds to be renamed back to "Christmas tree". It had been renamed "Holiday tree" in the 1990s. At Christmas, what's in a name?: ABC report, November 2005 Christianity in the Bible says the following (King James Version): [1] Hear ye the word which the Lord speaketh unto you, O house of Israel: [2] Thus saith the Lord, Learn not the way of the heathen, and be not dismayed at the signs of heaven; for the heathen are dismayed at them. [3] For the customs of the people are vain: for one cutteth a tree out of the forest, the work of the hands of the workman, with the axe. [4] They deck it with silver and with gold; they fasten it with nails and with hammers, that it move not. [5] They are upright as the palm tree, but speak not: they must needs be borne, because they cannot go. Be not afraid of them; for they cannot do evil, neither also is it in them to do good. This is interpreted by some fundamentalist Christians as referring to a Christmas tree, and that therefore the Bible would explicitly forbid the practice. However, the more common interpretation is that the passage refers to idol worship, and it is the practice of making an object out of wood, silver, and gold, and then worshiping that idol, which is pagan. Others feel that since "Christmas Trees" are not biblically ordained, they should not be used. Such individuals and Christian denominations are unlikely to celebrate Christmas at all, for the same reason, such as the United Church of God. Isaiah 55: 13, refers to the evergreen tree as a joyful sign to the Lord in celebration of life everlasting, that shall not be cut off. Martin Collins from Bibletools.com believes that the origin of the Christmas tree is tied to the ancient myth of Gilgamesh and Horus, Gilgamesh root claim which they associate with character Nimrod in the Bible. Interestingly, that association places the origins of the Christmas tree in to a celebration Nimrod as the "Son of Heaven." By associating this symbol with Jesus, many Christians are replacing that pagan symbology with a Christian one by celebrating the Birth of Jesus on December 25 instead of the Birthday of Nimrod. Some churches however use Christmas trees as decoration at Christmas time. Others use the same stripped Christmas tree as a Christian cross at Easter. See the poem The Dream of the Rood. Both Ezekiel 47:12 and the Book of Revelation 22:2 use trees as a symbol of new fruitful life, compared to the Tree of life denied Adam in Genesis 3:22-23. Paul makes the link between Adam and Christ clear in Romans chapter 5: <blockquote>Adam is a type of the one who was to come. (v. 14)</blockquote> In the same way the Christmas tree can be seen as mirroring the tree of life, a symbol or type of the Crucifix which brings redemption. Syncretising traditions in Northern Spain, the Bilbao airport displays the foreign tree and the Basque Olentzero. In some Catholic countries, the tree is seen as a recent Protestant or American influence detracting from the Mediterranean traditions of the Christmas crib. However in many Catholic homes, both types of decoration coexist. Judaism Jewish parents in Christian societies may find that their children feel omitted of traditions during the Christmas season. This has led to the increasing importance of the Hannukah celebrations, traditionally less important than other holidays such as Yom Kippur or Passover, because of its rabbinic origins. Children now receive gifts and toys instead of the gelt of Ashkenazi tradition. Some mixed-religion families or those wanting to blend better with their Christian environment will dub their trees "Hannukah bushes". Typically, these trees will incorporate a Jewish motif, with blue colour schemes and ornaments featuring menorahs, dreidels and other typical symbols of Hannukah. While many Orthodox Jews see no harm in giving gifts on Hannukah, most frown upon the "Hannukah bushes" as a Christian influence. Industry Each year, 33 to 36 million Christmas trees are produced in America, and 50 to 60 million are produced in Europe. In 1998, there were about 15,000 growers in America (a third of them "choose and cut" farms). In that same year, it was estimated that Americans spent $1.5 billion on Christmas trees. See also Chrismon tree Festive ecology Festivus Pole Hanukkah bush Holiday tree New Year tree Star of Bethlehem Tree (mythology) Weihnachten Yule log Notes References Hewitt, James. The Christmas Tree, ( Google Books), Lulu.com, 2007, (ISBN 1430308206). External links Christmas Tree Exhibition at the State University of Arts and Design Karlsruhe, Germany British Royal Family Christmas trees Christmas Tree Survives War, A-Bomb By Eric Talmadge; 21 December 2007 Riga, Latvia purported home of the original Christmas Tree Christmas Lights around the World History of the Christmas Tree | Christmas_tree |@lemmatized christmas:171 tree:278 one:16 popular:10 tradition:17 associate:6 celebration:9 normally:1 evergreen:5 coniferous:1 bring:6 home:12 use:39 open:4 decorate:20 light:23 colourful:1 ornament:12 day:7 around:8 angel:3 star:8 often:14 place:17 top:6 represent:5 host:1 bethlehem:3 nativity:3 story:1 history:6 pre:1 christian:23 root:5 historically:1 opposition:1 custom:24 pagan:14 origin:12 thus:5 oliver:1 cromwell:1 preach:1 heathen:3 carol:1 parishioner:1 cleveland:1 ohio:2 usa:1 condemn:1 practice:7 action:1 pastor:1 henry:1 schwan:1 likely:1 first:13 american:7 church:7 various:4 legend:1 regard:4 relate:2 saint:2 boniface:3 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1,574 | Materialism | The philosophy of materialism holds that the only thing that can be truly proven to exist is matter, and is considered a form of physicalism. Fundamentally, all things are composed of material and all phenomena (including consciousness) are the result of material interactions; therefore, matter is the only substance. As a theory, materialism belongs to the class of monist ontology. As such, it is different from ontological theories based on dualism or pluralism. For singular explanations of the phenomenal reality, materialism would be in contrast to idealism and to spiritualism. Overview The view is perhaps best understood in its opposition to the doctrines of immaterial substance applied to the mind historically, famously by René Descartes. However, by itself materialism says nothing about how material substance should be characterized. In practice it is frequently assimilated to one variety of physicalism or another. Materialism is often associated with the methodological principle of reductionism, according to which the objects or phenomena individuated at one level of description, if they are genuine, must be explicable in terms of the objects or phenomena at some other level of description -- typically, a more general level than the reduced one. Non-reductive materialism explicitly rejects this notion, however, taking the material constitution of all particulars to be consistent with the existence of real objects, properties, or phenomena not explicable in the terms canonically used for the basic material constituents. Jerry Fodor influentially argues this view, according to which empirical laws and explanations in "special sciences" like psychology or geology are invisible from the perspective of basic physics. A lot of vigorous literature has grown up around the relation between these views. Modern philosophical materialists extend the definition of matter to include other scientifically observable entities such as energy, forces, and the curvature of space. However philosophers such as Mary Midgley suggest that the concept of "matter" is elusive and poorly defined. Mary Midgley The Myths We Live By. Materialism typically contrasts with dualism, phenomenalism, idealism, vitalism and dual-aspect monism. Its materiality can, in some ways, be linked to the concept of Determinism, as espoused by Enlightenment thinkers. Materialism has been criticised by religious thinkers opposed to it, who regard it as a spiritually empty philosophy. Marxism also uses materialism to refer to a "materialist conception of history", which is not concerned with metaphysics but centers on the roughly empirical world of human activity (practice, including labor) and the institutions created, reproduced, or destroyed by that activity (see materialist conception of history). History of materialism Axial Age Materialism developed, possibly independently, in several geographically separated regions of Eurasia during the Axial Age. In Ancient Indian philosophy, materialism developed around 600 BCE with the works of Ajita Kesakambali, Payasi, Kanada, and the proponents of the Cārvāka school of philosophy. Kanada was one of the early proponents of atomism. The Nyaya-Vaisesika school (600 BCE - 100 BCE) developed one of the earliest forms of atomism. The tradition was carried forward by Buddhist atomism and the Jaina school. Xun Zi developed a Confucian doctrine oriented on realism and materialism in Ancient China. Other notable Chinese materialists of this time include Yang Xiong and Wang Chong. Ancient Greek philosophers like Thales, Parmenides, Anaxagoras, Democritus, Epicurus, prefigure later materialists. The poem De Rerum Natura by Lucretius recounts the mechanistic philosophy of Democritus and Epicurus. According to this view, all that exists is matter and void, and all phenomena are the result of different motions and conglomerations of base material particles called "atoms." De Rerum Natura provides mechanistic explanations for phenomena such as erosion, evaporation, wind, and sound. Famous principles like "nothing can come from nothing" and "nothing can touch body but body" first appeared in the works of Lucretius. Common Era Later Indian materialist Jayaraashi Bhatta (6th century CE) in his work Tattvopaplavasimha ("the Upsetting of all principles") refuted the Nyaya Sutra epistemology. The materialistic Cārvāka philosophy appears to have died out some time after 1400 CE. In early 12th-century al-Andalus, the Arabian philosopher, Ibn Tufail (Abubacer), wrote discussions on materialism in his philosophical novel, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (Philosophus Autodidactus), while vaguely foreshadowing the idea of a historical materialism. Dominique Urvoy, "The Rationality of Everyday Life: The Andalusian Tradition? (Aropos of Hayy's First Experiences)", in Lawrence I. Conrad (1996), The World of Ibn Tufayl: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Ḥayy Ibn Yaqẓān, pp. 38-46, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004093001. European Enlightenment Later on, Thomas Hobbes and Pierre Gassendi represent the materialist tradition, in opposition to René Descartes' attempts to provide the natural sciences with dualist foundations. Later are materialist and atheist Jean Meslier, Julien Offroy de La Mettrie, Paul-Henri Thiry Baron d'Holbach, Denis Diderot and other minor French enlightenment thinkers, as well as Ludwig Feuerbach, and, in England, the pedestrian traveller John "Walking" Stewart, whose insistence that all matter is endowed with a moral dimension had a major impact on the philosophical poetry of William Wordsworth. Schopenhauer wrote that "...materialism is the philosophy of the subject who forgets to take account of himself." (The World as Will and Representation, II, Ch. 1). He claimed that an observing subject can only know material objects through the mediation of the brain and its particular organization. The way that the brain knows determines the way that material objects are experienced. "Everything objective, extended, active, and hence everything material, is regarded by materialism as so solid a basis for its explanations that a reduction to this (especially if it should ultimately result in thrust and counter-thrust) can leave nothing to be desired. But all this is something that is given only very indirectly and conditionally, and is therefore only relatively present, for it has passed through the machinery and fabrication of the brain, and hence has entered the forms of time, space, and causality, by virtue of which it is first of all presented as extended in space and operating in time." (ibid., I, §7) Marx's Social Materialism Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, turning the idealist dialectics of Georg Hegel upside down, came up with dialectical materialism and a materialist account of the course of history known as historical materialism. For Marx, the base material of the world is social relations (and mainly class relations, e.g, between serfs and lord, or today, between employer and employee). As an expression of these basic social relations, all other ideologies form, including those of science, economics, law, morality, etc. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels used the term to refer to a theoretical perspective that holds the satisfaction of everyday economic needs is the primary reality in every epoch of history. Opposed to German idealist philosophy, materialism takes the position that society and reality originate from a set of simple economic acts which human beings carry out in order to provide the material necessities of food, shelter, and clothing. Materialism takes as its starting point that before anything else, human beings must produce their everyday economic needs through their physical labor and practical productive activity. This single economic act, Marx believed, gives rise to a system of social relations which include political, legal and religious structures of society. Scientific Materialists Many current and recent philosophers — e.g., Dennett, Quine, Davidson, Searle, Fodor and Kim — operate within a broadly physicalist or materialist framework, producing rival accounts of how best to accommodate mind — functionalism, anomalous monism, identity theory and so on. In recent years, Paul and Patricia Churchland have advocated a more extreme position, eliminativist materialism, which holds that mental phenomena simply do not exist at all -- that talk of the mental reflects a totally spurious "folk psychology" that simply has no basis in fact, something like the way that folk science speaks of demon-caused illness. Defining matter The nature and definition of matter have been subject to much debate , as have other key concepts in science and philosophy. Is there a single kind of matter which everything is made of (hyle), or multiple kinds? Is matter a continuous substance capable of expressing multiple forms (hylomorphism) Concise Britannica on hylomorphism , or a number of discrete, unchanging constituents (atomism)? Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Atomism: Antiquity to the Seventeenth Century Dictionary of the History of Ideas:Atomism in the Seventeenth Century Article by a philosopher who opposes atomism Information on Buddhist atomism Article on traditional Greek atomism Atomism from the 17th to the 20th Century at Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Does it have intrinsic properties (substance theory) Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy on substance theory The Friesian School on Substance and Essence , or is it lacking them (prima materia)? Without question science has made unexpected discoveries about matter. Some paraphrase departures from traditional or common-sense concepts of matter as "disproving the existence of matter". However, most physical scientists take the view that the concept of matter has merely changed, rather than being eliminated. One challenge to the traditional concept of matter as tangible "stuff" is the rise of field physics in the 19th century. However the conclusion that materialism is false may be premature. Relativity shows that matter and energy (including the spatially distributed energy of fields) are interchangeable. This enables the ontological view that energy is prima materia and matter is one of its forms. On the other hand, quantum field theory models fields as exchanges of particles — photons for electromagnetic fields and so on. On this view it could be said that fields are "really matter". All known solid, liquid, and gaseous substances are composed of protons, neutrons and electrons. All three are fermions or spin-half particles, whereas the particles that mediate fields in quantum field theory are bosons. Thus matter can be said to divide into a more tangible fermionic kind and a less tangible bosonic kind. However it is now known that less than 5% of the physical composition of the universe is made up of such "matter", and the majority of the universe is composed of Dark Matter and Dark Energy - with no agreement amongst scientists about what these are made of Bernard Sadoulet Particle Dark Matter in the Universe: At the Brink of Discovery? Science 5 January 2007: Vol. 315. no. 5808, pp. 61 - 63 . This obviously refutes the traditional materialism that held that the only things that exist are things composed of the kind of matter with which we are broadly familiar ("traditional matter") - which was anyway under great strain as noted above from Relativity and quantum field theory. But if the definition of "matter" is extended to "anything whose existence can be inferred from the observed behaviour of traditional matter" then there is no reason in principle why entities whose existence materialists normally deny should not be considered as "matter" eg C. S. Lewis in The Great Divorce suggested that Heaven was composed of super-massive matter that was more substantial than normal matter Some philosophers feel that these dichotomies necessitate a switch from materialism to physicalism. Others use materialism and physicalism interchangeably. Dictionary of the Philosophy of mind -- "Many philosophers and scientists now use the terms `material' and `physical' interchangeably" Criticism and alternatives Materialism is not seriously questioned outside of the religious community. Reverend Alvin Plantinga criticises it, and creationism proponent Keith Ward suggests that materialism is rare amongst contemporary UK philosophers: "Looking around my philosopher colleagues in Britain, virtually all of whom I know at least from their published work, I would say that very few of them are materialists." Is Religion Dangerous? p 91 . Religious and spiritual objections According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, materialism denies the existence of both God and the soul. It is therefore incompatible with most world religions including Islam, Christianity, Judaism, and arguably some schools of Buddhism. Gunasekara In most of Hinduism and Transcendentalism, all matter is believed to be an illusion called Maya, blinding us from knowing the truth. Maya is the limited, purely physical and mental reality in which our everyday consciousness has become entangled. Maya gets destroyed for a person when they perceive Brahman with transcendental knowledge. Kant argued against all three forms of materialism, subjective idealism (which he contrasts with his "transcendental idealism" see Critique of Pure Reason where he gives a "refutation of idealism" in pp345-52 (1st Ed) and pp 244-7 (2nd Ed) in the Norman Kemp Smith edition ) and dualism. Critique of Pure Reason (A379, p352 NKS translation). "If, however, as commonly happens, we seek to extend the concept of dualism, and take it in the transcendental sense, neither it nor the two counter-alternatives — pneumatism [idealism] on the one hand, materialism on the other — would have any sort of basis [...] Neither the transcendental object which underlies outer appearances nor that which underlies inner intuition, is in itself either matter or a thinking being, but a ground (to us unknown)..." However, Kant also argues that change and time require an enduring substrate. "Kant argues that we can determine that there has been a change in the objects of our perception, not merely a change in our perceptions themselves, only by conceiving of what we perceive as successive states of enduring substances (see Substance)".Routledge Encyclopedia of philosophy , and does so in connection with his Refutation of Idealism "All determination of time presupposes something permanent in perception. This permanent cannot, however, be something in me [...]" Critique of Pure Reason, B274, P245 (NKS translation) Postmodern/poststructuralist thinkers also express a skepticism about any all-encompassing metaphysical scheme. Philosopher Mary Midgley see Mary Midgley The Myths we Live by , among others Baker, L. (1987). Saving Belief Princeton, Princeton University Press Reppert, V. (1992). Eliminative Materialism, Cognitive Suicide, and Begging the Question. Metaphilosophy 23: 378-92. Boghossian, P. (1990). The Status of Content Philosophical Review 99: 157-84. and (1991)The Status of Content Revisited. Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 71: 264-78. , argues that materialism is a self-refuting idea, at least in its eliminative form. While some critics hold that matter is an ill-defined concept, it is not clear that substitutes, such as Spirit, or Hegelian Geist fare any better. Other ontologies Bundle Theory. It can be argued that it is the properties of material bodies, such as size and shape, which are perceived, and not the material substrate itself. Locke said we "know not what" the basic substance is. Locke, J. Essan Understay Concerning Humanding/ As Berkeley wrote "I acknowledge it is possible we might perceive all things just as we do now, though there was no Matter in the world; neither can I conceive, if there be Matter, how it should produce any idea in our minds". If mind-independent properties (properly speaking property-instances or tropes) are held to exist in association with each other but without a material substrate, bundle theory results. If bundle theory is shown to be illogical or inconceivable, the existence of a substrate is thereby demonstrated conceptually, despite the unpercievability of matter per se. Idealism. An argument for idealism, such as those of Hegel and Berkeley is ipso facto an argument against materialism. Matter can be argued to be redundant, as in bundle theory, and mind-independent properties can in turn be reduced to subjective percepts. Dualism. If matter is seen as necessary to explain the physical world, but incapable of explaining mind, dualism results. Emergence, Holism and Process philosophy are some of the approaches that seek to ameliorate the perceived shortcomings of traditional (especially mechanistic) materialism without abandoning materialism entirely. Materialism as methodology Some critics object to materialism as part of an overly skeptical, narrow or reductivist approach to theorizing, rather than to the ontological claim that matter is the only substance. Particle physicist and theologian John Polkinghorne objects to what he calls promissory materialism — claims that materialistic science will eventually be able to explain phenomena it has not so far been able to explain. However, critics of materialism are equally guilty of prognosticating that it will never be able to explain certain phenomena " Over a hundred years ago William James saw clearly that science would never resolve the mind-body problem".Dembski, W. Are We Spiritual Machines He prefers dual-aspect monism to materialism. Interview with John Polkinghorne The psychologist Imants Barušs suggests that "materialists tend to indiscriminately apply a 'pebbles in a box' schema to explanations of reality even though such a schema is known to be incorrect in general for physical phenomena. Thus, materialism cannot explain matter, let alone anomalous phenomena or subjective experience Baruss, I. (1993). Can we consider matter as ultimate reality? Some fundamental problems with a materialist interpretation of reality. Ultimate Reality and Meaning: Interdisciplinary Studies in the Philosophy of Understanding, 16(3-4), 245-254 , but remains entrenched in academia largely for political reasons." Baruss, I. (2001). The art of science: Science of the future in light of alterations of consciousness. Journal of Scientific Exploration, 15(1), 57-68 (Compare with Charles Fort) The flow of time Four-dimensionalism is the most commonly accepted theory of time among members of the scientific community. Critics of materialism could argue that it's impossible for our subjective sense of time to arise from a static, four-dimensional universe. It must be noted that the flow of time isn't the same as the arrow of time. See also Antimaterialism Atheism Buddhism Cārvāka Christian materialism Cultural materialism Dialectical materialism Dualism Economic materialism Eliminative materialism Grotesque body Historical materialism Humanism Hyle Idealism Immaterialism Marxist philosophy of nature Matter Metaphysical naturalism Postmaterialism Naturalism (philosophy) Philosophy of mind Reality in Buddhism Substance theory Theravada Transcendence (religion) Work of art Notes http://www.stolaf.edu/events/sciencesymposium/speakers.html 1. Turner, M. S. (2007). Quarks and the cosmos. Science 315, 59–61. References Churchland, Paul (1981). Eliminative Materialism and the Propositional Attitudes. The Philosophy of Science. Boyd, Richard; P. Gasper; J. D. Trout. Cambridge, Massachusetts, MIT Press. Flanagan, Owen (1991). The Science of the Mind. 2nd edition Cambridge Massachusetts, MIT Press. Fodor, J.A. (1974) Special Sciences, Synthese, Vol.28. Gunasekara, Victor A. (2001) "Buddhism and the Modern World". Basic Buddhism: A Modern Introduction to the Buddha's Teaching". 18 January 2008 <http://www.buddhismtoday.com/english/buddha/Teachings/basicteaching11.htm>. Kim, J. (1994) Multiple Realization and the Metaphysics of Reduction, Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, Vol. 52. Lange, Friedrich A.,(1925) The History of Materialism. New York, Harcourt, Brace, & Co. Moser, P. K.; J. D. Trout, Ed. (1995) Contemporary Materialism: A Reader. New York, Routledge. Schopenhauer, Arthur, (1969) The World as Will and Representation. New York, Dover Publications, Inc. Vitzthum, Richard C. (1995) Materialism: An Affirmative History and Definition. Amhert, New York, Prometheus Books. Buchner, L. (1920). Force and Matter. New York, Peter Eckler Publishing CO. La Mettrie, Man The machine''. External links Stanford Encyclopedia article on Physicalism Stanford Encyclopedia article on Eliminative Materialism Philosophical Materialism (by Richard C. Vitzthum) Dictionary of the Philosophy of Mind on Materialism | Materialism |@lemmatized philosophy:21 materialism:57 hold:6 thing:5 truly:1 proven:1 exist:5 matter:42 consider:3 form:8 physicalism:5 fundamentally:1 compose:5 material:15 phenomenon:10 include:8 consciousness:3 result:5 interaction:1 therefore:3 substance:13 theory:14 belongs:1 class:2 monist:1 ontology:2 different:2 ontological:3 base:3 dualism:7 pluralism:1 singular:1 explanation:5 phenomenal:1 reality:9 would:4 contrast:3 idealism:10 spiritualism:1 overview:1 view:7 perhaps:1 best:2 understood:1 opposition:2 doctrine:2 immaterial:1 apply:2 mind:11 historically:1 famously:1 rené:2 descartes:2 however:10 say:5 nothing:5 characterize:1 practice:2 frequently:1 assimilate:1 one:8 variety:1 another:1 often:1 associate:1 methodological:1 principle:4 reductionism:1 accord:4 object:9 individuate:1 level:3 description:2 genuine:1 must:3 explicable:2 term:4 typically:2 general:2 reduced:1 non:1 reductive:1 explicitly:1 reject:1 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1,575 | Additive_synthesis | Additive synthesis is a technique of audio synthesis which creates musical timbre. The timbre of an instrument is composed of multiple harmonics or partials, in different quantities, that change over time. Additive synthesis emulates such timbres by combining numerous waveforms pitched to different harmonics, with a different amplitude envelope on each, along with inharmonic artifacts. Usually, this involves a bank of oscillators tuned to multiples of the base frequency. Often, each oscillator has its own customizable volume envelope, creating a realistic, dynamic sound that changes over time. Theory The concept behind additive synthesis is directly related to work done by the French mathematician Joseph Fourier. Fourier discovered that periodic functions are formed by the summation of an infinite series. Following this, it was established that all periodic signals, when represented as a mathematical function, can be composed as a sum of sine functions ( sin(x) ) of various frequencies. More rigorously, any periodic sound in the discrete time domain can be synthesized as follows: or where and Fs is the sampling frequency, f0 is the fundamental frequency, and kmax < floor(Fs/(2 f0)) is the highest harmonic and below the Nyquist frequency. The DC term is generally undesirable in audio synthesis, so the a0 term can be removed. Introducing time varying coefficients r<sub>k</sub>(n) allows for the dynamic use of envelopes to modulate oscillators creating a "quasi-periodic" waveform (one that is periodic over the short term but changes its waveform over the longer term). Additive synthesis can also create non-harmonic sounds (which have non-periodic waveforms) if the individual partials do not all have a frequency that is an integer multiple of the same fundamental frequency. With time-varying and general (not necessarily harmonic) frequencies of fk[n], (the instantaneous frequency of the kth partial at the time of sample n) the definition of the synthesized output would be: or where . If fk[n] = k f0, with constant f0, all partials are harmonic, the synthesized waveform is quasi-periodic, and the more general equations above reduce to the simpler equations at the top. For each non-harmonic partial, the phase term φk[n] can be absorbed into the instantaneous frequency term, fk[n] by the substitution: If that substitution is made, all of the φk[n] terms can be set to zero with no loss of generality (retaining the initial phase value at s[0]) and the expressions of non-harmonic additive synthesis can be simplified (with the additional elimination of the DC term) to . If this constant phase term (at time n=0) is expressed as , the general expression of additive synthesis can be further simplified: Additive synthesizers A classic additive synthesizer was the Synclavier. Certain organ pipes, which create sinusoidal waves (mostly flute pipes), can be combined in the manner of additive synthesis. However, pipes which generate other types of wave forms (for example square wave generating clarinet stops) are not suited to this purpose. More contemporary popular implementations of additive synthesis include the Kawai K5000 series of synthesizers in the 1990s and, more recently, software synthesizers such as the Camel Audio Cameleon, Image-Line Morphine, the VirSyn Cube, White Noise WNAdditive, and the ConcreteFX softsynth Adder. Another instrument with this capability is the Hammond organ, which uses nine drawbars to control the harmonics. The Hammond was invented in 1935 as a substitute for the much bulkier and expensive pipe organ. It has been shown in Wavetable Synthesis 101, A Fundamental Perspective that wavetable synthesis is equivalent to additive synthesis in the case that all partials or overtones are harmonic (that is all overtones are at frequencies that are an integer multiple of a fundamental frequency of the tone as shown in the equation above). Not all musical sounds have harmonic partials (e.g., bells), but many do. In these cases, an efficient implementation of additive synthesis can be accomplished with wavetable synthesis. Group additive synthesis is a method to group partials into harmonic groups (of differing fundamental frequencies) and synthesize each group separately with wavetable synthesis before mixing the results. Additive resynthesis As demonstrated by software such as SPEAR, it is possible to analyse the frequency components of a recorded sound and then resynthesize a representation of the sound using additive techniques. By calculating the frequency and amplitude weighting of discrete partials in the frequency domain (typically using a fast Fourier transform), an additive resynthesis system can construct an equally weighted sinusoid at the same frequency for each partial. Because the sound is represented by a bank of oscillators inside the system, a user can make adjustments to the frequency and amplitude of any set of partials. The sound can be 'reshaped' - by alterations made to timbre or the overall amplitude envelope, for example. A harmonic sound could be restructured to sound inharmonic, and vice versa. See also Harmonic series (music) Fourier series External links Digital Keyboards Synergy | Additive_synthesis |@lemmatized additive:16 synthesis:17 technique:2 audio:3 create:5 musical:2 timbre:4 instrument:2 compose:2 multiple:4 harmonic:14 partial:11 different:3 quantity:1 change:3 time:7 emulates:1 combine:2 numerous:1 waveform:5 pitch:1 amplitude:4 envelope:4 along:1 inharmonic:2 artifact:1 usually:1 involve:1 bank:2 oscillator:4 tune:1 base:1 frequency:18 often:1 customizable:1 volume:1 realistic:1 dynamic:2 sound:10 theory:1 concept:1 behind:1 directly:1 relate:1 work:1 french:1 mathematician:1 joseph:1 fourier:4 discover:1 periodic:7 function:3 form:2 summation:1 infinite:1 series:4 follow:2 establish:1 signal:1 represent:2 mathematical:1 sum:1 sine:1 sin:1 x:1 various:1 rigorously:1 discrete:2 domain:2 synthesize:2 f:1 sampling:1 fundamental:5 kmax:1 floor:1 fs:1 high:1 nyquist:1 dc:2 term:9 generally:1 undesirable:1 remove:1 introducing:1 vary:1 coefficient:1 r:1 sub:2 k:2 n:8 allow:1 use:4 modulate:1 quasi:2 one:1 short:1 long:1 also:2 non:4 individual:1 integer:2 varying:1 general:3 necessarily:1 fk:3 instantaneous:2 kth:1 sample:1 definition:1 synthesized:2 output:1 would:1 constant:2 equation:3 reduce:1 simpler:1 top:1 phase:3 φk:2 absorb:1 substitution:2 make:3 set:2 zero:1 loss:1 generality:1 retain:1 initial:1 value:1 expression:2 simplify:2 additional:1 elimination:1 express:1 synthesizer:4 classic:1 synclavier:1 certain:1 organ:3 pipe:4 sinusoidal:1 wave:3 mostly:1 flute:1 manner:1 however:1 generate:2 type:1 example:2 square:1 clarinet:1 stop:1 suit:1 purpose:1 contemporary:1 popular:1 implementation:2 include:1 kawai:1 recently:1 software:2 camel:1 cameleon:1 image:1 line:1 morphine:1 virsyn:1 cube:1 white:1 noise:1 wnadditive:1 concretefx:1 softsynth:1 adder:1 another:1 capability:1 hammond:2 nine:1 drawbar:1 control:1 invent:1 substitute:1 much:1 bulky:1 expensive:1 show:2 wavetable:4 perspective:1 equivalent:1 case:2 overtone:2 tone:1 e:1 g:1 bell:1 many:1 efficient:1 accomplish:1 group:4 method:1 differ:1 separately:1 mix:1 result:1 resynthesis:2 demonstrate:1 spear:1 possible:1 analyse:1 component:1 record:1 resynthesize:1 representation:1 calculate:1 weighting:1 typically:1 fast:1 transform:1 system:2 construct:1 equally:1 weighted:1 sinusoid:1 inside:1 user:1 adjustment:1 reshape:1 alteration:1 overall:1 could:1 restructure:1 vice:1 versa:1 see:1 music:1 external:1 link:1 digital:1 keyboard:1 synergy:1 |@bigram additive_synthesis:11 summation_infinite:1 quasi_periodic:2 hammond_organ:1 pipe_organ:1 wavetable_synthesis:4 harmonic_overtone:1 fourier_transform:1 vice_versa:1 external_link:1 |
1,576 | Bud_Spencer | Bud Spencer (born Carlo Pedersoli 31 October 1929) is an Italian actor, filmmaker, former swimmer (he was the first Italian to swim 100m in less than a minute). He is known for his height at 194 cm (6ft 4 1/2in) and his past roles in spaghetti westerns. Growing from a successful swimmer in his youth, he got a degree in law, and has registered several patents. Bud Spencer on imdb.com Biography Spencer was born in Santa Lucia, a historical rione of the city of Naples. He married Maria Amato in 1960, with whom he had three children: Giuseppe (1961), Christine (1962) and Diamante (1972). He changed his screen name in 1967 reportedly chosen to pay homage to Spencer Tracy as well as his favorite American beer, Budweiser. Other sources report that he found it funny to call himself "bud" despite his weight and his height at 1.94 m. Swimming and water polo career A successful swimmer in his youth, Spencer was the first Italian to swim the 100 m freestyle in less than one minute. He achieved this on 19 September 1950, when he swam the 100 m in 59.5 s. Italian swimming records In the 1951 Mediterranean Games, he won a silver medal in the same 100m freestyle event. Mediterranean Games, 1951 Spencer participated in the 1952 Olympic Games in Helsinki, Finland, reaching the semi-finals in the 100 m freestyle (58.8 s heats, 58.9 s semi final). Helsinki 1952 official report Four years later, in Melbourne, he also entered the semi-finals in the same category (58.5 s heat, 59.0 s semi final). Melbourne 1956 official report As a water polo player, he won the Italian Championship in 1954, with S.S. Lazio. His swimming career ended abruptly in 1957. On 17 January 2005 he was awarded with the Caimano d'oro (Gold Caiman) by the Italian Swimming Federation. Pedersoli receives the Gold Caiman On 24 January 2007, he received from the Italian Swimming Federation's president Paolo Barelli, swim and water polo coach diplomas. Pedersoli receives two coach diplomas Acting career Spencer's first movie role was that of a member of the Praetorian guard in Quo Vadis, a film shot in Italy, in 1951. During the 1950s and part of the 1960s, Spencer appeared in some Italian films but "his career was strictly minor league until the late 1960s." Spencer met Terence Hill, with whom he made a large number of Italian Westerns and other films together, including (named using their most common US titles): Hannibal (1959) God Forgives... I Don't! (1967) Ace High (1968) Boot Hill (1969) The Five Man Army (1969) They Call Me Trinity (1970) Blackie the Pirate (1971) Trinity Is STILL My Name! (1971) All the Way, Boys (1972) Watch Out, We're Mad (1974) Two Missionaries (1975) Crime Busters (1976) Odds and Evens (1978) Who Finds a Friend, Finds a Treasure (1981) Go For It! (1983) Double Trouble (1984) Miami Supercops (1985) Troublemakers (1994) I'm For the Hippopotamus (1979) Films with Spencer in solo performance include: They Call Him Bulldozer (1978) The Sheriff and the Satellite Kid (1979) Everything Happens to Me (1980) Banana Joe (1982) Superfantagenio (1986) Many of these have alternate titles, depending upon the country and distributor. Some have longer Italian versions that were edited for release abroad. These films gathered popularity for both actors, especially in Europe. The main dubber of Bud Spencer in Italy is Glauco Onorato, who with his characteristic voice, successfully enriched the character of Bud Spencer with many particularities. In some movies the dubber is Sergio Fiorentini (Botte di Natale, Al limite and the series of Detective Extralarge). In the movie Oggi a te domani a me the dubber is Ferruccio Amendola Spencer also wrote the complete or partial screenplay for some of his movies. His fan base is particularly large in Europe. His feature film career slowed down after 1983, shifting more toward television. In the 1990s he acted in the TV action-drama "Extralarge". Personal life After appearing in Più forte, ragazzi!, Spencer became a jet airplane and helicopter pilot. He established Mistral Air in 1984, but left it to buy a textile mill that produced clothes for children. Career in politics In 2005, Pedersoli entered politics, unsuccessfully standing as regional counselor in Lazio for the Forza Italia party. Spencer has stated: "In my life, I've done everything. There are only three things I haven't been - a ballet dancer, a jockey and a politician. Given that the first two jobs are out of the question, I'll throw myself into politics." The opposition criticised him for engaging in "politica spettacolo" ("showbiz politics"). Filmography FilmRole Quo Vadis (1951) (as Carlo Pedersoli)Imperial Guard Siluri umani (1954) (English title: Human Torpedoes) (as Carlo Pedersoli)Magrini Un Eroe dei nostri tempi (1955) (English title: A hero of our times) (as Carlo Pedersoli)Fernando Cocco di mamma, Il (1957) (English title: Mamma's boy) (as Carlo Pedersoli)Oscar A Farewell to Arms (1957) (as Carlo Pedersoli)Carabiniere Annibale (1960) (English title: Hannibal) (as Carlo Pedersoli) Dio perdona... Io no! (1967) (English title: Blood River)Hutch Bessy Oggi a me... domani a te! (1968) (English title: Today it's me)O'Bannion Al di là della legge (1968) (English title: Beyond the law)James Cooper Ace High(1968) (Italian title: I Quattro dell'Ave Maria)Hutch Bessy Dio è con noi (1969) (English title: Crime of Defeat)Cpl. Jelinek Un Esercito di cinque uomini (1969) (English title: The Five Man Army)Mesito La Collina degli stivali (1969) (English title: Boot Hill)Hutch Bessy Lo chiamavano Trinità (1970) (English title: They Call Me Trinity)Bambino Il Corsaro nero (1971) (English title: Blackie the Pirate)Skull ...continuavano a chiamarlo Trinità (1971) (English title: Trinity Is STILL My Name!)Bambino 4 mosche di velluto grigio (1971) (English title: Four Flies on Grey Velvet)Godfrey 'God' Torino nera (1972) (English title: Black Turin)Rosario Rao Più forte, ragazzi! (1972) (English title: All the way boys)Salud Si può fare... amigo (1972) (English title: Bulldozer Is Back Amigo)Hiram Coburn Una Ragione per vivere e una per morire (1972) (English title: A Reason to Live, a Reason to Die)Eli Sampson Anche gli angeli mangiano fagioli (1973) (English title: Even Angels Eat Beans)Charlie Smith Piedone lo sbirro (1973) (English title: A Fistful of Hell)Inspector 'Flatfoot' Rizzo Porgi l'altra guancia (1974) (English title: Turn the Other Cheek)Father/Padre Pedro Altrimenti ci arrabbiamo (1974) (English title: Watch Out, We're Mad)Ben Piedone a Hong Kong (1975) (English title: Flatfoot in Hong Kong)Inspector 'Flatfoot' Rizzo I Due superpiedi quasi piatti (1976) (English title: Crime Busters)Wilbur Walsh Il Soldato di ventura (1976) (English title: Soldier of Fortune)Hector Fieramosca Charleston (1977)Charleston Piedone l'africano (1978) (English title: Knock-Out Cop)Rizzo Lo chiamavano Bulldozer (1978) (English title: Uppercut)Bulldozer Pari e dispari (1978) (English title: Trinity: Gambling for High Stakes)Charlie Firpo Sceriffo extraterrestre - poco extra e molto terrestre, Uno (1979) (English title: E.T. and the Sheriff or The Sheriff and the Satellite Kid)Sceriffo Scott (Sheriff Hall) Piedone d'Egitto (1979) (English title: Flatfoot in Egypt)Inspector Rizzo Io sto con gli ippopotami (1979) (English title: I'm for the Hippopotamus)Tom Chissà perché... capitano tutte a me (1980) (English title: Everything Happens to Me)Sheriff Hall Occhio alla penna (1981) (English title: Buddy goes West)Buddy Chi trova un amico, trova un tesoro (1981) (English title: A friend is a treasure)Charlie O'Brien Cane e gatto (1982) (English title: Cat and Dog)Sergeant Parker Banana Joe (film) (1982)Banana Joe Bomber (1982)Bud Graziano Nati con la camicia (1983) (English title: Go for it)Doug O'Riordan alias Mason Double Trouble (1984) (Italian title: Non c'è due senza quattro)Greg Wonder/Antonio Coimbra de la Coronilla y Azevedo Miami Supercops (1985)Steve Forest Superfantagenio (1986) (USA title: Aladdin)Genie Big man (1988 - 1989) (TV Series)Jack Clementi Extralarge (1990 - 1993) (TV Series)Jack 'Extralarge' Costello Un piede in Paradiso (1991)(English title: Speaking of the devil)John "Bull" Webster Botte di Natale (1994)(English title: The Night Before Christmas; also called "The Troublemaker")Moses Noi siamo angeli (1997) (English title: We are Angels) (mini) TV SeriesOrso Fuochi d'artificio (1997) (English title: Fireworks)The blind singer Al limite (1997) (English title: To the Limit)Elorza Hijos del viento (2000) (English Title: Sons of the wind)Quintero Tre per sempre (2002) (English title: 3 - 4 Ever)Bops Cantando dietro i paraventi (2003) (English title: Singing Behind Screens)Il vecchio capitano Padre Speranza (2005) (English title: Father Hope) (TV)Padre Speranza Mord ist mein Geschäft, Liebling (2009) (English title: Murder is my Business, Honey)Pepe Writer: 1990s Banana Joe (1982) Big Man La Fanciulla che ride (1988) (TV) Diva (1989) (TV) Boomerang (1989) (TV) Extralarge Ninja Shadow (1993) (TV) Diamonds (1993) (TV) (in the 1980s, he was credited as Carlo Pedersoli) Image gallery Footnotes External links Budterence.it - Bud Spencer & Terence Hill Italian Website Spencer & Hill videos "Berlusconi picks film cowboy as his sidekick", telegraph.co.uk, 16 February 2005, Bruce Johnston Hill & Spencer website | Bud_Spencer |@lemmatized bud:7 spencer:18 born:1 carlo:8 pedersoli:11 october:1 italian:13 actor:2 filmmaker:1 former:1 swimmer:3 first:4 swim:5 less:2 minute:2 know:1 height:2 cm:1 past:1 role:2 spaghetti:1 western:2 grow:1 successful:2 youth:2 get:1 degree:1 law:2 register:1 several:1 patent:1 imdb:1 com:1 biography:1 bear:1 santa:1 lucia:1 historical:1 rione:1 city:1 naples:1 marry:1 maria:2 amato:1 three:2 child:2 giuseppe:1 christine:1 diamante:1 change:1 screen:2 name:4 reportedly:1 choose:1 pay:1 homage:1 tracy:1 well:1 favorite:1 american:1 beer:1 budweiser:1 source:1 report:3 find:3 funny:1 call:5 despite:1 weight:1 swimming:4 water:3 polo:3 career:6 freestyle:3 one:1 achieve:1 september:1 record:1 mediterranean:2 game:3 win:2 silver:1 medal:1 event:1 participate:1 olympic:1 helsinki:2 finland:1 reach:1 semi:4 final:4 heat:2 official:2 four:2 year:1 later:1 melbourne:2 also:3 enter:2 category:1 player:1 championship:1 lazio:2 end:1 abruptly:1 january:2 award:1 caimano:1 oro:1 gold:2 caiman:2 federation:2 receive:3 president:1 paolo:1 barelli:1 coach:2 diploma:2 two:3 act:2 movie:4 member:1 praetorian:1 guard:2 quo:2 vadis:2 film:8 shot:1 italy:2 part:1 appear:2 strictly:1 minor:1 league:1 late:1 meet:1 terence:2 hill:6 make:1 large:2 number:1 together:1 include:2 use:1 common:1 u:1 title:51 hannibal:2 god:2 forgive:1 ace:2 high:3 boot:2 five:2 man:4 army:2 trinity:5 blackie:2 pirate:2 still:2 way:2 boy:2 watch:2 mad:2 missionary:1 crime:3 buster:2 odds:1 even:2 friend:2 treasure:2 go:3 double:2 trouble:2 miami:2 supercops:2 troublemaker:2 hippopotamus:2 solo:1 performance:1 bulldozer:4 sheriff:5 satellite:2 kid:2 everything:3 happen:2 banana:4 joe:4 superfantagenio:2 many:2 alternate:1 depend:1 upon:1 country:1 distributor:1 long:1 version:1 edit:1 release:1 abroad:1 gather:1 popularity:1 especially:1 europe:2 main:1 dubber:3 glauco:1 onorato:1 characteristic:1 voice:1 successfully:1 enrich:1 character:1 particularity:1 sergio:1 fiorentini:1 botte:2 di:7 natale:2 al:3 limite:2 series:3 detective:1 extralarge:5 oggi:2 te:2 domani:2 ferruccio:1 amendola:1 write:1 complete:1 partial:1 screenplay:1 fan:1 base:1 particularly:1 feature:1 slow:1 shift:1 toward:1 television:1 tv:10 action:1 drama:1 personal:1 life:2 più:2 forte:2 ragazzi:2 become:1 jet:1 airplane:1 helicopter:1 pilot:1 establish:1 mistral:1 air:1 leave:1 buy:1 textile:1 mill:1 produce:1 clothes:1 politics:4 unsuccessfully:1 stand:1 regional:1 counselor:1 forza:1 italia:1 party:1 state:1 thing:1 ballet:1 dancer:1 jockey:1 politician:1 give:1 job:1 question:1 throw:1 opposition:1 criticise:1 engage:1 politica:1 spettacolo:1 showbiz:1 filmography:1 filmrole:1 imperial:1 siluri:1 umani:1 english:46 human:1 torpedo:1 magrini:1 un:5 eroe:1 dei:1 nostri:1 tempo:1 hero:1 time:1 fernando:1 cocco:1 mamma:2 il:4 oscar:1 farewell:1 arm:1 carabiniere:1 annibale:1 dio:2 perdona:1 io:2 blood:1 river:1 hutch:3 bessy:3 today:1 bannion:1 là:1 della:1 legge:1 beyond:1 jam:1 cooper:1 quattro:2 dell:1 ave:1 è:2 con:3 noi:2 defeat:1 cpl:1 jelinek:1 esercito:1 cinque:1 uomini:1 mesito:1 la:4 collina:1 degli:1 stivali:1 lo:3 chiamavano:2 trinità:2 bambino:2 corsaro:1 nero:1 skull:1 continuavano:1 chiamarlo:1 mosche:1 velluto:1 grigio:1 fly:1 grey:1 velvet:1 godfrey:1 torino:1 nera:1 black:1 turin:1 rosario:1 rao:1 boys:1 salud:1 si:1 può:1 fare:1 amigo:2 back:1 hiram:1 coburn:1 una:2 ragione:1 per:3 vivere:1 e:5 morire:1 reason:2 live:1 die:1 eli:1 sampson:1 anche:1 gli:2 angeli:2 mangiano:1 fagioli:1 angels:1 eat:1 bean:1 charlie:3 smith:1 piedone:4 sbirro:1 fistful:1 hell:1 inspector:3 flatfoot:4 rizzo:4 porgi:1 l:2 altra:1 guancia:1 turn:1 cheek:1 father:2 padre:3 pedro:1 altrimenti:1 ci:1 arrabbiamo:1 ben:1 hong:2 kong:2 due:2 superpiedi:1 quasi:1 piatti:1 wilbur:1 walsh:1 soldato:1 ventura:1 soldier:1 fortune:1 hector:1 fieramosca:1 charleston:2 africano:1 knock:1 cop:1 uppercut:1 pari:1 dispari:1 gambling:1 stake:1 firpo:1 sceriffo:2 extraterrestre:1 poco:1 extra:1 molto:1 terrestre:1 uno:1 scott:1 hall:2 egitto:1 egypt:1 sto:1 ippopotami:1 tom:1 chissà:1 perché:1 capitano:2 tutte:1 occhio:1 alla:1 penna:1 buddy:2 west:1 chi:1 trova:2 amico:1 tesoro:1 brien:1 cane:1 gatto:1 cat:1 dog:1 sergeant:1 parker:1 bomber:1 graziano:1 nati:1 camicia:1 doug:1 riordan:1 alias:1 mason:1 non:1 c:1 senza:1 greg:1 wonder:1 antonio:1 coimbra:1 de:1 coronilla:1 azevedo:1 steve:1 forest:1 usa:1 aladdin:1 genie:1 big:2 jack:2 clementi:1 costello:1 piede:1 paradiso:1 speaking:1 devil:1 john:1 bull:1 webster:1 night:1 christmas:1 moses:1 siamo:1 angel:1 mini:1 seriesorso:1 fuochi:1 artificio:1 firework:1 blind:1 singer:1 limit:1 elorza:1 hijos:1 del:1 viento:1 son:1 wind:1 quintero:1 tre:1 sempre:1 ever:1 bop:1 cantando:1 dietro:1 paraventi:1 singing:1 behind:1 vecchio:1 speranza:2 hope:1 mord:1 ist:1 mein:1 geschäft:1 liebling:1 murder:1 business:1 honey:1 pepe:1 writer:1 fanciulla:1 che:1 ride:1 diva:1 boomerang:1 ninja:1 shadow:1 diamonds:1 credit:1 image:1 gallery:1 footnote:1 external:1 link:1 budterence:1 website:2 videos:1 berlusconi:1 pick:1 cowboy:1 sidekick:1 telegraph:1 co:1 uk:1 february:1 bruce:1 johnston:1 |@bigram bud_spencer:5 carlo_pedersoli:8 imdb_com:1 pay_homage:1 spencer_tracy:1 beer_budweiser:1 helsinki_finland:1 praetorian_guard:1 quo_vadis:2 forza_italia:1 ballet_dancer:1 ave_maria:1 hong_kong:2 external_link:1 |
1,577 | Neolithic | An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools. The Neolithic Age, Era, or Period, or New Stone Age, was a period in the development of human technology, beginning about 9500 BC in the Middle East Figure 3.3 from First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies by Peter Bellwood, 2004 that is traditionally considered the last part of the Stone Age. The Neolithic followed the terminal Holocene Epipalaeolithic periods, beginning with the rise of farming, which produced the "Neolithic Revolution" and ending when metal tools became widespread in the Copper Age (chalcolithic) or Bronze Age or developing directly into the Iron Age, depending on geographical region. The Neolithic is not a specific chronological period, but rather a suite of behavioural and cultural characteristics, including the use of wild and domestic crops and the use of domesticated animals. Some archaeologists have long advocated replacing "Neolithic" with a more descriptive term, such as "Early Village Communities", although this has not gained wide acceptance. Neolithic culture began in the Levant (Jericho, modern-day West Bank) about 9500 BC. It developed directly from the Epipaleolithic Natufian culture in the region, whose people pioneered the use of wild cereals, which then evolved into true farming. The Natufians can thus be called "proto-Neolithic" (12,500–9500 BC or 12,000-9500 BC). As the Natufians had become dependent on wild cereals in their diet, and a sedentary way of life had begun among them, the climatic changes associated with the Younger Dryas are thought to have forced people to develop farming. By 9500–9000 BC, farming communities arose in the Levant and spread to Asia Minor, North Africa and North Mesopotamia. Early Neolithic farming was limited to a narrow range of plants, both wild and domesticated, which included einkorn wheat, millet and spelt, and the keeping of dogs, sheep and goats. By about 8000 BC, it included domesticated cattle and pigs, the establishment of permanently or seasonally inhabited settlements, and the use of pottery. The potter's wheel was a later refinement that revolutionized the pottery industry. Not all of these cultural elements characteristic of the Neolithic appeared everywhere in the same order: the earliest farming societies in the Near East did not use pottery, and, in Britain, it remains unclear to what extent plants were domesticated in the earliest Neolithic, or even whether permanently settled communities existed. In other parts of the world, such as Africa, South Asia and Southeast Asia, independent domestication events led to their own regionally-distinctive Neolithic cultures that arose completely independent of those in Europe and Southwest Asia. Early Japanese societies used pottery before developing agriculture. Unlike the Paleolithic, where more than one human species existed, only one human species (Homo sapiens sapiens) reached the neolithic. The term Neolithic derives from the Greek νεολιθικός, neolithikos, from νέος neos, "new" + λίθος lithos, "stone", literally meaning "New Stone Age." The term was invented by Sir Hannah Lubbock in 1865 as a refinement of the three-age system. Periods by pottery phase In Southwest Asia (i.e., the Middle East), cultures identified as Neolithic began appearing in the 10th millennium BC and in Africa possibly as early as the 15th millennium BC. (Van Sertima, 1984, p. 20) African Science in School Curriculum Early development occurred in the Levant (e.g., Pre-Pottery Neolithic A and Pre-Pottery Neolithic B) and from there spread eastwards and westwards. Neolithic cultures are also attested in southeastern Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia by ca. 8000 BC. The prehistoric Beifudi site near Yixian in Hebei Province, China, contains relics of a culture contemporaneous with the Cishan and Xinglongwa cultures of about 7,000–8,000 BP, neolithic cultures east of the Taihang Mountains, filling in an archaeological gap between the two Northern Chinese cultures. The total excavated area is more than 1,200 square meters and the collection of neolithic findings at the site consists of two phases. Neolithic 1 – Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) The Neolithic 1 (PPNA) began in the Levant (Jericho, Palestine & Jbeil (Byblos), Lebanon) around 9500 to 9000 BC. The actual date is not established with certainty due to different results in carbon dating by scientists in the British Museum and Philadelphia laboratories. An early temple area in southeastern Turkey at Göbekli Tepe dated to 10,000 BC may be regarded as the beginning of the Neolithic 1. This site was developed by nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes, evidenced by the lack permanent housing in the vicinity. This temple site is the oldest known man-made place of worship. At least seven stone circles, covering 25 acres, contain limestone pillars carved with animals, insects and birds. Stone tools were used by perhaps as many as hundreds of people to create the pillars, which may have supported roofs. The major advance of Neolithic 1 was true farming. In the proto-Neolithic Natufian cultures, wild cereals were harvested, and perhaps early seed selection and re-seeding occurred. The grain was ground into flour. Emmer wheat was domesticated, and animals were herded and domesticated (animal husbandry and selective breeding). In the 21st century, remains of figs were discovered in a house in Jericho dated to 9,400 BC. The figs are of a mutant variety that cannot be pollinated by insects, and therefore the trees can only reproduce from cuttings. This evidence suggests that figs were the first cultivated crop and mark the invention of the technology of farming. This occurred centuries before the first cultivation of grains. (Source: "Ancient Figs May Be First Cultivated Crops" by Christopher Joyce, NPR.org, last accessed 1/28/2009.) Settlements became more permanent with circular houses, much like those of the Natufians, with single rooms. However, these houses were for the first time made of mudbricks. The husband had one house, while each of his wives lived with their children in surrounding houses. The settlement had a surrounding stone wall and perhaps a stone tower (as in Jericho). The wall served as protection from nearby groups, as protection from floods, or to keep animals penned. There are also some enclosures that suggest grain and meat storage. Neolithic 2 – Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) The Neolithic 2 (PPNB) began around 8500 BC in the Levant (Jericho, Palestine). As with the PPNA dates there are two versions from the same laboratories noted above. But this terminological structure is not convenient for southeast Anatolia and settlements of the middle Anatolia basin. Settlements have rectangular mudbrick houses where the family lived together in single or multiple rooms. Burial findings suggest an ancestor cult where people preserved skulls of the dead, which were plastered with mud to make facial features. The rest of the corpse may have been left outside the settlement to decay until only the bones were left, then the bones were buried inside the settlement underneath the floor or between houses. Neolithic 3 – Pottery Neolithic (PN) The Neolithic 3 (PN) began around 6500 BC in the Fertile Crescent. By then distinctive cultures emerged, with pottery like the Halafian (Turkey, Syria, Northern Mesopotamia) and Ubaid (Southern Mesopotamia). The Chalcolithic period began about 4500 BC, then the Bronze Age began about 3500 BC, replacing the Neolithic cultures. Periods by region Fertile Crescent Around 9500 BC, the first fully developed Neolithic cultures belonging to the phase Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) appeared in the fertile crescent. Around 9,000 BC during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA), the world's first town, Jericho, appeared in the Levant. It was surrounded by a stone and marble wall and contained a population of 2000–3000 people and a massive stone tower. "Jericho", Encyclopedia Britannica Around 6000 BC the Halaf culture appeared in Lebanon, Israel and Palestine, Syria, Anatolia, and Northern Mesopotamia and subsisted on dryland agriculture. Southern Mesopotamia Alluvial plains (Sumer/Elam). Little rainfall, makes irrigation systems necessary. Ubaid culture from 5500 BC. Africa Africans can be traced to have begun raising and domesticating crops and cattle around 15,000 years ago. African peoples have been discovered to have been raising crops of wheat, barley, lentils, dates and other vegetables and grains as far back as the tenth millennium BCE. Ancient Africa: History and Geography In Africa, millet and sorghum were domesticated at least 5000 years ago. Grains Food producing economies were established by African people living north of the equator between about 6000 and 1000 BCE. Ancient Africa: History and Geography Europe Map showing distribution of some of the main culture complexes in Neolithic Europe, ca.4500 BC Skara Brae, Scotland. Evidence of home furnishings (shelves). Excavated dwellings at Skara Brae Scotland, Europe's most complete Neolithic village. In southeast Europe agrarian societies first appeared by ca. 7000 BC, Female figurine, circa 6000 BC, Nea Nikomidia, Macedonia, Veroia, (Archaeological Museum), Greece and in Central Europe by ca. 5500 BC. Among the earliest cultural complexes of this area are included the Sesklo culture in Thessaly , which later expanded in the Balkans giving Starčevo-Körös (Cris), Linearbandkeramic, and Vinča. Through a combination of cultural diffusion and migration of peoples, the Neolithic traditions spread west and northwards to reach northwestern Europe by around 4500 BC. The Vinča culture may have created the earliest system of writing, the Vinča signs, though it is almost universally accepted amongst archeologists that the Sumerian cuneiform script was the earliest true form of writing and the Vinča signs most likely represented pictograms and ideograms rather than a truly developed form of writing. The megalithic temple complexes of Ġgantija on the Mediterranean island of Gozo (in the Maltese archipelago) and of Mnajdra (Malta) are notable for their gigantic Neolithic structures, the oldest of which date back to c. 3600 BC.The Hypogeum of Ħal-Saflieni, Paola, Malta, is a subterranean structure excavated c. 2500 B.C.; originally a sanctuary, it became a necropolis, the only prehistoric underground temple in the world, and showing a degree of artistry in stone sculpture unique in prehistory to the Maltese islands. South and East Asia The oldest Neolithic site in South Asia is Mehrgarh from 7000 BC. It lies on the "Kachi plain of Baluchistan, Pakistan, and is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming (wheat and barley) and herding (cattle, sheep and goats) in South Asia." Hirst, K. Kris. 2005. "Mehrgarh". Guide to Archaeology One of the earliest Neolithic sites in India is Lahuradewa, at Middle Ganges region, C14 dated around 7th millennium BC.. Fuller, Dorian 2006. "Agricultural Origins and Frontiers in South Asia: A Working Synthesis" in Journal of World Prehistory 20, p.42 "Ganges Neolithic" Recently another site near the confluence of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers called Jhusi yielded a C14 dating of 7100 BC for its Neolithic levels. Tewari, Rakesh et al. 2006. "Second Preliminary Report of the excavations at Lahuradewa,District Sant Kabir Nagar, UP 2002-2003-2004 & 2005-06" in Pragdhara No. 16 "Electronic Version p.28" In South India, the Neolithic began by 3000 BC and lasted until around 1400 BC when the Megalithic transition period began. South Indian Neolithic is characterized by Ashmounds since 2500 BC in Karnataka region, expanded later to Tamil Nadu. In East Asia, the earliest sites include Pengtoushan culture around 7500 BC to 6100 BC, Peiligang culture around 7000 BC to 5000 BC. The 'Neolithic' (defined in this paragraph as using polished stone implements) remains a living tradition in small and extremely remote and inaccessible pockets of West Papua (Indonesian New Guinea). Polished stone adzes and axes are used in the present day ( AD) in areas where the availability of metal implements is limited. This is likely to cease altogether in the next few years as the older generation die off and steel blades and chainsaws prevail. America In Mesoamerica, a similar set of events (i.e., crop domestication and sedentary lifestyles) occurred by around 4500 BC, but possibly as early as 11,000–10,000 BC, although here the term "Pre-Classic" (or Formative) is used instead of mid-late Neolithic, the term Archaic Era for the Early Neolithic, and Paleo-Indian for the preceding period, though these cultures are usually not referred to as belonging to the Neolithic. Social organization Anthropomorphic Neolithic figurine During most of the Neolithic people lived in small tribes of 150–2000 members that were composed of multiple bands or lineages. Page 158 There is little scientific evidence of developed social stratification in most Neolithic societies; social stratification is more associated with the later Bronze Age. Killen, pg 422. Although some late Neolithic societies formed complex stratified chiefdoms similar to Polynesian societies such as the Ancient Hawaiians, most Neolithic societies were relatively simple and egalitarian. Page 158 However, Neolithic societies were noticeably more hierarchical than the Paleolithic cultures that preceded them and Hunter-gatherer cultures in general "Stone Age," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007 © 1997–2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. Contributed by Kathy Schick, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. and Nicholas Toth, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. Guthrie, pg 420. The domestication of animals (c. 8000 BC) resulted in a dramatic increase in social inequality. Possession of livestock allowed competition between households and resulted in inherited inequalities of wealth. Neolithic pastoralists who controlled large herds gradually acquired more livestock, and this made economic inequalities more pronounced. Bahn, Paul (1996) "The atlas of world archeology" Copyright 2000 The brown Reference Group plc However, evidence of social inequality is still disputed, as settlements such as Catalhoyuk reveal a striking lack of difference in the size of homes and burial sites, suggesting a more egalitarian society with no evidence of the concept of capital, although some homes do appear slightly larger or more elaborately decorated than others. Families and households were still largely independent economically, and the household was probably the center of life. However, excavations in Central Europe have revealed that early Neolithic Linear Ceramic cultures ("Linearbandkeramik") were building large arrangements of circular ditches between 4800 BC and 4600 BC. These structures (and their later counterparts such as causewayed enclosures, burial mounds, and henges) required considerable time and labour to construct, which suggests that some influential individuals were able to organise and direct human labour — though non-hierarchical and voluntary work remain strong possibilities. There is a large body of evidence for fortified settlements at Linearbandkeramik sites along the Rhine, as at least some villages were fortified for some time with a palisade and an outer ditch. Idyllic Theory of Goddess Creates Storm Krause (1998) under External links, places. Settlements with palisades and weapon-traumatized bones have been discovered, such as at Herxheim, Orschiedt (2006) under External links, Places. which, whether the site of a massacre or of a martial ritual, demonstrates "...systematic violence between groups." and warfare was probably much more common during the Neolithic than in the preceding Paleolithic period. Guthrie, pg 422 This supplanted an earlier view of the Linear Pottery Culture as living a "peaceful, unfortified lifestyle." Gimbutas (1991) page 143. Control of labour and inter-group conflict is characteristic of corporate-level or 'tribal' groups, headed by a charismatic individual; whether a 'big man', a proto-chief or a matriarch, functioning as a lineage-group head. Whether a non-hierarchical system of organization existed is debatable and there is no evidence that explicitly suggests that Neolithic societies functioned under any dominating class or individual, as was the case in the chiefdoms of the European Early Bronze Age. Ian Kuijt (2000) "Life in Neolithic Farming Communities: Social Organization, Identity, and differentiation" page 317 Springer press Theories to explain the apparent egalitarianism of Neolithic (and Paleolithic) societies have arisen, notably the Marxist concept of primitive communism. Shelter Reconstruction of Neolithic house in Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina. The shelter of the early people changed dramatically from the Paleolithic to the neolithic era. In the paleolithic, people did not normally live in permanent constructions. In the neolithic, mud brick houses started appearing that were coated with plaster. Shane, Orrin C. III, and Mine Küçuk. "The World's First City." Archaeology 51.2 (1998): 43–47. The growth of agriculture made permanent houses possible. Doorways were made on the roof, with ladders positioned both on the inside and outside of the houses. The roof was supported by beams from the inside. The rough ground was covered by platforms, mats, and skins on which residents slept. Farming A significant and far-reaching shift in human subsistence and lifestyle was to be brought about in areas where crop farming and cultivation were first developed: the previous reliance on an essentially nomadic hunter-gatherer subsistence technique or pastoral transhumance was at first supplemented, and then increasingly replaced by, a reliance upon the foods produced from cultivated lands. These developments are also believed to have greatly encouraged the growth of settlements, since it may be supposed that the increased need to spend more time and labor in tending crop fields required more localized dwellings. This trend would continue into the Bronze Age, eventually giving rise to towns, and later cities and states whose larger populations could be sustained by the increased productivity from cultivated lands. The profound differences in human interactions and subsistence methods associated with the onset of early agricultural practices in the Neolithic have been called the Neolithic Revolution, a term coined in the 1920s by the Australian archaeologist Vere Gordon Childe. One potential benefit of the development and increasing sophistication of farming technology was an ability (if conditions allowed) to produce a crop yield that would be surplus to the immediate needs of the community. When such surpluses were produced they could be preserved and sequestered for later use during times of seasonal shortfalls, traded with other communities (giving rise to a nascent non-subsistence economy), and in general allowed larger populations to be sustained. The storage site might need to be defended from marauders, increasing the cultural investment in a particular site. Halaf ware However, it should be noted that early farmers were also adversely affected in times of famine, such as may be caused by drought or pests. In instances where agriculture had become the predominant way of life, the sensitivity to these shortages could be particularly acute, affecting agrarian populations to an extent that otherwise may not have been routinely experienced by prior hunter-gatherer communities. Bahn, Paul (1996) "The atlas of world archeology" Copyright 2000 The brown Reference Group plc Nevertheless, agrarian communities generally proved successful, and their growth and the expansion of territory under cultivation continued. Another significant change undergone by many of these newly-agrarian communities was one of diet. Pre-agrarian diets varied by region, season, available local plant and animal resources and degree of pastoralism and hunting. Post-agrarian diet was restricted to a limited package of successfully cultivated cereal grains, plants and to a variable extent domesticated animals and animal products. Supplementation of diet by hunting and gathering was to variable degrees precluded by the increase in population above the carrying capacity of the land and a high sedentary local population concentration. In some cultures, there would have been a significant shift toward increased starch and plant protein. The relative nutritional benefits and drawbacks of these dietary changes, and their overall impact on early societal development is still debated. In addition, increased population density, decreased population mobility, increased continuous proximity to domesticated animals, and continuous occupation of comparatively population-dense sites would have altered sanitation needs and patterns of disease. Technology A Neolithic artifact from Romania. Neolithic peoples were skilled farmers, manufacturing a range of tools necessary for the tending, harvesting and processing of crops (such as sickle blades and grinding stones) and food production (e.g. pottery, bone implements). They were also skilled manufacturers of a range of other types of stone tools and ornaments, including projectile points, beads, and statuettes. But what allowed forest clearance on a large was the polished stone axe above all other tools. Together with the adze, fashioning wood for shelter, structures and canoes for example, this enabled them to exploit their newly won farmland. Neolithic peoples in the Levant, Anatolia, Syria, northern Mesopotamia and Central Asia were also accomplished builders, utilizing mud-brick to construct houses and villages. At Çatalhöyük, houses were plastered and painted with elaborate scenes of humans and animals. In Europe, long houses built from wattle and daub were constructed. Elaborate tombs were built for the dead. These tombs are particularly numerous in Ireland, where there are many thousand still in existence. Neolithic people in the British Isles built long barrows and chamber tombs for their dead and causewayed camps, henges, flint mines and cursus monuments. It was also important to figure out ways of preserving food for future months, such as fashioning relatively airtight containers, and using substances like salt as preservatives. The peoples of the Americas and the Pacific mostly retained the Neolithic level of tool technology until the time of European contact. Exceptions include few copper hatchets and spear heads in the Great Lakes region. However, there are numerous examples of development of complex socio-political organization, building technology, scientific knowledge and linguistic culture in these regions that parallel post-neolithic developments in Africa and Eurasia. Those include the Inca, Maya, ancient Hawaii, Aztec, Iroquois, Mississippian and Maori. Clothing Most clothing appears to have been made of animal skins, as indicated by finds of large numbers of bone and antler pins which are ideal for fastening leather, but not cloth. However, woolen cloth and linen might have become available during the British Neolithic, as suggested by finds of perforated stones which (depending on size) may have served as spindle whorls or loom weights. The clothing worn in the Neolithic Age might be illustrated in the Ötzi the Iceman, although he was not British and not Neolithic (since he belonged to the later Copper age). Early settlements Reconstruction of a Cucuteni-Trypillia hut, in the Tripillia museum, Ukraine. Neolithic human settlements include: Tabon Cave Complex in Quezon, Palawan, Philippines 5000–2000 BC Spirit Cave in Thailand, 9000–5500 BC Franchthi Cave in Greece, epipalaeolithic (ca. 10,000 BC) settlement, reoccupied between 7500–6000 BC Göbekli Tepe in Turkey, ca. 9000 BC Jericho in West bank, Neolithic from around 8350 BC, arising from the earlier Epipaleolithic Natufian culture Nevali Cori in Turkey, ca. 8000 BC Ganj Darreh in Iran, ca. 7000 BC Çatalhöyük in Turkey, 7500 BC Pengtoushan culture in China, 7500–6100 BC 'Ain Ghazal in Jordan, 7250–5000 BC Jhusi in India, 7100 BC Petnica in Serbia,6000 BC Sesklo in Greece, 6850 BC (with a ±660 year margin of error) Dispilio in Greece, ca. 5500 BC Jiahu in China, 7000 to 5800 BC Mehrgarh in Pakistan, 7000 BC Knossus on Crete, ca. 7000 BC Lahuradewa in India, 6400 BC Porodin in Republic of Macedonia, 6500 BC Developed Neolithic period, 5500 BC Vrshnik (Anzabegovo) in Republic of Macedonia, 6500 BC Pizzo di Bodi (Varese), Lombardy in Italy, ca 6320 ±80 BC Sammardenchia in Friuli, Italy , ca 6050 ±90 BC, Cucuteni-Trypillian culture, ca 5500 BC, in Ukraine and Romania Hemudu culture in China, 5000–4500 BC, large scale rice plantation around 2000 settlements of Trypillian culture, 5400–2800 BC The Megalithic Temples of Malta, 3600 BC Knap of Howar and Skara Brae, Orkney, Scotland, from 3500 BC and 3100 BC respectively Brú na Bóinne in Ireland, ca. 3500 BC Lough Gur in Ireland from around 3000 BC Lajia in China, 2000 BC The world's oldest known engineered roadway, the Sweet Track in England, dates from 3800 BCE and the world's oldest free-standing structure is the neolithic temple of Ggantija in Gozo, Malta. See also Megalith Neolithic Europe Neolithic Revolution Neolithic religion Neolithic tomb Ötzi the Iceman Synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric cultures Paleolithic Footnotes Bibliography Pedersen, Hilthart (2008), "Die jüngere Steinzeit auf Bornholm", München & Ravensburg. 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1,578 | Euclidean_algorithm | In mathematics, the Euclidean algorithm is an efficient method for computing the greatest common divisor (GCD). The algorithm is also called Euclid's algorithm, after the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid, who first described it. The GCD of two numbers is the largest number that divides both of them without leaving a remainder. The Euclidean algorithm is based on the principle that the greatest common divisor of two numbers does not change if the smaller number is subtracted from the larger number. For example, 21 is the GCD of 252 and 105 (252 = 21 × 12, 105 = 21 × 5), which is the same as the GCD of 147 and 105, since 252 − 105 = 147. Since the larger number is reduced, repeating this process gives successively smaller numbers until one of them is zero. When that occurs, the GCD is the remaining nonzero number. Such a procedure described by well-defined rules is called an algorithm. By reversing the steps, the GCD can be expressed as a sum of the two original numbers each multiplied by a positive or negative integer, e.g., 21 = 5 × 105 + (−2) × 252. This important property is known as Bézout's identity. Euclid's algorithm was first described in Euclid's Elements (c. 300 BC), making it one of the oldest numerical algorithms still in common use. The original algorithm was described only for natural numbers and geometric lengths (real numbers), but the algorithm was generalized in the 19th century to other types of numbers, such as Gaussian integers and polynomials of one variable. This led to modern abstract algebraic notions such as Euclidean domains. The Euclidean algorithm has been generalized further to other mathematical structures, such as knots and multivariate polynomials. The Euclidean algorithm has many theoretical and practical applications. It is a key element of the RSA algorithm, a public-key encryption method widely used in electronic commerce. It is used to solve Diophantine equations, such as finding numbers that satisfy multiple congruences (Chinese remainder theorem) or multiplicative inverses of a finite field. The Euclidean algorithm can also be used in constructing continued fractions, in the Sturm chain method for finding real roots of a polynomial, and in several modern integer factorization algorithms. Finally, it is a basic tool for proving theorems in modern number theory, such as Lagrange's four-square theorem and the fundamental theorem of arithmetic (unique factorization). Euclid's algorithm computes the GCD of large numbers efficiently, because it never requires more steps than five times the number of digits (base 10) of the smaller integer. This was proven by Gabriel Lamé in 1844, and marks the beginning of computational complexity theory. Methods for improving the algorithm's efficiency were developed in the 20th century. Background Greatest common divisor The Euclidean algorithm calculates the greatest common divisor (GCD) of two natural numbers a and b. The greatest common divisor g is the largest natural number that divides both a and b without leaving a remainder. Synonyms for the GCD include the greatest common factor (GCF), the highest common factor (HCF), and the greatest common measure (GCM). The greatest common divisor is often written as GCD(a, b) or, more simply, as (a, b), Stark, p. 16 although the latter notation is also used for other mathematical concepts, such as two-dimensional vectors. If GCD(a, b) = 1, then a and b are said to be coprime. Stark, p. 21. This property is independent of whether a and b are themselves prime numbers. LeVeque, p. 32. For example, neither 6 nor 35 is a prime number, since they both have two prime factors: 6 = 2 × 3 and 35 = 5 × 7. Nevertheless, 6 and 35 are coprime. No natural number other than 1 divides both 6 and 35, since they have no prime factors in common. Since a and b are both multiples of g, they can be written a = mg and b = ng, and there is no larger number G > g for which this is true. The natural numbers m and n must be coprime, since any common factor can be factored out of m and n to make g greater. Thus, any other number c that divides both a and b must also divide g. The greatest common divisor g of a and b can be defined as the common divisor that is divisible by any other common divisor c. Leveque, p. 31. The GCD can be visualized as follows. Consider a rectangular area a by b, and any common divisor c that divides both a and b exactly. The sides of the rectangle can be divided into segments of length c, which divides the rectangle into a grid of squares of side length c. The greatest common divisor g is the largest value of c for which this is possible. For illustration, a 24-by-60 rectangular area can be divided into a grid of: 1-by-1 squares, 2-by-2 squares, 3-by-3 squares, 6-by-6 squares or 12-by-12 squares. Therefore, 12 is the greatest common divisor of 24 and 60. A 24-by-60 rectangular area can be divided into a grid of 12-by-12 squares, with two squares along one edge (24/12 = 2) and five squares along the other (60/12 = 5). The GCD of two numbers a and b can be defined as the product of the prime factors shared by the two numbers. Schroeder, pp. 21–22. For example, since 462 can be factored into 2 × 3 × 7 × 11 and 1071 can be factored into 3 × 3 × 7 × 17, the greatest common divisor of 462 and 1071 equals 21 = 3 × 7, the product of their shared prime factors. If two numbers have no prime factors in common, their greatest common divisor is 1—they are coprime. A key advantage of the Euclidean algorithm is that it can find the GCD efficiently without having to compute the prime factors. Schroeder, p. 19. Factorization of large integers is believed to be such a difficult problem that many modern cryptography systems are based upon it. Schroeder, pp. 216–219. A more subtle definition of the GCD is helpful in advanced mathematics, particularly ring theory. The greatest common divisor g of two numbers a and b is also their smallest integer multiple, that is, the smallest number of the form ua + vb where u and v are integers. It follows that the set of all integer multiples of a and b (all numbers ua + vb) is the same as the set of all integer multiples of g (mg, where m is an integer). In modern mathematical language, the ideal formed by a and b is a principal ideal generated by g. The equivalence of this GCD definition with the other definitions is described below. The GCD of three or more numbers equals the product of the prime factors common to all the numbers, Stark, p. 25. which can be calculated by taking the GCDs of pairs of numbers. Ore, pp. 47–48. For example, GCD(a, b, c) = GCD(a, GCD(b, c)) = GCD(GCD(a, b), c) = GCD(GCD(a, c), b) Thus, Euclid's algorithm, which computes the GCD of two integers, suffices to calculate the GCD of arbitrarily many integers. Induction, recursion and infinite descent Three related mathematical methods are used in the arguments below: induction, recursion and infinite descent. Induction (Section 1.2.1: Mathematical Induction, pp. 11–21.) is often used to prove a theorem for all natural numbers n. Rosen, pp. 18–21. This approach begins by showing that, if the theorem holds for n, it also holds for n + 1. Therefore, if the theorem holds for one case (typically, n = 1), it holds for all higher cases (n = 2, 3, etc.). A recursion Rosen, pp. 21–24. is an equation relating numbers that form a series a1, a2, a3, etc. The nth term in the series, an, is often expressed in terms of earlier terms of the series, such as an−1. For example, the Fibonacci numbers are defined recursively; each term is the sum of the two preceding terms: Fn = Fn−1 + Fn−2. Several equations associated with the Euclidean algorithm are recursive. Finally, in infinite descent, Rosen, p. 492. a given solution in natural numbers is used to construct a solution with smaller natural numbers. However, the solutions cannot shrink indefinitely, since there are only a finite number of natural numbers below the initial natural numbers. Therefore, either the original solution was impossible, or the construction of smaller solutions must end. The latter argument is used to show that the Euclidean algorithm for natural numbers must end in a finite number of steps. Description Procedure The Euclidean algorithm is iterative, meaning that the answer is found in a series of steps; the output of each step is used as an input for the next step. Stark, pp. 16–20. Let k be an integer that counts the steps of the algorithm, starting with zero. Thus, the initial step corresponds to k = 0, the next step corresponds to k = 1, and so on. Each step begins with two nonnegative remainders rk−1 and rk−2. Since the algorithm ensures that the remainders decrease steadily with every step, rk−1 is less than its predecessor rk−2. The goal of the kth step is to find a quotient qk and remainder rk such that the equation is satisfied rk−2 = qk rk−1 + rk where rk < rk−1. In other words, multiples of the smaller number rk−1 are subtracted from the larger number rk−2 until the remainder is smaller than the rk−1. In the initial step (k = 0), the remainders r−2 and r−1 equal a and b, the numbers for which the GCD is sought. In the next step (k=1), the remainders equal b and the remainder r0 of the initial step, and so on. Thus, the algorithm can be written as a sequence of equations a = q0 b + r0 b = q1 r0 + r1 r0 = q2 r1 + r2 r1 = q3 r2 + r3 … If a is smaller than b, the first step of the algorithm swaps the numbers. For example, if a < b, the initial quotient q0 equals zero, and the remainder r0 is a. Thus, rk is smaller than its predecessor rk−1 for all k ≥ 0. Since the remainders decrease with every step but can never be negative, a remainder rN must eventually equal zero, at which point the algorithm stops. Stark, p. 18. The final nonzero remainder rN−1 is the greatest common divisor of a and b. The number N cannot be infinite because there are only a finite number of nonnegative integers between the initial remainder r0 and zero. Proof of validity The validity of the Euclidean algorithm can be proven by two-step argument. Stark, pp. 16–20. In the first step, the final nonzero remainder rN−1 is shown to divide both a and b. Since it is a common divisor, it must be less than or equal to the greatest common divisor g. In the second step, it is shown that any common divisor of a and b, including g, must divide rN−1; therefore, g must be less than or equal to rN−1. These two conclusions are inconsistent unless rN−1 = g. To demonstrate that rN−1 divides both a and b (the first step), rN−1 divides its predecessor rN−2 rN−2 = qN rN−1 since the final remainder rN is zero. rN−1 also divides its next predecessor rN−3 rN−3 = qN−1 rN−2 + rN−1 because it divides both terms on the right-hand side of the equation. Iterating the same argument, rN−1 divides all the preceding remainders, including a and b. None of the preceding remainders rN−2, rN−3, etc. divide a and b, since they leave a remainder. Since rN−1 is a common divisor of a and b, rN−1 ≤ g. In the second step, any natural number c that divides both a and b (in other words, any common divisor of a and b) divides the remainders rk. By definition, a and b can be written as multiples of c: a = mc and b = nc, where m and n are natural numbers. Therefore, c divides the initial remainder r0, since r0 = a − q0b = mc − q0nc = (m − q0n)c. An analogous argument shows that c also divides the higher remainders r1, r2, etc. Therefore, the greatest common divisor g must divide rN−1, which implies that g ≤ rN−1. Since the first part of the argument showed the reverse (rN−1 ≤ g), it follows that g = rN−1. Thus, g is the greatest common divisor of all the succeeding pairs Knuth, p. 320. g = GCD(a, b) = GCD(b, r0) = GCD(r0, r1) = … = GCD(rN−2, rN−1) = rN−1 Worked example For illustration, the Euclidean algorithm can be used to find the greatest common divisor of a = 1071 and b = 462. To begin, multiples of 462 are subtracted from 1071 until the remainder is less than 462. Two such multiples can be subtracted (q0 = 2), leaving a remainder of 147 1071 = 2 × 462 + 147 Then multiples of 147 are subtracted from 462 until the remainder is less than 147. Three multiples can be subtracted (q1 = 3), leaving a remainder of 21 462 = 3 × 147 + 21 Then multiples of 21 are subtracted from 147 until the remainder is less than 21. Seven multiples can be subtracted (q2 = 7), leaving no remainder 147 = 7 × 21 + 0 Since the last remainder is zero, the algorithm ends with 21 as the greatest common divisor of 1071 and 462. This agrees with the GCD(1071, 462) found by prime factorization above. In tabular form, the steps are Step kEquationQuotient and remainder 0 1071 = q0 462 + r0 q0 = 2 and r0 = 147 1 462 = q1 147 + r1 q1 = 3 and r1 = 21 2 147 = q2 21 + r2 q2 = 7 and r2 = 0; algorithm ends Visualization The Euclidean algorithm can be visualized in terms of the tiling analogy given above for the greatest common divisor. Assume that we wish to cover an a-by-b rectangle with square tiles exactly, where a is the larger of the two numbers. We first attempt to tile the rectangle using b-by-b square tiles; however, this leaves an r0-by-b residual rectangle untiled, where r0<b. We then attempt to tile the residual rectangle with r0-by-r0 square tiles. This leaves a second residual rectangle r1-by-r0, which we attempt to tile using r1-by-r1 square tiles, and so on. The sequence ends when there is no residual rectangle, i.e., when the square tiles cover the previous residual rectangle exactly. The length of the sides of the smallest square tile is the GCD of the dimensions of the original rectangle. For example, the smallest square tile in the adjacent figure is 21-by-21 (shown in red), and 21 is the GCD of 1071 and 462, the dimensions of the original rectangle (shown in green). Calculating the quotients and remainders At every step k, the Euclidean algorithm computes a quotient qk and remainder rk from two numbers rk−1 and rk−2 rk−2 = qk rk−1 + rk where the magnitude of rk is strictly less than that of rk−1. The division algorithm ensures that such a quotient and remainder always exist. The division algorithm for natural numbers also states that qk and rk are unique, but that is not needed for the Euclidean algorithm. Cohn, pp. 104–110. In Euclid's original version of the algorithm, the quotient and remainder are found by repeated subtraction; that is, rk−1 is subtracted from rk−2 repeatedly until the remainder rk is smaller than rk−1. A more efficient approach uses integer division and the modulo operation to calculate the quotient and remainder, respectively. The modulo operation gives the remainder after dividing two numbers; thus, rk ≡ rk−2 mod rk−1 The remainder is equivalent to the congruence class in modular arithmetic. Implementations Implementations of the algorithm may be expressed in pseudocode. For example, the division-based version may be programmed as Knuth, pp. 319–320. function gcd(a, b) while b ≠ 0 t := b b := a mod b a := t return a At the beginning of the kth iteration, the variable b holds the latest remainder rk−1, whereas the variable a holds its predecessor, rk−2. The step b := a mod b is equivalent to the above recursion formula rk ≡ rk−2 mod rk−1. The dummy variable t holds the value of rk−1 while the next remainder rk is being calculated. At the end of the loop iteration, the variable b holds the remainder rk, whereas the variable a holds its predecessor, rk−1. In the subtraction-based version defined by Euclid, the remainder calculation (b = a mod b) is replaced by repeated subtraction. Knuth, pp. 318–319. function gcd(a, b) if a = 0 return b while b ≠ 0 if a > b a := a − b else b := b − a return a The variables a and b alternate holding the previous remainders rk−1 and rk−2. Assume that a is larger than b at the beginning of an iteration; then a equals rk−2, since rk−2 > rk−1. During the loop iteration, a is reduced by multiples of the previous remainder b until a is smaller than b. Then a is the next remainder rk. Then b is reduced by multiples of a until it is again smaller than a, giving the next remainder rk+1, and so on. The recursive version Stillwell, p. 14. is based on the equality of the GCDs of successive remainders and the stopping condition GCD(rN−1, 0) = rN−1. function gcd(a, b) if b = 0 return a else return gcd(b, a mod b) For illustration, the GCD(1071, 462) is calculated from the equivalent GCD(462, 1071 mod 462) = GCD(462, 147). The latter GCD is calculated from the GCD(147, 462 mod 147) = GCD(147, 21), which in turn is calculated from the GCD(21, 147 mod 21) = GCD(21, 0) = 21. Method of least absolute remainders In another version of Euclid's algorithm, the quotient at each step is increased by one if the resulting negative remainder is smaller in magnitude than the typical positive remainder. Ore, p. 43. Previously, the equation rk−2 = qk rk−1 + rk assumed that rk−1 > rk > 0. However, an alternative negative remainder ek can be computed rk−2 = (qk + 1) rk−1 + ek where rk−1 is assumed to be positive. If |ek| < |rk|, then rk is replaced by ek. As shown by Leopold Kronecker, this version requires the fewest number of steps of any version of Euclid's algorithm. Historical development The Euclidean algorithm is one of the oldest algorithms still in common use. Knuth, p. 318. It appears in Euclid's Elements (c. 300 BC), specifically in Book 7 (Propositions 1–2) and Book 10 (Propositions 2–3). In Book 7, the algorithm is formulated for integers (Book 7), whereas in Book 10, it is formulated for real numbers. The latter algorithm is geometrical. The GCD of two lengths a and b corresponds to the greatest length g that measures a and b evenly; in other words, the lengths a and b are both integer multiples of the length g. The algorithm was probably not discovered by Euclid, who compiled results from earlier mathematicians in his Elements. The mathematician and historian B. L. van der Waerden suggests that Book VII derives from a textbook on number theory written by mathematicians in the school of Pythagoras. The algorithm was probably known by Eudoxus of Cnidus (about 375 BC). Knuth, p. 318. The algorithm may even pre-date Eudoxus, judging from the use of the technical term ἀνθυφαίρεσις (anthyphairesis, reciprocal subtraction) in works by Euclid and Aristotle. Centuries later, Euclid's algorithm was discovered independently both in India and in China, Stillwell, p. 31. primarily to solve Diophantine equations that arise in astronomy and making accurate calendars. In the late fifth century, the Indian mathematician and astronomer Aryabhata described the algorithm as the "pulverizer", Tattersall, p. 70. perhaps because of its effectiveness in solving Diophantine equations. Rosen, pp. 86–87. Although a special case of the Chinese remainder theorem had already been described by Chinese mathematician and astronomer Sun Tzu, Ore, pp. 247–248. the general solution was published by Qin Jiushao in his 1247 book Shushu Jiuzhang (數書九章 Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections). Tattersall, pp. 72, 184–185. The Euclidean algorithm was first described in Europe in the second edition of Bachet's Problèmes plaisants et délectables (Pleasant and enjoyable problems, 1624). Tattersall, p. 70. In Europe, it was likewise used to solve Diophantine equations and in developing continued fractions. The extended Euclidean algorithm was published by the English mathematician Nicholas Saunderson, who attributed it to Roger Cotes as a method for computing continued fractions efficiently. Tattersall, pp. 72–76. In the 19th century, the Euclidean algorithm led to the development of new number systems, such as Gaussian integers and Eisenstein integers. In 1815, Carl Gauss used the Euclidean algorithm to demonstrate unique factorization of Gaussian integers, although his work was first published in 1832. Gauss mentioned the algorithm in his Disquisitiones Arithmeticae (published 1801), but only as a method for continued fractions. Stillwell, p. 31. Peter Dirichlet seems to have been the first to describe the Euclidean algorithm as the basis for much of number theory. Stillwell, pp. 31–32. Dirichlet noted that many results of number theory, such as unique factorization, would hold true for any other system of numbers to which the Euclidean algorithm could be applied. Dirichlet, pp. 29–31. Dirichlet's lectures on number theory were edited and extended by Richard Dedekind, who used Euclid's algorithm to study algebraic integers, a new general type of number. For example, Dedekind was the first to prove Fermat's two-square theorem using the unique factorization of Gaussian integers. Dedekind also defined the concept of a Euclidean domain, a number system in which a generalized version of the Euclidean algorithm can be defined (as described below). In the closing decades of the 19th century, however, the Euclidean algorithm gradually became eclipsed by Dedekind's more general theory of ideals. "[The Euclidean algorithm] is the granddaddy of all algorithms, because it is the oldest nontrivial algorithm that has survived to the present day." Donald Knuth, The Art of Computer Programming, Vol. 2: Seminumerical Algorithms, 2nd edition (1981), p. 318. Other applications of Euclid's algorithm were developed in the 19th century. In 1829, Charles Sturm showed that the algorithm was useful in the Sturm chain method for counting the real roots of polynomials in any given interval. The Euclidean algorithm was the first integer relation algorithm, which is a method for finding integer relations between commensurate real numbers. Several novel integer relation algorithms have been developed in recent years, such as the Ferguson–Forcade algorithm (1979) of Helaman Ferguson and R.W. Forcade, and its relatives, the LLL algorithm, the HJLS algorithm, and the PSLQ algorithm. In 1969, Cole and Davie developed a two-player game based on the Euclidean algorithm, called The Game of Euclid, which has an optimal strategy. The players begin with two piles of a and b stones. The players take turns removing m multiples of the smaller pile from the larger. Thus, if the two piles consist of x and y stones, where x is larger than y, the next player can reduce the larger pile from x stones to x − my stones, as long as the latter is a nonnegative integer. The winner is the first player to reduce one pile to zero stones. Rosen, p. 95. Mathematical applications Bézout's identity Bézout's identity states that the greatest common divisor g of two integers a and b can be represented as a linear sum of the original two numbers a and b. In other words, it is always possible to find integers s and t such that g = sa + tb. Rosen, p. 81. Cohn, p. 104. The integers s and t can be calculated from the quotients q0, q1, etc. by reversing the order of equations in Euclid's algorithm. Rosen, p. 91. Beginning with the next-to-last equation, g can be expressed in terms of the quotient qN−1 and the two preceding remainders, rN−2 and rN−3. g = rN−1 = rN−3 − qN−1 rN−2 Those two remainders can be likewise expressed in terms of their quotients and preceding remainders, rN−2 = rN−4 − qN−2 rN−3 rN−3 = rN−5 − qN−3 rN−4 Substituting these formulae for rN−2 and rN−3 into the first equation yields g as a linear sum of the remainders rN−4 and rN−5. The process of substituting remainders by formulae involving their predecessors can be continued until the original numbers a and b are reached r2 = r0 − q2 r1 r1 = b − q1 r0 r0 = a − q0 b After all the remainders r0, r1, etc. have been substituted, the final equation expresses g as a linear sum of a and b: g = sa + tb. Bézout's identity, and therefore the previous algorithm, can both be generalized to the context of Euclidean domains. Principal ideals and related problems Bézout's identity provides yet another definition of the greatest common divisor g of two numbers a and b. Leveque, p. 33. Consider the set of all numbers ua + vb, where u and v are any two integers. Since a and b are both divisible by g, every number in the set is divisible by g. In other words, every number of the set is an integer multiple of g. This is true for every common divisor of a and b. However, unlike other common divisors, the greatest common divisor is a member of the set; by Bézout's identity, choosing u = s and v = t gives g. A smaller common divisor cannot be a member of the set, since every member of the set must be divisible by g. Conversely, any multiple m of g can be obtained by choosing u = ms and v = mt, where s and t are the integers of Bézout's identity. This may be seen by multiplying Bézout's identity by m mg = msa + mtb Therefore, the set of all numbers ua + vb is equivalent to the set of multiples m of g. In other words, the set of all possible sums of integer multiples of two numbers (a and b) is equivalent to the set of multiples of GCD(a, b). The GCD is said to be the generator of the ideal of a and b. This GCD definition led to the modern abstract algebraic concepts of a principal ideal (an ideal generated by a single element) and a principal ideal domain (a domain in which every ideal is a principal ideal). Certain problems can be solved using this result. Schroeder, p. 23. For example, consider two measuring cups of volume a and b. By adding/subtracting u multiples of the first cup and v multiples of the second cup, any volume ua + vb can be measured out. These volumes are all multiples of g = GCD(a, b). Extended Euclidean algorithm The integers s and t of Bézout's identity can be computed efficiently using the extended Euclidean algorithm. This extension adds two recursive equations to Euclid's algorithm Rosen, pp. 90–93. sk = sk−2 − qk−1sk−1 tk = tk−2 − qk−1tk−1 with the starting values s−2 = 1, t−2 = 0 s−1 = 0, t−1 = 1 Using this recursion, Bézout's integers s and t are given by s = sN and t = tN, where N is the step on which the algorithm terminates with rN = 0. The validity of this approach can be shown by induction. Assume that the recursion formula is correct up to step k−1 of the algorithm; in other words, assume that rj = sj a + tj b for all j less than k. The kth step of the algorithm gives the equation rk = rk−2 − qk−1rk−1 Since the recursion formula has been assumed to be correct for rk−2 and rk−1, they may be expressed in terms of the corresponding s and t variables rk = (sk−2 a + tk−2 b) − qk−1(sk−1 a + tk−1 b) Rearranging this equation yields the recursion formula for step k, as required rk = sk a + tk b = (sk−2 − qk−1sk−1) a + (tk−2 − qk−1tk−1) b Equivalent matrix method The integers s and t can also be found using an equivalent matrix method. The sequence of equations of Euclid's algorithm a = q0 b + r0 b = q1 r0 + r1 … rN−2 = qN rN−1 + 0 can be written as a product of 2-by-2 quotient matrices multiplying a two-dimensional remainder vector Let M represent the product of all the quotient matrices This simplifies the Euclidean algorithm to the form To express g as a linear sum of a and b, both sides of this equation can be multiplied by the inverse of the matrix M. The determinant of M equals (−1)N+1, since it equals the product of the determinants of the quotient matrices, each of which is negative one. Since the determinant of M is never zero, the vector of the final remainders can be solved using the inverse of M Since the top equation gives g = (−1)N+1 ( m22 a − m12 b) the two integers of Bézout's identity are s = (−1)N+1m22 and t = (−1)Nm12. The matrix method is as efficient as the equivalent recursion, with two multiplications and two additions per step of the Euclidean algorithm. Euclid's lemma and unique factorization Bézout's identity is essential to many applications of Euclid's algorithm, such as demonstrating the unique factorization of numbers into prime factors. Stark, pp. 26–36. To illustrate this, suppose that a number L can be written as a product of two factors u and v, that is, L = uv. If another number w also divides L but is coprime with u, then w must divide v, by the following argument: If the greatest common divisor of u and w is 1, then integers s and t can be found such that 1 = su + tw by Bézout's identity. Multiplying both sides by v gives the relation v = suv + twv = sL + twv Since w divides both terms on the right-hand side, it must also divide the left-hand side, v. This result is known as Euclid's lemma. Ore, p. 44. Specifically, if a prime number divides L, then it must divide at least one factor of L. Conversely, if a number w is coprime to each of a series of numbers a1, a2, …, an, then w is also coprime to their product, a1 × a2 × … × an. Ore, p. 44. Euclid's lemma suffices to prove that every number has a unique factorization into prime numbers. Stark, pp. 281–292. To see this, assume the contrary, that there are two independent factorizations of L into m and n prime factors, respectively L = p1p2…pm = q1q2…qn Since each prime p divides L by assumption, it must also divide one of the q factors; since each q is prime as well, it must be that p = q. Iteratively dividing by the p factors shows that each p has an equal counterpart q; the two prime factorizations are identical except for their order. The unique factorization of numbers into primes has many applications in mathematical proofs, as shown below. Linear Diophantine equations Diophantine equations are equations in which the solutions are restricted to integers; they are named after the third-century Alexandrian mathematician Diophantus. Rosen, pp. 119–125. A typical linear Diophantine equation seeks integers x and y such that Schroeder, pp. 106–107. ax + by = c where a, b and c are given integers. This can be written as an equation for x in modular arithmetic ax ≡ c mod b Let g be the greatest common divisor of a and b. Both terms in ax + by are divisible by g; therefore, c must also be divisible by g, or the equation has no solutions. By dividing both sides by c/g, the equation can be reduced to Bezout's identity sa + tb = g where s and t can be found by the extended Euclidean algorithm. Schroeder, pp. 108–109. This provides one solution to the Diophantine equation, x1 = s (c/g) and y1 = t (c/g). In general, a linear Diophantine equation has no solutions, or an infinite number of solutions. Rosen, pp. 120–121. To find the latter, consider two solutions, (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) ax1 + by1 = c = ax2 + by2 or equivalently a(x1 − x2) = b(y2 − y1) Therefore, the smallest difference between two x solutions is b/g, whereas the smallest difference between two y solutions is a/g. Thus, the solutions may be expressed as x = x1 − bt/g y = y1 + at/g By allowing t to vary over all possible integers, an infinite family of solutions can be generated from a single solution (x1, y1). If the solutions are required to be positive integers (x>0, y>0), only a finite number of solutions may be possible. This restriction on the acceptable solutions allows systems of Diophantine equations to be solved with more unknowns than equations; Stark, p. 47. this is impossible for a system of linear equations when the solutions can be any real number. Multiplicative inverses and the RSA algorithm A finite field is a set of numbers with four generalized operations. The operations are called addition, subtraction, multiplication and division and have their usual properties, such as commutativity, associativity and distributivity. An example of a finite field is the set of 13 numbers {0, 1, 2, …, 12} using modular arithmetic. In this field, the results of any mathematical operation (addition/subtraction/multiplication/division) is reduced modulo 13; that is, multiples of 13 are added or subtracted until the result is brought within the range 0–12. For example, the result of 5 × 7 = 35 mod 13 = 9. Such finite fields can be defined for any prime p; using more sophisticated definitions, they can also be defined for any power m of a prime pm. Finite fields are often called Galois fields, and are abbreviated as GF(p) or GF(pm). In such a field with m numbers, every nonzero element a has a unique multiplicative inverse a−1 such that aa−1 = a−1a ≡ 1 mod m. This inverse can be found by solving the congruence equation ax ≡ 1 mod m, Schroeder, pp. 107–109. or the equivalent linear Diophantine equation Stillwell, pp. 186–187. ax + my = 1 This equation can be solved by the Euclidean algorithm, as described above. Finding multiplicative inverses is an essential step in the RSA algorithm, which is widely used in electronic commerce; specifically, the equation determines the integer used to decrypt the message. Schroeder, p. 134. The Euclidean algorithm has other applications in error-correcting codes; for example, it can be used as an alternative to the Berlekamp–Massey algorithm for decoding BCH and Reed–Solomon codes, which are based on Galois fields. "Error correction coding: mathematical methods and algorithms", page 266, Todd K. Moon, John Wiley and Sons, 2005, ISBN 0471648000 Chinese remainder theorem Euclid's algorithm can also be used to solve multiple linear Diophantine equations. Rosen, pp. 143–170. Such equations arise in the Chinese remainder theorem, which describes a novel method to represent an integer x. Instead of representing an integer by its digits, it may be represented by its remainders xi modulo a set of N coprime numbers mi. Schroeder, pp. 194–195. x1 ≡ x mod m1 x2 ≡ x mod m2 … xN ≡ x mod mN The goal is to determine x from its N remainders xi. The solution is to combine the multiple equations into a single linear Diophantine equation with a much larger modulus M that is the product of all the individual moduli mi, and define the Mi Mi = M / mi Thus, each Mi is the product of all the moduli except mi. The solution depends on finding N new numbers hi such that Mihi ≡ 1 mod mi With these numbers hi, any integer x can be reconstructed from its remainders xi by the equation x ≡ (x1M1h1 + x2M2h2 + … + xNMNhN ) mod M Since these numbers hi are the multiplicative inverses of the Mi, they may be found using Euclid's algorithm as described in the previous subsection. Continued fractions The Euclidean algorithm has a close relationship with continued fractions. The sequence of equations can be written in the form a/b = q0 + r0/b b/r0 = q1 + r1/r0 r0/r1 = q2 + r2/r1 … rk−2/rk−1 = qk + rk/rk−1 … rN−2/rN−1 = qN The last term on the right-hand side always equals the inverse of the left-hand side of the next equation. Thus, the first two equations may be combined to form a/b = q0 + 1/(q1 + r1/r0) The third equation may be used to substitute the denominator term r1/r0, yielding a/b = q0 + 1/(q1 + 1/(q2 + r2/r1)) The final ratio of remainders rk/rk−1 can always be replaced using the next equation in the series, up to the final equation. The result is a continued fraction a/b = q0 + 1/(q1 + 1/(q2 + 1/(… + 1/qN))…) = [q0; q1, q2, …, qN] In the worked example above, the GCD(1071, 462) was calculated, and the quotients qk were 2, 3 and 7, respectively. Therefore, the fraction 1071/462 may be written 1071/462 = 2 + 1/(3 + 1/7) = [2; 3, 7] as can be confirmed by calculation. Factorization algorithms Calculating a greatest common divisor is an essential step in several integer factorization algorithms, such as Pollard's rho algorithm, Knuth, pp. 369–371. Shor's algorithm, Dixon's factorization method and the Lenstra elliptic curve factorization. The Euclidean algorithm may be used to find this GCD efficiently. Continued fraction factorization uses continued fractions, which are determined using Euclid's algorithm. Knuth, pp. 380–384. Algorithmic efficiency alt="A set of colored lines radiating outwards from the origin of an x-y coordinate system. Each line corresponds to a set of number pairs requiring the same number of steps in the Euclidean algorithm."|Number of steps in the Euclidean algorithm for GCD(x,y). Red points indicate relatively few steps (quick), whereas yellow, green and blue points indicate successively more steps (slow). The computational efficiency of Euclid's algorithm has been studied thoroughly. Knuth, pp. 339–364. This efficiency can be described by the number of steps the algorithm requires, multiplied by the computational expense of each step. As shown first by Gabriel Lamé in 1844, the number of steps required for completion is never more than five times the number h of digits (base 10) of the smaller number b. Since the computational expense of each step is also typically of order h, the overall expense grows like h2. Number of steps The number of steps to calculate the GCD of two natural numbers, a and b, may be denoted by T(a, b). Knuth, p. 344. If g is the GCD of a and b, then a = mg and b = ng for two coprime numbers m and n. Then T(a, b) = T(m, n) as may be seen by dividing all the steps in the Euclidean algorithm by g. Ore, p. 45. By the same argument, the number of steps remains the same if a and b are multiplied by a common factor w: T(a, b) = T(wa, wb). Therefore, the number of steps T may vary dramatically between neighboring pairs of numbers, such as T(a, b) and T(a, b + 1), depending on the size of the two GCDs. The recursive nature of the Euclidean algorithm gives another equation T(a, b) = 1 + T(b, r0) = 2 + T(r0, r1) = … = N + T(rN−2, rN−1) = N + 1 where T(x, 0) = 0 by assumption. Knuth, p. 344. Worst-case number of steps If the Euclidean algorithm requires N steps for a pair of natural numbers a > b > 0, the smallest values of a and b for which this is true are the Fibonacci numbers FN+2 and FN+1, respectively. Knuth, p. 343. This can be shown by induction. Mollin, p. 21. If N = 1, b divides a with no remainder; the smallest natural numbers for which this is true is b = 1 and a = 2, which are F2 and F3, respectively. Now assume that the result holds for all values of N up to M − 1. The first step of the M-step algorithm is a = q0b + r0, and the second step is b = q1r0 + r1. Since the algorithm is recursive, it required M−1 steps to find GCD(b, r0) and their smallest values are FM+1 and FM. The smallest value of a is therefore when q0 = 1, which gives a = b + r0 = FM+1 + FM = FM+2. This proof, published by Gabriel Lamé in 1844, represents the beginning of computational complexity theory, LeVeque, p. 35. and also the first practical application of the Fibonacci numbers. Knuth, p. 343. This result suffices to show that the number of steps in Euclid's algorithm can never be more than five times the number of its digits (base 10). Mollin, pp. 21–22. For if the algorithm requires N steps, then b is greater than or equal to FN+1 which in turn is greater than or equal to φN, where φ is the golden ratio. Since b > φN, then N < logφb. Since log10φ > 1/5, N/5 < log10φ logφb = log10b. Thus, N < 5 log10b. Thus, the Euclidean algorithm always needs less than O(h) divisions, where h is the number of digits in the smaller number b. Average number of steps The average number of steps taken by the Euclidean algorithm has been defined in three different ways. The first definition is the average time T(a) required to calculate the GCD of a given number a and a smaller natural number b chosen with equal probability from the integers 0 to a−1 Knuth, p. 344. However, since T(a, b) fluctuates dramatically with the GCD of the two numbers, the averaged function T(a) is likewise "noisy". Knuth, p. 353. To reduce this noise, a second average τ(a) is taken over all numbers coprime with a There are φ(a) coprime integers less than a, where φ is Euler's totient function. This tau average grows smoothly with a Knuth, p. 357. τ(a) = (12/π2) ln 2 ln a + C + O(a−(1/6) + ε) with the residual error being of order a−(1/6) + ε, where ε is infinitesimal. The constant C in this formula equals C = −(1/2) + 6 (ln 2/π2)( 4γ − 24π2ζ'(2) + 3 ln 2 − 2) ≈ 1.467 where γ is the Euler–Mascheroni constant and ζ' is the derivative of the Riemann zeta function. The leading coefficient (12/π2) ln 2 was determined by two independent methods. Since the first average can be calculated from the tau average by summing over the divisors d of a Knuth, p. 354. it can be approximated by the formula T(a) ≈ C + (12/π2) ln 2 ( ln a − Σd|a Λ(d)/d ) where Λ(d) is the Mangoldt function. Knuth, p. 355. A third average Y(n) is defined as the mean number of steps required when both a and b are chosen randomly (with uniform distribution) from 1 to n Substituting the approximate formula for T(a) into this equation yields an estimate for Y(n) Knuth, p. 356. Y(n) ≈ (12/π2) ln 2 ln n + 0.06 Computational expense per step In each step k of the Euclidean algorithm, the quotient qk and remainder rk are computed for a given pair of integers rk−2 and rk−1 rk−2 = qk rk−1 + rk The computational expense per step is associated chiefly with finding qk, since the remainder rk can be calculated quickly from rk−2, rk−1, and qk rk = rk−2 − qk rk−1 The computational expense of dividing h-bit numbers scales as O(h(l+1)), where l is the length of the quotient. Knuth, pp. 257–261. For comparison, Euclid's original subtraction-based algorithm can be much slower. A single integer division is equivalent to the quotient q number of subtractions. If the ratio of a and b is very large, the quotient is large and many subtractions will be required. On the other hand, it has been shown that the quotients are very likely to be small integers. The probability of a given quotient q is approximately ln|u/(u−1)| where u = (q+1)2. Knuth, p. 352. For illustration, the probability of a quotient of 1, 2, 3, or 4 is roughly 41.5%, 17.0%, 9.3%, and 5.9%, respectively. Since the operation of subtraction is faster than division, particularly for large numbers, the subtraction-based Euclid's algorithm is competitive with the division-based version. Cohen, p. 14. This is exploited in the binary version of Euclid's algorithm. Cohen, pp. 14–15, 17–18. Combining the estimated number of steps with the estimated computational expense per step shows that the Euclid's algorithm grows quadratically (h2) with the average number of digits h in the initial two numbers a and b. Let h0, h1, …, hN−1 represent the number of digits in the successive remainders r0,r1, …, rN−1. Since the number of steps N grows linearly with h, the running time is bounded by Efficiency of alternative methods Euclid's algorithm is widely used in practice, especially for small numbers, due to its simplicity. For comparison, the efficiency of alternatives to Euclid's algorithm may be determined. One inefficient approach to finding the GCD of two natural numbers a and b is to calculate all their common divisors; the GCD is then the largest common divisor. The common divisors can be found by dividing both numbers by successive integers from 2 to the smaller number b. The number of steps of this approach grows linearly with b, or exponentially in the number of digits. Another inefficient approach is to find the prime factors of one or both numbers. As noted above, the GCD equals the product of the prime factors shared by the two numbers a and b. Present methods for prime factorization are also inefficient; many modern cryptography systems even rely on that inefficiency. The binary GCD algorithm is an efficient alternative that substitutes division with faster operations by exploiting the binary representation used by computers. Knuth, pp. 321–323. However, this alternative also scales like O(h²). It is generally faster on real computers, but it scales in the same way as the Euclidean algorithm. Additional efficiency can be gleaned by examining only the leading digits of the two numbers a and b. Knuth, p. 328. The binary algorithm can be extended to other bases (k-ary algorithms), with up to fivefold increases in speed. A recursive approach for very large integers (with more than 25,000 digits) leads to subquadratic integer GCD algorithms, such as those of Schönhage, Volume 1423 in Lecture notes in Computer Science. and Stehlé and Zimmermann. These algorithms exploit the 2×2 matrix form of the Euclidean algorithm given above. These subquadratic methods generally scale as Other number systems As described above, the Euclidean algorithm is used to find the greatest common divisor of two natural numbers (positive integers). However, it may be generalized to the real numbers, and to more exotic number systems such as polynomials, quadratic integers and Hurwitz quaternions. In the latter cases, the Euclidean algorithm is used to demonstrate the crucial property of unique factorization, i.e., that such numbers can be factored uniquely into irreducible elements, the counterparts of prime numbers. Unique factorization is essential to many proofs of number theory. Rational and real numbers Euclid's algorithm can be applied to real numbers, as described by Euclid in Book 10 of his Elements. The goal of the algorithm is to identify a real number g such that two given real numbers, a and b, are integer multiples of it: a = mg and b = ng, where m and n are integers. This identification is equivalent to finding an integer relation among the real numbers a and b; that is, it determines integers s and t such that sa + tb = 0. Euclid uses this algorithm to treat the question of incommensurable lengths. The real-number Euclidean algorithm differs from its integer counterpart in two respects. First, the remainders rk are real numbers, although the quotients qk are integers as before. Second, the algorithm is not guaranteed to end in a finite number N of steps. If it does, the fraction a/b is a rational number, i.e., the ratio of two integers a/b = mg/ng = m/n and can be written as a finite continued fraction [q0; q1, q2, …, qN]. If the algorithm does not stop, the fraction a/b is an irrational number and can be described by an infinite continued fraction [q0; q1, q2, …]. Examples of infinite continued fractions are the golden ratio φ = [1; 1, 1, …] and the square root of two, √2 = [1; 2, 2, …]. Generally speaking, the algorithm is unlikely to stop, since almost all ratios a/b of two real numbers are irrational. An infinite continued fraction may be truncated at a step k [q0; q1, q2, …, qk] to yield an approximation to a/b that improves as k is increased. The approximation is described by convergents mk/nk; the numerator and denominators are coprime and obey the recursion mk = qk mk−1 + mk−2 nk = qk nk−1 + nk−2 where m−1 = n−2 = 1 and m−2 = n−1 = 0 are the initial values of the recursion. The convergent mk/nk is the best rational number approximation to a/b with denominator nk | (a/b) − (mk/nk) | < 1/nk2 Polynomials Polynomials in a single variable x can be added, multiplied and factored into irreducible polynomials, which are the analogs of the prime numbers for integers. The greatest common divisor polynomial g(x) of two polynomials a(x) and b(x) is defined as the product of their shared irreducible polynomials, which can be identified using the Euclidean algorithm. The basic procedure is similar to integers. At each step k, a quotient polynomial qk(x) and a remainder polynomial rk(x) are identified to satisfy the recursive equation rk−2(x) = qk(x) rk−1(x) + rk(x) where r−2(x) = a(x) and r−1(x) = b(x). The quotient polynomial is chosen so that the leading term of qk(x) rk−1(x) equals the leading term of rk−2(x); this ensures that the degree of each remainder is smaller than the degree of its predecessor deg[rk(x)] < deg[rk−1(x)]. Since the degree is a nonnegative integer, and since it decreases with every step, the Euclidean algorithm concludes in a finite number of steps. The final nonzero remainder is the greatest common divisor of the original two polynomials, a(x) and b(x). Cox, pp. 37–46. For example, consider the following two quartic polynomials, which each factor into two quadratic polynomials a(x) = x4 − 4x3 + 4 x2 − 3x + 14 = (x2 − 5x + 7)(x2 + x + 2) and b(x) = x4 + 8x3 + 12x2 + 17x + 6 = (x2 + 7x + 3)(x2 + x + 2). Dividing a(x) by b(x) yields a remainder r0(x) = x3 + (2/3) x2 + (5/3) x − (2/3). In the next step, b(x) is divided by r0(x) yielding a remainder r1(x) = x2 + x + 2. Finally, dividing r0(x) by r1(x) yields a zero remainder, indicating that r1(x) is the greatest common divisor polynomial of a(x) and b(x), consistent with their factorization. Many of the applications described above for integers carry over to polynomials. Schroeder, pp. 254–259. The Euclidean algorithm can be used to solve linear Diophantine equations and Chinese remainder problems for polynomials; continued fractions of polynomials can also be defined. The polynomial Euclidean algorithm has other applications as well, such as Sturm chains, a method for counting the number of real roots of a polynomial within a given interval on the real axis. This has applications in several areas, such as the Routh–Hurwitz stability criterion in control theory. Finally, the coefficients of the polynomials need not be drawn from integers, real numbers or even the complex numbers. For example, the coefficients may be drawn from a general field, such as the finite fields GF(p) described above. The corresponding conclusions about the Euclidean algorithm and its applications hold even for such polynomials. Gaussian integers The Gaussian integers are complex numbers of the form α = u + vi, where u and v are ordinary integers and i is the square root of negative one. By defining an analog of the Euclidean algorithm, Gaussian integers can be shown to be uniquely factorizable, by the argument above. See also Werke, 2:67–148. This unique factorization is helpful in many applications, such as deriving all Pythagorean triples or proving Fermat's theorem on sums of two squares. In general, the Euclidean algorithm is convenient in such applications, but not essential; for example, the theorems can often be proven by other arguments. The Euclidean algorithm developed for two Gaussian integers α and β is nearly the same as that for normal integers, but differs in two respects. As before, the task at each step k is to identify a quotient qk and a remainder rk such that rk = rk−2 − qk rk−1 where rk−2 = α, rk−1 = β, and every remainder is strictly smaller than its predecessor, |rk| < |rk−1|. The first difference is that the quotients and remainders are themselves Gaussian integers, and thus are complex numbers. The quotients qk are generally found by rounding the real and complex parts of the exact ratio (such as the complex number α/β) to the nearest integers. The second difference lies in the necessity of defining how one complex remainder can be "smaller" than another. To do this, we define a norm function f(u + vi) = u2 + v2, which converts every Gaussian integer u + vi into a normal integer. After each step k of the Euclidean algorithm, the norm of the remainder f(rk) is smaller than the norm of the preceding remainder, f(rk−1). Since the norm is a nonnegative integer and decreases with every step, the Euclidean algorithm for Gaussian integers ends in a finite number of steps. The final nonzero remainder is the GCD(α,β), the Gaussian integer of largest norm that divides both α and β; it is unique up to multiplication by a unit, ±1 or ±i. Many of the other applications of the Euclidean algorithm carry over to Gaussian integers. For example, it can be used to solve linear Diophantine equations and Chinese remainder problems for Gaussian integers; continued fractions of Gaussian integers can also be defined. Euclidean domains A set of elements under two binary operations, + and ·, is called a Euclidean domain if it forms a commutative ring R and, roughly speaking, if a generalized Euclidean algorithm can be performed on them. Stark, p. 290. Cohn, pp. 104–105. The two operations of such a ring need not be the addition and multiplication of ordinary arithmetic; rather, they can be more general, such as the operations of a mathematical group or monoid. Nevertheless, these general operations should respect many of the laws governing ordinary arithmetic, such as commutativity, associativity and distributivity. The generalized Euclidean algorithm requires a Euclidean function, i.e., a mapping f from R into the set of nonnegative integers such that, for any two nonzero elements a and b in R, there exist q and r in R such that a = qb + r and f(r) < f(b). An example of this mapping is the norm function used to order the Gaussian integers above. The function f can be the magnitude of the number, or the degree of a polynomial. The basic principle is that each step of the algorithm reduces f inexorably; hence, if f can be reduced only a finite number of times, the algorithm must stop in a finite number of steps. This principle relies heavily on the natural well-ordering of the non-negative integers; roughly speaking, this requires that every set of non-negative integers has a smallest member. The fundamental theorem of arithmetic applies to any Euclidean domain: Any number from a Euclidean domain can be factored uniquely into irreducible elements. Any Euclidean domain is a unique factorization domain (UFD), although the converse is not true. The Euclidean domains are a subclass of the GCD domains, domains in which a greatest common divisor of two numbers always exists. In other words, a greatest common divisor may exist (for all elements in a domain), although it may not be possible to find it using a Euclidean algorithm. A Euclidean domain is always a principal ideal domain (PID), an integral domain in which every ideal is a principal ideal. Again, the converse is not true: not every PID is a Euclidean domain. The unique factorization of Euclidean domains is useful in many applications. For example, the unique factorization of the Gaussian integers is convenient in deriving formulae for all Pythagorean triples and in proving Fermat's theorem on sums of two squares. Unique factorization was also a key element in an attempted proof of Fermat's Last Theorem published in 1847 by Gabriel Lamé, the same mathematician who analyzed the efficiency of Euclid's algorithm, based on a suggestion of Joseph Liouville. Lamé's approach required the unique factorization of numbers of the form x + ωy, where ω = e2iπ/n is the nth root of 1, that is, ωn = 1. Although this approach succeeds for some values of n (such as n=3, the Eisenstein integers), in general such numbers do not factor uniquely. This failure of unique factorization in some cyclotomic fields led Ernst Kummer to the concept of ideal numbers and, later, Richard Dedekind to ideals. Unique factorization of quadratic integers The quadratic integers are helpful to illustrate Euclidean domains. Quadratic integers are generalizations of the Gaussian integers in which the imaginary unit i is replaced by a number ω. Thus, they have the form u + v ω, where u and v are integers and ω has one of two forms, depending on a parameter D. If D does not equal a multiple of four plus one (such as 5, 17, or −19), then ω = √D. If, however, D does equal a multiple of four plus one, then ω = (1 + √D)/2. If the function f corresponds to a norm function, such as that used to order the Gaussian integers above, then the domain of such numbers is Euclidean only for a finite set of D values: D = −11, −7, −3, −2, −1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 21, 29, 33, 37, 41, 57 or 73. Such domains are known as norm-Euclidean. The quadratic integers with D = −1 and −3 are known as the Gaussian integers and Eisenstein integers, respectively. If f is allowed to be any Euclidean function, then the list of possible D values for which the domain is Euclidean is not yet known. The first example of a Euclidean domain that was not norm-Euclidean (with D=69) was published in 1994. In 1973, Weinberger proved that a domain is Euclidean if and only if it is a principal ideal domain, provided that the generalized Riemann hypothesis holds; Weinberger's proof was generalized in 2004 to remove this restriction. Noncommutative rings It is also possible to apply the Euclidean algorithm to noncommutative rings such as the set of Hurwitz quaternions. Let α and β represent two elements from such a ring. They have a common right divisor δ if α = ξδ and β = ηδ for some choice of ξ and η in the ring. Similarly, they have a common left divisor if α = δξ and β = δη for some choice of ξ and η in the ring. Since multiplication is not commutative, there are two versions of the Euclidean algorithm, one for right divisors and one for left divisors. Choosing the right divisors, the first step in finding the GCD(α, β) by the Euclidean algorithm can be written ρ0 = α − ψ0β = (ξ − ψ0η)δ where ψ0 represents the quotient and ρ0 the remainder. This equation shows that any common right divisor of α and β is likewise a common divisor of the remainder ρ0. The analogous equation for the left divisors would be ρ0 = α − βψ0 = δ(ξ − ηψ0) With either choice, the process is repeated as above until the greatest common right or left divisor is identified. As in the Euclidean domain, the "size" of the remainder ρ0 must be strictly smaller than β, and there must be only a finite number of possible sizes for ρ0, so that the algorithm is guaranteed to terminate. Most of the results for the GCD carry over to noncommutative numbers. For example, Bézout's identity states that the right GCD(α, β) can be expressed as a linear combination of α and β. In other words, there are numbers σ and τ such that Γright = σα + τβ The analogous identity for the left GCD is nearly the same Γleft = ασ + βτ Bézout's identity can be used to solve Diophantine equations. Perhaps more importantly, it also shows that the numbers can be factored uniquely, as discussed above. This unique factorization is a powerful tool in many proofs; for example, the unique factorization of the Hurwitz quaternions provides a relatively simple proof of Lagrange's four-square theorem. Generalizations to other mathematical structures The Euclidean algorithm has three general features that ensure it will not continue indefinitely. First, it can be written as a sequence of recursive equations rk = rk−2 − qk rk−1 where each remainder is strictly smaller than its predecessor, |rk| < |rk−1|. Second, the size of each remainder has a strict lower limit, such as |rk| ≥ 0. Third, there is only a finite number of sizes smaller than a given remainder |rk|. Generalizations of Euclid's algorithm with these basic features have been applied to other mathematical structures, such as tangles and transfinite ordinal numbers. An important generalization of the Euclidean algorithm is the concept of a Gröbner basis in algebraic geometry. As shown above, the GCD g of two integers a and b is the generator of their ideal. In other words, for any choice of the integers s and t, there is another integer m such that sa + tb = mg. Although this remains true when s, t, m, a and b represent polynomials of a single variable, it is not true for rings of more than one variable. Cox, p. 65. In that case, a finite set of generator polynomials g1, g2, etc. can be defined such that any linear combination of two multivariable polynomials a and b can be expressed as multiples of the generators sa + tb = Σk mkgk where s, t and mk are multivariable polynomials. Cox, pp. 73–79. Any such multivariable polynomial f can be expressed as such a sum of generator polynomials plus a unique remainder polynomial r, sometimes called the normal form of polynomial f f = r + Σk qkgk although the quotient polynomials qk may not be unique. Cox, pp. 79–86. The set of these generator polynomials is known as a Gröbner basis. Cox, p. 74. See also Binary GCD algorithm Lehmer's GCD algorithm Extended Euclidean algorithm Greatest common divisor of two polynomials Notes a. Some widely-used textbooks, such as I. N. Herstein's Topics in Algebra and Serge Lang's Algebra, use the term "Euclidean algorithm" to refer to the division algorithm. However, the division algorithm is a theorem, not an algorithm. References Bibliography External links Demonstrations of Euclid's algorithm Euclid's Algorithm at cut-the-knot The Euclidean Algorithm at MathPages Euclid's Game at cut-the-knot Music and Euclid's algorithm | Euclidean_algorithm |@lemmatized mathematics:2 euclidean:93 algorithm:170 efficient:4 method:21 compute:9 great:38 common:60 divisor:55 gcd:74 also:29 call:7 euclid:44 ancient:1 greek:1 mathematician:9 first:26 describe:20 two:78 number:184 large:21 divide:42 without:3 leave:9 remainder:94 base:15 principle:3 change:1 small:39 subtract:11 example:25 since:42 reduce:10 repeat:2 process:3 give:21 successively:2 one:22 zero:10 occur:1 remain:3 nonzero:7 procedure:3 well:4 define:19 rule:1 reverse:3 step:79 express:12 sum:11 original:10 multiply:8 positive:5 negative:8 integer:103 e:5 g:59 important:2 property:4 know:7 bézout:15 identity:16 element:14 c:29 bc:3 make:3 old:3 numerical:1 still:2 use:51 natural:21 geometric:1 length:10 real:20 generalize:5 century:8 type:2 gaussian:20 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1,579 | Cardinal_(Catholicism) | The coat of arms of a cardinal are indicated by a red galero (wide-brimmed hat) with 15 tassels on each side (the motto and escutcheon are proper to the individual cardinal). A cardinal is a senior ecclesiastical official, usually a bishop, of the Catholic Church. They are collectively known as the College of Cardinals, which as a body elects a new pope. The duties of the cardinals include attending the meetings of the College and making themselves available individually or collectively to the pope if he requests their counsel. Most cardinals have additional duties, such as leading a diocese or archdiocese or running a department of the Roman Curia. A cardinal's other main function is electing the pope whenever, by death or resignation, the seat becomes vacant. In 1059, the right of electing the pope was reserved to the principal clergy of Rome and the bishops of the seven suburbicarian sees. During the sede vacante, the period between a pope's death and the election of his successor, the day-to-day governance of the Church as a whole is in the hands of the College of Cardinals. The right to enter the conclave of cardinals who elect the pope is now limited to those who are not over 80 years old on the day of the pope's death or resignation. The term "cardinal" at one time applied to any priest permanently assigned or incardinated to a church, or specifically to the senior priest of an important church, based on the Latin cardo (hinge), meaning "principal" or "chief". The term was applied in this sense as early as the ninth century to the priests of the tituli (parishes) of the diocese of Rome. In the twelfth century the practice of appointing ecclesiastics from outside Rome as cardinals began, with each of them being assigned a church in Rome as his titular church, or being linked with one of the suburbicarian dioceses, while still being incardinated in a diocese other than Rome. History Pietro Ottoboni, the last Cardinal Nephew, painted by Francesco Trevisani The election of the pope was not always reserved to the cardinals; the pope was originally elected by the clergy and the people of the diocese of Rome. In medieval times, Roman nobility gained influence. The Holy Roman Emperors had a hand in choosing the pontiff. But as the pope gained greater political independence, the right of election was given to the cardinals in 1059. Cardinal de Fleury, chief minister of France However the influence of temporal rulers, notably the French kings, largely reemerged via cardinals of certain nationalities or politically significant movements; there even developed traditions entitling certain monarchs — e.g. of Austria, Spain, and Portugal — to nominate one of their trusted clerical subjects to be created cardinal, a so-called crown-cardinal. In theory, the pope could substitute another body of electors for the College of Cardinals. Some proposed that the Synod of Bishops should perform this function, a proposal that was not accepted, because, among other reasons, the Synod of Bishops can only meet when called by the pope. In early modern times, cardinals often had important roles in secular affairs. In some cases, they took on powerful positions in government. An example of this was found in Henry VIII's England where his chief minister was Thomas Wolsey. An even more prominent example is that of Cardinal Richelieu, whose power was so great that he was for many years the real ruler of France. Henry Kitchell Webster, Hutton Webster, Early European History, p. 604 Richelieu was so successful that his successor, Jules Mazarin, was also a cardinal. André-Hercule de Fleury was another cardinal to hold this rôle. As of 2008, the youngest cardinal is Péter Erdő - the Archbishop of Esztergom-Budapest and Primate of Hungary. The oldest living cardinal is Paul Mayer - the President Emeritus of the Pontifical Commission Ecclesia Dei. College and orders of cardinalate Pope Sixtus V limited the number of cardinals to 70, composed of six cardinal bishops, 50 cardinal priests, and 14 cardinal deacons; however, Pope John XXIII began to exceed the overall limit of 70, and this has continued under his successors. At the start of 1971, Pope Paul VI set an age limit of eighty years for electors, who were to number no more than 120, but set no limit to the number of cardinals as a whole, including those over eighty. (As a result of the setting of the age limit at the start of 1971, twenty-five living cardinals lost the right to participate in a conclave.) On one occasion, 21 October 2003, Pope John Paul II brought the number of cardinals with the right to enter the conclave to over 120, perhaps calculating that, though his death was approaching, the number would be sufficiently reduced when his successor was elected. And in fact, at John Paul II's death, only 117 of the then-current 183 cardinals were young enough to be electors. Electing a New Pope | Ask a Franciscan - May 2005 Issue of St. Anthony Messenger Magazine Online Pope Paul VI also increased the number of cardinal bishops by giving that rank to patriarchs of the Eastern Catholic Churches who are made cardinals. Titular church Theodor Innitzer, cardinal priest of San Crisogono Each cardinal takes on a titular church, either a church in the city of Rome or one of the suburbicarian sees. The only exception is for patriarchs of Eastern Catholic Churches. The Dean of the College of Cardinals in addition to such a titular church also receives the titular bishopric of Ostia, the primary of the suburbicarian see. Cardinals governing a particular Church retain this church. Since 1630, cardinals have taken the style Eminence. In accordance with Latin tradition, they sign by placing the title Cardinalis (abbreviated Card.) after their personal name and before their surname as, for instance, "John Cardinal Doe", but they are usually spoken of in the normal "Cardinal John Doe" order. Including by the Episcopal Conferences in the United States, England and Wales, Ireland and the Australia. The Bishops' Conference of Scotland uses both the Latin and the English form side by side. The Latin order is found on diocesan sites of Boston, Chicago, Dublin, New York, Toronto, Washington; the usual English order on those of Armagh,Los Angeles, Philadelphia, St Andrews and Edinburgh, Wellington, Westminster. A well-known instance of the use of the Latin order is that of the proclamation by the cardinal protodeacon of the election of a new pope: "Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum; habemus Papam: Eminentissimum ac Reverendissimum Dominum, Dominum (first name) Sanctae Romanae Ecclesiae Cardinalem (last name), ..." Benedict XVI, 19 April 2005 Orders Cardinal bishop Cardinal Angelo Sodano, current Dean of the College Cardinal bishops, or cardinals of the Episcopal Order, are among the most senior prelates of the Catholic Church. Since most cardinals are also bishops, the title of cardinal bishop only means that the cardinal in question holds the title of one of the "suburbicarian" sees — they include the Dean of the College of Cardinals — or is a patriarch of an Eastern Catholic church. The cardinal bishops are the only order of cardinals who have always been required to be bishops, and in former times when a cardinal of one of the lower orders became a cardinal bishop, and so the head of a diocese, he was consecrated a bishop. Since 1962 all cardinals have been bishops with rare exceptions, and those cardinals exceptionally allowed to decline episcopal consecration obviously cannot head a suburbicarian see as a cardinal bishop. The Dean, the head (as primus inter pares) of the College of Cardinals, is elected by the cardinal bishops holding suburbicarian sees from among their own number, an election, however, that must be approved by the pope. Formerly the position of Dean belonged to the longest-serving of the cardinal bishops, all six of whom then headed a suburbicarian see. Though these sees are now seven (Ostia and Velletri having been separated in 1914), there are only six cardinal bishops, since the Dean always adds the title of Ostia to his original suburbicarian diocese. In early times the privilege of papal election was not reserved to the cardinals, and for centuries the pope was customarily a Roman priest and never a bishop from elsewhere; to preserve apostolic succession the rite of consecrating the pope as a bishop had to be performed by someone who was already a bishop. The rule remains that, if the person elected pope is not yet a bishop, he is consecrated by the Dean of the College of Cardinals, the Cardinal bishop of Ostia. Currently the cardinal bishops of the suburbicarian diocese are: Angelo Sodano, Cardinal Bishop of Ostia and Albano, Dean of the College of Cardinals, former Cardinal Secretary of State Roger Etchegaray, Cardinal Bishop of Porto-Santa Rufina, Vice-Dean, President emeritus of the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace Giovanni Battista Re, Cardinal Bishop of Sabina-Poggio Mirteto, Prefect of the Congregation for Bishops Francis Arinze, Cardinal Bishop of Velletri-Segni, Prefect of the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments, widely regarded as the most Papabile African Tarcisio Bertone, Cardinal Bishop of Frascati, Cardinal Secretary of State and Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church José Saraiva Martins, Cardinal Bishop of Palestrina, Prefect Emeritus of the Congregation for the Causes of Saints For a period ending in the mid-20th century, long-serving cardinal priests were entitled to fill vacancies that arose among the cardinal bishops, just as cardinal deacons of ten years' standing are still entitled to become cardinal priests. Since then, cardinals have been advanced to cardinal bishop exclusively by Papal appointment. In 1965 Pope Paul VI decreed in his motu proprio Ad Purpuratorum Patrum that patriarchs of the Eastern Catholic Churches who were named cardinals would also be part of the episcopal order, ranked after the six cardinal bishops of the suburbicarian sees (who had been relieved of direct responsibilities for those sees by Pope John XXIII three years earlier). Not holding a suburbicarian see, they cannot elect the dean nor become dean. The three Eastern patriarchs who are now cardinal bishops are the following: Ignace Daoud, Prefect emeritus of the Congregation for the Oriental Churches, Patriarch Emeritus of Antioch for the Syrians Nasrallah Sfeir, Patriarch of Antioch for the Maronites Emmanuel III Delly, Patriarch of Babylon for the Chaldeans The Latin Rite Patriarchs of Lisbon and Venice, while in practice always made cardinals at the consistory after they take possession of their sees, are made cardinal priests, not cardinal bishops. Although the incumbents of such prestigious sees are usually created cardinal, no see carries an actual right to the cardinalate. Cardinal priest Franz König, former Protopriest Cardinal priests are the most numerous of the three orders of cardinals in the Catholic Church, ranking above the cardinal deacons and below the cardinal bishops. Those who are named cardinal priests today are generally bishops of important dioceses throughout the world, though some hold Curial positions. In modern times the name "cardinal priest" is interpreted as meaning a cardinal who is of the order of priests. Originally, however, this referred to certain key priests of important churches of the Diocese of Rome, who were recognized as the cardinal priests, the important priests chosen by the pope to advise him in his duties as Bishop of Rome (the Latin cardo means "hinge"). Certain clerics in many dioceses at the time, not just that of Rome, were said to be the key personnel — the term gradually became exclusive to Rome to indicate those entrusted with electing the bishop of Rome, the pope. While the cardinalate has long been expanded beyond the Roman pastoral clergy and Roman Curia, every cardinal priest has titular church in Rome, though they may be bishops or archbishops elsewhere, just as cardinal bishops are given one of the suburban dioceses around Rome. Pope Paul VI abolished all administrative rights cardinals had with regard to their titular churches, though the cardinal's name and coat of arms are still posted in the church. While the number of cardinals was small from the times of the Roman Empire to the Renaissance, and frequently smaller than the number of recognized churches entitled to a cardinal priest, in the 16th century the College expanded markedly. In 1587 Pope Sixtus V sought to arrest this growth by fixing the maximum size of the College at 70, including 50 cardinal priests, about twice the historical number. This limit was respected until 1958, and the list of titular churches modified only on rare occasions, generally due to a building falling into disrepair. When Pope John XXIII abolished the limit, he began to add new churches to the list, which Popes Paul VI and John Paul II continued to do. Today there are close to 150 titular churches, out of over 300 churches in Rome. The cardinal who is the longest-serving member of the order of cardinal priests is titled cardinal protopriest. He had certain ceremonial duties in the conclave that have effectively ceased because he would generally be over the age of 80, past which cardinals are barred from the conclave. The current cardinal protopriest is Eugênio de Araújo Sales of Brazil. Cardinal deacon Cardinal Wolsey The cardinal deacons are the lowest-ranking cardinals. Cardinals elevated to the diaconal order are either officials of the Roman Curia or priests elevated after their eightieth birthday. Bishops with pastoral responsibilities on the other hand are created cardinal priests. Cardinal deacons derive originally from the seven deacons in the Papal Household and the seven deacons who supervised the Church's works in the districts of Rome during the early Middle Ages, when the Church administration was effectively the government of Rome and provided all social services. Cardinal deacons are given title to one of these deaconries. There were traditionally 14 cardinal deacons, but this number has been expanded in recent years. Under the 1587 decree of Pope Sixtus V that fixed the maximum size of the College of Cardinals, there were 14 diaconates. Later the number increased. As of 2005, there were over 50 recognized titular diaconates, though only 30 cardinals were of the order of Deacons. Cardinal deacons have long enjoyed the right to "opt for the order of cardinal priests" (optazione) after they have been cardinal deacons for ten years. They may on such elevation take a vacant title (church allotted as the titular dignity of a cardinal priest) or their existing diaconate may be elevated to title for that occasion. When elevated to cardinal priests, they take their precedence according to the day they were first made cardinal deacons (thus ranking above cardinal priests that were elevated to the college after them, regardless of order). Until 1918 it was possible for someone who was not a priest, but only in minor orders (and so perhaps married), to become a cardinal (see on "lay cardinals" below), but they were enrolled only in the order of cardinal deacons. For example, in the 16th century, Reginald Pole was a cardinal for 18 years before he was ordained a priest. After 1918 it was established that all cardinals, even the cardinal deacons, had to be priests, and since 1962 all cardinals have been bishops with rare exceptions where permission was granted to decline episcopal consecration because of advanced age. Today, Canon 351 requires that a cardinal be at least in the order of priesthood at his appointment, and those who are not already bishops must receive episcopal consecration, save by dispensation from the pope, as was obtained by Avery Dulles, Roberto Tucci and Albert Vanhoye. A cardinal who is not a bishop is still entitled to wear the episcopal vestments and other pontificalia (episcopal regalia: mitre, crozier, pectoral cross and ring). When not celebrating Mass but still serving a liturgical function, such as the bi-annual Urbi et Orbi Papal Blessing, some Papal masses and some events at Ecumenical Councils, cardinal deacons can be recognized by the dalmatics they would don with the simple white mitre (so called mitra simplex). The cardinal protodeacon (that is, the senior cardinal deacon in order of appointment to the College of Cardinals) has the privilege of announcing a new pope's election from the central loggia at the Basilica of Saint Peter. The current cardinal protodeacon is Agostino Cacciavillan. Protodeacons since 1911 Francesco Salesio Della Volpe (4 January 1911 - 5 November 1916) Gaetano Bisleti (5 November 1916 – 17 December 1928) Camillo Laurenti (17 December 1928 – 16 December 1935) Camillo Caccia-Dominioni (16 December 1935 – 12 November 1946) Nicola Canali (12 November 1946 – 3 August 1961) Alfredo Ottaviani (3 August 1961 – 26 June 1967) Arcadio Larraona Saralegui, CMF (26 June 1967 – 28 April 1969) William Theodore Heard (28 April 1969 – 18 May 1970) Antonio Bacci (18 May 1970 – 20 January 1971) Michael Browne, OP (20 January 1971 – 31 March 1971) Federico Callori di Vignale (31 March 1971 – 8 August 1971) Charles Journet (8 August 1971 – 5 March 1973) Pericle Felici (5 March 1973 – 30 June 1979) Sergio Pignedoli (30 June 1979 – 15 June 1980) Umberto Mozzoni (15 June 1980 - 2 February 1983) Opilio Rossi (2 February 1983 – 22 June 1987) Giuseppe Caprio (22 June 1987 – 26 November 1990) Aurelio Sabattani (26 November 1990 – 5 April 1993) Duraisamy Simon Lourdusamy (5 April 1993 – 29 January 1996) Eduardo Martínez Somalo (29 January 1996 – 9 January 1999) Pio Laghi (9 January 1999 – 26 February 2002) Luigi Poggi (26 February 2002 – 24 February 2005) Jorge Medina Estévez (24 February 2005 – 23 February 2007) Darío Castrillón Hoyos (23 February 2007 – 1 March 2008) Agostino Cacciavillan (since 1 March 2008) Special types of cardinals "Lay cardinals" At various times there have been cardinals that had only received first tonsure and minor orders but not yet been ordained as deacons or priests. Though clerics, they were inaccurately called "lay cardinals" and were permitted to marry. Teodolfo Mertel was among the last of the lay cardinals. When he died in 1899 he was the last surviving cardinal who was not at least ordained a priest. With the revision of the Code of Canon Law promulgated in 1917 by Pope Benedict XV, only those who are already priests or bishops may be appointed cardinals. canon 232 §1 of the 1917 Code of Canon Law Since the time of Pope John XXIII a priest who is appointed a cardinal must be ordained a bishop, unless he obtains a dispensation. Cf. canon 351 §1 of the 1983 Code of Canon Law Cardinals in pectore or secret cardinals In addition to the named cardinals, the pope may name secret cardinals or cardinals in pectore (Latin for in the breast). During the Western Schism many cardinals were created by the contending popes. Beginning with the reign of Pope Martin V, cardinals were created without publishing their names until later, termed creati et reservati in pectore. A cardinal named in pectore is known only to the pope; not even the cardinal so named is necessarily aware of his elevation, and in any event cannot function as a cardinal while his appointment is in pectore. Today, cardinals are named in pectore to protect them or their congregations from reprisals if their identities were known. If conditions change, so that the pope judges it safe to make the appointment public, he may do so at any time. The cardinal in question then ranks in precedence with those raised to the cardinalate at the time of his in pectore appointment. If a pope dies before revealing the identity of an in pectore cardinal, the cardinalate expires. Some speculate that the pope could leave instructions in writing, perhaps in his will, for the appointment to be made known after his death; but it is difficult to imagine a case in which the pope would consider that his own death would remove the obstacle in the way of publishing the name. Pope John Paul II named four cardinals in pectore during his pontificate. Three of the names were published later. In contrast to the cardinals in pectore, secret cardinals are known to the other cardinals. Vesture and privileges The choir dress of a cardinal: red cassock, rochet trimmed with lace, red mozetta, and pectoral cross on cord. two cardinals and nuncio in choir dress Excluding the rochet, which is always white, a Latin-rite cardinal wears scarlet garments- the blood-like red symbolizes a cardinal's willingness to die for his faith. Pope Benedict...He told them that the red signifies the dignity of their new office and that they must be ready "even to the point of spilling your blood for the increase of the Christian faith, for peace and harmony among the people of God, for freedom and the spread of the Holy Roman Catholic Church." Applause and tears in Basilica greet Pontiff (November 26, 2007) Belfast Telegraph. Accessed 2008-06-01. Quote: "In a ceremony televised across the world cardinal-elect Sean Brady knelt before Pope Benedict XVI and pledged his allegiance to the Church before receiving his special red birretta - a symbol of a cardinal's dignity and willingness to shed blood for the increase of the Christian faith." When in choir dress, including the cassock, mozzetta, zucchetto, and biretta. Until the 1460s it was customary for cardinals to wear a violet or blue cape unless granted the privilege of wearing red when acting on papal business. His normal-wear simar is black but has scarlet piping and a scarlet fascia (sash-like belt). Occasionally, a cardinal wears a scarlet ferraiolo which is a cape worn over the shoulders, tied in a bow by narrow strips of cloth in the front, without any 'trim' or piping on it. (It is because of the scarlet color of cardinals' vesture that the bird of the same name has become known as such.) Eastern-rite cardinals continue to wear the normal dress appropriate to their rite, though some may line their cassocks with scarlet and wear scarlet fascias, or in some cases, wear Eastern-style cassocks entirely of scarlet (there is a unique photograph of Joseph Cardinal Slypyj of the Ukrainian Catholic Church wearing the traditional eastern bishop's habit and a cardinal's galero). George Pell wearing the ordinary dress of a Cardinal: black (cassock) with red piping and buttons, red fascia (sash), pectoral cross on a chain, and a red zucchetto. In previous times, at the consistory at which the pope named a new cardinal, he would bestow upon him a distinctive wide-brimmed hat called a galero. Though this custom has been discontinued, and the investiture now takes place with the red biretta, in ecclesiastical heraldry, the scarlet galero is still displayed on the cardinal's coat of arms. Cardinals had the right to display the galero in their cathedral, and when a cardinal died, it would be suspended from the ceiling above his tomb. Some cardinals will still have a galero made, even though it is not officially part of their apparel. To symbolize their bond with the papacy, the pope gives the cardinals he appoints a gold ring, which is traditionally kissed by Catholics when a cardinal is greeted. The pope chooses the image on the outside: under Pope Benedict XVI it is a modern depiction of the crucifixion of Jesus, with Mary and John to each side. The ring includes the pope's coat of arms on the inside. Cardinals have in canon law a "privilege of forum" (i.e., exemption from being judged by ecclesiastical tribunals of ordinary rank): only the pope is competent to judge them in matters subject to ecclesiastical jurisdiction (cases that refer to matters that are spiritual or linked with the spiritual, or with regard to infringement of ecclesiastical laws and whatever contains an element of sin, where culpability must be determined and the appropriate ecclesiastical penalty imposed). This does not exempt them from being judged for alleged violations of civil law. The pope can either pass judgement in person or delegate the decision to a body of the Holy See, such as the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith or the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signatura. All other ecclesiastical courts, even the Roman Rota, are not considered to have authority over them. Canon 1405 §1 and canon 1406 §2 Cardinals in popular culture Among others, Vincent Price, Charlton Heston, and Tim Curry have played Cardinal Richelieu in adaptations of The Three Musketeers. Orson Welles played Cardinal Thomas Wolsey in the 1966 screen adaptation of A Man for All Seasons, while Anthony Quayle played him in the 1969 film of Anne of the Thousand Days, and Sam Neill played him in the first season of the Showtime series The Tudors (2007), until the character's death. Anthony Quinn played the fictional Cardinal Kiril Lakota, who becomes Pope, in The Shoes of the Fisherman (1968). Several other fictional Cardinals were portrayed in that film. George Carlin played the fictional Cardinal Ignatius Glick in Dogma (1999). Jonathan Pryce played the fictional Cardinal Daniel Houseman in Stigmata (1995) and the real Cardinal de Rohan in The Affair of the Necklace (2001). John Huston played the fictional Cardinal Glennon in The Cardinal (1963). That character is not to be confused with the real-life John Cardinal Glennon, who was elevated to that rank by Pope Pius XII in 1946 but then died in Ireland before he could make it back to the United States. In the comic book Warrior Nun Areala, Cardinals X, Stark, and Shoc serve as military leaders for the fictional Catholic Corps. Richard Chamberlain played the fictional Cardinal Ralph de Bricassart in ''The Thorn Birds (1983). See also List of Titular Churches in Rome Cardinal-nephew Cardinal protector College of Cardinals (organized by date of appointment) List of cardinals (organized alphabetically) List of Cardinals by country American Cardinals Dinner Prince of the Church Bibliography Giga-Catholic Information on all Cardinals List of All Cardinals by Precedence by Giga-Catholic Information List of all Cardinal Titular Churches by Giga-Catholic Information List of all Cardinal Deaconries by Giga-Catholic Information Examination of the ring of Cardinal O'Malley with pictures Catholic-pages List of Cardinals References be-x-old:Кардынал | Cardinal_(Catholicism) |@lemmatized coat:4 arm:4 cardinal:212 indicate:2 red:11 galero:6 wide:2 brim:2 hat:2 tassel:1 side:4 motto:1 escutcheon:1 proper:1 individual:1 senior:4 ecclesiastical:7 official:2 usually:3 bishop:49 catholic:16 church:38 collectively:2 know:7 college:17 body:3 elect:12 new:8 pope:55 duty:4 include:7 attend:1 meeting:1 make:9 available:1 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1,580 | John_Maynard_Smith | John Maynard Smith, His surname was Maynard Smith, not Smith, nor was it hyphenated. F.R.S. (6 January 1920 – 19 April 2004) was a British theoretical evolutionary biologist and geneticist. Originally an aeronautical engineer during the Second World War, he then took a second degree in genetics under the well-known biologist J.B.S. Haldane. Maynard Smith was instrumental in the application of game theory to evolution and theorized on other problems such as the evolution of sex and signalling theory. Biography Early years John Maynard Smith was born in London, the son of a surgeon, but following his father's death in 1928 the family moved to Exmoor, where he became interested in natural history. Quite unhappy with the lack of formal science education at Eton College, Maynard Smith took it upon himself to develop an interest in Darwinian evolutionary theory and mathematics, after having read the work of old Etonian J.B.S. Haldane, whose books were in the school's library despite the bad reputation Haldane had at Eton for his communism. On leaving school, Maynard Smith joined the Communist Party of Great Britain and started studying engineering at Trinity College Cambridge. When the Second World War broke out in 1939, he defied his party's line and volunteered for service. He was rejected, however, because of poor eyesight and was told to finish his engineering degree, which he did in 1941. He later quipped that "under the circumstances, my poor eyesight was a selective advantage—it stopped me getting shot". The year of his graduation, he married Sheila Matthew, and they were later to have two sons and one daughter (Tony, Carol, and Julian). Between 1942 and 1947 he applied his degree to military aircraft design. Second degree Maynard Smith then took a change of career, entering University College London (UCL) to study fruit fly genetics under Haldane. After graduating he became a lecturer in Zoology at UCL between 1952 and 1965, where he directed the Drosophila lab and conducted research on population genetics. He published a popular Penguin book, The Theory of Evolution, in 1958 (with subsequent editions in 1966, 1975, 1993). He became gradually less attracted to communism and became a less active member, finally leaving the Party in 1956 like many other intellectuals, after the Soviet Union brutally suppressed the Hungarian Revolution (Haldane had left the party in 1950 after becoming similarly disillusioned). University of Sussex In 1962 he was one of the founding members of the University of Sussex and was a Dean between 1965-85. He subsequently became a professor emeritus. Prior to his death the building housing much of Life Sciences at Sussex was renamed the John Maynard Smith Building, in his honour. Evolution and the Theory of Games Sheila and John Maynard Smith. Photo by Sean Nee. In 1973 Maynard Smith formalised a central concept in game theory called the evolutionarily stable strategy (ESS), based on a verbal argument by George R. Price. This area of research culminated in his 1982 book Evolution and the Theory of Games. The Hawk-Dove game is arguably his single most influential game theoretical model. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1977. In 1986 he was awarded its Darwin Medal. He also developed and recovered from colon cancer. Evolution of sex and other major transitions in evolution Maynard Smith published a book entitled The Evolution of Sex which explored in mathematical terms, the notion of the "two-fold cost of sex". During the late 1980s he also became interested in the other major evolutionary transitions with the biochemist Eörs Szathmáry. Together they wrote an influential 1995 book The Major Transitions in Evolution. A popular science version of the book, entitled The Origins of Life: From the birth of life to the origin of language was published in 1999. In 1991 he was awarded the Balzan Prize of Italy. In 1995 he was awarded the Linnean Medal by The Linnean Society and in 1999 he was awarded the Crafoord Prize jointly with Ernst Mayr and George C. Williams. In 2001 he was awarded the Kyoto Prize. In his honour, the European Society for Evolutionary Biology has an award for extraordinary young evolutionary biology researchers named The John Maynard Smith Prize. Animal Signals His final book, Animal Signals, co-authored with David Harper was published in 2003 on signalling theory. Death He died of lung cancer Obituary John Maynard Smith 1920-2004 —sitting in a high-backed chair, surrounded by books—at his home in Lewes, East Sussex on April 19, 2004, 122 years to the day after the death of Darwin. At his funeral, one of his grandchildren said, "he was very smart... and a jolly nice person". He was survived by his wife Sheila and their children. Tribute Fellow, Royal Society (1977) Darwin Medal (1986) Frink Medal (1990) Balzan Prize (1991) Linnean Medal (1995) Royal Medal (1997) Crafoord Prize (1999) Copley Medal (1999) Kyoto Prize (2001) Darwin-Wallace Award (2008). This is bestowed every 50 years by the Linnean Society of London; Dr. Maynard Smith was one of thirteen co-recipients. Maynard Smith has an Erdős number of four. Bibliography Maynard Smith, J. (1958). The Theory of Evolution. London, Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-020433-4 1993 edn ISBN 0-521-45128-0 Maynard Smith, J. (1968) Mathematical Ideas in Biology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN Maynard Smith, J. (1972) On Evolution. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 0-85224-223-9 Maynard Smith, J. and Price, G.R. (1973) The logic of animal conflict, Nature 246:15-18 Maynard Smith, J. (1974b) Models in Ecology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN Maynard Smith, J. (1978d) The Evolution of Sex. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29302-2 Maynard Smith, J. (ed.) (1981d) Evolution Now. London, Macmillan. ISBN 0-7167-1426-4 Maynard Smith, J. (1982d) Evolution and the Theory of Games. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-28884-3 Maynard Smith, J. (1986b) The Problems of Biology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-289198-7 Maynard Smith, J. (1988a) Did Darwin Get it Right?: Essays on Games, Sex and Evolution. London, Chapman & Hall. ISBN 0-412-03821-8 Maynard Smith, J. (1989a) Evolutionary Genetics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-850231-1 Maynard Smith, J. and Szathmáry, E. (1997) The Major Transitions in Evolution. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-850294-X Maynard Smith, J. and Szathmáry, E. (1999) The Origins of Life: From the Birth of Life to the Origin of Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-286209-X Maynard Smith, J. and Harper, D. (2003) Animal Signals. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-852685-7 Footnote and Reference External links University of Sussex Press release announcing his death Tribute from his colleagues More tributes from colleagues List of publications Other academia Freeview video 'The Origin of Life' A Royal Institution Discourse by the Vega Science Trust Freeview video 'Flight in Birds and Aeroplanes' A Masterclass by the Vega Science Trust John Maynard Smith Remembered - a series of (frequently amusing) recollections of John by his friends and colleagues. In conversation with John Maynard Smith FRS 2003 New Scientist interview Five short videos Video conversation with Robert Wright (interview by Richard Dawkins) http://meaningoflife.tv/video.php?speaker=maynard%20smith&topic=complete Obituaries Guardian The Independent Telegraph The Times Corante Current Biology (pdf) Los Angeles Times New York Times DRAFT for Biology and Philosophy by Daniel Dennett Resonance | John_Maynard_Smith |@lemmatized john:9 maynard:32 smith:32 surname:1 hyphenate:1 f:1 r:3 january:1 april:2 british:1 theoretical:2 evolutionary:6 biologist:2 geneticist:1 originally:1 aeronautical:1 engineer:1 second:4 world:2 war:2 take:3 degree:4 genetics:4 well:1 know:1 j:16 b:2 haldane:5 instrumental:1 application:1 game:8 theory:10 evolution:16 theorize:1 problem:2 sex:6 signal:5 biography:1 early:1 year:4 bear:1 london:6 son:2 surgeon:1 follow:1 father:1 death:5 family:1 move:1 exmoor:1 become:7 interested:2 natural:1 history:1 quite:1 unhappy:1 lack:1 formal:1 science:5 education:1 eton:2 college:3 upon:1 develop:2 interest:1 darwinian:1 mathematics:1 read:1 work:1 old:1 etonian:1 whose:1 book:9 school:2 library:1 despite:1 bad:1 reputation:1 communism:2 leave:3 join:1 communist:1 party:4 great:1 britain:1 start:1 study:2 engineering:2 trinity:1 cambridge:5 break:1 defy:1 line:1 volunteer:1 service:1 reject:1 however:1 poor:2 eyesight:2 tell:1 finish:1 later:2 quip:1 circumstance:1 selective:1 advantage:1 stop:1 get:2 shot:1 graduation:1 marry:1 sheila:3 matthew:1 two:2 one:4 daughter:1 tony:1 carol:1 julian:1 apply:1 military:1 aircraft:1 design:1 change:1 career:1 enter:1 university:14 ucl:2 fruit:1 fly:1 graduate:1 lecturer:1 zoology:1 direct:1 drosophila:1 lab:1 conduct:1 research:2 population:1 publish:4 popular:2 penguin:2 subsequent:1 edition:1 gradually:1 less:2 attracted:1 active:1 member:2 finally:1 like:1 many:1 intellectual:1 soviet:1 union:1 brutally:1 suppress:1 hungarian:1 revolution:1 similarly:1 disillusion:1 sussex:5 found:1 dean:1 subsequently:1 professor:1 emeritus:1 prior:1 building:2 housing:1 much:1 life:6 rename:1 honour:2 photo:1 sean:1 nee:1 formalise:1 central:1 concept:1 call:1 evolutionarily:1 stable:1 strategy:1 ess:1 base:1 verbal:1 argument:1 george:2 price:2 area:1 culminate:1 hawk:1 dove:1 arguably:1 single:1 influential:2 model:2 elect:1 fellow:2 royal:4 society:5 award:7 darwin:5 medal:7 also:2 recover:1 colon:1 cancer:2 major:4 transition:4 entitle:2 explore:1 mathematical:2 term:1 notion:1 fold:1 cost:1 late:1 biochemist:1 eörs:1 szathmáry:3 together:1 write:1 version:1 origin:5 birth:2 language:2 balzan:2 prize:7 italy:1 linnean:4 crafoord:2 jointly:1 ernst:1 mayr:1 c:1 williams:1 kyoto:2 european:1 biology:6 extraordinary:1 young:1 researcher:1 name:1 animal:4 final:1 co:2 author:1 david:1 harper:2 die:1 lung:1 obituary:2 sit:1 high:1 back:1 chair:1 surround:1 home:1 lewes:1 east:1 day:1 funeral:1 grandchild:1 say:1 smart:1 jolly:1 nice:1 person:1 survive:1 wife:1 child:1 tribute:3 frink:1 copley:1 wallace:1 bestow:1 every:1 dr:1 thirteen:1 recipient:1 erdős:1 number:1 four:1 bibliography:1 isbn:14 edn:1 idea:1 press:11 edinburgh:1 g:1 logic:1 conflict:1 nature:1 ecology:1 ed:1 macmillan:1 oxford:8 right:1 essay:1 chapman:1 hall:1 e:2 new:3 york:2 x:2 footnote:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 release:1 announce:1 colleague:3 list:1 publication:1 academia:1 freeview:2 video:5 institution:1 discourse:1 vega:2 trust:2 flight:1 bird:1 aeroplane:1 masterclass:1 remember:1 series:1 frequently:1 amuse:1 recollection:1 friend:1 conversation:2 fr:1 scientist:1 interview:2 five:1 short:1 robert:1 wright:1 richard:1 dawkins:1 http:1 meaningoflife:1 tv:1 php:1 speaker:1 topic:1 complete:1 guardian:1 independent:1 telegraph:1 time:3 corante:1 current:1 pdf:1 los:1 angeles:1 draft:1 philosophy:1 daniel:1 dennett:1 resonance:1 |@bigram maynard_smith:31 evolutionary_biologist:1 aeronautical_engineer:1 b_haldane:2 eton_college:1 poor_eyesight:2 soviet_union:1 brutally_suppress:1 professor_emeritus:1 evolutionarily_stable:1 colon_cancer:1 linnean_society:2 crafoord_prize:2 ernst_mayr:1 evolutionary_biology:2 lung_cancer:1 copley_medal:1 external_link:1 freeview_video:2 richard_dawkins:1 los_angeles:1 daniel_dennett:1 |
1,581 | Gangsta_rap | "G Rap" redirects here. For the rapper, see Kool G Rap. Gangsta rap is a genre of hip hop that reflects the violent lifestyles of some inner-city youths. Gangsta Rap - What Is Gangsta Rap Gangsta is slang for the word gangster. The genre was pioneered around 1983 by Ice T with songs like Cold Wind Madness and Body Rock/Killers and was popularized by groups like N.W.A in the late 80s. After the national attention that Ice-T & N.W.A created in the late 80's, gangsta rap became the most commercially lucrative subgenre of hip hop. The subject matter inherent in gangsta rap has caused a great deal of controversy. Criticism has come from both left wing and right wing commentators, and religious leaders, who have accused the genre of promoting homophobia, violence, racism, black supremacy, profanity, promiscuity, misogyny, rape, street gangs, drive-by shootings, vandalism, thievery, drug dealing, alcohol abuse, substance abuse and materialism. Some commentators (for example, Spike Lee in his satirical film Bamboozled) have criticized it as analogous to black minstrel shows and blackface performance, in which performers – both black and white – were made up to look African American, and acted in a stereotypically uncultured and ignorant manner for the entertainment of audiences. Gangsta rappers often defend themselves by claiming that they are describing the reality of inner-city life, and that they are only adopting a character, like an actor playing a role, which behaves in ways that they may not necessarily endorse. Early Gangster themes The 1973 album Hustler's Convention by Lightnin' Rod featured lyrics that deal with street life, including pimping and the hustling of drugs. The Last Poets member Jalal Mansur Nuriddin delivers rhyming vocals in the urban slang of his time, and together with the other Last Poets members, was quite influential on later hip hop groups, such as Public Enemy. Many rappers, such as Ice T, Mac Dre, have credited pimp and writer Iceberg Slim with influencing their rhymes. Rudy Ray Moore's, aka Dolemite, stand-up comedy and films dealing with his hustler-pimp moose also had an impact on gangsta rap and is still a popular source for samples. 1984-1990 Schoolly D Philadelphia MC Schoolly D can probably be credited as the first rapper to use the word "gangster" in one of his songs. In his 1984 12" single "Gangster Boogie" he mentions it with "I shot call a with my gangster lean". He released the 12" single "P.S.K." (short for Park Side Killers) in 1985. In this song, Schoolly D makes direct references to his gang (PSK) as well as describing putting his pistol against another rapper's head. http://www.ohhla.com/anonymous/schoolly/d/psk.scd.txt Schoolly D is often considered a pioneer in hardcore rap as well as gangsta rap. His fellow Philadelphian, Steady B, also helped pave the way for gangsta rap's popularity. Ice-T In 1986, Los Angeles based rapper Ice-T released "6 in the Mornin'", which is often regarded as the first gangsta rap song. Ice-T had been MCing since the early '80s. In an interview with PROPS magazine Ice-T said: "Here's the exact chronological order of what really went down: The first record that came out along those lines was Schoolly D's 'P.S.K.' Then the syncopation of that rap was used by me when I made Six In The Morning. The vocal delivery was the same: '...P.S.K. is makin' that green', '...six in the morning, police at my door'. When I heard that record I was like "Oh shit!" and call it a bite or what you will but I dug that record. My record didn't sound like P.S.K., but I liked the way he was flowing with it. P.S.K. was talking about Park Side Killers but it was very vague. That was the only difference, when Schoolly did it, it was "...one by one, I'm knockin' em out". All he did was represent a gang on his record. I took that and wrote a record about guns, beating people down, and all that with Six In The Morning. At the same time my single came out, Boogie Down Productions hit with Criminal Minded, which was a gangster-based album. It wasn't about messages or "You Must Learn", it was about gangsterism." Ice T Interview Ice-T continued to release gangsta albums for the remainder of the decade: Rhyme Pays in 1987, Power in 1988 and The Iceberg/Freedom of Speech...Just Watch What You Say in 1989. Ice-T's lyrics also contained strong political commentary, and often played the line between glorifying the gangsta lifestyle and criticizing it as a no-win situation. Boogie Down Productions Boogie Down Productions released their first single, "Say No Brother (Crack Attack Don't Do It)", in 1986. It was followed by "South-Bronx/P is Free" and "9mm Goes Bang" in the same year. The latter is the most gangsta-themed song of the three; in it KRS-1 describes shooting rival weed-dealers after they try to kill him in his home. http://www.ohhla.com/anonymous/boogiedp/cri_mind/9mm_goes.bdp.txt The album Criminal Minded followed in 1987. Shortly after the release of the album, BDP's DJ Scott LaRock was shot and killed. After this BDP's subsequent records focused on conscious lyrics instead. Beastie Boys The Beastie Boys, while never credited as gangsta rappers, were one of the first groups to identify themselves as "gangsters", and one of the first popular rap groups to talk about violence and drug and alcohol use. According to Rolling Stone Magazine, their 1986 album Licensed to Ill is "filled with enough references to guns, drugs, and empty sex (including the pornographic deployment of a Wiffleball bat in "Paul Revere") to qualify as a gangsta-rap cornerstone." The New Rolling Stone Album Guide, Fourth Edition The Beasties' 1989 album Paul's Boutique included the similarly-themed tracks "Car Thief," "Looking Down the Barrel of a Gun," and "High-Plains Drifter." In their early underground days, N.W.A rapped over Beastie Boy tracks for songs such as "My Posse" and "Ill-Legal" N.W.A N.W.A released their first single in 1987. They were crucial to the foundations of the genre for introducing more violent lyrics over much rougher beats.Eazy E founded the N.W.A. and the Ruthless Records. "Eazy E's first single "Boyz N The Hood" from 1987 is also very similar to Schoolly D's P.S.K. song as well. The first blockbuster gangsta album was N.W.A's Straight Outta Compton first released in 1988. Straight Outta Compton also established West Coast hip hop as a vital genre, and a rival of hip hop's long-time capital, New York City. Straight Outta Compton sparked the first major controversy regarding hip hop lyrics when their song "Fuck Tha Police" earned a letter from FBI Assistant Director, Milt Ahlerich, strongly expressing law enforcement's resentment of the song. Due to the influence of Ice T and N.W.A, gangsta rap is often credited as being an originally West Coast phenomenon. In 1990, former N.W.A member Ice Cube would further influence gangsta rap with his hardcore, socio-political solo albums. Others The rap group Run DMC are often credited with popularizing hardcore and abrasive attitudes and lyrics in hip hop culture, and were one of the first rap groups to dress in gang-like street clothing. Their socially conscious lyrics and the influence of rappers like Kool G Rap and Rakim would later influence socially conscious gangsta rappers and hardcore rappers such as Ice Cube and Nas. Rappers such as Big Daddy Kane, Slick Rick, LL Cool J, the group EPMD, and the seminal hardcore group Public Enemy would further popularize hard-hitting, aggressive, often socio-political lyrics, sometimes revolving around street violence, poverty, and gunplay. Aside from N.W.A. and Ice T, early West Coast rappers include Too Short (from Oakland, California), Kid Frost (who was an important Latino MC), and others from Compton, Watts, Long Beach, Los Angeles, Oakland, San Diego and San Francisco. The group Above The Law lead by Cold 187um has played an important role in the gangsta rap movement, spreading a new style as far as Dr Dre did it with N.W.A. and on his solo album The Chronic, in 1992. Kool G Rap used more and more crime-related themes in his lyrics towards the end of the decade. 1990-Present Ice-T Ice-T released one of the seminal albums of the genre, OG: Original Gangster in 1991. It also contained a song by his new thrash metal group Body Count, who released a self titled album in 1992. The group attracted a lot of media attention for the Cop Killer controversy. His next album, Home Invasion, was postponed as a result of the controversy, and was finally released in 1993. While it contained gangsta elements, it was his most political album to date. After that, he left Time-Warner records. Ice-T's subsequent releases went back to straight gangsta-ism, but were never as popular as his earlier releases. He had alienated his core audience with his involvement in metal, his emphasis on politics and with his uptempo Bomb-Squad style beats during a time when G-funk was popular. He published a book "The Ice Opinion: Who Gives a Fuck?" in 1994. G-funk and Death Row Records Main Article: G-Funk In 1992, former N.W.A member Dr. Dre released The Chronic, which further established the dominance of West Coast gangsta rap and Death Row Records, and also began the subgenre of G-funk, a slow, drawled form of hip hop that dominated the charts for some time.Extensively sampling P-Funk bands, especially Parliament and Funkadelic, G-funk was multi-layered, yet simple and easy to dance to, with anti-authoritarian lyrics that helped endear it to many young listeners. Another G-Funk success was Ice Cube's Predator album, released at the same time as The Chronic in 1992. It sold over 5 million copies and was #1 in the Charts, despite the fact that Ice Cube wasn't a Death Row artist. One of the genre's biggest crossover stars was Dre's protégé Snoop Doggy Dogg (Doggystyle, 1993), now known as Snoop Dogg, whose exuberant party-oriented themes made songs such as "Gin and Juice" club anthems and top hits nationwide. Tupac Shakur (All Eyez on Me, 1996) has endured as one of the most successful and influential hip hop artists of all time. Snoop and Tupac were both artists on Death Row Records, owned by Dre and Marion "Suge" Knight. Many of Tupac's greatest hits sampled or interpolated earlier music by Zapp & Roger. Mafioso rap Mafioso rap is a hardcore hip hop sub-genre which flourished in the 1990s. It is the pseudo-Mafia extension of East Coast hardcore rap, and was the counterpart of West Coast G-Funk rap during the 1990s. In contrast to West Coast gangsta rappers, who tended to depict realistic urban life on the ghetto streets, Mafioso rappers' subject matter included self-indulgent and luxurious fantasies of rappers as Mobsters, or Mafiosi. These stylized depictions translated to music videos that showcased rappers playing mobster roles. http://jaydonscave.blogspot.com/2008/08/hot-drops.html Kool G Rap is generally seen as the creator of the genre http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=10:u9axlfgehcqq with his collaborator DJ Polo with Raekwon and Jay-Z popularizing the genre with their albums Only Built 4 Cuban Linx... and Reasonable Doubt. Other East Coast rappers, such as Nas and Notorious B.I.G. began to take on the genre as well with their albums It Was Written and Life After Death. One notable example of the genre came about in 1995 with the debut album from AZ entitled Doe or Die. Several songs ("Sugar Hill" and "Mo' Money, Mo' Murder, Mo' Homicide" especially) depicted self indulgent fantasies of living the high life and of the murder of a highly respected Mob Boss. For almost a decade, mafioso rap went out of style, but saw a resurrection when Jay-Z released his concept album American Gangster based on the film of the same name in 2007. East coast gangsta rap Meanwhile, rappers from New York City, such as Kool G. Rap & DJ Polo (Live and Let Die, 1992, Black Moon (Enta Da Stage, 1993), Wu-Tang Clan (Enter the Wu-Tang (36 Chambers), 1993), Onyx (Bacdafucup, 1993), Mobb Deep (The Infamous, 1995), Nas (Illmatic, 1994), the Notorious B.I.G. (Ready to Die, 1994), Big L (Lifestylez ov da Poor & Dangerous, 1995) and Raekwon (Only Built 4 Cuban Linx, 1995) pioneered a grittier sound known as East Coast hardcore hip hop. B.I.G. and the rest of Puff Daddy's Bad Boy Records roster paved the way for New York City to take back chart dominance from the West Coast as gangsta rap continued to explode into the mainstream. It is widely speculated that the "East Coast/West Coast" battle between Death Row Records and Bad Boy Records resulted in the deaths of Death Row's Tupac Shakur and Bad Boy's Notorious B.I.G. This had a knock-on effect on Death Row itself, which sank quickly when most of its big name artists like Dr. Dre and Snoop Dogg left and it found itself on the receiving end of multiple lawsuits. Dr. Dre, at the MTV Video Music Awards, claimed that "gangsta rap was dead". Although Puff Daddy's Bad Boy Entertainment fared better than its West Coast rival, it continued to lose popularity and support of the hip hop fan base with a more mainstream sound, and challenges from Atlanta and, especially, Master P's No Limit stable of popular rappers. Southern and midwestern gangsta rap After the deaths of Biggie and Tupac, gangsta rap remained a major commercial force. However, most of the industry's major labels were in turmoil, or bankrupt, and new locations sprang up. Atlanta had been firmly established as a hip hop center by artists such as Goodie Mob and OutKast and many other Southern hip hop artists emerged in their wake, whilst gangsta rap artists continue achieving pop-chart success with such artists as Gucci Mane, OJ da Juiceman and Young Jeezy being some of the most popular. Jermaine Dupri, an Atlanta-born record producer and talent scout, had great success after discovering youthful pop stars Kris Kross (Totally Krossed Out, 1992) performing at a mall, and later masterminded a large roster of commercially successful acts on his So So Def label which although mostly weighted towards pop-rap & R&B, also included rap artists such as Da Brat (Funkdafied, 1994), and himself. Master P's No Limit Records label, based out of New Orleans, also became quite popular, though critical success was very scarce, with the exceptions of some later additions like Mystikal (Ghetto Fabulous, 1998). No Limit had begun its rise to fame with Master P's The Ghetto Is Trying to Kill Me! (1994), and subsequent hits by Silkk the Shocker (Charge It 2 Da Game, 1998) and C-Murder (Life or Death, 1998). Cash Money Records, also based out of New Orleans, had enormous commercial success with a very similar musical style and quantity-over-quality business approach to No Limit but were less ridiculed. Memphis collective Hypnotize Minds, led by Three 6 Mafia and Project Pat, have taken gangsta rap to some of its darker extremes. Led by in-house producers DJ Paul and Juicy J, the label became known for its pulsating, menacing beats and uncompromisingly thuggish lyrics. However, in the mid-2000s, the group began attaining more mainstream popularity, eventually culminating in the Three 6 Mafia winning an Academy Award for the song It's Hard Out Here For A Pimp from Hustle and Flow. Midwest gangsta rap originated in the mid 1990's and is dominant in the 2000s. Midwest Hip Hop originated fast-pacing rap. Many midwestern hip hop artists use midwestern gangsta rap in their lyrics and style such as Eminem (Detroit), and Twista(Chicago). Eminem began gangsta rap in the midwest during the late 1990s with his underground album The Slim Shady EP. Later, his major-label debut album, The Slim Shady LP, represented midwestern gangsta rap very strong as it was now in the mainstream. Cleveland based rap group Bone Thugs-n-Harmony also had a monumental impact on the Midwestern gangsta rap scene. The mid-1990s saw Bone metamorphose into an extremely popular commercial rap assemblage with the release of their critically acclaimed album E 1999 Eternal. Their fast, harmonizing vocals (coupled with their fast rap delivery) changed the limitations of gangsta rap. Royce da 5'9, born and raised in Detroit, also represents Midwest Hip Hop and uses its gangsta rap. Houston first came on to the national scene in the late 1980s with the violent and disturbing stories told by the Geto Boys, with member Scarface going successfully solo in the mid 90s. In the early 2000s Houston, also known as the "3rd coast", exploded into the forefront of Southern hip hop, with commercially successful acts like Mike Jones, Slim Thug, Lil Flip, Chamillionaire and Paul Wall. UGK now calls Houston home although they are originally from Port Arthur, Texas. UGK which consists of Bun B and Pimp C (deceased) are considered to be Texas underground legends. They have been an enormously influential entity on southern hip hop since the 1980s. Houston has produced hip hop artists such as Mike Jones, Slim Thug, Lil Flip, Chamillionaire, Paul Wall, Bun B and Pimp C of UGK, Brooke Valentine, Trae, Z-Ro, Big Hawk, Big Pokey, South Park Mexican, Devin the Dude, DJ Screw, Fat Pat, Lil' Keke, Scarface, E.S.G. and the legendary Geto Boys. The Chopped and Screwed genre was developed in Houston, Texas which remains the location most associated with the style. The late DJ Screw, a South Houston DJ, is credited with the creation of and early experimentation with the genre. DJ Screw began making mixtapes of the slowed-down music in the early 1990s and began the Screwed Up Click. This provided a significant outlet for MCs in the South-Houston area, and helped local rappers such as Big Moe, Lil' Flip, E.S.G., UGK, Lil' Keke and Z-Ro gain regional and sometimes national prominence. Mainstream era Before the late nineties, gangsta rap and hip hop in general, while being extremely popular, had always been seen as a fringe genre that remained firmly outside of the pop mainstream. However, the rise of Bad Boy Records signalled a major stylistic change in gangsta rap (or as it is referred to on the East Coast, hardcore rap), as it morphed into a new subgenre of hip hop which would become even more commercially successful. Ice Cube is seen to have contributed to gangsta rap's move towards conquering the pop charts, as he produced albums which included both gritty gangsta narratives and polished, catchy, danceable pop productions entirely aimed at the clubs and at the mainstream pop charts. Between the release of Biggie's debut album Ready to Die in 1994 and his follow-up Life after Death in 1997, his sound changed from the darker, sample-heavy production to a cleaner, more upbeat sound fashioned for popular consumption (though the references to guns, drug dealing and life as a thug on the street remained). R&B-styled hooks and instantly recognizable samples of well-known soul and pop songs from the 1970s and 1980s were the staples of this sound, which was showcased primarily in his latter-day work for The Notorious B.I.G. ("Mo Money, Mo Problems"), Mase ("Feels So Good"), and non Bad Boy artists such as Jay-Z ("Can I Get A...") and Nas ("Street Dreams"). Also achieving similar levels of success with a similar sound at the same time as Bad Boy was Master P and his No Limit label in New Orleans, as well as the New Orleans upstart Cash Money label. A Cash Money artist, The B.G., popularized a catch phrase in 1999 that sums up what the majority of late-nineties and all through the 2000s mainstream hip hop focused on subject-wise: "Bling-Bling." Whereas much gangsta rap of the past had portrayed the rapper as being a victim of urban squalor, the persona of late-nineties mainstream gangsta rappers was far more weighted towards hedonism and showing off how much money they have, the best jewelry, clothes, liquor, and women. Many of the artists who achieved such mainstream success, such as G-Unit and Jay-Z, originated from the gritty East Coast rap scene and were influenced by hardcore artists such as The Notorious B.I.G and Nas. Mase, Jay-Z and Cam'ron are also typical of the more relaxed, casual flow that became the pop-gangsta norm. Pop-inflected gangsta rap continues to be successful into the 21st century, with many artists deftly straddling the divide between their hip hop audience and their pop audience, such as Remy Ma, Papoose, G Unit, and many others. 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1,582 | Bill_Watterson | William B. "Bill" Watterson II (born July 5, 1958), is an American cartoonist and the author of the comic strip Calvin and Hobbes cartoon series. He also produced several drawings for Target: The Political Cartoon Quarterly. Biography Watterson was born in Washington, D.C., where his father, James G. Watterson, worked as a patent examiner while going to George Washington University Law School before becoming a patent attorney in 1960. The family moved to Chagrin Falls, Ohio, where his mother, Kathryn Watterson, became a city council member when Bill was six years old. He has a younger brother, Thomas, who is currently an English teacher at McCallum High School in Austin, Texas. Early career In 1980, Watterson graduated from Kenyon College with a B.A. in political science. Immediately, the Cincinnati Post offered him a job drawing political cartoons for a six-month trial period: Bill Watterson designed grocery advertisements for four years prior to creating Calvin and Hobbes. Rise to success Inspiration Watterson believes in his work for the personal fulfillment it brings. As he told the graduating class of 1990 at Kenyon College, "It's surprising how hard we'll work when the work is done just for ourselves." Calvin and Hobbes was first published on November 18, 1985. Bill Watterson wrote in his Calvin and Hobbes Tenth Anniversary Book that his influences include Charles Schulz, for his work in Peanuts; Walt Kelly for his comic Pogo; and George Herriman for Krazy Kat. (Watterson also wrote the introduction to the first volume of The Komplete Kolor Krazy Kat.) Watterson's style also reflects the influence of Little Nemo in Slumberland, a popular early-20th-century comic strip by Winsor McCay. Additionally, he has woven parts of his life into the comic. He is an avid cyclist and has incorporated much of this theme into Calvin and Hobbes. The theme of Calvin's father making Calvin suffer in order to "build character" came from his own father. Watterson's cat, "Sprite," very much inspired the personality and physical features of Hobbes. Watterson spent much of his career trying to change the climate of newspaper comics. He believed that the artistic value of comics was being undermined, and that the space they occupied in newspapers continually decreased, subject to arbitrary whims of shortsighted publishers. Furthermore, he opined that art should not be judged by the medium for which it is created (i.e., there is no "high" art or "low" art—just art). Changing the format of the Sunday strip Watterson opposed the structure publishers imposed on Sunday newspaper cartoons: the standard cartoon starts with a large, wide rectangle featuring the cartoon's logo or a throwaway panel tangential to the main area so that newspapers pressed for space can remove the top third of the cartoon if they wish; the rest of the strip is presented in a series of rectangles of different widths. In Watterson's opinion, this format limited the cartoonist's options of allowable presentation. After his sabbatical year in 1991 he managed to gain an exception to these constraints for Calvin and Hobbes, allowing him to draw his Sunday cartoons the way he wanted. In many of his strips, the panels overlap or contain their own panels; in some, the action progresses diagonally across the strip. Fight against merchandising the cartoon characters Watterson also battled against pressure from publishers to merchandise his work, something he felt would cheapen his comic. He refused to merchandise his creations on the grounds that pasting Calvin and Hobbes images on commercially sold mugs, stickers, and T-shirts would devalue the characters and their personalities. He also refused to allow the strip to appear as an animated series. Reuben Watterson was awarded the National Cartoonists Society's Humor Comic Strip Award in 1988 and the society's Reuben Award in 1986; he was the youngest person ever to receive the latter award. In 1988, Watterson received the Reuben Award a second time. He was nominated a third time in 1992. Watterson wrote a brief, tongue-in-cheek autobiography in the late 1980s. Thirty-six of his Sunday cartoon strips were exhibited at Ohio State University's Cartoon Research Library from September 10, 2001 to January 16, 2002. Retirement Watterson announced his retirement on November 9, 1995, with the following letter to newspaper editors: The last strip of Calvin and Hobbes was published on December 31, 1995. Since retiring, Bill Watterson has taken up painting, often drawing landscapes of the woods with his father. He has also published several anthologies of Calvin and Hobbes strips. Since ending the strip, Watterson has kept away from the public eye and has given no indication of resuming the strip, creating new works based on the characters, or embarking on other projects. He refuses to sign autographs or license his characters, staying true to his stated principles. In previous years, he was known to sneak autographed copies of his books onto the shelves of the Fireside Bookshop, a family-owned bookstore in his home of Chagrin Falls, Ohio. However, after discovering that some people were selling the autographed books online for high prices, he ended this practice as well. Valuing privacy, he is very reluctant to give interviews or make public appearances. In 2005, Watterson and his wife, Melissa, moved from Chagrin Falls to Cleveland. Neely Tucker, "The Tiger Strikes Again," The Washington Post 4 Oct. 2005. Joe Milicia, "Calvin and Hobbes Creator Keeps Privacy," Associated Press 22 Oct. 2005. On December 21, 1999, a short piece called "Drawn Into a Dark But Gentle World," written by Watterson to mark the forthcoming end of the comic strip Peanuts, was published in the Los Angeles Times. In October 2005, Watterson answered fifteen questions submitted by readers. His most recent foray into public life was on October 17, 2007, with a review of Schulz and Peanuts, a biography of Charles Schulz, in The Wall Street Journal. In 2008, he provided a foreword for the first book collection of Richard Thompson's Cul De Sac comic strip. Legacy Bill Watterson's Calvin and Hobbes series has remained popular over the years despite it not currently being syndicated anymore. Awards 1986: Reuben Award, Cartoonist of the Year 1988: Reuben Award, Cartoonist of the Year 1988: National Cartoonists Society, Newspaper Comic Strips Humor Award 1988: Sproing Award, for Tommy og Tigern (Calvin and Hobbes) 1989: Harvey Award, Special Award for Humor, for Calvin and Hobbes 1990: Harvey Award, Best Syndicated Comic Strip, for Calvin and Hobbes 1990: Max & Moritz Prize, Best Comic Strip, for Calvin and Hobbes 1991: Harvey Award, Best Syndicated Comic Strip, for Calvin and Hobbes 1991: Adamson Award, for Kalle och Hobbe (Calvin and Hobbes) 1992: Harvey Award, Best Syndicated Comic Strip, for Calvin and Hobbes 1992: Eisner Award, Best Comic Strip Collection, for The Revenge of the Baby-Sat 1992: Angoulême International Comics Festival, Prize for Best Comic Book, for En avant tête de thon! 1992: Eisner Award, Best Comic Strip Collection, for Attack of the Deranged Mutant Killer Monster Snow Goons 1993: Harvey Award, Best Syndicated Comic Strip, for Calvin and Hobbes 1994: Harvey Award, Best Syndicated Comic Strip, for Calvin and Hobbes 1995: Harvey Award, Best Syndicated Comic Strip, for Calvin and Hobbes 1996: Harvey Award, Best Syndicated Comic Strip, for Calvin and Hobbes Sources External links Bill Watterson biography on Lambiek Comiclopedia Rare Bill Watterson Art at Calvin and Hobbes: Magic On Paper "After an Early Bedtime, Calvin and Hobbes Are Up and Running in a New Collection" - Washington Post book review including broad look at Watterson's career Interview with Bill Watterson's mother (interview begins around 7:10) Bill Watterson's Commencement Address to Kenyon College, May 20 1990 | Bill_Watterson |@lemmatized william:1 b:2 bill:10 watterson:30 ii:1 bear:2 july:1 american:1 cartoonist:6 author:1 comic:23 strip:26 calvin:26 hobbes:25 cartoon:11 series:4 also:6 produce:1 several:2 drawing:1 target:1 political:3 quarterly:1 biography:3 washington:4 c:1 father:4 jam:1 g:1 work:7 patent:2 examiner:1 go:1 george:2 university:2 law:1 school:2 become:2 attorney:1 family:2 move:2 chagrin:3 fall:3 ohio:3 mother:2 kathryn:1 city:1 council:1 member:1 six:3 year:7 old:1 young:2 brother:1 thomas:1 currently:2 english:1 teacher:1 mccallum:1 high:3 austin:1 texas:1 early:3 career:3 graduate:2 kenyon:3 college:3 science:1 immediately:1 cincinnati:1 post:3 offer:1 job:1 draw:3 month:1 trial:1 period:1 design:1 grocery:1 advertisement:1 four:1 prior:1 create:3 rise:1 success:1 inspiration:1 believe:2 personal:1 fulfillment:1 bring:1 tell:1 class:1 surprising:1 hard:1 first:3 publish:4 november:2 write:4 tenth:1 anniversary:1 book:6 influence:2 include:2 charles:2 schulz:3 peanut:3 walt:1 kelly:1 pogo:1 herriman:1 krazy:2 kat:2 introduction:1 volume:1 komplete:1 kolor:1 style:1 reflect:1 little:1 nemo:1 slumberland:1 popular:2 century:1 winsor:1 mccay:1 additionally:1 weave:1 part:1 life:2 avid:1 cyclist:1 incorporate:1 much:3 theme:2 make:2 suffer:1 order:1 build:1 character:5 come:1 cat:1 sprite:1 inspire:1 personality:2 physical:1 feature:2 spend:1 try:1 change:2 climate:1 newspaper:6 artistic:1 value:2 undermine:1 space:2 occupy:1 continually:1 decrease:1 subject:1 arbitrary:1 whim:1 shortsighted:1 publisher:3 furthermore:1 opine:1 art:5 judge:1 medium:1 e:1 low:1 format:2 sunday:4 oppose:1 structure:1 impose:1 standard:1 start:1 large:1 wide:1 rectangle:2 logo:1 throwaway:1 panel:3 tangential:1 main:1 area:1 press:2 remove:1 top:1 third:2 wish:1 rest:1 present:1 different:1 width:1 opinion:1 limit:1 option:1 allowable:1 presentation:1 sabbatical:1 manage:1 gain:1 exception:1 constraint:1 allow:2 way:1 want:1 many:1 overlap:1 contain:1 action:1 progress:1 diagonally:1 across:1 fight:1 merchandise:3 battle:1 pressure:1 something:1 felt:1 would:2 cheapen:1 refuse:3 creation:1 ground:1 paste:1 image:1 commercially:1 sell:2 mug:1 sticker:1 shirt:1 devalue:1 appear:1 animated:1 reuben:5 award:22 national:2 society:3 humor:3 person:1 ever:1 receive:2 latter:1 second:1 time:3 nominate:1 brief:1 tongue:1 cheek:1 autobiography:1 late:1 thirty:1 exhibit:1 state:1 research:1 library:1 september:1 january:1 retirement:2 announce:1 following:1 letter:1 editor:1 last:1 december:2 since:2 retire:1 take:1 painting:1 often:1 landscape:1 wood:1 anthology:1 end:3 keep:2 away:1 public:3 eye:1 give:2 indication:1 resume:1 new:2 base:1 embark:1 project:1 sign:1 autograph:1 license:1 stay:1 true:1 stated:1 principle:1 previous:1 know:1 sneak:1 autographed:2 copy:1 onto:1 shelf:1 fireside:1 bookshop:1 bookstore:1 home:1 however:1 discover:1 people:1 online:1 price:1 practice:1 well:1 privacy:2 reluctant:1 interview:3 appearance:1 wife:1 melissa:1 cleveland:1 neely:1 tucker:1 tiger:1 strike:1 oct:2 joe:1 milicia:1 creator:1 associate:1 short:1 piece:1 call:1 drawn:1 dark:1 gentle:1 world:1 mark:1 forthcoming:1 los:1 angeles:1 october:2 answer:1 fifteen:1 question:1 submit:1 reader:1 recent:1 foray:1 review:2 wall:1 street:1 journal:1 provide:1 foreword:1 collection:4 richard:1 thompson:1 cul:1 de:2 sac:1 legacy:1 remain:1 despite:1 syndicate:8 anymore:1 sproing:1 tommy:1 og:1 tigern:1 harvey:8 special:1 best:11 max:1 moritz:1 prize:2 adamson:1 kalle:1 och:1 hobbe:1 eisner:2 revenge:1 baby:1 sat:1 angoulême:1 international:1 festival:1 en:1 avant:1 tête:1 thon:1 attack:1 deranged:1 mutant:1 killer:1 monster:1 snow:1 goon:1 source:1 external:1 link:1 lambiek:1 comiclopedia:1 rare:1 magic:1 paper:1 bedtime:1 run:1 broad:1 look:1 begin:1 around:1 commencement:1 address:1 may:1 |@bigram bill_watterson:9 comic_strip:16 calvin_hobbes:24 tenth_anniversary:1 charles_schulz:2 walt_kelly:1 krazy_kat:2 little_nemo:1 nemo_slumberland:1 winsor_mccay:1 reuben_award:4 tongue_cheek:1 los_angeles:1 schulz_peanut:1 cul_de:1 watterson_calvin:1 hobbes_harvey:7 max_moritz:1 eisner_award:2 external_link:1 |
1,583 | Max_Headroom_(TV_series) | Max Headroom (1987 – 1988) is a short-lived but ground-breaking American science fiction television series which aired on Cinemax, then on ABC. The series was developed from a British television movie, 20 Minutes into the Future, that was developed to provide background for the Max Headroom character, originally developed for Channel 4's The Max Headroom Show in 1985-1986. The Original Max Talking Headroom Show was a Cinemax show that came out later in 1987. Television series In 1987, the story told in 20 Minutes into the Future, a made-for-television movie, formed the basis of a full-fledged drama television series. The film was re-shot as a pilot program for a new series broadcast by the U.S.-based ABC television network. The pilot featured plot changes and some minor visual touches, but retained the same basic storyline. The only original cast retained for the U.S. version series were Matt Frewer (Max Headroom, Edison Carter) and Amanda Pays (Theora Jones); original cast member W. Morgan Sheppard later joined the cast as "Blank Reg". Among the non-original cast, Jeffrey Tambor co-starred as "Murray,” Edison Carter's neurotic editor. The U.S. series expanded on the cyberpunk themes in the British TV movie but otherwise had no connection to the British music video show. In an arrangement perhaps unique in the history of television, the U.S. spin-off series featuring Max Headroom was a fictional drama, while its main character was originally created for a non-fiction entertainment show in Britain. The series began as a mid-season replacement in spring of 1987, and was sufficiently popular to be renewed for the fall television season, but the viewer ratings could not be sustained, due to direct competition with CBS's Top 20 hit Dallas and NBC's Top 30 hit Miami Vice, and Max Headroom was canceled part-way into its first broadcast season; leftover episodes aired in spring 1988. Plans for a cinema version titled Max Headroom for President were mentioned in the media, but the film was never produced. Comico comics also had plans to publish a graphic novel based on the story, but never fulfilled them. A few posters were produced for comic shops, with a picture of Max Headroom saying comics will never be the same again. Characters Max Headroom See Max Headroom (character) Edison Carter Edison Carter (Matt Frewer) was a hard-hitting reporter for Network 23, who sometimes uncovered things that his superiors in the network would have preferred to keep private. Eventually, one of these instances required him to flee his workspace, upon which he was injured in a motorcycle accident (that he was helped to suffer); Bryce Lynch downloaded a copy of his mind into a computer, giving birth to the character Max Headroom. The series depicted very little of the past described by Edison, though he did meet a female priest that he once dated when his reporting put him at odds with the Vu Age Church that she now headed. Edison cares about his co-workers, especially Theora Jones and Bryce Lynch. According to a personal statistics file displayed on a computer screen in the series, Edison is 6'2" tall and weighs 180 pounds. Theora Jones Theora Jones was played by Amanda Pays and first appeared in the British-made television pilot film for the series. Along with Matt Frewer and W. Morgan Sheppard, Pays was one of only three cast members to also appear in the American-made series that followed. Theora was Network 23's star controller and, working with the network's star reporter, Edison Carter, she often helped save the day for everyone. She was also the pseudo-love-interest of Edison Carter, but that subplot was not explored fully on the show before it was cancelled. Network 23's personnel files list her father as unknown, her mother as deceased, and her brother as Shawn Jones. The Ogg Theora open video codec is named after this character. Bryce Lynch Bryce Lynch (Chris Young), a child prodigy and computer hacker, is Network 23's one-man technology research department. His birthdate is 7 October 1988. In the show Bryce appears to be 16 or 17 years old, so in the episodes that we see on screen Bryce is living in the time frame of 2004-2005. In the stereotypical hacker ethos, Bryce has few principles and fewer loyalties. He seems to accept any task, even morally questionable ones, as long as he is allowed to have the freedom to play with technology however he sees fit. This in turn makes him a greater asset to the technological needs and demands of the network (and the whims of its executives and stars). However, he also generally does not hurt or infringe on others, making him an uncannily neutral character in the Max Headroom universe. The character seems to have been loosely based on Alan Turing. In the pilot episode of the series, Bryce is enlisted by evil network CEO Ned Grossberg (the late Charles Rocket, another non-original cast member) to investigate the mental patterns of unconscious reporter Edison Carter, to determine whether or not Carter has discovered the secrets of the "Blipverts" scandal. Bryce downloads the contents of Carter's memory into the Network 23 computer system, and manages to boot them as a computer program. The resulting personality, an unhinged and unrepressed version of Carter's personality, is dubbed "Max Headroom" after his first words (the last words seen by Carter before being knocked unconscious by a parking-garage security gate). Ironically, it had been Bryce, following orders from Grossberg, who fought a hacking battle of sorts (a la the opening scene to Hackers) with Theora Jones that led to Edison hitting his head on a traffic barrier and falling unconscious. After the first episode, Bryce is generally recruited by Carter and his controller Theora Jones to provide technical aid to their investigative reporting efforts. Bryce is only seen outside of his lab in three episodes: In "Academy," Bryce returns to his former college to track down a student who is committing broadcast hijacking attacks ('signal zipping') on Network 23's transmissions. Bryce's core morals, as shared with other students of the college, are discussed further in this episode. Initially Bryce resists helping track down the attacker, seeing it as harmless experimentation, even though an innocent man is framed for the crime (which is punishable by death). In "Security Systems," he is reluctantly forced into a temporary exile with the fugitive Edison Carter when his off-hand comment that "SS even does security for Network 23" makes them realize, too late, the mistake they have made in trying to hack A7 from Bryce's lab. At first annoyed at being displaced from the safety of his hidden lab, Bryce is soon happily looking forward to slipping under Security Systems 'radar' using "a pink bus with a 5 watt UHF transmitter." In "Lessons," he takes Theora's place in Control to guide Edison as well as disable the Censor computer--gaining him the respect of other controllers who watch him work. Blank Reg Blank Reg was played by W. Morgan Sheppard, one of only three cast members to also appear in the American-made series that followed. Reg is a "blank", a person not indexed in anyone's database. He broadcasts the underground Big Time Television Network from his bus. He is a good friend of Edison Carter, and saves him on more than one occasion. He dresses in cyberpunk style and has a Mohawk hairstyle. Ned Grossberg Ned Grossberg is a recurring villain on the series, played by Charles Rocket. In the UK telefilm Max Headroom: 20 Minutes Into the Future upon which the American series was based, the character was called Grosman and was played by Nickolas Grace. Rocket portrayed Grossberg as an American yuppie with a characteristic facial (and neck-stretching) twitch. In the pilot episode, Grossberg is the chairman of Network 23, a major city television station with the highest rated investigative news show in town, hosted by Edison Carter. In the Max Headroom world, real-time ratings equal advertising dollars, and advertisements have replaced stocks as the measure of corporate worth. Grossberg, with his secret prodigy Bryce Lynch, develops a rapid-speed advertising delivery medium known as Blipverts, which condenses a full advertisement into a few seconds. But when Carter discovers that Blipverts are killing people, Grossberg orders Lynch to prevent Carter from getting out of the building. Knocked unconscious, Carter's memories are extracted into a computer by Lynch in order to determine whether Carter uncovered Grossberg's knowledge of the danger of Blipverts. The resulting computer file of the memory-extraction process becomes Max Headroom, making Grossberg directly responsible for the creation of the character. In the end, Grossberg is publicly exposed as responsible for the Blipverts scandal, and is removed as chairman of Network 23. A few episodes later, in Grossberg's Return, Grossberg reappears as a board member of Network 66. Again, he invents a dubious advertising medium and convinces the chairman of the network to adopt it. When the advertising method is shown to be a complete fraud, the resulting public reaction against the network leads to the chairman being removed, and Grossberg manages to resume the chairmanship. Other characters Murray (played by Jeffrey Tambor) Ben Cheviot (played by George Coe) Lauren (played by Sharon Barr) Breugel (played by Jere Burns) Angie Barry (played by Rosalind Chao) Mahler (played by Rick Ducommun) Gene Ashwell (played by Hank Garrett) Mr Bartlett (played by Andreas Katsulas) Dominique (played by Concetta Tomei) Edwards (played by Lee Wilkof) Episode listing Season 1: 1987 Title Original air-date # Blipverts March 31, 1987 1 Investigative TV news reporter Edison Carter uncovers the disturbing secret of a new TV technology called "Blipverts,” high-intensity commercials with the ability to overload people's neural network causing them to explode. Rakers April 7, 1987 2 Theora's brother ends up tangled in the web of a mafia-organized sport called "raking,” a deadly mutation of motorized skateboarding. Body Banks April 14, 1987 3 A man forces a meeting with Carter after two thugs kidnap his girlfriend as an involuntary donor for a transplant operation. Meanwhile, Max demands to know some details about some fuzzy parts of his (and hence Edison's) memory. Security Systems April 21, 1987 4 An unknown buyer is planning to acquire Security Systems, the biggest security center in the world; the CEO of the company, however, while expressing her fear about the takeover, refuses to reveal more detail. War April 28, 1987 5 A terrorist group claims responsibility for a series of explosions - live and on air, with the aid of Network 23's competitive network, Breakthru TV. The Blanks May 5, 1987 6 The city's computer system is plagued by failures due to the Blanks, a group of anarchists who removed themselves from the central databanks. Season 2: 1987-1988 Title Original air-date # "Academy" September 18, 1987 7 Someone is "zipping" Network 23 — hijacking its satellites. While Blank Reg fights for his life on a Courtroom TV gameshow, Theora believes Bryce may be hiding something. "Deities" September 25, 1987 8 A New-age church wants Max so it can make good on its claims to preserve its members' personalities forever rather than merely fleecing them with claims of doing so. And the leader of this group knows just how to use Edison to get to Max. "Grossberg's Return" October 2, 1987 9 After his fall from the CEO chair at Network 23, Grossberg takes the helm of Network 66, and he's got an axe to grind. "Dream Thieves" October 9, 1987 10 The Networks are running out of creative material for new programming, so they turn to the audience's dreams. The process has some nasty side-effects, though. "Whacketts" (alt. "The Addiction Game") October 16, 1987 11 When a building collapses, the survivors climb into the wreckage to rescue… television sets? Why is everyone watching Whacketts? "NeuroStim" April 28, 1988 12 Zik Zak's new promotional giveaway, the Neurostim bracelet, implants memories directly into your mind. Their bold new plan could spell curtains for Network 23… and Edison Carter! "Lessons" May 5, 1988 13 Edison discovers that the automated censor system is sending metro cops to arrest 'blanks' who are pirating pay per view educational programs: the only source of education for ghetto children. "Baby Growbags" Originally unaired in the U.S. 14 Edison discovers that in vitro babies with an exceptionally high IQ are taken away from their parents for a tv show on Network 66. Notes Each episode opened with the "20 Minutes Into the Future" legend, indicating when the action occurs. It was the series' tagline. At least one unproduced script, "Theora's Tale," has surfaced, as have the titles of two other stories ("The Trial" and "Xmas"). Currently, little is known of "The Trial" aside from its title; George R. R. Martin wrote "Xmas,” in pre-production at cancellation time; "Theora's Tale" would have featured the "Video Freedom Alliance" kidnapping Theora, and war in Antarctica, between rival advertisers Zik Zak and Zlin. Impact on society Max Headroom was the first cyberpunk series to run in the United States on one of the main broadcast networks in prime time. Like other science fiction, the series introduced the general public to new ideas in the form of cyberpunk themes and social issues. The series portrayed the Blanks, a counter-culture group of people who lived without any official numbers or documentation for the sake of privacy. Various episodes delved into issues like literacy and the lack thereof in a TV-dominated culture (Blank Reg: "It's a book. It's a non-volatile storage medium. It's very rare. You should 'ave one.") Of Max Headroom himself, actor Matt Frewer told Rolling Stone Magazine that "you can say virtually anything, because theoretically the guy's not real, right? Can't sue a computer, goddamn it!" The Max Headroom broadcast signal intrusion incident, involved someone dressed as Max Headroom interrupting the signals of Chicago television stations WGN and WTTW. The person or persons responsible were never identified. In the late 1990s, U.S. cable TV channels Bravo and the Sci-Fi Channel re-ran the series. Reruns also briefly appeared on TechTV in 2001. Some episodes can now be viewed online for free on In2TV and Joost. While the series has yet to see a formal release on DVD, the original British version of the movie was released to the Japanese DVD rental market on September 2, 2005. Predictions In 2004 there were reports that some advertising companies were planning to experiment with commercial messages lasting only 2 or 3 seconds in length. In November 2004, the CBS Network issued a report that fast-forwarding through commercials (essentially creating the "blipvert" effect) actually increases recall of an advertiser's message. A box office slump in the United States starting in 2004 due to the availability of "on demand media" was predicted in the episode "Dream Thieves," in which it is revealed that there are no more movie theaters. In 2006, Coca-Cola used advertising similar to a "blipvert" to promote its lemon-lime soft drink Sprite. The television commercials, collectively referred to as "sub-lymon-al advertising" (a play on "subliminal advertising" and the Sprite "lymon" flavor) feature surreal, dream-like situations, frequently interrupted by a barrage of rapid-fire images intended to make the viewer thirsty. At the end of the commercial, the word "Obey" flashes on the screen, and a man in a suit snaps his fingers, as if to wake the viewer from a state of hypnotic suggestion. In 2006, GE started a series of commercials called "One Second Theater" GE, "Introducing GE's 'One Second Theater'; A Whole New World of Creative Content" (press release), May 8, 2006, accessed May 13, 2006 which compressed many frames of information into a single second of a 30-second commercial. This information can barely be made out at full speed and must be viewed frame-by-frame with a PVR in order to be fully comprehended. Except for the inability to be understood in real-time, these are very close in implementation to a blipvert. The episode "The Blanks" demonstrated a use of a "computer bomb," which "links all the programs through the main one simultaneously, (creating) a massive overload." Today, this is known as a denial-of-service attack. The episode "Lessons" shows a "orbital cleaning" celebration. In 2009 the ESA held the 5th European Conference on Space Debris ESA, "Key findings from the 5th European Conference on Space Debris"(press release), April 2, 2008 References in pop culture Garry Trudeau's daily comic strip Doonesbury featured a character, in the late 1980s, named Ron Headrest, the first computer-generated politician, a cross between Max Headroom and Ronald Reagan. There is an homage to Max Headroom in the 1997 film Batman & Robin when Barbara encounters her uncle Alfred in the batcave. He has programmed his brain algorithms into the batcomputer and created a virtual simulation. He appears and speaks (stutteringly) like Max Headroom. On May 10, 2007, Nickelodeon's ME:TV made a "You're watching ME:TV" clip with Ryan Knowles impersonating Max Headroom on the webwall. In the clip, Ryan's hair was combed back like Max's, and he stutters occasionally and the background panned vertically with purple and blue neon stripes. In Episode 7 of Farscape's Season 4, "John Quixote," John Crichton enters virtual reality where he encounters a Max Headroom-like version of himself. Max was featured in the 1986 hit UK single "Paranoimia" by Art of Noise. In Back to the Future Part II there was a Ronald Reagan as Max Headroom selling Pepsi. The animated television series "Muppet Babies" once had Miss Piggy imitate Headroom, during Scooter's computerized fantasy sequence. MAD Magazine's 1989 issue that spoofed "Honey, I Shrunk the Kids" featured a cameo of Max in the end panel. References External links Max Headrooms Official Online Forum& Fan Club Max Headroom at ODP Encyclopedia of Television Action TV Max Headroom on TechTV | Max_Headroom_(TV_series) |@lemmatized max:36 headroom:31 short:1 live:4 ground:1 break:1 american:5 science:2 fiction:3 television:16 series:26 air:5 cinemax:2 abc:2 develop:4 british:5 movie:5 minute:4 future:5 provide:2 background:2 character:12 originally:3 channel:3 show:11 original:8 talk:1 come:1 later:3 story:3 tell:2 make:13 form:2 basis:1 full:3 fledge:1 drama:2 film:4 shot:1 pilot:5 program:5 new:8 broadcast:6 u:6 base:4 network:29 feature:7 plot:1 change:1 minor:1 visual:1 touch:1 retain:2 basic:1 storyline:1 cast:7 version:5 matt:4 frewer:4 edison:21 carter:22 amanda:2 pay:4 theora:14 jones:7 member:6 w:3 morgan:3 sheppard:3 join:1 blank:11 reg:6 among:1 non:4 jeffrey:2 tambor:2 co:2 star:4 murray:2 neurotic:1 editor:1 expand:1 cyberpunk:4 theme:2 tv:11 otherwise:1 connection:1 music:1 video:3 arrangement:1 perhaps:1 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1,584 | Cerberus | Cerberus (Greek: Κέρβερος, Kérberos) in Greek and Roman mythology, is a multi-headed dog which guards the gates of Hades, to prevent those who have crossed the river Styx from ever escaping. Cerberus featured in many works of ancient Greek and Roman literature and in works of both ancient and modern art and architecture. As with most creatures from classical mythology, the depiction and background surrounding Cerberus often differed across various works by different authors of the era, the most notable difference being his number of heads; while most sources describe or depict three heads, others show him with two or even just one, a lesser number show a variable amount, sometimes as high as 50. Etymology Cerberus, watercolour by William Blake The name "Cerberus" pronounced [sur-ber-uhs] is a Latinised version of the Greek Kerberos, which may be related to the Sanskrit word "śarvara-", used as an epithet of one of the dogs of Yama, from a Proto-Indo-European word *ḱerberos, meaning "spotted" (This etymology suffers from the fact that it includes a reconstructed *b, which is extremely rare in Proto-Indo-European. Yet according to Pokorny it is well distributed, with additional apparent cognates in Slavic, British and Lithuanian. http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=config&morpho=0&basename=%5Cdata%5Cie%5Cpokorny&first=921 ). The use of a dog is uncertain, although mythologists have speculated that the association was first made in the city of Trikarenos in Phliasia. Cerberus is said to be the sibling of the Lernaean Hydra, the Nemean Lion, and the Chimaera. Mythology Cerberus pictured next to Hades. Cerberus was the son of Echidna, a hybrid half-woman, half-serpent and Typhon, a fire-breathing giant whom even the Olympian gods feared. His brother is Orthrus, always depicted as a two-headed hellhound. The common depiction of Cerberus in Greek mythology and art is as having three heads, a mane of live serpents (similar to Medusa's hair) and a dragon's tail. In most works the three-heads each respectively see and represent the past, the present, and the future, while other sources suggest the heads represent birth, youth, and old age. Each of Cerberus' heads is said to have an appetite only for live meat and thus allow the spirits of the dead to freely enter the underworld, but allow none to leave. Cerberus was always employed as Hades' loyal watchdog, and guarded the gates that granted access and exit to the underworld (also called Hades). The Twelfth Labour of Hercules An ancient Etruscan vase from Caere (ca 525 BC) depicting Heracles presenting Cerberus to Eurystheus The task of capturing Cerberus alive, without using weapons, was the final labour assigned to Hercules by King Eurystheus, in recompense for the killing of his own wife and children after he was driven insane by Hera, and therefore was the most dangerous and difficult. In the traditional version, Hercules would not have been required to capture Cerberus, however Eurystheus discounted the completion of two of the tasks as Hercules had received assistance. After having been given the task, Hercules went to Eleusis to be initiated in the Eleusinian Mysteries so that he could learn how to enter and exit the underworld alive, and in passing absolve himself for killing centaurs. He found the entrance to the underworld at Tanaerum, and Athena and Hermes helped him to traverse the entrance in each direction. He passed Charon with Hestia's assistance and his own heavy and fierce frowning. Whilst in the underworld, Hercules freed Theseus, but the earth shook when he attempted to liberate Pirithous, so he had to leave him behind. They had been imprisoned by Hades, who magically bound them to a bench, because they had attempted to kidnap Persephone. The magic was so strong that when Hercules pulled Theseus free, part of Theseus' thighs remained on the bench, explaining why his descendants had notably lean thighs. In the underworld, Hercules met Hades and asked his permission to bring Cerberus to the surface, which Hades agreed to if Hercules could overpower the beast without using weapons. Hercules was able to overpower Cerberus and proceeded to sling the beast over his back, dragging it out of Hades through a cavern entrance in the Peloponnese and bringing it to Eurystheus. The king was so frightened of the beast that he jumped into a pithos, and asked Hercules to return it to the underworld in return for releasing him from his labours. Literature Cerberus featured in many prominent works of Greek and Roman literature, most famously in Virgil's Aeneid, Peisandros of Rhodes' epic poem the Labours of Hercules, the story of Orpheus in Plato's Symposium, and in Homer's Iliad, which is the only known reference to one of Hercules' labours which first appeared in a literary source. The depiction of Cerberus in classical literature is relatively consistent between different works and authors, the common theme of the mane of serpents is kept across works, as is the serpent's tail, most literary works of the era describe Cerberus as having three heads with the only notable exception being Hesiod's Theogony in which he had 50 heads. Most occurrences in ancient literature revolve around the basis of the threat of Cerberus being overcome to allow a living being access to the underworld; in the Aeneid Cerberus was lulled to sleep after being tricked into eating drugged honeycakes and Orpheus put the creature to sleep with his music. Capturing Cerberus alive was the twelfth and final labour of Heracles. In Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy, Cerberus is found in the Third Circle of Hell, where he oversees those who have succumbed to gluttony, one of Christianity's seven deadly sins. "Cerberus" is sometimes substituted for the "branch from the tree of the golden apples" fetched by Atlas from the garden of the Hesperides. http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/cerberus.htm This branch is the literary source of the "golden bough" in the Aeneid by Vergilius. Art In this vase painting, Heracles leads a two-headed Cerberus out of Hades. Numerous references to Cerberus have appeared in ancient Greek and Roman art, found in archaeological ruins and often including in statues and architecture, inspired by the mythology of the creature. Cerberus' depiction in ancient art is not as definitive as in literature; the poets and linguists of ancient Greece and Rome mostly agreed on the physical appearance (with the notable exception in Hesiod's Theogony in which he had 50 heads). His depiction in classical art mostly shows the recurring motif of serpents, but the number of heads differs. A statue in the Galleria Borghese depicts Cerberus with three-heads sitting by the side of Hades, while a bronze sculpture depicting Heracles' twelfth labour shows the demi-god leading a two-headed Cerberus from the underworld. The majority of vases depicting the twelfth task also show Cerberbus as having two heads. Classical critics have identified one of the earliest works of Cerberus as "the most imaginative", that being a Laconian vase created around 560 BC in which Cerberus is shown with three-heads and with rows of serpents covering his body and heads. Explanations There have been many attempts to explain the depiction of Cerberus. Greek philosopher, Heraclitus, claimed that Cerberus had two pups which were never away from their father, as such Cerberus was in fact a normal (however very large) dog but artists incorporating the two pups into their work made it appear as if his two children were in fact extra heads. Classical historians have dismissed Heraclitus' explanation as "feeble". Mythologers have speculated that if Cerberus was given his name in Trikarenos it could be interpreted as "three karenos". Certain experts believe that the monster was inspired by the golden jackal. 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1,585 | B-spline | In the mathematical subfield of numerical analysis, a B-spline is a spline function that has minimal support with respect to a given degree, smoothness, and domain partition. A fundamental theorem states that every spline function of a given degree, smoothness, and domain partition, can be represented as a linear combination of B-splines of that same degree and smoothness, and over that same partition. The term B-spline was coined by Isaac Jacob Schoenberg and is short for basis spline. B-splines can be evaluated in a numerically stable way by the de Boor algorithm. In the computer science subfields of computer-aided design and computer graphics the term B-spline frequently refers to a spline curve parametrized by spline functions that are expressed as linear combinations of B-splines (in the mathematical sense above). A B-spline is simply a generalisation of a Bézier curve, and it can avoid the Runge phenomenon without increasing the degree of the B-spline. Definition Given m real valued ti, called knots, with a B-spline of degree n is a parametric curve composed of a linear combination of basis B-splines bi,n of degree n . The Pi are called control points or de Boor points. There are m−n+1 control points and they form a convex hull. The m-n+1 basis B-splines of degree n can be defined using the Cox-de Boor recursion formula When the knots are equidistant the B-spline is said to be uniform, otherwise non-uniform. If two knots tj are identical, any resulting indeterminate forms 0/0 are deemed to be 0. Note that j+n+1 can not exceed m-1, which limits both j and n. Uniform B-spline When the B-spline is uniform, the basis B-splines for a given degree n are just shifted copies of each other. An alternative non-recursive definition for the m−n+1 basis B-splines is with and where is the truncated power function. Cardinal B-spline Define B0 as the characteristic function of , and Bk recursively as the convolution product then Bk are called (centered) cardinal B-splines. This definition goes back to Schoenberg. Bk has compact support and is an even function. As the normalized cardinal B-splines tend to the Gaussian function. Brinks R: On the convergence of derivatives of B-splines to derivatives of the Gaussian function, Comp. Appl. Math., 27, 1, 2008 Notes When the number of de Boor control points is the same as the degree, the B-Spline degenerates into a Bézier curve. The shape of the basis functions is determined by the position of the knots. Scaling or translating the knot vector does not alter the basis functions. The spline is contained in the convex hull of its control points. A basis B-spline of degree n is non-zero only in the interval [ti, ti+n+1] that is In other words if we manipulate one control point we only change the local behaviour of the curve and not the global behaviour as with Bézier curves. The basis function can be derived from the Bernstein polynomial. Examples Constant B-spline The constant B-spline is the simplest spline. It is defined on only one knot span and is not even continuous on the knots. It is just the indicator function for the different knot spans. Linear B-spline The linear B-spline is defined on two consecutive knot spans and is continuous on the knots, but not differentiable. Uniform quadratic B-spline Quadratic B-splines with uniform knot-vector is a commonly used form of B-spline. The blending function can easily be precalculated, and is equal for each segment in this case. Put in matrix-form, it is: for Cubic B-Spline A B-spline formulation for a single segment can be written as: where Si is the ith B-spline segment and P is the set of control points, segment i and k is the local control point index. A set of control points would be where the is weight, pulling the curve towards control point as it increases or moving the curve away as it decreases. An entire set of segments, m-2 curves () defined by m+1 control points (), as one B-spline in t would be defined as: where i is the control point number and t is a global parameter giving knot values. This formulation expresses a B-spline curve as a linear combination of B-spline basis functions, hence the name. There are two types of B-spline - uniform and non-uniform. A non-uniform B-spline is a curve where the intervals between successive control points is not, or not necessarily, equal (the knot vector of interior knot spans are not equal). A common form is where intervals are successively reduced to zero, interpolating control points. Uniform cubic B-splines Cubic B-splines with uniform knot-vector is the most commonly used form of B-spline. The blending function can easily be precalculated, and is equal for each segment in this case. Put in matrix-form, it is: for See also Spline (mathematics) Nonuniform rational B-splines (NURBS) De Boor algorithm External links Interactive java applets for B-splines B-spline on MathWorld Module B-Splines by John H. Mathews BSpline Java Applet by Stefan Beck (with C++ Source) B-splines of third order on a non-uniform grid by Johannes Ruf FORTRAN code for interpolation using B-splines References | B-spline |@lemmatized mathematical:2 subfield:1 numerical:1 analysis:1 b:46 spline:54 function:15 minimal:1 support:2 respect:1 give:5 degree:10 smoothness:3 domain:2 partition:3 fundamental:1 theorem:1 state:1 every:1 represent:1 linear:6 combination:4 term:2 coin:1 isaac:1 jacob:1 schoenberg:2 short:1 basis:10 evaluate:1 numerically:1 stable:1 way:1 de:5 boor:5 algorithm:2 computer:3 science:1 subfields:1 aided:1 design:1 graphic:1 frequently:1 refer:1 curve:11 parametrized:1 express:2 sense:1 simply:1 generalisation:1 bézier:3 avoid:1 runge:1 phenomenon:1 without:1 increase:2 definition:3 real:1 value:2 ti:3 call:3 knot:15 n:12 parametric:1 compose:1 bi:1 pi:1 control:13 point:14 form:7 convex:2 hull:2 define:6 use:2 cox:1 recursion:1 formula:1 equidistant:1 say:1 uniform:12 otherwise:1 non:6 two:3 tj:1 identical:1 result:1 indeterminate:1 deem:1 note:2 j:2 exceed:1 limit:1 shift:1 copy:1 alternative:1 recursive:1 truncated:1 power:1 cardinal:3 characteristic:1 bk:3 recursively:1 convolution:1 product:1 center:1 go:1 back:1 compact:1 even:2 normalized:1 tend:1 gaussian:2 brink:1 r:1 convergence:1 derivative:2 comp:1 appl:1 math:1 number:2 degenerate:1 shape:1 determine:1 position:1 scaling:1 translate:1 vector:4 alter:1 contain:1 zero:2 interval:3 word:1 manipulate:1 one:3 change:1 local:2 behaviour:2 global:2 derive:1 bernstein:1 polynomial:1 example:1 constant:2 simple:1 span:4 continuous:2 indicator:1 different:1 consecutive:1 differentiable:1 quadratic:2 commonly:2 used:2 blend:2 easily:2 precalculated:2 equal:4 segment:6 case:2 put:2 matrix:2 cubic:3 formulation:2 single:1 write:1 si:1 ith:1 p:1 set:3 k:1 index:1 would:2 weight:1 pull:1 towards:1 move:1 away:1 decrease:1 entire:1 parameter:1 hence:1 name:1 type:1 successive:1 necessarily:1 interior:1 common:1 successively:1 reduce:1 interpolate:1 see:1 also:1 mathematics:1 nonuniform:1 rational:1 nurbs:1 external:1 link:1 interactive:1 java:2 applet:2 mathworld:1 module:1 john:1 h:1 mathews:1 bspline:1 stefan:1 beck:1 c:1 source:1 third:1 order:1 grid:1 johannes:1 ruf:1 fortran:1 code:1 interpolation:1 reference:1 |@bigram b_spline:46 isaac_jacob:1 numerically_stable:1 de_boor:5 computer_aided:1 bézier_curve:3 parametric_curve:1 convex_hull:2 commonly_used:2 external_link:1 java_applet:2 |
1,586 | Logrolling | Logrolling is the trading of favors or quid pro quo, such as vote trading by legislative members to obtain passage of actions of interest to each legislative member. It is also the "cross quoting" of papers by academics in order to drive up reference counts. The Nuttall Encyclopedia describes log-rolling as "mutual praise by authors of each other's work." American frontiersman Davy Crockett was one of the first to apply the term to legislation: The first known use of the term was by Congressman Davy Crockett, who said on the floor (of the U.S. House of Representatives) in 1835, "my people don't like me to log-roll in their business, and vote away pre-emption rights to fellows in other states that never kindle a fire on their own land." logrolling: Definition and Much More from Answers.com The widest accepted origin is the old custom of neighbors assisting each other with the moving of logs. If two neighbors had cut a lot of timber which needed to be moved, it made more sense for them to work together to roll the logs. Online Etymology Dictionary logrolling. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000 In this way, it is similar to a barn-raising where a neighbor comes and helps build your barn and then you go and help build his. Here is an example of the term's original use "A family comes to sit down in the forest," wrote an observer in 1835. "Their neighbors lay down their employments, shoulder their axes, and come in to the log-rolling. They spend the day in hard labor, and then retire, leaving the newcomers their good wishes, and an habitation Though most sources support the above etymology, another possible origin is from the sport by the same name in which two contestants try to topple each other into the water by standing on a log. Each must keep up with the other or risk taking a spill, so it appears to be cooperative. Spy Magazine ran a feature entitled "Logrolling in Our Time" that cited suspicious or humorous examples of mutually admiring book jacket blurbs by pairs of authors. Private Eye magazine regularly draws attention to alleged logrolling by authors in "books of the year" features published by British newspapers and magazines. Private Eye, 21 December 2007. See also Blog roll References | Logrolling |@lemmatized logrolling:4 trading:2 favor:1 quid:1 pro:1 quo:1 vote:2 legislative:2 member:2 obtain:1 passage:1 action:1 interest:1 also:2 cross:1 quote:1 paper:1 academic:1 order:1 drive:1 reference:2 count:1 nuttall:1 encyclopedia:1 describe:1 log:6 rolling:2 mutual:1 praise:1 author:3 work:2 american:2 frontiersman:1 davy:2 crockett:2 one:1 first:2 apply:1 term:3 legislation:1 know:1 use:2 congressman:1 say:1 floor:1 u:1 house:1 representative:1 people:1 like:1 roll:3 business:1 away:1 pre:1 emption:1 right:1 fellow:1 state:1 never:1 kindle:1 fire:1 land:1 definition:1 much:1 answer:1 com:1 wide:1 accepted:1 origin:2 old:1 custom:1 neighbor:4 assist:1 moving:1 two:2 cut:1 lot:1 timber:1 need:1 move:1 make:1 sense:1 together:1 online:1 etymology:2 dictionary:2 heritage:1 english:1 language:1 fourth:1 edition:1 way:1 similar:1 barn:2 raise:1 come:3 help:2 build:2 go:1 example:2 original:1 family:1 sit:1 forest:1 write:1 observer:1 lay:1 employment:1 shoulder:1 ax:1 spend:1 day:1 hard:1 labor:1 retire:1 leave:1 newcomer:1 good:1 wish:1 habitation:1 though:1 source:1 support:1 another:1 possible:1 sport:1 name:1 contestant:1 try:1 topple:1 water:1 stand:1 must:1 keep:1 risk:1 take:1 spill:1 appear:1 cooperative:1 spy:1 magazine:3 run:1 feature:2 entitle:1 logroll:1 time:1 cite:1 suspicious:1 humorous:1 mutually:1 admire:1 book:2 jacket:1 blurb:1 pair:1 private:2 eye:2 regularly:1 draws:1 attention:1 allege:1 year:1 publish:1 british:1 newspaper:1 december:1 see:1 blog:1 |@bigram quid_pro:1 pro_quo:1 davy_crockett:2 |
1,587 | Inca_Empire | Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo, sons of the Inti. The Inca Empire (or Inka Empire) was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. Terence D'Altroy, The Incas, pp. 2–3. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco in modern-day Peru. The Inca Empire arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in early 13th century. From 1438 to 1533, the Incas used a variety of methods, from conquest to peaceful assimilation, to incorporate a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean mountain ranges, including large parts of modern Ecuador, Peru, western and south central Bolivia, northwest Argentina, north and north-central Chile, and southern Colombia. The official language of the empire was Quechua, although hundreds of local languages and dialects of Quechua were spoken. The Quechua name for the empire was Tawantinsuyu Tawantin suyu derives from the Quechua "tawa" (four), to which the suffix "-ntin" (together or united) is added, followed by "suyu" (region or province), which roughly renders as "The four lands together". The four suyos were: Chinchay Suyo (North), Anti Suyo (East. The Amazon jungle), Colla Suyo (South) and Conti Suyo (West). which can be translated as The Four Regions or The Four United Regions. Before the Quechua spelling reform it was written in Spanish as Tahuantinsuyo. Tawantin is a group of four things (tawa "four" with the suffix -ntin which names a group); suyu means "region" or "province". The empire was divided into four Suyus, whose corners met at the capital, Cusco (Qosqo). There were many local forms of worship, most of them concerning local sacred "Huacas", but the Inca leadership encouraged the worship of Inti—the sun god—and imposed its sovereignty above other cults such as that of Pachamama. The Inca - All Empires The Incas identified their king as "child of the sun." History Origin myths The Incas had various creation myths. In one, Ticci Viracocha sent forth his four sons and four daughters (known as the Ayar brothers) from Pacaritambo to establish a village. Along the way, Sinchi Roca was born to Manco and Ocllo, and Sinchi Roca led them to the valley of Cusco where they founded their new village. There Manco became their leader and became known as Manco Capac. Gary Urton, The History of a Myth: Pacariqtambo and the Origin of the Inkas (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990). In another origin myth, the sun god Inti ordered Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo to emerge from the depths of Lake Titicaca. They were born in the lake and wandered north to establish the city of Cusco. They travelled by means of underground caves until they reached Cusco where they established Hurin Cusco, or the first dynasty of the Kingdom of Cusco. These myths were apparently transmitted via oral tradition until early Spanish colonists recorded them; however some scholars believe that they may have been recorded on quipus (Andean knotted string records). Gary Urton, Signs of the Inka Khipu: Binary Coding in the Andean Knotted-String Records (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2003). Archaeology Andean civilization probably began c. 9500 BP. Based in the highlands of Peru, an area now referred to as the punas, the ancestors of the Incas probably began as a nomadic herding people. Geographical conditions resulted in a distinctive physical development characterized by a small stature and stocky build. Men averaged 1.57 m (5'2") and women averaged 1.45 m (4'9"). Because of the high altitudes, they had unique lung developments with almost one third greater capacity than other humans. The Incas had slower heart rates, blood volume of about 2 l (four pints) more than other humans, and double the amount of hemoglobin which transfers oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body. Archaeologists have found traces of permanent habitation as high as 5,300 m (17,500 feet) above sea level in the temperate zone of the high altiplanos. While the Conquistadors may have been intimidating in stature, the Inca surely had the advantage of coping with the extraordinary altitude. It seems that civilizations in this area before the Inca have left no written record, and therefore the Inca seem to appear from nowhere, but the Inca were a product of the past. They borrowed architecture, ceramics, and their empire-state government from previous cultures. In the Lake Titikaka region, Tiwanaku is recognized by Andean scholars as one of the most important precursors to the Inca Empire, flourishing as the ritual and administrative capital of a major state power for approximately five hundred years. The first Inca ruler was Manco Capac. There is no specific date for this ruler nor for the seven succeeding rulers, but the assumed dates are 1250 to 1438. The Inca originated at Cusco in the central highlands and expanded down the coast. The basis of the Inca's conquest is believed to be their organization. Their divine symbol was the sun god, their bureaucratic system consisted of a circle of officials belonging to eleven royal ayllus, and the line of descent continued through incestuous marriage with a sister who becomes the coya or "legal queen." The expansion of the Inca empire probably resulted from climatic conditions. Their resources in the highlands were limited to llama, alpaca, and vicuna. In 1445 Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui (the ninth Inca) began conquest of the Titicaca regions. He incorporated and developed patterns of cultures already in existence, particularly that of the Chimu. Pachacuti had disciplined officers from his own elite household. Common soldiers were armed with bronze battle axes, wooden hafts with stone or bronze heads, slings, lances, throwing spears, bows and arrows, wooden shields covered with leather, cotton or cane helmets, and quilted armor. In each captured province Inca officials were superimposed upon the existing local officials. The loyalty of the captured province was assured by taking the sons of the officials hostage in Cusco. They made Quechua the official language and sun worship the official religion. They exploited the labor force in order to increase productivity and rapidly develop irrigation and terrace cultivation systems, and used guano deposits found on the coastal islands as fertilizer. The Inca social system required a severe authoritarian government backed by ritual and divine compulsion. They built temples and fortresses and were supreme in road building. The roads extended 3,250 miles from Quito in the north to Talca in Central Chile. These roads were vital to the maintenance of the empire, but ironically this network of highways made the Spanish conquest easier. There were road markers every topo which is 4.5 miles and rest houses or tambos every 12 miles for the Inca ruler and his retinue. Small post houses called chasquis every 5 miles housed the runners and were used for relaying dispatches at the rate of about 150 miles per day. Verbal dispatches were supplemented by quipu or knotted strings, probably involving a code based on numbers. These were the equivalent of the notched sticks of the old tally system used in Europe. Inca society was based on the idea of "equal footing." All men must work in order to live, and even the Inca nobles helped to set an example . Some archaeologists believe this was a façade supporting a two-caste system. The penalties for breaking the law were less severe for bureaucratic elites; this emphasizes the importance of the upper caste in the maintenance of the system. Innes, Hammond. The Conquistadors. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf Inc., 1969. Kingdom of Cusco The Inca people began as a tribe in the Cusco area around the 12th century. Under the leadership of Manco Capac, they formed the small city-state of Cusco (Quechua Qusqu'Qosqo). In 1438 they began a far-reaching expansion under the command of Sapa Inca (paramount leader) Pachacuti-Cusi Yupanqui, whose name literally meant "earth-shaker". The name of Pachacutec was giving to him after conquering over the Tribe of Chancas modern Apurimac. During his reign, he and his son Tupac Yupanqui brought much of the Andes mountains (roughly modern Peru and Ecuador) under Inca control. Reorganization and formation Inca expansion (1438–1527) Pachacuti reorganized the kingdom of Cusco into an empire, the Tahuantinsuyu, a federalist system which consisted of a central government with the Inca at its head and four provincial governments with strong leaders: Chinchasuyu (NW), Antisuyu (NE), Contisuyu (SW), and Collasuyu (SE). The three laws of Tawantinsuyu are still referred to in Bolivia these days as the three laws of the Collasuyu. Pachacuti is also thought to have built Machu Picchu, either as a family home or as a summer retreat. Pachacuti sent spies to regions he wanted in his empire; they brought reports on the political organization, military might and wealth. He would then send messages to the leaders of these lands extolling the benefits of joining his empire, offering them presents of luxury goods such as high quality textiles, and promising that they would be materially richer as subject rulers of the Inca. Most accepted the rule of the Inca as a fait accompli and acquiesced peacefully. The ruler's children would then be brought to Cusco to be taught about Inca administration systems, then return to rule their native lands. This allowed the Inca to indoctrinate the former ruler's children into the Inca nobility, and, with luck, marry their daughters into families at various corners of the empire. Expansion and consolidation It was traditional for the Inca's son to lead the army; Pachacutec's son Túpac Inca Yupanqui began conquests to the north in 1463, and continued them as Inca after Pachucuti's death in 1471. His most important conquest was the Kingdom of Chimor, the Inca's only serious rival for the coast of Peru. Túpac Inca's empire stretched north into modern day Ecuador and Colombia. Túpac Inca's son Huayna Cápac added a small portion of land to the north in modern day Ecuador and in parts of Peru. At its height, the Inca Empire included Peru and Bolivia, most of what is now Ecuador, a large portion of what is today Chile north of Maule River. The advance south halted after the Battle of the Maule where they met massive resistance by the Mapuche tribes. The empire also extended into corners of Argentina and Colombia. However, most of the southern portion of the Inca empire, the portion denominated as Collasuyu, was desert wasteland. The Inca Empire was a patchwork of languages, cultures and peoples. The components of the empire were not all uniformly loyal, nor were the local cultures all fully integrated. The Inca empire as a whole had an economy based on exchange and taxation of luxury goods and labour. The following quote reflects a method of taxation: “For as is well known to all, not a single village of the highlands or the plains failed to pay the tribute levied on it by those who were in charge of these matters. There were even provinces where, when the natives alleged that they were unable to pay their tribute, the Inca ordered that each inhabitant should be obliged to turn in every four months a large quill full of live lice, which was the Inca’s way of teaching and accustoming them to pay tribute” Starn, Degregori, Kirk The Peru Reader: History, Culture, Politics; Quote by Pedro de Cieza de Leon; Published by Duke University Press, 1995 Inca civil war and Spanish conquest Sacsayhuamán, the Inca stronghold of Cusco Spanish conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro and his brothers explored south from Panama, reaching Inca territory by 1526. It was clear that they had reached a wealthy land with prospects of great treasure, and after one more expedition in 1529, Pizarro traveled to Spain and received royal approval to conquer the region and be its viceroy. This approval was received as detailed in the following quote: "In July 1529 the queen of Spain signed a charter allowing Pizarro to conquer the Incas. Pizarro was named governer and captain of all conquests in Peru, or New Castile, as the Spanish now called the land." Somervill,Barbara; Francisco Pizarro: Conquerer of the IncasPublished by Compass Point Books, 2005; pp.52 When they returned to Peru in 1532, a war of the two brothers between Huayna Capac's sons Huascar and Atahualpa and unrest among newly-conquered territories—and perhaps more importantly, smallpox, which had spread from Central America—had considerably weakened the empire. Pizarro did not have a formidable force; with just 168 men, 1 cannon and 27 horses, he often needed to talk his way out of potential confrontations that could have easily wiped out his party. The Spanish horsemen, fully armored, had great technological superiority over the Inca forces. The traditional mode of battle in the Andes was a kind of siege warfare where large numbers of usually reluctant draftees were sent to overwhelm opponents. The Spaniards had developed one of the finest military machines in the premodern world, tactics learned in their centuries' long fight against Moorish kingdoms in Iberia. Along with this tactical and material superiority, the Spaniards also had acquired tens of thousands of native allies who sought to end the Inca control of their territories. Their first engagement was the Battle of Puná, near present-day Guayaquil, Ecuador, on the Pacific Coast; Pizarro then founded the city of Piura in July 1532. Hernando de Soto was sent inland to explore the interior and returned with an invitation to meet the Inca, Atahualpa, who had defeated his brother in the civil war and was resting at Cajamarca with his army of 80,000 troops. Pizarro and some of his men, most notably a friar named Vincente de Valverde, met with the Inca, who had brought only a small retinue. Through an interpreter Friar Vincente read the "Requerimiento" that demanded that he and his empire accept the yoke of King Charles I of Spain and convert to Christianity. Because of the language barrier and perhaps poor interpretation, Atahualpa became somewhat puzzled by the friar's description of Christian faith and was said to have not fully understood the envoy's intentions. After Atahualpa attempted further enquiry into the doctrines of the Christian faith under which Pizarro's envoy served, the Spanish became frustrated and impatient, attacking the Inca's retinue and capturing Atahualpa as hostage. Atahualpa offered the Spaniards enough gold to fill the room he was imprisoned in, and twice that amount of silver. The Inca fulfilled this ransom, but Pizarro deceived them, refusing to release the Inca afterwards. During Atahualpa's imprisonment Huascar was assassinated elsewhere. The Spaniards maintained that this was at Atahualpa's orders; this was used as one of the charges against Atahualpa when the Spaniards finally decided to put him to death, in August 1533. Last Incas A view of Machu Picchu, "the Lost City of the Incas". The Spanish installed Atahualpa's brother Manco Inca Yupanqui in power; for some time Manco cooperated with the Spanish, while the Spanish fought to put down resistance in the north. Meanwhile an associate of Pizarro's, Diego de Almagro, attempted to claim Cusco for himself. Manco tried to use this intra-Spanish feud to his advantage, recapturing Cusco in 1536, but the Spanish retook the city afterwards. Manco Inca then retreated to the mountains of Vilcabamba, Peru, where he and his successors ruled for another 36 years, sometimes raiding the Spanish or inciting revolts against them. In 1572 the last Inca stronghold was conquered, and the last ruler, Túpac Amaru, Manco's son, was captured and executed. This ended resistance to the Spanish conquest under the political authority of the Inca state. After the fall of the Inca Empire, the new Spanish rulers brutally oppressed the people and suppressed their traditions. Many aspects of Inca culture were systematically destroyed, including their sophisticated farming system. The Spaniards used the Inca mita (mandatory public service) system to literally work the people to death. One member of each family was forced to work in the gold and silver mines, the foremost of which was the titanic silver mine at Potosí. When a family member died, which would usually happen within a year or two, the family would be required to send a replacement. The effects of smallpox on the Inca empire were even more devastating. Beginning in Colombia, smallpox spread rapidly before the Spanish invaders first arrived in the empire. The spread was probably aided by the efficient Inca road system. Within a few years smallpox claimed between 60% and 94% of the Inca population, with other waves of European disease weakening them further. Smallpox was only the first epidemic. Millersville University Silent Killers of the New World Typhus (probably) in 1546, influenza and smallpox together in 1558, smallpox again in 1589, diphtheria in 1614, measles in 1618 - all ravaged the remains of Inca culture. Society Daily life and diet Approximately 200 varieties of potatoes were cultivated by the Incas and their predecessors The Inca diet consisted primarily of potatoes and grains, supplemented by fish, vegetables, nuts, and maize (corn). Camelid (llama and alpaca) meat and cuyes (guinea pigs) were also eaten in large quantities. Morales, 1995 In addition, they hunted various wild animals for meat, skins and feathers. Maize was malted and used to make chicha, a fermented alcoholic beverage. The Inca road system was key to farming success as it allowed distribution of foodstuffs over long distances. The Aqllawasi (Acllahuasi) which means "house of the sun virgins" was developed under the Incas in Peru at about 1438–1532 CE. Its central purpose was in the manufacturing of garments for the Inca royalty and the worship of the sun god, Inti. Language Since the Inca Empire lacked a written language, the empire's main form of communication and recording came from quipus, ceramics and spoken Quechua, the language the Incas imposed upon the peoples within the empire. The plethora of civilizations in the Andean region provided for a general disunity that the Incas needed to subdue in order to maintain control of the empire. While Quechua had been spoken in the Andean region, like central Peru, for several years prior to the expansion of the Inca civilization, the type of Quechua the Incas imposed was an adaptation from the Kingdom of Cusco (an early form of "Southern Quechua") of what some historians define as "Proto-Quechua" or Cusco dialect (the original Quechua dialect). Quechua Origins and diversity of Quechua The language imposed by the Incas further diverted from its original phonetic tone as some societies formed their own regional varieties, or slang. The diversity of Quechua at that point and even today does not come as a direct result from the Incas, who are just a part of the reason for Quechua's diversity. The civilizations within the empire that had previously spoken Quechua kept their own variety distinct to the Quechua the Incas spread. Although these dialects of Quechua have a similar linguistic structure, they differ according to the region in which they are spoken. Although most of the societies within the empire implemented Quechua into their lives, the Incas allowed several societies to keep their old languages such as Aymara, which still remains a spoken language in contemporary Bolivia where it is the primary indigenous language and various regions of South America surrounding Bolivia. The linguistic body of the Inca Empire was thus largely varied, but it still remains quite an achievement for the Incas that went even beyond their times as the Spanish imposed the use of Spanish as a method to force their culture upon the indigenous peoples of South America (even though that further increased the diversity of the language). It is proposed that the actual name of the spoken language of the Incan Empire was called Qhapaq Runasimi and that the Incan ruling elite spoke both Puquina and Qhapaq Runasimi (Quechua). However, Pukina ceased to be used in the 19th century. Under this proposed idea, the root meaning of Quechua was "taken by force, stolen" and a Dominican monk (Pedro Aparicio) mistakenly taught that the Peruvians referred to themselves as Quechuas when it was actually the actions of the Spaniards the people were referring to. The Roman Catholic Church employed Quechua-Qhapaq Runasimi to evangelize in the Andean region. In some cases, these languages were taught to people who had originally spoken other indigenous languages. Today, Quechua-Qhapaq Runasimi and Aymara remain the most widespread Amerindian languages. Organization of the Empire The four suyus of the empire.The most powerful figure in the empire was the Sapa Inca ('the unique Inca'). Only descendants of the original Inca tribe ascended to the level of Inca. Most young members of the Inca's family attended Yachay Wasis (houses of knowledge) to obtain their education. The Inca Empire was a federalist system which consisted of a central government with the Inca at its head and four provinces: Chinchay Suyu (NW), Anti Suyu (NE), Kunti Suyu (SW), and Qulla Suyu (SE). The four corners of these provinces met at the center, Cusco. Each province had a governor who oversaw local officials, who in turn supervised agriculturally-productive river valleys, cities and mines. There were separate chains of command for both the military and religious institutions, which created a system of partial checks and balances on power . The local officials were responsible for settling disputes and keeping track of each family's contribution to the mita (mandatory public service). Religion Inti as represented by José Bernardo de Tagle of Peru. The Inca believed in reincarnation. http://www.netside.net/~manomed/inca.htm Those who obeyed the Incan moral code—ama suwa, ama llulla, ama quella (do not steal, do not lie, do not be lazy)—"went to live in the Sun's warmth while others spent their eternal days in the cold earth" . The Inca also practiced cranial deformation. Burger, R.L. and L.C. Salazar. 2004. Machu Picchu: Unveiling the Mystery of the Incas. Yale University Press, p. 45. ISBN 0-300-09763-8. They achieved this by wrapping tight cloth straps around the heads of newborns in order to alter the shape of their soft skulls into a more conical form. Further studies are still needed to determine whether these deformations caused brain damage. Arts and technology Inca tunic Coca leaves Monumental architecture Architecture was by far the most important of the Inca arts, with textiles reflecting motifs that were at their height in architecture. The main example is the capital city of Cusco. The breathtaking site of Machu Picchu was constructed by Inca engineers. The stone temples constructed by the Inca used a mortarless construction that fit together so well that a knife could not be fitted through the stonework. This was a process first used on a large scale by the Pucara (ca. 300 BC–AD 300) peoples to the south in Lake Titicaca, and later in the great city of Tiwanaku (ca. AD 400–1100) in present day Bolivia. The rocks used in construction were sculpted to fit together exactly by repeatedly lowering a rock onto another and carving away any sections on the lower rock where the dust was compressed. The tight fit and the concavity on the lower rocks made them extraordinarily stable. Ceramics, precious metal work, and textiles Almost all of the gold and silver work of the empire was melted down by the conquistadores. Ceramics were painted using the polychrome technique portraying numerous motifs including animals,birds, waves, felines (which were popular in the Chavin culture) and geometric patterns found in the Nazca style of ceramics.In place of a written language Ceramics portrayed the very basic scenes of everyday life,including the smelting of metals,relationships and scenes of tribal warfare,it is through these preserved Ceramics that we know what life was like for the ancient South Americans . The most distinctive Inca ceramic objects are the Cusco bottles or ¨aryballos¨. Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. New York:Thames and Hudson Many of these pieces are on display in Lima in the Larco Archaeological Museum and the National Museum of Archaeology, Anthropology and History. Communication and medicine The Inca used an assemblages of knotted strings, known as Quipu to record information, the exact nature of which is no longer known. Originally it was thought that Quipu were used only as mnemonic devices or to record numerical data. Recent discoveries, however, have led to the theory that these devices were instead a form of writing in their own right . The Inca made many discoveries in medicine. They performed successful skull surgery, which involved cutting holes in the skull in order to alleviate fluid buildup and inflammation caused by head wounds. Anthropologists have discovered evidence which suggests that most skull surgeries performed by Inca surgeons were successful. In pre-Inca times, only one-third of skull surgery patients survived the procedure. However, survival rates rose to 80-90% during the Inca era. Science News / Incan Skull Surgery Coca The Incas revered the coca leaves, as a sacred, magic plant, and its leaves were used in moderate amounts to lessen hunger and pain during work, but was mostly used for religious and health purposes. When the Spaniards realized the effects of chewing the coca leaves, they took advantage of it making the people of the Tawantinsuyo (Peru) to get addicted to it to avoid providing enough food and rest while they were forced to long extenuous hours of hard labor and hunger. The poverty that still exists since the conquest is a good reason now for it to be greatly used in the Andes. The Chasqui (messengers) chewed coca leaves for extra energy to carry on their tasks as runners delivering messages throughout the empire. They were also used during surgeries. It's an honor and a extension of friendship if an Inka descendant offers a handful of Coca leaves, picchar or acullicar. To chew the coca leaves with them is a sign of welcoming acceptance. The Coca leave still holds the sacred meaning it always had in ancient times. The sweet taste and the effects of calm energy competes with any modern relaxant if it's use in a moderate way. Weapons, armor, and warfare A detail of an Inca stone work The Inca army was the most powerful in the area at that time, because they could turn an ordinary villager or farmer into a soldier, ready for battle. This is because every male Inca had to take part in war at least once so as to be prepared for warfare again when needed. By the time the empire had reached its large size, every section of the empire contributed in setting up an army for war. The Incas had no iron or steel, and their weapons were no better than those of their enemies. They went into battle with the beating of drums and the blowing of trumpets. The armor used by the Incas included: Helmets made of wood, copper, bronze, cane, or animal skin; some were adorned with feathers Round or square shields made from wood or hide Cloth tunics padded with cotton and small wooden planks to protect spine The Inca weaponry included: Bronze or bone-tipped spears Two-handed wooden swords with serrated edges Clubs with stone and spiked metal heads Woolen slings and stones Stone or copper headed battle-axes Stones fastened to lengths of cord (bola) Roads allowed very quick movement for the Inca army, and shelters called quolla were built one day's distance in travelling from each other, so that an army on campaign could always be fed and rested. (The name for the Sapa Inca's storehouses was tambo. This can be seen in names of ruins such as Ollantay Tambo, or My Lord's Storehouse. These were set up so the Inca and his entourage would always have supplies (and possibly shelter) ready as he traveled. Inca flag The rainbow flag There are 16th and 17th century chronicles and references that support the idea of a banner, or flag, attributable to the Inca. Francisco López de Jerez Francisco López de Jerez,Verdadera relacion de la conquista del Peru y provincia de Cuzco, llamada la Nueva Castilla, 1534. wrote in 1534: "all of them came distributed into squads, with their flags and captains commanding them, as well-ordered as Turks" ("todos venían repartidos en sus escuadras con sus banderas y capitanes que los mandan, con tanto concierto como turcos"). The chronicler, Bernabé Cobo, wrote: "The royal standard or banner was a small square flag, ten or twelve spans around, made of cotton or wool linen, placed on the end of a long staff, stretched and stiff such that it did not wave in the air, and on it each king painted his arms and emblems, for each one chose different ones, though the sign of the Incas was the rainbow." (...el guión o estandarte real era una banderilla cuadrada y pequeña, de diez o doce palmos de ruedo, hecha de lienzo de algodón o de lana, iba puesta en el remate de una asta larga, tendida y tiesa, sin que ondease al aire, y en ella pintaba cada rey sus armas y divisas, porque cada uno las escogía diferentes, aunque las generales de los Incas eran el arco celeste.)-Bernabé Cobo, Historia del Nuevo Mundo (1653) Guaman Poma's 1615 book, El primer nueva corónica y buen gobierno, shows numerous line drawings of Inca flags. Guaman Poma, El primer nueva corónica y buen gobierno, (1615/1616), pp. 256, 286, 344, 346, 400, 434, 1077, this pagination corresponds to the Det Kongelige Bibliotek search engine pagination of the book. Additionally Poma shows both well drafted European flags and coats of arms on pp. 373, 515, 558, 1077, 0. On pages 83, 167-171 Poma uses a european heraldic graphic convention, a shield, to place certain totems related to Inca leaders. In modern times the rainbow flag has been associated with the Tawantinsuyu and is displayed as a symbol of Inca heritage in Peru and Bolivia. The city of Cusco flies the Rainbow Flag. Peruvian President Alejandro Toledo (2001–2006) flew the Rainbow Flag in Lima's presidential palace. See also Peruvian Ancient Cultures Cultural periods of Peru History of Peru War of the two brothers Inca Garcilaso de la Vega Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire Smallpox Epidemics in the New World Population history of Amerindians Spanish Empire Inca cuisine Tumi Tambo (Incan structure) Amazonas before the Inca Empire Notes References De la Vega, Garcilaso . The Incas: The Royal Commentaries of the Inca. New York: The Orion Press, 1961. John Hemming. The Conquest of the Incas Harvest Press 2003. ISBN 978-0156028264. MacQuarrie, Kim. The Last Days of the Incas. Simon & Schuster, 2007. ISBN 978-0743260497. Morales, Edmundo (1995). The Guinea Pig : Healing, Food, and Ritual in the Andes, University of Arizona Press. ISBN 0-8165-1558-1. Popenoe, Hugh, Steven R. King, Jorge Leon, Luis Sumar Kalinowski, and Noel D. Vietmeyer. Lost Crops of the Incas. Washington DC: National Academy Press, 1989. External links Historical maps of inca empire Maps to be combined and compared "Guaman Poma - El Primer Nueva Corónica Y Buen Gobierno" – A high-quality digital version of the Corónica, scanned from the original manuscript. Conquest of Peru, Prescott, 1847 Full text, free to read and search. Inca Land by Hiram Bingham (published 1912–1922 CE). Inca Artifacts, Peru, and Machu Picchu 360 degree movies of inca artifacts and Peruvian landscapes. Inca civilization and other ancient civilizations by Genry Joil. Inca stone cutting techniques: theory on how the Inca walls fit so perfectly. Ancient Civilizations - Inca Great research site for kids. "Ice Treasures of the Inca" National Geographic site. "The Sacred Hymns of Pachacutec" Poetry of an Inca emperor. Incan Ice Mummies NOVA site based on their series about the 1996 expedition that discovered Incan ice mummies. Incan Religion History of the Inca Empire Inca history, society and religion. Engineering in the Andes Mountains MIT asst. professor gives 40 minute lecture on Incan suspension bridges. 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1,588 | Donald_Rumsfeld | Donald Henry Rumsfeld (born July 9, 1932) is a United States businessman, politician, the 13th Secretary of Defense under President Gerald Ford from 1975 to 1977, and the 21st Secretary of Defense under President George W. Bush from 2001 to 2006. He is both the youngest (43 years old) and the oldest (74 years old) person to have held the position, as well as the only person to have held the position for two non-consecutive terms, and the second longest serving, behind Robert McNamara. Rumsfeld was White House Chief of Staff during part of the Ford Administration, and also served in various positions in the Nixon Administration. Rumsfeld served four terms in the United States House of Representatives, and served as United States Ambassador to NATO. Rumsfeld was an aviator in the United States Navy between 1954 and 1957 before transferring to the Reserve. In public life, he has also served as an official in numerous federal commissions and councils. Background and family Youth Donald Rumsfeld was born on July 9, 1932, in Evanston, Illinois, Donald Rumsfeld to George Donald Rumsfeld (Illinois, October 10, 1904 – September 1974) and Jeannette Huster (Illinois, May 27, 1903 – May 3, 1988). His great-grandfather Johann Heinrich Rumsfeld emigrated from Weyhe near Bremen in Northern Germany in 1876. Biography: Donald Rumsfeld November 8, 2006 Growing up in Winnetka, Illinois, Rumsfeld became an Eagle Scout in 1949 and is the recipient of both the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award from the Boy Scouts of America September 2006 and its Silver Buffalo Award in 2006. He was a camp counselor at the Northeast Illinois Council's Camp Ma-Ka-Ja-Wan in the late 1940s and a ranger at Philmont Scout Ranch in 1949. Secretary Rumsfeld's Remarks at the White House Conference on Cooperative Conservation — U.S. Department of Defense News Transcript — August 29, 2005 Rumsfeld went on to buy a vacation house west of Philmont at Taos, New Mexico. Donald and Joyce Rumsfeld Marriage Profile at About.com Education Rumsfeld went to Baker Demonstration School for middle school and attended and graduated from New Trier High School. He attended Princeton University on academic and NROTC scholarships (A.B., 1954). In extracurricular activities he was an accomplished amateur wrestler and a member of the Lightweight Football team playing defensive back, and at Princeton he became Captain of both the varsity wrestling team and the Lightweight Football team. While at Princeton he roomed with another future Secretary of Defense: Frank Carlucci. His Princeton University senior thesis was titled "The Steel Seizure Case of 1952 and Its Effects on Presidential Powers." Princeton University Senior Theses Full Record: Donald Henry Rumsfeld In 1956 he attended Georgetown University Law Center, but did not graduate. Domestic life Rumsfeld married Joyce H. Pierson (born September 18, 1932) on December 27, 1954. They have three children and six grandchildren. Their three children are psychologist Valerie J. Rumsfeld Richard (born March 3, 1956), Marcy K. Rumsfeld Walczak (born March 28, 1960), and Internet entrepreneur Donald Nicholas "Nick" Rumsfeld (born June 26, 1967). Rumsfeld lives in St. Michaels, Maryland, in a former plantation home, site of Frederick Douglass's breaking by Edward Covey. Early career (1954–1976) Military service Rumsfeld served in the United States Navy from 1954 to 1957 as a naval aviator and flight instructor. His initial training was in the North American SNJ Texan basic trainer after which he transitioned to flying the Grumman F9F Panther fighter. In 1957, he transferred to the Naval Reserve and continued his naval service in flying and administrative assignments as a drilling reservist until 1975. He transferred to the Individual Ready Reserve when he became Secretary of Defense in 1975 and retired with the rank of Captain in 1989. DefenseLink's Rumsfeld Biography Early civilian career In 1957, during the Eisenhower administration, he served as Administrative Assistant to David S. Dennison, Jr., a Congressman representing the 11th district of Ohio. In 1959, Rumsfeld then moved on to become a staff assistant to Congressman Robert P. Griffin of Michigan. RUMSFELD, Donald Henry on Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. Accessed April 22, 2007. He then did a two-year stint with investment banking firm A. G. Becker from 1960 to 1962. Donald Rumsfeld biography from the Associated Press. Accessed April 22, 2007. Member of Congress Rumsfeld was elected to the United States House of Representatives for Illinois' 13th congressional district in 1962, at the age of 30, and was re-elected by large majorities in 1964, 1966, and 1968. Donald Rumsfeld biography from Whitehouse.gov. Accessed April 22, 2007. In the Congress, he served on the Joint Economic Committee, the Committee on Science and Aeronautics, and the Government Operations Committee, as well as on the Subcommittees on Military and Foreign Operations. He was also a co-founder of the Japanese-American Inter-Parliamentary Council. Donald Rumsfeld biography from White House press release dated November 3, 1975. Accessed April 22, 2007. As a young Congressman, Rumsfeld attended seminars at the University of Chicago, an experience he credits with introducing him to the idea of an all volunteer military, and to the economist Milton Friedman and the Chicago School of Economics. He would later take part in Friedman's PBS series Free to Choose. Free to Choose: Tyranny of Control Nixon Administration Rumsfeld resigned from Congress in 1969 — his fourth term — to serve in the Nixon administration as Director of the United States Office of Economic Opportunity, Assistant to the President, and a member of the President's Cabinet (1969–1970); named Counselor to the President in December 1970, Director of the Economic Stabilization Program; and member of the President's Cabinet (1971–1972). In 1971 Nixon was recorded saying about Rumsfeld "at least Rummy is tough enough" and "He's a ruthless little bastard. You can be sure of that." Nixon White House conversation 464-12 Alexander Cockburn, Rumsfeld: His Rise, Fall, and Catastrophic Legacy, Simon and Schuster, 2007, page 20 Craig Unger, The Fall of the House of Bush: The Untold Story of how a Band of True Believers Seized the Executive Branch, Started the Iraq War, and Still Imperils America's Future, Simon and Schuster, 2007, page 50 Craig Unger, American Armageddon: How the Delusions of the Neoconservatives and the Christian Right Triggered the Descent of America--and Still Imperil Our Future, Simon and Schuster, 2008, page 50 Naomi Klein, The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism, Metropolitan Books/Henry Holt, 2007 In February 1973, Rumsfeld left Washington to serve as U.S. Ambassador to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in Brussels, Belgium. He served as the United States' Permanent Representative to the North Atlantic Council and the Defense Planning Committee, and the Nuclear Planning Group. In this capacity, he represented the United States in wide-ranging military and diplomatic matters. Ford Administration Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld (left) and White House Chief of Staff Dick Cheney (right) meeting with President Gerald Ford, April 1975. In August 1974, he was called back to Washington to serve as transition chairman for the new president, Gerald R. Ford. He had been Ford's confidant since their days in the House when Ford was House minority leader. Later in Ford's presidency, Rumsfeld became White House Chief of Staff, where he served from 1974 to 1975. In October 1975, Ford reshuffled his cabinet in the Halloween Massacre. He named Rumsfeld to become the 13th U.S. Secretary of Defense; George H. W. Bush became Director of Central Intelligence. According to Bob Woodward's 2002 book Bush at War, a rivalry developed between the two men and "Bush senior was convinced that Rumsfeld was pushing him out to the CIA to end his political career." At the Pentagon, Rumsfeld oversaw the transition to an all-volunteer military. He sought to reverse the gradual decline in the defense budget and to build up U.S. strategic and conventional forces, skillfully undermining Secretary of State Henry Kissinger at the SALT talks. He asserted, along with Team B (which he helped to set up The Long March of Dick Cheney ), that trends in comparative U.S.-Soviet military strength had not favored the United States for 15 to 20 years and that, if continued, they "would have the effect of injecting a fundamental instability in the world." For this reason, he oversaw the development of cruise missiles, the B-1 bomber, and a major naval shipbuilding program. Secretary Rumsfeld, seated at the Cabinet table, laughing with President Gerald Ford in 1975. In 1977, Rumsfeld was awarded the nation's highest civilian award, the Presidential Medal of Freedom. DefenseLink's Secretary of Defense Biography Kissinger, his bureaucratic adversary, would later pay him a different sort of compliment, pronouncing him Private career (1977–2000) Academia In early 1977 Rumsfeld briefly lectured at Princeton's Woodrow Wilson School and Northwestern's Kellogg School of Management, in his hometown of Evanston, Illinois. Business From 1977 to 1985 Rumsfeld served as Chief Executive Officer, President, and then Chairman of G. D. Searle & Company, a worldwide pharmaceutical company based in Skokie, Illinois. During his tenure at Searle, Rumsfeld led the company's financial turnaround, thereby earning awards as the Outstanding Chief Executive Officer in the Pharmaceutical Industry from the Wall Street Transcript (1980) and Financial World (1981). In 1985, Searle was sold to Monsanto. Rumsfeld is believed to have earned around $12 million from this sale. Rumsfeld served as Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of General Instrument Corporation from 1990 to 1993. A leader in broadband transmission, distribution, and access control technologies for cable, satellite and terrestrial broadcasting applications, the company pioneered the development of the first all-digital high-definition television (HDTV) technology. After taking the company public and returning it to profitability, Rumsfeld returned to private business in late 1993. From January 1997 until being sworn in as the 21st Secretary of Defense in January 2001, Rumsfeld served as Chairman of Gilead Sciences, Inc. Gilead Sciences is the developer of Tamiflu (Oseltamivir), which is used in the treatment of bird flu. Press Releases: Gilead As a result, Rumsfeld's holdings in the company grew significantly when avian flu became a subject of popular anxiety during his later term as Secretary of Defense. Following standard practice, Rumsfeld recused himself from any decisions involving Gilead, and he directed the Pentagon's General Counsel issue instructions outlining what he could and could not be involved in if there were an avian flu pandemic and the Pentagon had to respond. USATODAY.com - Roche, Gilead Sciences resolve Tamiflu conflict Defense Secretary Rumsfeld sees growth in Gilead stake - October 31, 2005 Continued part-time public service During his business career, Rumsfeld continued public service in various posts, including: Member of the President's General Advisory Committee on Arms Control—Reagan Administration (1982–1986); President Reagan's Special Envoy on the Law of the Sea Treaty (1982–1983); Senior Advisor to President Reagan's Panel on Strategic Systems (1983–1984); Member of the U.S. Joint Advisory Commission on U.S./Japan Relations—Reagan Administration (1983–1984); President Reagan's Special Envoy to the Middle East (1983–1984); Member of the National Commission on the Public Service (1987–1990); Member of the National Economic Commission (1988–1989); Member of the Board of Visitors of the National Defense University (1988–1992); Chairman Emeritus, Defense Contractor, Carlyle Group (1989–2005); Member of the Commission on U.S./Japan Relations (1989–1991); Member of the Board of Directors for ABB Ltd. (1990–2001); FCC's High Definition Television Advisory Committee (1992–1993); Chairman, Commission on the Ballistic Missile Threat to the United States (1998–1999); Member of the U.S. Trade Deficit Review Commission (1999–2000); Member of the Council on Foreign Relations (CFR); Chairman of the U.S. Commission to Assess National Security Space Management and Organization (2000); Honorary Vice-Chancellor of Yale University (2001), honoring Rumsfeld's U.S. foreign policy work. Rumsfeld served as United Way Inter-governmental Affairs Director in Washington, D.C. from 1986 to 1989. He was asked to serve the U.S. State Department as a "foreign policy consultant," a role he held from 1990 to 1993. He was also a board member of the RAND Corporation. ABB and North Korea Rumsfeld sat on ABB's board from 1990 to 2001. ABB—based in Zürich, Switzerland—is a European engineering giant formed through the merger between ASEA of Sweden and Brown Boveri of Switzerland. In 2000 this company sold two light-water nuclear reactors to KEDO for installation in North Korea, as part of the 1994 agreed framework reached under President Bill Clinton. The sale of the nuclear technology was a high-profile contract. ABB's then chief executive, Göran Lindahl, visited North Korea in November 1999 to announce ABB's "wide-ranging, long-term cooperation agreement" with the communist government. Rumsfeld's office said that the Secretary of Defense did not "recall it being brought before the board at any time." But ABB spokesman Björn Edlund told Fortune that "board members were informed about this project." Special Envoy to the Middle East Rumsfeld, Ronald Reagan's then-special envoy to the Middle East, meeting with Saddam Hussein during a visit to Baghdad, Iraq in December 1983, during the Iran–Iraq War. In later years, this image was downplayed by Rumsfeld and highlighted by his opponents as relations with Hussein's regime deteriorated. (Video frame capture; see the complete video here.) During his period as Reagan's Special Envoy to the Middle East (November 1983–May 1984), Rumsfeld was the most senior conduit for crucial American military intelligence, hardware and strategic advice to Saddam Hussein, then fighting Iran in the Iran–Iraq War. The United States' pro-Iraq policy was adopted when the tide of the Iran–Iraq War turned strongly in Iran's favor, and it looked as if Iran might overrun Iraq completely. Although the United States was hesitant to support a Soviet client state, the prospect of greatly expanded Iranian influence in the region outweighed these concerns. When Rumsfeld visited Baghdad on December 19–December 20, 1983, he and Saddam Hussein had a 90-minute discussion that covered Syria's occupation of Lebanon; preventing Syrian and Iranian expansion; preventing arms sales to Iran by foreign countries; and increasing Iraqi oil production via a possible new oil pipeline across Jordan. According to declassified U.S. State Department documents, Rumsfeld also informed Tariq Aziz (Iraqi Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister) that: "Our efforts to assist were inhibited by certain things that made it difficult for us ... citing the use of chemical weapons." George Washington University, National Archives, Iraq, PDF format Rumsfeld brought many gifts from the Reagan administration to Saddam Hussein. These gifts included pistols, medieval spiked hammers and a pair of golden cowboy spurs. Until the 1991 Gulf War, these were all displayed at Saddam Hussein's Victory Museum in Baghdad which held all the gifts bestowed on Saddam by friendly national leaders. During his brief bid for the 1988 Republican nomination, Rumsfeld stated that restoring full relations with Iraq was one of his best achievements. This was not a particularly controversial position at a time when U.S. policy considered supporting a totalitarian yet secular Iraq an effective bulwark against the expansion of Iranian revolutionary Islamist influence. George H.W. Bush and Clinton years Rumsfeld was a member of the National Academy of Public Administration and a member of the boards of trustees of the Gerald R. Ford Foundation; the Eisenhower Exchange Fellowships; the Hoover Institution at Stanford University; and the National Park Foundation. He was also a member of the U.S./Russia Business Forum and Chairman of the Congressional Leadership's National Security Advisory Group. During the 1996 presidential election, Rumsfeld served as national chairman to the campaign of Bob Dole. "Dole-Kemp Campaign names former Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld as its national chairman," Press Release by Dole-Kemp 1996, August 27, 1996 Rumsfeld was a founder and active member of the Project for the New American Century, a neo-conservative think-tank dedicated to maintaining US Primacy. On January 29, 1998, he signed a PNAC letter calling for President Bill Clinton to implement "regime change" in Iraq. Project for the New American Century letter to U.S. President Clinton, January 29, 1998 From January to July 1998 Rumsfeld chaired the nine-member Commission to Assess the Ballistic Missile Threat to the United States. They concluded that Iraq, Iran, and North Korea could develop intercontinental ballistic missile capabilities in five to ten years and that U.S. intelligence would have little warning before such systems were deployed. Report of the Commission to Assess the Ballistic Missile Threat to the United States Presidential and Vice Presidential aspirations During 1976 Republican National Convention, Rumsfeld received one vote for Vice President of the United States, although he did not seek the office, and the nomination was easily won by Ford's choice, Senator Bob Dole. OurCampaigns During the 1980 Republican National Convention he also received one vote for V.P. OurCampaigns Economist Milton Friedman said that he regarded Reagan's pick of Bush as "the worst decision not only of his campaign but of his presidency," and that Rumsfeld was his preference. "Had he been chosen," Friedman noted, "I believe he would have succeeded Reagan as president and the sorry Bush-Clinton period would never have occurred." "Two Lucky People: Memoirs" by Milton Friedman and Rose Friedman. 1998. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press): p. 391 Rumsfeld briefly sought the Presidential nomination in 1988, but withdrew from the race before primaries began. OurCampaigns During the 1996 election he initially formed a presidential exploratory committee, but declined to formally enter the race. Return to Government (2001–2006) Rumsfeld and Ariel Sharon, 2001 Rumsfeld was named Defense Secretary soon after President George W. Bush took office in 2001. He immediately announced a series of sweeping reviews intended to transform the U.S. military into a lighter force. These studies were led by Pentagon analyst Andrew Marshall. Donald Rumsfeld with Dick Cheney. Following the September 11, 2001 attacks, Rumsfeld led the military planning and execution of the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan and the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Rumsfeld pushed hard to send as small a force as possible to both conflicts, a concept codified as the Rumsfeld Doctrine. Rumsfeld's plan resulted in a lightning invasion that took Baghdad in well under a month with very few American casualties. Many government buildings, plus major museums, electrical generation infrastructure, and even oil equipment were looted and vandalized during the transition from the fall of Saddam Hussein's regime to the establishment of the Coalition Provisional Authority. A violent insurrection began shortly after the military operation started. After the German and French governments voiced opposition to invading Iraq, Rumsfeld labeled these countries as part of "Old Europe," implying that countries that supported the war were part of a newer, modern Europe. BBC NEWS | Europe | Outrage at 'old Europe' remarks Rumsfeld is received by Vladimir Putin at the Kremlin in November 2001. He gave more press conferences than his predecessors. The BBC Radio 4 current affairs program Broadcasting House had been so taken by Rumsfeld's various remarks that it once held a regular slot called "The Donald Rumsfeld sound bite of the Week" in which they played his most amusing comment from that week. Bush retained Rumsfeld after his 2004 presidential re-election. In December 2004, Rumsfeld came under fire after a "town-hall" meeting with U.S. troops where he responded to a soldier's comments about inferior military equipment by saying "you go to war with the Army you have, not the Army you want." September 11, 2001 Rumsfeld and New York Mayor Rudy Giuliani speak at the site of the World Trade Center disaster in Lower Manhattan, on November 14, 2001. Rumsfeld's activities during the September 11, 2001 attacks were outlined in a Pentagon press briefing on September 15, 2001. Within three hours of the start of the first hijacking and two hours of American Airlines Flight 11 striking the World Trade Center, Rumsfeld raised the defense condition signaling of the United States offensive readiness to DEFCON 3; the highest it had been since the Arab-Israeli war in 1973. The 9/11 Commission Report Rumsfeld with former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher alongside the Chairman of the JCS General Peter Pace. On the morning of 9/11, Rumsfeld spoke at a Pentagon breakfast meeting, where he stated "sometime in the next two, four, six, eight, ten, twelve months there would be an event that would occur in the world that would be sufficiently shocking that it would remind people again how important it is to have a strong healthy defense department that contributes to... that underpins peace and stability in our world. And that is what underpins peace and stability." http://www.defenselink.mil/transcripts/transcript.aspx?transcriptid=2603 After the strike on the Pentagon, Rumsfeld went out to the parking lot to assist with rescue efforts. http://www.911commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf, p.54 He stated; "I wanted to see what had happened. I wanted to see if people needed help. I went downstairs and helped for a bit with some people on stretchers. Then I came back up here and started -- I realized I had to get back up here and get at it." Run-up to Iraq Rumsfeld also made many public statements regarding Iraq's alleged weapons of mass destruction, weapons which were never found. Military decisions Rumsfeld stirred controversy by quarreling for months with the CIA over who had the authority to fire Hellfire missiles from Predator drones, although according to The 9/11 Commission Report, the armed Predator was not ready for deployment until early 2002. (pp. 189–90, 211–214) Daniel Benjamin and Steven Simon note: Following September 11, 2001, Rumsfeld was in a meeting whose subject was the review of the Department of Defense's (Contingency) Plan in the event of a war with Iraq (U.S. Central Command OPLAN 1003-98). The plan (as it was then conceived) contemplated troop levels of up to 500,000, which Rumsfeld opined was far too many. Gordon and Trainor wrote: In a September 2007 interview with The Daily Telegraph, General Mike Jackson, the head of the British army during the invasion, criticised Rumsfeld's plans for the occupation as "intellectually bankrupt," adding that Rumsfeld is "one of those most responsible for the current situation in Iraq," and that he felt that "the US approach to combating global terrorism is 'inadequate' and too focused on military might rather than nation-building and diplomacy." "Gen Sir Mike Jackson's attack draws US ire", Daily Telegraph (online), September 1, 2007 In Rumsfeld's final television interview as Secretary of Defense, he responded to a question by Brit Hume as to whether he pressed General Tommy Franks to lower his request for 400,000 troops for the war by stating: Rumsfeld told Hume that Franks ultimately decided against such a troop level. Blunt Talk About Iraq at Army School - New York Times Role in US public relations effort An April 2006 memo lists instructions to Pentagon staff including: As Secretary of Defense, Rumsfeld was deliberate in crafting the public message from the Department of Defense. People will "rally" to the word "sacrifice," Rumsfeld noted after a meeting. "They are looking for leadership. Sacrifice = Victory." In May 2004, Rumsfeld considered whether to redefine the war on terrorism as a fight against "worldwide insurgency." He advised aides "to test what the results could be" if the war on terrorism were renamed. "From the Desk of Donald Rumsfeld ...", Washington Post, November 1, 2007 Rumsfeld also ordered specific public Pentagon attacks on and responses to US newspaper columns that reported the negative aspects of the war, which he often personally reviewed before they were sent. In October 2003, Rumsfeld personally approved a secret Pentagon "roadmap" on public relations, calling for "boundaries" between information operations abroad and the news media at home, but providing for no such limits. The Roadmap advances a policy according to which as long as the US government does not intentionally target the American public, it does not matter that psychological operations, reach the American public. The Roadmap acknowledges that "information intended for foreign audiences, including public diplomacy and PSYOP, increasingly is consumed by our domestic audience" -- but argues that "the distinction between foreign and domestic audiences becomes more a question of USG [U.S. government] intent rather than information dissemination practices." National Security Archive, "Rumsfeld's Roadmap to Propaganda," National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 177, January 26, 2006, http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB177/ Prisoner abuse Department of Defense's (DOD) preliminary concerns for holding, housing, and interrogating captured prisoners on the battlefield were raised during the lead up to the Iraq War. Due to the history with Saddam’s military forces surrendering when faced with military action, many within the DOD including Rumsfeld and United States Central Command General Tommy Franks decided it was in the best interest of all to hand these prisoners over to their respective countries. Additionally, it was determined that maintaining a large holding facility was unrealistic at the time. However, the use of many facilities such as Abu Ghraib would be utilized to house prisoners prior to handing them over. However, Rumsfeld defended the Bush administration's decision to detain enemy combatants without protection under the Third Geneva Convention. There was therefore a large amount of pressure from many American organizations and international bodies to enforce the Geneva Conventions. Because of this, critics (including the U.S. Senate Armed Services Committee 11-08 Executive Summary, vote 17-0) would hold Rumsfeld personally responsible for the Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse scandal. Rumsfeld himself said, "These events occurred on my watch as secretary of defense. I am accountable for them." "Rumsfeld 'the best'" — CNN In November 2006, the former U.S. Army Brigadier General Janis Karpinski, in charge of Abu Ghraib prison until early 2004, told Spain's El Pais newspaper she had seen a letter apparently signed by Rumsfeld that allowed civilian contractors to use techniques such as sleep deprivation during interrogation. "The methods consisted of making prisoners stand for long periods, sleep deprivation ... playing music at full volume, having to sit in uncomfortably ... Rumsfeld authorised these specific techniques." She said that this was contrary to the Geneva Convention and quoted from the same "Prisoners of war who refuse to answer may not be threatened, insulted, or exposed to any unpleasant or disadvantageous treatment of any kind." According to Karpinski, the handwritten signature was above his printed name and in the same handwriting in the margin was written: "Make sure this is accomplished." According to the February 16, 2008, edition of The Economist, Rumsfeld also wrote in a 2002 memo; "I stand for 8-10 hours a day. Why is standing [by prisoners] limited to four hours?" There have been no comments from either the Pentagon or U.S. Army spokespeople in Iraq on Karpinski's accusations. — "Rumsfeld okayed abuses says former US Army general" Reuters News Baghdad Museum actions After the Iraq invasion in 2003, U.S. troops, the sole power in the city at the time, were intensely criticized for not protecting the treasures at the museum and other cultural institutions like the national library and the Saddam Art Center, a museum of modern Iraqi art. When asked at the time why U.S. troops did not actively seek to stop the lawlessness, then-Defense Secretary Donald H. Rumsfeld famously said: "Stuff happens ... and it's untidy and freedom's untidy, and free people are free to make mistakes and commit crimes and do bad things. They're also free to live their lives and do wonderful things. And that's what's going to happen here." Calls for resignation In an unprecedented move in modern US history, eight retired generals and admirals called for Rumsfeld to resign in early 2006 in what was called the "Generals Revolt," accusing him of "abysmal" military planning and lack of strategic competence. More Retired Generals Call for Rumsfeld's Resignation - New York Times Bush Speaks Out for Rumsfeld Rumsfeld rebuffed these criticisms, stating that "out of thousands and thousands of admirals and generals, if every time two or three people disagreed we changed the secretary of defense of the United States, it would be like a merry-go-round." How many retired generals are there? - By Daniel Engber - Slate Magazine Commentator Pat Buchanan reports that "Washington Post columnist David Ignatius, who travels often to Iraq and supports the war, says that the generals' and admirals' views mirror those of 75 percent of the officers in the field, and probably more." WorldNetDaily: The generals' revolt Bush responded to the criticism by stating that Rumsfeld is "exactly what is needed," CNN.com - Bush: Rumsfeld 'exactly what is needed' - April 14, 2006 and also defended him in his controversial decider remark. Resignation Rumsfeld shakes President Bush's hand as he announces his resignation, November 8, 2006. On November 1, 2006, President Bush stated he would stand by Rumsfeld as defense secretary for the length of his term as president. ABC News: ABC News Rumsfeld wrote a resignation letter dated November 6, and, per the stamp on the letter, Bush saw it on Election Day, November 7. In the elections, the House and the Senate shifted to Democratic control. After the elections, on November 8, Bush announced Rumsfeld would resign his position as Secretary of Defense. Many Republicans were unhappy with the delay, believing they would have won more votes if voters had known Rumsfeld was resigning. Bush nominated Robert Gates for the position. CNN.com - Rumsfeld twice offered to resign during Abu Ghraib scandal - February 4, 2005 BBC NEWS | Americas | Rumsfeld replaced after poll loss FOXNews.com - Rice Offered to Resign Following Bush's 2004 Re-Election - Politics | Republican Party | Democratic Party | Political Spectrum Rumsfeld quitting as defense secretary. CNN.com Retrieved November 8, 2006. At a press conference announcing the resignation of Rumsfeld and the nomination of Gates, Bush remarked, "America is safer and the world is more secure because of the service and the leadership of Donald Rumsfeld." President Bush Nominates Dr. Robert M. Gates to be Secretary of Defense On December 18, 2006, Rumsfeld's resignation took effect and Gates was sworn in as his successor. One of his last actions as defense secretary was to pay a surprise visit to Iraq on December 10, 2006, to bid farewell to the United States military serving in Iraq. Rumsfeld Bids Farewell to GIs in Iraq Including his time serving as the 13th Secretary of Defense under President Ford from 1975 to 1977, Rumsfeld is the second-longest-serving Secretary of Defense in history, falling nine days short of becoming the longest-serving Pentagon chief (after the Vietnam-era Secretary of Defense, Robert McNamara). In a farewell ceremony on December 16, 2006, Rumsfeld's long-time political collaborator Vice President Dick Cheney, who worked with him in the Ford administration, called the secretary "the finest secretary of defense this nation has ever had." Post-resignation activities (2006–2009) In the months after his resignation, Rumsfeld toured the New York publishing houses in preparation for a potential memoir. Publishers Abuzz Over Possible Rumsfeld Book - June 27, 2007 - The New York Sun An agreement on a book deal has not been announced. In May 2007, Time magazine reported that Rumsfeld was in the early stages of establishing an educational foundation that would provide fellowships to talented individuals from the private sector who want to serve for some time in government. Rumsfeld would finance the foundation. Michael Duffy, "Donald Rumsfeld's Next Move", Time magazine, May 18, 2007 In September 2007, Rumsfeld received a one-year appointment as a fellow at the Hoover Institution at Stanford University, Rumsfeld appointed distinguished visiting fellow at Hoover. Accessed October 10, 2007. Stanford Report, September 12, 2007. joining (among others) retired Army Gen. John P. Abizaid, former commander of US forces in Iraq, and fellow conservatives George Shultz and Newt Gingrich. He will participate in the institution's new taskforce studying post-September 11 ideology and non-state terror. Portrayals in fiction and popular media He is portrayed by actor Scott Glenn in Oliver Stone's film W., a biopic based on books about George W. Bush. The preteen version of Rumsfeld is a main character in the Comedy Central cartoon Lil' Bush Rumsfeld is famous in popular culture as the originator of the much-quoted phrase "unknown unknowns", which he used at a press conference while Secretary of Defense in the George W. Bush administration. Electoral history Awards The Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Ford (1977) From 1977 to 1985 Rumsfeld served as Chief Executive Officer, President, and then Chairman of G.D. Searle & Co., a worldwide pharmaceutical company. The successful turnaround there earned him awards as the Outstanding Chief Executive Officer in the Pharmaceutical Industry from the Wall Street Transcript (1980) and Financial World (1981). Royal Order of the Intare by King Kigeli V of Rwanda. George C. Marshall Medal by the U.S. Army Association (1984) Woodrow Wilson Medal by Princeton University (1985) Dwight D. Eisenhower Medal (1993) Lone Sailor Award by the U.S. Navy Memorial Foundation (2002) Statesmanship Award by the U.S. Assoc of Former Members of Congress (2003) James H. Doolittle Award by the Hudson Institute (2003) Gerald R. Ford Medal presented by President Ford and the Ford Foundation (2004) http://www.defenselink.mil/bios/rumsfeld_bio.html Distinguished Eagle Scout Award by the Boy Scouts of America Union League of Philadelphia Gold Medal for Citizenship (2006) Claremont Institute Statesmanship Award (2007) Rumsfeld has been awarded 11 honorary degrees. Affiliation history Institutional affiliations Center for Security Policy: Longtime associate; winner of the CSP's 1998 "Keeper of the Flame" award (5) Hoover Institution: Member, board of trustees Project for the New American Century: Signed PNAC's founding statement of principles as well as two policy letters on Iraq Freedom House: Board member RAND Corporation: Board member Committee for the Free World: Former chairman Bohemian Club: Member Government posts, panels, and commissions Secretary of Defense (2001–06) U.S. Commission to Assess National Security Space Management and Organization: Chairman (2000) U.S. Ballistic Missile Threat Commission: Chairman (1998) Secretary of Defense (1975–77) White House Chief of Staff in Ford administration (1974–75) U.S. Ambassador to NATO (1973–74) U.S. Congress: Representative from Illinois (1962–69) United States Navy: Various posts, including aviator (1954–57); reserves (1957–1975) Retired as a Navy Captain (1989) Corporate connections and business interests Gilead Sciences: joined Gilead as a director in 1988 Chairman (1997–2001) General Instrument Corporation: Chairman and CEO (1990–93) G.D. Searle pharmaceutical company: CEO/Chairman/President (1977–1985) Bechtel Corporation: Was involved in Iraq-Bechtel negotiations in the 1980s on a pipeline project Gulfstream Aerospace: Former director Tribune Company: Former director Metricom, Inc.: Former director Sears, Roebuck and Co.: Former director ABB AB: Former director Kellogg Company: director 1985–199? while Carlos Gutierrez (x Cuba 1960) president CEO and chairman Kellogg until named Secretary Commerce under Bush from 2005 RAND Corporation: Chairman of Board from 1981–1986; 1995-1996 Bilderberg Group: Member Amylin Pharmaceuticals: Former director Education Princeton University: A.B. (1954) Intellectual heritage John Boyd of OODA Loop fame. See also Agathidium rumsfeldi — a slime-mold beetle named after Rumsfeld U.S. Congressional Delegations from Illinois Old Europe — comment by Rumsfeld regarding Iraq-war participation Winkler v. Rumsfeld Hamdi v. Rumsfeld List of US Cabinet Secretaries who have held multiple cabinet positions Hillbilly armor — Rumsfeld questioned by a soldier about the use of "ad hoc" armor 'Known knowns' - quotation References External links Works U.S. Secretary of Defense official transcripts archive Rumsfeld's Rules advice on government, business and life, January 29, 2001 Strategic Imperatives in East Asia by Donald Rumsfeld (Heritage Foundation, 1998) Donald Rumsfeld's Project Syndicate op/eds Biographies White House Biography Department of Defense Biography Rumsfeld's War: The Untold Story of America's Anti-Terrorist Commander by Rowan Scarborough (Regnery Publishing, 2004) ISBN 0-89526-069-7 Rumsfeld: A Personal Portrait by Midge Decter (Regan Books, 2003) ISBN 0-06-056091-6 The Rumsfeld Way: The Leadership Wisdom of a Battle-Hardened Maverick by Jeffrey A. Krames (McGraw-Hill, 2002) ISBN 0-07-140641-7 Rumsfeld: His Rise, Fall, and Catastrophic Legacy by Andrew Cockburn (Scribners, 2007) ISBN 1-4165-3574-8 Documentary video PBS Frontline — Rumsfeld's War October 2004 documentary Video clip of Rumsfeld (as special U.S. envoy to Middle East) meeting Hussein Articles profiling Rumsfeld The Life and Times of Donald Rumsfeld, PBS Washington Post — Rumsfeld's War archives 2001–2004 Close-Up: Young Rumsfeld, James Mann, The Atlantic Monthly, November 2003 The Donald Rumsfeld Library of Quotations, BBC Radio 4 Biographer Andrew Cockburn on Rumsfeld at London Frontline Club May 2007. | Donald_Rumsfeld |@lemmatized donald:23 henry:5 rumsfeld:165 bear:5 july:3 united:22 state:34 businessman:1 politician:1 secretary:37 defense:42 president:31 gerald:6 ford:19 george:10 w:7 bush:26 young:3 year:8 old:6 person:2 hold:9 position:7 well:4 two:9 non:2 consecutive:1 term:6 second:2 long:8 serving:2 behind:1 robert:5 mcnamara:2 white:8 house:19 chief:11 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1,589 | Limburg_(Netherlands) | Limburg (Dutch and Limburgish: (Nederlands) Limburg) is the southern-most of the twelve provinces of the Netherlands. It is located in the southeastern part of the country and bordered by Belgium to the south and part of the west, Germany to the east, the Dutch province of North Brabant partly to the west, and the province of Gelderland to the north. Its capital is Maastricht. Limburg has a highly distinct character. The social and economic trends which affected the province in recent decades generated a process of change and renewal which has enabled Limburg to transform the drawbacks of its national peripheral location into advantages inherent in its European settings, linking the Netherlands to the southern part of Europe. A less appreciated consequence of this 'international' gateway location however is international crime on the rise, often drugs-related, especially in the southernmost part of this province. History Limburg's name derives from the fortified castle town known as Limbourg, situated on the river Vesdre in the Ardennes, currently in the Belgian province of Liège. It was the seat of the medieval Duchy of Limburg which extended into the Meuse region north of the city of Liège. However, most the area of the current Dutch Limburg was not part of this polity but was divided among several states including the Duchy of Brabant, the Duchy of Jülich, the Duchy of Guelders, and the Bishopric of Liège, as well as the Duchy of Limburg. A result of this division is still evident in the plethora of distinct varieties of the Limburgish language spoken in Limburg municipalities. Territories in the Low Countries 1556–1648 that later built modern Limburg For centuries, the area of the current Dutch Limburg's strategic location made it a much-coveted region among Europe's major powers. Romans, Spaniards, Prussians, Habsburg Austrians and French have all ruled Limburg. In 1673, Louis XIV personally commanded the siege of Maastricht by French troops. During the siege, one of his brigadiers, Count Charles d'Artagnan, perished; he subsequently became known as a major character in The Three Musketeers by Alexandre Dumas, père (1802–1870). Limburg was also the scene of many a bloody battle during the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648), in which the Dutch Republic threw off Spanish rule. At the battle of Mookerhei (14 April 1574), two brothers of Prince William of Orange-Nassau and thousands of "Dutch" mercenaries lost their lives. Most Limburgians fought on the Spanish side, being Catholics and hating the Dutch. Following the Napoleonic Era, the great powers (United Kingdom, Prussia, the Austrian Empire, the Russian Empire and France) united the region with the new United Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815. A new province was formed and was to receive the name "Maastricht," after its capital. The first king, William I, who did not want the name Limburg to be lost, insisted that the name be changed to "Limburg." As such, the name of the new province derived from the old Duchy of Limburg that had existed until 1648 within the triangle of Maastricht, Liège, and Aachen. When the Catholic and French-speaking Belgians split away from the mainly Calvinist, Dutch Netherlands in the Belgian Revolution of 1830, the Province of Limburg was at first almost entirely under Belgian rule. However, by the 1839 Treaty of London, the province was divided in two, with the eastern part going to the Netherlands and the western part to Belgium, a division that remains . provinces of the Netherlands With the Treaty of London, what is now the Belgian Province of Luxembourg was handed over to Belgium and removed from the German Confederation. To appease Prussia, which had also lost access to the Meuse after the Congress of Vienna, the Dutch province of Limburg (but not the cities of Maastricht and Venlo because without them the population of Limburg equalled the population of the Province of Luxembourg, 150,000 ), was joined to the German Confederation between September 5, 1839 and August 23, 1866 as Duchy of Limburg. On 11 May, 1867, the Duchy, which from 1839 on had been de jure a separate polity in personal union with the Kingdom of the Netherlands, was re-incorporated into the latter. The style "Duchy of Limburg" however continued in some official use until February 1907. Another idiosyncrasy survives today: the head of the province, referred to as the "Queen's Commissioner" in other provinces, is addressed as "Governor" in Limburg. The Second World War cost the lives of many civilians in Limburg, and a large number of towns and villages were destroyed by bombings and artillery battles. Various cemeteries, too, bear witness to this dark chapter in Limburg's history. Almost 8,500 American soldiers, who perished during the liberation of the Netherlands, lie buried at the Netherlands American Cemetery and Memorial in Margraten. Other big war cemeteries are to be found at Overloon (British soldiers) and the Ysselsteyn German war cemetery was constructed in the Municipality of Venray for the 31,000 German soldiers who lost their lives. In December 1991, the European Community (now European Union) held a summit in Maastricht. At that summit, the so-called Maastricht treaty was signed by the European Community member states. The original name for that treaty was "Treaty of the European Union". With that treaty, the European Union came into existence. In 't Bronsgroen Eikenhout is the official anthem of both Belgian and Dutch Limburg. Languages Limburg has its own language, called Limburgish (Dutch: Limburgs). This is, since 1997, an official regional language, and as such receives moderate protection under Chapter 2 of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. It is not recognised by the Dutch, German and Belgian governments as an official language. Limburgish is spoken by an estimated 1.6 million people in both Belgian and Dutch Limburg and Germany. There are many different dialects in the Limburgish language. Almost every town and village has its own slightly different dialect. Dialects in the southeast more toward the German border (near Aachen) have a more German sound, while dialects spoken in the Meuse (Dutch: Maas) valley have a somewhat lighter tone to them. Even within the cities of Venlo and Maastricht, very different dialects separated by major isoglosses continue to exist. These distinctions have been around for hundreds if not thousands of years. It also shows signs of Celtic substrates. Politics The provincial council (Provinciale Staten) has 63 seats, and is headed by a Queen's Commissioner (called a Governor in Limburg), currently Leon Frissen. While the provincial council is elected by the inhabitants, the Governor is appointed by the Queen and the cabinet of the Netherlands. The Christian CDA is currently the largest party in the council. The daily affairs of the province are taken care of by the Gedeputeerde Staten, which are also headed by the Governor; its members (gedeputeerden) can be compared with ministers. Municipalities Arcen en Velden Beek Beesel Bergen Brunssum Echt-Susteren Eijsden Gennep Gulpen-Wittem Heerlen Helden Horst aan de Maas Kerkrade Kessel Landgraaf Leudal Maasbree Maasgouw Maastricht Margraten Meerlo-Wanssum Meerssen Meijel Mook en Middelaar Nederweert Nuth Onderbanken Roerdalen Roermond Schinnen Sevenum sesamstraat Simpelveld Sittard-Geleen Stein Vaals Valkenburg aan de Geul Venlo Venray Voerendaal Weert Geography The south of the province is remarkable when compared to the rest of the country, as it is one of the few regions that has hills. The highest point in the Netherlands, the Vaalserberg, is situated at the Dutch-Belgian-German border. The most important river is the Meuse, that passes through the entire length of the province from South to North. Limburg's surface is largely formed by deposits from this Meuse river, consisting of river clay, fertile loessial soil and large deposits of pebblestone, currently being quarried for the construction industry. In northern parts of the province, further away from the river bed, the soil primarily consists of sand and peat. Major cities are the provincial capital Maastricht and the urban agglomerations of Sittard-Geleen and Parkstad Limburg (including Heerlen) in the south and Venlo in the north. Limburg makes up one region of the International Organization for Standardization world region code system, having the code ISO 3166-2:NL-LI. Economy In the past peat, gravel and coal were mined in Limburg. The state-owned corporation that used to mine in Limburg, DSM, is currently a major chemical company, still operating in Limburg. Automotive industry (Born) and production of copiers and printers (Océ in Venlo) are also present. Furthermore in the southern part, the undulating, densely populated triangle between Heerlen/Kerkrade in the south-east, Sittard/Geleen in the north and Maastricht in the south-west, there are some four beer-breweries. From way back the southern part of Limburg is one of the two fruitgrowing area's of the country. Since some four decennia however big parts of the fruittree arsenal have disappeared and been replaced by water, as a result of vast gravel extraction near the river Meuse. Famous Limburgians shalina franssen - artist Louis Beel - Politician, Former Prime Minister Jo Cals - Politician, Former Prime Minister Pierre Cuypers (1827-1921) - Architect (designer of the Amsterdam Rijksmuseum and Central station) Peter 'Pie' Debye (1884-1966) - Physician, Nobelprize winner Eugène Dubois - Anatomist Adam van Kan (1877-1944) - scientist Rene van der Linden- Politician Pierre Lardinois - Politician Leon Melchior - Jumping stable owning building contractor Jan Pieter Minckeleers (1748-1824) - Physician, inventor Charles of Mount Argus (1821-1893) - Priest, saint Rob Noortman (1946-2007) - Arts trader Henriëtte d'Oultremont de Wégimont (1792-1864)- 2nd wife of King Willem I Guido Pieters (1948) - Film director Petrus Regout (1801-1878) - First Dutch industrialist Charles Ruijs de Beerenbrouck - Politician, Former Prime Minister Jac. P. Thijsse (1865-1945) - Biologist, ecologist Johann Friedrich August Tischbein (1750-1812) - Painter Maxime Verhagen (1956)- Politician Geert Wilders, Politician Sports/entertainment sanne ghijsen - karateka isa sielcken - soccer player Sander Roelofs - local singer Gerard Bergholtz (1939) - Former soccerplayer Gerard Ter Woorst - Tennis Player Eddy Beugels - Former cyclist Rens Blom (1977) - Athlete Jo Bonfrère, soccerplayer/-coach Willy Brokamp (1946, Kerkrade) - Former soccer player John Bröcheler, (1945) - Bass-baritone Willy Dullens (1945) - Former soccer player Mia Gommers (1939) - Athlete Ger Harings (1948) - Former cyclist Jan Harings (1945) - Former cyclist Toon Hermans (1916-2000) - Comedian, singer, writer Jan Hugens (1939) - Former cyclist Jan Krekels (1947) - Former cyclist Chantal Janzen (1979) - Actress Marjon Lambriks (1949) - Soprano Jo Maas (1954, Eijsden) - Former cyclist Danny Nelissen - Former cyclist Jan Notermans (1933) - Former soccer player Connie Palmen (1955) - Writer Pussycat - Band André Rieu (1949) - Musician, orchestra director Fred Rompelberg (1945) - Over 60 years old professional cyclist Sjeng Schalken - Former professional tennis player Wim Schepers - Former cyclist Willy Schobben - Trompettist Huub Stapel (1954) - Actor Harrie Stevens (Elsloo) - Former cyclist Huub Stevens (1953) - Soccer player and -coach The Walkers - Band Stan Valckx (1963) - Soccer player Mark van Bommel (1977) - Soccer player Arnold Vanderlyde - Boxing Jos Verstappen - Racing driver Ad Wijnands (1959) - Former cyclist Thijs Wilms (1943 Helden- Panningen) - Co-author comic strip "Ox Tales" Peter Winnen - Former cyclist Boudewijn Zenden (1976) - Soccer player Belgium Famous Limburgians (Belgium) See also Limburgian Beer Goat riders Mining in Limburg Limburg (Belgium) Duchy of Limburg External links Official Website (in Dutch and English) Official Website Limburg Tourist Information (in Dutch, English, French and German) Map of Province The Maastricht Treaty 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1,590 | Blue_Jam | Blue Jam was an ambient radio comedy programme created and directed by Chris Morris. It aired on BBC Radio 1 in the early hours of the morning from 1997 to 1999. The programme gained cult status due to its unique mix of surreal monologue, music, synthesised voices, heavily edited broadcasts and recurring sketches. It featured the vocal talents of Kevin Eldon, Julia Davis, Mark Heap, David Cann and Amelia Bullmore. Morris himself delivered disturbing monologues, one of which was revamped and made into the BAFTA-winning short film, My Wrongs #8245–8249 & 117. Writers who contributed to the programme included Graham Linehan, Arthur Mathews, Peter Baynham, David Quantick, Jane Bussmann, Robert Katz and the cast. Chris Morris is known for pushing the limits of what is acceptable for the media, as is illustrated by an incident surrounding the sixth episode of Blue Jam, named after the sketch which precipitated it, "Bishopslips". Format and style Each episode opened with a short spoken introduction describing various bizarre feelings and situations, set to ambient music interspersed with short clips of other songs. Common recurring sketches Doctor (played by David Cann): "The Doctor" is a seemingly "normal" physician working in a standard British medical practice. However, he has a habit of treating his patients in bizarre and often disturbing ways, such as prescribing heroin for a cold, making a man with a headache jump up and down in order to make his penis swing (while mirroring the patient's bewildered jumping himself), blinding himself with an intense light in order to avoid awkward questions and insisting on examining a patient by telephone, even though he is in the same room. The Monologue Man (played by Chris Morris): Morris's own short stories, often up to 10 minutes in length, were written from the perspective of a lonely and socially inept man. Invariably involving the man's acquaintance 'Susie', but in different capacities each time, Morris paints a picture of insanity with sober and reasonable clarity. Michael Alexander St. John: A parody of hyperbolic and pun-laden radio presenting, St. John presents items such as the top 10 singles charts and the weekend's gigs. Monged Sex: Short clips of two lovers making increasingly bizarre erotic requests of one another, such as "shitting your leg off" and "making your come green". The Interviewer (played by Chris Morris): conducting real interviews with celebrities such as Andrew Morton and Jerry Springer, Morris confuses and mocks his subjects with ambiguous and odd questions. Mr. Bentham (played by Mark Heap): An extremely awkward man who requires one-to-one consultations with what seems to be his psychologist for the most banal of matters. Radio stings Music Bishopslips controversy In a sketch commencing approximately thirteen minutes into the sixth episode of the first series of Blue Jam, Morris re-edited the Archbishop of Canterbury's speech at Diana, Princess of Wales's funeral to make it appear that he was making inappropriate comments regarding AIDS and the British Royal Family. The broadcast of this episode was faded into the first episode in the middle of the edited speech, which was "broadcast almost in its entirety before being faded by a transmission engineer" . It is unknown who ordered this, either a BBC employee receiving complaints (before the sketch had ended?), or Chris Morris himself as a stunt. The same episode was later rebroadcast as the first episode of the second series, with "Bishopslips" omitted. In "The Nation's Favourite," a book by Simon Garfield chronicling the transformation of Radio 1 under Matthew Bannister, one sequence describes a meeting in which the difficulties surrounding the management of Chris Morris were made clear. Morris had begun deliberately leaving the delivery of the show masters as late as possible - often so late that there was not sufficient time to play through the show before broadcast to check for libel or obscenity. As a result it is likely that compliance was enforced in real-time and a manager was on-hand to order the fading down of the Bishopslips sketch without any complaints being received. However this contradicts claims that Bishopslips was included as a deliberate compromise by Morris, who submitted a wildly libellous and offensive sketch called "Christ's Cock and Balls" in which a doctor prescribes Christ's genitalia to a patient suffering from a minor ailment after discovering them shat out by the Archbishop of Canterbury. This latter sketch was made available by Warp Records but is no longer present on their site. Derivative shows Blue Jam was later made for television and broadcast on Channel 4 as Jam. It utilised unusual editing techniques to achieve an unnerving ambience in keeping with the radio show, and largely repeated the radio sketches. A subsequent "re-mixed" airing, called Jaaaaam was even more extreme in its use of post-production gadgetry, often heavily distorting the footage. In place of closing credits the show had the website address of jamcredits.com Blue Jam CD A CD of some of the best Blue Jam sketches was released on 23 October 2000 on Warp Records. Although the CD claims to have 22 tracks, the last one, "www.bishopslips.com," is a reference to the "Bishopslips" sketch. Most of the sketches on the CD were remade for Jam. CD tracks Blue Jam Intro Doc Phone Lamacq sting 4ft Car Suicide Journalist Acupuncture Bad Sex Mayo Sting Unflustered Parents Moyles Sting TV Lizards Doc Cock Hobbs Sting Morton interview Fix It Girl Porn Kids Party Club News Whiley Sting Little Girl Balls Blue Jam Outro www.bishopslips.com (Not a real track) External links Blue Jam Sketch Guide: details of the shows, some sound files. It Started In The Park: transcripts of every episode of the first two series of Blue Jam. The Felchspoon: transcripts of every episode of the third series of Blue Jam. Jam Festival: audio files of every episode of Blue Jam. Michael Alexander St. John: scripts and audio files of St. John's appearances on Blue Jam. 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1,591 | Fern_Hill | Fern Hill (1946) is a poem by Dylan Thomas—the last poem included in his book Deaths and Entrances. The poem starts as a straightforward evocation of his youthful visits to his aunts: Now as I was young and easy under the apple boughs About the lilting house and happy as the grass was green, In the middle section, the idyllic scene is expanded upon, reinforced by the lilting rhythm of the poem, the dreamlike, pastoral metaphors and allusion to scenes from the Garden of Eden. By the end, the poet's older voice has taken over, mourning his lost youth with echoes of the opening: Oh as I was young and easy in the mercy of his means, Time held me green and dying Though I sang in my chains like the sea. Dylan Thomas on BBC Wales Arts page The poem uses internal half rhyme and full rhyme as well as end rhyme. Thomas was very conscious of the impact of spoken or intoned verse and explored the potentialities of sound and rhythm, in a manner reminiscent of Gerard Manley Hopkins. He always denied having conscious knowledge of Welsh, but "his lines chime with internal consonantal correspondence, or cynghanedd, a prescribed feature of Welsh versification". Seymour H Sound and Form in Modern Poetry page 255 Musical composition Fern Hill has been set to music by the American composer John Corigliano, for SATB chorus with orchestral accompaniment. Providence Singers Musical background notes References The Life and Work of Dylan Thomas (archive) | Fern_Hill |@lemmatized fern:2 hill:2 poem:5 dylan:3 thomas:4 last:1 include:1 book:1 death:1 entrance:1 start:1 straightforward:1 evocation:1 youthful:1 visit:1 aunt:1 young:2 easy:2 apple:1 boughs:1 lilting:1 house:1 happy:1 grass:1 green:2 middle:1 section:1 idyllic:1 scene:2 expand:1 upon:1 reinforce:1 lilt:1 rhythm:2 dreamlike:1 pastoral:1 metaphor:1 allusion:1 garden:1 eden:1 end:2 poet:1 older:1 voice:1 take:1 mourn:1 lose:1 youth:1 echo:1 opening:1 oh:1 mercy:1 mean:1 time:1 hold:1 die:1 though:1 sang:1 chain:1 like:1 sea:1 bbc:1 wale:1 art:1 page:2 use:1 internal:2 half:1 rhyme:3 full:1 well:1 conscious:2 impact:1 spoken:1 intoned:1 verse:1 explore:1 potentiality:1 sound:2 manner:1 reminiscent:1 gerard:1 manley:1 hopkins:1 always:1 deny:1 knowledge:1 welsh:2 line:1 chime:1 consonantal:1 correspondence:1 cynghanedd:1 prescribed:1 feature:1 versification:1 seymour:1 h:1 form:1 modern:1 poetry:1 musical:2 composition:1 set:1 music:1 american:1 composer:1 john:1 corigliano:1 satb:1 chorus:1 orchestral:1 accompaniment:1 providence:1 singer:1 background:1 note:1 reference:1 life:1 work:1 archive:1 |@bigram garden_eden:1 gerard_manley:1 manley_hopkins:1 orchestral_accompaniment:1 |
1,592 | Midrash | Midrash (; plural midrashim, lit. "to investigate" or "study") is a Hebrew term referring to the not exact, but comparative (homiletic) method of exegesis (hermeneutic) of Biblical texts, which is one of four methods cumulatively called Pardes. The term midrash can also refer to a compilation of homiletic teachings (commentaries) on the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), in the form of legal and ritual (Halakhah) and legendary, moralizing, folkloristic, and anecdotal (Aggadah) parts. While the midrashim are a valuable source of Jewish interpretations of the Bible, they are not the only source. The article on Jewish commentaries on the Bible discusses a wide variety of later Jewish bible commentaries, from the ancient Targums to classical Rabbinic literature, the midrash literature, the classical medieval commentators, and modern day commentaries. The Midrash is mostly derived from, and based upon, the teachings of the Tannaim: </div> Methodology According to the Pardes system of exegesis (interpretation), the approach to understand Biblical texts in Judaism is realized through peshat (literal or plain meaning, lit. "plain" or "simple"), remez (deep meaning, lit. "hints"), derash (comparative meaning, from Hebrew darash—"to inquire" or "to seek") and sod (hidden meaning or philosophy, lit. "secret" or "mystery"). The Midrash concentrates somewhat on remez but mostly on derash (Some thinkers divide PaRDeS into pshat, remez, din (law) and sod. In this understanding, midrash aggada deals with remez and midrash halakha deals with din). Many different exegetical methods are employed to derive deeper meaning from a text. This is not limited to the traditional thirteen textual tools attributed to the Tanna Rabbi Ishmael, which are used in the interpretation of halakha (Jewish law). Presence of apparently superfluous words or letters, chronology of events, parallel narratives or other textual anomalies are often a springboard for interpretation of segments of Biblical text. In many cases, a dialogue is expanded manifold: handfuls of lines in the Biblical narrative may become long philosophical discussions. It is unclear whether the Midrash assumes these dialogues took place in reality or if this refers only to subtext or religious implication. The "classical" Midrash starts off with a seemingly unrelated sentence from the Biblical books of Psalms, Proverbs or the Prophets. This sentence later turns out to metaphorically reflect the content of the rabbinical interpretation offered. Some Midrash discussions are highly metaphorical, and many Jewish authors stress that they are not intended to be taken literally. Rather, other midrashic sources may sometimes serve as a key to particularly esoteric discussions. Later authors maintain that this was done to make this material less accessible to the casual reader and prevent its abuse by detractors. Forms of Midrashic literature In general the Midrash is focused on either halakha (legal) or Aggadic (non-legal and chiefly homiletical) subject matter. Both kinds of Midrashim were at first preserved only orally; but their writing down commenced in the 2nd century, and they now exist in the shape chiefly of exegetical or homiletical commentaries on Tanakh (the Hebrew Bible). Midrashic literature is worthwhile reading not only for its insights into Judaism and the history of Jewish thought, but also for the more incidental data it provides to historians, philologists, philosophers, and scholars of either historical-critical Bible study or comparative religion. Halakhic midrashim Midrash halakha are the works in which the sources in the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) of the traditionally received laws are identified. These Midrashim often predate the Mishnah. The Midrash linking a verse to a halakha will often function as a proof of a law's authenticity; a correct elucidation of the Torah carries with it the support of the halakhah, and often the reason for the rule's existence (although many rabbinical laws have no direct Biblical source). The term is applied also to the derivation of new laws, either by means of a correct interpretation of the obvious meaning of scriptural words themselves or by the application of certain hermeneutic rules. Origins After the return of Jewish refugees from their diaspora in Babylon, some argue that the Torah was central to Jewish life at home and abroad. This is certainly the case in some strains of Judaism, although scholars agree the period was marked by wide diversity, so the centrality of Torah would vary greatly for different groups. A significant concern of Jewish authorities was to ensure compliance with the Torah's commandments, the enactments of the Mosaic Law; yet, as these laws had been written in circumstances of the past, they seemed to call for adaptation or explication if they were to fit the circumstances of contemporary life. Explanations of the terms of the Mosaic legislation are legal, or halakhic Midrashim. Relatedly, the Mishnah does not generally cite a scriptural basis for its laws; connecting the Mishnaic law with the Torah law is also undertaken by the later Midrash (and Talmuds). Aggadic midrashim Homiletic midrashim embraces the interpretation of the non-legal portions of the Hebrew Bible. These midrashim are sometimes referred to as aggadah or haggadah, a loosely-defined term that may refer to all non-legal discourse in classical rabbinic literature. Aggadic explanations of the non-legal parts of Scripture are characterized by a much greater freedom of exposition than the halakhic Midrashim (midrashim on Jewish law.) Aggadic expositors availed themselves of various techniques, including sayings of prominent rabbis. These aggadic explanations could be philosophical or mystical disquisitions concerning angels, demons, paradise, hell, the messiah, Satan, feasts and fasts, parables, legends, satirical assaults on those who practice idolatry, etc. Some of these midrashim entail mystical teachings. The presentation is such that the Midrash is a simple lesson to the uninitiated, and a direct allusion, or analogy, to a Mystical teaching for those educated in this area. An example of a Midrashic interpretation: "And God saw all that He had made, and found it very good. And there was evening, and there was morning, the sixth day." (Genesis 1:31)—Midrash: Rabbi Nahman said in Rabbi Samuel's name: "Behold, it was good" refers to the Good Desire; "And behold, it was very good" refers to the Evil Desire. (It only says "very good" after man was created with both the good and bad inclinations, in all other cases it only says "and God saw that it was good") Can then the Evil Desire be very good? That would be extraordinary! But without the Evil Desire, however, no man would build a house, take a wife and beget children; and thus said Solomon: "Again, I considered all labour and all excelling in work, that it is a man's rivalry with his neighbour." (Kohelet IV, 4) (Genesis Rabbah 9:7, translation from Soncino Publications). Classical compilations Tannaitic Mekhilta. The Mekhilta essentially functions as a commentary on the book of Exodus. There are two versions of this midrash collection. One is Mekhilta de Rabbi Ishmael, the other is Mekhilta de Rabbi Simeon bar Yohai. The former is still studied today, while the latter was used by many medieval Jewish authorities. While the latter (bar Yohai) text was popularly circulated in manuscript form from the 11th to 16th centuries, it was lost for all practical purposes until it was rediscovered and printed in the 19th century. Mekhilta de Rabbi Ishmael. This is a halakhic commentary on Exodus, concentrating on the legal sections, from Exodus 12 to 35. It derives halakha from Biblical verses. This midrash collection was redacted into its final form around the 3rd or 4th century; its contents indicate that its sources are some of the oldest midrashim, dating back possibly to the time of Rabbi Akiva. The midrash on Exodus that was known to the Amoraim is not the same as our current mekhilta; their version was only the core of what later grew into the present form. Mekhilta de Rabbi Simeon bar Yohai. Based on the same core material as Mekhilta de Rabbi Ishmael, it followed a second route of commentary and editing, and eventually emerged as a distinct work. The Mekhilta de Rabbi Simeon bar Yohai is an exegetical midrash on Exodus 3 to 35, and is very roughly dated to near the 4th century. Sifra on Leviticus. The Sifra work follows the tradition of Rabbi Akiva with additions from the School of Rabbi Ishmael. References in the Talmud to the Sifra are ambiguous; It is uncertain whether the texts mentioned in the Talmud are to an earlier version of our Sifra, or to the sources that the Sifra also drew upon. References to the Sifra from the time of the early medieval rabbis (and after) are to the text extant today. The core of this text developed in the mid-3rd century as a critique and commentary of the Mishnah, although subsequent additions and editing went on for some time afterwards. Sifre on Numbers and Deuteronomy, going back mainly to the schools of the same two Rabbis. This work is mainly a halakhic midrash, yet includes a long haggadic piece in sections 78-106. References in the Talmud, and in the later Geonic literature, indicate that the original core of Sifre was on the Book of Numbers, Exodus and Deuteronomy. However, transmission of the text was imperfect, and by the Middle Ages, only the commentary on Numbers and Deuteronomy remained. The core material was redacted around the middle of the 3rd century. Sifre Zutta (The small Sifre). This work is a halakhic commentary on the book of Numbers. The text of this midrash is only partially preserved in medieval works, while other portions were discovered by Solomon Schechter in his research in the famed Cairo Geniza. It seems to be older than most other midrash, coming from the early 3rd century. Post-Talmudic Midrash Qohelet, on Ecclesiastes (probably before middle of ninth century). Midrash Esther, on Esther (A.D. 940). The Pesikta, a compilation of homilies on special Pentateuchal and Prophetic lessons (early eighth century), in two versions: Pesikta Rabbati Pesikta de-Rav Kahana Pirqe Rabbi Eliezer (not before eighth century), a Midrashic narrative of the more important events of the Pentateuch. Tanchuma or Yelammedenu (ninth century) on the whole Pentateuch; its homilies often consist of a Halachic introduction, followed by several poems, exposition of the opening verses, and the Messianic conclusion. There are actually a number of different 'Midrash Tanhuma' collections. The two most important are Midrash Tanhuma Ha Nidpas, literally the published text. This is also sometimes referred to as Midrash Tanhuma Yelamdenu. The other is based on a manuscript published by Solomon Buber and is usually known as Midrash Tanhuma Buber, much to many students' confusion, this too is sometimes referred to as Midrash Tanhuma Yelamdenu. The fact is even though the first one is the most widely distributed today, when the Medieval authors refer to Midrash Tanchuma, they usually mean the second one. Midrash Shemuel, on the first two Books of Kings (I, II Samuel). Midrash Tehillim, on the Psalms. Midrash Mishlé, a commentary on the book of Proverbs. Seder Olam Rabbah (or simply Seder Olam). Traditionally attributed to the tannaitic Rabbi Yose ben Halafta. This work covers topics from the Creation of the universe to the construction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem. Yalkut Shimoni. A collection of midrash on the entire Hebrew Scriptures (Tanakh) containing both halakhic and aggadic midrash. It was compiled by Shimon ha-Darshan in the 13th century CE and is collected from over 50 other midrashic works. Tanna Devei Eliyahu. This work that stresses the reasons underlying the commandments, the importance of knowing Torah, prayer, and repentance, and the ethical and religious values that are learned through the Bible. It consists of two sections, Seder Eliyahu Rabbah and Seder Eliyahu Zuta. It is not a compilation but a uniform work with a single author. Alphabet of Akiba ben Joseph, a midrash on the names of the letters of the Hebrew alphabet Midrash Tadshe (called also Baraita de-Rabbi Pinehas ben Yair): Midrash Rabbah Midrash Rabbah. Widely studied are the Rabboth (great commentaries), a collection of ten midrashim on different books of the Bible. However, despite the similarity in their names, these are not a cohesive work. They were written by different authors, in different locales, in different historical eras. The ones on Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy are chiefly made up of homilies on the Scripture sections for the Sabbath or festival, while the others are rather of an exegetical nature. Bereshith Rabba, Genesis Rabbah. This text dates from the sixth century CE. A midrash on Genesis, it offers explanations of words and sentences and haggadic interpretations and expositions, many of which are only loosely tied to the text. It is often interlaced with maxims and parables. Its redactor drew upon earlier rabbinic sources, including the Mishnah, Tosefta, the halakhic midrashim the Targums. It apparently drew upon a version of Talmud Yerushalmi that resembles, yet was not identical to, the text that survived to present times. It was redacted sometime in the early 5th century. Shemot Rabba, Exodus Rabbah (eleventh and twelfth century) Vayyiqra Rabba, Leviticus Rabbah (middle seventh Century) Bamidbar Rabba, Numbers Rabbah (twelfth century) Devarim Rabba, Deuteronomy Rabbah (tenth century) Shir Hashirim Rabba, Song of Songs Rabbah (probably before the middle of ninth century) Ruth Rabba, (same date as foregoing) Eicha Rabba, Lamentations Rabbah (seventh century). Lamentations Rabbah has been transmitted in two versions. One edition is represented by the 1st printed edition, 1519 Pesaro; the other is the Buber edition, based on manuscript J.I.4 from the Biblioteca Casanatense in Rome. This latter version (Salomon Buber) is quoted by the Shulkhan Arukh, as well as medieval Jewish authorities. It was probably redacted sometime in the 5th century. Contemporary Midrash A wealth of literature and artwork has been created in the 20th and 21st centuries by people aspiring to create "Contemporary Midrash". Forms include poetry, prose, Bibliodrama (the acting out of Bible stories), murals, masks, and music, among others. The Institute for Contemporary Midrash was formed to facilitate these reinterpretations of sacred texts. The institute hosted several week-long intensives between 1995 and 2004, and published eight issues of Living Text: The Journal of Contemporary Midrash from 1997 to 2000. See also Allegory in the Middle Ages Archetype Biblical studies Icon Semiotics Symbol Typology External links Sacred Texts: Judaism: Tales and Maxims from the Midrash extracted and translated by Samuel Rapaport, 1908. Prophetic Midrash: Retelling the lives of Biblical prophets based on the sacred texts, legends and traditions of religious faiths both ancient and modern. Midrash—entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith Mp3 classes in Midrash Tana Dbey Elyah with Intro —An early twentieth century Christian commentary Full text resources Tanchuma (Hebrew) Abridged translations of Tanchuma in English. 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1,593 | Francis_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor | Francis II () (12 February 1768 – 2 March 1835) was the last Holy Roman Emperor, ruling from 1792 until 6 August 1806, when he dissolved the Empire after the disastrous defeat of the Third Coalition by Napoleon at the Battle of Austerlitz. In 1804 he had founded the Austrian Empire and became Francis I of Austria (Franz I.), the first Emperor of Austria, ruling from 1804 to 1835, so later he was named the one and only Doppelkaiser (double emperor) in history. For the two years between 1804 and 1806 Francis used the title and style by the grace of God elected Roman Emperor, always August, hereditary Emperor of Austria and he was called the Emperor of both Germany and Austria. He was also Apostolic King of Hungary as I. Ferenc. Francis I continued his leading role as an opponent of Napoleonic France in the Napoleonic Wars, and suffered several more defeats after Austerlitz. The proxy marriage of state of his daughter Marie Louise of Austria to Napoleon I on 10 March 1810 was assuredly his most severe defeat. Early life Francis was a son of Emperor Leopold II (1747 – 1792) and his wife Maria Luisa of Spain (1745 – 1792), daughter of Charles III of Spain. Francis was born in Florence, the capital of Tuscany where his father reigned as Grand Duke from 1765–90. Though he had a happy childhood surrounded by his many siblings, his family knew Francis was likely to be a future Emperor (his uncle Joseph had no surviving issue from either of his two marriages), and so in 1784 the young Archduke was sent to the Imperial Court in Vienna to educate and prepare him for his future role. Emperor Joseph himself took charge of Francis's development, and his disciplinarian regime was a stark contrast to the indulgent Florentine Court of Leopold. The Emperor wrote that Francis was "stunted in growth", "backward in bodily dexterity and deportment", and "neither more nor less than a spoiled mother's child". Joseph concluded that "…the manner in which he was treated for upwards of sixteen years could not but have confirmed him in the delusion that the preservation of his own person was the only thing of importance." Joseph's martinet method of improving the young Francis were "fear and unpleasantness". The young Archduke was isolated, the reasoning being that this would make him more self-sufficient as it was felt by Joseph that Francis "fail[ed] to lead himself, to do his own thinking". Nonetheless, Francis greatly admired his uncle, if rather feared him. To complete his training, Francis was sent to join an army regiment in Hungary and he settled easily into the routine of military life. After the death of Joseph II in 1790, Francis's father became Emperor. He had an early taste of power while acting as Leopold's deputy in Vienna while the incoming Emperor traversed the Empire attempting to win back those alienated by his brother's policies. The strain told on Leopold, and by the winter of 1791 he became ill. He gradually worsened throughout early 1792, and, on the afternoon of 1 March Leopold died, at the relatively young age of 44. Francis, just past his 24th birthday, was now Emperor much sooner than he had expected. Emperor As the leader of the large multi-ethnic Habsburg Empire, Francis felt threatened by Napoleon's call for liberty and equality in Europe. Francis had a fraught relationship with France. His aunt Marie Antoinette died under the guillotine at the beginning of his reign. Francis, on the whole, was indifferent to her fate (she was not close to his father Leopold, and Francis had met her, but when he was of an age that was too young for Francis to remember). Georges Danton attempted to negotiate with the Emperor for Marie Antoinette's release from captivity, but Francis was unwilling to make any concessions in return. Later, he led Austria into the French Revolutionary Wars. He briefly commanded the Allied forces during the Flanders Campaign of 1794 before handing over command to his brother Archduke Charles. He was later defeated by Napoleon. By the Treaty of Campo Formio, he ceded the left bank of the Rhine to France in exchange for Venice and Dalmatia. He again fought against France during the Second and Third Coalition, when after meeting crushing defeat at Austerlitz, he had to agree to the Treaty of Pressburg, which effectively dissolved the Holy Roman Empire, weakening the Austrian Empire and reorganizing present-day Germany under a Napoleonic imprint. In 1809, Francis attacked France again, hoping to take advantage of the Peninsular War embroiling Napoleon in Spain. He was again defeated, and this time forced to ally himself with Napoleon, ceding territory to the Empire, joining the Continental System, and wedding his daughter Marie-Louise to the Emperor. Francis essentially became a vassal of the Emperor of the French. The Napoleonic wars drastically weakened Austria and threatened its preeminence among the states of Germany, a position that it would eventually cede to the Kingdom of Prussia. In 1813, for the fourth and final time, Austria turned against France and joined Great Britain, Russia, Prussia and Sweden in their war against Napoleon. Austria played a major role in the final defeat of France—in recognition of this, Francis, represented by Clemens von Metternich, presided over the Congress of Vienna, helping to form the Concert of Europe and the Holy Alliance, ushering in an era of conservatism and reactionism in Europe. The German Confederation, a loose association of Central European states was created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to organize the surviving states of the Holy Roman Empire. The Congress was a personal triumph for Francis, where he hosted the assorted dignitaries in comfort, though Francis undermined his allies Tsar Alexander and Frederick William III of Prussia by negotiating a secret treaty with the restored French king Louis XVIII. The federal Diet met at Frankfurt under Austrian presidency (in fact the Habsburg Emperor was represented by an Austrian 'presidential envoy'). Domestic policy The events of the French Revolution impressed themselves deeply into the mind of Francis, and he came to distrust 'radicalism' in any form. In 1794, a 'Jacobin' conspiracy was discovered in the Austrian and Hungarian armies. The leaders were put on trial, but the verdicts only skirted the perimeter of the conspiracy. Francis's brother Alexander Leopold (at that time Palatine of Hungary) wrote to the Emperor admitting "Although we have caught a lot of the culprits, we have not really got to the bottom of this business yet." Nonetheless, two officers heavily implicated in the conspiracy were hanged and gibbeted, while many others were sentenced to imprisonment (where many died in the conditions). Francis was by nature suspicious, and set up an extensive network of police spies and censors to monitor dissent (in this he was following his father's lead, as the Grand Duchy of Tuscany had the most effective secret police in Europe). Even his family did not escape attention. His brothers, the Archdukes Charles and Johann had their meetings and activities spied upon. Censorship was also prevalent. The author Franz Grillparzer, a Habsburg patriot, had one play suppressed solely as a 'precautionary' measure. When Grillparzer met the censor responsible, he asked him what was objectionable about the work. The censor replied "Oh, nothing at all. But I thought to myself 'One can never tell'." Francis presented himself as an open and approachable monarch (he regularly set aside two mornings each week to meet his imperial subjects, regardless of status, by appointment in his office, even speaking to them in their own language), but his will was sovereign. In 1804, he had no compunction about announcing that through his authority as Holy Roman Emperor, he declared he was now Emperor of Austria (at the time a geographical term that had little resonance). Two years later, Francis personally wound up the moribund Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. Both actions were of dubious constitutional legality. Later years {|align=left| Francis was a devoted family man, and a main point in the political testament he left for his son and heir Ferdinand was "Preserve unity in the family and regard it as one of the highest goods". In many portraits (particularly those painted by Peter Fendi) he was portrayed as the patriarch of a loving family, surrounded by his children and grandchildren. On 2 March 1835, 43 years and a day after his father's death, Francis died in Vienna of a sudden fever aged 67, in the presence of many of his family and with all the religious comforts. His funeral was magnificent, with his Viennese subjects respectfully filing past his coffin in St. Stephen's Cathedral for three days. Francis was interred in the traditional resting place of Habsburg monarchs, the Kapuziner Imperial Crypt in Vienna's Neue Markt Square. He is buried in tomb number 57, surrounded by his four wives. After 1806 he used the titles: "We, Francis the First, by the grace of God Emperor of Austria; King of Jerusalem, Hungary, Bohemia, Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Galicia and Lodomeria; Archduke of Austria; Duke of Lorraine, Salzburg, Würzburg, Franconia, Styria, Carinthia and Carniola; Grand Duke of Cracow; Grand Prince of Transylvania; Margrave of Moravia; Duke of Sandomir, Masovia, Lublin, Upper and Lower Silesia, Auschwitz and Zator, Teschen and Friule; Prince of Berchtesgaden and Mergentheim; Princely Count of Habsburg, Gorizia and Gradisca and of the Tirol; and Margrave of Upper and Lower Lusatia and in Istria", President of the German Confederation. Gallery {|align=right| Ancestry </center> Marriages Francis II married four times: On 6 January 1788, to Elisabeth of Württemberg (21 April 1767 – 18 February 1790), who died bearing a short-lived daughter, Ludovika Elisabeth of Austria (1790–1791) On 15 September 1790, to his double first cousin Maria Teresa of the Two Sicilies (6 June 1772 – 13 April 1807), daughter of King Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies (both were grandchildren of Empress Maria Theresa and shared all of their other grandparents in common), with whom he had twelve children, but only seven reached adulthood: On 6 January 1808, he married again to another first cousin, Maria Ludovika of Austria-Este (14 December 1787 – 7 April 1816) with no issue. She was the daughter of Archduke Ferdinand of Austria-Este and Maria Beatrice d'Este, Princess of Modena. On 29 October 1816, to Karoline Charlotte Auguste of Bavaria (8 February 1792 – 9 February 1873) with no issue. She was daughter of Maximilian I of Bavaria and had been previously married to William I of Württemberg. Children From his first wife Elisabeth of Württemberg, one daughter, and his second wife Maria Teresa of the Two Sicilies, eight daughters and four sons: NameBirthDeathNotes Archduchess Ludovika Elisabeth of Austria 18 February 1790 24 June 1791 died in childhood, no issue Archduchess Marie-Louise 12 December 1791 17 December 1847 married first Napoleon Bonaparte, had issue, married second Adam, Count of Neippberg, had issue, married third to Charles, Count of Bombelles, no issue Archduke Ferdinand I 19 April 1793 29 June 1875 married Maria Anna, Princess of Sardinia, no issue Archduchess Marie Caroline 8 June 1794 16 March 1795 died in childhood, no issue Archduchess Caroline Ludovika 22 December 1795 30 June 1797 died in childhood, no issue Archduchess Maria Leopoldina 22 January 1797 11 December 1826 married Pedro I of Brazil, had issue Archduchess Maria Clementina 1 March 1798 3 September 1881 married her maternal uncle Prince Leopoldo of the Two Sicilies, had issue Archduke Joseph Franz Leopold 9 April 1799 30 June 1807 died some weeks after his mother in childhood, no issue Archduchess Maria Caroline of Austria 8 April 1801 22 May 1832 married Crown Prince (later King) Frederick Augustus II of Saxony, no issue Archduke Franz Karl 17 December 1802 8 March 1878 married Princess Sophie of Bavaria, had issue Archduchess Maria Anna 8 June 1804 28 December 1858 married sine volenti a Galician courtier and tutor Iohann Drojeuske, issue unknown Archduke Johann Nepomuk 30 August 1805 19 February 1809 died in childhood, no issue Archduchess Amalie Theresa of Austria 6 April 1807 9 April 1807 died in childhood, no issue See also German monarchs family tree References Books Fraser, Antonia - Marie Antoinette: The Journey : Phoenix 2002, ISBN 0-75381-305-X Wheatcroft, Andrew - The Habsburgs : Embodying Empire : Penguin 1996, ISBN 0-14-023634-1 Richard Reifenscheid, Die Habsburger in Lebensbildern, Piper 2006 Notes External links |- |- |- |- |- | 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1,594 | Abacus | A Chinese abacus Calculating-Table by Gregor Reisch: Margarita Philosophica, 1508. The woodcut shows Arithmetica instructing an algorist and an abacist (inaccurately represented as Boethius and Pythagoras). There was keen competition beween the two from the introduction of the Algebra into Europe in the 12th century until its triumph in the 16th. Carl B. Boyer, A History of Mathematics, pp252-253, Wiley, 1991. An abacus, also called a counting frame, is a calculating tool used primarily in parts of Asia for performing arithmetic processes. Today, abacuses are often constructed as a bamboo frame with beads sliding on wires, but originally they were beans or stones moved in grooves in sand or on tablets of wood, stone, or metal. The abacus was in use centuries before the adoption of the written modern numeral system and is still widely used by merchants, traders and clerks in Asia, Africa, and elsewhere. The user of an abacus is called an abacist who slides the beads of the abacus by hand. "abacist", "abacus", in Merriam-Webster's Third New International Dictionary Unabridged, 2000, Version 2.5. Etymology The use of the word abacus dates before 1387 AD, when a Middle English work borrowed the word from Latin to describe a sandboard abacus. The Latin word came from abakos, Hebrew ābāq, "dust". The preferred plural of abacus is a subject of disagreement, but both abacuses, Oxford English Dictionary 1989 and abaci Merriam-Webster's 2003 are in use. Mesopotamian abacus The period 2700–2300 BC saw the first appearance of the Sumerian abacus, a table of successive columns which delimited the successive orders of magnitude of their sexagesimal number system. Babylonians may have used the abacus for the operations of addition and subtraction. However, this primitive device proved difficult to use for more complex calculations. Some scholars point to a character from the Babylonian cuneiform which may have been derived from a representation of the abacus. Egyptian abacus The use of the abacus in Ancient Egypt is mentioned by the Greek historian Herodotus, who writes that the manner of this disk's usage by the Egyptians was opposite in direction when compared with the Greek method. Archaeologists have found ancient disks of various sizes that are thought to have been used as counters. However, wall depictions of this instrument have not been discovered, casting some doubt over the extent to which this instrument was used. Iranian Persian abacus During the Achaemenid Persian Empire, around 600 BC, Iranians first began to use the abacus. West Asian Mathematics - History for Kids! Under Parthian and Sassanian Iranian empires, scholars concentrated on exchanging knowledge and inventions by the countries around them – India, China, and the Roman Empire, when it is thought to be expanded over the other countries. Greek abacus The earliest archaeological evidence for the use of the Greek abacus dates to the 5th century BC. The Greek abacus was a table of wood, pre-set with small counters in wood or metal for mathematical calculations. This Greek abacus saw use in Ancient Rome and, until the French Revolution, the Western Christian world. A tablet found on the Salamis in 1846 AD dates back to 300 BC. It is a slab of white marble 149 cm long, 75 cm wide, and 4.5 cm thick, on which are 5 groups of markings. In the center of the tablet is a set of 5 parallel lines equally divided by a vertical line, capped with a semicircle at the intersection of the bottom-most horizontal line and the single vertical line. Below these lines is a wide space with a horizontal crack dividing it. Below this crack is another group of eleven parallel lines, again divided into two sections by a line perpendicular to them, but with the semicircle at the top of the intersection; the third, sixth and ninth of these lines are marked with a cross where they intersect with the vertical line. Roman abacus Copy of a Roman Abacus The normal method of calculation in ancient Rome, was by moving counters on a smooth table. Originally pebbles, calculi, were used. Later, and in medieval Europe, jetons were manufactured. Marked lines indicated units, fives, tens etc. as in the Roman numeral system. This system of 'counter casting' continued into the late Roman empire and in medieval Europe, and persisted in limited use into the nineteenth century. Pullan, page18 Writing in the 1st century BC, Horace refers to the wax abacus, a board covered with a thin layer of black wax on which columns and figures were inscribed using a stylus. One example of archaeological evidence of the Roman abacus, shown here in reconstruction, dates to the 1st century AD. It has eight long grooves containing up to five beads in each and eight shorter grooves having either one or no beads in each. The groove marked I indicates units, X tens, and so on up to millions. The beads in the shorter grooves denote fives – five units, five tens etc., essentially in a bi-quinary coded decimal system, obviously related to the Roman numerals. The short grooves on the right may have been used for marking Roman ounces. Chinese abacus Suanpan (the number represented in the picture is 6,302,715,408) The earliest known written documentation of the Chinese abacus dates to the 14th century AD. The top of the abacus is called the heaven and the bottom is called the earth. abacus The Chinese abacus, known as the suànpán, is typically 20 cm tall and comes in various widths depending on the operator. It usually has more than seven rods. There are two beads on each rod in the upper deck and five beads each in the bottom for both decimal and hexadecimal computation. Modern abacuses have one bead on the top deck and four beads on the bottom deck. The beads are usually rounded and made of a hardwood. The beads are counted by moving them up or down towards the beam. If you move them toward the beam, you count their value. If you move away, you don't count their value. The suanpan can be reset to the starting position instantly by a quick jerk along the horizontal axis to spin all the beads away from the horizontal beam at the center. Suanpans can be used for functions other than counting. Unlike the simple counting board used in elementary schools, very efficient suanpan techniques have been developed to do multiplication, division, addition, subtraction, square root and cube root operations at high speed. There are schools teaching students how to use it. In the famous long scroll Along the River During the Qingming Festival painted by Zhang Zeduan (1085–1145 AD) during the Song Dynasty (960–1297 AD), a suanpan is clearly seen lying beside an account book and doctor's prescriptions on the counter of an apothecary's (Feibao). The similarity of the Roman abacus to the Chinese one suggests that one could have inspired the other, as there is some evidence of a trade relationship between the Roman Empire and China. However, no direct connection can be demonstrated, and the similarity of the abaci may be coincidental, both ultimately arising from counting with five fingers per hand. Where the Roman model (like most modern Japanese) has 4 plus 1 bead per decimal place, the standard suanpan has 5 plus 2, allowing use with a hexadecimal numeral system. Instead of running on wires as in the Chinese and Japanese models, the beads of Roman model run in grooves, presumably making arithmetic calculations much slower. Another possible source of the suanpan is Chinese counting rods, which operated with a decimal system but lacked the concept of zero as a place holder. The zero was probably introduced to the Chinese in the Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD) when travel in the Indian Ocean and the Middle East would have provided direct contact with India, allowing them to acquire the concept of zero and the decimal point from Indian merchants and mathematicians. Indian abacus First century sources, such as the Abhidharmakosa describe the knowledge and use of abacus in India. Around the 5th century, Indian clerks were already finding new ways of recording the contents of the Abacus. Hindu texts used the term shunya (zero) to indicate the empty column on the abacus.. Japanese abacus Japanese soroban In Japanese, the abacus is called soroban (, lit. "Counting tray"), imported from China around 1600. The 1/4 abacus appeared circa 1930, and it is preferred and still manufactured in Japan today even with the proliferation, practicality, and affordability of pocket electronic calculators. The use of the soroban is still taught in Japanese primary schools as a part of mathematics. Korean abacus The Chinese abacus migrated from China to Korea around the year 1400 AD. Koreans call it jupan (주판), supan (수판) or jusan (주산). 주판 : Daum 백과사전 Native American abaci Representation of an Inca quipu A yupana as used by the Incas. Some sources mention the use of an abacus called a nepohualtzintzin in ancient Mayan culture. This Mesoamerican abacus used a 5-digit base-20 system. http://www.inaoep.mx/iberamia2004/nepo_eng.htm The word Nepohualtzintzin comes from the Nahuatl and it is formed by the roots; Ne - personal -; pohual or pohualli - the account -; and tzintzin - small similar elements. And its complete meaning is taken as: counting with small similar elements by somebody. Its use was taught in the "Kalmekak" to the "temalpouhkeh", who were students dedicated to take the accounts of skies, from childhood. Unfortunately the Nepohualtzintzin and its teaching were among the victims of the conquering destruction, when a diabolic origin was attributed to them after observing the tremendous properties of representation, precision and speed of calculations. But now we know with certainty that it is a concrete example of the great scientific and technological development that the majority of the native cultures already had in those times. This arithmetic tool is based on the vigesimal system (base 20). http://www.tux.org/~bagleyd/java/AbacusAppMA.html For the aztec the count by 20s was completely natural, since the use of "huaraches" (native sandals) allowed them to also use the toes for their calculations. In this way, the amount of 20 meant to them a complete human being. The Nepohualtzintzin is divided in two main parts separated by a bar or intermediate cord. In the left part there are four beads, which in the first row have unitary values (1, 2, 3, and 4), and in the right side there are three beads with values of 5, 10, and 15 respectively. In order to know the value of the respective beads of the upper rows, it is enough to multiply by 20 (by each row), the value of the corresponding account in the first row. Altogether, there are 13 rows with 7 beads in each one, which makes up 91 beads in each Nepohualtzintzin. This is a basic number to understand the close relation conceived between the exact accounts and the natural phenomena. This is so that one Nepohualtzintzin (91) represents the number of days that a season of the year lasts, two Nepohualtzitzin (182) is the number of days of the corn’s cycle, from its sowing to its harvest, three Nepohualtzintzin (273) is the number of days of a baby’s gestation, and four Nepohualtzintzin complete a cycle and form a year. It is worth to mention that in the Nepohualtzintzin, amounts in the rank from 10 to the 18 can be calculated, with floating point, which allows calculating stellar as well as infinitesimal amounts with absolute precision. The rediscovering of the Nepohualtzintzin is due to the teacher David Esparza Hidalgo, who in his wandering by all Mexico has found diverse engravings and paintings of this instrument and has reconstructed several of them made in gold, jade, incrustations of shell, etc. There have been also found very old Nepohualtzintzin attributed to the Olmeca culture, and even some bracelets of Mayan origin, as well as a diversity of forms and materials in other cultures. This gives us an idea of the so early epochs in which our ancestors already had the sufficient knowledge to devise and to handle a device of such complexity, and the notion of the extension of its use in their daily activities. The quipu of the Incas was a system of knotted cords used to record numerical data, like advanced tally sticks – but not used to perform calculations. Calculations were carried out using a yupana (quechua for "counting tool"; see figure) which was still in use after the conquest of Peru. The working principle of a yupana is unknown, but in 2001 an explanation of the mathematical basis of these instruments was proposed. By comparing the form of several yupanas, researchers found that calculations were based using the Fibonacci sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5 and powers of 10, 20 and 40 as place values for the different fields in the instrument. Using the Fibonacci sequence would keep the number of grains within any one field at minimum. Russian abacus Russian abacus The Russian abacus, the schety (счёты), usually has a single slanted deck, with ten beads on each wire (except one wire which has four beads, for quarter-ruble fractions. This wire is usually near the user). (Older models have another 4-bead wire for quarter-kopeks, which were minted until 1916.) The Russian abacus is often used vertically, with wires from left to right in the manner of a book. The wires are usually bowed to bulge upward in the center, in order to keep the beads pinned to either of the two sides. It is cleared when all the beads are moved to the right. During manipulation, beads are moved to the left. For easy viewing, the middle 2 beads on each wire (the 5th and 6th bead) usually are of a different colour than the other eight beads. Likewise, the left bead of the thousands wire (and the million wire, if present) may have a different color. The Russian abacus was in use in all shops and markets throughout the former Soviet Union, and the usage of it was taught in most schools until the 1990s. Robert Bud, Deborah Jean Warner (eds.), Instruments of science: an historical encyclopedia, p7, Taylor & Francis, 1998 ISBN 0815315619. Sharon Hudgins, The Other Side of Russia, p219, Texas A&M University Press, 2004 ISBN 1585444049. Today it is regarded as an archaism and replaced by microcalculator. The use of calculators has been taught since the 1990s. The Russian abacus was brought to France around 1820 by the mathematician Jean-Victor Poncelet, who served in Napoleon's army and had been a prisoner of war in Russia. Georg Trogemann, Alexander Y. Nitussov, Wolfgang Ernst, Computing in Russia: The History of Computer Devices and Information Technology Revealed, p24, Vieweg+Teubner Verlag, 2001 ISBN 3528057572. The abacus had fallen out of use in western Europe in the 16th century with the rise of decimal notation and algorismic methods. To Poncelet's French contemporaries, it was something new. Poncelet used it, not for any applied purpose, but as a teaching and demonstration aid. Graham Flegg, Numbers: Their History and Meaning, p72, Courier Dover Publications, 2002 ISBN 0486421651. School abacus School abacus used in Danish elementary school. Early 20th century. Around the world, abaci have been used in pre-schools and elementary schools as an aid in teaching the numeral system and arithmetic. In Western countries, a bead frame similar to the Russian abacus but with straight wires and a vertical frame has been common (see image). It is still often seen as a plastic or wooden toy. The type of abacus shown here is often used to represent numbers without the use of place value. Each bead and each wire has the same value and used in this way it can represent numbers up to 100. Abaci in Medieval pictures Uses by the blind An adapted abacus, invented by Tim Cranmer, called a Cranmer abacus is still commonly used by individuals who are blind. A piece of soft fabric or rubber is placed behind the beads so that they do not move inadvertently. This keeps the beads in place while the users feel or manipulate them. They use an abacus to perform the mathematical functions multiplication, division, addition, subtraction, square root and cubic root. Although blind students have benefited from talking calculators, the abacus is still very often taught to these students in early grades, both in public schools and state schools for the blind. The abacus teaches mathematical skills that can never be replaced with talking calculators and is an important learning tool for blind students. Blind students also complete mathematical assignments using a braille-writer and Nemeth code (a type of braille code for mathematics) but large multiplication and long division problems can be long and difficult. The abacus gives blind and visually impaired students a tool to compute mathematical problems that equals the speed and mathematical knowledge required by their sighted peers using pencil and paper. Many blind people find this number machine a very useful tool throughout life. See also Abacus logic Abacus system Chisanbop Napier's bones Sand table Suanpan Soroban Notes References . . . . . . . . . . . Further reading . . 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1,595 | Manitoba | Manitoba () is a prairie province in Canada and has an area of . Geography of Manitoba. Travel Manitoba Canada. http://www.travelmanitoba.com/default.asp?page=130&node=585&menu=436 Manitoba is bordered by the provinces of Ontario to the east and Saskatchewan to the west, the territory of Nunavut to the north, and the US states of North Dakota and Minnesota to the south. Manitoba also has a saltwater coastline on Hudson's Bay at Churchill. Manitoba has a population of 1,213,815 (according to 2009 estimates), with more than half located within the Winnipeg Capital Region (which has a total population of 730,305). Manitoba's largest and capital city, Winnipeg is also Western Canada's 4th largest CMA, and has Canada's 7th largest municipality. Other major cities, in order of size, are Brandon, Thompson, Portage la Prairie, Steinbach, Selkirk, and Winkler. The name "Manitoba" is believed to be derived from the Cree, Ojibwe or Assiniboine languages. The Origins of the Name "Manitoba". Government of Manitoba. http://www.gov.mb.ca/chc/louis_riel/pdf/origin_mb_name.pdf Manitoba entered Confederation on July 15, 1870, and was the first province to enter under the British North America Act (BNA Act) after the original four provinces. Upon achievement of full independence from the United Kingdom in 1982, the BNA was re-christened the Constitution Act, 1867. Geography Manitoba is bordered by the provinces of Ontario to the east and Saskatchewan to the west, the territories of Nunavut and Northwest Territories to the north, and the US states of North Dakota and Minnesota to the south. Manitoba also has a saltwater coastline on Hudson's Bay at Churchill. The province has the largest saltwater coastline bordering Hudson Bay and contains the tenth-largest fresh-water lake in the world, Lake Winnipeg, along with two other large lakes: Lake Manitoba and Lake Winnipegosis. Manitoba's lakes cover approximately 15.6% or of its surface area. Travel Manitoba Canada. http://www.travelmanitoba.com/default.asp?page=130&node=585&menu=436&redirected=YES Lake Winnipeg is the largest lake within the borders of southern Canada, and the east side has some of the last remote and intact watersheds left in the world. The large rivers that flow into the east side of Lake Winnipeg's basin are pristine, with no major developments along them. Many uninhabited islands can be found along the shores of this lake. Notes on the Geology of Some Islands in Lake Winnipeg. J. Hoyes Panton. MHS Transactions Series 1, No. 20. Read 25 January 1886 There are over 110,000 lakes spread throughout the province. Lakes of Manitoba (major lakes of ) The Atlas of Canada. From: Name of lake Total area Altitude Lake Winnipeg 24,387 km2 (9,416 sq mi) Lake Winnipegosis 5,374 km2 (2,075 sq mi) Lake Manitoba 4,624 km2 (1,785 sq mi) Southern Indian Lake 2,247 km2 (868 sq mi) Cedar Lake 1,353 km2 (522 sq mi) Island Lake 1,223 km2 (472 sq mi) Gods Lake 1,151 km2 (444 sq mi) Cross Lake 755 km2 (292 sq mi) Playgreen Lake 657 km2 (254 sq mi) Dauphin Lake 519 km2 (200 sq mi) Important watercourses include the Red, Assiniboine, Nelson, Winnipeg, Hayes, Whiteshell and Churchill Rivers. Fishing along the Red River is an important part for tourism and the economy of Manitoba. Most of Manitoba's inhabited south lies within the prehistoric bed of Glacial Lake Agassiz, or the Red River Valley. The Red River Valley region is extremely flat because it was once the lake bottom of the ancient Lake Agassiz, which once covered the large area. However, there are many other hilly and rocky areas throughout province, along with many large sand ridges left behind by receding glaciers. Relief of Manitoba Baldy Mountain is the highest point at above sea level and the Hudson Bay coast is the lowest at sea level. Other upland areas include Riding Mountain, the Pembina Hills, Sandilands Provincial Forest, and the Canadian Shield regions. Much of the province's sparsely-inhabited north and east lie within the irregular granite landscape of the Canadian Shield, including Whiteshell Provincial Park, Atikaki Provincial Park, and Nopiming Provincial Park. Birds Hill Provincial Park was originally an island in Lake Agassiz after the melting of glaciers. Extensive agriculture is only found in the southern half of the province, although there is some grain farming found in the Carrot Valley Region (near the The Pas). The most common type of farm found in rural areas is cattle farming (34.6%), followed by other grains (19.0%) and oilseed (7.9%). Manitoba is the nation's largest producer of sunflower seed and dry beans University of Manitoba. .Retrieved on: August 28, 2008. and one of the leading potato producers. Around 12% of Canadian farmland is in Manitoba. Statcan The eastern, southeastern, and northern reaches of the province range through boreal coniferous forests, muskeg, Canadian Shield and a small section of tundra bordering Hudson Bay. Forests make up about , or 48%, of the province's land area. The forests generally consist of pines (mostly jack pine, some red pine), spruces (white, black), larch, poplars (trembling aspen, balsam poplar), birch (white, swamp) and small pockets of Eastern White Cedar. The great expanses of intact forested areas are considered by many naturalists, hikers, and hunters as pristine wilderness areas. Some of the last largest and intact boreal forest of the world can be found along the east side of Lake Winnipeg, with only winter roads, no hydroelectric development, no mines, and few communities. There are many clean and untouched rivers, many that originate from the Canadian Shield in neighbouring Ontario. These pristine and intact areas have only been used as native fishing, hunting, and gathering grounds for thousands of years. Some traditional land use areas of the east side of Lake Winnipeg are now a proposed United Nations Heritage Site that is approved by the First Nation communities of those particular traditional lands. Climate Because of its location in the centre of the North American continent, Manitoba has a very extreme climate. In general, temperatures and precipitation decrease from south to north, and precipitation also decreases from east to west. Since Manitoba is far removed from the moderating influences of both mountain ranges and large bodies of water, and because of the generally flat landscape in many areas, it is exposed to numerous weather systems throughout the year, including cold Arctic high-pressure air masses settle in from the north west, usually during the months of January and February. In the summer, the air masses often come out of the southern United States, as the stronger Bermuda High Pressure ridges into the North American continent, the more warm, humid air is drawn northward from the Gulf of Mexico, similar to that experienced in southern Ontario. Southern parts of the province, located just north of Tornado Alley, experience a few tornadoes each year, with 15 confirmed touchdowns in 2006. In 2007, on June 22 and June 23, numerous tornadoes touched down, including an F5 Tornado that devastated parts of Elie (that being the strongest officially recorded tornado in Canada), Environment Canada - News Releases and an F4 tornado that was captured on video, near Pipestone. Temperatures exceed 30 °C (86 °F) numerous times each summer, and the combination of heat and humidity can bring the humidex value to the mid-40's(C), (mid- 100's(F)), and the dewpoint to the upper 20's. Carman, Manitoba, reached the extreme of 53.0 °C (127.4 °F) with the humidex, which set the highest temperature reached with the humidity in Canada. Manitoba is also a very sunny province; according to Environment Canada, Manitoba ranked first for clearest skies year round. Environment Canada. "Manitoba Canada". Retrieved on: November 28, 2008. Manitoba also ranked second for most clear skies in the summer and sunniest province in the winter and spring. Environment Canada. "Winnipeg MB". Retrieved on: November 28, 2008. Portage la Prairie has the most sunny days in warm months in Canada; and Winnipeg has the second clearest skies year-round and is the second sunniest city in Canada in the spring and winter. Environment Canada. "Winnipeg MB". Retrieved on: October 3, 2007. Southern Manitoba has a fairly long frost-free season, consisting of between 120 and 140 days in the Red River Valley. Microsoft ® Encarta ® Encyclopedia 2005 © 1993-2004 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. Retrieved on: October 18, 2008. This decreases to the northeast. There are three main climatic regions. Canada's first Fujita Scale F5 tornado approaching Elie. The northern sections of the province (including the city of Thompson) falls in the subarctic climate zone (Koppen Dfc). Living in Canada: Manitoba. AKCanada. http://www.akcanada.com/lic_manitoba.cfm This region features long and extremely cold winters with brief, warm summers with relatively little precipitation. It is common to have overnight lows as low as −40 °C (−40 °F) several days each winter, and have a few weeks that remain below −18 °C (0 °F). The southwestern corner (including the city of Brandon) has a semi-arid mid-latitude steppe climate (Koppen climate classification BSk). The region is drier than other parts of southern Manitoba and very drought-prone. It is cold and windy in the winter and is the region most prone to blizzards in the winter because of the openness of the landscape. Summers are generally warm to hot, with low to moderate humidity. The remainder of southern Manitoba (including the city of Winnipeg), falls into the humid continental climate zone (Koppen Dfb). Temperatures here are similar to the semi-arid climate zone, but this region is the most humid area in the Prairie Provinces with moderate precipitation. Average temperatures in cities (°C) CityJulyJanuaryChurchill 17/7 -23/-31Thompson 23/9 -19/-31Flin Flon 24/13 -16/-25Dauphin 25/12 -12/-23Brandon 26/12 -12/-24Selkirk 26/14 -13/-22Morden 26/14 -11/-20Portage la Prairie 25/13 -12/-23Winnipeg 26/13 -13/-23Steinbach 26/13 -12/-23Carman 27/13 -11/-23 Canadian Climate Normals 1971-2000 Municipalities + Ten largest municipalities by population City 2001 2006 Winnipeg 626,956 675,483 Brandon 46,273 48,256 Thompson 13,256 13,446 Portage la Prairie 13,019 12,773 Steinbach 9,227 11,066 Selkirk 9,772 9,553 Winkler 7,943 9,106 Dauphin 8,085 7,906 Morden 6,159 6,547 The Pas 6,030 5,765 History First Nations The geographical area now named Manitoba was inhabited shortly after the last ice age glaciers retreated in the southwest. The first exposed land was the Turtle Mountain area, where large numbers of petroforms and medicine wheels can be found. The first human habitants of southern Manitoba left behind pottery shards, spear and arrow heads, copper, petroforms, pictographs, fish and animal bones, and signs of agriculture along the Red River near Lockport. Eventually there were the aboriginal settlements of Ojibwa, Cree, Dene, Sioux, Mandan, and Assiniboine peoples, along with other tribes that entered the area to trade. There were many land trails made as a part of a larger native trading network on both land and water. The Whiteshell Provincial Park region along the Winnipeg River has many old petroforms and may have been a trading centre, or even a place of learning and sharing of knowledge for over 2,000 years. The cowry shells and copper found in this area are proof of what was traded as a part of a large trading network to the oceans, and to the larger southern native civilizations along the Mississippi River and in the south and southwest. Trigger, Bruce G. The Cambridge History of the native peoples of the Americas. Cambridge University Press, 1996. In Northern Manitoba some areas were mined for quartz to make arrowheads. The first farming in Manitoba appeared to be along the Red River, near Lockport, where corn and other seed crops were planted before contact with Europeans. Catherine Flynn, Parks Canada and E. Leigh Syms, Manitoba Museum of Man and Nature. Manitoba's First Farmers. Manitoba History, Number 31, Spring 1996 Rupert's Land Historical flag of the Hudson's Bay Company from its days as a British trading company. In 1611, Henry Hudson was one of the first Europeans to sail into what is now known as Hudson Bay, where he was abandoned by his mutinous crew. Henry Hudson, Dictionary of Canadian Biography I, 374-79. In 1619, explorer Jens Munk in search of the Northwest Passage, wintered on the Churchill River. Jens Munck, Dictionary of Canadian Biography I, 514-15. Most of his crew died and only three, including himself, made the return trip back in July of that year. The Nonsuch sailed into Hudson Bay in 1668-1669, becoming the first trading voyage to reach the area; Laird Rankin, The Return Nonsuch: The Ship that Launched an Empire it led to the formation of the Hudson's Bay Company. The Hudson's Bay Company was given the fur trading rights to the entire Hudson Bay watershed, covering land in what is now Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, Minnesota, North Dakota, and more. Hudson's Bay Company History. http://www.hbc.com/en/history.html This watershed was named Rupert's Land, after Prince Rupert, who helped to subsidize the Hudson's Bay Company. Rupert's Land. The Canadian Encyclopedia. http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0007006 York Factory was founded in 1684 after the original main fort of the Hudson's Bay Company, Fort Nelson—built in 1682—was destroyed by French traders. York Factory National Historic Site. Lillian Stewart, Manitoba Northern Historic Sites, Canadian Parks Service. Manitoba History, Number 15, Spring 1988 Other traders and explorers from Europe eventually came to the Hudson Bay shores and went south along the northern Manitoba rivers. Quick Fact - Manitoba History The first European to reach present-day central and southern Manitoba was Sir Thomas Button, who travelled upstream along the Nelson River and Lake Winnipeg in 1612 and may have reached somewhere along the edge of the prairies, where he reported seeing a bison. Thomas Button, Dictionary of Canadian Biography I, 144-45. In 1690 to 1691, Henry Kelsey was the first European fur trader known to have seen the prairie grasslands, the great buffalo herds, the grizzly bears, and the many Plains tribes. Henry Kelsey, Dictionary of Canadian Biography II, 307-15. Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, Sieur de la Vérendrye, visited the Red River Valley in the 1730s to help open the area for French exploration and the fur trade. Pierre Gaultier De Varennes La Vérendrye, Dictionary of Canadian Biography III, 246-54. Many other French and Métis explorers came from the east and south by going down the Winnipeg River and the Red River (an important French-Canadian population (Franco-Manitobains) still lives in Manitoba, especially in the Saint-Boniface district of Winnipeg). A French fur trading company called the North West Company began trading with the Métis. Fur trading forts were built by both the North West Company and the Hudson's Bay Company along the many rivers and lakes, and there was often fierce competition between the two in more southern areas, until they amalgamated in 1821. The territory was won by Great Britain in 1763 as part of the French and Indian War. The Hudson's Bay Archives is located in Winnipeg and preserves the rich history of the fur trading era that occurred along the major water routes of the Rupert's Land area. Hudson's Bay Company Archives. http://www.gov.mb.ca/chc/archives/hbca/about/hbca.html There are a few possible sources for the name "Manitoba". The more likely is that it comes from Cree or Ojibwe and means "strait of the Manitou (spirit)". It may also be from the Assiniboine for "Lake of the Prairie". Geonames - Manitoba name The founding of the first agricultural community and settlements in 1812 by Lord Selkirk, north of the area which is now downtown Winnipeg, resulted in conflict between the British colonists and the Métis who lived and traded near there. Thomas Douglas, Dictionary of Canadian Biography V, 264-69. Twenty colonists, including the governor, were killed by the Métis in the Battle of Seven Oaks in 1816, in which the settlers fired the first shots. The 150th Anniversary of Seven Oaks. Joseph E. Martin. MHS Transactions Series 3, Number 22, 1965-66 season There was also one Métis man killed. Many fur trading forts were also attacked during this period. Confederation When Rupert's Land was ceded to Canada in 1869 and incorporated into the Northwest Territories, a lack of attention to Métis concerns led their elected leader Louis Riel to establish a provisional government as part of The Red River Rebellion. Manitoba: the birth of a province. W. L. Morton (ed). Winnipeg: Manitoba Record Society, 1984 Negotiations between the provisional government and the Canadian government resulted in the creation of the Province of Manitoba and its entry into Confederation in 1870. However, Louis Riel was pursued by Garnet Wolseley because of the rebellion, and he fled into exile. Garnet Joseph Wolseley, Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online The Métis were blocked by the Canadian government in their attempts to obtain land promised to them as part of Manitoba's entry into confederation. The Historiography of Métis Land Dispersal, 1870-1890. Brad Milne. Manitoba History, Number 30, Autumn 1995 Facing racism from the new flood of white settlers from Ontario, large numbers of Métis moved to what would become Saskatchewan and Alberta. Canadian provinces 1870-1871 Originally, the province of Manitoba was only 1/18 of its current size and was square in shape—it was known as the "postage stamp province". From Postage Stamp to Keystone. Douglas Kemp. Manitoba Pageant, April 1956 Its borders were expanded in 1881, but Ontario also claimed a large portion of the land; the disputed portion was awarded to Ontario in 1889. It grew progressively, absorbing land from the Northwest Territories until it attained its current size by reaching 60°N in 1912. The creation of Manitoba out of the Northwest Territories was quick because of the settlements in the Red River area by the Métis and the Lord Selkirk settlers. The Red River colony and Fort Garry area were the only colony in the west, and the Métis set up a provisional republic government prior to joining with Canada. Saskatchewan and Alberta went through a longer period as part of the Northwest Territories until their creation as provinces in 1905. Initially, the subject of provincial status did not come up during the negotiations between Canada, the United Kingdom and the Hudson's Bay Company. It was assumed that territorial status was granted in the Act for the Temporary Government of Ruperts' Land in 186. The Story of the Manitoba Legislature. M. S. Donnelly. MHS Transactions Series 3, Number 12, 1955-56 season Louis Riel first introduced the subject of provincial status to the Committee of Forty appointed by the citizens of Red River in 1870. Riel's proposal to Donald Smith, emissary for the government of Canada, was rejected by the government of John A. Macdonald. The list of demands from Riel did goad the government of Canada into acting on a proposal of its own regarding Red River's status. John A. Macdonald introduced the Manitoba Act in the Canadian House of Commons and pretended that the question of province or territory was of no significance. The bill was given royal assent and Manitoba joined Canada as a province. It was a significant leap of faith imposing responsible government on Manitoba in 1870 without any adjustment period. However, Macdonald's misunderstanding of territorial versus provincial status, the rise of the Métis people and the burgeoning growth of the United States (which was considering annexing the territory) all compelled him to act in a nation-building initiative. Numbered Treaties were signed in the late 19th century with the chiefs of various First Nations that lived in the area. Canada in the Making: Numbered Treaty Overview. http://www.canadiana.org/citm/specifique/numtreatyoverview_e.html These treaties made quite specific promises of land for every family. This led to a reserve system under the jurisdiction of the Federal Government. There are still land claim issues because the proper amount of land promised to the native peoples was not always given. First Nations Land Claims. Government of Manitoba. http://www.gov.mb.ca/stem/mrd/mines/sustain/first.html The Manitoba Schools Question showed the deep divergence of cultural values in the territory. The Franco-Manitobains had been guaranteed a state-supported separate school system in the original constitution of Manitoba, but a grassroots political movement among Protestants in 1888-90 demanded the end of French schools. In 1890, the Manitoba legislature passed a law abolishing French as an official language of the province and removing funding for Catholic schools. The Language Problem in Manitoba's Schools. Robert Fletcher. MHS Transactions Series 3, Number 6, 1949-50 The French Catholic minority asked the federal Government for support; however, the Orange Order and other anti-Catholic forces mobilized nationwide. McLauchlin, Kenneth. “Riding The Protestant Horse”: The Manitoba School Question and Canadian Politics, 1890 - 1896. CCHA, Historical Studies, 53 (1986) 39-52 The Conservatives proposed remedial legislation to override Manitoba's legislation, but they in turn were blocked by Liberals, led by Wilfrid Laurier, who opposed the remedial legislation on the basis of provincial rights. Once elected Prime Minister in 1896, Laurier proposed a compromise stating that Catholics in Manitoba could have Catholic teaching for 30 minutes at the end of the day if there were enough students to warrant it, on a school-by-school basis. Tensions over language remained high in Manitoba (and nationwide) for decades to come. Early 20th century Winnipeg was the 3rd largest city in Canada by the early 20th century. The Canadian West. Library and Archives Canada. http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/canadian-west/052930/05293020_e.html A boomtown, it grew quickly around the turn of the century, Winnipeg Boomtown. CBC. http://history.cbc.ca/history/?MIval=EpisContent.html&series_id=1&episode_id=10&chapter_id=3&page_id=5&lang=E with many outside investors and immigrants contributing to its success. Many old mansions and estates attest to Winnipeg's growing wealthy class during that period, as does the growth of the railway system at the time. When the Manitoba Legislature was built, it was expected that Manitoba would have a population of 3 million quite soon. Immigration Canada: Manitoba. http://www.akcanada.com/lic_manitoba.cfm Around the beginning of World War I, the quickly growing city began to cool down, as large amounts of money were no longer invested to the same degree as before the war. Winnipeg eventually fell behind in growth when other major cities in Canada began to boom, such as Calgary today. Crowd gathered outside old City Hall during the Winnipeg General Strike, June 21, 1919. In the 1917 election in the midst of the conscription crisis, the Liberals were split in half and the new Union party carried all but one seat. Union Government. The Canadian Encyclopedia. http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0008217 As the war ended severe discontent among farmers (over wheat prices) and union members (over wage rates) resulted in an upsurge of radicalism. With Bolshevism coming to power in Russia, conservatives were anxious and radicals were energized. The most dramatic episode was the Winnipeg General Strike of 1919 which shut down most activity for six weeks. It began May 15 and continued until the strike collapsed on June 25, 1919; the workers were gradually returning to their jobs, and the Central Strike Committee decided to end the strike. Winnipeg General Strike. The Canadian Encyclopedia. http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0008649 Government efforts to violently crush the strike, including a charge into a crowd of strikers by the Royal Northwest Mounted Police that resulted in 30 casualties and one death and the arrest of the strike leaders, contributed to this decision. Francis, Daniel (1984), "1919: The Winnipeg General Strike", History Today 38: 4-8. As historian William Morton explained: More recently, many historians have disagreed with Morton's interpretation of the strike and have written considerably different histories of it. In the aftermath of the strike, eight leaders went on trial, and most were convicted on charges of seditious conspiracy, illegal combinations, and seditious libel; four were aliens who were deported under the Canadian Immigration Act. Jan Chaboyer, Errol Black. Conspiracy in Winnipeg. Manitoba Federation of Labour. http://www.mfl.mb.ca/a38.shtml Labor was weakened and divided as a result. Farmers, meanwhile, were patiently organizing the United Farmers of Manitoba, with plans to contest the 1920 provincial elections. United Farmers of Manitoba. The Canadian Encyclopedia. http://www.canadianencyclopedia.ca/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0008228 The result was that no party held a majority. The Farmers won in 1922, with 30 seats, against 7 returning Liberals, 6 Conservatives, 6 Labour, and 8 Independents. The Great Depression hit especially hard in Western Canada, including Manitoba. As a result, the Manitoba Social Credit Party was founded in 1935, and gained support until the split caused by certain Social Credit MLAs joining the government. The Manitoba Co-operative Commonwealth Federation was founded in 1932, the forerunner to the New Democratic Party of Manitoba (NDP). Winnipeg was one of the major commands for the British Commonwealth Air Training Program to train fighter pilots for World War II, and there were a number of air training schools throughout Manitoba. A number of Manitoba-based regiments were deployed overseas, including the Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry and the Royal Canadian Infantry. In an effort to raise money for the war effort, the Victory Loan campaign organized "If Day" in 1942. The event featured a simulated Nazi invasion and occupation of Manitoba, and eventually raised over $65 million for the war effort. February 19, 1942: If Day. Michael Newman. Manitoba History, Number 13, Spring 1987 1950 to present Control gates at the inlet to the Floodway The 1950 Red River Flood was a devastating flood that took place along the Red River during the spring of 1950. Winnipeg, Manitoba was inundated on May 5, also known as Black Friday to some residents, and had to be partially evacuated. In that year, the Red River reached its highest level since 1861 and flooded most of the Red River Valley. The damage caused by the flood eventually led Duff Roblin to advocate for the construction of the Red River Floodway. The province of Manitoba completed the Red River Floodway in 1968 after six years of excavation, put up permanent dikes in eight towns south of Winnipeg, and built clay dikes and diversion dams in the Winnipeg area. In 1997, the "Flood of the Century" caused over $500 million in damages in Manitoba, but the Floodway prevented Winnipeg from flooding. Since 1969, the NDP has been the most successful provincial political party, winning seven of the eleven elections during this period (including three mandates for current Premier Gary Doer). In 1990, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney attempted to pass the Meech Lake Accord to persuade Quebec to endorse the Canada Act. The agreement required the consent of all provincial parliaments; most of the provinces eventually voted to support the accord. In Manitoba, however, things did not go as planned. With many First Nations protesters outside, the Legislative assembly convened to approve the Accord. Unanimous support was needed to bypass the necessary public consultation, and MLA Elijah Harper raised an eagle feather to mark his dissension. Harper opposed bypassing consultation because he did not believe First Nations had been adequately involved in the Accord's process. Comeau, Pauline. “The Man Who Said No (Elijah Harper),” The Canadian Forum (July/August 1990): 7-11. Demographics According to the 2001 Canadian census, the largest ethnic group in Manitoba is English (22.1%), followed by German (18.2%), Scottish (17.7%), Ukrainian (14.3%), Irish (13.0%), First Nations (9.9%), Polish (6.7%), Métis (5.2%), French (5.1%) Dutch (4.7%) and Icelandic (2.0%)—although almost a quarter of all respondents also identified their ethnicity as "Canadian". Population by selected ethnic origins, by province and territory (2001 Census) Population of Manitoba since 1871 YearPopulationFive Year % changeTen Year % changeRank AmongProvinces1871 25,228 n/a n/a 81881 62,260 n/a 146.8 61891 152,506 n/a 145 51901 255,211 n/a 67.3 51911 461,394 n/a 80.8 51921 610,118 n/a 32.2 41931 700,139 n/a 14.8 51941 729,744 n/a 4.2 61951 776,541 n/a 6.4 61956 850,040 9.5 n/a 61961 921,686 8.4 18.7 61966 963,066 4.5 13.3 51971 988,245 2.3 7.2 51976 1,021,505 3.4 6.1 51981 1,026,241 0.4 3.8 51986 1,063,015 3.6 4.1 51991 1,091,942 2.7 6.4 51996 1,113,898 2.0 4.8 52001 1,119,583 0.5 2.5 52006* 1,177,765 5.2 5.7 5 *Preliminary 2006 census estimate. Source: Statistics Canada Statcan - Manitoba Population trend Canada's population. Statistics Canada. Last accessed September 28, 2006. Manitoba holds the distinction of being the only Canadian Province with over 55% of its population located in a single city, Winnipeg. Population and dwelling counts Manitoba & Winnipeg Religion The largest denominations by number of adherents according to the 2001 census were the Roman Catholic Church with 292,970 (27%); the United Church of Canada with 176,820 (16%); and the Anglican Church of Canada with 85,890 (8%). Religions in Canada Transportation Transportation and warehousing contributes approximately $2.2 billion to Manitoba’s GDP. Total employment in the industry is estimated at 34,500. Manitoba Government - Employment Manitoba has a rail, air, road and marine component to its transportation industry. Highway 1 near Carberry, Manitoba The Trans-Canada Highway built between 1950 and 1971 crosses the province from east to west. Trans-Canada Highway History. http://transcanadahighway.com/general/highwayhistory.htm Trucks haul 95% of all land freight in Manitoba, and trucking companies account for 80% of Manitoba's merchandise trade to the United States. Transportation & Logistics. Government of Manitoba. http://www.gov.mb.ca/ctt/profiles/trans1/index.html Five of Canada's twenty-five largest employers in for-hire trucking are headquartered in Manitoba, and three of Canada's 10 largest employers in the for-hire trucking industry are headquartered in Winnipeg. $1.18 billion of Manitoba's GDP directly or indirectly comes from trucking. Around 5% or 33,000 people work in the trucking industry. Domestic and international bus service from the Winnipeg Bus Terminal is offered by Greyhound Canada and Jefferson Lines. Winnipeg and other municipalities offer transit bus service within city limits. Manitoba has two Class I railways: CN and Canadian Pacific Railway. Winnipeg is centrally located on the main lines of both carriers, and both companies maintain large intermodal terminals in the city. CN and CP operate a combined of track within Manitoba. Via Rail Canada offers transcontenial and northern Manitoba passenger service from Winnipeg's Union Station. The heart and the symbols of Canada. Via Rail, 2008. http://www.viarail.ca/tourists/en_tour_expl_prai.html The first railway through Manitoba was the CP Railway, and the tracks were diverted south to make Winnipeg as the capital and centre, and not Selkirk, which is located further north. Rails Across the Red - Selkirk or Winnipeg. Ruben C. Bellan. MHS Transactions, Series 3, 1961-62 Season Numerous small regional and shortline railways exist in the province. They are the Hudson Bay Railway, the Southern Manitoba Railway, Burlington Northern Santa Fe Manitoba, Greater Winnipeg Water District Railway, and Central Manitoba Railway. Together, they operate approximately of track within the province. Winnipeg James Armstrong Richardson International Airport is one of only a few 24-hour unrestricted airports in Canada and is part of the National Airports System. Transportation: Winnipeg James Armstrong Richardson International Airport. Government of Manitoba. http://www.gov.mb.ca/ctt/invest/busfacts/transport/wiairport.html It has a broad range of passenger and cargo services and served over 3.5 million people in 2007, which is over the maxium capacity of 600,000 the current terminal was to handle. The airport handles approximately of cargo annually which makes it the 3rd largest in the country. Currently the airport is going under major redevelopment, with a new terminal, parkade, and luxury hotel. The new bus terminal and Canada Post plant which are moving from downtown will be located at the airport campus. Eleven regional passenger carriers and nine smaller/charter carriers operate out of the airport, as well as 11 air cargo carriers and 7 freight forwarders. Winnipeg is a major sorting facility for both FedEx and Purolator, and receives daily transborder service from UPS. Air Canada Cargo and Cargojet Airways use the airport as a major hub for national traffic. Port of Churchill The Port of Churchill, owned by OmniTRAX, is Canada's main window to the Arctic ocean, to Russia, and inland to China. The port of Churchill is nautically closer to ports in Northern Europe and Russia than any other port in Canada. Port of Churchill. http://www.portofchurchill.ca/ The port is the only Arctic deep water port in Canada and a part of the closest shipping route between North America and Asia. It has 4 deep-sea berths for the loading and unloading of grain, general cargo and tanker vessels. The port is linked by the Hudson Bay Railway (also owned by OMNITRAX). Grain represented 90% of the port’s traffic in the 2004 shipping season. In that year, over of agricultural product was shipped through the port. Economy Manitoba's economy relies heavily on tourism, energy, agriculture, oil, minerals, mining, forestry, and many more. Agriculture is vital to Manitoba's economy and is only found only in the southern half of the province, although there is some grain farming found as far north as The Pas. The most common type of farm found in rural areas is cattle farming (34.6%), followed by other grains (19.0%) and oilseed (7.9%). Manitoba is the nation's largest producer of sunflower seed and dry beans; and one of the leading potato producers. Altona is the "sunflower capital of Canada". Community Profile: Altona. Regional Health Authority of Central Manitoba, 2008. http://www.rha-central.mb.ca/community.php?id=21 Around 12% of Canadian farmland is in Manitoba. Portage la Prairie is the North American potato processing capital. It is also home to the McCain Foods and Simplot potato processing plants, which provide french fries for McDonald's, Wendy's, and various other commercialized restaurant chains. City of Portage - Business Development. http://www.city.portage-la-prairie.mb.ca/busdev/default.asp Can-Oat Milling, one of the largest oat mills in the world, is also located in the municipality. Can-Oat Milling. http://www.can-oat.com/company Churchill's arctic wildlife plays an important part in Manitoba's tourism industry, having acquired the nicknames of "Polar bear capital of the world" and "Beluga capital of the world". Nature & Wildlife. Town of Churchill. http://www.churchill.ca/about/nature/ Manitoba is the only Canadian Province with an Arctic deep water sea port, located in Churchill, along Hudson Bay. Manitoba's sea port is the only link along the shortest shipping route between North America, Europe, and Asia. Historic economy Manitoba's early economy depended on mobility and living off of the land. Many Aboriginal Nations (including the Cree, Ojibwa, Dene, Sioux and Assiniboine) followed herds of bison and congregated to trade among themselves at key meeting places throughout the province. The first fur traders entered the province in the 17th century; permanent settlements of forts were created and communities evolved over time. Lower Fort Garry National Historic Site. Parks Canada. http://www.pc.gc.ca/lhn-nhs/mb/fortgarry/natcul/natcul2_e.asp Most of the economy centred around the trade of beaver pelts and other furs. Many native scouts and native maps were used to help the fur traders make their way through the region; some of the best early maps were made with the help of natives who knew the river routes within their traditional home territories. The Fur Trade: The Indian an Indispensable Partner. Civilization.ca. http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/hist/canp1/ca12beng.shtml The rivers, creeks, and lakes were the most important routes for trade and travel. The first major diversification of the economy came when Lord Selkirk brought the first agricultural settlers to the area just north of present day Winnipeg in 1811. Lord Selkirk Settlers. William L. Morton. Manitoba Pageant, April 1962, Volume 7, Number 3 The lack of reliable transportation and an ongoing dispute between the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC), the North West Company and the Métis impeded growth. The eventual triumph of the Hudson's Bay Company over its competitors ensured the primacy of the fur trade over widespread agricultural colonization. History of the Northwest Company. http://www.northwest.ca/history Any trade not sanctioned by the Hudson's Bay Company was frowned upon. It took many years for the Red River Colony to develop under HBC rule, as the Company invested little in infrastructure for the community. The Lord Selkirk Settlement at Red River, Part 3. Anne Matheson Henderson. Manitoba Pageant, Spring 1968, Volume 13, Number 3 It was only when independent traders such as James Sinclair and Andrew McDermot (Dermott) started competing in trade that improvements to the community began. Andrew McDermot, Dictionary of Canadian Biography XI, 545-46. By 1849, the HBC faced even greater threats to its monopoly. A Métis fur trader named Pierre Guillaume Sayer was charged with illegal trading by the Hudson's Bay Company. Pierre Guillaume Sayer, Dictionary of Canadian Biography VII, 776-77. Sayer had been trading with Norman Kittson who resided just beyond the HBC's reach in Pembina, North Dakota. Norman Wolfred Kittson, Dictionary of Canadian Biography XI, 476-77. The court found Sayer guilty, but the judge levied no fine or punishment. The courts could no longer be used by the HBC to enforce its monopoly. The result was a weakening of HBC rule over the region and laid the foundations of provincehood for Manitoba. In 1853, a second agricultural community started in Portage la Prairie. Heritage. City of Portage la Prairie. http://www.city.portage-la-prairie.mb.ca/community/heritage.asp Government Like all other Canadian provinces, Manitoba is governed by a unicameral legislature, the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba, which operates under the Westminster system of government. Military Administrative Law Manual. 2008, 1-7. http://www.canadianencyclopedia.ca/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0008228 The executive branch is formed by the majority party; the party leader is the Premier of Manitoba, the head of the executive branch. The head of state, Queen Elizabeth II, is represented by the Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba, who is appointed by the Governor General of Canada on advice of the Prime Minister. Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba: Roles and Responsibilities. http://www.lg.gov.mb.ca/role/rr.html#do The head of state is primarily a ceremonial role. The Legislative Assembly of Manitoba was established on July 14, 1870. After the control of Rupert's Land was passed from Great Britain to the Government of Canada in 1869, Manitoba attained full fledged rights and responsibilities of self-government as the first Canadian province carved out of the Northwest Territories. The Legislative Assembly consists of the 57 Members elected to represent the people of Manitoba. The horseshoe arrangement of the members seats within the Chamber is unique in Canada. Manitoba's primary political parties are the New Democratic Party of Manitoba (NDP), the Progressive Conservative Party of Manitoba and the Manitoba Liberal Party. The current premier of Manitoba is Gary Doer of the NDP. He is presently serving his third mandate with a majority government of 36 seats. The Progressive Conservative Party holds 19 seats, and the Liberal Party (which does not have official party status) has 2. 39th General Election. Elections Manitoba. http://www.electionsmanitoba.ca/en/Results/general_election_39_static.html The last general election was held Tuesday, May 22, 2007. Official languages English and French are the official languages of the legislature and courts of Manitoba, according to the Manitoba Act, 1870 (which forms part of the Constitution of Canada): However, with the rise to power of the English-only movement in Manitoba from 1890 onwards, this provision was disregarded in practice and in Manitoban legislation. In April 1890, the Manitoba legislature introduced a measure to abolish the official status of the French language in the legislature, in the laws, in records and journals, and in the Courts of Manitoba. Mary Liston. Administrative Law in Context, ch4. www.emp.ca/downloads/adminlaw/AdminLaw_04_c3_'Manitoba'.doc The Manitoban Legislature ceased to publish legislation in French but did so in English only. However, in 1985 the Supreme Court of Canada ruled in the Reference re Manitoba Language Rights that §23 still applied, and that legislation published only in English was invalid (so that Manitoba did not descend into a state of lawlessness, unilingual legislation was declared valid for a temporary period, to give the government of Manitoba time to issue translations). Judgements of the Supreme Court of Canada. http://csc.lexum.umontreal.ca/en/1985/1985rcs1-721/1985rcs1-721.html Although French is an official language for the purposes of the legislature, legislation, and the courts, the Manitoba Act (as interpreted by the Supreme Court of Canada) does not require it to be an official language for the purpose of the executive branch of government (except when the executive branch is performing legislative or judicial functions). In [1992] 1 S.C.R. 221-222 , the Supreme Court rejected the contentions of the Société franco-manitobaine that §23 extends to executive functions of the executive branch. Hence, Manitoba's government is not completely bilingual, and as reflected in the Canadian Constitution Act, 1982, the only completely bilingual province is New Brunswick. The Manitoba French Language Services Policy of 1999 is intended to provide a comparable level of provincial government services in both official languages. Manitoba Francophone Affairs Secretariat Services to the public, including public utilities and health services, official documents such as parking tickets and court summonses, court and commission hearings, and government web sites are accessible in both English and French. Education The first school in Manitoba was founded in 1812 on the banks of the Red River. After 1818, Roman Catholic missionaries began constructing Catholic schools in the region. Foundations of Dual Education at Red River, 1811-34. Dr. C. J. Jaenen. MHS Transactions Series 3, 1964-65 season The first Protestant school was established in 1820. The Manitoba Schools Question led to funding for French Catholic schools largely being withddrawn. The provincial Department of Education was established in 1871; it was responsible for public schools and curriculum. Today, public schools in Manitoba fall under the jurisdiction of their respective school districts within the provincial education system (except for the Manitoba Band Operated Schools, which are administered by the federal government). Schooling is mandatory for all children between the ages of 7 and 16 years; students are allowed to attend school between the ages of 6 and 21. Going to school in Manitoba. Government of Manitoba. http://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/schools/gts.html There are five universities in Manitoba, which are under the responsibility of the Ministry of Advanced Education and Literacy. Four of these universities—the University of Manitoba, the Collège universitaire de Saint-Boniface, the Canadian Mennonite University and the University of Winnipeg—are in Winnipeg. The Collège universitaire de Saint-Boniface, established in 1818, is the oldest university in the province and is a French language university, and Brandon University, formed in 1899 and located in Brandon, Manitoba, is the newest. Manitoba also has 38 public libraries. Twenty-one of these are part of the Winnipeg Public Library system. The first lending library in Manitoba was founded in 1848. “Winnipeg Public Library: A Capsule History.” Winnipeg Public Library, 1988. Professional sports teams Canadian Football League Winnipeg Blue Bombers American Hockey League Manitoba Moose Northern League (baseball) Winnipeg Goldeyes Former professional sports teams National Hockey League/ World Hockey Association Winnipeg Jets (moved to Phoenix, Arizona and are now the Phoenix Coyotes) Northern League (baseball, 1902-71) Winnipeg Maroons (defunct) Winnipeg Whips 1970-1971 -Triple A Baseball/ Farm Team of Montreal Expos World Basketball League / National Basketball League Winnipeg Thunder (defunct) International Basketball Association (1995-2001) Winnipeg Cyclone (defunct) Military Canadian Forces Base Winnipeg (CFB Winnipeg) is a Canadian Forces Base in Winnipeg co-located at the Winnipeg International Airport. CFB Winnipeg is home to many flight operations support divisions, as well as several training schools. It is also the 1 Canadian Air Division/Canadian NORAD Region Headquarters. The base is supported by over 3,000 military personnel and civilian employees. The Royal Winnipeg Rifles and The Queen's Own Cameron Highlanders of Canada are infantry reserve units based at Minto Armouries in Winnipeg. The Fort Garry Horse is an armored reconnaissance and field engineer reserve unit based at McGregor Armoury in Winnipeg. 17 Wing of the Canadian Forces is based in Winnipeg near the airport. The Wing has three squadrons and six schools. It also provides support to the Central Flying School. The Wing also supports 113 units from Thunder Bay to the Saskatchewan/Alberta border, and from the 49th Parallel to the high Arctic. 17 Wing acts as a deployed operating base for CF-18 Hornet fighter-bombers assigned to the Canadian NORAD Region. de Havilland Canada C-FUKN piston Otter on floats in Manitoba The two squadrons based in the city are: 402 “City of Winnipeg” Squadron. This squadron flies the Canadian designed and produced de Havilland Canada CT-142 Dash 8 navigation trainer in support of the Canadian Forces Air Navigation School’s Air Navigators and Airborne Electronic Sensor Operator training programs. 435 “Chinthe” Transport and Rescue Squadron. This squadron flies the powerful Lockheed CC-130 Hercules tanker/transport in airlift search and rescue roles. In addition, 435 Squadron is the only Air Force squadron equipped and trained to conduct air-to-air refueling of fighter aircraft. The CC-130 Hercules tanker is a key asset for the Canadian NORAD Region in its mission to defend Canada and the United States against aerial threats that originate outside of or within North American airspace. For many years, Winnipeg was the home of the Second Battalion of Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry (2 PPCLI). Initially, the battalion was based at the Fort Osborne Barracks near present-day Osborne Village. They eventually moved to the Kapyong Barracks located in the River Heights/Tuxedo neighbourhood of Winnipeg. Since 2004, the 550 men and women of the battalion have operated out of Canadian Forces Base Shilo (CFB Shilo). CFB Shilo is an Operations and Training base of the Canadian Forces located east of Brandon, Manitoba. During the 1990s, Canadian Forces Base Shilo was also designated as an Area Support Unit, acting as a local base of operations for south-west Manitoba in times of military and civil emergency. CFB Shilo is the home of the 1st Regiment, Royal Canadian Horse Artillery , the 2nd Battalion of Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry (2PPCLI)—both battalions of the 1 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group—as well as being the Home Station of the Royal Canadian Artillery. In addition, CFB Shilo lodges training units such as the Western Area Training Centre Detachment Shilo and the Communications Reserve School. It also serves as a base for some support units of Land Force Western Area, including 731 Signals Squadron. See also 20 Largest Cities in Manitoba Dominion Land Survey First Nations in Northern Manitoba First Nations in Southern Manitoba Legislative Assembly of Manitoba List of airports in Manitoba List of Canadian provincial and territorial symbols List of cities in Canada List of communities in Manitoba List of Manitoba general elections List of Manitoba lieutenant-governors List of Manitoba museums List of Manitoba premiers List of Manitoba regions List of Manitoba School Divisions and Districts List of rural municipalities in Manitoba List of universities in Manitoba Manitoba Act Manitoba cabinet ministers Manitoba Hydro Manitoba Telecom Services Mincome, a guaranteed minimum income program in the 1970s experimented in Manitoba Parks in Manitoba Red River Flood, 1997 Republic of Manitoba (1867-68) Same-sex marriage in Manitoba Scouting in Manitoba References Further reading Carr, Ian and Robert E. Beamish. Manitoba Medicine: A Brief History (ISBN 0-88755-660-4) (1999) Clark, Lovell. ed The Manitoba School Question: majority rule or minority rights? (1968) historians debate the issue Chafe, J. W. Extraordinary Tales from Manitoba History (1973) Cook, Ramsay. The Politics of John W. Dafoe and the Free Press (1963) Dafoe, John W. Clifford Sifton in Relation to His Times (1931) Donnelly, M. S. The Government of Manitoba (1963) Ellis, J.H. The Ministry of Agriculture in Manitoba, 1870-1970 (1971) Ewanchuk, Michael. Pioneer Profiles: Ukrainian Settlers in Manitoba (1981) (ISBN 0-9690768-4-3) Raymond M. Hébert. Manitoba's French-Language Crisis: A Cautionary Tale McGill-Queen's University Press (2004) ISBN 0-7735-2790-7 Hanlon, Christine; Edie, Barbara; Pendgracs, Doreen. Manitoba Book of Everything (2008) (ISBN 978-0-9784784-5-2) Kinnear, Mary, ed. 1st Days, Fighting Days: Women in Manitoba History (1987) Friesen, Gerald, and Potyondi, Barry. A Guide to the Study of Manitoba Local History (1981) Petryshyn, Jaroslav. Peasants in the Promised Land: Canada and the Ukrainians, 1891-1914 (1985) Whitcomb, Ed. A Short History of Manitoba (1982) (ISBN 0-920002-15-3) Yuzyk, Paul. 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1,596 | Foreign_relations_of_Jordan | The foreign relations of Jordan have consistently followed a pro-Western foreign policy and traditionally Jordan has had close relations with the United States and the United Kingdom. These relations were damaged by support in Jordan for Iraq during the Gulf war. In public, Jordan continued to call for the lifting of UN sanctions against Iraq within the context of implementing UNIC resolutions. Since the end of the war, Jordan has largely restored its relations with Western countries through its participation in the Middle East peace process and enforcement of UN sanctions against Iraq. Jordan signed a nonbelligerency agreement with Israel (the Washington Declaration) in Washington, DC, on July 25, 1994. Jordan and Israel signed a historic peace treaty on October 26, 1994, witnessed by President Clinton, accompanied by Secretary Christopher. The U.S. has participated with Jordan and Israel in trilateral development discussions during which key issues have been water-sharing and security; cooperation on Jordan Rift Valley development; infrastructure projects; and trade, finance, and banking issues. In 1996, the United States added Jordan to their major non-NATO ally agreement. Jordan also participates in the multilateral peace talks, and recently Jordan has signed a free trade agreement with the United States. Jordan is an active member of the UN and several of its specialized and related agencies, including the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), and World Health Organization (WHO). Jordan is a member of the World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF), Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC), Non-Aligned Movement, and Arab League. Within the context of the European Union's "European Neighbourhood Policy" the EU and Jordan have jointly adopted an Action plan to reinforce their political and economic interdependence, and further implement their current Association Agreement. This Action Plan covers a timeframe of three to five years and will encourage and support Jordan’s national reform objectives and further integration into European economic and social structures. Israel captured Jerusalem in 1967, which is located at the West Bank of Jordan. Since 1967 Pakistan has been demanding its vacation at the international level. Jordan together with Pakistan is playing an effective role in the Organization of Islamic Conference (O.I.C). In May 2008, the His Majesty King Abdullah II visited Brunei, to bolster ties between Jordan and the southeast Asian nation, as well as discuss issues facing the Muslim world. Along with Sultan of Brunei Darussalam, Abdullah signed agreements devised to enhance cooperation in the economic, tourism and defense fields. Azaraimy, H. 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1,597 | Minoru_Yamasaki | was an American architect best known for his design of the twin towers of the World Trade Center buildings 1 and 2. Yamasaki was one of the most prominent architects of the 20th century and his firm, Yamasaki & Associates, continues to do business. He and fellow architect Edward Durell Stone are generally considered to be the two master practitioners of "romanticized modernism". Biography The former World Trade Center Torre Picasso, in Madrid. Temple Beth El (Detroit, Michigan) The Conservatory of Music at Oberlin College, designed by Yamasaki in 1963. The distinctive style is similar to Yamasaki's design of the World Trade Center. Yamasaki, born in Seattle, Washington, was a second-generation Japanese American. He grew up in Auburn, Washington and attended Auburn Senior High School. He enrolled in the University of Washington program in architecture in 1929, and graduated with a Bachelor of Architecture (B.Arch.) in 1934. During his college years, he was strongly encouraged by faculty member Lionel Pries. He earned money to pay for his tuition by working at an Alaskan salmon cannery. After moving to New York City in the 1930s, he enrolled at New York University for a master's degree in architecture and got a job with the architecture firm Shreve, Lamb and Harmon, designers of the Empire State Building. In 1945, Yamasaki moved to Detroit, where he was hired by Smith, Hinchman, and Grylls. Yamasaki left the firm in 1949, and started his own partnership. In 1964 Yamasaki received a D.F.A. from Bates College. Yamasaki was first married in 1941 and had two other wives before marrying his first wife again in 1969. He died of cancer in 1986. Works His first significant project was the Pruitt-Igoe housing project in St. Louis, Missouri, 1955. Despite his love of Japanese traditional design, this was a stark, modernist concrete structure. The housing project experienced so many problems that it was demolished in 1972, less than twenty years after its completion. Its destruction is considered by some to be the beginning of postmodern architecture. He also designed several "sleek" international airport buildings and was responsible for the innovative design of the 1,360 foot (415 m) towers of the World Trade Center, for which design began in 1965, and construction in 1972. Many of his buildings are loosely inspired by Gothic architecture and make use of extremely narrow vertical windows. This narrow-windowed style arose from his own personal fear of heights. Yamasaki was an original member of the Pennsylvania Avenue Commission, which was tasked with restoring the grand avenue in Washington, D.C., but resigned after disagreements and disillusionment with the design by committee approach. After teaming up with Emery Roth and Sons on the design of the World Trade Center, they teamed up again on other projects including new defense buildings at Bolling Air Force Base in Washington, D.C. Structures designed by Minoru Yamasaki 100 Washington Square, Minneapolis, MN, 1981 Bank of Oklahoma, Tulsa, Oklahoma, 1977 Behavioral Sciences Building - Harvard University Birmingham Unitarian Church, Bloomfield Hills, MI Carleton College buildings: Olin Hall of Science 1961, Goodhue Dormitory 1962, West Gym 1964, Cowling Rec Center 1965, Watson Hall 1966 and 1961 4th Floor addition to Myers Hall. . Century Plaza Hotel, Los Angeles, 1966 Century Plaza Towers, Los Angeles, 1975 Columbia Center, Troy, Michigan College for Creative Studies Yamasaki Building, Detroit, Michigan Daniell Heights married student housing, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, Michigan Dhahran International Airport - Civil Air Terminal Eastern Airlines Terminal, (Logan Airport Terminal A) Boston, Massachusetts, 1969 (Demolished 2002) . Eastern Province International Airport, Saudi Arabia, 1985 Education Building, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond , Richmond, Virginia Federal Science Pavilion, Century 21 (Seattle World's Fair), Seattle, 1962 (now Pacific Science Center) Founder's Hall, Shinji Shumeikai, Shiga Prefecture, Japan, 1982 Gratiot Urban Redevelopment Project, Detroit, Michigan, 1954 Helen L. DeRoy Auditorium Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan Horace Mann Educators Insurance Co., Springfield, Illinois, 1979 IBM Building, Seattle, Washington Irwin Library, Butler University, Indianapolis, Indiana Japan Center, San Francisco, California, 1968 John Marshall Middle School, Westland, Michigan King Building, Oberlin College, 1966 Lambert-St. Louis International Airport, 1956 M&T Bank Center, Buffalo, 1967 McGregor Memorial Conference Center, Wayne State University, Detroit Michigan Consolidated Gas Co., Detroit, Michigan, 1963 (Now known as One Woodward Avenue) Michigan State Medical Society Building, East Lansing, Michigan, 1959 Military Personnel Records Center, St. Louis, Missouri Montgomery Ward Corporate Headquarters Tower (built 1972), Chicago, Illinois (converted into high-rise residential condominiums in 2005) North Shore Congregation Israel, Glencoe,Illinois, 1964 Northwestern National Life Insurance Co., Minneapolis, Minnesota, 1964 Oberlin Conservatory of Music (photo)Oberlin College, 1963 One Woodward Avenue, Detroit, Michigan Pahlavi University in Shiraz, Iran Performing Arts Center, Tulsa, Oklahoma, 1976 Pruitt-Igoe housing project, St. Louis, Missouri (demolished in 1972) Queen Emma Gardens, Honolulu, 1964 Quo Vadis Entertainment Center, Westland, Michigan 1966 Rainier Bank Tower, Seattle, Washington, 1977 Reynolds Metals Regional Sales Office, Southfield, Michigan, 1959 Robertson Hall, Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs,Princeton University, 1965 Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency Head Office, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, 1981 Steinman College Center, Franklin and Marshall College, Lancaster, Pennsylvania, 1976 Temple Beth El (Detroit, Michigan) 1974 Torre Picasso, Madrid, Spain, 1988 One Government Center, Toledo, Ohio, 1976 United States Consulate in Kobe, Japan 1955 United States Pavilion, World Agricultural Fair, New Delhi, India, 1959 University School, Grosse Pointe, Michigan, 1954 Wascana Centre and the University of Regina World Trade Center Tower 1 and Tower 2, New York City, New York (destroyed on 9/11/2001 by terrorist attack) Honors Yamasaki was elected as a Fellow in the American Institute of Architects in 1960. Yamasaki won the American Institute of Architects' First Honor Award three times. See also Construction of the World Trade Center References Other references Yamasaki, Minoru, A Life in Architecture, Weatherhill, NY 1979 ISBN 0834801361 Nobel, Philip, Sixteen Acres: The rebuilding of the World Trade Center site, Granta, London 2005 ISBN 1-86207-713-4 External links GreatBuildings.com listing Seattle Architect Created Trade Center as Peace Symbol Seattle P-I, September 13, 2001 | Minoru_Yamasaki |@lemmatized american:4 architect:6 best:1 know:2 design:10 twin:1 tower:7 world:10 trade:9 center:20 building:11 yamasaki:15 one:4 prominent:1 century:4 firm:3 associate:1 continue:1 business:1 fellow:2 edward:1 durell:1 stone:1 generally:1 consider:2 two:2 master:2 practitioner:1 romanticize:1 modernism:1 biography:1 former:1 torre:2 picasso:2 madrid:2 temple:2 beth:2 el:2 detroit:10 michigan:18 conservatory:2 music:2 oberlin:4 college:9 distinctive:1 style:2 similar:1 bear:1 seattle:7 washington:8 second:1 generation:1 japanese:2 grow:1 auburn:2 attend:1 senior:1 high:2 school:4 enrol:2 university:12 program:1 architecture:7 graduate:1 bachelor:1 b:1 arch:1 year:2 strongly:1 encourage:1 faculty:1 member:2 lionel:1 pry:1 earn:1 money:1 pay:1 tuition:1 work:2 alaskan:1 salmon:1 cannery:1 move:2 new:6 york:4 city:2 degree:1 get:1 job:1 shreve:1 lamb:1 harmon:1 designer:1 empire:1 state:7 hire:1 smith:1 hinchman:1 grylls:1 leave:1 start:1 partnership:1 receive:1 f:1 bates:1 first:4 marry:3 wife:2 die:1 cancer:1 significant:1 project:6 pruitt:2 igoe:2 housing:4 st:4 louis:4 missouri:3 despite:1 love:1 traditional:1 stark:1 modernist:1 concrete:1 structure:2 experience:1 many:2 problem:1 demolish:2 less:1 twenty:1 completion:1 destruction:1 beginning:1 postmodern:1 also:2 several:1 sleek:1 international:5 airport:5 responsible:1 innovative:1 foot:1 begin:1 construction:2 loosely:1 inspire:1 gothic:1 make:1 use:1 extremely:1 narrow:2 vertical:1 window:1 windowed:1 arose:1 personal:1 fear:1 height:2 original:1 pennsylvania:2 avenue:4 commission:1 task:1 restore:1 grand:1 c:2 resign:1 disagreement:1 disillusionment:1 committee:1 approach:1 team:2 emery:1 roth:1 son:1 include:1 defense:1 bolling:1 air:2 force:1 base:1 minoru:2 square:1 minneapolis:2 mn:1 bank:4 oklahoma:3 tulsa:2 behavioral:1 science:4 build:1 harvard:1 birmingham:1 unitarian:1 church:1 bloomfield:1 hill:1 mi:1 carleton:1 olin:1 hall:5 goodhue:1 dormitory:1 west:1 gym:1 cowl:1 rec:1 watson:1 floor:1 addition:1 myers:1 plaza:2 hotel:1 los:2 angeles:2 columbia:1 troy:1 creative:1 study:1 daniell:1 student:1 technological:1 houghton:1 dhahran:1 civil:1 terminal:3 eastern:2 airline:1 logan:1 boston:1 massachusetts:1 demolished:1 province:1 saudi:3 arabia:2 education:1 wayne:3 federal:2 reserve:1 richmond:2 virginia:1 pavilion:2 fair:2 pacific:1 founder:1 shinji:1 shumeikai:1 shiga:1 prefecture:1 japan:3 gratiot:1 urban:1 redevelopment:1 helen:1 l:1 deroy:1 auditorium:1 horace:1 mann:1 educator:1 insurance:2 co:3 springfield:1 illinois:3 ibm:1 irwin:1 library:1 butler:1 indianapolis:1 indiana:1 san:1 francisco:1 california:1 john:1 marshall:2 middle:1 westland:2 king:1 lambert:1 buffalo:1 mcgregor:1 memorial:1 conference:1 consolidate:1 gas:1 woodward:2 medical:1 society:1 east:1 lansing:1 military:1 personnel:1 record:1 montgomery:1 ward:1 corporate:1 headquarters:1 built:1 chicago:1 convert:1 rise:1 residential:1 condominium:1 north:1 shore:1 congregation:1 israel:1 glencoe:1 northwestern:1 national:1 life:2 minnesota:1 photo:1 pahlavi:1 shiraz:1 iran:1 perform:1 art:1 queen:1 emma:1 garden:1 honolulu:1 quo:1 vadis:1 entertainment:1 rainy:1 reynolds:1 metal:1 regional:1 sale:1 office:2 southfield:1 robertson:1 woodrow:1 wilson:1 public:1 affair:1 princeton:1 arabian:1 monetary:1 agency:1 head:1 riyadh:1 steinman:1 franklin:1 lancaster:1 spain:1 government:1 toledo:1 ohio:1 united:2 consulate:1 kobe:1 agricultural:1 delhi:1 india:1 grosse:1 pointe:1 wascana:1 centre:1 regina:1 destroy:1 terrorist:1 attack:1 honor:2 elect:1 institute:2 win:1 award:1 three:1 time:1 see:1 reference:2 weatherhill:1 ny:1 isbn:2 nobel:1 philip:1 sixteen:1 acre:1 rebuilding:1 site:1 granta:1 london:1 external:1 link:1 greatbuildings:1 com:1 list:1 create:1 peace:1 symbol:1 p:1 september:1 |@bigram temple_beth:2 pay_tuition:1 minneapolis_mn:1 tulsa_oklahoma:2 bloomfield_hill:1 los_angeles:2 boston_massachusetts:1 saudi_arabia:2 richmond_virginia:1 horace_mann:1 springfield_illinois:1 indianapolis_indiana:1 san_francisco:1 lansing_michigan:1 chicago_illinois:1 minneapolis_minnesota:1 shiraz_iran:1 quo_vadis:1 woodrow_wilson:1 saudi_arabian:1 riyadh_saudi:1 lancaster_pennsylvania:1 toledo_ohio:1 grosse_pointe:1 external_link:1 |
1,598 | Biathlon | Several biathletes in the shooting area of a competition Biathlon is a term used to describe any sporting event made up of two disciplines. However, biathlon usually refers specifically to the winter sport that combines cross-country skiing and rifle shooting. Another popular variant is summer biathlon, which combines cross-country running with riflery, and also modern biathlon and biathle, which combine running with swimming. Concise history The sport has its origins in an exercise for Norwegian soldiers, as an alternative training for the military. The world's first known ski club, the Trysil Rifle and Ski Club, was formed in Norway in 1861 to promote national defence at the local level. Called military patrol, the combination of skiing and shooting was contested at the Olympic Winter Games in 1924, and then demonstrated in 1928, 1936, and 1948, but did not regain Olympic recognition then, as the small number of competing countries disagreed on the rules (see also Governing body, below). During the mid-1950s, however, biathlon was introduced into the Russian and Swedish winter sport circuits and was widely enjoyed by the public. This newfound popularity aided the effort of having biathlon gain entry into the Winter Olympics, where it has later become one of the most cherished sports. The first World Championship in biathlon was held in 1958 in Austria, and in 1960 the sport was finally included in the Olympic Games. At Albertville in 1992, women were first allowed in Olympic biathlon. The competitions from 1958 to 1965, used high-power centerfire rifle cartridges (such as .30-06, 7.62 mm NATO, etc.) before the .22LR rimfire cartridge was standardized in 1978. The ammunition was carried in a belt worn around the competitor's waist. With the only competition being the men's 20 km individual, four different ranges and firing distances of 100 m, 150 m, 200 m, and 250 m. The target distance was reduced to 150 m with the addition of the relay in 1966. The shooting range was further reduced to 50 m in 1978 with the mechanical targets making their debut at the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid. Newer electronic targets (similar to mechanical targets) are now used in all major competitions such as World Cups, World Championships, and the Olympics. The targets, using computerized sensors, are superior to mechanical targets as they require fewer officials for recording and reseting the targets and they allow for instant shot recording, needed for live television broadcasts. The mechanical targets were also shown in the 1981 James Bond film For Your Eyes Only when Bond was in Cortina d'Ampezzo while a biathlon competition was ongoing. Governing body In 1948, the Union Internationale de Pentathlon Moderne et Biathlon (UIPMB) was founded, to standardise the rules for biathlon and modern pentathlon. In 1993, the biathlon branch of the UIPMB created the International Biathlon Union (IBU), which officially separated from the UIPMB in 1998. Presidents of the UIPMB/IBU: 1948–1949: Tom Wiborn (Sweden) 1949–1960: Gustaf Dyrssen (Sweden) 1960–1988: Sven Thofelt, (Sweden) 1988–1992: Igor Novikov (USSR/Russia) Since 1992: Anders Besseberg (Norway) Championships The following articles list major international biathlon events and medalists. Contrary to the Olympics and World Championships (BWCH), the World Cup (BWC) is an entire winter season of (mostly) weekly races, where the medalists are those with the highest sums of World Cup points at the end of the season. Biathlon at the Olympic Games Biathlon World Championships Biathlon World Cup Rules and equipment Andrea Nahrgang prepares to shoot from the prone position at the 2002 Winter Olympics. Jeremy Teela shoots from the standing position at the 2006 Winter Olympics. The complete rules of biathlon are given in the official IBU rule book (see External links, below). However, the concise description given below, along with the section on competition format, should be enough for a spectator to understand what is going on at a biathlon stadium whether actually being there or at home watching a televised biathlon event. Basic concepts A biathlon competition consists of a race in which contestants ski around a cross-country track, and where the total distance is broken up by either two or four shooting rounds, half in prone position, the other half standing. Depending on the shooting performance, extra distance or time is added to the contestant's total running distance/time. As in most races, the contestant with the shortest total time wins. For each shooting round, the biathlete must hit five targets; each missed target must be "atoned for" in one of three ways, depending on the competition format: by skiing around a penalty loop, typically taking 20–30 seconds for top-level biathletes to complete (running time depending on weather/snow conditions), by having one minute added to a skier's total time, or by having to use an "extra cartridge" (placed at the shooting range) to finish off the target; only three such "extras" are available for each round, and a penalty loop must be made for each of the targets left standing. In order to keep track of the contestants' progress and relative standing throughout a race, split times (intermediate times) are taken at several points along the skiing track and upon finishing each shooting round. The large display screens commonly set up at biathlon arenas, as well as the information graphics shown as part of the TV picture, will typically list the split time of the fastest contestant at each intermediate point and the times and time differences to the closest runners-up. Skiing details All cross-country skiing techniques are permitted in biathlon, which means that the free technique is usually the preferred one, being the fastest. No other equipment than skis and ski poles may be used for moving along the track. Minimal ski length is less than the height of the skier. Shooting details The biathlete carries the small bore rifle, which weighs at least , including ammunition in magazines on her/his back during the race. The rifles use .22 LR ammunition and are bolt action or Fortner action. The target range shooting distance is . There are five circular targets to be hit in each shooting round. When shooting in the prone position the target diameter is , when shooting in the standing position the target diameter is . On all modern biathlon ranges, the targets are self-indicating, in that they flip from black to white when hit, giving the biathlete as well as the spectators instant visual feedback for each shot fired. Competition format Individual The individual race (15 km for women) is the oldest biathlon event; the distance is skied over five laps. The biathlete shoots four times at any shooting lane, Even in English speaking countries such as Canada and the United States each country may use different terms for the same thing in biathlon. For example: Stage (USA) vs. Bout (Canada), Shooting Point (USA) vs. Shooting Lane (Canada) in the order of prone, standing, prone, standing, totalling 20 targets. For each missed target a fixed penalty time, usually one minute, is added to the skiing time of the biathlete. Competitors' starts are staggered, normally by 30 seconds. Sprint The sprint is for men and for women; the distance is skied over three laps. The biathlete shoots twice at any shooting lane, once prone and once standing, for a total of 10 shots. For each miss, a penalty loop of 150 m must be skied before the race can be continued. As in the individual competition, the biathletes start in intervals. Pursuit In a pursuit, biathletes' starts are separated by their time differences from a previous race, To be precise; the pursuit competition start intervals are determined by common rounding to the nearest whole second of the biathletes' time differences from the previous race the amount of time each biathlete lagged after the winner to the finish line. most commonly a sprint. The contestant crossing the finish line first is the winner. The distance is for men and for women, skied over five laps; there are four shooting bouts (two prone, two standing, in that order), and each miss means a penalty loop of 150 m. To prevent awkward and/or dangerous crowding of the skiing loops, and overcapacity at the shooting range, World Cup Pursuits are held with only the 60 top ranking biathletes after the preceding race. The biathletes shoot (on a first-come, first-served basis) at the lane corresponding to the position they arrived for all shooting bouts. Mass start In the mass start, all biathletes start at the same time and the first across the finish line wins. In this or for women competition, the distance is skied over five laps; there are four bouts of shooting (two prone, two standing, in that order) with the first shooting bout being at the lane corresponding to your bib (Bib #10 shoots at lane #10 regardless of position in race.) with rest of the shooting bouts being at the lane in the position they arrived (Arrive at the lane in fifth place, you shoot at lane five.). As in sprint races, competitors must ski one 150 m penalty loop for each miss. Here again, to avoid unwanted congestion, World Cup Mass starts are held with only the 30 top ranking athletes on the start line (half that of the Pursuit as here all contestants start simultaneously). Relay The relay teams consist of four biathletes, who each ski (men) or (women), each leg skied over three laps, with two shooting rounds; one prone, one standing. For every round of five targets there are eight bullets available, though the last three can only be single-loaded manually one at a time from spare round holders or bullets deposited by the competitor into trays or onto the mat at the firing line. If after eight bullets there are still misses, one 150 m penalty loop must be taken for each missed target remaining. The first-leg participants start all at the same time, and as in cross-country skiing relays, every athlete of a team must touch the team's next-leg participant to perform a valid changeover. On the first shooting stage of the first leg, the participant must shoot in the lane corresponding to their bib number (Bib #10 shoots at lane #10 regardless of position in race.), then for the remainder of the relay, the relay team shoots at the lane in the position they arrived (Arrive at the range in 5th place, you shoot at lane five.). Mixed relay The most recent addition to the number of biathlon competition variants, the mixed relay, is similar to the ordinary relay but for the composition of the teams, each of which consists of two women and two men. Legs 1 and 2 are done by the women, legs 3 and 4 by the men. The women legs are 6 km and men legs are 7,5 km as in ordinary relay competitions. Team (obsolete) A team consists of four biathletes, but unlike the relay competition, all team members start at the same time. Two athletes must shoot in the prone shooting round, the other two in the standing round. In case of a miss, the two non-shooting biathletes must ski a penalty loop of 150 m. The skiers must enter the shooting area together, and must also finish within 15 seconds of each other; otherwise a time penalty of one minute is added to the total time. Since 2004, this race format has been obsolete at the World Cup level. Biathlon venues World Cup events and World Championships in biathlon have traditionally been held at the following few locations. Due to the complicated shooting range equipment, which absolutely has to work in order to hold successful races, biathlon is a highly demanding sport for organisers. Country Major biathlon venues HochfilzenSaalfelden Raubitchi Borovets CanmoreValcartierCallaghan Valley Bjelolasica Nové Město na Moravě KontiolahtiKuusamoLahti Bessans OberhofRuhpoldingAltenbergVeltins-Arena* Antholz-AnterselvaCesana-San SicarioMartell BeitostølenHolmenkollenLillehammer KościeliskoDuszniki Zdrój Khanty-MansiyskNovosibirskUfa Brezno-Osrblie Pokljuka Östersund Fort Kent, MEPresque Isle, MELake Placid, NYSoldier Hollow, UT * Since 2002, the Veltins-Arena has hosted a special end-of-year mixed team event, now called the "Veltins Biathlon World Team Challenge". Broadcasting Biathlon events are broadcast most regularly where the sport enjoys its greatest popularity, namely Germany (ARD, ZDF), Austria (ORF), Norway (NRK), Finland (YLE), Estonia (ETV), Latvia (LTV), Croatia (HRT), Poland (TVP), Sweden (SVT), Russia (Sport, Channel One (Russia)), Belarus (TVR), Slovenia (RTV), Bosnia and Herzegovina (BHRT), Bulgaria (BNT), South Korea (KBS); it is broadcast on European-wide Eurosport, which also broadcasts to the Asia-Pacific region. World Cup races are streamed (without commentary) via the IBU website Startseite - www.biathlonworld.com and some of these events are available on the World Championship Sports Network (WCSN). WCSN - The Home of World Champions The broadcast distribution being one indicator, the constellation of a sport's main sponsors usually gives a similar, and correlated, indication of popularity: for biathlon, these are the Germany-based companies E.ON Ruhrgas (energy), Krombacher (beer), and Viessmann (boilers and other heating systems). U.S. biathlete Jeremy Teela at the 2002 Winter Olympics. Other Biathlon variants Two common variations on biathlon are summer biathlon, where skiing is replaced by a cross-country run, and archery biathlon (or ski archery), where the rifle is replaced by a recurve bow. There have also been summer competitions in roller-ski biathlon, mountain bike biathlon and orienteering biathlon. Primitive Biathlon uses snowshoes and muzzleloaders. The Boy Scouts of America offers a Bikeathlon variant at their national Scout jamboree that mixes BMX biking with air rifle shooting at biathlon type targets, :: Crosman: Summer House - Bikathalon:: and Philmont Scout Ranch has recently begun offering a similar activity. 2007 Itineraries in Brief Cadets Canada also offers biathlon to cadets across Canada, with 3 stages; zones, provincial and national. Zone competitions are occasionally, due to lack of snow in some southern areas, held as summer biathlon. A .22 caliber rifle is used at all levels. Races are shorter than world class events. More information can be found at the National Cadet Biathlon Championship website. National Cadet Biathlon Championship - 2007 - Championnat national de biathlon des cadets See also Biathlon's two sports disciplines: Skiing and skiing topics Rifle shooting sports Other multi-discipline sports (otherwise unrelated to biathlon): Duathlon Nordic Combined Triathlon Pentathlon Modern pentathlon Heptathlon Decathlon Chess-boxing Notes External links Event & Competition Rules Authorized by the IBU Congress, June 1998 – The official IBU rule book, with annexes Biathlonworld.Com – A cooperation between IBU and EBU; with race results/statistics, TV schedules, live competition results, etc. Russian Biathlon Union Russian Biathlon Union Biathlon Canada Biathlon Alberta U.S. Biathlon Association U.S. Archery Biathlon History of Biathlon Veltins Biathlon World Team Challenge Biathlon on OLN TV Biathlon on DVD Biathlon Russia Biathlon Ukraine Biathlon Ukraine BiathlonFrance.com Biathlon history Popular Norwegian site | Biathlon |@lemmatized several:2 biathletes:11 shooting:13 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1,599 | Electrochemical_cell | A demonstration electrochemical cell setup resembling the Daniell cell. The two half-cells are linked by a salt bridge carrying ions between them. Electrons flow in the external circuit. An electrochemical cell is a device used for generating an electromotive force (voltage) and current from chemical reactions, or the reverse, inducing a chemical reaction by a flow of current. The current is caused by the reactions releasing and accepting electrons at the different ends of a conductor. A common example of an electrochemical cell is a standard 1.5-volt battery. Batteries are composed of usually multiple Galvanic cells. Half-cells The Bunsen cell, invented by Robert Bunsen. An electrochemical cell consists of two half-cells. Each half-cell consists of an electrode, and an electrolyte. The two half-cells may use the same electrolyte, or they may use different electrolytes. The chemical reactions in the cell may involve the electrolyte, the electrodes or an external substance (as in fuel cells which may use hydrogen gas as a reactant). In a full electrochemical cell, ions, atoms, or molecules from one half-cell lose electrons (oxidation) to their electrode while ions, atoms, or molecules from the other half-cell gain electrons (reduction) from their electrode. A salt bridge is often employed to provide electrical contact between two half-cells with very different electrolytes—to prevent the solutions from mixing. This can simply be a strip of filter paper soaked in saturated potassium nitrate (V) solution. Other devices for achieving separation of solutions are porous pots and gelled solutions. A porous pot is used in the Bunsen cell (right). Equilibrium reaction Each half-cell has a characteristic voltage. Different choices of substances for each half-cell give different potential differences. Each reaction is undergoing an equilibrium reaction between different oxidation states of the ions—when equilibrium is reached the cell cannot provide further voltage. In the half-cell which is undergoing oxidation, the closer the equilibrium lies to the ion/atom with the more positive oxidation state the more potential this reaction will provide. Similarly, in the reduction reaction, the further the equilibrium lies to the ion/atom with the more negative oxidation state the higher the potential. Electrode potential The cell potential can be predicted through the use of electrode potentials (the voltages of each half-cell). (See table of standard electrode potentials). The difference in voltage between electrode potentials gives a prediction for the potential measured. Cell potentials have a possible range of about zero to 6 volts. Cells using water-based electrolytes are usually limited to cell potentials less than about 2.5 volts, because the very powerful oxidising and reducing agents which would be required to produce a higher cell potential tend to react with the water. Electrical cells An electrical cell is a device that is used to generate electricity, or one that is used to make chemical reactions possible by applying electricity. Cells producing electricity An example is a Primary cell. Cells using electricity Some chemical reactions need high energy to happen. An example is the breakdown of water into hydrogen and oxygen in a process known as electrolysis. An electrochemical cell (or an electrolytic cell) is used for these reactions. Another example is the reduction of bauxite ore to make aluminum, which uses large cells and currents on the order of thousands of amperes. Cell types Accumulator Concentration cell Electrolytic cell Galvanic cell Lasagne cell Lemon battery See also Alkaline battery Battery Cell notation Electrochemical potential Nickel Cadmium battery References | Electrochemical_cell |@lemmatized demonstration:1 electrochemical:7 cell:43 setup:1 resemble:1 daniell:1 two:4 half:12 link:1 salt:2 bridge:2 carry:1 ion:6 electron:4 flow:2 external:2 circuit:1 device:3 use:12 generate:2 electromotive:1 force:1 voltage:5 current:4 chemical:5 reaction:12 reverse:1 induce:1 cause:1 release:1 accept:1 different:6 end:1 conductor:1 common:1 example:4 standard:2 volt:3 battery:6 compose:1 usually:2 multiple:1 galvanic:2 bunsen:3 invent:1 robert:1 consist:2 electrode:8 electrolyte:6 may:4 involve:1 substance:2 fuel:1 hydrogen:2 gas:1 reactant:1 full:1 atom:4 molecule:2 one:2 lose:1 oxidation:5 gain:1 reduction:3 often:1 employ:1 provide:3 electrical:3 contact:1 prevent:1 solution:4 mix:1 simply:1 strip:1 filter:1 paper:1 soak:1 saturated:1 potassium:1 nitrate:1 v:1 achieve:1 separation:1 porous:2 pot:2 gelled:1 right:1 equilibrium:5 characteristic:1 choice:1 give:2 potential:13 difference:2 undergo:2 state:3 reach:1 cannot:1 close:1 lie:2 positive:1 similarly:1 negative:1 high:3 predict:1 see:2 table:1 prediction:1 measured:1 possible:2 range:1 zero:1 water:3 base:1 limit:1 less:1 powerful:1 oxidising:1 reduce:1 agent:1 would:1 require:1 produce:2 tend:1 react:1 electricity:4 make:2 apply:1 primary:1 need:1 energy:1 happen:1 breakdown:1 oxygen:1 process:1 know:1 electrolysis:1 electrolytic:2 another:1 bauxite:1 ore:1 aluminum:1 large:1 order:1 thousand:1 ampere:1 type:1 accumulator:1 concentration:1 lasagne:1 lemon:1 also:1 alkaline:1 notation:1 nickel:1 cadmium:1 reference:1 |@bigram electrochemical_cell:6 electromotive_force:1 galvanic_cell:2 robert_bunsen:1 potassium_nitrate:1 electrolytic_cell:2 bauxite_ore:1 alkaline_battery:1 nickel_cadmium:1 cadmium_battery:1 |
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