Unnamed: 0
int64 0
7.84k
| id
stringlengths 1
79
| raw_text
stringlengths 15
171k
| vw_text
stringlengths 51
47.3k
|
|---|---|---|---|
1,600 | List_of_Italian_dishes | These dishes are representative of Italian cuisine. Dishes and recipes Antipasti Insalata caprese Insalata russa Braciole Bruschetta Bresaola Prosciutto e melone Crostini con condimenti misti Verdure in pinzimonio Cocktail di gamberi Olive ascolane Mozzarelline fritte Pizzette e salatini Tartine Peperoni imbottiti Tortano noodle soup Italian soup and sauce recipes Bagna Cauda Minestrone Pasta e fagioli Risi e bisi Sugo al Pomodoro Fonduta Grine Sauce Italian breads Preparation of Piadina, a Romagna flatbread. Ciabatta Panino Focaccia Muffuletta Piadina Pita (typical bread of Catanzaro) Pane di Altamura Pane carasau Bari Casatiello Tortano Panettone Pandoro Biga Grissino Colomba Pasquale Coppia Ferrarese Farinata Fragguno Penia Taralli Panelle di ceci Crocchè Crostolo Buccellato Moddizzosu Neccio Ficattola Schiaccia Ciaccino Testarolo Bozza pratese Pane di Genzano (Lazio) Pane casareccio Pane toscano (without salt) Michetta (typical bread of Milano) Rosetta (typical bread of Roma) Ciriola (typical bread of Roma) Pane pugliese Grissini torinesi Tigella Crescentina Common pizza recipes Focaccia al rosmarino - based on rosemary and olive oil, sometimes served with prosciutto. Usually served as appetizer Pizza marinara - based on tomato, oregano and garlic Pizza Margherita - based on tomato and mozzarella Pizza alla napoletana (or Napoli) - tomato, mozzarella and anchovy Pizza siciliana - tomato, mozzarella, capperi, olive and anchovy Pizza romana - tomato, mozzarella, capperi and anchovy Pizza pugliese - tomato, mozzarella and onions Pizza capricciosa - with tomato, mozzarella, mushrooms, artichokes, black and green olives Pizza quattro stagioni - based on tomato and divided in four sectors, one for each season: Spring: olives and artichokes Summer: pepper Autumn: tomato and mozzarella (like Pizza Margherita) Winter: mushrooms and boiled egg Pizza ai quattro formaggi - with four different cheeses (sometimes melted, sometimes in sectors) Pizza ai funghi e salsicce (or boscaiola)- with mozzarella, mushrooms and sausages, with or without tomato. Calzone - folded over dough usually filled with ricotta and other ingredients Pasta varieties - (over 650) pasta Napoletana Agnolotti Bavette, bigoli, bucatini Cannelloni, crespelle Cappellini, cappelletti Conchiglie Ditalini Eliche Farfalle, festoni, fettuccine, filatieddi, fusilli Garganelli Gnocchi Gnocchi di semolino Lasagne, linguine, lumache (snails) Maccheroni (macaroni), malloreddus (Sardinian pasta), maltagliate, marille, Marrubini Offelle, orecchiette Orzo Paccheri, paglia e fieno, pansotti, panzarotti, pappardelle, penne, perciatelli, pici, pinzillacchere, pizzoccheri, Ravioli, rigatoni Spaghetti, spaghetti alla chitarra, strozzapreti, strangozzi, strascinati Stelline Tacconi, tagliatelle, tagliarini, tonnarelli, tortellini, trenette, trottole, trofie Vermicelli Ziti Pasta dishes Ciceri e Tria Bucatini all'amatriciana, Bucatini coi funghi, Bucatini alla Sorrentina Cannelloni al ragù, cannelloni ai carciofi Penne all'arrabbiata, pansotti alla genovese Rigatoni alla Pajata, Rigatoni al forno con salsa aurora Spaghetti alla Carrettiera, Spaghetti al nero di seppia, Spaghetti alla Puttanesca, Spaghetti con la bottarga, Spaghetti all' aglio, olio e peperoncino, spaghetti indiavolati, Spaghetti Siracusani, spaghetti alla carbonara Tagliatelle alla boscaiola, tagliatelle ai carciofi, tagliatelle ai funghi, tagliatelle al pomodoro, tagliatelle al sugo di lepre, tagliatelle al ragù Tortelloni alla zucca Trofie al pesto, trofie al sugo di noci Tortellini Tortelloni ricotta and spinaci Lasagne Ziti Ravioli Rice dishes Tiella. Rice (Riso) dishes are very common in North Italy, especially in the Lombardia and Veneto regions. Basic Risotto Risotto alla milanese or Risotto with saffron Risi e bisi Risotto con la lüganega Riso with schrimpfs Riso con piselli (risi e bisi) Riso alla toscana Riso al nero di seppia Riso con i porcini Risotto alla sbirraglia Risotto alla zucca Risotto di seppie alla veneziana Sformato al basilico Sformato di riso dolce Tiella di riso, patate e cozze Risotto ai gamberoni Risotto ai quattro sapori Risotto al cavolfiore Risotto al gorgonzola Riso tonnato Riso valdostano Risotto saltato Risotto al Barolo Risotto con scamorza e champagne Risotto indivia e fiori di zucca Risotto allo zafferano con petto d'anatra Risotto alla marinara Risotto con agoni Risotto mantecato con Grana Padano Italian fish Baccalà Cacciucco Alici, Sardine, Anguilla marinate Seppioline in umido Missultin e polenta Fritata di bianchetti Fritto misto di pesce Orate al forno Acciughe fritte in pastella Acciughe in carpione Acquadella o latterino fritto Acqua pazza Agghiotta di pesce spada Anguilla marinata Baccalà alla vicentina Baccalà fritto Branzino al sale Brodetto di arselle Buridda Calamaretti fritti Calamari in zimino Calamari ripieni Capesante alla veneziana Cappon magro Carpaccio di pesce Cartoccio di pesce spada Cozze alla tarantina Cozze fritte alla viareggina Cozze ripiene Filetti di baccalà Filetti di orata al cartoccio Frittura mista di pesce Grancevola alla veneziana Impanata di pesce spada Involtini di pesce Moscardini lessati alla genovese Murena fritta Nasello al forno Orata arrosto Pepata di cozze Pesce a scabecciu Pesce al cartoccio Pesce alla pizzaiola Pesce spada alla siciliana Pesce Spada arrosto in salmoriglio Polpettine di mare Sarde a beccafico Sarde arraganate (sarde con origano e pane) Sarde grigliate Sarde ripiene Sarde sfiziose panate Sardele in saor Sbroscia bolsenese Scampi a zuppetta Scampi gratinati Seppie col nero alla veneziana Seppie con i piselli Seppie ripiene Sogliole alla mugnaia Spiedini ai frutti di mare Spiedini di alici Spiedini di anguilla Stoccafisso alla genovese Stoccafisso alla ligure Tonno sott'olio Tortiera di cozze Totano imbottito Triglie alla livornese Zuppa di pesce Italian meat dishes and cured meats Bresaola Coda alla vaccinara Cotoletta alla milanese Cotoletta alla petroniana (like a cordon bleu) Bistecca Fiorentina Guanciale (cured pork jowl) Mortadella Osso buco Pancetta Parma Ham Pezzetti di cavallo Prosciutto cotto Prosciutto crudo Salame Salsiccia Violino Valtell Vitello Italian wine Abruzzi Montepulciano d'Abruzzo, Trebbiano d'Abruzzo Tuscany Bolgheri, Carignano, Chianti, Colli Apuani, Colli Etruria Centrale, Colline Lucchesi, Elba, Scansano, Montalcino, Montescudaio, Nipozzano, Vino Nobile di Montepulciano, Parrina, Pitigliano, San Gimignano, Val di Chiana, Val di Cornia, Valdinievole, Valle di Arbia Piedmont Alba, Acqui, Asti, Barolo, Carema Riserva, Colli Tortonesi, Gattinara, Gavi, Langhe, Monferrato, Nebbiolo, Ovada Veneto Amarone, Bardolino, Colli Euganei, Valpolicella, Conegliano Veneto, Custoza, Soave, Valdobbiadene Liguria Cinque Terre Emilia-Romagna Sangiovese, Lambrusco, Pignoletto, Gutturnio, Bonarda, Trebbiano, Albana Sardinia Cagliari, Monti, Nuragus, Ogliastra Marche Verdicchio, Conero, Piceno Lombardy Franciacorta, Oltrepò Pavese, Sassella, Inferno, Grumello, Bonarda, Barbera, Spumante Brut, Valcalepio Sicily Etna, Noto, Passito di Pantelleria, Marsala, Nero d’Avola, Donna Fugata Umbria Orvieto, Torgiano, Rosso di Montefalco, Sagrantino, Grechetto Calabria Cirò Puglia Negroamaro Italian cheeses Asiago Bel Paese, Bitto, Bra, Burrini, Burrata, Butirro Caciocavallo, Cacioricotta, Canestrato pugliese, Casècc, Castelmagno, Caprini, Casiello, Casu modde, Ciccillo, Crescenza, Crotonese Fontina, Fiore Sardo, Formai de mut Giuncata, Grana Padano, Gorgonzola Marzolino, Marzotica, Mascarpone, Mozzarella, Montasio, Monte Veronese, Murazzano Parmigiano Reggiano, Pecorino di Fossa, Pecorino romano, Pecorino sardo, Piacentinu, Primo Sale, Provolone, Puzzone di Modena Quartirolo Ragusano, Raschera, Ricotta rifatta, Ricotta Salata, Robiola, Slattato, Stracchino, Squacquerone Taleggio, Toma, Tumazzu Italian desserts and pastry Anisette (cookie) Babà Biscotti Biscuit Tortoni Cannolo siciliano Cassata siciliana Ciarduna Crostata Galani Gelato (ice cream) Granita Macedonia (fruit salad) Panna cotta Pandoro Panettone Pastiera Pignolata Pizzelle Semifreddo Sfogliatelle Tiramisù Torta caprese Struffoli (tiny fritters glued together with honey and decorated with multi-colored sprinkles) Zabaglione Italian coffee (caffè) Bicerin (coffee, hot chocolate and whipped cream, only in Turin) Caffè corretto Caffè macchiato Caffelatte Cappuccino Espresso (known generally in Italy simply as caffè) Grolla dell'amicizia (coffee and grappa served in a traditional bulbous wooden loving cup, shaped like a multi-spouted teapot, and drunk in the Aosta Valley and Piedmont) Marocchino (similar to a small cappuccino, invariably served in a glass, and drunk mainly in Milan and Casale Monferrato) Ristretto Famous Italian dishes Bistecca alla fiorentina (Florentine beefsteak) Baccalà alla Vicentina Lasagna Pasta e fagioli (commonly known as "pasta fazool") Pizza Ragù alla bolognese (a meat-based sauce served with tagliatelle or other pasta; the Italian-style dish Spaghetti alla Bolognese derives from this) Fettuccine Alfredo (though invented in the United States) Salsiccia Limoncello liqueur Veal osso buco Pollo alla cacciatora Special Occasions Feast of the seven fishes Stuffed Calamari in Tomato Sauce – Squid stuffed with breadcrumbs, garlic, oil/milk, and 3 eggs. The stuffed squid baked with a white sauce, chedder and olive oil. Fried Smelt – Smelt, bite-sized fish, deep-fried with a salt and pepper seasoning. Deep Fried Breaded Oysters – Oysters deep friend and breaded, typically rolled into a ball before frying. Deep Fried Fish/Shrimp – Fish/Shrimp dipped into batter and placed into deep fryer. Dish is typically served with lemon and/or cocktail sauce. Linguine with Clam Sauce – A mildly spicy dish that combines Linguine pasta served with tomato sauce and cooked clams. Marinated Eel – Bite-size cut eel deep fried and seasoned with salt and pepper marinated, after being fried, in a garlic, balsamic vinegar, and sugar sauce. Baccalà – De-salted, by soaking water, cod cut into bite-sized portions, pan fried until brown; and served with tomato sauce and pasta. Whiting – Baked Whiting fish seasoned with salt, pepper, and drizzled olive oil. This dish can either be served with fish being whole or sliced into chunks. Tiramisù – Layered Italian dessert that incorporates layers of coffee/Kahlua soaked ladyfingers, marscapone/crème, and chocolate bar shavings. Unique dishes by region Friuli-Venezia Giulia Jota - stew of beans with bacon Brovada - turnips preserved in marc Frico - Cooked Montasio cheese. It can be done in different fashions, with or without potatoes, crunchy or soft. Veneto Galani Lesso e pearà - Pepper sauce for boiled meats typical and almost unique of the Province of Verona Pasta e fagioli - a dish of pasta and beans Polenta e osei - Polenta cooked with wild birds Risi e bisi - rice with young peas Sarde in saor - marinated sardines Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol Gnocchi con la ricotta – Potato dumplings with ricotta Pollo ripieno alla trentina – Stuffed chicken in the style of Trento Canederli or Knödel – dumplings made with leftover bread Crauti - Sauerkraut Lombardy Panettone Tortelli di zucca – ravioli with a pumpkin filling Risotto alla milanese – A stirred rice dish made with Vialone or Carnaroli rice flavored with saffron Panettone – a Milanese Christmas traditional bread made with a yeast dough along with candied citrus peel, raisins and candied fruits Torrone Mostarda di Cremona – a sweet/spicy sauce made with candied fruits and meant to be served along boiled beef meat. Pizzoccheri – buckwheat tagliatelle dressed with potatoes, greens (often Swiss Chard), butter and Bitto cheese: a speciality of the Valtellina. Val D'Aosta Panna Cotta Unique dishes Zuppa di Valpelline - savoy cabbage stew thickened with stale bread Tortino de riso alla valdostana - rice cake with ox tongue Lepre in Civet - jugged hare Pere San Martin al vino rosso - winter pears in red wine Panna cotta - sweetened cream set with gelatin Piedmont Risotto alla piemontese - risotto cooked with meat broth and seasoned with nutmeg, parmesan and truffle Paniscia di Novara – a dish based on rice with borlotti beans, salame and vegetables Bagna cauda - A hot dip based on anchovies, olive oil and garlic blanched in milk, to accompany vegetables (either raw or cooked), meat or fried polenta sticks Carne cruda all'albese - steak tartare with truffles Vitello tonnato - veal in tuna sauce Bollito mistoLiguria Pesto - Probably Liguria's most famous recipe, widley enjoyed beyond the regional borders, is a green sauce made from basil leaves, sliced garlic, pine nuts, pecorino or parmigiano cheese (or a mix of both) and a copious amount of olive oil. Traditionally used as a pasta dressing (especially with gnocchi or trenette -a kind of flat spaghetty not too dissimilar from linguine- it is finding wider uses as sandwich spread and finger-food filler) Pizza all'Andrea – Focaccia-style pizza topped with tomato slices (not sauce) onions and anchovies Scabeggio - fried fish marinated in wine, garlic, lemon juice and sage, typical of Moneglia Baccalà fritto - morsels of salt cod dipped in flour batter and fried Torta pasqualina – savory flan filled with a mixture of green vegetables, ricotta and parmigiano cheese, milk and marjoran; some eggs are then poured in the already-placed filling, so that their yolks will remain whole and firm when cooked Buridda – seafood stew Mosciamme - originally a cut of dolphin meat dried and then made tender again thanks to immersion in olive oil, since several decades the dolphin meat has been substituted with tuna Mescciüa - a soup of chickpeas, beans and wheat grains, typical of eastern Liguria and likely of Arab origin Cima alla genovese - this cold preparation features an outer layer of beef breast made into a pocket and stuffed with a mix of brain, lard, onion, carrot, peas, eggs and breadcrumbs, then sewn and boiled. It is then sliced and eaten as an entrée or a sandwich filler Stecchi alla genovese - wooden skewers alternating morsels of leftover chicken meats (crests, testicles, livers...) and mushrooms, dipped in white bechamel sauce, left to dry a bit and then breaded and fried Pansoti - triangle-shaped stuffed pasta filled with a mix of borage (or spinach) and ricotta cheese, they can be eaten with butter, tomato sauce or a white sauce made with either walnuts or pine nuts (the latter two being the more traditional ligurian options) Bianchetti - Whitebait of anchovies and sardines, usually boiled and eaten with lemon juice, salt and olive oil as an entrée Maccheroni con Trippa - A traditional savonese soup uniting maccheroni pasta, tripe, onion, tomato, sausage, thistle, parsley and white wine in a base of capon broth Condigiun - a salad made with tomatoes, bell peppers, cucumber, black olives, basil, garlic, anchovies, hard boiled egg, oregano, tuna. Sgabei - fritters made from bread dough (often incorporating some cornmeal in it) Testa in cassetta - a salami made from all kind of leftover meats from pork butchering (especially from the head) Galantina - similar to Testa in cassetta but with added veal meat Torta di riso - Unlike all other rice cakes this preparation is not sweet, but a savoury pie made with rice, caillé, parmigiano and eggs, it can be wrapped in a thin layer of dough or simply baked until firm Panera genovese - a kind of semifreddo rich in cream and eggs flavoured with coffee, similar to a cappuccino in ice cream form Cappon Magro – a preparation of fish, shellfishes and vegetables layered in an aspic Cobeletti – sweet corn tarts Latte dolce fritto - a thick milk based cream left to solidify, then cut in rectangular pieces which are breaded and fried Pandolce – sweet bread made with raisins, pine nuts and candied orange and cedar skins Panissa and Farinata – chickpea-based polentas and pancakes respectively Farinata di zucca - a preparation similar to chickpea farinata substituting pumpkin for the legumes' flour as its main ingredient, the end result is slightly sweeter and thicker than the original Agliata - Pesto's direct ancestor, a spread made from garlic cloves, egg yolk and olive oil pestled in a mortar until creamy Trenette col pesto - Pasta with Pesto (Olive Oil, garlic, Basil, Parmigiano and Pecorino Sardo cheese) sauce Emilia-Romagna Zampone - stuffed pig's trotter, fatter (from Modena) Cotechino - stuffed pig's trotter, leaner (from Modena) Cappello da prete - stuffed pig's trotter, very fatty (from Modena) Erbazzone, spinach and cheese filled pie form Reggio Emilia Fave stufate - beans with mortadella Torta Barozzi o Torta Nera - Barozzi tart of black tart (a dessert made with a coffee/cocoa and almond filling encased in a fine pastry dough (from Modena) Tortelli - Uusally square, made in all Emilia-Romagna, filled with Swiss Chard or Spinach,ricotta and Parmigiano Reggiano in Romagna or Ricotta, Parsley, Parmigiano Reggiano in Bologna ( where they are called Tortelloni) and Emilia, or with potatoes and pancetta in the Appennine mountains Tortellini - small egg pasta navel shapes filled with pork, Parmigiano-Reggiano, Mortadella, Parma Ham and nutmeg (from Bologna and Castelfranco Emilia) Cappelletti - small egg pasta "hats" filled with ricotta, parsley, Parmigiano Reggiano and nutmeg, sometimes also chicken breast or pork and lemon zest, from Romagna Cappellacci - large size filled egg pasta with chestnut puree and sweet Mostarda di Bologna, from Romagna. Lasagne - green or yellow egg pasta layered with Bolognese Sauce and bechamel Cannelloni, Crespelle and Rosette - pasta filled with bechamel, cream, ham and others Piadina Pancake shaped flat bread(from Romagna) which can be smaller and higher or larger and very thin Passatelli - noodles made of breadcrumbs, Parmigiano Reggiano, cheese, lemon zest and nutmeg from Romagna Tigelle - a small round flat bread from the Modena Appennine mountains Parmigiano-Reggiano - prized ancient long-aged cheese from Reggio Emilia,Parma. Modena and Bologna Aceto Balsamico Tradizionale di Modena and Aceto Balsamico Tradizionale di Reggio Emiliaa' Pan Pepato - very rich Christmas dried fruit and nut dessert with almonds, candies and a lot of sweet spices Mortadella - cooked pork salame from Bologna Culatello - a cured ham made with the most tender of the pork rump. Salame Felino - salami from Parma province Coppa - cured pork neck form Piacenza and Parma Garganelli - typical Romagna quill shaped egg pasta usually dressed with Guanciale (cheek bacon), peas, Parmigiano Reggiano and a hint of cream. Gramigna con salsiccia - typical Bologna short curlt pasta with sausage ragu. Pisarei e Fasò - peas and beans from Piacenza Torresani - rosted pigeons popular in Emilia Salamina da Sugo - soft salami from Ferrara, righted to season. Salami of San Secondo - salami from Parma made with pork shoulder. Coppa - cold pork from Piacenza Ciccioli - cold meat made with pig's feet and head from Modena Squaqquerone - Sweet, runny, milky cheese from Romagna Crescentine - flat bread from Bologna and Emilia Gnocco Fritto and Crescentine - fried pastry puffs from Emilia Piadina Fritta Fried Romagna pastry rectangles Tortelli alla Lastra- Griddle baked pasta rectangles filed with potato and pumpkin puree and sausage or bacon bits Borlengo Tagliatelle all' uovo - pasta makde with egg from Bologna Pesto di Modena - cured pork back fat pounded with garlic, rosemary and Parmigiano-Reggiano used to fill tigelle, borlenghi and crescentineTuscanyPinzimonio - fresh seasonal raw or slightly blanched vegetables served with seasoned olive oil for dippingRibollita - reheated vegetable soupOssibuchi alla toscana - osso buco, sliced braised veal shank, "Tuscan-style"Bistecca alla fiorentina - grilled Florentine T-bone steak. In past it was also called bistecca alla florentinaCrema paradiso - Tuscan creamed baconFegatelli di maiale - pig's liver forcemeat stuffed into pig's stomach and baked in a slow oven with stock and red wine Tuscan bread specialties Carsenta lunigianese - baked on a bed of chestnut leaves and served on Good Friday Ciaccia - from the Maremma made from maize Donzelle - round loaf fried in olive oil Fiandolone - made with sweet chestnut flour and strewn with rosemary leaves Pan maoko - equal parts wheat and maize flour, with pine nuts and raisins added Panigaccio - Lunigiana specialty made with flour, water and salt baked over red-hot coals and served with cheese and olive oil Panina gialla aretina - an Easter bread with a high fat content, containing raisins, saffron, and spices. It is consecrated in a church before being served with eggs Panini di San Antonio - sweet rolls eaten on the feast day of St. Anthony Schiacciata - dough rolled out onto baking sheet and can have pork cracklings, herbs, potatoes and/or tomatoes added to the top along with a salt and olive oil Pan di granturco - made from maize flour Pane classico integrale - unsalted bread made with semolina with a crisp crust Schiacciatina - made with a fine flour, salt dough with yeast and olive oil Filone - classic Tuscan unsalted bread Pan di ramerino - a rosemary bread seasoned with sugar and salt. The bread was originally served during Holy Week decorated with a cross on top and sold at the Church by semellai; it is, however, offered year round now. Pane con i grassetti - a bread from the Garfagnana area, with pork cracklings mixed in Pane con l'uva - in other areas this bread often takes the form of small loaves or rolls, but in Tuscany it is a rolled-out dough with red grapes incorporated into it and sprinkled with sugar. It is bread served often in the autumn in place of dessert and often served with figs Umbria Lenticchie di Castelluccio con salsicce - lentil stew with sausages Minestra di farro - spelt soup Regina in porchetta - carp in fennel sauce Piccioni all spiedo - spit-roasted pigeon Specialties of the Norcineria (Umbrian Butcher) Barbozzo - cured, matured pig's cheek Mazzafegati - sweet or hot pig's liver sausage, the sweet version containing raisins, orange peel and sugar Budellacci - smoked, spiced pig intestines eaten raw, spit-roasted, or broiled Capocollo - Sausage highly seasoned with garlic and pepper Coppa - sausage made from the pig's head Prosciutto di Norcia - a pressed, cured ham made from the legs of pigs fed on a strict diet of acorns Piras ,256. Marche Brodetto di San Benedetto del Tronto - fish stew, San Benedetto del Tronto-style Passatelli all'urbinate - spinach and meat dumplings Olive all'ascolana - fried olives stuffed with pork, beef, chicken livers, tomato paste and Parmesan cheese in Ascoli Piceno. Unique ham and sausage specialties Ciauscolo - made from the belly and shoulder of pig with half its weight in pork fat and seasoned with salt, pepper, orange peel and fennel. It is stuffed into an intestine casing, dried in a smoking chamber and cured for three weeks. Coppa - coppa in this region refers to a boiling sausage made from pig's head, bacon, orange peel, nutmeg and sometimes pinenuts or almonds. It is meant to be eaten within a month of preparation Salame lardellato - made with lean pork shoulder, or leg meat, along with diced bacon, salt, pepper, and whole peppercorns. It is cased in hog's intestines, dried for one-and-a-half days and then placed in a warm room for 3-4 days, two days in a cold room and then two months in a ventilated storage room Prosciutto de Montefeltro - made from free-range black pigs, this is a smoked Prosciutto washed with vinegar and ground black pepper Salame de Montefeltro - made from the leg and loin meat of the black pig, this sausage is highly seasoned with peppercorns and hung to dry Salame de Fabriano - similar to salame lardellato except that it is made solely from leg of pork with pepper and salt Fegatino - a liver sausage with pork belly and shoulder, where the liver replaces the fat of other sausages Soppressata de Fabriano - finely emulsified pork flavored with bacon, salt and pepper, the sausage is smoked and then aged Mazzafegato da Fabriano - mortadella made from fat and lean pork with liver and lung added to the fine-grained emulsification. It is seasoned with salt and pepper, stuffed into casings and smoked. This sausage is often served at festivals. Lazio Gnocchi Saltimbocca alla Romana - Veal cutlet, Roman-style; topped with raw ham and sage and simmered with white wine and butter Coda di bue alla vaccinara - oxtail ragout Carciofi alla giudia - artichokes fried in olive oil, typical of Roman Jewish cooking Carciofi alla romana - artichokes Roman-style; outer leaves removed, stuffed with mint, garlic, breadcrumbs and braised Spaghetti alla carbonara - spaghetti with bacon, eggs and pecorino Bucatini all'amatriciana - bucatini with guanciale, tomatoes and pecorino Gnocchi di semolino alla romana - semolina dumpling, Roman-style Abruzzo and Molise Agnello con le olive - Maccheroni alla chitarra - a narrow stripped pasta served with a sauce of tomatoes, bacon and Pecorino cheese Sugo di castrato - mutton sauce made with onion, rosemary, bacon, white wine, and tomatoes Mozzarelline allo zafferano - mini mozzarella cheese coated with a batter flavored with saffron Agnello casc' e ove - Lamb stuffed with grated pecorino cheese and eggs Arrosticini - skewered pieces of meat Spaghetti all' aglio, olio e pepperoncino Campania Pizza alla Napoletana Maccheroni alla napoletana - macaroni with Neapolitan sauce; a sauce of braised beef, carrot, celery, onion, garlic, white wine, tomato paste and fresh basil. Pizza napoletana - Neapolitan pizza; pizza topped with anchovies, mozzarella, basil and olive oil Mozzarella in carrozza - fried mozzarella sandwiches Insalata caprese - salad of tomatoes, Mozzarella di Bufala (buffalo mozzarella) and basil Pastiera napoletana - Neapolitan ricotta cake Apulia Orecchiette alle cime di rapa - Ear-like pasta with broccoli Pancotto - is an ancient dish of Capitanata, poor but tasty, aa basis of stale bread and a wide variety of wild vegetables, accompanied by fennel seeds, oil of Tavoliere and chilli peppers. Tiella di verdure - casserole of baked vegetable topped with mozzarella cheese and fresh basil Riso, patate e cozze - this specialty of Bari based on rice can be compared to the paella, but the manner of dress differs barese Whereas traditional ingredients working in the area of Bari Purea di fave - broad bean puree Zuppa di cozze alla Tarantina - mussels steamed with peperoncino, garlic, tomatoes, white wine and garlic Ostriche arrosto - oysters broiled with parsley, garlic, oregano, breadcrumbs, olive oil and lemon juice Muscisca - the bacon or boneless meat from sheep or goat (and in some cases young calf) is cut into long strips (20-30 cm) and thin (3-4 cm) and seasoned with salt, chilli and fennel seeds before to be put to dry in the sun, enough to get the drying Torcinelli - involtini of offal linked with guts scented with parsley and cooked on the grill Cartellate - a thin strip of puff pastry, made with flour, oil and white wine, together and wrapped on itself to form a sort of "pink" choreographed with cavities and openings, which is then fried in abundant oil. The typical recipe is one that sees impregnated "vincotto" lukewarm or honey. Cacioricotta cheese - the cacioricotta is a cheese produced in product throughout the Apulia. Burrata cheese - the burrata is a fresh cheese with spun dough, similar to mozzarella but by much softer consistency and filamentous, produced in Murgia Andria in particular to its place of invention and in various areas of Puglia. The burrata is worked by hand with a filling of cream and pieces of dough spun, and the stuffing is called stracciatella, because the pieces of dough are torn by hand, and is contained in an envelope ("bag") is also formed by paste spun. Caciocavallo podolico - Is particular variety of cheese products made exclusively with milk from cows Podolico Apulia bread specialties Pane di Altamura - sourdough durum wheat bread weighing up to in Puglia Pane casereccio - made from duram wheat, yeast, flour, salt and water, this loaf is a tradition of the region Puccia di pane - small, soft, round loaf made of white flour to remind the people of the Virgin Mary Puddica - bread dough mixed with mashed potato and rolled into flat cakes, covered with halved tomatoes and seasoned with salt and pepper Focaccia ripiena - bread dough filled with mozzarella, tomatoes, ham, onion or leek and served in slices Taralli - wheat flour, lard, olive oil, brewer's yeast, fennel seeds, red pepper and salt, baked into rings Friselle - made from barley flour, duram wheat flour and go through a dual baking process, first in a hot oven and finished in a moderate oven Basilicata Pollo alla potentina - Potenza-style chicken; Chicken braised with tomatoes, onion, white wine, peperoncino, topped with fresh basil, parsley and pecorino cheese Agnello alla pastora - Lamb with potatoes Orecchiette con la salsiccia piccante - Ear-like pasta with typical spicy salami from Basilicata Pecorino di Forenza - Typical Forenza's sheep cheese Salsiccia Lucana - Refined spicy salami called also Luganega Scarteddate - typical Christmas biscuits Sanguinaccio - homemade jam with chocolate and pig blood Calabria Melanzane alla menta - Eggplant marinated with mint Pitta coi pomodori - pita bread with tomatoes Pesce spada alla ghiotta - swordfish rolls in tomato sauce Zippuli Cuzzupa Sicily Tonno alla palermitana - tuna Palermo-style; tuna marinated in white wine, lemon, garlic, rosemary and broiled, then served with pan-seared sardines Il timballo del gattopardo - Sicilian pie; pastry dough baked with a filling of penne rigata, Parmesan, and bound a sauce of ham, chicken, liver, onion, carrot, truffles, diced hard-boiled egg and seasoned with clove, cinnamon, salt and pepper. Gattopardo (the Serval) makes reference to the arms of the Lampedusa family and Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa’s well-known novel Il Gattopardo. (The dish does not contain catmeat.) Caponata - eggplants with tomatoes and olives Maccu di San Giuseppe - bean paste with fennel Panelle - a Sicilian chickpea fritter, often eaten as a sandwich and popular as street food Sardinia Porcetto - Small pig cooked with myrtle Malloreddus - semolina gnocchi with saffron Sa fregula - couscous Culurgiones - A kind of ravioli Italian cuisine ingredients Most important ingredients (see also Italian Herbs and Spices): Olio Extravergine (olive oil) Pomodoro (Tomato) Parmigiano Reggiano (aged cow's-milk cheese), in the North Pecorino (aged sheep's-milk cheese), in the Middle and South Other common ingredients: Acciughe (Anchovies, preserved in olive oil, or in salt) Asparagi (Asparagus) Baccalà (Dried, salted cod) Bresaola (air-dried salted beef) Capperi (Capers, preserved in vinegar or, more frequently, salt) Carciofi (Artichokes) Cavolfiore (Cauliflower) Ceci (Chickpeas) Cetrioli (Cucumber) Fagioli (Beans) Farro (Emmer) Funghi (Mushrooms) Lenticchie (Lentils) Melanzane (eggplants) Olive (Olives) Peperoni (Bell peppers) Piselli (Peas) Prosciutto Funghi porcini (Porcini mushrooms) Radicchio Rosso di Treviso Rucola (or Rughetta) (Rocket or Arugula) Seppie (Cuttlefish) Spinaci (Spinach) Fragole (Strawberries) Tartufo (Truffle) Trippa (Tripe) Tonno (Tuna) Zucchine (Zucchini) Italian herbs and spices Aglio (Garlic) Alloro (Bay leaves) Basilico (Basil) Cipolla (Onion) Finocchio (Fennel) Menta (Mint) Mentuccia (Lemon balm) Origano (Oregano) Peperoncino (Chile pepper) Prezzemolo (Parsley) Rosmarino (Rosemary) Salvia (Sage) Timo (Thyme) References Make pasta from scratch - video showing easy method | List_of_Italian_dishes |@lemmatized dish:18 representative:1 italian:15 cuisine:2 recipe:5 antipasti:1 insalata:3 caprese:3 russa:1 braciole:1 bruschetta:1 bresaola:3 prosciutto:8 e:24 melone:1 crostini:1 con:20 condimenti:1 misti:1 verdure:2 pinzimonio:1 cocktail:2 di:72 gamberi:1 olive:31 ascolane:1 mozzarelline:2 fritte:3 pizzette:1 salatini:1 tartine:1 peperoni:2 imbottiti:1 tortano:2 noodle:2 soup:5 sauce:27 bagna:2 cauda:2 minestrone:1 pasta:29 fagioli:4 risi:4 bisi:4 sugo:5 al:21 pomodoro:3 fonduta:1 grine:1 bread:31 preparation:6 piadina:4 romagna:12 flatbread:1 ciabatta:1 panino:1 focaccia:4 muffuletta:1 pita:2 typical:14 catanzaro:1 pane:13 altamura:2 carasau:1 bari:3 casatiello:1 panettone:4 pandoro:2 biga:1 grissino:1 colomba:1 pasquale:1 coppia:1 ferrarese:1 farinata:4 fragguno:1 penia:1 taralli:2 panelle:2 ceci:2 crocchè:1 crostolo:1 buccellato:1 moddizzosu:1 neccio:1 ficattola:1 schiaccia:1 ciaccino:1 testarolo:1 bozza:1 pratese:1 genzano:1 lazio:2 casareccio:1 toscano:1 without:3 salt:24 michetta:1 milano:1 rosetta:1 rom:2 ciriola:1 pugliese:3 grissini:1 torinesi:1 tigella:1 crescentina:1 common:3 pizza:19 rosmarino:2 base:11 rosemary:7 oil:24 sometimes:5 serve:21 usually:4 appetizer:1 marinara:2 tomato:32 oregano:4 garlic:18 margherita:2 mozzarella:18 alla:62 napoletana:6 napoli:1 anchovy:9 siciliana:3 capperi:3 romana:4 onion:10 capricciosa:1 mushroom:6 artichoke:5 black:6 green:5 quattro:3 stagioni:1 divide:1 four:2 sector:2 one:3 season:13 spring:1 summer:1 pepper:19 autumn:2 like:5 winter:2 boil:5 egg:18 ai:8 formaggi:1 different:2 cheese:27 melt:1 funghi:5 salsicce:2 boscaiola:2 sausage:15 calzone:1 fold:1 dough:14 fill:12 ricotta:12 ingredient:6 variety:3 agnolotti:1 bavette:1 bigoli:1 bucatini:6 cannelloni:4 crespelle:2 cappellini:1 cappelletti:2 conchiglie:1 ditalini:1 eliche:1 farfalle:1 festoni:1 fettuccine:2 filatieddi:1 fusilli:1 garganelli:2 gnocchi:7 semolino:2 lasagne:3 linguine:4 lumache:1 snail:1 maccheroni:5 macaroni:2 malloreddus:2 sardinian:1 maltagliate:1 marille:1 marrubini:1 offelle:1 orecchiette:3 orzo:1 paccheri:1 paglia:1 fieno:1 pansotti:2 panzarotti:1 pappardelle:1 penne:3 perciatelli:1 pici:1 pinzillacchere:1 pizzoccheri:2 ravioli:4 rigatoni:3 spaghetti:14 chitarra:2 strozzapreti:1 strangozzi:1 strascinati:1 stelline:1 tacconi:1 tagliatelle:10 tagliarini:1 tonnarelli:1 tortellini:3 trenette:3 trottole:1 trofie:3 vermicelli:1 ziti:2 ciceri:1 tria:1 amatriciana:2 coi:2 sorrentina:1 ragù:3 carciofi:5 arrabbiata:1 genovese:6 pajata:1 forno:3 salsa:1 aurora:1 carrettiera:1 nero:4 seppia:2 puttanesca:1 la:4 bottarga:1 aglio:3 olio:4 peperoncino:4 indiavolati:1 siracusani:1 carbonara:2 lepre:2 tortelloni:3 zucca:5 pesto:6 noci:1 spinaci:2 rice:10 tiella:3 riso:13 north:2 italy:2 especially:3 lombardia:1 veneto:4 region:4 basic:1 risotto:22 milanese:4 saffron:5 lüganega:1 schrimpfs:1 piselli:3 toscana:2 porcini:3 sbirraglia:1 seppie:5 veneziana:4 sformato:2 basilico:2 dolce:2 patate:2 cozze:8 gamberoni:1 sapori:1 cavolfiore:2 gorgonzola:2 tonnato:2 valdostano:1 saltato:1 barolo:2 scamorza:1 champagne:1 indivia:1 fiori:1 allo:2 zafferano:2 petto:1 anatra:1 agoni:1 mantecato:1 grana:2 padano:2 fish:10 baccalà:8 cacciucco:1 alici:2 sardine:4 anguilla:3 marinate:7 seppioline:1 umido:1 missultin:1 polenta:5 fritata:1 bianchetti:2 fritto:6 misto:1 pesce:14 orate:1 acciughe:3 pastella:1 carpione:1 acquadella:1 latterino:1 acqua:1 pazza:1 agghiotta:1 spada:6 marinata:1 vicentina:2 branzino:1 sale:2 brodetto:2 arselle:1 buridda:2 calamaretti:1 fritti:1 calamari:3 zimino:1 ripieni:1 capesante:1 cappon:2 magro:2 carpaccio:1 cartoccio:3 tarantina:2 viareggina:1 ripiene:3 filetti:2 orata:2 frittura:1 mista:1 grancevola:1 impanata:1 involtini:2 moscardini:1 lessati:1 murena:1 fritta:2 nasello:1 arrosto:3 pepata:1 scabecciu:1 pizzaiola:1 salmoriglio:1 polpettine:1 mare:2 sarde:7 beccafico:1 arraganate:1 origano:2 grigliate:1 sfiziose:1 panate:1 sardele:1 saor:2 sbroscia:1 bolsenese:1 scampi:2 zuppetta:1 gratinati:1 col:2 sogliole:1 mugnaia:1 spiedini:3 frutti:1 stoccafisso:2 ligure:1 tonno:3 sott:1 tortiera:1 totano:1 imbottito:1 triglie:1 livornese:1 zuppa:3 meat:18 cured:2 coda:2 vaccinara:2 cotoletta:2 petroniana:1 cordon:1 bleu:1 bistecca:4 fiorentina:3 guanciale:3 cure:6 pork:19 jowl:1 mortadella:5 osso:3 buco:3 pancetta:2 parma:6 ham:9 pezzetti:1 cavallo:1 cotto:1 crudo:1 salame:8 salsiccia:5 violino:1 valtell:1 vitello:2 wine:12 abruzzi:1 montepulciano:2 abruzzo:3 trebbiano:2 tuscany:2 bolgheri:1 carignano:1 chianti:1 colli:4 apuani:1 etruria:1 centrale:1 colline:1 lucchesi:1 elba:1 scansano:1 montalcino:1 montescudaio:1 nipozzano:1 vino:2 nobile:1 parrina:1 pitigliano:1 san:7 gimignano:1 val:3 chiana:1 cornia:1 valdinievole:1 valle:1 arbia:1 piedmont:3 alba:1 acqui:1 asti:1 carema:1 riserva:1 tortonesi:1 gattinara:1 gavi:1 langhe:1 monferrato:2 nebbiolo:1 ovada:1 amarone:1 bardolino:1 euganei:1 valpolicella:1 conegliano:1 custoza:1 soave:1 valdobbiadene:1 liguria:3 cinque:1 terre:1 emilia:10 sangiovese:1 lambrusco:1 pignoletto:1 gutturnio:1 bonarda:2 albana:1 sardinia:2 cagliari:1 monti:1 nuragus:1 ogliastra:1 marche:2 verdicchio:1 conero:1 piceno:2 lombardy:2 franciacorta:1 oltrepò:1 pavese:1 sassella:1 inferno:1 grumello:1 barbera:1 spumante:1 brut:1 valcalepio:1 sicily:2 etna:1 noto:1 passito:1 pantelleria:1 marsala:1 avola:1 donna:1 fugata:1 umbria:2 orvieto:1 torgiano:1 rosso:3 montefalco:1 sagrantino:1 grechetto:1 calabria:2 cirò:1 puglia:3 negroamaro:1 asiago:1 bel:1 paese:1 bitto:2 bra:1 burrini:1 burrata:4 butirro:1 caciocavallo:2 cacioricotta:3 canestrato:1 casècc:1 castelmagno:1 caprini:1 casiello:1 casu:1 modde:1 ciccillo:1 crescenza:1 crotonese:1 fontina:1 fiore:1 sardo:3 formai:1 de:7 mut:1 giuncata:1 marzolino:1 marzotica:1 mascarpone:1 montasio:2 monte:1 veronese:1 murazzano:1 parmigiano:14 reggiano:10 pecorino:12 fossa:1 romano:1 piacentinu:1 primo:1 provolone:1 puzzone:1 modena:10 quartirolo:1 ragusano:1 raschera:1 rifatta:1 salata:1 robiola:1 slattato:1 stracchino:1 squacquerone:1 taleggio:1 toma:1 tumazzu:1 dessert:5 pastry:6 anisette:1 cookie:1 babà:1 biscotti:1 biscuit:2 tortoni:1 cannolo:1 siciliano:1 cassata:1 ciarduna:1 crostata:1 galani:2 gelato:1 ice:2 cream:10 granita:1 macedonia:1 fruit:4 salad:3 panna:3 cotta:3 pastiera:2 pignolata:1 pizzelle:1 semifreddo:2 sfogliatelle:1 tiramisù:2 torta:5 struffoli:1 tiny:1 fritter:3 glue:1 together:2 honey:2 decorate:2 multi:2 colored:1 sprinkle:2 zabaglione:1 coffee:6 caffè:4 bicerin:1 hot:5 chocolate:3 whip:1 turin:1 corretto:1 macchiato:1 caffelatte:1 cappuccino:3 espresso:1 know:3 generally:1 simply:2 grolla:1 dell:1 amicizia:1 grappa:1 traditional:5 bulbous:1 wooden:2 love:1 cup:1 shape:4 spout:1 teapot:1 drunk:2 aosta:2 valley:1 marocchino:1 similar:6 small:8 invariably:1 glass:1 mainly:1 milan:1 casale:1 ristretto:1 famous:2 florentine:2 beefsteak:1 lasagna:1 commonly:1 fazool:1 bolognese:3 style:10 derives:1 alfredo:1 though:1 invent:1 united:1 state:1 limoncello:1 liqueur:1 veal:5 pollo:3 cacciatora:1 special:1 occasion:1 feast:2 seven:1 stuff:7 squid:2 stuffed:8 breadcrumb:4 milk:7 bake:10 white:14 chedder:1 fry:16 smelt:2 bite:3 sized:2 deep:6 seasoning:1 breaded:1 oyster:3 friend:1 typically:2 roll:6 ball:1 fried:4 shrimp:2 dip:4 batter:3 place:5 fryer:1 lemon:8 clam:2 mildly:1 spicy:4 combine:1 cooked:1 eel:2 size:2 cut:5 balsamic:1 vinegar:3 sugar:4 soak:2 water:3 cod:3 portion:1 pan:6 brown:1 drizzle:1 either:3 whole:3 slice:6 chunk:1 layer:6 incorporate:3 kahlua:1 ladyfinger:1 marscapone:1 crème:1 bar:1 shaving:1 unique:4 friuli:1 venezia:1 giulia:1 jota:1 stew:5 bean:9 bacon:10 brovada:1 turnip:1 preserve:3 marc:1 frico:1 cook:8 fashion:1 potato:8 crunchy:1 soft:4 lesso:1 pearà:1 boiled:2 almost:1 province:2 verona:1 osei:1 wild:2 bird:1 young:2 pea:5 trentino:1 alto:1 adige:1 südtirol:1 dumpling:4 ripieno:1 trentina:1 chicken:7 trento:1 canederli:1 knödel:1 make:43 leftover:3 crauti:1 sauerkraut:1 tortelli:3 pumpkin:3 stirred:1 vialone:1 carnaroli:1 flavor:3 christmas:3 yeast:4 along:4 candied:3 citrus:1 peel:4 raisin:4 candy:2 torrone:1 mostarda:2 cremona:1 sweet:12 mean:2 beef:5 buckwheat:1 dress:3 often:7 swiss:2 chard:2 butter:3 speciality:1 valtellina:1 valpelline:1 savoy:1 cabbage:1 thicken:1 stale:2 tortino:1 valdostana:1 cake:4 ox:1 tongue:1 civet:1 jugged:1 hare:1 pere:1 martin:1 pear:1 red:5 sweeten:1 set:1 gelatin:1 piemontese:1 broth:2 nutmeg:5 parmesan:3 truffle:4 paniscia:1 novara:1 borlotti:1 vegetable:8 blanch:2 accompany:2 raw:4 stick:1 carne:1 cruda:1 albese:1 steak:2 tartare:1 tuna:6 bollito:1 mistoliguria:1 probably:1 widley:1 enjoy:1 beyond:1 regional:1 border:1 basil:9 leaf:4 pine:4 nut:5 mix:4 copious:1 amount:1 traditionally:1 use:2 dressing:1 kind:4 flat:5 spaghetty:1 dissimilar:1 find:1 wide:2 us:1 sandwich:4 spread:2 finger:1 food:2 filler:2 andrea:1 top:7 scabeggio:1 juice:3 sage:3 moneglia:1 morsel:2 flour:13 pasqualina:1 savory:1 flan:1 mixture:1 marjoran:1 pour:1 already:1 filling:4 yolk:2 remain:1 firm:2 seafood:1 mosciamme:1 originally:2 dolphin:2 dry:9 tender:2 thanks:1 immersion:1 since:1 several:1 decade:1 substitute:2 mescciüa:1 chickpea:5 wheat:6 grain:1 eastern:1 likely:1 arab:1 origin:1 cima:1 cold:4 feature:1 breast:2 pocket:1 brain:1 lard:2 carrot:3 sewn:1 eat:7 entrée:2 stecchi:1 skewer:1 alternate:1 crest:1 testicle:1 liver:8 bechamel:3 leave:3 bit:2 pansoti:1 triangle:1 borage:1 spinach:5 walnut:1 latter:1 two:3 ligurian:1 option:1 whitebait:1 trippa:2 savonese:1 unite:1 tripe:2 thistle:1 parsley:7 capon:1 condigiun:1 bell:2 cucumber:2 hard:2 sgabei:1 cornmeal:1 testa:2 cassetta:2 salami:7 butchering:1 head:4 galantina:1 added:1 unlike:1 savoury:1 pie:3 caillé:1 wrap:2 thin:4 panera:1 rich:2 flavour:1 form:6 shellfish:1 aspic:1 cobeletti:1 corn:1 tart:3 latte:1 thick:1 solidify:1 rectangular:1 piece:4 pandolce:1 orange:4 cedar:1 skin:1 panissa:1 pancake:2 respectively:1 legume:1 main:1 end:1 result:1 slightly:2 thicker:1 original:1 agliata:1 direct:1 ancestor:1 clove:2 pestle:1 mortar:1 creamy:1 zampone:1 pig:17 trotter:3 fatter:1 cotechino:1 leaner:1 cappello:1 da:3 prete:1 fatty:1 erbazzone:1 reggio:3 fave:2 stufate:1 barozzi:2 nera:1 cocoa:1 almond:3 encase:1 fine:3 uusally:1 square:1 bologna:8 call:4 appennine:2 mountains:2 navel:1 castelfranco:1 hat:1 also:5 zest:2 cappellacci:1 large:2 chestnut:3 puree:3 yellow:1 rosette:1 others:1 shaped:1 high:2 passatelli:2 tigelle:2 round:4 prized:1 ancient:2 long:2 age:4 aceto:2 balsamico:2 tradizionale:2 emiliaa:1 pepato:1 lot:1 spice:5 culatello:1 rump:1 felino:1 coppa:5 neck:1 piacenza:3 quill:1 cheek:2 hint:1 gramigna:1 short:1 curlt:1 ragu:1 pisarei:1 fasò:1 torresani:1 rosted:1 pigeon:2 popular:2 salamina:1 ferrara:1 right:1 secondo:1 shoulder:4 ciccioli:1 foot:1 squaqquerone:1 runny:1 milky:1 crescentine:2 gnocco:1 puff:2 rectangle:2 lastra:1 griddle:1 file:1 borlengo:1 uovo:1 makde:1 back:1 fat:5 pound:1 borlenghi:1 crescentinetuscanypinzimonio:1 fresh:5 seasonal:1 seasoned:1 dippingribollita:1 reheat:1 soupossibuchi:1 braise:3 shank:1 tuscan:4 grilled:1 bone:1 past:1 florentinacrema:1 paradiso:1 baconfegatelli:1 maiale:1 forcemeat:1 stomach:1 slow:1 oven:3 stock:1 specialty:6 carsenta:1 lunigianese:1 bed:1 good:1 friday:1 ciaccia:1 maremma:1 maize:3 donzelle:1 loaf:4 fiandolone:1 strewn:1 maoko:1 equal:1 part:1 raisins:1 add:3 panigaccio:1 lunigiana:1 coal:1 panina:1 gialla:1 aretina:1 easter:1 content:1 contain:4 consecrate:1 church:2 panini:1 antonio:1 day:4 st:1 anthony:1 schiacciata:1 onto:1 sheet:1 crackling:2 herb:3 granturco:1 classico:1 integrale:1 unsalted:2 semolina:3 crisp:1 crust:1 schiacciatina:1 filone:1 classic:1 ramerino:1 holy:1 week:2 cross:1 sell:1 semellai:1 however:1 offer:1 year:1 grassetti:1 garfagnana:1 area:4 l:1 uva:1 take:1 rolled:1 grape:1 fig:1 lenticchie:2 castelluccio:1 lentil:2 minestra:1 farro:2 spelt:1 regina:1 porchetta:1 carp:1 fennel:7 piccioni:1 spiedo:1 spit:2 roast:2 norcineria:1 umbrian:1 butcher:1 barbozzo:1 mature:1 mazzafegati:1 version:1 budellacci:1 smoke:3 intestine:3 broil:3 capocollo:1 highly:2 norcia:1 pressed:1 leg:4 feed:1 strict:1 diet:1 acorn:1 piras:1 benedetto:2 del:3 tronto:2 urbinate:1 ascolana:1 paste:4 ascoli:1 ciauscolo:1 belly:2 half:2 weight:1 casing:2 smoking:1 chamber:1 three:1 refer:1 boiling:1 pinenuts:1 within:1 month:2 lardellato:2 lean:2 diced:1 peppercorn:2 case:2 hog:1 warm:1 room:3 ventilated:1 storage:1 montefeltro:2 free:1 range:1 smoked:1 wash:1 ground:1 loin:1 hung:1 fabriano:3 except:1 solely:1 fegatino:1 replace:1 soppressata:1 finely:1 emulsified:1 mazzafegato:1 lung:1 grained:1 emulsification:1 festival:1 saltimbocca:1 cutlet:1 roman:4 simmer:1 bue:1 oxtail:1 ragout:1 giudia:1 jewish:1 cooking:1 outer:1 remove:1 mint:3 breadcrumbs:1 molise:1 agnello:3 le:1 narrow:1 stripped:1 castrato:1 mutton:1 mini:1 coat:1 casc:1 ove:1 lamb:2 grated:1 arrosticini:1 skewered:1 pepperoncino:1 campania:1 neapolitan:3 braised:1 celery:1 carrozza:1 bufala:1 buffalo:1 apulia:3 alle:1 cime:1 rapa:1 ear:2 broccoli:1 pancotto:1 capitanata:1 poor:1 tasty:1 aa:1 basis:1 seed:3 tavoliere:1 chilli:2 casserole:1 baked:1 compare:1 paella:1 manner:1 differs:1 barese:1 whereas:1 work:2 purea:1 broad:1 mussel:1 steam:1 ostriche:1 muscisca:1 boneless:1 sheep:3 goat:1 calf:1 strip:2 cm:2 put:1 sun:1 enough:1 get:1 drying:1 torcinelli:1 offal:1 link:1 gut:1 scent:1 grill:1 cartellate:1 sort:1 pink:1 choreograph:1 cavity:1 opening:1 abundant:1 see:2 impregnated:1 vincotto:1 lukewarm:1 produce:2 product:2 throughout:1 spun:3 much:1 consistency:1 filamentous:1 murgia:1 andria:1 particular:2 invention:1 various:1 hand:2 stuffing:1 stracciatella:1 tear:1 envelope:1 bag:1 podolico:2 exclusively:1 cow:2 sourdough:1 durum:1 weigh:1 casereccio:1 duram:2 tradition:1 puccia:1 remind:1 people:1 virgin:1 mary:1 puddica:1 mixed:1 mashed:1 cover:1 halved:1 ripiena:1 leek:1 brewer:1 ring:1 friselle:1 barley:1 go:1 dual:1 baking:1 process:1 first:1 finish:1 moderate:1 basilicata:2 potentina:1 potenza:1 pastora:1 piccante:1 forenza:2 lucana:1 refine:1 luganega:1 scarteddate:1 sanguinaccio:1 homemade:1 jam:1 blood:1 melanzane:2 menta:2 eggplant:3 pitta:1 pomodori:1 ghiotta:1 swordfish:1 zippuli:1 cuzzupa:1 palermitana:1 palermo:1 sear:1 il:2 timballo:1 gattopardo:3 sicilian:2 rigata:1 bound:1 dice:1 cinnamon:1 serval:1 reference:2 arm:1 lampedusa:2 family:1 giuseppe:2 tomasi:1 well:1 novel:1 catmeat:1 caponata:1 maccu:1 street:1 porcetto:1 myrtle:1 sa:1 fregula:1 couscous:1 culurgiones:1 important:1 extravergine:1 middle:1 south:1 asparagi:1 asparagus:1 air:1 salted:1 caper:1 frequently:1 cauliflower:1 cetrioli:1 emmer:1 radicchio:1 treviso:1 rucola:1 rughetta:1 rocket:1 arugula:1 cuttlefish:1 fragole:1 strawberry:1 tartufo:1 zucchine:1 zucchini:1 alloro:1 bay:1 cipolla:1 finocchio:1 mentuccia:1 balm:1 chile:1 prezzemolo:1 salvia:1 timo:1 thyme:1 scratch:1 video:1 show:1 easy:1 method:1 |@bigram noodle_soup:1 olive_oil:20 tomato_mozzarella:8 spaghetti_alla:6 alla_genovese:5 risotto_alla:6 di_pesce:8 pesce_spada:6 vino_nobile:1 nobile_di:1 di_montepulciano:1 val_di:2 emilia_romagna:3 parmigiano_reggiano:10 di_modena:3 ice_cream:2 whip_cream:1 aosta_valley:1 tomato_sauce:5 salt_pepper:9 deep_fried:1 fried_fish:2 friuli_venezia:1 venezia_giulia:1 trentino_alto:1 alto_adige:1 adige_südtirol:1 rice_cake:2 pine_nut:4 copious_amount:1 lemon_juice:3 thin_layer:1 fish_shellfish:1 egg_yolk:1 reggio_emilia:2 coffee_cocoa:1 egg_pasta:5 fruit_nut:1 cured_ham:1 pea_bean:1 pork_shoulder:2 san_antonio:1 potato_tomato:1 prosciutto_di:1 cure_ham:1 pork_beef:1 beef_chicken:1 tomato_paste:2 da_fabriano:1 pork_liver:1 fine_grained:1 onion_garlic:1 fennel_seed:3 chilli_pepper:1 sheep_goat:1 durum_wheat:1 virgin_mary:1 wheat_flour:2 brewer_yeast:1 pita_bread:1 bean_paste:1 herb_spice:2 cow_milk:1 milk_cheese:2 olive_olive:1 lemon_balm:1 |
1,601 | Ephesus | Ephesus (Ancient Greek ) was an ancient Greek city on the west coast of Anatolia, in the region known as Ionia during the Classical Greek period. It was one of the twelve cities of the Ionian League. The city was famed for the Temple of Artemis (completed around 550 BCE), one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The Temple was destroyed in 401 CE by a mob led by St. John Chrysostom. John Freely, The Western Shores of Turkey: Discovering the Aegean and Mediterranean Coasts, 2004, p. 148. Emperor Constantine I rebuilt much of the city and erected new public baths. The town was again partially destroyed by an earthquake in 614. The city's importance as a commercial centre declined as the harbor was slowly silted up by the Cayster River (Küçük Menderes). Ephesus was one of the seven churches of Asia that are cited in the Book of Revelation. 2:1–7 The Gospel of John may have been written here. Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible, Palo Alto, Mayfield, 1985. It is also the site of a large gladiators' graveyard. Today's archaeological site lies 3 kilometers southwest of the town of Selçuk, in the Selçuk district of İzmir Province, Turkey. The ruins of Ephesus are a favorite international and local tourist attraction, partly owing to their easy access from Adnan Menderes Airport and via the port of Kuşadası. History Neolithic age The area surrounding Ephesus was already inhabited during the Neolithic Age (about 6000 BC) as was revealed by the excavations at the nearby hoyuk (artificial mounds known as tells) of Arvalya and Cukurici. New findings push back estimated age of Ephesus Turkish Daily News 1996-10-29 Bronze age Excavations in recent years have unearthed settlements from the early Bronze Age at the Ayasuluk Hill. In 1954 a burial ground from the Mycenaean era (1500-1400 BC) with ceramic pots was discovered close to the ruins of the basilica of St. John. This was the period of the Mycenaean Expansion when the Achaioi (as they were called by Homer) settled in Ahhiyawa during the 14th and the 13th centuries BC. Scholars believe that Ephesus was founded on the settlement of Apasa (or Abasa), a Bronze Age-city noted in 14th century BC Hittite sources as in the land of Ahhiyawa. Dark age The city of Ephesus itself was founded as an Attic-Ionian colony in the 10th century BC on the Ayasuluk Hill, three kilometers from the center of antique Ephesus (as attested by excavations at the Seljuk castle during the 1990s). The mythical founder of the city was a prince of Athens named Androklos, who had to leave his country after the death of his father, king Kadros. According to legend, he founded Ephesus on the place where the oracle of Delphi became reality ("A fish and a boar will show you the way"). Androklos drove away most of the native Carian and Lelegian inhabitants of the city and united his people with the remainder. He was a successful warrior and, as king, he was able to join the twelve cities of Ionia together into the Ionian League. During his reign the city began to prosper. He died in a battle against the Carians when he came to the aid of Priene, another city of the Ionian League. Androklos and his dog are depicted on the Hadrian temple frieze, dating from the second century. Later, Greek historians such as Pausanias, Strabo and the poet Kallinos, and the historian Herodotos however reassigned the city's mythological foundation to Ephos, queen of the Amazons. The Greek goddess Artemis and the great Anatolian goddess Kybele were identified together as Artemis of Ephesus. The many-breasted "Lady of Ephesus", identified with Artemis, was venerated in the Temple of Artemis, one of the Seven Wonders of the World and the largest building of the ancient world according to Pausanias (4.31.8). Pausanius mentions that the temple was built by Ephesus, son of the river god Caystrus. before the arrival of the Ionians. Of this structure, scarcely a trace remains. Archaic period About 650 BC Ephesus was attacked by Cimmerians who razed the city, including the temple of Artemis. A few small Cimmerian artifacts can be seen at the archaeological museum of Ephese. When the Cimmerians had been driven away, the city was ruled by a series of tyrants. After a revolt by the people, Ephesus was ruled by a council called the Kuretes. The city prospered again, producing a number of important historical figures, such as the iambic poets Callinus and the satirist Hipponax, the philosopher Heraclitus, the great painter Parrhasius and later the grammarian Zenodotos, the physicians Soranus and Rufus. About 560 BC Ephesus was conquered by the Lydians under the mighty king Croesus. He treated the inhabitants with respect, despite ruling harshly, and even became the main contributor to the reconstruction of the temple of Artemis. His signature has been found on the base of one of the columns of the temple (now on display in the British Museum). Croesus made the populations of the different settlements around Ephesus regroup (synoikismos) in the vicinity of the Temple of Artemis, enlarging the city. Later in the same century, the Lydians under Croesus invaded Persia. The Ionians refused a peace offer from Cyrus the Great, siding with the Lydians instead. After the Persians defeated Croesus the Ionians offered to make peace but Cyrus insisted that they surrender and become part of the empire. Herodotus i. 141 They were defeated by the Persian army commander Harpagos in 547 BC. The Persians then incorporated the Greek cities of Asia Minor into the Achaemenid Empire. Those cities were then ruled by satraps. Classical period Ephesus continued to prosper. But when taxes continued to be raised under Cambyses II and Darius, the Ephesians participated in the Ionian Revolt against Persian rule in the Battle of Ephesus (498 BC), an event which instigated the Greco-Persian wars. In 479 BC, the Ionians, together with Athens and Sparta, were able to oust the Persians from Anatolia. In 478 BC, the Ionian cities entered with Athens and Sparta the Delian League against the Persians. Ephesus did not contribute ships, but only participated with financial support by offering the treasure of Apollo to the goddess Athena, protector of Athens. During the Peloponnesian War, Ephesus was first allied to Athens but sided in a later phase, called the Decelean War, or the Ionian War with Sparta, which also had received the support of the Persians. As a result, the rule over the kingdoms of Anatolia was ceded again to Persia. These wars didn't affect much the daily life in Ephesus. In those times, Ephesus was surprisingly modern in their social relations. They allowed strangers to integrate. Education was much valued. Through the cult of Artemis, the city also became a bastion of women's rights. Ephesus even had its female artists. In later times Pliny mentions having seen at Ephesus a representation of the goddess Diana by Timarata, the daughter of a painter. In 356 BC the temple of Artemis was burnt down, according to legend, by a lunatic called Herostratus. By coincidence, this was the night that Alexander the Great was born. The inhabitants of Ephesus started at once with the restoration and even planning a larger and grander temple. Hellenistic period When Alexander the Great defeated the Persian forces at the Battle of Granicus in 334 BC, the Greek cities of Asia Minor were liberated. The pro-Persian tyrant Syrpax and his family were stoned to death and Alexander was greeted warmly in Ephesus when he entered it in triumph. When he saw that the temple of Artemis was not yet finished, he proposed to finance the temple and have his name as an inscription of the front. But the inhabitants of Ephesus refused, claiming that it was not fitting for a god to build a temple for another god. After the death of Alexander in 323 BC, Ephesus came under the rule of Lysimachus, one of Alexander's generals, in 290 BC. As the river Cayster was silting up the harbour, the resulting marshes were the cause of malaria and many deaths among the inhabitants. The people of Ephesus were forced to move to a new settlement 2 kilometers further on, when the king flooded the old city by blocking the sewers. This settlement was called after the king's second wife Arsinoe II of Egypt. After Lysimachus had destroyed the nearby cities of Lebedos and Colophon in 292 BC, he relocated their inhabitants to the new city. The architectural layout of the city would remain unchanged for the next 500 years. Ephesus revolted after the treacherous death of Agathocles, giving the Syrian king Seleucus I Nicator an opportunity for removing and killing Lysimachus, his last rival, at the Battle of Corupedium in 281 BC. After the death of Lysimachos the town took again the name of Ephesus. Thus Ephese became part of the Seleucid Empire. After the murder of king Antiochus II Theos and his Egyptian wife, pharao Ptolemy III invaded the Seleucid Empire and the Egyptian fleet swept the coast of Asia Minor. Ephesus came under Egyptian rule between 263-197 BC. When the Seleucid king Antiochus III the Great tried to regain the Greek cities of Asia Minor, he came in conflict with Rome. After a series of battles, he was defeated by Scipio Asiaticus at the Battle of Magnesia in 190 BC. As a result, Ephesus came under the rule of the Attalid king of Pergamon Eumenes II (197-133 BC). When his grandson Attalus III died without male children of his own, he left his kingdom to the Roman Republic. Roman Period Ephesus became subject of the Roman Republic. The city felt at once the Roman influence. Taxes rose considerably and the treasures of the city were systematically plundered. In 88 BC Ephesus welcomed Archelaus, a general of Mithridates the Great, king of Pontus, when he conquered Western Anatolia. This led to the Asiatic Vespers, the slaughter of 80,000 Roman citizens in Asia Minor, or any person who spoke with a Latin accent. Many had lived in Ephesus. But when they saw how badly the people of Chios had been treated by Zenobius, a general of Mithridates, they refused entry to his army. Zenobius was invited into the city to visit Philopoemen (the father of Monima, the favorite wife of Mithridates) and the overseer of Ephesus. As the people expected nothing good of him, they threw him into prison and murdered him. Mithridates took revenge and inflicted terrible punishments. However, the Greek cities were given freedom and several substantial rights. Ephesus became, for a short time, self-governing. When Mithridates was defeated in the First Mithridatic War by the Roman consul Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Ephesus came back under Roman rule in 86 BC. Sulla imposed a huge indemnity, along with five years of back taxes, which left Asian cities heavily in debt for a long time to come. When Augustus became emperor in 27 BC, he made Ephesus instead of Pergamum the capital of proconsular Asia, which covered the western part of Asia Minor. Ephesus entered an era of prosperity. It became the seat of the governor, growing into a metropolis and a major center of commerce. It was second in importance and size only to Rome. Strabo . Geography (volume 1-7) 14.1.24. Cambridge: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press Ephesus has been estimated to be in the range of 400,000 to 500,000 inhabitants in the year 100, making it the largest city in Roman Asia and of the day. Ephesus was at its peak during the first and second century AD. The city was famed for the Temple of Artemis (Diana), who had her chief shrine there, the Library of Celsus, and its theatre, which was capable of holding 25,000 spectators. This open-air theater was used initially for drama, but during later Roman times gladiatorial combats were also held on its stage, with the first archaeological evidence of a gladiator graveyard found in May 2007. The population of Ephesus also had several major bath complexes, built at various points while the city was under Roman rule. The city had one of the most advanced aqueduct systems in the ancient world, with multiple aqueducts of various sizes to supply different areas of the city, including 4 major aqueducts. The city and the temple were destroyed by the Goths in 263. This marked the decline of the splendour of the city. Byzantine era (395-1071) Ephesus remained the most important city of the Byzantine Empire in Asia after Constantinople in the 5th and 6th centuries. The emperor Constantine I rebuilt much of the city and erected a new public bath. In 406 John Chrysostom, archbishop of Constantinople, ordered the destruction of the Temple of Artemis. Emperor Flavius Arcadius raised the level of the street between the theatre and the harbour. The basilica of St. John was built during the reign of emperor Justinian I in the sixth century. The town was again partially destroyed by an earthquake in 614. The importance of the city as a commercial centre declined as the harbour slowly filled with silt from the river (today, Küçük Menderes) despite repeated dredges during the city's history. (Today, the harbor is 5 kilometers inland). The loss of its harbor caused Ephesus to lose its access to the Aegean Sea, which was important for trade. People started leaving the lowland of the city for the surrounding hills. The ruins of the temples were used as building blocks for new homes. Marble sculptures were ground to powder to make lime for plaster. Sackings by the Arabs first in the year 654-655 by caliph Muawiyah I, and later in 700 and 716 hastened the decline further. When the Seljuk Turks conquered it in 1071-1100, it was a small village. The Byzantines resumed control in 1100 and changed the name of the town into Hagios Theologos. They kept control of the region until 1308. Crusaders, passing through, were surprised that there was only a small village, called Ayasalouk, where they had expected a bustling city with a large seaport. Even the temple of Artemis was completely forgotten by the local population. Turkish era The town was conquered in 1304 by Sasa Bey, an army commander of the Menteşoğullari principality. Shortly afterwards, it was ceded to the Aydinoğullari principality that stationed a powerful navy in the harbour of Ayasluğ (the present-day Selçuk, next to Ephesus). Ayasoluk became an important harbour, from where the navy organised raids to the surrounding regions. The town knew again a short period of flourishing during the 14th century under these new Seljuk rulers. They added important architectural works such as the İsa Bey Mosque, caravansaries and Turkish bathhouses (hamam). They were incorporated as vassals into the Ottoman Empire for the first time in 1390. The Central Asian warlord Tamerlane defeated the Ottomans in Anatolia in 1402 and the Ottoman sultan Bayezid I died in captivity. The region was restored to the Anatolian Turkish Beyliks. After a period of unrest, the region was again incorporated into the Ottoman Empire by sultan Mehmed II in 1425. Ephesus was eventually completely abandoned in the 15th century and lost her former glory. Nearby Ayasluğ was renamed Selçuk in 1914. Ephesus and Christianity Ephesus was an important center for early Christianity from the AD 50s. From AD 52-54, Paul lived here, working with the congregation and apparently organizing missionary activity into the hinterlands. "Paul, St." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005 He became embroiled in a dispute with artisans, whose livelihood depended on selling the statuettes of Artemis in the Temple of Artemis (Acts 19:23–41). He wrote between 53 and 57 A.D. the letter 1 Corinthians from Ephesus (possibly from the "Paul tower" close to the harbour, where he was imprisoned for a short time). Later Paul wrote to the Christian community at Ephesus, according to tradition, while he was in prison in Rome (around 62 A.D.) Anatolia was associated with John, Durant, Will. Caesar and Christ. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972 one of the chief apostles, and the Gospel of John might have been written in Ephesus, c 90-100. Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. "The Gospels" p. 266-268 Ephesus was one of the seven cities addressed in Revelation (2:1–7), indicating that the church at Ephesus was still strong. Two decades later, the church at Ephesus there was still important enough to be addressed by a letter written by Bishop Ignatius of Antioch to the Ephesians in the early 2nd century AD, that begins with, "Ignatius, who is also called Theophorus, to the Church which is at Ephesus, in Asia, deservedly most happy, being blessed in the greatness and fullness of God the Father, and predestinated before the beginning of time, that it should be always for an enduring and unchangeable glory" (Letter to the Ephesians). The church at Ephesus had given their support for Ignatius, who was taken to Rome for execution. The house of the Virgin Mary, about from Selçuk, is believed to have been the last home of Mary, mother of Jesus. It is a popular place of pilgrimage which has been visited by three recent popes. The Church of Mary close to the harbor of Ephesus was the setting for the Third Ecumenical Council in 431, which resulted in the condemnation of Nestorius. A Second Council of Ephesus was held in 449, but its controversial acts were never approved by the Catholics. It came to be called the Robber Council of Ephesus or Robber Synod of Latrocinium by its opponents. Main sites The site is large. In fact, Ephesus contains the largest collection of Roman ruins east of the Mediterranean. Only an estimated 15% has been excavated. The ruins that are visible give some idea of the city's original splendour, and the names associated with the ruins are evocative of its former life. The theater dominates the view down Harbour Street, which leads to the long-silted-up harbor. The Library of Celsus, whose façade has been carefully reconstructed from all original pieces, was built ca. AD 125 by Gaius Julius Aquila in memory of his father and once held nearly 12,000 scrolls. Designed with an exaggerated entrance — so as to enhance its perceived size, speculate many historians — the building faces east so that the reading rooms could make best use of the morning light. A part of the site, Basilica of St. John, was built in the 6th century AD, under emperor Justinian I over the supposed site of the apostle's tomb. It is now surrounded by Selçuk. The Temple of Artemis, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, is represented only by one inconspicuous column, revealed during an archaeological excavation by the British Museum in the 1870s. Some fragments of the frieze (which are insufficient to suggest the form of the original) and other small finds were removed – some to London and some to the Archaeological Museum, Istanbul. Other edifices excavated include: The Odeon - a small roofed theatre constructed by Vedius Antonius and his wife in around 150 A.D. It was a small salon for plays and concerts, seating about 1,500 people. There were 22 stairs in the theater. The upper part of the theatre was decorated with red granite pillars in the Corinthian style. The entrances were at both sides of the stage and reached by a few steps. Keskin, Naci. Ephesus. ISBN 975-7559-48-2 The Temple of Hadrian dates from the 2nd century but underwent repairs in the 4th century and has been reerected from the surviving architectural fragments. The reliefs in the upper sections are casts, the originals being now exhibited in the Selçuk Archaeological Museum. A number of figures are depicted in the reliefs, including the emperor Theodosius I with his wife and eldest son. The temple was depicted on the reverse of the Turkish 20 million lira banknote of 2001-2005 Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey. Banknote Museum: 7. Emission Group - Twenty Million Turkish Lira - I. Series. – Retrieved on 20 April 2009. and of the 20 new lira banknote of 2005-2009. Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey. Banknote Museum: 8. Emission Group - Twenty New Turkish Lira - I. Series.Announcement on the Withdrawal of E8 New Turkish Lira Banknotes from Circulation, 8 May 2007. – Retrieved on 20 April 2009. The Temple of Domitian was one of the largest temples on the city. It was erected on a pseudodipteral plan with 8 x 13 columns. The temple and its statue are some of the few remains connected with Domitian. The Theater - At an estimated 44,000 seating capacity, it is believed to be the largest outdoor theater in the ancient world. The Tomb/Fountain of Pollio - erected by a grateful city in 97 AD in honor of C. Sextilius Pollio, who constructed the Marnas aqueduct, by Offilius Proculus. It has a concave facade. Ephesus. Distributed by Rehber Basım Yayın Dağıtım Reklamcılık ve Tic. A.Ş. and Revak publishers. ISBN 975-8212-11-7, There were two agoras, one for commercial and one for state business. Seven sleepers Ephesus is believed to be the city of the Seven Sleepers. The story of the Seven Sleepers, who are considered saints by Catholics, Orthodox Christians and Muslims, tells that they were persecuted because of their belief in God and that they slept in a cave near Ephesus for centuries. Notable persons Heraclitus Presocratic philosopher Zeuxis (5th century BC) painter Parrhasius (5th century BC) painter Agasias (2nd century BC) Greek sculptors Manuel Philes (c. 1275-1345) Byzantine poet References See also Ionia Ionian League External links Selçuk Municipality page Map of Asia Minor (modern Turkey) which shows Ephesus in the province of Lydia close to the Aegean Sea Map of the Roman Empire at the end of the second century. Map of the eastern half of the Roman Empire. Coinage of Ephesus, Macquarie University, Australia The Theater at Ephesus, The Ancient Theater Archive, Theater specifications and virtual reality tour of theater Ephesus Turkey Asia Minor Coins - Greek and Roman coins from ancient Ephesos | Ephesus |@lemmatized ephesus:70 ancient:9 greek:11 city:50 west:1 coast:3 anatolia:6 region:5 know:3 ionia:3 classical:3 period:8 one:14 twelve:2 ionian:12 league:5 famed:2 temple:26 artemis:17 complete:1 around:4 bce:1 seven:8 wonder:3 world:6 destroy:5 ce:1 mob:1 lead:3 st:5 john:9 chrysostom:2 freely:1 western:3 shore:1 turkey:6 discover:2 aegean:3 mediterranean:2 p:2 emperor:7 constantine:2 rebuild:2 much:4 erect:4 new:12 public:2 bath:3 town:7 partially:2 earthquake:2 importance:3 commercial:3 centre:2 decline:4 harbor:5 slowly:2 silt:4 cayster:2 river:4 küçük:2 menderes:3 church:7 asia:13 cite:1 book:1 revelation:2 gospel:3 may:3 write:5 harris:2 stephen:2 l:3 understand:2 bible:2 palo:2 alto:2 mayfield:2 also:7 site:5 large:9 gladiator:2 graveyard:2 today:3 archaeological:6 lie:1 kilometer:4 southwest:1 selçuk:8 district:1 zmir:1 province:2 ruin:6 favorite:2 international:1 local:2 tourist:1 attraction:1 partly:1 owe:1 easy:1 access:2 adnan:1 airport:1 via:1 port:1 kuşadası:1 history:2 neolithic:2 age:7 area:2 surround:3 already:1 inhabit:1 bc:26 reveal:2 excavation:4 nearby:3 hoyuk:1 artificial:1 mound:1 tell:2 arvalya:1 cukurici:1 finding:1 push:1 back:3 estimate:3 turkish:8 daily:2 news:1 bronze:3 recent:2 year:5 unearth:1 settlement:5 early:3 ayasuluk:2 hill:3 burial:1 ground:2 mycenaean:2 era:4 ceramic:1 pot:1 close:4 basilica:3 expansion:1 achaioi:1 call:8 homer:1 settle:1 ahhiyawa:2 century:19 scholar:1 believe:4 found:3 apasa:1 abasa:1 note:1 hittite:1 source:1 land:1 dark:1 attic:1 colony:1 three:2 center:3 antique:1 attest:1 seljuk:3 castle:1 mythical:1 founder:1 prince:1 athens:5 name:5 androklos:3 leave:4 country:1 death:6 father:4 king:10 kadros:1 accord:4 legend:2 place:2 oracle:1 delphi:1 become:11 reality:2 fish:1 boar:1 show:2 way:1 drive:2 away:2 native:1 carian:1 lelegian:1 inhabitant:7 unite:1 people:7 remainder:1 successful:1 warrior:1 able:2 join:1 together:3 reign:2 begin:2 prosper:3 die:3 battle:6 carians:1 come:8 aid:1 priene:1 another:2 dog:1 depict:3 hadrian:2 frieze:2 date:2 second:6 later:7 historian:3 pausanias:2 strabo:2 poet:3 kallinos:1 herodotos:1 however:2 reassign:1 mythological:1 foundation:1 ephos:1 queen:1 amazon:1 goddess:4 great:7 anatolian:2 kybele:1 identify:2 many:4 breast:1 lady:1 venerate:1 building:3 pausanius:1 mention:2 build:6 son:2 god:5 caystrus:1 arrival:1 structure:1 scarcely:1 trace:1 remain:3 archaic:1 attack:1 cimmerians:2 raze:1 include:4 small:6 cimmerian:1 artifact:1 see:3 museum:7 ephese:2 rule:11 series:4 tyrant:2 revolt:3 council:4 kuretes:1 produce:1 number:2 important:7 historical:1 figure:2 iambic:1 callinus:1 satirist:1 hipponax:1 philosopher:2 heraclitus:2 painter:4 parrhasius:2 grammarian:1 zenodotos:1 physician:1 soranus:1 rufus:1 conquer:4 lydian:3 mighty:1 croesus:4 treat:2 respect:1 despite:2 harshly:1 even:4 main:2 contributor:1 reconstruction:1 signature:1 find:3 base:1 column:3 display:1 british:2 make:6 population:3 different:2 regroup:1 synoikismos:1 vicinity:1 enlarge:1 invade:2 persia:2 refuse:3 peace:2 offer:3 cyrus:2 side:3 instead:2 persian:10 defeat:6 insist:1 surrender:1 part:5 empire:9 herodotus:1 army:3 commander:2 harpagos:1 incorporate:3 minor:8 achaemenid:1 satrap:1 continue:2 tax:3 raise:2 cambyses:1 ii:5 darius:1 ephesian:3 participate:2 event:1 instigate:1 greco:1 war:6 sparta:3 oust:1 enter:3 delian:1 contribute:1 ship:1 financial:1 support:3 treasure:2 apollo:1 athena:1 protector:1 peloponnesian:1 first:6 ally:1 late:2 phase:1 decelean:1 receive:1 result:4 kingdom:2 cede:2 affect:1 life:2 time:8 surprisingly:1 modern:2 social:1 relation:1 allow:1 stranger:1 integrate:1 education:1 value:1 cult:1 bastion:1 woman:1 right:2 female:1 artist:1 pliny:1 representation:1 diana:2 timarata:1 daughter:1 burnt:1 lunatic:1 herostratus:1 coincidence:1 night:1 alexander:5 bear:1 start:2 restoration:1 plan:2 grand:1 hellenistic:1 force:2 granicus:1 liberate:1 pro:1 syrpax:1 family:1 stone:1 greet:1 warmly:1 triumph:1 saw:2 yet:1 finish:1 propose:1 finance:1 inscription:1 front:1 claim:1 fit:1 lysimachus:3 general:3 harbour:7 marsh:1 cause:2 malaria:1 among:1 move:1 far:2 flood:1 old:1 block:2 sewer:1 wife:5 arsinoe:1 egypt:1 lebedos:1 colophon:1 relocate:1 architectural:3 layout:1 would:1 unchanged:1 next:2 treacherous:1 agathocles:1 give:4 syrian:1 seleucus:1 nicator:1 opportunity:1 remove:2 kill:1 last:2 rival:1 corupedium:1 lysimachos:1 take:3 thus:1 seleucid:3 murder:2 antiochus:2 theos:1 egyptian:3 pharao:1 ptolemy:1 iii:3 fleet:1 sweep:1 tried:1 regain:1 conflict:1 rome:4 scipio:1 asiaticus:1 magnesia:1 attalid:1 pergamon:1 eumenes:1 grandson:1 attalus:1 without:1 male:1 child:1 roman:14 republic:4 subject:1 felt:1 influence:1 rise:1 considerably:1 systematically:1 plunder:1 welcome:1 archelaus:1 mithridates:5 pontus:1 asiatic:1 vesper:1 slaughter:1 citizen:1 person:2 speak:1 latin:1 accent:1 live:2 badly:1 chios:1 zenobius:2 entry:1 invite:1 visit:2 philopoemen:1 monima:1 overseer:1 expect:2 nothing:1 good:1 throw:1 prison:2 revenge:1 inflict:1 terrible:1 punishment:1 freedom:1 several:2 substantial:1 short:3 self:1 governing:1 mithridatic:1 consul:1 lucius:1 cornelius:1 sulla:2 impose:1 huge:1 indemnity:1 along:1 five:1 asian:2 heavily:1 debt:1 long:2 augustus:1 pergamum:1 capital:1 proconsular:1 cover:1 prosperity:1 seat:2 governor:1 grow:1 metropolis:1 major:3 commerce:1 size:3 geography:1 volume:1 cambridge:1 loeb:1 library:3 harvard:1 university:3 press:2 range:1 day:2 peak:1 ad:7 chief:2 shrine:1 celsus:2 theatre:4 capable:1 hold:4 spectator:1 open:1 air:1 theater:9 use:3 initially:1 drama:1 gladiatorial:1 combat:1 stage:2 evidence:1 complex:1 various:2 point:1 advanced:1 aqueduct:4 system:1 multiple:1 supply:1 goth:1 mark:1 splendour:2 byzantine:4 constantinople:2 archbishop:1 order:1 destruction:1 flavius:1 arcadius:1 level:1 street:2 justinian:2 sixth:1 fill:1 repeat:1 dredge:1 inland:1 loss:1 lose:2 sea:2 trade:1 lowland:1 surrounding:1 home:2 marble:1 sculpture:1 powder:1 lime:1 plaster:1 sacking:1 arab:1 caliph:1 muawiyah:1 hasten:1 turks:1 village:2 resume:1 control:2 change:1 hagios:1 theologos:1 keep:1 crusader:1 pass:1 surprise:1 ayasalouk:1 bustle:1 seaport:1 completely:2 forget:1 sasa:1 bey:2 menteşoğullari:1 principality:2 shortly:1 afterwards:1 aydinoğullari:1 station:1 powerful:1 navy:2 ayasluğ:2 present:1 ayasoluk:1 organise:1 raid:1 flourish:1 ruler:1 add:1 work:2 sa:1 mosque:1 caravansary:1 bathhouse:1 hamam:1 vassal:1 ottoman:4 central:3 warlord:1 tamerlane:1 sultan:2 bayezid:1 captivity:1 restore:1 beyliks:1 unrest:1 mehmed:1 eventually:1 abandon:1 former:2 glory:2 rename:1 christianity:2 paul:4 congregation:1 apparently:1 organize:1 missionary:1 activity:1 hinterland:1 cross:1 f:1 ed:1 oxford:2 dictionary:1 christian:3 york:2 embroil:1 dispute:1 artisan:1 whose:2 livelihood:1 depend:1 sell:1 statuette:1 act:2 letter:3 corinthian:2 possibly:1 tower:1 imprison:1 community:1 tradition:1 associate:2 durant:1 caesar:1 christ:1 simon:1 schuster:1 apostle:2 might:1 c:3 address:2 indicating:1 still:2 strong:1 two:2 decade:1 enough:1 bishop:1 ignatius:3 antioch:1 theophorus:1 deservedly:1 happy:1 bless:1 greatness:1 fullness:1 predestinate:1 beginning:1 always:1 enduring:1 unchangeable:1 execution:1 house:1 virgin:1 mary:3 mother:1 jesus:1 popular:1 pilgrimage:1 pope:1 setting:1 third:1 ecumenical:1 condemnation:1 nestorius:1 controversial:1 never:1 approve:1 catholic:2 robber:2 synod:1 latrocinium:1 opponent:1 sit:1 fact:1 contain:1 collection:1 east:2 excavate:2 visible:1 idea:1 original:4 evocative:1 dominate:1 view:1 façade:1 carefully:1 reconstruct:1 piece:1 ca:1 gaius:1 julius:1 aquila:1 memory:1 nearly:1 scroll:1 design:1 exaggerated:1 entrance:2 enhance:1 perceived:1 speculate:1 face:1 reading:1 room:1 could:1 best:1 morning:1 light:1 suppose:1 tomb:2 represent:1 inconspicuous:1 fragment:2 insufficient:1 suggest:1 form:1 london:1 istanbul:1 edifice:1 odeon:1 roofed:1 construct:2 vedius:1 antonius:1 salon:1 play:1 concert:1 stair:1 upper:2 decorate:1 red:1 granite:1 pillar:1 style:1 reach:1 step:1 keskin:1 naci:1 isbn:2 underwent:1 repair:1 reerected:1 survive:1 relief:2 section:1 cast:1 exhibit:1 theodosius:1 eldest:1 reverse:1 million:2 lira:5 banknote:5 bank:2 emission:2 group:2 twenty:2 retrieve:2 april:2 announcement:1 withdrawal:1 circulation:1 domitian:2 pseudodipteral:1 x:1 statue:1 remains:1 connect:1 estimated:1 seating:1 capacity:1 outdoor:1 fountain:1 pollio:2 grateful:1 honor:1 sextilius:1 marnas:1 offilius:1 proculus:1 concave:1 facade:1 distribute:1 rehber:1 basım:1 yayın:1 dağıtım:1 reklamcılık:1 tic:1 ş:1 revak:1 publisher:1 agora:1 state:1 business:1 sleeper:3 story:1 consider:1 saint:1 orthodox:1 muslim:1 persecute:1 belief:1 sleep:1 cave:1 near:1 notable:1 presocratic:1 zeuxis:1 agasias:1 sculptor:1 manuel:1 philes:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 municipality:1 page:1 map:3 lydia:1 end:1 eastern:1 half:1 coinage:1 macquarie:1 australia:1 archive:1 specification:1 virtual:1 tour:1 coin:2 ephesos:1 |@bigram temple_artemis:12 john_chrysostom:2 harris_stephen:2 bible_palo:2 palo_alto:2 alto_mayfield:2 tourist_attraction:1 oracle_delphi:1 artemis_ephesus:1 achaemenid_empire:1 athens_sparta:2 delian_league:1 peloponnesian_war:1 seleucid_empire:2 antiochus_iii:1 self_governing:1 mithridatic_war:1 lucius_cornelius:1 cornelius_sulla:1 strabo_geography:1 loeb_classical:1 gladiatorial_combat:1 archaeological_evidence:1 aegean_sea:2 marble_sculpture:1 shortly_afterwards:1 ottoman_empire:2 sultan_bayezid:1 sultan_mehmed:1 mehmed_ii:1 simon_schuster:1 ignatius_antioch:1 virgin_mary:1 ecumenical_council:1 gaius_julius:1 archaeological_excavation:1 emperor_theodosius:1 eldest_son:1 lira_banknote:3 turkey_banknote:2 turkish_lira:3 seating_capacity:1 external_link:1 |
1,602 | Alexios_I_Komnenos | Alexios I Komnenos, latinized as Alexius I Comnenus (, 1048 – 15 August 1118), was Byzantine emperor from 1081 to 1118), and the founder of the Komnenian dynasty. Inheriting a collapsing empire and faced with constant warfare during his reign against both the Seljuk Turks in Asia Minor and the Normans in the western Balkans, Alexios was able to halt the Byzantine decline and begin the military, financial, and territorial recovery known as the "Komnenian restoration". His appeals to Western Europe for help against the Turks were also the catalyst that triggered the Crusades. Life Alexios was the son of Ioannis Komnenos and Anna Dalassena, and the nephew of Isaac I Komnenos (emperor 1057–1059). Alexios' father declined the throne on the abdication of Isaac, who was accordingly succeeded by four emperors of other families between 1059 and 1081. Under one of these emperors, Romanos IV Diogenes (1067–1071), he served with distinction against the Seljuk Turks. Under Michael VII Doukas Parapinakes (1071–1078) and Nicephoros III Botaneiates (1078–1081), he was also employed, along with his elder brother Isaac, against rebels in Asia Minor, Thrace, and in Epirus. Alexios' mother wielded great influence during his reign, and he is described by his daughter, the historian Anna Komnene, as running next to the imperial chariot that she drove. In 1074, the rebel mercenaries in Asia Minor were successfully subdued, and, in 1078, he was appointed commander of the field army in the West by Nikephoros III. In this capacity, Alexios defeated the rebellions of two successive governors of Dyrrhachium, Nikephoros Bryennios (whose son or grandson later married Alexios' daughter Anna) and Nikephoros Basilakes. Alexios was ordered to march against his brother-in-law Nikephoros Melissenos in Asia Minor but refused to fight his kinsman. This did not, however, lead to a demotion, as Alexios was needed to counter the expected invasion of the Norman of Southern Italy, led by Robert Guiscard While the Byzantine troops were assembling for the expedition, Alexios was approached by the Doukas faction at court, who convinced him to join a conspiracy against Nikephoros III. Alexios was duly proclaimed emperor by his troops and marched on Constantinople. Bribing the western mercenaries guarding the city, the rebels entered Constantinople in triumph, without meeting any resistance, on 1 April 1081. Nikephoros III was forced to abdicate and retire to a monastery, and Patriarch Cosmas I crowned Alexios I emperor on April 4. During this time, Alexios was rumored to be the lover of Empress Maria of Alania, the daughter of King Bagrat IV of Georgia, who had been successively married to Michael VII Doukas and his successor Nikephoros III Botaneiates, and was renowned for her beauty. Alexios arranged for Maria to stay on the palace grounds, and it was thought that Alexios was considering marrying the erstwhile empress. However, his mother consolidated the Doukas family connection by arranging the Emperor's marriage to Irene Doukaina, granddaughter of the Caesar John Doukas, the uncle of Michael VII, who would not have supported Alexios otherwise. As a measure intended to keep the support of the Doukai, Alexios restored Constantine Doukas, the young son of Michael VII and Maria, as co-emperor and a little later betrothed him to his own first-born daughter Anna, who moved into the Mangana Palace with her fiancé and his mother. However, this situation changed drastically when Alexios' first son John II Komnenos was born in 1087: Anna's engagement to Constantine was dissolved, and she was moved to the main Palace to live with her mother and grandmother. Alexios became estranged from Maria, who was stripped of her imperial title and retired to a monastery, and Constantine Doukas was deprived of his status as co-emperor. Nevertheless, he remained in good relations with the imperial family and succumbed to his weak constitution soon afterwards. Byzantine-Norman Wars This coin was struck by Alexios during his war against Robert Guiscard. To help pay for his campaigns, Alexios debased the currency during the first decade of his rule. In 1092 however he reformed the coinage, and restored the gold currency in the form of the hyperpyron. Alexios' long reign of nearly thirty-seven years was full of struggle. At the very outset, he had to meet the formidable attack of the Normans (led by Robert Guiscard and his son Bohemund), who took Dyrrhachium and Corfu, and laid siege to Larissa in Thessaly (see Battle of Dyrrhachium). Alexios suffered several defeats before being able to strike back with success. He enhanced this by bribing the German king Henry IV with 360,000 gold pieces to attack the Normans in Italy, which forced the Normans to concentrate on their defenses at home in 1083–1084. He also secured the alliance of Henry, Count of Monte Sant'Angelo, who controlled the Gargano Peninsula and dated his charters by Alexios' reign. Henry's allegiance was to be the last example of Byzantine political control on peninsular Italy. The Norman danger ended for the time being with Robert Guiscard's death in 1085, and the Byzantines recovered most of their losses. Next, Alexios had to deal with disturbances in Thrace, where the heretical sects of the Bogomils and the Paulicians revolted and made common cause with the Pechenegs from beyond the Danube. Paulician soldiers in imperial service likewise deserted during Alexios' battles with the Normans. As soon as the Norman threat had passed, Alexios set out to punish the rebels and deserters, confiscating their lands. This led to a further revolt near Philippopolis, and the commander of the field army in the west, Gregory Pakourianos, was defeated and killed in the ensuing battle. In 1087 the Pechenegs raided into Thrace and Alexios crossed into Moesia to retaliate but failed to take Dorostolon (Silistra). During his retreat, the emperor was surrounded and worn down by the Pechenegs, who forced him to sign a truce and pay protection money. In 1090 the Pechenegs invaded Thrace again, while Tzachas, the brother-in-law of the Sultan of Rum, launched a fleet and attempted to arrange a joint siege of Constantinople with the Pechenegs. Alexios overcame this crisis by entering into an alliance with a horde of 40,000 Cumans, with whose help he crushed the Pechenegs at Levounion in Thrace on 29 April 1091. This put an end to the Pecheneg threat, but in 1094 the Cumans began to raid the imperial territories in the Balkans. Led by a pretender claiming to be Constantine Diogenes, a long-dead son of the Emperor Romanos IV, the Cumans crossed the mountains and raided into eastern Thrace until their leader was eliminated at Adrianople. With the Balkans more or less pacified, Alexios could now turn his attention to Asia Minor, which had been almost completely overrun by the Seljuk Turks. Byzantine-Seljuk Wars The Byzantine Empire at the accession of Alexios I Komnenos, c. 1081 As early as 1090, Alexios had taken reconciliatory measures towards the Papacy, with the intention of seeking western support against the Seljuks. In 1095 his ambassadors appeared before Pope Urban II at the Council of Piacenza. The help which he wanted from the West was simply mercenary forces and not the immense hosts which arrived, to his consternation and embarrassment, after the pope preached the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont later that same year. Not quite ready to supply this number of people as they traversed his territories, the emperor saw his Balkan possessions subjected to further pillage at the hands of his own allies. Alexios dealt with the first disorganized group of Crusaders, led by the preacher Peter the Hermit, by sending them on to Asia Minor, where they were massacred by the Turks in 1096. The second and much more formidable host of crusaders gradually made its way to Constantinople, led in sections by Godfrey of Bouillon, Bohemund of Taranto, Raymond IV of Toulouse and other important members of the western nobility. Alexios used the opportunity of meeting the crusader leaders separately as they arrived and extracting from them oaths of homage and the promise to turn over conquered lands to the Byzantine Empire. Transferring each contingent into Asia, Alexios promised to supply them with provisions in return for their oaths of homage. The crusade was a notable success for Byzantium, as Alexios now recovered a number of important cities and islands. The crusader siege of Nicaea forced the city to surrender to the emperor in 1097, and the subsequent crusader victory at Dorylaion allowed the Byzantine forces to recover much of western Asia Minor. Here Byzantine rule was reestablished in Chios, Rhodes, Smyrna, Ephesus, Sardis, and Philadelphia in 1097–1099. This success is ascribed by his daughter Anna to his policy and diplomacy, but by the Latin historians of the crusade to his treachery and falseness. In 1099, a Byzantine fleet of 10 ships were sent to assist the Crusaders in capturing Laodicea and other coastal towns as far as Tripoli. The crusaders believed their oaths were made invalid when the Byzantine contingent under Tatikios failed to help them during the siege of Antioch; Bohemund, who had set himself up as Prince of Antioch, briefly went to war with Alexios in the Balkans, but was blockaded by the Byzantine forces and agreed to become Alexios' vassal by the Treaty of Devol in 1108. Personal life During the last twenty years of his life Alexios lost much of his popularity. The years were marked by persecution of the followers of the Paulician and Bogomil heresies—one of his last acts was to publicly burn on the stake Basil, a Bogomil leader, with whom he had engaged in a theological dispute. In spite of the success of the crusade, Alexios also had to repel numerous attempts on his territory by the Seljuks in 1110–1117. Alexios was for many years under the strong influence of an eminence grise, his mother Anna Dalassena, a wise and immensely able politician whom, in a uniquely irregular fashion, he had crowned as Augusta instead of the rightful claimant to the title, his wife Irene Doukaina. Dalassena was the effective administrator of the Empire during Alexios' long absences in military campaigns: she was constantly at odds with her daughter-in-law and had assumed total responsibility for the upbringing and education of her granddaughter Anna Komnene. Succession Alexios' last years were also troubled by anxieties over the succession. Although he had crowned his son John II Komnenos co-emperor at the age of five in 1092, John's mother Irene Doukaina wished to alter the succession in favor of her daughter Anna and Anna's husband, Nikephoros Bryennios. Bryennios had been made kaisar (Caesar) and received the newly-created title of panhypersebastos ("honoured above all"), and remained loyal to both Alexios and John. Nevertheless, the intrigues of Irene and Anna disturbed even Alexios' dying hours. Legacy Alexios I had stabilized the Byzantine Empire and overcame a dangerous crisis, inaugurating a century of imperial prosperity and success. He had also profoundly altered the nature of the Byzantine government. By seeking close alliances with powerful noble families, Alexios put an end to the tradition of imperial exclusivity and coopted most of the nobility into his extended family and, through it, his government. This measure, which was intended to diminish opposition, was paralleled by the introduction of new courtly dignities, like that of panhypersebastos given to Nikephoros Bryennios, or that of sebastokrator given to the emperor's brother Isaac Komnenos. Although this policy met with initial success, it gradually undermined the relative effectiveness of imperial bureaucracy by placing family connections over merit. Alexios' policy of integration of the nobility bore the fruit of continuity: every Byzantine emperor who reigned after Alexios I Komnenos was related to him by either descent or marriage. Family By his marriage with Irene Doukaina, Alexios I had the following children: Anna Komnene, who married the Caesar Nikephoros Bryennios. Maria Komnene, who married (1) Gregory Gabras and (2) Nikephoros Euphorbenos Katakalon. John II Komnenos, who succeeded as emperor. Andronikos Komnenos, sebastokratōr. Isaac Komnenos, sebastokratōr. Eudokia Komnene, who married Michael Iasites. Theodora Komnene, who married (1) Constantine Kourtikes and (2) Constantine Angelos. By him she was the grandmother of Emperors Isaac II Angelos and Alexios III Angelos. Manuel Komnenos. Zoe Komnene. References Michael Angold, The Byzantine Empire, 1025-1204, Longman, 1997, 2nd ed., pp. 136-70. ISBN 0-582-29468-1 Jonathan Harris, Byzantium and the Crusades, Hambledon, 2003, pp. 33-71. ISBN 1-85285-298-4 Warren Treadgold, A History of the Byzantine State and Society, Stanford Universwity Press, 1997, pp. 612-29. ISBN 0-8047-2630 -2 Anna Comnena, The Alexiad, translated E.R.A. Sewter, Penguin Classics, 1969 External links Alexius coinage be-x-old:Аляксей I Комнін | Alexios_I_Komnenos |@lemmatized alexios:51 komnenos:12 latinize:1 alexius:2 comnenus:1 august:1 byzantine:19 emperor:18 founder:1 komnenian:2 dynasty:1 inherit:1 collapse:1 empire:6 face:1 constant:1 warfare:1 reign:5 seljuk:6 turk:5 asia:8 minor:7 norman:9 western:6 balkan:5 able:3 halt:1 decline:2 begin:2 military:2 financial:1 territorial:1 recovery:1 know:1 restoration:1 appeal:1 europe:1 help:5 also:6 catalyst:1 trigger:1 crusade:6 life:3 son:7 ioannis:1 anna:13 dalassena:3 nephew:1 isaac:6 father:1 throne:1 abdication:1 accordingly:1 succeed:2 four:1 family:7 one:2 romanos:2 iv:5 diogenes:2 serve:1 distinction:1 michael:6 vii:4 doukas:7 parapinakes:1 nicephoros:1 iii:6 botaneiates:2 employ:1 along:1 elder:1 brother:4 rebel:4 thrace:6 epirus:1 mother:6 wield:1 great:1 influence:2 describe:1 daughter:7 historian:2 komnene:7 run:1 next:2 imperial:8 chariot:1 drive:1 mercenary:3 successfully:1 subdue:1 appoint:1 commander:2 field:2 army:2 west:3 nikephoros:11 capacity:1 defeat:3 rebellion:1 two:1 successive:1 governor:1 dyrrhachium:3 bryennios:5 whose:2 grandson:1 later:3 marry:7 basilakes:1 order:1 march:2 law:3 melissenos:1 refuse:1 fight:1 kinsman:1 however:4 lead:7 demotion:1 need:1 counter:1 expected:1 invasion:1 southern:1 italy:3 robert:4 guiscard:4 troop:2 assemble:1 expedition:1 approach:1 faction:1 court:1 convince:1 join:1 conspiracy:1 duly:1 proclaim:1 constantinople:4 bribe:2 guard:1 city:3 enter:2 triumph:1 without:1 meet:4 resistance:1 april:3 force:7 abdicate:1 retire:2 monastery:2 patriarch:1 cosmas:1 crown:3 time:2 rumor:1 lover:1 empress:2 maria:5 alania:1 king:2 bagrat:1 georgia:1 successively:1 successor:1 renowned:1 beauty:1 arrange:3 stay:1 palace:3 ground:1 think:1 consider:1 erstwhile:1 consolidate:1 connection:2 marriage:3 irene:5 doukaina:4 granddaughter:2 caesar:3 john:6 uncle:1 would:1 support:3 otherwise:1 measure:3 intend:2 keep:1 doukai:1 restore:2 constantine:6 young:1 co:3 little:1 betroth:1 first:5 bear:2 move:2 mangana:1 fiancé:1 situation:1 change:1 drastically:1 ii:5 engagement:1 dissolve:1 main:1 live:1 grandmother:2 become:2 estrange:1 strip:1 title:3 deprive:1 status:1 nevertheless:2 remain:2 good:1 relation:1 succumb:1 weak:1 constitution:1 soon:2 afterwards:1 war:4 coin:1 strike:2 pay:2 campaign:2 debase:1 currency:2 decade:1 rule:2 reform:1 coinage:2 gold:2 form:1 hyperpyron:1 long:3 nearly:1 thirty:1 seven:1 year:6 full:1 struggle:1 outset:1 formidable:2 attack:2 bohemund:3 take:3 corfu:1 lay:1 siege:4 larissa:1 thessaly:1 see:1 battle:3 suffer:1 several:1 back:1 success:6 enhance:1 german:1 henry:3 piece:1 concentrate:1 defense:1 home:1 secure:1 alliance:3 count:1 monte:1 sant:1 angelo:1 control:2 gargano:1 peninsula:1 date:1 charter:1 allegiance:1 last:4 example:1 political:1 peninsular:1 danger:1 end:3 death:1 recover:3 loss:1 deal:2 disturbance:1 heretical:1 sect:1 bogomils:1 paulicians:1 revolt:2 make:4 common:1 cause:1 pechenegs:6 beyond:1 danube:1 paulician:2 soldier:1 service:1 likewise:1 desert:1 threat:2 pass:1 set:2 punish:1 deserter:1 confiscate:1 land:2 near:1 philippopolis:1 gregory:2 pakourianos:1 kill:1 ensuing:1 raid:3 cross:2 moesia:1 retaliate:1 fail:2 dorostolon:1 silistra:1 retreat:1 surround:1 wear:1 sign:1 truce:1 protection:1 money:1 invade:1 tzachas:1 sultan:1 rum:1 launch:1 fleet:2 attempt:2 joint:1 overcome:2 crisis:2 horde:1 cumans:3 crush:1 levounion:1 put:2 pecheneg:1 territory:3 pretender:1 claiming:1 dead:1 mountain:1 eastern:1 leader:3 eliminate:1 adrianople:1 less:1 pacified:1 could:1 turn:2 attention:1 almost:1 completely:1 overrun:1 accession:1 c:1 early:1 reconciliatory:1 towards:1 papacy:1 intention:1 seek:2 ambassador:1 appear:1 pope:2 urban:1 council:2 piacenza:1 want:1 simply:1 immense:1 host:2 arrive:2 consternation:1 embarrassment:1 preach:1 clermont:1 quite:1 ready:1 supply:2 number:2 people:1 traverse:1 saw:1 possession:1 subject:1 pillage:1 hand:1 ally:1 disorganized:1 group:1 crusader:7 preacher:1 peter:1 hermit:1 send:2 massacre:1 second:1 much:3 gradually:2 way:1 section:1 godfrey:1 bouillon:1 taranto:1 raymond:1 toulouse:1 important:2 member:1 nobility:3 use:1 opportunity:1 separately:1 extract:1 oath:3 homage:2 promise:2 conquered:1 transfer:1 contingent:2 provision:1 return:1 notable:1 byzantium:2 island:1 nicaea:1 surrender:1 subsequent:1 victory:1 dorylaion:1 allow:1 reestablish:1 chios:1 rhodes:1 smyrna:1 ephesus:1 sardis:1 philadelphia:1 ascribe:1 policy:3 diplomacy:1 latin:1 treachery:1 falseness:1 ship:1 assist:1 capture:1 laodicea:1 coastal:1 town:1 far:1 tripoli:1 believe:1 invalid:1 tatikios:1 antioch:2 prince:1 briefly:1 go:1 blockade:1 agree:1 vassal:1 treaty:1 devol:1 personal:1 twenty:1 lose:1 popularity:1 mark:1 persecution:1 follower:1 bogomil:2 heresy:1 act:1 publicly:1 burn:1 stake:1 basil:1 engage:1 theological:1 dispute:1 spite:1 repel:1 numerous:1 many:1 strong:1 eminence:1 grise:1 wise:1 immensely:1 politician:1 uniquely:1 irregular:1 fashion:1 augusta:1 instead:1 rightful:1 claimant:1 wife:1 effective:1 administrator:1 absence:1 constantly:1 odds:1 assume:1 total:1 responsibility:1 upbringing:1 education:1 succession:3 trouble:1 anxiety:1 although:2 age:1 five:1 wish:1 alter:2 favor:1 husband:1 kaisar:1 receive:1 newly:1 create:1 panhypersebastos:2 honour:1 loyal:1 intrigue:1 disturb:1 even:1 dying:1 hour:1 legacy:1 stabilize:1 dangerous:1 inaugurate:1 century:1 prosperity:1 profoundly:1 nature:1 government:2 close:1 powerful:1 noble:1 tradition:1 exclusivity:1 coopted:1 extend:1 diminish:1 opposition:1 parallel:1 introduction:1 new:1 courtly:1 dignity:1 like:1 give:2 sebastokrator:1 initial:1 undermine:1 relative:1 effectiveness:1 bureaucracy:1 place:1 merit:1 integration:1 bore:1 fruit:1 continuity:1 every:1 relate:1 either:1 descent:1 following:1 child:1 gabras:1 euphorbenos:1 katakalon:1 andronikos:1 sebastokratōr:2 eudokia:1 iasites:1 theodora:1 kourtikes:1 angelos:3 manuel:1 zoe:1 reference:1 angold:1 longman:1 ed:1 pp:3 isbn:3 jonathan:1 harris:1 hambledon:1 warren:1 treadgold:1 history:1 state:1 society:1 stanford:1 universwity:1 press:1 comnena:1 alexiad:1 translate:1 e:1 r:1 sewter:1 penguin:1 classic:1 external:1 link:1 x:1 old:1 аляксей:1 комнін:1 |@bigram alexios_komnenos:3 seljuk_turk:3 isaac_komnenos:3 emperor_romanos:2 romanos_iv:2 anna_komnene:3 robert_guiscard:4 empress_maria:1 soon_afterwards:1 sant_angelo:1 ensuing_battle:1 council_clermont:1 godfrey_bouillon:1 burn_stake:1 andronikos_komnenos:1 manuel_komnenos:1 penguin_classic:1 external_link:1 |
1,603 | Telecommunications_in_Oman | Oman Telecommunication Company (Omantel) has a monopoly in the landline telephone and internet access markets. Its arm Omanmobile offers mobile services. The Omani government owns 70% of Omantel after 30% was listed for the public in 2005. In 2005 Qatar Telecommunication Company (Qtel) and partners were awarded the second license to offer mobile services in the country under the brand of (Nawras). In October 2007 the government overhauled Omantel board of directors and announced its plan to remerge the two arm of the company and to sell part of its share to a strategic partner. The government also slashed the royalty fee paid on revenue from 12% to 7%. Telephone Country Code: 00968 Landlines in use: 260,000 (2007) Prepaid (40,000) - Postpaid (220,000) Mobile cellular: 2,200,000 (2007) Prepaid (1,900,000) – Postpaid (270,000) Domestic: open wire, microwave, radiotelephone communications, limited coaxial cable and a domestic satellite system with 8 earth stations. International: satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) and 1 Arabsat. Internet Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 1 (2007) Country code (Top level domain): OM Dial-up access Dial-up: Postpaid (50,000) plus prepaid access cards containing a username and a password which give a set number of surfing hours. The postpaid dialup service offered by Omantel costs 3 R.O. ($8) per month plus 0.180 R..O. ($0.47) for each hour of use. Broadband access Broadband: (29,000) ADSL services were launched in 2005 in Oman through the provider Omantel, the only ISP in Oman. Packages available for home users: 512 kbit/s (0 GB bundled): costs 12 R.O. ($32) plus 1 R.O ($2.6) per gigabyte. No extra charge is calculated after downloading 27 GB which equals 39 R.O ($102) monthly. 1 Mbit/s (2 GB bundled): costs 19 R.O. ($50) plus 1 R.O. ($2.6) per extra gigabyte. 2 Mbit/s (5 GB bundled): costs 29 R.O. ($76) plus 1 R.O. ($2.6) per extra gigabyte. 4 Mbit/s (10 GB bundled): costs 39 R.O. ($102) plus 1 R.O. ($2.6) per extra gigabyte. 8 Mbit/s (unlimited access): costs 99 R.O. ($258). EDGE and 3G Both Omanmobile and Nawras offer access to the internet through their EDGE networks. Nawras launched its 3G network in selected areas in December 2007 with a download speed of 1 megabit. Omanmobile is expected to offer 3G services in year 2009. Television Broadcast stations: 13 (plus 25 low-power repeaters) (1999) Televisions: 1.6 million (1997) Radio Broadcast stations: AM 3, FM 9, shortwave 2 (1999) Radios: 1.4 million (1997) In April, 2008, Nokia Siemens was appointed to replace parts of the existing radio network. Oman Mobile strengthens partnership with Nokia Siemens Networks, al-abwab.com, April 28, 2008. See also Oman Omantel Nawras .om Notes External links Telecommunications Regulatory Authority Omantel - Oman Telecommunications Company phone company and ISP Oman Mobile mobile telecommunication company Nawras mobile telecommunication company Ministry of Information | Telecommunications_in_Oman |@lemmatized oman:7 telecommunication:6 company:7 omantel:7 monopoly:1 landline:2 telephone:2 internet:4 access:6 market:1 arm:2 omanmobile:3 offer:5 mobile:7 service:6 omani:1 government:3 list:1 public:1 qatar:1 qtel:1 partner:2 award:1 second:1 license:1 country:3 brand:1 nawras:5 october:1 overhaul:1 board:1 director:1 announce:1 plan:1 remerge:1 two:1 sell:1 part:2 share:1 strategic:1 also:2 slash:1 royalty:1 fee:1 pay:1 revenue:1 code:2 use:2 prepaid:3 postpaid:4 cellular:1 domestic:2 open:1 wire:1 microwave:1 radiotelephone:1 communication:1 limited:1 coaxial:1 cable:1 satellite:2 system:1 earth:2 station:4 international:1 intelsat:1 indian:1 ocean:1 arabsat:1 provider:2 isps:1 top:1 level:1 domain:1 om:2 dial:2 plus:7 card:1 contain:1 username:1 password:1 give:1 set:1 number:1 surf:1 hour:2 dialup:1 cost:6 r:12 per:5 month:1 broadband:2 adsl:1 launch:2 isp:2 package:1 available:1 home:1 user:1 kbit:1 gb:5 bundle:4 gigabyte:4 extra:4 charge:1 calculate:1 download:2 equal:1 monthly:1 mbit:4 unlimited:1 edge:2 network:4 select:1 area:1 december:1 speed:1 megabit:1 expect:1 year:1 television:2 broadcast:2 low:1 power:1 repeater:1 million:2 radio:3 fm:1 shortwave:1 april:2 nokia:2 siemens:2 appoint:1 replace:1 exist:1 strengthen:1 partnership:1 al:1 abwab:1 com:1 see:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 regulatory:1 authority:1 phone:1 ministry:1 information:1 |@bigram landline_telephone:1 mobile_cellular:1 radiotelephone_communication:1 coaxial_cable:1 station_intelsat:1 provider_isps:1 kbit_gb:1 repeater_television:1 fm_shortwave:1 shortwave_radio:1 nokia_siemens:2 external_link:1 |
1,604 | Goidelic_languages | The Goidelic languages historically formed a dialect continuum stretching from the south of Ireland, through the Isle of Man, to the north of Scotland. There are three modern Goidelic languages: Irish (Gaeilge), Scottish Gaelic (Gàidhlig), and Manx (Gaelg). However, older versions of literary Scottish Gaelic and Irish were similar enough to be considered dialects of a single language. The Goidelic branch is also known as Q-Celtic, because Proto-Celtic *kʷ was retained in this branch (later losing its labialisation to become plain [k]), as opposed to Brythonic, where *kʷ became [p]. This sound change is also found in Gaulish, so Brythonic and Gaulish are collectively known as "P-Celtic". In Celtiberian *kʷ is also retained, so the term "Q-Celtic" can be equally applied to it as well, although it is not a Goidelic languages, just as Gaulish is not Brythonic. Early Modern Irish was used as a literary language in Ireland until the 17th century, and its equivalent, Classical Gaelic was used as a literary language in Scotland until the 18th century. Later orthographic divergence has resulted in standardised pluricentric diasystems. Manx orthography, based on English and Welsh, was introduced in 1610 but was never widely used. Goidelic is one of the two major divisions of modern-day Insular Celtic languages. The other is the Brythonic languages, which are spoken in Wales, Cornwall and Brittany. Nomenclature Although Irish and Manx may be referred to as Irish Gaelic and Manx Gaelic (as they are Goidelic or Gaelic languages) the use of the word Gaelic is unnecessary because the terms Irish and Manx, when referring to language, only ever refer to these languages, whereas Scots by itself refers to a Germanic language and Scottish can refer to things not at all Gaelic. The word Gaelic by itself is sometimes used to refer to Scottish Gaelic and is thus ambiguous. Furthermore, due to the politics of language and national identity, some Irish speakers are offended by the use of the word Gaelic by itself to refer to Irish. Similarly, Scottish Gaelic speakers find offensive the use of the obsolete word Erse (from Scots Inglis Eris, "Irish") to refer to their language. This term was used in Scotland since at least the late 15th century to refer to Gaelic, which had also been called Scottis. The names used in languages themselves (Gaeilge in Irish, Gaelg/Gailck in Manx, and Gàidhlig in Scottish Gaelic) are derived from Old Irish Goídelc, which comes from the Old Welsh Guoidel meaning "pirate, raider". Classification The family tree of the Goidelic languages is as follows: Insular Celtic Primitive Irish, ancestral to: Old Irish, ancestral to: Middle Irish, ancestral to: Modern Irish Scottish Gaelic Manx History and range Goidelic languages were once restricted to Ireland, but sometime between the 3rd century and the 6th century a group of the Irish Celts known to the Romans as Scoti began migrating from Ireland to what is now Scotland and eventually assimilated the Picts (a group of peoples who may have originally spoken a Brythonic language) who lived there. Manx, the former common language of the Isle of Man, is closely akin to the Irish spoken in northeast Ireland and the now extinct Gaelic of Galloway (in southwest Scotland), with heavy influence from Old Norse because of the Viking invasions. The oldest written Goidelic language is Primitive Irish, which is attested in Ogham inscriptions up to about the 4th century AD. Old Irish is found in the margins of Latin religious manuscripts from the 6th century to the 10th century. Middle Irish, the ancestor of the modern Goidelic languages, is the name for the language as used from the 10th to the 12th century: a great deal of literature survives in it, including the early Irish law texts. Early Modern Irish covers the period from the 13th to the 17th century: a form of it was used as a literary language in Ireland and Scotland, consistently until the 17th century and in some cases well into the 18th century. This is often called Classical Irish while the Ethnologue gives the name "Hiberno-Scottish Gaelic" to this purely written language. As long as this written language was the norm, Ireland was considered the Gaelic homeland to the Scottish literati. Irish Irish is one of Ireland's two official languages (along with English) and is still fairly widely spoken in the south, west, and northwest of Ireland. The legally defined Irish-speaking areas are called the Gaeltacht; all government institutions of the Republic of Ireland (in particular, the parliament (Oireachtas), its upper house (Seanad) and lower house (Dáil), and the prime minister (Taoiseach)) are officially named in this language, even in English. At present, Irish is primarily spoken in Counties Cork, Donegal, Mayo, Galway, Kerry, and, to a lesser extent, in Waterford and Meath. 1,656,790 (41.9% of the total population aged three years and over) regard themselves as competent Irish speakers. Of these, 538,283 (32.5%) speak Irish on a daily basis. Irish is also undergoing a revival in Northern Ireland and has been accorded some legal status there under the 1998 Belfast Agreement. The 2001 census in Northern Ireland showed that 167,487 (10.4%) people "had some knowledge of Irish". Combined, this means that around one in three people (~1.8 million) on the island of Ireland can understand Irish to some extent. Before the Irish potato famine of the 1840s, the language was spoken by the vast majority of the population, but the famine and emigration, as well as an implication by the English ruling classes that Irish was for the ignorant, led to a decline which has begun to reverse only very recently. The census figures do not take into account those Irish who have emigrated, and it has been estimated (rightly or wrongly) that there are more native speakers of Irish in Britain, the US, Australia, and other parts of the world than there are in Ireland itself. The Irish language has been officially recognised as a working language by the European Union. Ireland's national language is the twenty-first to be given such recognition by the EU and previously had the status of a treaty language. Scottish Gaelic Some people in the north and west of mainland Scotland and most people in the Hebrides still speak Scottish Gaelic, but the language has been in decline. There are now believed to be approximately 1,000 native speakers of Scottish Gaelic in Nova Scotia and 60,000 in Scotland. Its historical range was much larger. For example, it was the everyday language of most of the rest of the Highlands until little more than a century ago. Galloway was once also a Gaelic-speaking region, but the Galwegian dialect has been extinct there for approximately three centuries. It is believed to have been home to dialects that were transitional between Scottish Gaelic and the two other Goidelic languages. While Gaelic was spoken across the Scottish Borders and Lothian during the early High Middle Ages it doesn’t seem to have been spoken by the majority and was likely the language of the ruling elite, land owners and religious clerics. The rest of the Lowlands also spoke forms of Gaelic, the only exceptions being the northern isles of Orkney and Shetland. The very word Scotland in fact takes its name from the Latin word for a Gael, Scotus. So Scotland originally meant Land of the Scots, or Land of the Gaels. Moreover, until late in the 15th century, it was solely the Gaelic language used in Scotland which in English was called Scottish or - more authentically - Scottis and the speakers of this language who were identified ethnically as Scots. Scottis continued to be the English name for the language, although it was gradually superseded by the word Erse, an act of cultural disassociation which contributed to the language's declining status. In the early 16th century the dialects of northern Middle English, also known as Early Scots, which had developed in Lothian and had come to be spoken elsewhere in the Kingdom of Scotland themselves later appropriated the name Scots. By the seventeenth century Gaelic speakers were restricted largely to the Highlands and the Hebrides. Furthermore, the culturally repressive measures taken against the rebellious highland communities by the British crown following the 2nd Jacobite Rebellion of 1746 caused still further decline in the language's use - to a large extent by enforced emigration. Even more decline followed in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The Scottish Parliament has afforded the language a secure statutory status and equal respect (but not full equality in legal status within Scots Law ) with English, sparking hopes that Scottish Gaelic can be saved from extinction and perhaps even revived. Manx Today Manx is used as the sole medium for teaching at five of the island's pre-schools by a company named , which also operates the sole Manx primary school—the . Manx is taught as a second language at all of the Island's primary and secondary schools and also at the Isle of Man College and Centre for Manx Studies. Comparison Numbers # Irish Scottish Gaelic Manx1 aon aon un, nane2 dó, dhá dà daa3 trí trì tree4 ceathair ceithir kiare5 cúig còig queig6 sé sia shey7 seacht seachd shiaght8 hocht ochd hoght9 naoi naoi nuy10 deich deich jeih11 aon déag aon deug nane jeig12 dó dhéag dà dheug daa yeig Common phrases Note:"Ciamar ata thu" is the same as "Cad e mar ata tu" in Donegal Irish in Ulster. The way it is spelt in Scottish Gaelic is the way it sounds when spoken in both languages.Most in the comparisons follow the same trend. Irish Scottish Gaelic Manx English translationFáilte Fàilte Failt WelcomeConas atá tú? /Cad é mar atá tú? Ciamar a tha thu? Kys t'ou? How are you?Cad é an t-ainm atá ort? Dè an t-ainm a tha ort? Cre'n ennym t'ort? What is your name?Is mise... Is mise... Mish... I am...Lá maith Latha math Laa mie A good dayMaidin mhaith Madainn mhath Moghrey mie A good morningTrathnóna maith Feasgar math Fastyr mie A good afternoonOíche mhaith Oidhche mhath Oie vie Good nightGo raibh maith agat Tapadh leat Gura mie ayd Thank youSlán leat Slàn leat Slane lhiat GoodbyeSláinte Slàinte Slaynt "Health" (used as a toast [cf. English "cheers"]) Influence on other languages There are two languages that show Goidelic influence, although they are not Goidelic languages themselves. Shelta language is sometimes thought to be a Goidelic language, but it is, in fact, a cant based on Irish and English, with a primarily English-based syntax. The Bungee language in Canada is an English dialect spoken by Métis that was influenced by Orkney English, Scots English, Cree, Ojibwe, and Scottish Gaelic. Many words in English are derived from Gaelic words,such as whiskey, which is called uisce beatha (Water of Life). See also Differences between Scottish Gaelic and Irish Irish Connacht Irish Munster Irish Newfoundland Irish Ulster Irish Manx Scottish Gaelic Canadian Gaelic Galwegian Gaelic References External links Ethnologue file on Goidelic languages Scottish Gaelic Wikipedia Irish language Wikipedia Manx Wikipedia Comparison of Irish and Scottish Gaelic be-x-old:Гайдэльскія мовы | Goidelic_languages |@lemmatized goidelic:15 language:51 historically:1 form:3 dialect:6 continuum:1 stretch:1 south:2 ireland:15 isle:4 man:3 north:2 scotland:12 three:4 modern:6 irish:49 gaeilge:2 scottish:25 gaelic:39 gàidhlig:2 manx:16 gaelg:2 however:1 old:8 version:1 literary:4 similar:1 enough:1 consider:2 single:1 branch:2 also:11 know:4 q:2 celtic:6 proto:1 kʷ:3 retain:2 later:3 lose:1 labialisation:1 become:2 plain:1 k:1 oppose:1 brythonic:5 p:2 sound:2 change:1 find:3 gaulish:3 collectively:1 celtiberian:1 term:3 equally:1 apply:1 well:3 although:4 early:7 use:15 century:18 equivalent:1 classical:2 orthographic:1 divergence:1 result:1 standardised:1 pluricentric:1 diasystems:1 orthography:1 base:3 english:16 welsh:2 introduce:1 never:1 widely:2 one:3 two:4 major:1 division:1 day:1 insular:2 speak:13 wale:1 cornwall:1 brittany:1 nomenclature:1 may:2 refer:8 word:9 unnecessary:1 ever:1 whereas:1 scot:7 refers:1 germanic:1 thing:1 sometimes:2 thus:1 ambiguous:1 furthermore:2 due:1 politics:1 national:2 identity:1 speaker:7 offend:1 similarly:1 offensive:1 obsolete:1 erse:2 inglis:1 eris:1 since:1 least:1 late:2 call:5 scottis:3 name:9 gailck:1 derive:2 goídelc:1 come:2 guoidel:1 mean:2 pirate:1 raider:1 classification:1 family:1 tree:1 follow:4 primitive:2 ancestral:3 middle:4 history:1 range:2 restrict:2 sometime:1 group:2 celt:1 roman:1 scoti:1 begin:2 migrate:1 eventually:1 assimilate:1 picts:1 people:5 originally:2 live:1 former:1 common:2 closely:1 akin:1 spoken:1 northeast:1 extinct:2 galloway:2 southwest:1 heavy:1 influence:4 norse:1 viking:1 invasion:1 write:3 attest:1 ogham:1 inscription:1 ad:1 margin:1 latin:2 religious:2 manuscript:1 ancestor:1 great:1 deal:1 literature:1 survives:1 include:1 law:2 text:1 cover:1 period:1 consistently:1 case:1 often:1 ethnologue:2 give:2 hiberno:1 purely:1 long:1 norm:1 homeland:1 literati:1 official:1 along:1 still:3 fairly:1 west:2 northwest:1 legally:1 define:1 speaking:2 area:1 gaeltacht:1 government:1 institution:1 republic:1 particular:1 parliament:2 oireachtas:1 upper:1 house:2 seanad:1 low:1 dáil:1 prime:1 minister:1 taoiseach:1 officially:2 even:3 present:1 primarily:2 county:1 cork:1 donegal:2 mayo:1 galway:1 kerry:1 less:1 extent:3 waterford:1 meath:1 total:1 population:2 age:2 year:1 regard:1 competent:1 daily:1 basis:1 undergo:1 revival:1 northern:4 accord:1 legal:2 status:5 belfast:1 agreement:1 census:2 show:2 knowledge:1 combine:1 around:1 million:1 island:3 understand:1 potato:1 famine:2 vast:1 majority:2 emigration:2 implication:1 ruling:2 class:1 ignorant:1 lead:1 decline:5 reverse:1 recently:1 figure:1 take:3 account:1 emigrate:1 estimate:1 rightly:1 wrongly:1 native:2 britain:1 u:1 australia:1 part:1 world:1 recognise:1 working:1 european:1 union:1 twenty:1 first:1 recognition:1 eu:1 previously:1 treaty:1 mainland:1 hebrides:2 believe:2 approximately:2 nova:1 scotia:1 historical:1 much:1 large:2 example:1 everyday:1 rest:2 highland:3 little:1 ago:1 region:1 galwegian:2 home:1 transitional:1 across:1 border:1 lothian:2 high:1 seem:1 likely:1 elite:1 land:3 owner:1 cleric:1 lowland:1 exception:1 orkney:2 shetland:1 fact:2 gael:2 scotus:1 meant:1 moreover:1 solely:1 authentically:1 identify:1 ethnically:1 continue:1 gradually:1 supersede:1 act:1 cultural:1 disassociation:1 contribute:1 develop:1 elsewhere:1 kingdom:1 appropriate:1 seventeenth:1 largely:1 culturally:1 repressive:1 measure:1 rebellious:1 community:1 british:1 crown:1 jacobite:1 rebellion:1 cause:1 enforced:1 afford:1 secure:1 statutory:1 equal:1 respect:1 full:1 equality:1 within:1 spark:1 hope:1 save:1 extinction:1 perhaps:1 revive:1 today:1 sole:2 medium:1 teach:2 five:1 pre:1 school:3 company:1 operate:1 primary:2 second:1 secondary:1 college:1 centre:1 study:1 comparison:3 number:1 aon:4 un:1 dó:2 dhá:1 dà:2 trí:1 trì:1 ceathair:1 ceithir:1 cúig:1 còig:1 sé:1 sia:1 seacht:1 seachd:1 hocht:1 ochd:1 naoi:2 deich:2 déag:1 deug:1 nane:1 dhéag:1 dheug:1 daa:1 yeig:1 phrase:1 note:1 ciamar:2 ata:2 thu:2 cad:3 e:1 mar:2 tu:1 ulster:2 way:2 spell:1 trend:1 translationfáilte:1 fàilte:1 failt:1 welcomeconas:1 atá:3 tú:2 é:2 tha:2 kys:1 ou:1 ainm:2 ort:3 dè:1 cre:1 n:1 ennym:1 mise:2 mish:1 lá:1 maith:3 latha:1 math:2 laa:1 mie:4 good:4 daymaidin:1 mhaith:2 madainn:1 mhath:2 moghrey:1 morningtrathnóna:1 feasgar:1 fastyr:1 afternoonoíche:1 oidhche:1 oie:1 vie:1 nightgo:1 raibh:1 agat:1 tapadh:1 leat:3 gura:1 ayd:1 thank:1 youslán:1 slàn:1 slane:1 lhiat:1 goodbyesláinte:1 slàinte:1 slaynt:1 health:1 toast:1 cf:1 cheer:1 languages:1 shelta:1 think:1 cant:1 syntax:1 bungee:1 canada:1 métis:1 scots:1 cree:1 ojibwe:1 many:1 whiskey:1 uisce:1 beatha:1 water:1 life:1 see:1 differences:1 connacht:1 munster:1 newfoundland:1 canadian:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 file:1 wikipedia:3 x:1 гайдэльскія:1 мовы:1 |@bigram scottish_gaelic:20 proto_celtic:1 insular_celtic:2 gaelic_manx:3 manx_gaelic:1 ogham_inscription:1 prime_minister:1 potato_famine:1 vast_majority:1 nova_scotia:1 orkney_shetland:1 jacobite_rebellion:1 connacht_irish:1 munster_irish:1 external_link:1 |
1,605 | Email | Electronic mail, often abbreviated as e-mail or email, is a method of exchanging digital messages, designed primarily for human use. A message at least consists of its content, an author address and one or more recipient addresses. The foundation for today's global Internet email service was created in the early Arpanet and was codified as a standard for encoding of messages, as RFC 733. An email sent in the early 1970s looked very similar to one sent on the Internet today. Conversion from Arpanet to Internet in the early 1980s produced the modern details of the current, core service, with transport provided by the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), first published as Internet Standard 10 (RFC 821) in 1982, and a revision of RFC 733 to be Internet Standard 11 (RFC 822). Multi-media content attachments were standardized in 1996 with RFC 2045 through RFC 2049, collectively called, Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME). Email systems that operate over a network (rather than being limited to a single, shared machine) are based on a store-and-forward model in which email computer server systems accept, forward, deliver or store messages on behalf of users, who only need to connect to the email infrastructure with their personal computer or other network-enabled device for the duration of message submission to, or retrieval from, their designated server. Rarely is email transmitted directly from one user's device to another's. Spelling The spellings e-mail and email are both common. Several prominent journalistic and technical style guides recommend e-mail, O'Reilly - Safari Books Online - 0735617465 - Microsoft Manual of Style for Technical Publications Third Edition 2007 IEEE Standards Style Manual-Annex A APStylebook.com and the spelling email is also recognized in many dictionaries. Reference.com Random House Unabridged Dictionary, 2006 The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition Princeton University WordNet 3.0 The American Heritage Science Dictionary, 2002 In the original RFC neither spelling is used; the service is referred to as mail, and a single piece of electronic mail is called a message. RFC 821 (rfc821) - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol RFC 1939 (rfc1939) - Post Office Protocol - Version 3 RFC 3501 (rfc3501) - Internet Message Access Protocol - version 4rev1 The plural form "e-mails" (or emails) is also recognised. Newer RFCs and IETF working groups require email for consistent capitalization, hyphenation, and spelling of terms That refers to terms-online that explicitly requires email spelling. . ARPAnet/DARPAnet users and early developers from Unix, CMS, AppleLink, eWorld, AOL, GEnie, and HotMail used eMail with the letter M capitalized. The authors of some of the original RFCs used eMail when giving their own addresses. Donald Knuth considers the spelling "e-mail" to be archaic and notes that it is more often spelled "email" in the UK. In some other European languages (French, German, Dutch, Romanian), "email" (ignoring diacritics) is the word for "enamel". http://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~knuth/email.html - this page is undated but has been in the Internet Archive since 1997 (with a time stamp of 1996), and may be as old as 1991 according to a blog post Origin E-mail predates the inception of the Internet, and was in fact a crucial tool in creating the Internet. MIT first demonstrated the Compatible Time-Sharing System (CTSS) in 1961. "CTSS, Compatible Time-Sharing System" (September 4, 2006), University of South Alabama, web: USA-CTSS. It allowed multiple users to log into the IBM 7094 Tom Van Vleck, "The IBM 7094 and CTSS" (September 10, 2004), Multicians.org (Multics), web: Multicians-7094. from remote dial-up terminals, and to store files online on disk. This new ability encouraged users to share information in new ways. E-mail started in 1965 as a way for multiple users of a time-sharing mainframe computer to communicate. Although the exact history is murky, among the first systems to have such a facility were SDC's Q32 and MIT's CTSS. E-mail was quickly extended to become network e-mail, allowing users to pass messages between different computers by 1966 or earlier (it is possible that the SAGE system had something similar some time before). The ARPANET computer network made a large contribution to the development of e-mail. There is one report that indicates experimental inter-system e-mail transfers began shortly after its creation in 1969. The History of Electronic Mail Ray Tomlinson initiated the use of the "@" sign to separate the names of the user and their machine in 1971. The First Email The ARPANET significantly increased the popularity of e-mail, and it became the killer app of the ARPANET. Most other networks had their own email protocols and address formats; as the influence of the ARPANET and later the Internet grew, central sites often hosted email gateways that passed mail between the Internet and these other networks. Internet email addressing is still complicated by the need to handle mail destined for these older networks. Some well-known examples of these were UUCP (mostly Unix computers), BITNET (mostly IBM and VAX mainframes at universities), FidoNet (personal computers), and DECNET (various networks). An example of an Internet email address that routed mail to a user at a UUCP host: hubhost!middlehost!edgehost!user@uucpgateway.somedomain.example.com This was necessary because in early years UUCP computers did not maintain (or consult servers for) information about the location of all hosts they exchanged mail with, but rather only knew how to communicate with a few network neighbors; email messages (and other data such as Usenet News) were passed along in a chain among hosts who had explicitly agreed to share data with each other. Workings Example The diagram to the right shows a typical sequence of events that takes place when Alice composes a message using her mail user agent (MUA). She enters the e-mail address of her correspondent, and hits the "send" button. Her MUA formats the message in e-mail format and uses the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) to send the message to the local mail transfer agent (MTA), in this case smtp.a.org, run by Alice's Internet Service Provider (ISP). The MTA looks at the destination address provided in the SMTP protocol (not from the message header), in this case [email protected]. An Internet e-mail address is a string of the form [email protected]. The part before the @ sign is the local part of the address, often the username of the recipient, and the part after the @ sign is a domain name or a fully qualified domain name. The MTA resolves a domain name to determine the fully qualified domain name of the mail exchange server in the Domain Name System. The DNS server for the b.org domain, ns.b.org, responds with any MX records listing the mail exchange servers for that domain, in this case mx.b.org, a server run by Bob's ISP. smtp.a.org sends the message to mx.b.org using SMTP, which delivers it to the mailbox of the user bob. Bob presses the "get mail" button in his MUA, which picks up the message using the Post Office Protocol (POP3). That sequence of events applies to the majority of e-mail users. However, there are many alternative possibilities and complications to the e-mail system: Alice or Bob may use a client connected to a corporate e-mail system, such as IBM Lotus Notes or Microsoft Exchange. These systems often have their own internal e-mail format and their clients typically communicate with the e-mail server using a vendor-specific, proprietary protocol. The server sends or receives e-mail via the Internet through the product's Internet mail gateway which also does any necessary reformatting. If Alice and Bob work for the same company, the entire transaction may happen completely within a single corporate e-mail system. Alice may not have a MUA on her computer but instead may connect to a webmail service. Alice's computer may run its own MTA, so avoiding the transfer at step 1. Bob may pick up his e-mail in many ways, for example using the Internet Message Access Protocol, by logging into mx.b.org and reading it directly, or by using a webmail service. Domains usually have several mail exchange servers so that they can continue to accept mail when the main mail exchange server is not available. E-mail messages are not secure if e-mail encryption is not used correctly. It used to be the case that many MTAs would accept messages for any recipient on the Internet and do their best to deliver them. Such MTAs are called open mail relays. This was very important in the early days of the Internet when network connections were unreliable. If an MTA couldn't reach the destination, it could at least deliver it to a relay that was closer to the destination. The relay would have a better chance of delivering the message at a later time. However, this mechanism proved to be exploitable by people sending unsolicited bulk e-mail and as a consequence very few modern MTAs are open mail relays, and many MTAs will not accept messages from open mail relays because such messages are very likely to be spam. Format The Internet e-mail messages format is defined in RFC 5322 and a series of RFCs, RFC 2045 through RFC 2049, collectively called, "Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions," or, "MIME," for short. Although as of July 13, 2005, RFC 2822 is technically a proposed IETF standard and the MIME RFCs are draft IETF standards, these documents are the standards for the format of Internet e-mail. Prior to the introduction of RFC 2822 in 2001, the format described by RFC 822 was the standard for Internet e-mail for nearly 20 years; it is still the official IETF standard. The IETF reserved the numbers 5321 and 5322 for the updated versions of RFC 2821 (SMTP) and RFC 2822, as it previously did with RFC 821 and RFC 822, honoring the extreme importance of these two RFCs. RFC 822 was published in 1982 and based on the earlier RFC 733 (see Ken Simpson, "An update to the email standards" (October 3, 2008), blog.mailchannels.com, web: MailChannels Blog Entry. ). Internet e-mail messages consist of two major sections: Header — Structured into fields such as summary, sender, receiver, and other information about the e-mail. Body — The message itself as unstructured text; sometimes containing a signature block at the end. This is exactly the same as the body of a regular letter. The header is separated from the body by a blank line. Header Each message has exactly one header, which is structured into fields. Each field has a name and a value. RFC 5322 specifies the precise syntax. Informally, each line of text in the header that begins with a printable character begins a separate field. The field name starts in the first character of the line and ends before the separator character ":". The separator is then followed by the field value (the "body" of the field). The value is continued onto subsequent lines if those lines have a space or tab as their first character. Field names and values are restricted to 7-bit ASCII characters. Non-ASCII values may be represented using MIME encoded words. Header fields The message header usually includes at least the following fields: From: The e-mail address, and optionally the name of the sender. This is not usually visible when constructing an email, because it is already filled in; it is the recipient that sees the from field. To: The e-mail address[es], and optionally name[s] of the message's recipient[s]. Some email servers may also have a CC field, with which the sender can send the same message to multiple people all at once. Subject: A brief summary of the contents of the message. Date: The local time and date when the message was written. Like the from field, this is not usually visible to the sender (or, if it is, it is hard-coded and cannot be edited without hacking). Note that the "To" field is not necessarily related to the addresses to which the message is delivered. The actual delivery list is supplied in the SMTP protocol, not extracted from the header content. The "To" field is similar to the greeting at the top of a conventional letter which is delivered according to the address on the outer envelope. Also note that the "From" field does not have to be the real sender of the e-mail message. It is very easy to fake the "From" field and let a message seem to be from any mail address. It is possible to digitally sign e-mail, which is much harder to fake. Some Internet service providers do not relay e-mail claiming to come from a domain not hosted by them, but very few (if any) check to make sure that the person or even e-mail address named in the "From" field is the one associated with the connection. Some Internet service providers apply e-mail authentication systems to e-mail being sent through their MTA to allow other MTAs to detect forged spam that might appear to come from them. Other common header fields include (see RFC 4021 or RFC 2076 for more): Bcc: Blind Carbon Copy Cc: Carbon copy Content-Type: Information about how the message has to be displayed, usually a MIME type In-Reply-To: Message-ID of the message that this is a reply to. Received: Tracking information generated by mail servers that have previously handled a message References: Message-ID of the message that this is a reply to, and the message-id of this message, etc. Reply-To: Address that should be used to reply to the sender. X-Face: Small icon. Many e-mail clients present "Bcc" (Blind carbon copy, recipients not visible in the "To" field) as a header field. Different protocols are used to deal with the "Bcc" field; at times the entire field is removed, whereas other times the field remains but the addresses therein are removed. Addresses added as "Bcc" are only added to the SMTP delivery list, and do not get included in the message data. IANA maintains a list of standard header fields. Body Content encoding E-mail was originally designed for 7-bit ASCII. Much e-mail software is 8-bit clean but must assume it will be communicating with 8-bit servers and mail readers. The MIME standard introduced character set specifiers and two content transfer encodings to enable transmission of non-ASCII data: quoted printable for mostly 7 bit content with a few characters outside that range and base64 for arbitrary binary data. The 8BITMIME extension was introduced to allow transmission of mail without the need for these encodings but many mail transport agents still do not support it fully. In some countries, several encoding schemes coexist; as the result, by default, the message in a non-Latin alphabet language appears in non-readable form (the only exception is coincidence, when the sender and receiver use the same encoding scheme). Therefore, for international character sets, Unicode is growing in popularity. Plain text and HTML Both plain text and HTML are used to convey e-mail. While text is certain to be read by all users without problems, there is a perception that HTML-based e-mail has a higher aesthetic value. Advantages of HTML include the ability to include inline links and images, set apart previous messages in block quotes, wrap naturally on any display, use emphasis such as underlines and italics, and change font styles. HTML e-mail messages often include an automatically-generated plain text copy as well, for compatibility reasons. Disadvantages include the increased size of the email, privacy concerns about web bugs and that HTML email can be a vector for phishing attacks and the spread of malicious software. Servers and client applications Messages are exchanged between hosts using the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol with software programs called mail transfer agents. Users can download their messages from servers with standard protocols such as the POP or IMAP protocols, or, as is more likely in a large corporate environment, with a proprietary protocol specific to Lotus Notes or Microsoft Exchange Servers. Webmail interfaces allow users to access their mail with any standard web browser, from any computer, rather than relying on an e-mail client. Mail can be stored either on the client, on the server side, or in both places. Standard formats for mailboxes include Maildir and mbox. Several prominent e-mail clients use their own proprietary format and require conversion software to transfer e-mail between them. When a message cannot be delivered, the recipient MTA must send a bounce message back to the sender, indicating the problem. Filename extensions Some, but not all, e-mail clients save individual messages as separate files for easier searching and indexing. Others append messages into proprietary mailbox files. Different applications save e-mail files with different filename extensions. .eml This is the default e-mail extension for Mozilla Thunderbird and Windows Mail. It is used by Microsoft Outlook Express. .emlx Used by Apple Mail. .msg Used by Microsoft Office Outlook. .mbx Used by Opera Mail and by Apple Mail based on the MBOX format. Some applications (like Apple Mail) also encode attachments into messages for searching while also producing a physical copy of the files on a disk. Others separate attachments from messages by depositing them into designated folders on disk. URI scheme 'mailto' The URI scheme, as registered with the IANA and notably used in the HyperText Transfer Protocol, defines the mailto: scheme for SMTP email addresses. Though its use is not strictly defined, URLs of this form are intended to be used to open the new message window of the user's mail client when the URL is activated, with the address as defined by the URL in the "To:" field. RFC 2368 section 3 : by Paul Hoffman in 1998 discusses operation of the "mailto" URL. Use In society There are numerous ways in which people have changed the way they communicate in the last 50 years; e-mail is certainly one of them. Traditionally, social interaction in the local community was the basis for communication – face to face. Yet, today face-to-face meetings are no longer the primary way to communicate as one can use a landline telephone or any number of the computer mediated communications such as e-mail. Research has shown that that people actively use e-mail to maintain core social networks, particularly when alters live at a distance. However, contradictory to previous research, the results suggest that increases in Internet usage are associated with decreases in other modes of communication, with proficiency of Internet and e-mail use serving as a mediating factor in this relationship. Stern, Michael J.Information, Communication & Society; Oct2008, Vol. 11 Issue 5, p591-616, 26p. CLB Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA. Flaming Flaming occurs when one person sends an angry and/or antagonistic message. Flaming is assumed to be more common today because of the ease and impersonality of e-mail communications: confrontations in person or via telephone require direct interaction, where social norms encourage civility, whereas typing a message to another person is an indirect interaction, so civility may be forgotten. Flaming is generally looked down upon by Internet communities as it is considered rude and non-productive. E-mail bankruptcy Also known as "e-mail fatigue", e-mail bankruptcy is when a user ignores a large number of e-mail messages after falling behind in reading and answering them. The reason for falling behind is often due to information overload and a general sense there is so much information that it is not possible to read it all. As a solution, people occasionally send a boilerplate message explaining that the e-mail inbox is being cleared out. Stanford University law professor Lawrence Lessig is credited with coining this term, but he may only have popularized it. In business E-mail was widely accepted by the business community as the first broad electronic communication medium and was the first ‘e-revolution’ in Business communication. E-mail is very simple to understand and like postal mail, e-mail solves two basic problems of communication: logistics and synchronization (see below). LAN based email is also an emerging form of usage for business. It not only allows the business user to download mail when offline, it also provides the small business user to have multiple users e-mail ID's with just one e-mail connection. Pros The problem of logistics Much of the business world relies upon communications between people who are not physically in the same building, area or even country; setting up and attending an in-person meeting, telephone call, or conference call can be inconvenient, time-consuming, and costly. E-mail provides a way to exchange information between two or more people with no set-up costs and that is generally far less expensive than physical meetings or phone calls. The problem of synchronization With real time communication by meetings or phone calls, participants have to be working on the same schedule and each participant must spend the same amount of time in the meeting or on the call as everyone else. E-mail allows asynchrony -- each participant to decide when and how much time they will spend dealing with any associated information. Cons Most business workers today spend from one to two hours of their working day on e-mail: reading, ordering, sorting, ‘re-contextualizing’ fragmented information, and writing e-mail. The use of e-mail is increasing due to increasing levels of globalization—labour division and outsourcing amongst other things. E-mail can lead to some well-known problems: Loss of Context: which means that the context is lost forever , there is no way to get the text back. Information in context (as in a newspaper) is much easier and faster to understand than unedited and sometimes unrelated fragments of information. Communicating in context can only be achieved when both parties have a full understanding of the context and issue in question. Information overload: E-mail is a push technology—the sender controls who receives the information. Convenient availability of mailing lists and use of "copy all" can lead to people receiving unwanted or irrelevant information of no use to them. Inconsistency: E-mails can duplicate information. This can be a problem when a large team is working on documents and information while not in constant contact with the other members of their team. Despite these disadvantages, e-mail has become the most widely used medium of communication within the business world. Challenges Information overload A December 2007 New York Times blog post described E-mail as "a $650 Billion Drag on the Economy" , and the New York Times reported in April 2008 that "E-MAIL has become the bane of some people’s professional lives" due to information overload, yet "none of the current wave of high-profile Internet start-ups focused on e-mail really eliminates the problem of e-mail overload because none helps us prepare replies". Technology investors reflect similar concerns. Spamming and computer viruses The usefulness of e-mail is being threatened by four phenomena: e-mail bombardment, spamming, phishing, and e-mail worms. Spamming is unsolicited commercial (or bulk) e-mail. Because of the very low cost of sending e-mail, spammers can send hundreds of millions of e-mail messages each day over an inexpensive Internet connection. Hundreds of active spammers sending this volume of mail results in information overload for many computer users who receive voluminous unsolicited e-mail each day. Rich Kawanagh. The top ten e-mail spam list of 2005. ITVibe news, 2006, january 02, http://itvibe.com/news/3837/ avalanche of Viagra ads and Rolex pitches http://dir.salon.com/story/tech/feature/2005/01/19/microsoft_spam/index.html E-mail worms use e-mail as a way of replicating themselves into vulnerable computers. Although the first e-mail worm affected UNIX computers, the problem is most common today on the more popular Microsoft Windows operating system. The combination of spam and worm programs results in users receiving a constant drizzle of junk e-mail, which reduces the usefulness of e-mail as a practical tool. A number of anti-spam techniques mitigate the impact of spam. In the United States, U.S. Congress has also passed a law, the Can Spam Act of 2003, attempting to regulate such e-mail. Australia also has very strict spam laws restricting the sending of spam from an Australian ISP, but its impact has been minimal since most spam comes from regimes that seem reluctant to regulate the sending of spam. E-mail spoofing E-mail spoofing occurs when the header information of an email is altered to make the message appear to come from a known or trusted source. It is often used as a ruse to collect personal information. E-mail bombing E-mail bombing is the intentional sending of large volumes of messages to a target address. The overloading of the target email address can render it unusable and can even cause the mail server to crash. Privacy concerns E-mail privacy, without some security precautions, can be compromised because: e-mail messages are generally not encrypted; e-mail messages have to go through intermediate computers before reaching their destination, meaning it is relatively easy for others to intercept and read messages; many Internet Service Providers (ISP) store copies of e-mail messages on their mail servers before they are delivered. The backups of these can remain for up to several months on their server, despite deletion from the mailbox; the Received: fields and other information in the e-mail can often identify the sender, preventing anonymous communication. There are cryptography applications that can serve as a remedy to one or more of the above. For example, Virtual Private Networks or the Tor anonymity network can be used to encrypt traffic from the user machine to a safer network while GPG, PGP, SMEmail Mohsen Toorani, SMEmail - A New Protocol for the Secure E-mail in Mobile Environments, Proceedings of the Australian Telecommunications Networks and Applications Conference (ATNAC'08), pp.39-44, Adelaide, Australia, December 2008. , or S/MIME can be used for end-to-end message encryption, and SMTP STARTTLS or SMTP over Transport Layer Security/Secure Sockets Layer can be used to encrypt communications for a single mail hop between the SMTP client and the SMTP server. Additionally, many mail user agents do not protect logins and passwords, making them easy to intercept by an attacker. Encrypted authentication schemes such as SASL prevent this. Finally, attached files share many of the same hazards as those found in peer-to-peer filesharing. Attached files may contain trojans or viruses. Tracking of sent mail The original SMTP mail service provides limited mechanisms for tracking a sent message, and none for verifying that it has been delivered or read. It requires that each mail server must either deliver it onward or return a failure notice ("bounce message"), but both software bugs and system failures can cause messages to be lost. To remedy this, the IETF introduced Delivery Status Notifications (delivery receipts) and Message Disposition Notifications (return receipts); however, these are not universally deployed in production. US Government The US Government has been involved in e-mail in several different ways. Starting in 1977, the US Postal Service (USPS) recognized that electronic mail and electronic transactions posed a significant threat to First Class mail volumes and revenue. Therefore, the USPS initiated an experimental e-mail service known as E-COM. Electronic messages would be transmitted to a post office, printed out, and delivered in hard copy form. In order to take advantage of the service, an individual had to transmit at least 200 messages. The delivery time of the messages was the same as First Class mail and cost 26 cents. The service was said to be subsidized and apparently USPS lost substantial money on the experiment. Both the Postal Regulatory Commission and the Federal Communications Commission opposed E-COM. The FCC concluded that E-COM constituted common carriage under its jurisdiction and the USPS would have to file a tariff. In re Request for declaratory ruling and investigation by Graphnet Systems, Inc., concerning the proposed E-COM service, FCC Docket No. 79-6 (September 4, 1979) Three years after initiating the service, USPS canceled E-COM and attempted to sell it off. History of the United States Postal Service, USPS Hardy, Ian R; The Evolution of ARPANET Email; 1996-05-13; History Thesis; University of California at Berkeley James Bovard, The Law Dinosaur: The US Postal Service, CATO Policy Analysis (February 1985) Jay Akkad, The History of Email Cybertelecom : Email US Postal Service: Postal Activities and Laws Related to Electronic Commerce, GAO-00-188 Implications of Electronic Mail and Message Systems for the U.S. Postal Service , Office of Technology Assessment, Congress of the United States, August 1982 Early on in the history of the ARPANet, there were multiple e-mail clients which had various, and at times incompatible, formats. For example, in the system Multics, the "@" sign meant "kill line" and anything after the "@" sign would be ignored. Jay Akkad, The History of Email The Department of Defense DARPA desired to have uniformity and interoperability for e-mail and therefore funded efforts to drive towards unified interoperable standards. This led to David Crocker, John Vittal, Kenneth Pogran, and Austin Henderson publishing RFC 733, "Standard for the Format of ARPA Network Text Message" (November 21, 1977), which was apparently not effective. In 1979, a meeting was held at BBN to resolve incompatibility issues. Jon Postel recounted the meeting in RFC 808, "Summary of Computer Mail Services Meeting Held at BBN on 10 January 1979" (March 1, 1982), which includes an appendix listing the varying e-mail systems at the time. This, in turn, lead to the release of David Crocker's RFC 822, "Standard for the Format of ARPA Internet Text Messages" (August 13, 1982). Email History, How Email was Invented , Living Internet The National Science Foundation took over operations of the ARPANet and Internet from the Department of Defense, and initiated NSFNet, a new backbone for the network. A part of the NSFNet AUP was that no commercial traffic would be permitted. Cybertelecom : Internet History In 1988, Vint Cerf arranged for an interconnection of MCI Mail with NSFNET on an experimental basis. The following year Compuserve e-mail interconnected with NSFNET. Within a few years the commercial traffic restriction was removed from NSFNETs AUP, and NSFNET was privatized. In the late 1990s, the Federal Trade Commission grew concerned with fraud transpiring in e-mail, and initiated a series of procedures on spam, fraud, and phishing. Cybertelecom : SPAM Reference In 2004, FTC jurisdiction over spam was codified into law in the form of the CAN SPAM Act. Cybertelecom : Can Spam Act Several other US Federal Agencies have also exercised jurisdiction including the Department of Justice and the Secret Service. See also Enhancements E-mail encryption HTML e-mail Internet fax L- or letter mail, e-mail letter and letter e-mail Privacy-enhanced Electronic Mail Push e-mail E-mail social issues Anti-spam techniques (e-mail) Computer virus E-card E-mail art E-mail jamming E-mail spam E-mail spoofing E-mail storm Information overload Internet humor Internet slang Netiquette Reply All Usenet quoting Clients and servers Biff E-mail address E-mail authentication E-mail client, Comparison of e-mail clients E-mail hosting service Internet mail standards Mail transfer agent Mail user agent Unicode and e-mail Webmail Mailing list Anonymous remailer Disposable e-mail address E-mail encryption E-mail tracking Electronic mailing list Mailer-Daemon Mailing list archive Protocols IMAP POP3 SMTP UUCP X400 References Notes Bibliography Free On-line Dictionary of Computing Microsoft Manual of Style for Technical Publications Version 3.0 External links IANA's list of standard header fields The History of Electronic Mail is a personal memoir by the implementer of an early e-mail system | Email |@lemmatized electronic:12 mail:198 often:9 abbreviate:1 e:140 email:38 method:1 exchange:10 digital:1 message:76 design:2 primarily:1 human:1 use:42 least:4 consists:1 content:8 author:2 address:24 one:12 recipient:6 foundation:2 today:6 global:1 internet:42 service:23 create:2 early:10 arpanet:10 codify:2 standard:20 encode:6 rfc:29 sent:4 look:3 similar:4 conversion:2 produce:2 modern:2 detail:1 current:2 core:2 transport:3 provide:5 simple:5 transfer:12 protocol:19 smtp:16 first:11 publish:3 revision:1 multi:1 medium:3 attachment:3 standardize:1 collectively:2 call:10 multipurpose:2 extension:5 mime:7 system:20 operate:2 network:17 rather:3 limit:1 single:4 shared:1 machine:3 base:5 store:5 forward:2 model:1 computer:19 server:24 accept:5 deliver:12 behalf:1 user:26 need:3 connect:3 infrastructure:1 personal:4 enabled:1 device:2 duration:1 submission:1 retrieval:1 designate:2 rarely:1 transmit:3 directly:2 another:2 spell:4 spelling:4 common:5 several:7 prominent:2 journalistic:1 technical:3 style:5 guide:1 recommend:1 reilly:1 safari:1 book:1 online:3 microsoft:7 manual:3 publication:2 third:1 edition:2 ieee:1 annex:1 apstylebook:1 com:12 also:14 recognize:2 many:11 dictionary:5 reference:4 random:1 house:1 unabridged:1 american:2 heritage:2 english:1 language:3 fourth:1 princeton:1 university:6 wordnet:1 science:2 original:3 neither:1 refer:1 piece:1 post:5 office:5 version:4 access:3 plural:1 form:7 recognise:1 new:8 rfcs:5 ietf:6 work:4 group:1 require:5 consistent:1 capitalization:1 hyphenation:1 term:3 refers:1 explicitly:2 darpanet:1 developer:1 unix:3 cm:1 applelink:1 eworld:1 aol:1 genie:1 hotmail:1 letter:6 capitalize:1 give:1 donald:1 knuth:2 consider:2 archaic:1 note:6 uk:1 european:1 french:1 german:1 dutch:1 romanian:1 ignore:3 diacritic:1 word:2 enamel:1 http:3 www:1 c:1 faculty:1 stanford:2 edu:1 html:9 page:1 undated:1 archive:2 since:2 time:18 stamp:1 may:12 old:2 accord:2 blog:4 origin:1 predate:1 inception:1 fact:1 crucial:1 tool:2 mit:2 demonstrate:1 compatible:2 sharing:3 ct:4 september:3 south:1 alabama:1 web:5 usa:2 allow:7 multiple:5 log:2 ibm:4 tom:1 van:1 vleck:1 ctss:1 multicians:2 org:9 multics:2 remote:1 dial:1 terminal:1 file:8 disk:3 ability:2 encourage:2 share:3 information:25 way:10 start:4 mainframe:2 communicate:6 although:3 exact:1 history:10 murky:1 among:2 facility:1 sdc:1 quickly:1 extend:1 become:4 pass:4 different:5 possible:3 sage:1 something:1 make:4 large:5 contribution:1 development:1 report:2 indicate:2 experimental:3 inter:1 begin:3 shortly:1 creation:1 ray:1 tomlinson:1 initiate:4 sign:6 separate:5 name:12 significantly:1 increase:4 popularity:2 killer:1 app:1 format:14 influence:1 later:1 grow:3 central:1 site:1 host:6 gateway:2 addressing:1 still:3 complicate:1 handle:2 destine:1 well:3 know:6 example:7 uucp:4 mostly:3 bitnet:1 vax:1 fidonet:1 decnet:1 various:2 rout:1 hubhost:1 middlehost:1 edgehost:1 uucpgateway:1 somedomain:1 necessary:2 year:6 maintain:3 consult:1 location:1 neighbor:1 data:5 usenet:2 news:3 along:1 chain:1 agree:1 working:2 diagram:1 right:1 show:2 typical:1 sequence:2 event:2 take:3 place:2 alice:6 compose:1 agent:7 mua:4 enter:1 correspondent:1 hit:1 send:13 button:2 local:4 mta:7 case:4 run:3 provider:4 isp:4 destination:4 header:14 bob:7 b:6 string:1 localpart:1 exampledomain:1 part:4 username:1 domain:8 fully:3 qualify:1 resolve:2 determine:1 qualified:1 dns:1 n:1 respond:1 mx:4 record:1 list:11 mailbox:4 press:1 get:3 pick:2 applies:1 majority:1 however:4 alternative:1 possibility:1 complication:1 client:14 corporate:3 lotus:2 internal:1 typically:1 vendor:1 specific:2 proprietary:4 receive:7 via:2 product:1 reformatting:1 company:1 entire:2 transaction:2 happen:1 completely:1 within:3 instead:1 webmail:4 avoid:1 step:1 read:5 domains:1 usually:5 continue:2 main:1 available:1 secure:3 encryption:4 correctly:1 mtas:5 would:6 best:1 open:4 relay:6 important:1 day:4 connection:4 unreliable:1 reach:2 could:1 close:1 good:1 chance:1 late:2 mechanism:2 prove:1 exploitable:1 people:9 unsolicited:3 bulk:2 consequence:1 likely:2 spam:18 define:4 series:2 short:1 july:1 technically:1 propose:2 draft:1 document:2 prior:1 introduction:1 describe:2 nearly:1 official:1 reserve:1 number:4 updated:1 previously:2 honor:1 extreme:1 importance:1 two:6 see:5 ken:1 simpson:1 update:1 october:1 mailchannels:2 entry:1 consist:1 major:1 section:2 structure:2 field:28 summary:3 sender:10 receiver:2 body:5 unstructured:1 text:9 sometimes:2 contain:2 signature:1 block:2 end:4 exactly:2 regular:1 blank:1 line:7 value:6 specify:1 precise:1 syntax:1 informally:1 printable:2 character:8 separator:2 follow:1 onto:1 subsequent:1 space:1 tab:1 restrict:2 bit:5 ascii:4 non:5 represent:1 include:10 following:2 optionally:2 visible:3 construct:1 already:1 fill:1 cc:2 subject:1 brief:1 date:2 write:2 like:3 hard:3 cod:1 cannot:2 edit:1 without:4 hack:1 necessarily:1 relate:2 actual:1 delivery:5 supply:1 extract:1 greeting:1 top:2 conventional:1 outer:1 envelope:1 real:2 easy:5 fake:2 let:1 seem:2 digitally:1 much:6 claiming:1 come:4 check:1 sure:1 person:5 even:3 associate:2 apply:1 authentication:3 detect:1 forged:1 might:1 appear:3 bcc:4 blind:2 carbon:3 copy:8 type:3 display:2 reply:7 id:4 track:3 generate:2 etc:1 x:1 face:5 small:2 icon:1 present:1 recipients:1 deal:2 remove:3 whereas:2 remain:2 therein:1 add:2 iana:3 originally:1 software:5 clean:1 must:4 assume:2 reader:1 introduce:3 set:5 specifier:1 encoding:2 enable:1 transmission:2 quote:3 outside:1 range:1 arbitrary:1 binary:1 support:1 country:2 scheme:6 coexist:1 result:4 default:2 latin:1 alphabet:1 readable:1 exception:1 coincidence:1 therefore:3 international:1 unicode:2 plain:3 convey:1 certain:1 problem:9 perception:1 high:2 aesthetic:1 advantage:2 inline:1 link:2 image:1 apart:1 previous:2 wrap:1 naturally:1 emphasis:1 underline:1 italic:1 change:2 font:1 automatically:1 compatibility:1 reason:2 disadvantage:2 increased:1 size:1 privacy:4 concern:4 bug:2 vector:1 phishing:3 attack:1 spread:1 malicious:1 application:5 program:2 download:2 pop:1 imap:2 environment:2 interface:1 browser:1 rely:2 either:2 side:1 maildir:1 mbox:2 bounce:2 back:2 filename:2 extensions:1 save:2 individual:2 searching:1 indexing:1 others:3 append:1 eml:1 mozilla:1 thunderbird:1 window:3 outlook:2 express:1 emlx:1 apple:3 msg:1 mbx:1 opera:1 search:1 physical:2 deposit:1 folder:1 uri:2 mailto:3 register:1 notably:1 hypertext:1 though:1 strictly:1 url:4 intend:1 activate:1 paul:1 hoffman:1 discus:1 operation:2 society:2 numerous:1 last:1 certainly:1 traditionally:1 social:4 interaction:3 community:3 basis:2 communication:14 yet:2 meeting:8 longer:1 primary:1 landline:1 telephone:3 mediate:1 research:2 actively:1 particularly:1 alters:1 live:2 distance:1 contradictory:1 suggest:1 usage:2 decrease:1 mode:1 proficiency:1 serve:2 mediating:1 factor:1 relationship:1 stern:1 michael:1 j:1 vol:1 issue:4 clb:1 oklahoma:1 state:4 stillwater:1 ok:1 flame:2 occurs:1 angry:1 antagonistic:1 flaming:2 ease:1 impersonality:1 confrontation:1 direct:1 norm:1 civility:2 indirect:1 forget:1 generally:3 upon:2 rude:1 productive:1 bankruptcy:2 fatigue:1 fall:2 behind:2 reading:2 answer:1 due:3 overload:7 general:1 sense:1 solution:1 occasionally:1 boilerplate:1 explain:1 inbox:1 clear:1 law:6 professor:1 lawrence:1 lessig:1 credit:1 coin:1 popularize:1 business:9 widely:2 broad:1 revolution:1 understand:2 postal:8 solves:1 basic:1 logistics:2 synchronization:2 lan:1 emerge:1 offline:1 pros:1 world:2 physically:1 building:1 area:1 attend:1 conference:2 inconvenient:1 consuming:1 costly:1 cost:3 far:1 less:1 expensive:1 phone:2 participant:3 schedule:1 spend:3 amount:1 everyone:1 else:1 asynchrony:1 decide:1 associated:1 con:1 worker:1 hour:1 order:2 sort:1 contextualizing:1 fragmented:1 level:1 globalization:1 labour:1 division:1 outsource:1 amongst:1 thing:1 lead:4 loss:1 context:5 mean:3 lose:3 forever:1 newspaper:1 faster:1 unedited:1 unrelated:1 fragment:1 communicating:1 achieve:1 party:1 full:1 understanding:1 question:1 push:2 technology:3 control:1 convenient:1 availability:1 unwanted:1 irrelevant:1 inconsistency:1 duplicate:1 team:2 constant:2 contact:1 member:1 despite:2 used:1 challenge:1 december:2 york:2 billion:1 drag:1 economy:1 april:1 bane:1 professional:1 life:1 none:3 wave:1 profile:1 ups:1 focus:1 really:1 eliminate:1 help:1 u:9 prepare:1 investor:1 reflect:1 spamming:3 viruses:1 usefulness:2 threaten:1 four:1 phenomenon:1 bombardment:1 worm:4 commercial:3 low:1 spammer:2 hundred:2 million:1 inexpensive:1 active:1 volume:3 voluminous:1 rich:1 kawanagh:1 ten:1 itvibe:2 january:2 avalanche:1 viagra:1 ad:1 rolex:1 pitch:1 dir:1 salon:1 story:1 tech:1 feature:1 index:1 replicate:1 vulnerable:1 affect:1 popular:1 combination:1 drizzle:1 junk:1 reduce:1 practical:1 anti:2 technique:2 mitigate:1 impact:2 united:3 congress:2 act:3 attempt:2 regulate:2 australia:2 strict:1 sending:3 australian:2 minimal:1 regime:1 reluctant:1 spoof:2 spoofing:1 occur:1 alter:1 trust:1 source:1 ruse:1 collect:1 bombing:2 intentional:1 target:2 overloading:1 render:1 unusable:1 cause:2 crash:1 security:2 precaution:1 compromise:1 encrypt:4 go:1 intermediate:1 relatively:1 intercept:2 backup:1 month:1 deletion:1 identify:1 prevent:2 anonymous:2 cryptography:1 remedy:2 virtual:1 private:1 tor:1 anonymity:1 traffic:3 safer:1 gpg:1 pgp:1 smemail:2 mohsen:1 toorani:1 mobile:1 proceeding:1 telecommunication:1 atnac:1 pp:1 adelaide:1 starttls:1 layer:2 socket:1 hop:1 additionally:1 protect:1 logins:1 password:1 attacker:1 sasl:1 finally:1 attach:2 hazard:1 find:1 peer:2 filesharing:1 trojan:1 virus:2 tracking:1 limited:1 verify:1 onward:1 return:2 failure:2 notice:1 status:1 notification:2 receipt:2 disposition:1 universally:1 deploy:1 production:1 government:2 involve:1 usps:6 pose:1 significant:1 threat:1 class:2 revenue:1 print:1 cent:1 say:1 subsidize:1 apparently:2 substantial:1 money:1 experiment:1 regulatory:1 commission:3 federal:3 oppose:1 fcc:2 conclude:1 constitute:1 carriage:1 jurisdiction:3 tariff:1 request:1 declaratory:1 ruling:1 investigation:1 graphnet:1 inc:1 docket:1 three:1 cancel:1 sell:1 hardy:1 ian:1 r:1 evolution:1 thesis:1 california:1 berkeley:1 james:1 bovard:1 dinosaur:1 cato:1 policy:1 analysis:1 february:1 jay:2 akkad:2 cybertelecom:4 activity:1 commerce:1 gao:1 implication:1 assessment:1 august:2 incompatible:1 kill:1 anything:1 department:3 defense:2 darpa:1 desire:1 uniformity:1 interoperability:1 fund:1 effort:1 drive:1 towards:1 unify:1 interoperable:1 david:2 crocker:2 john:1 vittal:1 kenneth:1 pogran:1 austin:1 henderson:1 arpa:2 november:1 effective:1 hold:2 bbn:2 incompatibility:1 jon:1 postel:1 recount:1 march:1 appendix:1 vary:1 turn:1 release:1 invent:1 national:1 initiated:1 nsfnet:5 backbone:1 aup:2 permit:1 vint:1 cerf:1 arrange:1 interconnection:1 mci:1 compuserve:1 interconnect:1 restriction:1 nsfnets:1 privatize:1 trade:1 concerned:1 fraud:2 transpire:1 procedure:1 ftc:1 agency:1 exercise:1 justice:1 secret:1 enhancement:1 fax:1 l:1 enhance:1 card:1 art:1 jamming:1 storm:1 humor:1 slang:1 netiquette:1 biff:1 comparison:1 hosting:1 remailer:1 disposable:1 mailer:1 daemon:1 bibliography:1 free:1 compute:1 external:1 memoir:1 implementer:1 |@bigram protocol_smtp:2 rfc_rfc:4 multipurpose_internet:2 unabridged_dictionary:1 donald_knuth:1 http_www:1 stanford_edu:1 van_vleck:1 killer_app:1 provider_isp:2 dns_server:1 rfcs_rfc:2 sender_receiver:2 printable_character:1 quote_printable:1 web_browser:1 client_server:2 filename_extension:1 mozilla_thunderbird:1 uri_scheme:2 register_iana:1 landline_telephone:1 everyone_else:1 mail_spam:2 microsoft_window:1 peer_peer:1 jon_postel:1 vint_cerf:1 external_link:1 |
1,606 | Laurens_Janszoon_Coster | |Statue of Laurens Janszoon Coster on the Grote Markt in Haarlem, where he was born. Laurens Janszoon Coster (ca. 1370, Haarlem, the Netherlands – ca. 1440), or Laurens Jansz Koster, was one of the early European printers. He was an important citizen of Haarlem and held the position of sexton (Koster) of Sint-Bavokerk. He is mentioned in contemporary documents as an assessor (scabinus), and as the city treasurer. He probably perished in the plague that visited Haarlem in 1439-1440; his widow is mentioned in the latter year. There are no works certainly printed by Laurens, however there is a tradition that, sometime in the 1420s, he was carving letters from bark for the amusement of his grandchildren, and observed that the letters left impressions on the sand. He is said to have printed several books including Speculum Humanae Salvationis with several assistants including Johann Fust, and it was Fust who, when Laurens was nearing death, stole his presses and type and took them to Mainz where he entered partnership with Johann Gutenberg. The earliest description of this story dates from 1568 in a history by Hadrianus Junius, a Dutch intellectual. If true, he would have been the first European to invent the movable type printing press, a feat generally ascribed to Gutenberg about a decade after Coster's death. Either way, he is somewhat of a local "hero", and apart from a statue on the Grote Markt his name can be found in many places in the city. However, there is one support for the claim that Coster might be the inventor. In the Kölner Chronik of 1499 Ulrich Zell, the first printer of Cologne, mentions that printing was performed in Mainz of 1450, but that before already some type of printing of lower quality occurred in The Netherlands. The name of Coster is not mentioned in that article. References The Legend of Koster | Laurens_Janszoon_Coster |@lemmatized statue:2 laurens:5 janszoon:2 coster:5 grote:2 markt:2 haarlem:4 bear:1 ca:2 netherlands:2 jansz:1 koster:3 one:2 early:2 european:2 printer:2 important:1 citizen:1 hold:1 position:1 sexton:1 sint:1 bavokerk:1 mention:4 contemporary:1 document:1 assessor:1 scabinus:1 city:2 treasurer:1 probably:1 perish:1 plague:1 visit:1 widow:1 latter:1 year:1 work:1 certainly:1 print:2 however:2 tradition:1 sometime:1 carve:1 letter:2 bark:1 amusement:1 grandchild:1 observe:1 leave:1 impression:1 sand:1 say:1 several:2 book:1 include:2 speculum:1 humanae:1 salvationis:1 assistant:1 johann:2 fust:2 near:1 death:2 steal:1 press:2 type:3 take:1 mainz:2 enter:1 partnership:1 gutenberg:2 description:1 story:1 date:1 history:1 hadrianus:1 junius:1 dutch:1 intellectual:1 true:1 would:1 first:2 invent:1 movable:1 printing:3 feat:1 generally:1 ascribe:1 decade:1 either:1 way:1 somewhat:1 local:1 hero:1 apart:1 name:2 find:1 many:1 place:1 support:1 claim:1 might:1 inventor:1 kölner:1 chronik:1 ulrich:1 zell:1 cologne:1 perform:1 already:1 low:1 quality:1 occur:1 article:1 reference:1 legend:1 |@bigram haarlem_netherlands:1 |
1,607 | A._J._Ayer | Sir Alfred Jules Ayer (29 October 1910 – 27 June 1989), better known as A. J. Ayer or "Freddie" to friends, was a British philosopher known for his promotion of logical positivism, particularly in his books Language, Truth and Logic (1936) and The Problem of Knowledge (1956). Ayer was the Grote Professor of the Philosophy of Mind and Logic at University College London from 1946 until 1959, when he became Wykeham Professor of Logic at the University of Oxford. He was president of the Aristotelian Society from 1951 to 1952. He was knighted in 1970. Life Ayer was born into a wealthy family of continental origin. His mother, Reine Citroën, was from the Dutch-Jewish family who founded the Citroën car company in France. His father was a Swiss Calvinist financier who worked for the Rothschild family. He grew up in St John's Wood, London. He was educated at Ascham St Vincent's Preparatory School and Eton, and then won a classics scholarship to Christ Church, Oxford. He served in the British military during World War II, working for the SOE. He was a noted social mixer and womanizer, and was married four times, including to Dee Wells and Vanessa Lawson (mother of Nigella Lawson). Reputedly he liked dancing and attending the clubs in London and New York. He was also obsessed with sports, a noted cricketer, and a keen supporter of the Tottenham Hotspur football team. He was a friend of Isaiah Berlin and Stuart Hampshire. Ayer was in fact not an atheist, a common misconception, but was rather sceptical about the meaningfulness of any religious discourse, He believed that religious language was unverifiable and as such literally nonsense. Consequently "There is no God" was for Ayer as meaningless and metaphysical an utterance as "God exists." Though Ayer could not give assent to the declaration "There is no God," he was an atheist in the sense that he withheld assent from affirmation's of God's existence. However, in "Language, Truth and Logic" he distinguishes himself from both agnostics and atheists by saying that both these stances take the statement "God exists" as a meaningful hypothesis, which Ayer himself does not. That stance of a person who believes "God" denotes no verifiable hypothesis is sometimes referred to as igtheism (defined in Paul Kurtz, The New Skepticism: Inquiry and Reliable Knowledge, ISBN 0-87975-766-3, page 194) and followed in the footsteps of Bertrand Russell by debating with the Jesuit scholar Frederick Copleston on the topic of religion. Between 1945 and 1947, together with Russell and George Orwell, he contributed a series of articles to Polemic, a short-lived British "Magazine of Philosophy, Psychology, and Aesthetics" edited by the ex-Communist Humphrey Slater. Art-Historical Notes: "Where are the Hirsts of the 1930s now?" The Independent, Nov 13, 1998 by David Buckman Absent Minds: Intellectuals in Britain by Stefan Collini Oxford University Press, 2006 ISBN 0199291055, 9780199291052 Ayer was closely associated with the British humanist movement. He was an Honorary Associate of the Rationalist Press Association from 1947 until his death. In 1965, he became the first president of the Agnostics' Adoption Society and in the same year succeeded Julian Huxley as president of the British Humanist Association, a post he held until 1970. In 1968 he edited The Humanist Outlook, a collection of essays on the meaning of humanism. He taught or lectured several times in the United States, including serving as a visiting professor at Bard College in the fall of 1987. At a party that same year held by fashion designer Fernando Sanchez, Ayer, then 77, confronted Mike Tyson harassing the (then little-known) model Naomi Campbell. When Ayer demanded that Tyson stop, the boxer said: "Do you know who the fuck I am? I'm the heavyweight champion of the world," to which Ayer replied: "And I am the former Wykeham Professor of Logic. We are both pre-eminent in our field. I suggest that we talk about this like rational men". Rogers (1999), page 344. Ayer and Tyson then began to talk, while Naomi Campbell slipped out. Shortly before his death in 1989 he received publicity after having an unusual near-death experience, which has often been misinterpreted as a move away from his lifelong and famous religious skepticism. Of the experience, Ayer first said that it "slightly weakened my conviction that my genuine death ... will be the end of me, though I continue to hope that it will be." http://www.near-death.com/experiences/atheists01.html However, a few days later he revised this, saying "what I should have said is that my experiences have weakened, not my belief that there is no life after death, but my inflexible attitude towards that belief". Ayer was the BBC's famous atheist front-man. http://edge.org/3rd_culture/dennett06/dennett06_index.html Ayer wrote an article in 1988, "What I saw when I was dead." http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1282/is_n20_v40/ai_6701958 In 2001 Dr. Jeremy George, the attending physician, told William Cash, who had written a play about Ayer, that Ayer had confided to him: "I saw a Divine Being. I'm afraid I'm going to have to revise all my books and opinions." http://www.gonsalves.org/favorite/atheist.htm Works Ayer is perhaps best known for popularising the verification principle, in particular through his presentation of it in Language, Truth, and Logic (1936). The principle was at the time at the heart of the debates of the so-called Vienna Circle which Ayer visited as a young guest, and others including the leading light of the circle, Moritz Schlick were already offering their own papers on the issue. Unanswerable Questions Ayer's own formulation was that a sentence can only be meaningful if it has verifiable empirical import, otherwise it is either "analytical" if tautologous, or "metaphysical" (i.e. meaningless, or "literally senseless"). He started work on the book at the age of 23 page ix, "Language, Truth and Logic", Penguin, 2001 and it was published when he was 26. Ayer's philosophical ideas were deeply influenced by those of the Vienna Circle and David Hume. His clear, vibrant and polemical exposition of them makes Language, Truth and Logic essential reading on the tenets of logical empiricism -- the book is regarded as a classic of 20th century analytic philosophy, and is widely read in philosophy courses around the world. In it, Ayer also proposed that the distinction between a conscious man and an unconscious machine resolves itself into a distinction between 'different types of perceptible behaviour', page 140, Language, Truth and Logic, Penguin, 2001 an argument which anticipates the Turing test published in 1950 to test a machine's capability to demonstrate intelligence (consciousness). Ayer wrote two books on the philosopher Bertrand Russell, Russell and Moore: The Analytic Heritage (1971) and Russell (1972). He also wrote an introductory book on the philosophy of David Hume and a short biography of Voltaire. In 1972-73 Ayer gave the Gifford Lectures at University of St Andrews, later published as The Central Questions of Philosophy. He still believed in the viewpoint he shared with the logical positivists: that large parts of what was traditionally called "philosophy" - including the whole of metaphysics, theology and aesthetics - were not matters that could be judged as being true or false and that it was thus meaningless to discuss them. Unsurprisingly, this made him unpopular with several other philosophy departments in Britain and his name is still reviled by many British professors to this day. In "The Concept of a Person and Other Essays" (1963), Ayer made several striking criticisms of Wittgenstein's private language theory. Ayer's sense-data theory in Foundations of Empirical Knowledge was famously criticised by fellow Oxonian J. L. Austin in Sense and Sensibilia, a landmark 1950s work of common language philosophy. Ayer responded to this in the essay "Has Austin Refuted the Sense-data Theory?", which can be found in his Metaphysics and Common Sense (1969). See also A priori knowledge References Rogers, Ben A.J. Ayer: A Life, Grove Press, 1999, ISBN 0-8021-1673-6 (Chapter one and a review by Hilary Spurling, New York Times, December 24, 2000.) Notes Further reading Ted Honderich, Ayer's Philosophy and its Greatness. Anthony Quinton, Alfred Jules Ayer. Proceedings of the British Academy, 94 (1996), pp. 255–282. Graham Macdonald, Alfred Jules Ayer, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, May 7, 2005. Selected publications 1936, Language, Truth, and Logic, London: Gollancz. (2nd edition, 1946.) 1940, The Foundations of Empirical Knowledge, London: Macmillan. 1954, Philosophical Essays, London: Macmillan. (Essays on freedom, phenomenalism, basic propositions, utilitarianism, other minds, the past, ontology.) 1957, “The conception of probability as a logical relation”, in S. Korner, ed., Observation and Interpretation in the Philosophy of Physics, New York, N.Y.: Dover Publications. 1956, The Problem of Knowledge, London: Macmillan. 1963, The Concept of a Person and Other Essays, London: Macmillan. (Essays on truth, privacy and private languages, laws of nature, the concept of a person, probability.) 1967, “Has Austin Refuted the Sense-Data Theory?” Synthese vol. XVIII, pp. 117–40. (Reprinted in Ayer 1969). 1968, The Origins of Pragmatism, London: Macmillan. 1969, Metaphysics and Common Sense, London: Macmillan. (Essays on knowledge, man as a subject for science, chance, philosophy and politics, existentialism, metaphysics, and a reply to Austin on sense-data theory [Ayer 1967].) 1971, Russell and Moore: The Analytical Heritage, London: Macmillan. 1972a, Probability and Evidence, London: Macmillan. 1972b, Bertrand Russell, London: Fontana. 1973, The Central Questions of Philosophy, London: Weidenfeld. 1977, Part of My Life, London: Collins. 1979, “Replies”, in G. Macdonald, ed., Perception and Identity: Essays Presented to A. J. Ayer, With His Replies, London: Macmillan; Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. 1980, Hume, Oxford: Oxford University Press 1982, Philosophy in the Twentieth Century, London: Weidenfeld. 1984, Freedom and Morality and Other Essays, Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1986, Ludwig Wittgenstein, London: Penguin. 1984, More of My Life, London: Collins. 1988, Thomas Paine, London: Secker & Warburg. External links Ayer's Elizabeth Rathbone Lecture on Philosophy & Politics A. J. Ayer at Philosophy | A._J._Ayer |@lemmatized sir:1 alfred:3 jules:3 ayer:37 october:1 june:1 well:2 know:5 j:5 freddie:1 friend:2 british:7 philosopher:2 promotion:1 logical:4 positivism:1 particularly:1 book:6 language:11 truth:8 logic:10 problem:2 knowledge:7 grote:1 professor:5 philosophy:17 mind:3 university:6 college:2 london:20 become:2 wykeham:2 oxford:6 president:3 aristotelian:1 society:2 knight:1 life:5 bear:1 wealthy:1 family:3 continental:1 origin:2 mother:2 reine:1 citroën:2 dutch:1 jewish:1 found:1 car:1 company:1 france:1 father:1 swiss:1 calvinist:1 financier:1 work:5 rothschild:1 grow:1 st:3 john:1 wood:1 educate:1 ascham:1 vincent:1 preparatory:1 school:1 eton:1 win:1 classic:2 scholarship:1 christ:1 church:1 serve:2 military:1 world:3 war:1 ii:1 soe:1 noted:2 social:1 mixer:1 womanizer:1 marry:1 four:1 time:4 include:4 dee:1 vanessa:1 lawson:2 nigella:1 reputedly:1 like:2 dance:1 attend:2 club:1 new:4 york:3 also:4 obsess:1 sport:1 cricketer:1 keen:1 supporter:1 tottenham:1 hotspur:1 football:1 team:1 isaiah:1 berlin:1 stuart:1 hampshire:1 fact:1 atheist:5 common:4 misconception:1 rather:1 sceptical:1 meaningfulness:1 religious:3 discourse:1 believe:3 unverifiable:1 literally:2 nonsense:1 consequently:1 god:6 meaningless:3 metaphysical:2 utterance:1 exist:2 though:2 could:2 give:2 assent:2 declaration:1 sense:8 withhold:1 affirmation:1 existence:1 however:2 distinguish:1 agnostic:2 say:5 stance:2 take:1 statement:1 meaningful:2 hypothesis:2 person:4 denote:1 verifiable:2 sometimes:1 refer:1 igtheism:1 define:1 paul:1 kurtz:1 skepticism:2 inquiry:1 reliable:1 isbn:3 page:4 follow:1 footstep:1 bertrand:3 russell:7 debate:2 jesuit:1 scholar:1 frederick:1 copleston:1 topic:1 religion:1 together:1 george:2 orwell:1 contribute:1 series:1 article:3 polemic:1 short:2 live:1 magazine:1 psychology:1 aesthetic:2 edit:2 ex:1 communist:1 humphrey:1 slater:1 art:1 historical:1 note:2 hirsts:1 independent:1 nov:1 david:3 buckman:1 absent:1 intellectual:1 britain:2 stefan:1 collini:1 press:6 closely:1 associate:2 humanist:3 movement:1 honorary:1 rationalist:1 association:2 death:6 first:2 adoption:1 year:2 succeed:1 julian:1 huxley:1 post:1 hold:2 outlook:1 collection:1 essay:10 meaning:1 humanism:1 teach:1 lecture:3 several:3 united:1 state:1 visiting:1 bard:1 fall:1 party:1 fashion:1 designer:1 fernando:1 sanchez:1 confront:1 mike:1 tyson:3 harass:1 little:1 model:1 naomi:2 campbell:2 demand:1 stop:1 boxer:1 fuck:1 heavyweight:1 champion:1 reply:4 former:1 pre:1 eminent:1 field:1 suggest:1 talk:2 rational:1 men:1 rogers:2 begin:1 slip:1 shortly:1 receive:1 publicity:1 unusual:1 near:2 experience:4 often:1 misinterpret:1 move:1 away:1 lifelong:1 famous:2 slightly:1 weaken:2 conviction:1 genuine:1 end:1 continue:1 hope:1 http:4 www:2 com:2 html:2 day:2 later:2 revise:2 belief:2 inflexible:1 attitude:1 towards:1 bbc:1 front:1 man:3 edge:1 org:2 write:4 saw:2 dead:1 findarticles:1 p:1 dr:1 jeremy:1 physician:1 tell:1 william:1 cash:1 play:1 confide:1 divine:1 afraid:1 go:1 opinion:1 gonsalves:1 favorite:1 htm:1 perhaps:1 best:1 popularise:1 verification:1 principle:2 particular:1 presentation:1 heart:1 call:2 vienna:2 circle:3 visit:1 young:1 guest:1 others:1 lead:1 light:1 moritz:1 schlick:1 already:1 offer:1 paper:1 issue:1 unanswerable:1 question:3 formulation:1 sentence:1 empirical:3 import:1 otherwise:1 either:1 analytical:2 tautologous:1 e:1 senseless:1 start:1 age:1 ix:1 penguin:3 publish:3 philosophical:2 idea:1 deeply:1 influence:1 hume:3 clear:1 vibrant:1 polemical:1 exposition:1 make:3 essential:1 reading:2 tenet:1 empiricism:1 regard:1 century:2 analytic:2 widely:1 read:1 course:1 around:1 propose:1 distinction:2 conscious:1 unconscious:1 machine:2 resolve:1 different:1 type:1 perceptible:1 behaviour:1 argument:1 anticipate:1 turing:1 test:2 capability:1 demonstrate:1 intelligence:1 consciousness:1 two:1 moore:2 heritage:2 introductory:1 biography:1 voltaire:1 gifford:1 andrew:1 central:2 still:2 viewpoint:1 share:1 positivist:1 large:1 part:2 traditionally:1 whole:1 metaphysics:4 theology:1 matter:1 judge:1 true:1 false:1 thus:1 discuss:1 unsurprisingly:1 unpopular:1 department:1 name:1 revile:1 many:1 concept:3 striking:1 criticism:1 wittgenstein:2 private:2 theory:5 data:4 foundation:2 famously:1 criticise:1 fellow:1 oxonian:1 l:1 austin:4 sensibilia:1 landmark:1 respond:1 refute:2 find:1 see:1 priori:1 reference:1 ben:1 grove:1 chapter:1 one:1 review:1 hilary:1 spurling:1 december:1 far:1 ted:1 honderich:1 greatness:1 anthony:1 quinton:1 proceeding:1 academy:1 pp:2 graham:1 macdonald:2 stanford:1 encyclopedia:1 may:1 select:1 publication:2 gollancz:1 edition:1 macmillan:9 freedom:2 phenomenalism:1 basic:1 proposition:1 utilitarianism:1 past:1 ontology:1 conception:1 probability:3 relation:1 korner:1 ed:2 observation:1 interpretation:1 physic:1 n:2 dover:1 privacy:1 law:1 nature:1 synthese:1 vol:1 xviii:1 reprint:1 pragmatism:1 subject:1 science:1 chance:1 politics:2 existentialism:1 evidence:1 fontana:1 weidenfeld:2 collins:2 g:1 perception:1 identity:1 present:1 ithaca:1 cornell:1 twentieth:1 morality:1 clarendon:1 ludwig:1 thomas:1 paine:1 secker:1 warburg:1 external:1 link:1 elizabeth:1 rathbone:1 |@bigram jules_ayer:3 logical_positivism:1 tottenham_hotspur:1 agnostic_atheist:1 bertrand_russell:3 george_orwell:1 julian_huxley:1 visiting_professor:1 fashion_designer:1 mike_tyson:1 heavyweight_champion:1 pre_eminent:1 http_www:2 http_findarticles:1 findarticles_com:1 moritz_schlick:1 david_hume:2 logical_empiricism:1 gifford_lecture:1 logical_positivist:1 ted_honderich:1 stanford_encyclopedia:1 dover_publication:1 london_weidenfeld:2 twentieth_century:1 oxford_clarendon:1 clarendon_press:1 ludwig_wittgenstein:1 thomas_paine:1 secker_warburg:1 external_link:1 |
1,608 | Cobalt | Cobalt () is a hard, lustrous, grey metal, a chemical element with symbol Co and atomic number 27. Although cobalt-based colors and pigments have been used since ancient times for making jewelry and paints, and miners have long used the name kobold ore for some minerals, the free metalic cobalt was not prepared and discovered until 1735 by Georg Brandt. Cobalt is found in various metallic-lustred ores for example cobaltite (CoAsS), but it is produced as a by-product of copper and nickel mining. The copper belt in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia yields most of the worldwide mined cobalt. Cobalt is used in the preparation of magnetic, wear-resistant, and high-strength alloys. Cobalt blue (cobalt(II) aluminate, CoAl2O4) gives a distinctive deep blue color to glass, ceramics, inks, paints, and varnishes. Cobalt-60 is a commercially important radioisotope, used as a tracer and in the production of gamma rays for industrial use. Cobalt is an essential trace-element for all multicellular organisms as the active center of coenzymes called cobalamins. These include vitamin B-12 which is essential for mammals. Cobalt is also an active nutrient for bacteria, algae, and fungi, and may be a necessary nutrient for all life. Characteristics Cobalt is a ferromagnetic metal. Pure cobalt is not found in nature, but compounds of cobalt are common. Small amounts of it are found in most rocks, soil, plants, and animals. It is the element of atomic number 27. The Curie temperature is 1388 K, and the magnetic moment is 1.6–1.7 Bohr magnetons per atom. In nature, it is frequently associated with nickel, and both are characteristic minor components of meteoric iron. Mammals require small amounts of cobalt which is the basis of vitamin B. Cobalt-60, an artificially produced radioactive isotope of cobalt, is an important radioactive tracer and cancer-treatment agent. Cobalt has a relative permeability two thirds that of iron. Metallic cobalt occurs as two crystallographic structures: hcp and fcc. The ideal transition temperature between hcp and fcc structures is 722 K, but in practice, the energy difference is so small that random intergrowth of the two is common. Cobalt has a hardness of 5.5 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness. History Cobalt compounds have been used for centuries to impart a rich blue color to glass, glazes, and ceramics. Cobalt has been detected in Egyptian sculpture and Persian jewelry from the third millennium BC, in the ruins of Pompeii (destroyed AD 79), and in China dating from the Tang dynasty (AD 618–907) and the Ming dynasty (AD 1368–1644) Encyclopedia Britannica Online. . Cobalt glass ingots have been recovered from the Uluburun shipwreck, dating to the late 14th century BC. Swedish chemist Georg Brandt (1694–1768) is credited with isolating cobalt circa 1735. He was able to show that cobalt was the source of the blue color in glass, which previously had been attributed to the bismuth found with cobalt. The word cobalt is derived from the German , from kobold meaning "goblin", a term used for the ore of cobalt by miners. The first attempts at smelting the cobalt ores to produce cobalt metal failed, yielding cobalt(II) oxide instead. Also, because the primary ores of cobalt always contain arsenic, smelting the ore oxidized into the highly toxic and volatile oxide As4O6, which was inhaled by workers. During the 19th century, cobalt blue was produced at the Norwegian Blaafarveværket (70–80% of world production), led by the Prussian industrialist Benjamin Wegner. In 1938, John Livingood and Glenn Seaborg discovered cobalt-60. This isotope was famously used at Columbia University in the 1950s to establish parity violation in beta decay. Occurrence Cobalt occurs in copper and nickel minerals and in combination with sulfur and arsenic in the sulfidic cobaltite (CoAsS), safflorite (CoAs2) and skutterudite (CoAs3) minerals. The mineral cattierite is similar to pyrite and occurs together vaesite in the copper deposits in the Katanga Province. If the sulfides come in contact with the atmosphere weathering starts transforming the minerals by oxidation. The products of the oxidation are for example pink erythrite ('cobalt glance': Co3(AsO4)2·8H2O) and sphaerocobaltite (CoCO3). Production Cobalt ore Cobalt output in 2005 World production trend Cobalt is not found as a native metal but generally found in the form of ores. Cobalt is usually not mined alone, and tends to be produced as a by-product of nickel and copper mining activities. The main ores of cobalt are cobaltite, erythrite, glaucodot, and skutterudite. In 2005, the copper deposits in the Katanga Province (former Shaba province) of the Democratic Republic of the Congo was the top producer of cobalt with almost 40% world share, reports the British Geological Survey. The problematic political situation in the Congo influences the price of cobalt significantly, best example was the Shaba crisis in 1978. There are several methods which can be used to separate cobalt from copper and nickel. They depend on the concentration of cobalt and the exact composition of the used ore. The first possible separation step is the froth flotation of the ore, in which special surfactats yield in an enrichment of cobalt. The following roasting of the ores can be conducted in a way that the cobalt sulfide is oxidized to the cobalt sulfate, while the copper and the iron is oxidized to the oxide. The leaching with water extracts the sulphate together with the arsenates. The residues are further leached with sulfuric acid yielding a solution of copper sulfate. They also present iron nickel and cobalt salts can be precipitated by chlorine or hypochloride. If the copper is not produced by leaching and electrowinning but by the pyrometallurgic process, the cobalt can be leached from the slag of the copper smelter. All the above mentioned processes yield copper compounds which are transformed into the cobalt oxide Co3O4. The reduction to the metal is done either by the aluminothermic reaction or reduction with carbon in a blast furnace. Isotopes 59Cobalt is the only stable cobalt isotope. 22 radioisotopes have been characterized with the most stable being 60Co with a half-life of 5.2714 years, 57Co with a half-life of 271.79 days, 56Co with a half-life of 77.27 days, and 58Co with a half-life of 70.86 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 18 hours, and the majority of these are less than 1 second. This element also has 4 meta states, all of which have half-lives less than 15 minutes. The isotopes of cobalt range in atomic weight from 50 u (50Co) to 73 u (73Co). The primary decay mode for isotopes with atomic mass unit values less than that of the most abundant stable isotope, 59Co, is electron capture and the primary mode of decay for those of greater than 59 atomic mass units is beta decay. The primary decay products before 59Co are element 26 (iron) isotopes and the primary products after are element 28 (nickel) isotopes. Cobalt radioisotopes in medicine Cobalt-60 (Co-60 or 60Co) is a radioactive metal that is used in radiotherapy. It produces two gamma rays with energies of 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV. The 60Co source is about 2 cm in diameter and as a result produces a geometric penumbra, making the edge of the radiation field fuzzy. The metal has the unfortunate habit of producing a fine dust, causing problems with radiation protection. Cobalt-60 has a radioactive half-life of 5.27 years. This decrease in activity requires periodic replacement of the sources used in radiotherapy and is one reason why cobalt machines have been largely replaced by linear accelerators (linacs) in modern radiation therapy. Cobalt from radiotherapy machines has been a serious hazard when not disposed of properly, and one of the worst radiation contamination accidents in North America occurred in 1984, after a discarded cobalt-60 containing radiotherapy unit was mistakently disassembled in a junkyard in Juarez, Mexico. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec=health&res=9501E7D71338F932A35756C0A962948260 The Juarez accident] Cobalt-57 (Co-57 or 57Co) is a cobalt radioisotope most often used in medical tests. It is used as a radiolabel for vitamin B uptake, and is useful for the Schilling test. JPNM Physics Isotopes Industrial uses for radioactive isotopes Cobalt-60 (Co-60 or 60Co) is useful as a gamma ray source because it can be produced in predictable quantity and high activity by simply exposing natural cobalt to neutrons in a reactor for a period. Its uses include sterilization of medical supplies and medical waste, radiation treatment of foods for sterilization (cold pasteurization), industrial radiography (e.g., weld integrity radiographs), density measurements (e.g., concrete density measurements), and tank fill height switches. Cobalt-57 is used as a source in Mössbauer spectroscopy and is one of several possible sources in XRF devices (Lead Paint Spectrum Analyzers). Cobalt-60 as weapon Nuclear weapon designs could intentionally incorporate 59Co, some of which would be activated in a nuclear explosion to produce 60Co. The 60Co, dispersed as nuclear fallout, creates what is sometimes called a dirty bomb or cobalt bomb. Applications Alloys The cobalt based superalloys consume most of the produced cobalt. The temperature stability of these alloys make them suitable for turbine blades within gas turbines and jet aircraft engines. The nickel-based single crystal alloys surpass the cobalt based in temperature stability, but the cobalt based are still in use. These alloys are also corrosion and wear-resistant. Special cobalt chromium molybdenum alloys are used for prosthetic parts such as hip and knee replacements. Some high speed steels also use cobalt to increase heat and wear-resistance. The special alloys of aluminium, nickel and cobalt, known as Alnico, and of samarium and cobalt (samarium-cobalt magnet) are used in permanent magnets, which can be used for recording media, cemented carbides (also called hard metals), and diamond tools. Batteries Lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) is widely used in Lithium ion battery electrodes. Nickel-cadmium (NiCd) and nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries also contain significant amounts of cobalt. Catalyst Several cobalt compounds are used in chemical reactions as catalysts. Cobalt acetate is used for the production of terephthalic acid as well as dimethyl terephthalic acid, which are key compounds in the production of Polyethylene terephthalate. The steam reforming and hydrodesulfuration for the production of petroleum, which uses mixed cobalt molybdenum aluminium oxides as a catalyst, is another important application. Cobalt and its compounds, especially cobalt carboxylates (known as cobalt soaps), are good oxidation catalysts. They are used in paints, varnishes, and inks as drying agents through the oxidation of certain compounds. The same carboxylates are used to improve the adhesion of the steel to rubber in steel-belted radial tires. Pigments and coloring Cobalt blue glass Before the 19th century, the predominant use of cobalt was the pigmentation of glass. The colors cobalt blue and cobalt green originated from this use. Cobalt has been used to color glass since the Bronze Age. The excavation of the Uluburun shipwreck yielded an ingot of blue glass which was cast during the 14th century BC. Blue glass items from Egypt are colored with copper, iron, or cobalt. The oldest cobalt-colored glass was from the time of the Eighteenth dynasty (1550–1292 BC). The location where the cobalt compounds were obtained is unknown. Other uses Electroplating due to its appearance, hardness, and resistance to oxidation Ground coats for porcelain enamels Purification of histidine-tagged fusion proteins in biotechnology applications Compounds Common oxidation states of cobalt include +2 and +3, although compounds with oxidation state +1 are also known. The most stable oxidation state for simple compounds is +2. Cobalt(II) salts form the red-pink [Co(H2O)6]2+ complex in aqueous solution. Adding excess chloride will change the color from pink to blue, due to the formation of [CoCl4]2-. Chalcogen compounds Several oxides of cobalt are known. Green cobalt(II) oxide (CoO) has NaCl structure and is readily oxidized with water and oxygen to brown cobalt(III) hydroxide (Co(OH)3). At temperatures of 400–500 °C the CoO is oxidized to the blue cobalt(II,III) oxide (Co3O4), which has spinel structure. The brown cobalt(III) oxide (Co2O3) is the least stable of the oxides. Cobalt oxides are antiferromagnetic at low temperature: CoO (Neel temperature 291 K) and Co3O4 (Neel temperature: 40 K), which is analogous to magnetite (Fe3O4), with a mixture of +2 and +3 oxidation states. The oxide Co2O3 is probably unstable; it has never been synthesized. The sulfur compounds are the two black cobalt(II) sulfide (CoS2) and cobalt(III) sulfide (Co2S3). Halogen compounds The halogen compounds of cobalt are cobalt(II) fluoride (CoF2), cobalt(II) chloride (CoCl2), cobalt(II) bromide (CoBr2), cobalt(II) iodide (CoI2), and cobalt(III) fluoride (CoF3). Cobalt(II) chloride is commonly found as an indicator of dryness in silica gel beads used as a desiccant. Anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride is blue, while the hexahydrate is red. The reduction potential for Co3+ + e− → Co2+ (+1.92 V) is far beyond the one for chlorine. As a concequence, only the fluoride is able to exist in the cobalti-status. Coordination compounds Other than Co3O4 and the brown fluoride CoF3 (which is instantly hydrolyzed in water), all compounds containing cobalt in the +3 oxidation state are stabilized by complex ion formation. Examples for the more exotic oxidation states +1, +4 and +5 are the compounds tris(triphenylphosphine)cobalt(I) chloride ((P(C6H5)3)3CoCl), caesium hexafluorocobaltate (Cs2CoF6)) and potassium percobaltate (K3CoO4). The class of vitamin B12 compounds are coordination complexes of elaborated corrin rings with a central cobalt atom. Alfred Werner, a pioneer in coordination chemistry, worked with compounds of empirical formula CoCl3(NH3)6; one of the isomers determined was cobalt(III) hexammine chloride. This coordination complex, a "typical" Werner-type complex, consists of a central cobalt atom coordinated by six ammine ligands orthogonal to each other, and three chloride counteranions. Using chelating ethylenediamine ligands in place of ammonia gives tris(ethylenediamine)cobalt(III) chloride ([Co(en)3]Cl), which was one of the first coordination complex showing stereochemistry. The complex can take either right- or left-handed forms of a three-bladed propellor. This complex was first isolated by Werner as yellow-gold needle-like crystals. Cobaltocene is a fairly stable cobalt analog to ferrocene. Biological role thumb|Cobalamin Cobalt in small amounts is essential to many living organisms, including humans. Having 0.13 to 0.30 mg/kg of cobalt in soils markedly improves the health of grazing animals. Cobalt is a central component of the vitamin cobalamin, or vitamin B. Although cobalt proteins are less common than proteins containing metals like manganese, iron, or zinc, several are known. Most cobalt proteins use a cofactor based on the corrin cobalt, derived from vitamin B, but there are also a few proteins known in which cobalt is directly coordinated by the protein structure; Methionine aminopeptidase 2 and Nitrile hydratase are two examples. Precautions Although cobalt is an essential element for life in minute amounts, at higher levels of exposure it shows mutagenic and carcinogenic effects similar to nickel (see Cobalt Poisoning). In 1966, the addition of cobalt compounds to stabilize beer foam in Canada led to cardiomyopathy, which came to be known as beer drinker's cardiomyopathy. Powdered cobalt in metal form is a fire hazard. After nickel and chromium, cobalt is a major cause of contact dermatitis. References External links Los Alamos National Laboratory: Cobalt National Pollutant Inventory - Cobalt fact sheet WebElements.com – Cobalt London celebrates 50 years of Cobalt-60 Radiotherapy | Cobalt |@lemmatized cobalt:132 hard:2 lustrous:1 grey:1 metal:11 chemical:2 element:7 symbol:1 co:7 atomic:5 number:2 although:4 base:6 color:9 pigment:2 use:32 since:2 ancient:1 time:2 make:3 jewelry:2 paint:4 miner:2 long:1 name:1 kobold:2 ore:11 mineral:6 free:1 metalic:1 prepared:1 discover:2 georg:2 brandt:2 find:7 various:1 metallic:2 lustred:1 example:5 cobaltite:3 coass:2 produce:11 product:5 copper:13 nickel:13 mining:2 belt:2 democratic:2 republic:2 congo:3 zambia:1 yield:6 worldwide:1 mine:2 preparation:1 magnetic:2 wear:3 resistant:2 high:4 strength:1 alloy:7 blue:12 ii:12 aluminate:1 give:2 distinctive:1 deep:1 glass:10 ceramic:2 ink:2 varnish:2 commercially:1 important:3 radioisotope:4 tracer:2 production:7 gamma:3 ray:3 industrial:3 essential:4 trace:1 multicellular:1 organism:2 active:2 center:1 coenzyme:1 call:3 cobalamin:3 include:4 vitamin:7 b:5 mammal:2 also:10 nutrient:2 bacteria:1 algae:1 fungi:1 may:1 necessary:1 life:8 characteristic:2 ferromagnetic:1 pure:1 nature:2 compound:21 common:4 small:4 amount:5 rock:1 soil:2 plant:1 animal:2 curie:1 temperature:8 k:4 moment:1 bohr:1 magneton:1 per:1 atom:3 frequently:1 associate:1 minor:1 component:2 meteoric:1 iron:7 require:2 basis:1 artificially:1 radioactive:6 isotope:10 cancer:1 treatment:2 agent:2 relative:1 permeability:1 two:6 third:2 occur:4 crystallographic:1 structure:5 hcp:2 fcc:2 ideal:1 transition:1 practice:1 energy:2 difference:1 random:1 intergrowth:1 hardness:3 mohs:1 scale:1 history:1 century:5 impart:1 rich:1 glaze:1 detect:1 egyptian:1 sculpture:1 persian:1 millennium:1 bc:4 ruin:1 pompeii:1 destroyed:1 ad:3 china:1 date:2 tang:1 dynasty:3 ming:1 encyclopedia:1 britannica:1 online:1 ingot:2 recover:1 uluburun:2 shipwreck:2 late:1 swedish:1 chemist:1 credit:1 isolate:2 circa:1 able:2 show:2 source:6 previously:1 attribute:1 bismuth:1 word:1 derive:2 german:1 meaning:1 goblin:1 term:1 first:4 attempt:1 smelt:2 ores:1 fail:1 oxide:12 instead:1 primary:5 always:1 contain:5 arsenic:2 oxidize:5 highly:1 toxic:1 volatile:1 inhale:1 worker:1 norwegian:1 blaafarveværket:1 world:3 lead:3 prussian:1 industrialist:1 benjamin:1 wegner:1 john:1 livingood:1 glenn:1 seaborg:1 famously:1 columbia:1 university:1 establish:1 parity:1 violation:1 beta:2 decay:5 occurrence:1 combination:1 sulfur:2 sulfidic:1 safflorite:1 skutterudite:2 cattierite:1 similar:2 pyrite:1 together:2 vaesite:1 deposit:2 katanga:2 province:3 sulfide:4 come:2 contact:2 atmosphere:1 weather:1 start:1 transform:2 oxidation:11 pink:3 erythrite:2 glance:1 sphaerocobaltite:1 output:1 trend:1 native:1 generally:1 form:4 usually:1 alone:1 tend:1 activity:3 main:1 glaucodot:1 former:1 shaba:2 top:1 producer:1 almost:1 share:1 report:1 british:1 geological:1 survey:1 problematic:1 political:1 situation:1 influence:1 price:1 significantly:1 best:1 crisis:1 several:5 method:1 separate:1 depend:1 concentration:1 exact:1 composition:1 possible:2 separation:1 step:1 froth:1 flotation:1 special:3 surfactats:1 enrichment:1 follow:1 roasting:1 conduct:1 way:1 sulfate:2 leach:4 water:3 extract:1 sulphate:1 arsenate:1 residue:1 far:2 sulfuric:1 acid:3 solution:2 present:1 salt:2 precipitate:1 chlorine:2 hypochloride:1 electrowinning:1 pyrometallurgic:1 process:2 slag:1 smelter:1 mention:1 reduction:3 either:2 aluminothermic:1 reaction:2 carbon:1 blast:1 furnace:1 stable:6 characterize:1 half:7 year:3 day:3 remain:1 less:5 hour:1 majority:1 second:1 meta:1 state:7 live:1 minute:2 range:1 weight:1 u:2 mode:2 mass:2 unit:3 value:1 abundant:1 electron:1 capture:1 great:1 isotopes:2 medicine:1 radiotherapy:5 mev:2 cm:1 diameter:1 result:1 geometric:1 penumbra:1 edge:1 radiation:5 field:1 fuzzy:1 unfortunate:1 habit:1 fine:1 dust:1 cause:2 problem:1 protection:1 decrease:1 periodic:1 replacement:2 one:6 reason:1 machine:2 largely:1 replace:1 linear:1 accelerator:1 linac:1 modern:1 therapy:1 serious:1 hazard:2 dispose:1 properly:1 bad:1 contamination:1 accident:2 north:1 america:1 discarded:1 mistakently:1 disassemble:1 junkyard:1 juarez:2 mexico:1 http:1 query:1 nytimes:1 com:2 gst:1 fullpage:1 html:1 sec:1 health:2 often:1 medical:3 test:2 radiolabel:1 uptake:1 useful:2 schilling:1 jpnm:1 physic:1 us:3 predictable:1 quantity:1 simply:1 expose:1 natural:1 neutron:1 reactor:1 period:1 sterilization:2 supply:1 waste:1 food:1 cold:1 pasteurization:1 radiography:1 e:3 g:2 weld:1 integrity:1 radiographs:1 density:2 measurement:2 concrete:1 tank:1 fill:1 height:1 switch:1 mössbauer:1 spectroscopy:1 xrf:1 device:1 spectrum:1 analyzer:1 weapon:2 nuclear:3 design:1 could:1 intentionally:1 incorporate:1 would:1 activate:1 explosion:1 disperse:1 fallout:1 create:1 sometimes:1 dirty:1 bomb:2 application:3 superalloys:1 consume:1 produced:1 stability:2 suitable:1 turbine:2 blade:1 within:1 gas:1 jet:1 aircraft:1 engine:1 single:1 crystal:2 surpass:1 still:1 corrosion:1 chromium:2 molybdenum:2 prosthetic:1 part:1 hip:1 knee:1 speed:1 steel:3 increase:1 heat:1 resistance:2 aluminium:2 know:7 alnico:1 samarium:2 magnet:2 permanent:1 record:1 medium:1 cement:1 carbide:1 diamond:1 tool:1 battery:3 lithium:2 widely:1 ion:2 electrode:1 cadmium:1 nicd:1 hydride:1 nimh:1 significant:1 catalyst:4 acetate:1 terephthalic:2 well:1 dimethyl:1 key:1 polyethylene:1 terephthalate:1 steam:1 reforming:1 hydrodesulfuration:1 petroleum:1 mixed:1 oxides:1 another:1 especially:1 carboxylates:2 soap:1 good:1 drying:1 certain:1 improve:2 adhesion:1 rubber:1 radial:1 tire:1 predominant:1 pigmentation:1 green:2 originate:1 bronze:1 age:1 excavation:1 cast:1 item:1 egypt:1 old:1 colored:1 eighteenth:1 location:1 obtain:1 unknown:1 electroplate:1 due:2 appearance:1 ground:1 coat:1 porcelain:1 enamel:1 purification:1 histidine:1 tag:1 fusion:1 protein:6 biotechnology:1 simple:1 red:2 complex:8 aqueous:1 add:1 excess:1 chloride:8 change:1 formation:2 chalcogen:1 coo:3 nacl:1 readily:1 oxygen:1 brown:3 iii:7 hydroxide:1 oh:1 c:1 spinel:1 least:1 antiferromagnetic:1 low:1 neel:2 analogous:1 magnetite:1 mixture:1 probably:1 unstable:1 never:1 synthesize:1 black:1 halogen:2 fluoride:4 bromide:1 iodide:1 commonly:1 indicator:1 dryness:1 silica:1 gel:1 bead:1 desiccant:1 anhydrous:1 hexahydrate:1 potential:1 v:1 beyond:1 concequence:1 exist:1 cobalti:1 status:1 coordination:5 instantly:1 hydrolyze:1 stabilize:2 exotic:1 tris:2 triphenylphosphine:1 p:1 caesium:1 hexafluorocobaltate:1 potassium:1 percobaltate:1 class:1 elaborated:1 corrin:2 ring:1 central:3 alfred:1 werner:3 pioneer:1 chemistry:1 work:1 empirical:1 formula:1 isomer:1 determine:1 hexammine:1 typical:1 type:1 consist:1 coordinate:2 six:1 ammine:1 ligands:1 orthogonal:1 three:2 counteranions:1 chelate:1 ethylenediamine:2 ligand:1 place:1 ammonia:1 en:1 cl:1 showing:1 stereochemistry:1 take:1 right:1 leave:1 hand:1 bladed:1 propellor:1 yellow:1 gold:1 needle:1 like:2 cobaltocene:1 fairly:1 analog:1 ferrocene:1 biological:1 role:1 thumb:1 many:1 living:1 human:1 mg:1 kg:1 markedly:1 graze:1 manganese:1 zinc:1 cofactor:1 directly:1 methionine:1 aminopeptidase:1 nitrile:1 hydratase:1 precaution:1 level:1 exposure:1 mutagenic:1 carcinogenic:1 effect:1 see:1 poison:1 addition:1 beer:2 foam:1 canada:1 cardiomyopathy:2 drinker:1 powdered:1 fire:1 major:1 dermatitis:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 los:1 alamos:1 national:2 laboratory:1 pollutant:1 inventory:1 fact:1 sheet:1 webelements:1 london:1 celebrate:1 |@bigram copper_nickel:3 republic_congo:2 gamma_ray:3 multicellular_organism:1 algae_fungi:1 meteoric_iron:1 radioactive_isotope:3 hardness_mohs:1 mohs_scale:1 millennium_bc:1 tang_dynasty:1 ming_dynasty:1 encyclopedia_britannica:1 britannica_online:1 ore_cobalt:5 glenn_seaborg:1 beta_decay:2 katanga_province:2 geological_survey:1 froth_flotation:1 sulfuric_acid:1 nickel_cobalt:2 blast_furnace:1 isotope_radioisotope:1 radioisotope_characterize:1 stable_isotope:1 mev_mev:1 query_nytimes:1 nytimes_com:1 com_gst:1 gst_fullpage:1 fullpage_html:1 cold_pasteurization:1 mössbauer_spectroscopy:1 nuclear_weapon:1 dirty_bomb:1 turbine_blade:1 gas_turbine:1 permanent_magnet:1 nickel_cadmium:1 terephthalic_acid:2 polyethylene_terephthalate:1 steam_reforming:1 aqueous_solution:1 mg_kg:1 beer_drinker:1 contact_dermatitis:1 external_link:1 los_alamos:1 alamos_national:1 pollutant_inventory:1 webelements_com:1 |
1,609 | Almost_all | In mathematics, the phrase almost all has a number of specialised uses. "Almost all" is sometimes used synonymously with "all but finitely many" (formally, a cofinite set) or "all but a countable set" (formally, a cocountable set); see almost. When speaking about the reals, sometimes it means "all reals but a set of Lebesgue measure zero" (formally, almost everywhere). In this sense almost all reals are not a member of the Cantor set even though the Cantor set is uncountable. In number theory, if P(n) is a property of positive integers, and if p(N) denotes the number of positive integers n less than N for which P(n) holds, and if p(N)/N → 1 as N → ∞ (see limit), then we say that "P(n) holds for almost all positive integers n" (formally, asymptotically almost surely) and write For example, the prime number theorem states that the number of prime numbers less than or equal to N is asymptotically equal to N/ln N. Therefore the proportion of prime integers is roughly 1/ln N, which tends to 0. Thus, almost all positive integers are composite (not prime), however there are still an infinite number of primes. Occasionally, "almost all" is used in the sense of "almost everywhere" in measure theory, or in the closely related sense of "almost surely" in probability theory. See also Sufficiently large | Almost_all |@lemmatized mathematics:1 phrase:1 almost:11 number:7 specialised:1 us:1 sometimes:2 use:2 synonymously:1 finitely:1 many:1 formally:4 cofinite:1 set:6 countable:1 cocountable:1 see:3 speak:1 real:3 mean:1 lebesgue:1 measure:2 zero:1 everywhere:2 sense:3 member:1 cantor:2 even:1 though:1 uncountable:1 theory:3 p:5 n:14 property:1 positive:4 integer:5 denote:1 less:2 hold:2 limit:1 say:1 asymptotically:2 surely:2 write:1 example:1 prime:5 theorem:1 state:1 equal:2 ln:2 therefore:1 proportion:1 roughly:1 tend:1 thus:1 composite:1 however:1 still:1 infinite:1 occasionally:1 closely:1 related:1 probability:1 also:1 sufficiently:1 large:1 |@bigram lebesgue_measure:1 closely_related:1 |
1,610 | Juan_de_Nova_Island | Juan de Nova Island (also Saint-Christophe, French: locally Île Juan de Nova or officially Île Juan da Nova) is a 4.4 km² low, flat, tropical island in the narrowest part of the Mozambique Channel, about one-third of the way between Madagascar and Mozambique at . Anchorage is possible off the northeast of the island which also has a 1,300-metre-long airstrip. Administratively, the island is one of the Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean, a district of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands. Juan de Nova, about six kilometres long and 1.6 km at its widest, is a nature reserve surrounded by reefs which enclose an area (not a true lagoon like in an atoll) of roughly 40 km². Forests, mainly of Casuarinaceae, cover about half the island. Large numbers of terns (Sterna fuscata) breed there from November to March. Turtles nest in the beaches around the island. The island is named after João da Nova, a Galician admiral in the service of Portugal who came across the island in 1501. It has been a French possession since 1897. Guano (phosphate) deposits were exploited from the start of the 20th century until 1970. The island was abandoned during World War II and was visited by German submariners. Installations, including a hangar, rail lines, houses and a jetty are in ruins. Map; click for detail Juan de Nova, with an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of 61,050 km², is claimed by Madagascar. The island is garrisoned by French troops from Réunion and has a meteorological station (Saint-Christophe http://www.ethnia.org/ethnia-fiche.php?ask=FR-DT-DM-RE-XL-JU ). Image of Juan de Nova Island taken from the International Space Station Juan de Nova, in the sea route between South Africa and the northern tip of Madagascar, is affected by strong currents, and has become the site of numerous wrecks. Most visible are the remains of the SS Tottenham which ran onto the southern fringing reef in 1911. References be-x-old:Жуан дэ Нова | Juan_de_Nova_Island |@lemmatized juan:7 de:6 nova:8 island:12 also:2 saint:2 christophe:2 french:4 locally:1 île:2 officially:1 da:2 low:1 flat:1 tropical:1 narrow:1 part:1 mozambique:2 channel:1 one:2 third:1 way:1 madagascar:3 anchorage:1 possible:1 northeast:1 metre:1 long:2 airstrip:1 administratively:1 scattered:1 indian:1 ocean:1 district:1 southern:2 antarctic:1 land:1 six:1 kilometre:1 km:1 wide:1 nature:1 reserve:1 surround:1 reef:2 enclose:1 area:1 true:1 lagoon:1 like:1 atoll:1 roughly:1 forest:1 mainly:1 casuarinaceae:1 cover:1 half:1 large:1 number:1 tern:1 sterna:1 fuscata:1 breed:1 november:1 march:1 turtle:1 nest:1 beach:1 around:1 name:1 joão:1 galician:1 admiral:1 service:1 portugal:1 come:1 across:1 possession:1 since:1 guano:1 phosphate:1 deposit:1 exploit:1 start:1 century:1 abandon:1 world:1 war:1 ii:1 visit:1 german:1 submariner:1 installation:1 include:1 hangar:1 rail:1 line:1 house:1 jetty:1 ruin:1 map:1 click:1 detail:1 exclusive:1 economic:1 zone:1 eez:1 claim:1 garrison:1 troop:1 réunion:1 meteorological:1 station:2 http:1 www:1 ethnia:2 org:1 fiche:1 php:1 ask:1 fr:1 dt:1 dm:1 xl:1 ju:1 image:1 take:1 international:1 space:1 sea:1 route:1 south:1 africa:1 northern:1 tip:1 affect:1 strong:1 current:1 become:1 site:1 numerous:1 wreck:1 visible:1 remains:1 tottenham:1 run:1 onto:1 fringing:1 reference:1 x:1 old:1 жуан:1 дэ:1 нова:1 |@bigram http_www:1 fringing_reef:1 |
1,611 | Constans | Flavius Julius Constans (320-350) was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 337 until his death. Constans was the third and youngest son of Constantine the Great and Fausta, Constantine's second wife. Coin of Constans. On 25 December 333 Constantine elevated Constans to Caesar. In 337 he succeeded his father, jointly with his older brothers Constantine II and Constantius II, receiving Italy, Pannonia and Africa as his portion. Constantine II, who ruled over Gaul, Spain and Britain, attempted to take advantage of his youth and inexperience by invading Italy in 340, but Constans defeated Constantine at Aquileia, where the older brother died. The invasion was the effect of brotherly tensions between the two emperors. Constantine II was, at first, Constans's guardian. As Constans grew older, Constantine II never relinquished that position. In 341-2, Constans led a successful campaign against the Franks and in the early months of 343 visited Britain. The source for this visit, Julius Firmicus Maternus, does not give a reason for this but the quick movement and the danger involved in crossing the channel in the dangerous winter months, suggests it was in response to a military emergency of some kind, possibly to repel the Picts and Scots. Regarding religion, Constans was tolerant of Judaism but promulgated an edict banning pagan sacrifices in 341. He suppressed Donatism in Africa and supported Nicene orthodoxy against Arianism, which was championed by his brother Constantius the latter. Constans called the Council of Sardica, which unsuccessfully tried to settle the conflict. In 350, the general Magnentius declared himself emperor with the support of the troops on the Rhine frontier, and later the entire Western portion of the Roman Empire. Constans lacked any support beyond his immediate household, and was forced to flee for his life. Magnentius' supporters cornered him in a fortification in Helena, southwestern Gaul, where he was killed by Magnentius's assassins. External links DiMaio, Michael, "Constans I (337-350 A.D.)", De Imperatoribus Romanis site. | Constans |@lemmatized flavius:1 julius:2 constans:12 roman:2 emperor:3 rule:2 death:1 third:1 young:1 son:1 constantine:8 great:1 fausta:1 second:1 wife:1 coin:1 december:1 elevate:1 caesar:1 succeed:1 father:1 jointly:1 old:3 brother:3 ii:5 constantius:2 receive:1 italy:2 pannonia:1 africa:2 portion:2 gaul:2 spain:1 britain:2 attempt:1 take:1 advantage:1 youth:1 inexperience:1 invade:1 defeat:1 aquileia:1 die:1 invasion:1 effect:1 brotherly:1 tension:1 two:1 first:1 guardian:1 grow:1 never:1 relinquish:1 position:1 lead:1 successful:1 campaign:1 frank:1 early:1 month:2 visited:1 source:1 visit:1 firmicus:1 maternus:1 give:1 reason:1 quick:1 movement:1 danger:1 involve:1 cross:1 channel:1 dangerous:1 winter:1 suggest:1 response:1 military:1 emergency:1 kind:1 possibly:1 repel:1 picts:1 scot:1 regard:1 religion:1 tolerant:1 judaism:1 promulgate:1 edict:1 ban:1 pagan:1 sacrifice:1 suppress:1 donatism:1 support:3 nicene:1 orthodoxy:1 arianism:1 champion:1 latter:1 call:1 council:1 sardica:1 unsuccessfully:1 try:1 settle:1 conflict:1 general:1 magnentius:3 declare:1 troop:1 rhine:1 frontier:1 later:1 entire:1 western:1 empire:1 lack:1 beyond:1 immediate:1 household:1 force:1 flee:1 life:1 supporter:1 corner:1 fortification:1 helena:1 southwestern:1 kill:1 assassin:1 external:1 link:1 dimaio:1 michael:1 de:1 imperatoribus:1 romani:1 site:1 |@bigram council_sardica:1 external_link:1 de_imperatoribus:1 imperatoribus_romani:1 |
1,612 | Drawing | Male nude by Annibale Carracci, 16th century Drawing is a visual art that makes use of any number of drawing instruments to mark a two-dimensional medium. Common instruments include graphite pencils, pen and ink, inked brushes, wax color pencils, crayons, charcoals, chalk, pastels, markers, stylus, or various metals like silverpoint. An artist who practices or works in drawing may be referred to as a draftsman or draughtsman. A small amount of material is released onto the two dimensional medium which leaves a visible mark—the process is similar to that of painting. The most common support for drawing is paper, although other materials such as cardboard, plastic, leather, canvas and board, may be used. Temporary drawings may be made on a blackboard or whiteboard, or indeed almost anything. The medium has also become popular as a means of public expression via graffiti art, because of the easy availability of permanent markers. Definitions Madame Palmyre with Her Dog, 1897. Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec. Drawing is a form of visual expression and is one of the major forms within the visual arts. There are a number of subcategories of drawing, including cartooning. Certain drawing methods or approaches, such as "doodling" and other informal kinds of drawing such as drawing in the fog a shower leaves on a bathroom mirror, or the surrealist method of "entoptic graphomania", in which dots are made at the sites of impurities in a blank sheet of paper, and lines are then made between the dots, may or may not be considered as part of "drawing" as a "fine art." The word 'drawing' is used as both a verb and a noun: Drawing (verb) is the act of making marks on a surface so as to create an image, form or shape. The produced image is also called a drawing (noun). A quick, unrefined drawing may be defined as a sketch. In simplistic terms, drawing is distinct from painting, perhaps more so in the Western view; East Asian art, which generally only uses brushes, has historically made less distinction between the two. Critics may praise a painter's ability to draw well, meaning that the shapes, especially of the human body, are well-articulated, or a drawing may be considered painterly. Adding confusion, similar tools and media may be used in both tasks. Dry media normally associated with drawing, such as chalk, may be used in pastel painting. Drawing may be done with liquid media applied with brushes or pens. Similar supports likewise can serve both: painting generally involves the application of liquid paint onto prepared canvas or panels, but sometimes an underdrawing is drawn first on that same support. Drawing is generally concerned with the marking of lines and areas of tone onto paper, but watercolor painting uses a paper support. Traditional drawings were monochrome, or at least had little colour, See grisaille and chiaroscuro while modern coloured-pencil drawings may approach or cross the boundary (if there is one) between drawing and painting. The term drawing suggests a process and intent that is distinct from the traditional act of painting. While there are drawings that are finished artworks, drawing is often exploratory, with considerable emphasis on observation, problem solving and composition, often as a means of preparation for a painting. In contrast, traditional painting is often a means of execution or finishing an artwork. It is fair to note that modern painters often incorporate methods of drawing in their painting process, particularly in the early stages of a painting. Subject matter Drawings may be representational, depicting objects, living beings, clouds or scenes which the artist views, remembers, or imagines. They may be realistic to the point of lifelike resemblance (e.g. traditional portraits), architectural drawing or looser approximations of reality (e.g. sketches), and highly stylized (e.g. cartoons, caricatures, manga), or abstract (e.g. automatic drawing, entoptic graphomania). Drawing may also be a form of heraldic art, with a range of formality from finished works of heraldic art to tricking. Media Joseph Nechvatal 4x7' drawing "Fini" 1980 The medium is the means by which ink, pigment, or color are delivered onto the drawing surface. Most drawing media are either dry (e.g. graphite, charcoal, pastels, Conté, silverpoint), or water-based (marker, pen and ink). Watercolor pencils can be used dry like ordinary pencil, then moistened with a wet brush to get various painterly effects. Very rarely, artists have drawn with (usually decoded) invisible ink. Materials Paper comes in a variety of different sizes and qualities, ranging from newspaper grade for practice up to high quality and relatively expensive paper sometimes sold as individual sheets. Papers can vary in texture, hue, acidity, and strength when wet. Smooth paper is good for rendering fine detail, but a more "toothy" paper will hold the drawing material better. Thus a more coarse material is useful for producing deeper contrast. Bristol board and even heavier acid-free boards, frequently with smooth finishes, can also be used for drawings. Acid-free, archival quality paper keeps its color and texture far longer than wood pulp based paper such as newsprint, which will turn yellow and become brittle much sooner. For pen and ink work, typing paper is often used for practice drawings, but heavier paper holds up better. Bristol board makes a hard surface that is especially good for ink or fine detailed graphite drawing. Coldpressed watercolor paper is sometimes favored for ink drawing due to its texture. Tracing vellum is often used for experimenting on top of a pencil drawing, prior to committing a technique to the final page. True vellum produces very finely-detailed painting or drawing. Various tools are routinely used in the process of drawing. These include a pencil sharpener, sandpaper, kneaded eraser, blending stumps, and chamois. Other tools that sometimes prove useful are tracing paper, a circle compass, ruler, frisket, fixative, and drafting tape. The use of an easel or slanted table reduces the distorting effects of perspective. Metalpointing can include silver, platinum, copper, bronze, and even gold. Some of these metals can change color over time through oxidization and produce interesting results. One new tool for drawing is the computer's 'drawing option'. Contemporary artists have broadened the sphere of associations the term 'drawing' encompasses to a number of unconventional drawing media, including performance and multimedia work, employing the branches of trees as drawing instruments, and fashioning images with carbon deposit from smoke. Applying media Almost all draughtsmen use their hands and fingers to apply the media, with the exception of some handicapped individuals who draw with their mouths or feet. Prior to working on an image, the artist will likely want to gain an understanding of how the various media will work. The different drawing implements can be tried on practice sheets in order to determine value and texture, and how to apply the implement in order to produce various effects. The stroke of the drawing implement can be used to control the appearance of the image. Ink drawings typically use hatching, which consists of groups of parallel lines. This use of hatching is to be distinguished from the use of a hatching system in heraldry to indicate tincture (i.e. what "color", in layman's language, the arms are) in a monochromatic context.) Cross-hatching uses hatching in two or more different directions to create a darker tone. Broken hatching, or lines with intermittent breaks, is used to form lighter tones, and by controlling the density of the breaks a graduation of tone can be achieved. Stippling, uses dots to produce tone, texture or shade. Sketch drawings use similar techniques, although with pencils and drawing sticks continuous variations in tone can be achieved. For best results the lines in a sketch are typically drawn to follow the contour curves of the surface, thus producing a depth effect. When drawing hair, the lines of the sketch follow the direction of the hair growth. Typically a drawing will be filled in based on which hand the artist favors. A right-handed artist will want to draw from left to right in order to avoid smearing the image. Sometimes the artist will want to leave a section of the image blank while filling in the remainder of the picture. A frisket can be used for this purpose. The shape of the area to be preserved is cut out of the frisket, and the resulting shape is then applied to the drawing surface. This will protect the surface from receiving any stray marks before it is ready to be filled in. Another method to preserve a section of the image is to apply a spray-on fixative to the surface. This will hold loose material more firmly to the sheet and prevent it from smearing. However the fixative spray typically uses chemicals that can negatively affect the respiratory system, so it should be employed in a well-ventilated area such as outdoors. Tone Line drawing in sanguine by Leonardo da Vinci Gustave Doré's drawing ofOrlando Furioso defeating a sea monster Shading is the technique of varying the tonal values on the paper to represent the shade of the material as well as the placement of the shadows. Careful attention to reflected light, shadows, and highlights can result in a very realistic rendition of the image. Blending uses an implement to soften or spread the original drawing strokes. Blending is most easily done with a medium that does not immediately fix itself, such as graphite, chalk, or charcoal, although freshly applied ink can be smudged, wet or dry, for some effects. For shading and blending, the artist can use a blending stump, tissue, a kneaded eraser, a fingertip, or any combination of them. A piece of chamois is useful for creating smooth textures, and for removing material to lighten the tone. Continuous tone can be achieved with graphite on a smooth surface without blending, but the technique is laborious, involving small circular or oval strokes with a somewhat blunt point. Shading techniques that also introduce texture to the drawing include hatching and stippling. There are a number of other methods for producing texture in the picture: in addition to choosing a suitable paper, the type of drawing material and the drawing technique will result in different textures. Texture can be made to appear more realistic when it is drawn next to a contrasting texture; a coarse texture will be more obvious when placed next to a smoothly blended area. A similar effect can be achieved by drawing different tones in close proximity; a light edge next to a dark background will stand out to the eye, and almost appear to float above the surface. Layout Measuring the dimensions of a subject while blocking in the drawing is an important step in producing a realistic rendition of the aertically can be used to measure the angles of different sides. These angles can be reproduced on the drawing surface and then rechecked to make sure they are accurate. Another form of measurement is to compare the relative sizes of different parts of the subject with each other. A finger placed at a point along the drawing implement can be used to compare that dimension with other parts of the image. When attempting to draw a complicated shape such as a human figure, it is helpful at first to represent the form with a set of primitive shapes. Almost any form can be represented by some combination of the cube, sphere, cylinder, and cone. Once these basic shapes have been assembled into a likeness, then the drawing can be refined into a more accurate and polished form. The lines of the primitive shapes are removed and replaced by the final likeness. A more refined art of figure drawing relies upon the artist possessing a deep understanding of anatomy and the human proportions. A trained artist is familiar with the skeleton structure, joint location, muscle placement, tendon movement, and how the different parts work together during movement. This allows the artist to render more natural poses that do not appear artificially stiff. The artist is also familiar with how the proportions vary depending on the age of the subject, particularly when drawing a portrait. Perspective Linear perspective is a method of portraying objects on a flat surface so that the dimensions shrink with distance. The parallel, straight edges of any object, whether a building or a table, will follow lines that eventually converge at infinity. Typically this point of convergence will be along the horizon, as buildings are built level with the flat surface. When multiple structures are aligned with each other, such as buildings along a street, the horizontal tops and bottoms of the structures will all typically converge at a vanishing point. Two point perspective drawing. When both the fronts and sides of a building are drawn, then the parallel lines forming a side converge at a second point along the horizon (which may be off the drawing paper.) This is a "two-point perspective". Converging the vertical lines to a point in the sky then produces a "three-point perspective". Depth can also be portrayed by several techniques in addition to the perspective approach above. Objects of similar size should appear ever smaller the further they are from the viewer. Thus the back wheel of a cart will appear slightly smaller than the front wheel. Depth can be portrayed through the use of texture. As the texture of an object gets further away it becomes more compressed and busy, taking on an entirely different character than if it was close. Depth can also be portrayed by reducing the amount of contrast of more distant objects, and also by making the colors more pale. This will reproduce the effect of atmospheric haze, and cause the eye to focus primarily on objects drawn in the foreground. Artistry Chiaroscuro study drawing by Bouguereau The composition of the image is an important element in producing an interesting work of artistic merit. The artist plans the placement of elements in the art in order to communicate ideas and feelings with the viewer. The composition can determine the focus of the art, and result in a harmonious whole that is aesthetically appealing and stimulating. The illumination of the subject is also a key element in creating an artistic piece, and the interplay of light and shadow is a valuable method in the artist's toolbox. The placement of the light sources can make a considerable difference in the type of message that is being presented. Multiple light sources can wash out any wrinkles in a person's face, for instance, and give a more youthful appearance. In contrast, a single light source, such as harsh daylight, can serve to highlight any texture or interesting features. When drawing an object or figure, the skilled artist pays attention to both the area within the silhouette and what lies outside. The exterior is termed the negative space, and can be as important in the representation as the figure. Objects placed in the background of the figure should appear properly placed wherever they can be viewed. A study is a draft drawing that is made in preparation for a planned final image. Studies can be used to determine the appearances of specific parts of the completed image, or for experimenting with the best approach for accomplishing the end goal. However a well-crafted study can be a piece of art in its own right, and many hours of careful work can go into completing a study. History: masters of drawing André Masson. Automatic Drawing. 1924. Ink on paper, 23.5 x 20.6 cm. Museum of Modern Art, New York. People have made rock and cave drawings since prehistoric times. By the 12th-13th centuries AD, monks preparing illuminated manuscripts on vellum or parchment in monasteries throughout Europe were using lead styli to draw lines for their writings and for the outlines for their illuminations. Soon artists generally were using silver to make drawings and underdrawings. Initially they used and re-used wooden tablets with prepared ground for these drawings. When paper became generally available from the 14th century onwards, artists' drawings, both preparatory studies and finished works, became increasingly common. Since that time, each century has produced artists who have created great drawings. Masters of drawing in the 1400s and 1500s included Leonardo da Vinci, Albrecht Dürer, Michelangelo, and Raphael. During the 1600s, Claude, Nicolas Poussin, Rembrandt, Guercino, and Peter Paul Rubens created important drawings. In the 1700s, great drawings were produced by Jean-Honoré Fragonard, Francisco Goya, Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, and Antoine Watteau. The masters of drawing during the 1800s included Paul Cézanne, Jacques Louis David, Pierre-Paul Prud'hon, Edgar Degas, Theodore Gericault, Jean Ingres, Odilon Redon, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Honore Daumier, and Vincent van Gogh. Great drawings in the 1900s have been created by Käthe Kollwitz, Max Beckmann, Jean Dubuffet, Egon Schiele, Arshile Gorky, Paul Klee, Oscar Kokoschka, M. C. Escher, André Masson, Jules Pascin, and Pablo Picasso. Digital illustration Picture produced by Drawing Machine 2 Drawing may also be done as computer art. Computer illustration or digital art is the use of digital tools to produce images under the direct manipulation of the artist, usually through a pointing device such as a tablet or a mouse. It is distinguished from computer-generated art, which is produced by a computer using mathematical models created by the artist. It is also distinct from digital manipulation of photographs, in that it is an original construction "from scratch". (Photographic elements may be incorporated into such works, but they are not the primary basis or source for them.) See also List of basic drawing topics :Category:Cartoonists Color theory Composition Computer-aided design Diagramming Engineering drawing Figure drawing GPS drawing Illustration Multi-Sketch Pen Sketch (drawing) Sketchbook Traditional animation Technical drawing Box drawing characters Back of a napkin References Further reading J. D. Hillberry, Drawing Realistic Textures in Pencil, North Light Books, 1999, ISBN 0-89134-868-9. Frank Lohan, Pen & Ink Techniques, Contemporary Books, 1978, ISBN 0-8092-7438-8. World Book, Inc. The World Book Encyclopedia Volume 5, 1988, ISBN 0-7166-0089-7. Bodley Gallery, New York, N.Y., Modern master drawings, 1971, OCLC 37498294. Betty Edwards, The New Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain, HarperCollins Publishers Ltd; 3Rev Ed edition, 2001, ISBN 978-0007116454 External links Skull Drawing (short video on drawing a skull) Art in Context - Images: Drawing Timeline of Drawing Development in Children Master Drawings around Rembrandt and Ruisdael Learn How to Draw Realistically Drawing tutorials Online Drawing tutorials be-x-old:Малюнак | Drawing |@lemmatized male:1 nude:1 annibale:1 carracci:1 century:4 drawing:47 visual:3 art:16 make:14 use:36 number:4 draw:69 instrument:3 mark:4 two:6 dimensional:2 medium:14 common:3 include:8 graphite:5 pencil:9 pen:6 ink:11 inked:1 brush:4 wax:1 color:7 crayon:1 charcoal:3 chalk:3 pastel:3 marker:3 stylus:2 various:5 metal:2 like:2 silverpoint:2 artist:21 practice:4 work:11 may:18 refer:1 draftsman:1 draughtsman:2 small:4 amount:2 material:9 release:1 onto:4 leave:3 visible:1 process:4 similar:6 painting:9 support:4 paper:20 although:3 cardboard:1 plastic:1 leather:1 canvas:2 board:4 temporary:1 blackboard:1 whiteboard:1 indeed:1 almost:4 anything:1 also:13 become:5 popular:1 mean:5 public:1 expression:2 via:1 graffiti:1 easy:1 availability:1 permanent:1 definition:1 madame:1 palmyre:1 dog:1 henri:2 de:2 toulouse:2 lautrec:2 form:10 one:3 major:1 within:2 subcategories:1 cartoon:2 certain:1 method:7 approach:4 doodle:1 informal:1 kind:1 fog:1 shower:1 leaf:1 bathroom:1 mirror:1 surrealist:1 entoptic:2 graphomania:2 dot:3 site:1 impurity:1 blank:2 sheet:4 line:12 consider:2 part:5 fine:3 word:1 verb:2 noun:2 act:2 surface:12 create:8 image:15 shape:8 produced:1 call:1 quick:1 unrefined:1 define:1 sketch:7 simplistic:1 term:4 distinct:3 paint:4 perhaps:1 western:1 view:3 east:1 asian:1 generally:5 historically:1 less:1 distinction:1 critic:1 praise:1 painter:2 ability:1 well:7 especially:2 human:3 body:1 articulate:1 painterly:2 add:1 confusion:1 tool:5 task:1 dry:4 normally:1 associate:1 liquid:2 apply:7 likewise:1 serve:2 involve:2 application:1 prepared:2 panel:1 sometimes:5 underdrawing:1 first:2 concern:1 marking:1 area:5 tone:10 watercolor:3 traditional:5 monochrome:1 least:1 little:1 colour:2 see:2 grisaille:1 chiaroscuro:2 modern:4 cross:2 boundary:1 suggest:1 intent:1 finish:5 artwork:2 often:6 exploratory:1 considerable:2 emphasis:1 observation:1 problem:1 solving:1 composition:4 preparation:2 contrast:4 execution:1 fair:1 note:1 incorporate:2 particularly:2 early:1 stage:1 subject:5 matter:1 representational:1 depicting:1 object:9 living:1 cloud:1 scene:1 remembers:1 imago:1 realistic:5 point:10 lifelike:1 resemblance:1 e:6 g:5 portrait:2 architectural:1 loose:2 approximation:1 reality:1 highly:1 stylize:1 caricature:1 manga:1 abstract:1 automatic:2 heraldic:2 range:2 formality:1 tricking:1 joseph:1 nechvatal:1 fini:1 pigment:1 deliver:1 either:1 conté:1 water:1 base:3 ordinary:1 moisten:1 wet:3 get:2 effect:7 rarely:1 usually:2 decode:1 invisible:1 come:1 variety:1 different:9 size:3 quality:3 newspaper:1 grade:1 high:1 relatively:1 expensive:1 sell:1 individual:2 vary:3 texture:16 hue:1 acidity:1 strength:1 smooth:4 good:2 render:2 detail:2 toothy:1 hold:3 thus:3 coarse:2 useful:3 produce:15 deep:2 bristol:2 even:2 heavy:2 acid:2 free:2 frequently:1 archival:1 keep:1 far:4 longer:1 wood:1 pulp:1 newsprint:1 turn:1 yellow:1 brittle:1 much:1 sooner:1 type:3 hard:1 coldpressed:1 favor:2 due:1 trace:2 vellum:3 experiment:2 top:2 prior:2 commit:1 technique:8 final:3 page:1 true:1 finely:1 detailed:1 routinely:1 sharpener:1 sandpaper:1 knead:2 eraser:2 blend:3 stump:2 chamois:2 prove:1 circle:1 compass:1 ruler:1 frisket:3 fixative:3 draft:2 tape:1 easel:1 slant:1 table:2 reduces:1 distort:1 perspective:7 metalpointing:1 silver:2 platinum:1 copper:1 bronze:1 gold:1 change:1 time:3 oxidization:1 interesting:3 result:5 new:4 computer:6 option:1 contemporary:2 broaden:1 sphere:2 association:1 encompasses:1 unconventional:1 performance:1 multimedia:1 employ:2 branch:1 tree:1 fashion:1 carbon:1 deposit:1 smoke:1 hand:3 finger:2 exception:1 handicapped:1 mouth:1 foot:1 likely:1 want:3 gain:1 understanding:2 implement:5 try:1 order:4 determine:3 value:2 stroke:3 control:2 appearance:3 typically:6 hatching:6 consist:1 group:1 parallel:3 distinguish:2 system:2 heraldry:1 indicate:1 tincture:1 layman:1 language:1 arm:1 monochromatic:1 context:2 hatch:1 direction:2 darker:1 broken:1 intermittent:1 break:2 light:8 density:1 graduation:1 achieve:4 stippling:2 shade:4 stick:1 continuous:2 variation:1 best:2 follow:3 contour:1 curve:1 depth:4 hair:2 growth:1 fill:3 right:4 avoid:1 smear:2 section:2 remainder:1 picture:3 purpose:1 preserve:2 cut:1 resulting:1 protect:1 receive:1 stray:1 ready:1 another:2 spray:2 firmly:1 prevent:1 however:2 chemical:1 negatively:1 affect:1 respiratory:1 ventilate:1 outdoors:1 sanguine:1 leonardo:2 da:2 vinci:2 gustave:1 doré:1 oforlando:1 furioso:1 defeat:1 sea:1 monster:1 shading:1 tonal:1 represent:3 placement:4 shadow:3 careful:2 attention:2 reflect:1 highlight:2 rendition:2 soften:1 spread:1 original:2 blending:4 easily:1 immediately:1 fix:1 freshly:1 smudge:1 tissue:1 fingertip:1 combination:2 piece:3 remove:2 lighten:1 without:1 laborious:1 circular:1 oval:1 somewhat:1 blunt:1 introduce:1 addition:2 choose:1 suitable:1 appear:6 next:3 contrasting:1 obvious:1 place:4 smoothly:1 close:2 proximity:1 edge:2 dark:1 background:2 stand:1 eye:2 float:1 layout:1 measure:2 dimension:3 block:1 important:4 step:1 aertically:1 angle:2 side:4 reproduce:2 rechecked:1 sure:1 accurate:2 measurement:1 compare:2 relative:1 along:4 attempt:1 complicated:1 figure:6 helpful:1 set:1 primitive:2 cube:1 cylinder:1 cone:1 basic:2 assemble:1 likeness:2 refine:1 polished:1 replace:1 refined:1 relies:1 upon:1 possess:1 anatomy:1 proportion:2 trained:1 familiar:2 skeleton:1 structure:3 joint:1 location:1 muscle:1 tendon:1 movement:2 together:1 allow:1 natural:1 pose:1 artificially:1 stiff:1 depend:1 age:1 linear:1 portray:4 flat:2 shrink:1 distance:1 straight:1 whether:1 building:4 eventually:1 converge:4 infinity:1 convergence:1 horizon:2 build:1 level:1 multiple:2 align:1 street:1 horizontal:1 bottom:1 vanish:1 front:2 second:1 vertical:1 sky:1 three:1 several:1 ever:1 viewer:2 back:2 wheel:2 cart:1 slightly:1 away:1 compressed:1 busy:1 take:1 entirely:1 character:2 reduce:1 distant:1 pale:1 atmospheric:1 haze:1 cause:1 focus:2 primarily:1 foreground:1 artistry:1 study:6 bouguereau:1 element:4 artistic:2 merit:1 plan:2 communicate:1 idea:1 feeling:1 harmonious:1 whole:1 aesthetically:1 appeal:1 stimulate:1 illumination:2 key:1 interplay:1 valuable:1 toolbox:1 source:4 difference:1 message:1 present:1 wash:1 wrinkle:1 person:1 face:1 instance:1 give:1 youthful:1 single:1 harsh:1 daylight:1 feature:1 skilled:1 pay:1 silhouette:1 lie:1 outside:1 exterior:1 negative:1 space:1 representation:1 properly:1 wherever:1 specific:1 complete:2 accomplish:1 end:1 goal:1 craft:1 many:1 hour:1 go:1 history:1 master:5 andré:2 masson:2 x:2 cm:1 museum:1 york:2 people:1 rock:1 cave:1 since:2 prehistoric:1 ad:1 monk:1 prepare:1 illuminated:1 manuscript:1 parchment:1 monastery:1 throughout:1 europe:1 lead:1 writing:1 outline:1 soon:1 underdrawings:1 initially:1 wooden:1 tablet:2 ground:1 available:1 onwards:1 preparatory:1 increasingly:1 great:3 albrecht:1 dürer:1 michelangelo:1 raphael:1 claude:1 nicolas:1 poussin:1 rembrandt:2 guercino:1 peter:1 paul:4 rubens:1 jean:3 honoré:1 fragonard:1 francisco:1 goya:1 giovanni:1 battista:1 tiepolo:1 antoine:1 watteau:1 cézanne:1 jacques:1 louis:1 david:1 pierre:1 prud:1 hon:1 edgar:1 degas:1 theodore:1 gericault:1 ingres:1 odilon:1 redon:1 honore:1 daumier:1 vincent:1 van:1 gogh:1 käthe:1 kollwitz:1 max:1 beckmann:1 dubuffet:1 egon:1 schiele:1 arshile:1 gorky:1 klee:1 oscar:1 kokoschka:1 c:1 escher:1 jules:1 pascin:1 pablo:1 picasso:1 digital:4 illustration:3 machine:1 direct:1 manipulation:2 pointing:1 device:1 mouse:1 generated:1 mathematical:1 model:1 photograph:1 construction:1 scratch:1 photographic:1 primary:1 basis:1 list:1 topic:1 category:1 cartoonist:1 theory:1 aided:1 design:1 diagram:1 engineering:1 gps:1 multi:1 sketchbook:1 animation:1 technical:1 box:1 napkin:1 reference:1 read:1 j:1 hillberry:1 north:1 book:4 isbn:4 frank:1 lohan:1 world:2 inc:1 encyclopedia:1 volume:1 bodley:1 gallery:1 n:1 oclc:1 betty:1 edward:1 brain:1 harpercollins:1 publisher:1 ltd:1 ed:1 edition:1 external:1 link:1 skull:2 short:1 video:1 timeline:1 development:1 child:1 around:1 ruisdael:1 learn:1 realistically:1 tutorial:2 online:1 old:1 малюнак:1 |@bigram annibale_carracci:1 pen_ink:4 toulouse_lautrec:2 problem_solving:1 highly_stylize:1 joseph_nechvatal:1 wood_pulp:1 negatively_affect:1 leonardo_da:2 da_vinci:2 gustave_doré:1 aesthetically_appeal:1 andré_masson:2 illuminated_manuscript:1 albrecht_dürer:1 nicolas_poussin:1 paul_rubens:1 francisco_goya:1 giovanni_battista:1 paul_cézanne:1 edgar_degas:1 van_gogh:1 max_beckmann:1 jean_dubuffet:1 egon_schiele:1 arshile_gorky:1 paul_klee:1 pablo_picasso:1 pointing_device:1 computer_generated:1 computer_aided:1 harpercollins_publisher:1 external_link:1 |
1,613 | Antigen | An antigen is a substance that prompts the generation of antibodies and can cause an immune response. The word originated from the notion that they can stimulate antibody generation. Guyton and Hall (2006). Textbook of Medical Physiology, 11th edition. Page 440. Elsevier, Inc. Philadelphia, PA. We now know that the immune system does not consist of only antibodies. The modern definition encompasses all substances that can be recognized by the adaptive immune system. In the strict sense, immunogens are those substances that elicit a response from the immune system, whereas antigens are defined as substances that bind to specific antibodies. Not all antigens produce an immunogenic response, but all immunogens are antigens (Immunobiology, Janeway and Travers, 1994). Antigens are usually proteins or polysaccharides. This includes p (coats, capsules, cell walls, flagella, fimbrae, and toxins) of bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms. Lipids and nucleic acids are antigenic only when combined with proteins and polysaccharides. Non-microbial exogenous (non-self) antigens can include pollen, egg white, and proteins from transplanted tissues and organs or on the surface of transfused blood cells. Tolerogen - A substance that invokes a specific immune non-responsiveness due to its molecular form. If its molecular form is changed, a tolerogen can become an immunogen. Allergen - An allergen is a substance that causes the allergic reaction. The (detrimental) reaction may result after exposure via ingestion, inhalation, injection, or contact with skin. Cells present their antigens to the immune system via a histocompatibility molecule. Depending on the antigen presented and the type of the histocompatibility molecule, several types of immune cells can become activated. Origin of antigens Antigens can be classified in order of their species. Exogenous antigens Exogenous antigens are antigens that have entered the body from the outside, for example by inhalation, ingestion, or injection. By endocytosis or phagocytosis, these antigens are taken into the antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and processed into fragments. APCs then present the fragments to T helper cells (CD4+) by the use of class II histocompatibility molecules on their surface. Some T cells are specific for the peptide:MHC complex. They become activated and start to secrete cytokines. Cytokines are substances that can activate cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL), antibody-secreting B cells, macrophages, and other particles. Endogenous antigens Endogenous antigens are antigens that have been generated within the cell, as a result of normal cell metabolism, or because of viral or intracellular bacterial infection. The fragments are then presented on the cell surface in the complex with MHC class I molecules. If activated cytotoxic CD8+ T cells recognize them, the T cells begin to secrete various toxins that cause the lysis or apoptosis of the infected cell. In order to keep the cytotoxic cells from killing cells just for presenting self-proteins, self-reactive T cells are deleted from the repertoire as a result of tolerance (also known as negative selection). Endogenous antigens include xenogenic (heterologous), autologous and idiotypic or allogenic (homologous) antigens. Autoantigens An autoantigen is usually a normal protein or complex of proteins (and sometimes DNA or RNA) that is recognized by the immune system of patients suffering from a specific autoimmune disease. These antigens should, under normal conditions, not be the target of the immune system, but, due to mainly genetic and environmental factors, the normal immunological tolerance for such an antigen has been lost in these patients. Tumor antigens Tumor antigens or Neoantigens are those antigens that are presented by MHC I or MHC II molecules on the surface of tumor cells. These antigens can sometimes be presented by tumor cells and never by the normal ones. In this case, they are called tumor-specific antigens (TSAs) and, in general, result from a tumor-specific mutation. More common are antigens that are presented by tumor cells and normal cells, and they are called tumor-associated antigens (TAAs). Cytotoxic T lymphocytes that recognize these antigens may be able to destroy the tumor cells before they proliferate or metastasize. Tumor antigens can also be on the surface of the tumor in the form of, for example, a mutated receptor, in which case they will be recognized by B cells. Nativity A native antigen is an antigen that is not yet processed by an APC to smaller parts. T cells cannot bind native antigens, but require that they be processed by APCs, whereas B cells can be activated by native ones. Origin of the term antigen In 1899 Ladislas Deutsch (Detre) (1874-1939) named the hypothetical substances halfway between bacterial constituents and antibodies "substances immunogenes ou antigenes". He originally believed those substances to be precursors of antibodies, just like zymogen is a precursor of zymase. But by 1903 he understood that an antigen induces the production of immune bodies (antibodies) and wrote that the word antigen was a contraction of "Antisomatogen = Immunkorperbildner". The Oxford English Dictionary indicates that the logical construction should be "anti(body)-gen" . See also Epitope Linear epitope Conformational epitope Original antigenic sin Polyclonal B cell response Magnetic immunoassay Notes External links Antigen Retrieval Protocol Immunology National Library of Medicine/Medline (National Insititute of Health) website | Antigen |@lemmatized antigen:33 substance:10 prompt:1 generation:2 antibody:8 cause:3 immune:10 response:4 word:2 originate:1 notion:1 stimulate:1 guyton:1 hall:1 textbook:1 medical:1 physiology:1 edition:1 page:1 elsevier:1 inc:1 philadelphia:1 pa:1 know:2 system:6 consist:1 modern:1 definition:1 encompass:1 recognize:5 adaptive:1 strict:1 sense:1 immunogen:3 elicit:1 whereas:2 define:1 bind:2 specific:6 produce:1 immunogenic:1 immunobiology:1 janeway:1 travers:1 usually:2 protein:6 polysaccharide:2 include:3 p:1 coat:1 capsule:1 cell:26 wall:1 flagellum:1 fimbrae:1 toxin:2 bacteria:1 virus:1 microorganism:1 lipid:1 nucleic:1 acid:1 antigenic:2 combine:1 non:3 microbial:1 exogenous:3 self:3 antigens:5 pollen:1 egg:1 white:1 transplant:1 tissue:1 organ:1 surface:5 transfused:1 blood:1 tolerogen:2 invoke:1 responsiveness:1 due:2 molecular:2 form:3 change:1 become:3 allergen:2 allergic:1 reaction:2 detrimental:1 may:2 result:4 exposure:1 via:2 ingestion:2 inhalation:2 injection:2 contact:1 skin:1 present:8 histocompatibility:3 molecule:5 depend:1 type:2 several:1 activated:2 origin:2 classify:1 order:2 specie:1 enter:1 body:3 outside:1 example:2 endocytosis:1 phagocytosis:1 take:1 presenting:1 apc:4 process:3 fragment:3 helper:1 use:1 class:2 ii:2 peptide:1 mhc:4 complex:3 start:1 secrete:2 cytokine:2 activate:3 cytotoxic:4 lymphocyte:1 ctl:1 secreting:1 b:4 macrophage:1 particle:1 endogenous:3 generate:1 within:1 normal:6 metabolism:1 viral:1 intracellular:1 bacterial:2 infection:1 begin:1 various:1 lysis:1 apoptosis:1 infected:1 keep:1 kill:1 reactive:1 delete:1 repertoire:1 tolerance:2 also:3 negative:1 selection:1 xenogenic:1 heterologous:1 autologous:1 idiotypic:1 allogenic:1 homologous:1 autoantigens:1 autoantigen:1 sometimes:2 dna:1 rna:1 patient:2 suffer:1 autoimmune:1 disease:1 condition:1 target:1 mainly:1 genetic:1 environmental:1 factor:1 immunological:1 lose:1 tumor:11 neoantigens:1 never:1 one:2 case:2 call:2 tsa:1 general:1 mutation:1 common:1 associate:1 taas:1 lymphocytes:1 able:1 destroy:1 proliferate:1 metastasize:1 mutated:1 receptor:1 nativity:1 native:3 yet:1 small:1 part:1 cannot:1 require:1 term:1 ladislas:1 deutsch:1 detre:1 name:1 hypothetical:1 halfway:1 constituent:1 immunogenes:1 ou:1 antigenes:1 originally:1 believe:1 precursor:2 like:1 zymogen:1 zymase:1 understand:1 induce:1 production:1 write:1 contraction:1 antisomatogen:1 immunkorperbildner:1 oxford:1 english:1 dictionary:1 indicates:1 logical:1 construction:1 anti:1 gen:1 see:1 epitope:3 linear:1 conformational:1 original:1 sin:1 polyclonal:1 magnetic:1 immunoassay:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 retrieval:1 protocol:1 immunology:1 national:2 library:1 medicine:1 medline:1 insititute:1 health:1 website:1 |@bigram immune_response:1 philadelphia_pa:1 adaptive_immune:1 antibody_antigen:1 lipid_nucleic:1 nucleic_acid:1 allergic_reaction:1 antigen_antigen:2 inhalation_ingestion:1 helper_cell:1 bacterial_infection:1 mhc_class:1 cytotoxic_cell:2 dna_rna:1 autoimmune_disease:1 tumor_antigen:2 external_link:1 |
1,614 | LambdaMOO | LambdaMOO is an online community of the variety called a MOO. It is the oldest MOO today and one of the most active, with just under 3000 regular members. Typically, around 100-200 members are connected at any given time. LambdaMOO was founded in 1990 by Pavel Curtis. Hosted in the state of Washington, it is operated and administered entirely on a volunteer basis. Guests are allowed, and membership is free to anyone with a paid or institutional email address. LambdaMOO is accessible via telnet or MUD/MOO client, at host lambda.moo.mud.org and port 8888. LambdaMOO gained some notoriety when Julian Dibbell wrote a book called My Tiny Life describing his experiences there. Technical Notes Since its debut, LambdaMOO has run on Lambdamoo server software, which implements the MOO programming language. The software was originally created by Pavel Curtis for LambdaMOO, and was subsequently made available to the public. Several starter databases, known as cores, are available for Lambdamoo; LambdaMOO itself uses the LambdaCore database. The "Lambda" name is from Curtis's own username on earlier MUD systems . Geography LambdaMOO central geography was based on Pavel Curtis's California home. New players and guests traditionally connected in "The Coat Closet", but a second area, "The Linen Closet" (specially programmed as a silent area) was later added as an alternative connection point. The coat closet opens onto the center of the house in The Living Room, a common hangout and place for conversation; its fixtures include a fireplace (where things can be roasted), The Living Room Couch (which periodically causes players' objects to 'fall through' to underneath the couch), and a pet Cockatoo who repeats overheard phrases (which is often found with its beak gagged). From time to time the Cockatoo is replaced with a more seasonal creature: a Turkey near Thanksgiving, a Raven near Halloween, et cetera. To the north of the Living Room is the Entrance Hall, the Front Yard, and a limited residential area along LambdaStreet. There is an extensive subterranean complex located down the manhole, including a sewage system. Players walking to the far west along LambdaStreet may be given the option to 'jump off the end of the world', which disables access to their account for a time. To the south of the Living Room is a pool deck, a hot tub, and some of the extensive grounds of the mansion, featuring gardens, hot air balloon landing pads, open fields, fishing holes, and the like. To the northwest of the living room are the laundry room, garage, dining room, smoking room, drawing room, housekeeper's quarters, and kitchen; a popular command allows players in the living room to push others into the kitchen and ask them to "fetch me a cup of tea"; since players can prevent themselves from being moved in such a fashion, this command is more often used on new users, who may have difficulty finding their way back to the Living Room. (For historical reasons, while there is direct access to the kitchen from the living room by heading northwest, users must head north, east, and then south from the Kitchen to return.) To the east of the entry hall, hallways provide access to some individual rooms, the Linen Closet, and to the eastern wing of the house. In the eastern wing can be found the Library of online books, the Museum of generic objects (which account-holders may create instances of), and an extensive area for the LambdaMOO RPG. A small portion of the map, covering the ground floor of the house and the yard, has been reproduced on the web. For would-be explorers, Yib's Guide to MOOing includes a chapter on interesting places on the MOO which are well worth visiting. Politics While most MOOs are run by administrative fiat, in summer of 1993 LambdaMOO implemented a petition/ballot mechanism, allowing the community to propose and vote on new policies and other administrative actions. A petition may be created by anyone eligible to participate in politics (those who have maintained accounts at the MOO for at least 30 days), can be signed by other players, and may then be submitted for administrative 'vetting'. Once vetted, the petition has a limited time to collect enough signatures to become valid and be made into a ballot. Ballots are subsequently voted on; those with a 66% approval rating are passed and will be implemented. This system suffered quite a lot of evolution and eventually passed into a state where wizards took back the power they'd passed into the hands of the people, but still maintain the ballot system as a way for the community to express its opinions. Noted LambdaMOO political pundit, Jaybird, has successfully moved for the banishment of arbitration in addition to ending the ballot process. Most of his supporters are vocal but are outnumbered by the entrenched electronic hegemony. Controversy There was an incident on the MOO in which a user named Mr. Bungle falsely attributed sexual remarks to other avatars. Demographics While the population of LambdaMOO once numbered close to 10,000 with over 300 actively connected at any time, these days it is rare to see more than a few dozen actively participating connected players at one time. As of November 13, 2005, LambdaMOO had 10 official wizards (administrators), and approximately 2,900 general users. Of these, approximately 1410 players reported themselves as male, and 916 as female; the remaining players either failed to report their gender, or deliberately chose another. (LambdaMOO supports custom designations of gender, and comes with the following presets: neuter, male, female, either, Spivak, splat, plural, egotistical, royal, and 2nd-person). References External links Unofficial homepage and connection instructions. LiveJournal community Imagine you lived in a small town - An introduction for visitors. Dibbell, Julian (1999). My Tiny Life. London: Fourth Estate Limited. ISBN 1-84115-058-4. Origin of the voting system Yib's Guide to MOOing (eBook) - An introduction to LambdaMOO and all MOOs in general. Also available as a paperback. Sue Thomas (2004) Hello World: travels in virtuality York: Raw Nerve BooksISBN 0-9536585-6-2. See also the web view LambdaMOO Statistics | LambdaMOO |@lemmatized lambdamoo:18 online:2 community:4 variety:1 call:2 moo:11 old:1 today:1 one:2 active:1 regular:1 member:2 typically:1 around:1 connect:4 give:2 time:7 found:1 pavel:3 curtis:4 host:2 state:2 washington:1 operate:1 administer:1 entirely:1 volunteer:1 basis:1 guest:2 allow:3 membership:1 free:1 anyone:2 paid:1 institutional:1 email:1 address:1 accessible:1 via:1 telnet:1 mud:3 client:1 lambda:2 org:1 port:1 gain:1 notoriety:1 julian:2 dibbell:2 write:1 book:2 tiny:2 life:2 describe:1 experience:1 technical:1 note:2 since:2 debut:1 run:2 server:1 software:2 implement:3 programming:1 language:1 originally:1 create:3 subsequently:2 make:2 available:3 public:1 several:1 starter:1 database:2 know:1 core:1 use:2 lambdacore:1 name:2 username:1 early:1 system:5 geography:2 central:1 base:1 california:1 home:1 new:3 player:9 traditionally:1 coat:2 closet:4 second:1 area:4 linen:2 specially:1 program:1 silent:1 later:1 add:1 alternative:1 connection:2 point:1 open:2 onto:1 center:1 house:3 living:8 room:13 common:1 hangout:1 place:2 conversation:1 fixture:1 include:3 fireplace:1 thing:1 roast:1 couch:2 periodically:1 cause:1 object:2 fall:1 underneath:1 pet:1 cockatoo:2 repeat:1 overhear:1 phrase:1 often:2 find:3 beak:1 gag:1 replace:1 seasonal:1 creature:1 turkey:1 near:2 thanksgiving:1 raven:1 halloween:1 et:1 cetera:1 north:2 entrance:1 hall:2 front:1 yard:2 limited:2 residential:1 along:2 lambdastreet:2 extensive:3 subterranean:1 complex:1 locate:1 manhole:1 sewage:1 walk:1 far:1 west:1 may:5 option:1 jump:1 end:2 world:2 disable:1 access:3 account:3 south:2 pool:1 deck:1 hot:2 tub:1 ground:2 mansion:1 feature:1 garden:1 air:1 balloon:1 land:1 pad:1 field:1 fish:1 hole:1 like:1 northwest:2 laundry:1 garage:1 din:1 smoking:1 draw:1 housekeeper:1 quarter:1 kitchen:4 popular:1 command:2 push:1 others:1 ask:1 fetch:1 cup:1 tea:1 prevent:1 move:2 fashion:1 user:4 difficulty:1 way:2 back:2 historical:1 reason:1 direct:1 head:2 must:1 east:2 return:1 entry:1 hallways:1 provide:1 individual:1 eastern:2 wing:2 library:1 museum:1 generic:1 holder:1 instance:1 rpg:1 small:2 portion:1 map:1 cover:1 floor:1 reproduce:1 web:2 would:1 explorer:1 yib:2 guide:2 chapter:1 interesting:1 well:1 worth:1 visit:1 politics:2 administrative:3 fiat:1 summer:1 petition:3 ballot:5 mechanism:1 propose:1 vote:2 policy:1 action:1 eligible:1 participate:2 maintain:2 least:1 day:2 sign:1 submit:1 vet:2 collect:1 enough:1 signature:1 become:1 valid:1 approval:1 rating:1 pass:3 suffer:1 quite:1 lot:1 evolution:1 eventually:1 wizard:2 take:1 power:1 hand:1 people:1 still:1 express:1 opinion:1 political:1 pundit:1 jaybird:1 successfully:1 banishment:1 arbitration:1 addition:1 process:1 supporter:1 vocal:1 outnumber:1 entrenched:1 electronic:1 hegemony:1 controversy:1 incident:1 mr:1 bungle:1 falsely:1 attribute:1 sexual:1 remark:1 avatar:1 demographic:1 population:1 number:1 close:1 actively:2 rare:1 see:2 dozen:1 november:1 official:1 administrator:1 approximately:2 general:2 report:2 male:2 female:2 remain:1 either:2 fail:1 gender:2 deliberately:1 choose:1 another:1 support:1 custom:1 designation:1 come:1 following:1 presets:1 neuter:1 spivak:1 splat:1 plural:1 egotistical:1 royal:1 person:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 unofficial:1 homepage:1 instruction:1 livejournal:1 imagine:1 live:1 town:1 introduction:2 visitor:1 london:1 fourth:1 estate:1 limit:1 isbn:1 origin:1 voting:1 mooing:1 ebook:1 also:2 paperback:1 sue:1 thomas:1 hello:1 travel:1 virtuality:1 york:1 raw:1 nerve:1 booksisbn:1 view:1 statistic:1 |@bigram via_telnet:1 gain_notoriety:1 et_cetera:1 laundry_room:1 approval_rating:1 mr_bungle:1 falsely_attribute:1 male_female:2 external_link:1 |
1,615 | MeatballWiki | MeatballWiki is a wiki dedicated to online communities, network culture, and hypermedia. Anja Ebersbach, Markus Glaser, Richard Heigl, Alexander Warta: Wiki. Web Collaboration. 2nd Edition. Springer Verlag 2008. ISBN 978-3-540-35150-4 p.430: "a community that has reached cult status and that focuses on virtual communities, network culture and hypermedia" Founded in 2000, its original goal was to focus on collaborative hypermedia, but current topics range from intellectual property to cyberpunk to the confusion of URIs. According to founder Sunir Shah, it runs "a hacked-up version of UseModWiki". The Founding of MeatballWiki MeatballWiki was started in 2000 by Sunir Shah, a forum administrator from Ontario, on Clifford Adams's Internet domain usemod.com. . It began as a friendly fork from the original WikiWikiWeb created by Ward Cunningham, in order to provide a place to have discussions about Wiki outside of the original WikiWikiWeb. Ward Cunningham created WikiWikiWeb with a primary focus on computer programming design patterns. While the scope of WikiWikiWeb was broad and free-wheeling, users who strayed too far from the focus were considered by some to be WikiSquatting, which means developing their own separate community within the WikiWikiWeb. Some users felt that those who wanted to engage in discussions about the wiki itself and how it operated, referred to as WikiOnWiki discussions, were going beyond the scope of WikiWikiWeb. meta:Transwiki:Constructionism and reductionism (wiki) MeatballWiki was therefore created as a place for such discussions. As Sunir Shah stated in the WikiWikiWeb page referring to MeatballWiki: “Community discussions about how to run the community itself should be left here. Abstract discussions, or objective analyses of community are encouraged on MeatballWiki.” MeatballWiki and UseModWiki MeatballWiki is located on Clifford Adams's Internet domain usemod.com, on which Adams also runs the UseModWiki forum, which is a wiki about the UseModWiki wiki engine. MeatballWiki and UseModWiki are thus two separate wikis located on the same Internet domain and using identical UseModWiki software. As host to numerous wiki-related project journals, MeatballWiki has in turn influenced much of the design of UseModWiki. For most of 2001, UseModWiki was also used to run all versions of Wikipedia. These interrelationships led to MeatballWiki exercising a major influence on the Wikipedia community, as shown by numerous references to MeatballWiki on the Wikimedia Foundation’s Meta-Wiki site. MeatballWiki and the Wiki Community The original intent of MeatballWiki was to offer observations and opinions about wikis and their online communities, with the intent of helping online communities, culture and hypermedia. Being a community about communities, MeatballWiki has become the launching point for other wiki-based projects and a general resource for broader wiki concepts, and has reached "cult status". It describes the general tendencies observed on wikis and other on-line communities, for example the life cycles of wikis and people's behavior on them. What differentiates MeatballWiki from many online meta-communities is that participants spend much of their time talking about sociology rather than technology, and when they do talk about technology, they do so in a social context. The MeatballWiki members have created a “bus tour” of wikis , which begins at the TourBusStop. One of the key concepts on MeatballWiki is barn raising, which is when a community gathers to take on a specific goal, providing a social event wherein members of a community learn about each other and become knit together. Sunir Shah created the first internet Barnstar award on MeatballWiki. The concept of "Barnstars" used on MeatballWiki, Wikipedia and many other wikis is a way of recognizing, awarding and celebrating specific individuals within the community who helped with the monumental tasks. References See also History of wikis InterWiki Meta-Wiki article on Constructionism and Reductionism Online communities UseModWiki Wikipedia:Barnstars Wikipedia:TourBusStop Wikipedia:Wikipedia is not MeatballWiki WikiWikiWeb External links MeatballWiki home page AP article, mentioning MeatballWiki Business Weekly Article, mentioning MeatballWiki MeatballWiki page on WikiWikiWeb MeatballWiki TourBusStop | MeatballWiki |@lemmatized meatballwiki:26 wiki:13 dedicate:1 online:5 community:19 network:2 culture:3 hypermedia:4 anja:1 ebersbach:1 markus:1 glaser:1 richard:1 heigl:1 alexander:1 warta:1 web:1 collaboration:1 edition:1 springer:1 verlag:1 isbn:1 p:1 reach:2 cult:2 status:2 focus:4 virtual:1 found:1 original:4 goal:2 collaborative:1 current:1 topic:1 range:1 intellectual:1 property:1 cyberpunk:1 confusion:1 uris:1 accord:1 founder:1 sunir:4 shah:4 run:4 hack:1 version:2 usemodwiki:9 founding:1 start:1 forum:2 administrator:1 ontario:1 clifford:2 adam:3 internet:4 domain:3 usemod:2 com:2 begin:2 friendly:1 fork:1 wikiwikiweb:9 create:5 ward:2 cunningham:2 order:1 provide:2 place:2 discussion:6 outside:1 primary:1 computer:1 program:1 design:2 pattern:1 scope:2 broad:2 free:1 wheeling:1 user:2 stray:1 far:1 consider:1 wikisquatting:1 mean:1 develop:1 separate:2 within:2 felt:1 want:1 engage:1 operate:1 refer:2 wikionwiki:1 go:1 beyond:1 meta:4 transwiki:1 constructionism:2 reductionism:2 therefore:1 state:1 page:3 leave:1 abstract:1 objective:1 analysis:1 encourage:1 locate:2 also:3 engine:1 thus:1 two:1 wikis:7 use:3 identical:1 software:1 host:1 numerous:2 relate:1 project:2 journal:1 turn:1 influence:2 much:2 wikipedia:7 interrelationship:1 lead:1 exercise:1 major:1 show:1 reference:2 wikimedia:1 foundation:1 site:1 intent:2 offer:1 observation:1 opinion:1 help:2 become:2 launching:1 point:1 base:1 general:2 resource:1 concept:3 describe:1 tendency:1 observe:1 line:1 example:1 life:1 cycle:1 people:1 behavior:1 differentiate:1 many:2 participant:1 spend:1 time:1 talk:2 sociology:1 rather:1 technology:2 social:2 context:1 member:2 bus:1 tour:1 tourbusstop:3 one:1 key:1 barn:1 raise:1 gather:1 take:1 specific:2 event:1 wherein:1 learn:1 knit:1 together:1 first:1 barnstar:1 award:2 barnstars:2 way:1 recognize:1 celebrate:1 individual:1 monumental:1 task:1 see:1 history:1 interwiki:1 article:3 external:1 link:1 home:1 ap:1 mention:2 business:1 weekly:1 |@bigram springer_verlag:1 ward_cunningham:2 wikimedia_foundation:1 external_link:1 |
1,616 | Garth_Brooks | Troyal Garth Brooks (born February 7, 1962) is an American country music artist. His eponymous first album was released in 1989; it peaked at #2 in the US country album chart and reached #13 on the Billboard 200 pop album chart. Brooks's integration of rock elements into his recordings and live performances made him very popular and allowed him to dominate the country single and country album charts and quickly crossed over into the mainstream pop arena, exposing country music to a larger audience. Brooks has enjoyed one of the most successful careers in popular music history, breaking records for both sales and concert attendance throughout the 1990s. The RIAA has certified his recordings at a combined (128× platinum), denoting roughly 113 million U.S. shipments. http://www.riaa.com/goldandplatinumdata.php?table=SEARCH_RESULTS He is also listed as the best-selling artist of the Nielsen Soundscan era (from 1991 onwards), with approximately 67,774,000 albums sold (as of April 5, 2008). http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/Blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=94296 He is second only to The Beatles in the United States. Brooks has released six albums that achieved diamond status in the United States, those being: Garth Brooks (10× platinum), No Fences (17× platinum), Ropin' the Wind (14× platinum), The Hits (10× platinum), Sevens (10× platinum) and Double Live (21× platinum). RIAA Gold and Platinum Search for albums by Garth Brooks June 2, 2008 Since 1989, Brooks has released 19 records in all, which include; 9 studio albums, 1 live album, 4 compilation albums, 3 christmas albums and 2 box sets, along with 77 singles. In all formats (albums, singles and home videos) Brooks is estimated to have topped 220 million units in sales worldwide. Troubled by conflicts between career and family, in 2001 Brooks officially retired from recording and performing. During this time he sold millions of albums through an exclusive distribution deal with Wal-Mart and has sporadically released new singles. However, in 2005, Brooks started a partial comeback, and has since given several performances and released two compilation albums. Early life Garth Brooks was born on February 7, 1962 in Tulsa, Oklahoma to Troyal Raymond Brooks, a draftsman for an oil company, and Colleen Carroll, a 1950s-era country singer who recorded on the Capitol Records label and appeared on Ozark Jubilee. Brooks and his five elder siblings (Jim, Jerry, Mike, Betsy, and Kelly) were raised in Yukon, Oklahoma. As a child, he often sang in casual family settings but his primary focus was athletics. In high school he played football and baseball and ran track. He received a track scholarship to Oklahoma State University in Stillwater, where he competed in the javelin. Brooks graduated in 1984 with a degree in advertising. Later that year, Brooks began his professional music career, singing and playing guitar in Oklahoma clubs and bars, particularly the Tumbleweed in Stillwater. In 1985, noted entertainment attorney Rod Phelps drove from Dallas to listen to Brooks. Phelps liked what he heard and offered to produce Garth's first demo. With Phelps' encouragement, See "Chicken Soup for the Country Soul", page 148 Brooks traveled to Nashville to pursue a recording contract; he returned to Oklahoma within 24 hours. In 1986, Brooks married Sandy Mahl, whom he had met while working as a bouncer. The couple later had three daughters: Taylor Mayne Pearl (born 1992), August Anna (born 1994) and Allie Colleen (born 1996). In 1987, the couple moved to Nashville, and Brooks began making contacts in the music industry. Music career 1989 – 1990: Breakthrough success Garth Brooks' eponymous first album, Garth Brooks, was released in 1989 and was a critical and chart success. It peaked at #2 in the US country album chart and reached #13 on the Billboard 200 pop album chart. Most of the album was traditionalist country, influenced in part by George Strait. The first single, "Much Too Young (To Feel This Damn Old)," was a country top 10 success. It was followed by his first country #1, "If Tomorrow Never Comes." "Not Counting You" reached #2, and then "The Dance" put him at #1 again; this song's theme of people dying while doing something they believe in resonated strongly and, together with a popular music video, gave Brooks his first push towards a broader audience. Brooks has claimed that of all the songs he has recorded, "The Dance" is his favorite. His follow-up album, No Fences, was released in 1990 and spent 23 weeks as #1 on the Billboard country music chart. The album also reached #3 on the pop chart, and eventually became Brooks's highest-selling album, with domestic shipments of 17 million. It contained what would become Brooks' signature song, the blue collar anthem "Friends in Low Places", as well as two other Brooks classics, the dramatic and controversial "The Thunder Rolls" and the philosophically ironic "Unanswered Prayers". Each of these songs, as well as the affectionate "Two of a Kind, Workin' on a Full House," reached #1 on the country chart. While Brooks' musical style placed him squarely within the boundaries of country music, he was strongly influenced by the 1970s singer-songwriter movement, especially the works of James Taylor (whom he idolized and named his first child after) and Dan Fogelberg. Similarly, Brooks was influenced by the operatic rock of the 1970s-era Freddie Mercury, Billy Joel, and Bruce Springsteen. In his highly successful live shows, Brooks used a wireless headset microphone to free himself to run about the stage, adding energy and arena rock theatrics to spice up the normally staid country music approach to concerts. The hard rock band KISS was also one of his earliest grade school musical influences and his shows often reflected this. Brooks said that the style of his show was inspired mostly by Chris LeDoux. 1991 – 1993: Ropin' the Wind and The Chase Brooks' third album, Ropin' the Wind, released in September 1991, had advance orders of 4 million copies and entered the pop album charts at #1, a first for a country act. Ropin' the Winds music was a melange of pop country and honky tonk; hits included Billy Joel's "Shameless", "What She's Doing Now", and "The River". All told, it became his second-best selling album after No Fences. The success of this album further propelled the sales of his first two albums, enabling Brooks to become the first country artist with three albums listed in the pop top 20 in one week. After spending time in Los Angeles during the 1992 riots, Brooks co-wrote the gospel-country-rock hybrid "We Shall Be Free" to express his desire for tolerance. The song became the first single off his fourth album The Chase. With its message of support for cultural tolerance, the song met with resistance from country radio stations and from the culturally conservative country audience. It only reached #12 on the country chart, his first song in three years to fail to make the top ten. Nevertheless, the song often received standing ovations when performed in concert, went to #22 in the Christian charts through a marketing deal with Rick Hendrix Company, and earned Brooks a 1993 GLAAD Media Award. GLAAD's Hollywood Hotsheet 1993 – 1994: In Pieces In 1993, Garth Brooks, who had criticized music stores which sold used CDs since it led to a loss in royalty payments, persuaded Capitol Records not to ship his August 1993 album In Pieces to stores which engaged in this practice. This led to several anti-trust lawsuits against the record label and ended with Capitol shipping the CDs to the stores after all. Despite the delay in shipping the album to certain stores, In Pieces was another instant No. 1 success, selling a total of about 10 million copies worldwide. Some of his fans were upset, however, that the album was not released simultaneously around the world. In the United Kingdom, one of Brooks' most committed fan bases outside the United States, country music disc jockeys, such as Martin Campbell and John Wellington, noted that many fans were buying the album on import. This made it the first album to debut in the top 10 of the UK Country album charts before its official release date. Once officially released there, in 1994, the album reached the top spot on the UK Country chart and number two on the UK pop albums chart. That same year "The Red Strokes" became Brooks' first single to make the pop top 40 in the UK, reaching a high of No. 13; it was followed by "Standing Outside The Fire", which reached No. 23. Previous albums No Fences, Ropin' The Wind and The Chase also remained in the top 30 in the UK. To support the album, Brooks embarked on a 1994 UK tour, selling out venues such as Birmingham's National Exhibition Centre and London's Wembley Arena. He opened the London radio station, Country 1035 and made a number of general television and radio appearances, where he was often mocked by the presenters. On ITV's regional news show London Tonight, Brooks was described as "a top-selling, rooting tooting, cotton picking, Country and Western star, yeeha!" The nationwide Big Breakfast show's presenters Chris Evans and Paula Yates, commented that "He's selling more records than anyone in the world, but none of us have ever heard of him." Yates then told Brooks that, "Country singers always seem to be weeping over the dead dog and things," and also remarked, "I thought you'd come in here and twiddle your pistol around and be impressed." Although Brooks remained polite, he did observe that Yates was obviously unfamiliar with modern country music. Scores of Brooks fans later wrote to complain about his treatment on the show. Sometime after this, Dwight Yoakam appeared on the same show and after Yates told him, "You seem different from other Country singers we've had on the show," Yoakam replied, "What? All two of us?" Despite the disdain of the British media, Brooks' overall popularity in the country was evident, with a top disc jockey, Nick Barraclough, referring to Brooks as Garth Vader''' (a play on Darth Vader) for his "invasion" of the charts and his success as an icon of the country genre. Unlike Alan Jackson, who refused to return to the UK after being treated in a similar manner by the press, Brooks returned in 1996 for more sold-out concerts, although this time his media appearances were mostly restricted to country radio and interviews with magazines. Elsewhere in the world Brooks was also considered a star, and he enjoyed hit records and sell-out tours in countries including Brazil, throughout Europe, the Far East, New Zealand, and Australia. In 1994 Brooks paid homage to one of his musical influences when he appeared on the hard rock compilation Kiss My Ass: Classic Kiss Regrooved, a collection of Kiss cover songs by popular artists from all genres. As the only country performer to participate, some worried that Brooks would turn his cover of the song originally sung by drummer Peter Criss, "Hard Luck Woman," into a country song. Brooks instead insisted on remaining true to the song, and requested that the members of Kiss perform the music on the track, the only song on the album that the band musically contributed. The unlikely collaboration performed the song live on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno in promotion of Kiss My Ass: Classic Kiss Regrooved, and despite its hard-rock appeal, Brooks' version did appear on the country charts. 1995 – 1998: Success in the mid and late 90s Brooks released Fresh Horses, his first album of new material in two years, in November 1995; within six months of its release, it had sold over three million copies. Despite its promising start, Fresh Horses plateaued quickly, topping out at quadruple platinum. Erlewine, Stephen Thomas Garth Brooks biography & profile All Music.com / Allmusic; retrieved 6-23-08 The album's lead single, "She's Every Woman" peaked at #1 on the Billboard Country Chart, however its follow-up single, "The Fever" (a cover of the Aerosmith song) only peaked at #23, becoming Brooks' first released Country single to not chart on the Top 10. However, Brooks had three additional Top 10 hits from the album following the second single, including "The Beaches of Cheyenne," that also hit #1. In 1997, Brooks released his seventh studio album, Sevens. Originally, it was scheduled to be released in August 1997, when he would promote it with a concert in Central Park. Plans went awry when Capitol Records experienced a huge management shakeup, leaving many of his contacts at the label out in the cold. The album was then released in November 1997, and debuted at #1 on both the Top Country Albums and Billboard 200 album charts in the United States, and later became his fourth album to reach a sales of 10 million copies. Its first single was also Brooks' first duet, "In Another's Eyes" with friend and popular country singer, Trisha Yearwood. The song peaked at #2 on the Country Charts. The album spawned three additional Top 10 Country hits, including two #1 hits between 1997 and 1998, "Two Pina Coladas" and "To Make You Feel My Love", which also was a Top 10 hit on the Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks chart. 1999: Chris Gaines In 1999 Brooks and his production company Red Strokes Entertainment, with Paramount Pictures, began to develop a movie in which Brooks would star. The Lamb was to have revolved around Chris Gaines, a fictional rock singer and his emotionally conflicted life as a musician in the public eye. To create buzz for the project, Brooks took on the identity of Gaines in the October 1999 album Garth Brooks in ... The Life of Chris Gaines, which was intended as a 'pre-soundtrack' to the film. Brooks also subsequently appeared as Gaines in a television mockumentary for the VH1 series Behind The Music and as the musical guest on an episode of Saturday Night Live which he hosted as himself. Brooks' endless promotion of the album and the film did not seem to stir much excitement and the success of the Chris Gaines experiment became fairly evident mere weeks after the album was released. Although critics admired Brooks for taking a musical risk, the majority of the American public was either totally bewildered, or completely unreceptive to the idea of Garth Brooks as anything but a pop-country singer. Many of his fans also felt that by supporting the Gaines project they would lose the real Garth Brooks. Sales of the album were unspectacular and although it made it to #2 on the pop album chart, expectations had been higher and retail stores began heavily discounting their oversupply. Less than expected sales of the album (more than two million) and no further developments in the production of the film as a result brought the project to an indefinite hiatus in February 2001 and Gaines quickly faded into obscurity. Despite the less than spectacular response to the Chris Gaines project, Brooks gained his first - and only - US Top 40 pop single in "Lost in You", the first single from the album. 2000 – 2004: Official retirement As his career flourished, Brooks seemed frustrated by the conflicts between career and family. He talked of retiring from performing in 1992 and 1995, but each time returned to touring. In 1999 Brooks appeared on The Nashville Network's Crook & Chase program and again mentioned retirement. On October 26, 2000, Brooks officially announced his retirement from recording and performing. Later that evening, Capitol Records saluted his achievement of selling 100 million albums in the US with a lavish party at Nashville's Gaylord Entertainment Center. Brooks's final album, Scarecrow, was released on November 13, 2001. The album did not match the sales levels of Brooks's heyday, but still sold comfortably well, reaching #1 on both the pop and country charts. Although he staged a few performances for promotional purposes, Brooks stated that he would be retired from recording and performing at least until his youngest daughter, Allie, turned 18. Despite ceasing to record new material between 2002 and (most of) 2005, Brooks continued to chart with previously recorded material, including a top 30 placing for "Why Ain't I Running" in 2003. 2005 – present: Partial comeback In 2005 Brooks insisted that he was not touring and did not plan to record any new studio material until 2015. However, in August 2005 it was announced that Brooks had signed a deal with Wal-Mart, leasing them the rights to his back catalog following his split with Capitol. Three months later, Brooks and Wal-Mart issued The Limited Series, a six-CD box set containing past material and a Lost Sessions disc with eleven previously unissued recordings. This set marked the first time in history that a musician had signed an exclusive music distribution deal with a single retailer. The set sold more than 500,000 physical copies on its issue date, proving that Brooks still had a large fan base. By the first week in December 2005, it had sold over 1 million physical copies. Brooks took a brief break from retirement early in 2005 to perform for several charity causes. With Yearwood, he sang Creedence Clearwater Revival's "Who'll Stop the Rain" on the Shelter from the Storm: A Concert for the Gulf Coast nationwide telethon for Hurricane Katrina relief. He also released a new single, "Good Ride Cowboy", as a tribute to his late friend, rodeo star and country singer, Chris LeDoux. In early 2006 Wal-Mart issued The Lost Sessions as a single CD apart from the boxed set, with extra tracks including a top 25 duet with Yearwood, "Love Will Always Win". The couple were later nominated for a "Best Country Collaboration With Vocals" Grammy Award for the song. On August 18, 2007, Brooks announced plans for a new boxed set called The Ultimate Hits. The new set features two discs containing 30 hits, three new songs, and a DVD featuring music videos for each of these songs. The album's first single, "More Than a Memory", was released to radio on August 27, 2007. Garth Brooks Reveals New Music "More Than a Memory" debuted at number one on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart, becoming the highest-debuting single in the chart's history. The previous record had been set only one week earlier, when Kenny Chesney's "Don't Blink" debuted at #16. Garth Brooks Makes History at Country Radio Personal life In 1999, Brooks and his wife separated, announcing their plans to divorce on October 9, 2000. The divorce became final in 2001. In the mid-1990s, many tabloids reported throughout the decade that he was actually having an affair with longtime friend and collaborator Trisha Yearwood. The two have continually denied having had an affair. Following Brooks' divorce, however, the pair did begin dating, and the couple wed on December 10, 2005, at their home in Oklahoma, marking the second marriage for Brooks and the third for Yearwood. They own a house in Goodlettsville, Tennessee and a house in Malibu, California, but keep a primary residence at a ranch in Owasso, Oklahoma, a suburb of Tulsa. Garth Brooks and Trisha Yearwood reportedly purchase a 3,711-square-foot Malibu, CA house for an undisclosed price after it had been on the market for $5.45M and also for $4.9... In 2000 Brooks attempted to donate part of his liver to country music contemporary, and close friend, Chris LeDoux; however, it was found to be incompatible. LeDoux did receive a donor, but died in March, 2005, due to complications from liver cancer. Setting records The Recording Industry Association of America announced that Garth Brooks was the best-selling solo artist of the 20th century in America. This conclusion drew criticism from the press and many music fans who were convinced that Elvis Presley had sold more records, but had been short-changed in the rankings due to faulty RIAA certification methods during his lifetime. Brooks, while proud of his sales accomplishments, deferred to "The King" and stated that he too believed that Presley must have sold more. The RIAA has since reexamined their methods for counting certifications. Under their revised methods, Presley became the best-selling solo artist in U.S. history, making Brooks the number two solo artist, ranking third overall, as The Beatles have sold more albums than either he or Presley. The revision brought more criticism of the accuracy of the RIAA's figures, this time from Brooks' followers. On November 5, 2007, Brooks was again named the best selling solo artist in US history, surpassing Presley (but still #2 after the Beatles) after audited sales of 123 million were announced. It has since been revealed that he had hit the mark a year prior, but at his request the RIAA held off for 12 months to coincide with the release of The Ultimate Hits. He is also notable for a twenty-three hour marathon signing autographs at an unannounced visit to Fan Fair in 1996. Charitable activities In 1999, Garth Brooks began the Teammates for Kids Foundation'' which provides financial aid to charities for children. The organization breaks down into three categories spanning three different sports. Touch 'Em All Foundation - Baseball Division Top Shelf - Hockey Division Touchdown - Football Division The foundation enlists players to donate a predetermined sum of money depending on their game performance. Brooks has participated in spring training for the San Diego Padres in 1998 and 1999, the New York Mets in 2000 and, most recently, with the Kansas City Royals in 2004 to promote his foundation. Starting during the 2008 season, fans at Royals games in Kauffman Stadium now sing along to Friends in Low Places. Brooks is also a fundraiser for various other charities, including a number of children's charities and famine relief. He has also donated at least $1 million to wildlife causes. It was announced that Garth would perform a charity concert on January 25 and 26, 2008 at the Staples Center for the victims of the recent California Wildfires. On December 1, tickets went on sale and sold out within minutes, prompting them to announce 3 more shows. All 5 L.A. shows sold out in less than 59 minutes. CBS aired the first of these concerts (January 25 at 9 pm) live, giving viewers a chance to donate to the Firefighters Relief efforts. Garth Brooks Sells Out Five Los Angeles Shows Awards 2 Grammy Awards (total of 7 nominations) 17 American Music Awards 11 Country Music Association Awards 18 Academy of Country Music Awards 5 World Music Awards 10 People's Choice Awards 24 Billboard Music Awards 2 ASCAP Awards 2 Blockbuster Awards American Music Awards, Artist of the Decade (1990s) Academy of Country Music Awards, Artist of the Decade (1990s) Recording Industry Association of America, Artist of the Century (1900s) 1 Radio Music Award 2 Primetime Emmy Award nominations (Outstanding in a Variety of Music Program) 1 Golden Globe nomination (Best Original Song) Songwriters Hall of Fame: 2002 GLAAD Media Award for "We Shall Be Free"-1993 1 CMT awards nomination, Collaborative Video of the Year for "Workin' For A Livin'" With Huey Lewis (2008) Academy of Country Music Awards, inaugural "Crystal Milestone Award" honoring him as the top-selling country music artist in history, with album sales of over 128 million in the U.S. (2008) 2 American Music Awards Nominations(2008): Country Music - Favorite Male Artist Country Music - Favorite Album for "The Ultimate Hits" Discography References See also List of best selling music artists List of best selling music artists in US List of honorific titles in popular music Best selling music artist in UK Further reading External links Official Garth Brooks Website PlanetGarth.com - Longtime unoffical site Teammates for Kids Foundation official website | Garth_Brooks |@lemmatized troyal:2 garth:21 brook:95 born:4 february:3 american:5 country:57 music:40 artist:16 eponymous:2 first:24 album:62 release:22 peak:5 u:11 chart:27 reach:11 billboard:7 pop:13 integration:1 rock:8 element:1 recording:5 live:7 performance:4 make:10 popular:6 allow:1 dominate:1 single:19 quickly:3 cross:1 mainstream:1 arena:3 expose:1 large:2 audience:3 enjoy:2 one:7 successful:2 career:6 history:7 break:3 record:21 sale:11 concert:8 attendance:1 throughout:3 riaa:7 certify:1 combine:1 platinum:9 denote:1 roughly:1 million:14 shipment:2 http:2 www:2 com:4 goldandplatinumdata:1 php:1 table:1 also:17 list:5 best:10 sell:24 nielsen:1 soundscan:1 era:3 onwards:1 approximately:1 april:1 roadrunnerrecords:1 blabbermouth:1 net:1 news:2 aspx:1 mode:1 article:1 newsitemid:1 second:4 beatles:3 united:5 state:7 six:3 achieve:1 diamond:1 status:1 fence:4 ropin:5 wind:5 hit:13 seven:2 double:1 gold:1 search:1 june:1 since:5 include:8 studio:3 compilation:3 christmas:1 box:2 set:8 along:2 format:1 home:2 video:4 estimate:1 top:21 unit:1 worldwide:2 trouble:1 conflict:2 family:3 officially:3 retire:3 perform:9 time:6 exclusive:2 distribution:2 deal:4 wal:4 mart:4 sporadically:1 new:11 however:7 start:3 partial:2 comeback:2 give:3 several:3 two:13 early:4 life:4 bear:1 tulsa:2 oklahoma:7 raymond:1 draftsman:1 oil:1 company:3 colleen:2 carroll:1 singer:8 capitol:6 label:3 appear:6 ozark:1 jubilee:1 five:2 elder:1 sibling:1 jim:1 jerry:1 mike:1 betsy:1 kelly:1 raise:1 yukon:1 child:4 often:4 sing:5 casual:1 setting:2 primary:2 focus:1 athletics:1 high:5 school:2 play:3 football:2 baseball:2 run:3 track:5 receive:3 scholarship:1 university:1 stillwater:2 compete:1 javelin:1 graduate:1 degree:1 advertising:1 later:7 year:6 begin:6 professional:1 guitar:1 club:1 bar:1 particularly:1 tumbleweed:1 note:2 entertainment:3 attorney:1 rod:1 phelps:3 drive:1 dallas:1 listen:1 like:1 hear:2 offer:1 produce:1 demo:1 encouragement:1 see:2 chicken:1 soup:1 soul:1 page:1 travel:1 nashville:4 pursue:1 contract:1 return:4 within:4 hour:2 married:1 sandy:1 mahl:1 meet:2 work:2 bouncer:1 couple:4 three:11 daughter:2 taylor:2 mayne:1 pearl:1 august:6 anna:1 allie:2 move:1 contact:2 industry:3 breakthrough:1 success:8 critical:1 traditionalist:1 influence:5 part:2 george:1 strait:1 much:2 young:2 feel:2 damn:1 old:1 follow:7 tomorrow:1 never:1 come:2 count:2 dance:2 put:1 song:21 theme:1 people:2 die:2 something:1 believe:2 resonate:1 strongly:2 together:1 push:1 towards:1 broad:1 claim:1 favorite:3 spend:1 week:5 eventually:1 become:12 selling:5 domestic:1 contain:3 would:7 signature:1 blue:1 collar:1 anthem:1 friends:1 low:2 place:4 well:3 classic:3 dramatic:1 controversial:1 thunder:1 roll:1 philosophically:1 ironic:1 unanswered:1 prayer:1 affectionate:1 kind:1 workin:2 full:1 house:4 musical:5 style:2 squarely:1 boundary:1 songwriter:1 movement:1 especially:1 james:1 idolize:1 name:2 dan:1 fogelberg:1 similarly:1 operatic:1 freddie:1 mercury:1 billy:2 joel:2 bruce:1 springsteen:1 highly:1 show:12 use:2 wireless:1 headset:1 microphone:1 free:3 stage:1 add:1 energy:1 theatrics:1 spice:1 normally:1 staid:1 approach:1 hard:4 band:2 kiss:7 grade:1 reflect:1 say:1 inspire:1 mostly:2 chris:9 ledoux:4 chase:4 third:3 september:1 advance:1 order:1 copy:6 enter:1 act:1 melange:1 honky:1 tonk:1 shameless:1 river:1 tell:3 far:2 propel:1 enable:1 spending:1 los:2 angeles:2 riot:1 co:1 write:2 gospel:1 hybrid:1 shall:2 express:1 desire:1 tolerance:2 fourth:2 message:1 support:3 cultural:1 resistance:1 radio:7 station:2 culturally:1 conservative:1 fail:1 ten:1 nevertheless:1 stand:2 ovation:1 go:3 christian:1 marketing:1 rick:1 hendrix:1 earn:1 glaad:3 medium:4 award:21 hollywood:1 hotsheet:1 piece:3 criticize:1 store:5 cd:4 lead:3 loss:1 royalty:1 payment:1 persuade:1 ship:3 engage:1 practice:1 anti:1 trust:1 lawsuit:1 end:1 despite:6 delay:1 certain:1 another:2 instant:1 total:2 fan:9 upset:1 simultaneously:1 around:3 world:4 kingdom:1 committed:1 base:2 outside:2 disc:3 jockey:2 martin:1 campbell:1 john:1 wellington:1 many:5 buy:1 import:1 debut:5 uk:8 official:4 date:2 spot:1 number:5 red:2 stroke:2 fire:1 previous:2 remain:3 embark:1 tour:4 venue:1 birmingham:1 national:1 exhibition:1 centre:1 london:3 wembley:1 open:1 general:1 television:2 appearance:2 mock:1 presenter:2 itv:1 regional:1 tonight:2 describe:1 root:1 tooting:1 cotton:1 picking:1 western:1 star:4 yeeha:1 nationwide:2 big:1 breakfast:1 evans:1 paula:1 yates:4 comment:1 anyone:1 none:1 ever:1 always:2 seem:4 weep:1 dead:1 dog:1 thing:1 remark:1 think:1 twiddle:1 pistol:1 impress:1 although:5 polite:1 observe:1 obviously:1 unfamiliar:1 modern:1 score:1 complain:1 treatment:1 sometime:1 dwight:1 yoakam:2 different:2 reply:1 disdain:1 british:1 overall:2 popularity:1 evident:2 nick:1 barraclough:1 refer:1 vader:2 darth:1 invasion:1 icon:1 genre:2 unlike:1 alan:1 jackson:1 refuse:1 treat:1 similar:1 manner:1 press:2 sold:1 restrict:1 interview:1 magazine:1 elsewhere:1 consider:1 brazil:1 europe:1 east:1 zealand:1 australia:1 pay:1 homage:1 regrooved:2 collection:1 cover:3 performer:1 participate:2 worry:1 turn:2 originally:2 drummer:1 peter:1 criss:1 luck:1 woman:2 instead:1 insist:2 true:1 request:2 member:1 musically:1 contribute:1 unlikely:1 collaboration:2 jay:1 leno:1 promotion:2 appeal:1 version:1 mid:2 late:2 fresh:2 horse:2 material:5 november:4 month:3 promising:1 plateaued:1 quadruple:1 erlewine:1 stephen:1 thomas:1 biography:1 profile:1 allmusic:1 retrieve:1 every:1 fever:1 aerosmith:1 additional:2 beach:1 cheyenne:1 seventh:1 schedule:1 promote:2 central:1 park:1 plan:4 awry:1 experience:1 huge:1 management:1 shakeup:1 leave:1 cold:1 duet:2 eye:2 friend:5 trisha:3 yearwood:6 spawn:1 pina:1 coladas:1 love:2 hot:2 adult:1 contemporary:2 gaines:9 production:2 paramount:1 picture:1 develop:1 movie:1 lamb:1 revolve:1 fictional:1 emotionally:1 conflicted:1 musician:2 public:2 create:1 buzz:1 project:4 take:3 identity:1 october:3 intend:1 pre:1 soundtrack:1 film:3 subsequently:1 mockumentary:1 series:2 behind:1 guest:1 episode:1 saturday:1 night:1 host:1 endless:1 stir:1 excitement:1 experiment:1 fairly:1 mere:1 critic:1 admire:1 risk:1 majority:1 either:2 totally:1 bewildered:1 completely:1 unreceptive:1 idea:1 anything:1 felt:1 lose:2 real:1 unspectacular:1 expectation:1 retail:1 heavily:1 discount:1 oversupply:1 less:3 expect:1 development:1 result:1 bring:2 indefinite:1 hiatus:1 fade:1 obscurity:1 spectacular:1 response:1 gain:1 retirement:4 flourish:1 frustrate:1 talk:1 network:1 crook:1 program:2 mentioned:1 announce:7 even:1 salute:1 achievement:1 lavish:1 party:1 gaylord:1 center:2 final:2 scarecrow:1 match:1 level:1 heyday:1 still:3 comfortably:1 stag:1 promotional:1 purpose:1 least:2 cease:1 continue:1 previously:2 present:1 sign:2 lease:1 right:1 back:1 catalog:1 split:1 issue:3 limited:1 past:1 lost:2 session:2 eleven:1 unissued:1 mark:3 retailer:1 physical:2 prove:1 december:3 brief:1 charity:5 cause:2 creedence:1 clearwater:1 revival:1 stop:1 rain:1 shelter:1 storm:1 gulf:1 coast:1 telethon:1 hurricane:1 katrina:1 relief:3 good:1 ride:1 cowboy:1 tribute:1 rodeo:1 apart:1 boxed:2 extra:1 win:1 nominate:1 vocal:1 grammy:2 announced:1 call:1 ultimate:3 feature:2 discs:1 dvd:1 memory:2 reveals:1 earlier:1 kenny:1 chesney:1 blink:1 brooks:1 personal:1 wife:1 separate:1 divorce:3 tabloid:1 report:1 decade:3 actually:1 affair:2 longtime:2 collaborator:1 continually:1 deny:1 pair:1 dating:1 wed:1 marriage:1 goodlettsville:1 tennessee:1 malibu:2 california:2 keep:1 residence:1 ranch:1 owasso:1 suburb:1 reportedly:1 purchase:1 square:1 foot:1 ca:1 undisclosed:1 price:1 market:1 attempt:1 donate:4 liver:2 close:1 find:1 incompatible:1 donor:1 march:1 due:2 complication:1 cancer:1 association:3 america:3 solo:4 century:2 conclusion:1 draw:1 criticism:2 convince:1 elvis:1 presley:5 short:1 change:1 ranking:1 faulty:1 certification:2 method:3 lifetime:1 proud:1 accomplishment:1 defer:1 king:1 must:1 reexamine:1 revise:1 rank:1 revision:1 accuracy:1 figure:1 follower:1 surpass:1 audited:1 reveal:1 prior:1 hold:1 coincide:1 notable:1 twenty:1 marathon:1 signing:1 autograph:1 unannounced:1 visit:1 fair:1 charitable:1 activity:1 teammate:2 kid:2 foundation:5 provide:1 financial:1 aid:1 organization:1 category:1 span:1 sport:1 touch:1 em:1 division:3 shelf:1 hockey:1 touchdown:1 enlist:1 player:1 predetermined:1 sum:1 money:1 depend:1 game:2 spring:1 training:1 san:1 diego:1 padre:1 york:1 mets:1 recently:1 kansa:1 city:1 royal:2 season:1 kauffman:1 stadium:1 fundraiser:1 various:1 famine:1 wildlife:1 january:2 staple:1 victim:1 recent:1 wildfire:1 ticket:1 minute:2 prompt:1 l:1 cbs:1 air:1 pm:1 viewer:1 chance:1 firefighter:1 effort:1 nomination:5 academy:3 choice:1 ascap:1 blockbuster:1 primetime:1 emmy:1 outstanding:1 variety:1 golden:1 globe:1 original:1 songwriters:1 hall:1 fame:1 cmt:1 collaborative:1 livin:1 huey:1 lewis:1 inaugural:1 crystal:1 milestone:1 honor:1 male:1 discography:1 reference:1 honorific:1 title:1 reading:1 external:1 link:1 website:2 planetgarth:1 unoffical:1 site:1 |@bigram garth_brook:17 http_www:2 nielsen_soundscan:1 blabbermouth_net:1 ropin_wind:5 platinum_riaa:1 wal_mart:4 tulsa_oklahoma:1 chicken_soup:1 singer_songwriter:1 freddie_mercury:1 billy_joel:2 bruce_springsteen:1 honky_tonk:1 los_angeles:2 stand_ovation:1 glaad_medium:2 disc_jockey:2 wembley_arena:1 dwight_yoakam:1 darth_vader:1 pay_homage:1 jay_leno:1 erlewine_stephen:1 go_awry:1 chris_gaines:5 paramount_picture:1 revolve_around:1 saturday_night:1 retail_store:1 fade_obscurity:1 gaylord_entertainment:1 creedence_clearwater:1 clearwater_revival:1 hurricane_katrina:1 grammy_award:2 billboard_hot:1 longtime_friend:1 malibu_california:1 best_selling:3 elvis_presley:1 riaa_certification:1 san_diego:1 diego_padre:1 kauffman_stadium:1 primetime_emmy:1 emmy_award:1 award_nomination:3 golden_globe:1 globe_nomination:1 hall_fame:1 external_link:1 |
1,617 | Henry_Ford | Henry Ford (July 30, 1863 – April 7, 1947) was the American founder of the Ford Motor Company and father of modern assembly lines used in mass production. His introduction of the Model T automobile revolutionized transportation and American industry. He was a prolific inventor and was awarded 161 U.S. patents. As owner of the Ford Motor Company he became one of the richest and best-known people in the world. He is credited with "Fordism", that is, the mass production of large numbers of inexpensive automobiles using the assembly line, coupled with high wages for his workers. Ford had a global vision, with consumerism as the key to peace. Ford did not believe in accountants; he amassed one of the world's largest fortunes without ever having his company audited under his administration. Henry Ford's intense commitment to lowering costs resulted in many technical and business innovations, including a franchise system that put a dealership in every city in North America, and in major cities on six continents. Ford left most of his vast wealth to the Ford Foundation but arranged for his family to control the company permanently. Early years Henry Ford was born July 30, 1863, on a farm next to a rural town west of Detroit, Michigan (this area is now part of Dearborn, Michigan). www.hfmgv.org The Henry Ford Museum: The Life of Henry Ford His father, William Ford (1826–1905), was born in County Cork, Ireland. His mother, Mary Litogot Ford (1839–1876), was born in Michigan; she was the youngest child of Belgian immigrants; her parents died when Mary was a child and she was adopted by neighbors, the O'Herns. Henry Ford's siblings include Margaret Ford (1867–1938); Jane Ford (c. 1868–1945); William Ford (1871–1917) and Robert Ford (1873–1934). His father gave Henry a pocket watch in his early teens. At fifteen, Ford dismantled and reassembled the timepieces of friends and neighbors dozens of times, gaining the reputation of a watch repairman. Ford, My Life and Work, 22–24; Nevins and Hill, Ford TMC, 58. At twenty, Ford walked four miles to their Episcopal church every Sunday. Evans, Harold "They Made America" Little, Brown and Company. New York Ford was devastated when his mother died in 1876. His father expected him to eventually take over the family farm but Henry despised farm work. He told his father, "I never had any particular love for the farm—it was the mother on the farm I loved." Ford, My Life and Work, 24; Edward A. Guest "Henry Ford Talks About His Mother," American Magazine, July, 1923, 11–15, 116–120. In 1879, he left home to work as an apprentice machinist in the city of Detroit, first with James F. Flower & Bros., and later with the Detroit Dry Dock Co. In 1882, he returned to Dearborn to work on the family farm and became adept at operating the Westinghouse portable steam engine. He was later hired by Westinghouse company to service their steam engines. Henry Ford at twenty five years old in 1888. Ford married Clara Ala Bryant (c. 1865–1950) in 1888 and supported himself by farming and running a sawmill. They had a single child: Edsel Bryant Ford (1893-1943). In 1891, Ford became an engineer with the Edison Illuminating Company, and after his promotion to Chief Engineer in 1893, he had enough time and money to devote attention to his personal experiments on gasoline engines. These experiments culminated in 1896 with the completion of his own self-propelled vehicle named the Ford Quadricycle, which he test-drove on June 4. After various test-drives, Ford brainstormed ways to improve the Quadricycle. The Showroom of Automotive History: 1896 Quadricycle Also in 1896, Ford attended a meeting of Edison executives, where he was introduced to Thomas Edison. Edison approved of Ford's automobile experimentation; encouraged by Edison's approval, Ford designed and built a second vehicle, which was completed in 1898. Ford R. Bryan, The Birth of Ford Motor Company, Henry Ford Heritage Association, retrieved December 13, 2007. Backed by the capital of Detroit lumber baron William H. Murphy, Ford resigned from Edison and founded the Detroit Automobile Company on August 5 1899. Bryan However, the automobiles produced were of a lower quality and higher price than Ford liked. Ultimately, the company was not successful and was dissolved in January 1901. With the help of C. Harold Wills, Ford designed, built, and successfully raced a twenty six horsepower automobile in October 1901. With this success, Murphy and other stockholders in the Detroit Automobile Company formed the Henry Ford Company on November 30, 1901, with Ford as chief engineer. Bryan However, Murphy brought in Henry M. Leland as a consultant. As a result, Ford left the company bearing his name in 1902. With Ford gone, Murphy renamed the company the Cadillac Automobile Company. Ford also produced the 80+ horsepower racer "999", and getting Barney Oldfield to drive it to victory in October 1902. Ford received the backing of an old acquaintance, Alexander Y. Malcomson, a Detroit-area coal dealer. They formed a partnership, "Ford & Malcomson, Ltd." to manufacture automobiles. Ford went to work designing an inexpensive automobile, and the duo leased a factory and contracted with a machine shop owned by John and Horace E. Dodge to supply over $160,000 in parts. Sales were slow, and a crisis arose when the Dodge brothers demanded payment for their first shipment. Ford Motor Company Henry Ford with Thomas Edison and Harvey Firestone. Ft. Myers, Florida, February 11, 1929. In response, Malcomson brought in another group of investors and convinced the Dodge Brothers to accept a portion of the new company. Bryan Ford & Malcomson was reincorporated as the Ford Motor Company on June 16, 1903, with $28,000 capital. The original investors included Ford and Malcomson, the Dodge brothers, Malcomson's uncle John S. Gray, Horace Rackham, and James Couzens. In a newly designed car, Ford gave an exhibition on the ice of Lake St. Clair, driving 1 mile (1.6 km) in 39.4 seconds, setting a new land speed record at 91.3 miles per hour (147.0 km/h). Convinced by this success, the race driver Barney Oldfield, who named this new Ford model "999" in honor of a racing locomotive of the day, took the car around the country, making the Ford brand known throughout the United States. Ford also was one of the early backers of the Indianapolis 500. Ford astonished the world in 1914 by offering a $5 per day wage, which more than doubled the rate of most of his workers. (Using the Consumer Price Index, this was equivalent to $106 per day in 2008 dollars.) The move proved extremely profitable; instead of constant turnover of employees, the best mechanics in Detroit flocked to Ford, bringing in their human capital and expertise, raising productivity, and lowering training costs. Ford called it "wage motive." The company's use of vertical integration also proved successful when Ford built a gigantic factory that shipped in raw materials and shipped out finished automobiles. Model T The Model T was introduced on October 1, 1908. It had the steering wheel on the left, which every other company soon copied. The entire engine and transmission were enclosed; the four cylinders were cast in a solid block; the suspension used two semi-elliptic springs. The car was very simple to drive, and easy and cheap to repair. It was so cheap at $825 in 1908 (the price fell every year) that by the 1920s a majority of American drivers learned to drive on the Model T. Ford created a massive publicity machine in Detroit to ensure every newspaper carried stories and ads about the new product. Ford's network of local dealers made the car ubiquitous in virtually every city in North America. As independent dealers, the franchises grew rich and publicized not just the Ford but the very concept of automobiling; local motor clubs sprang up to help new drivers and to explore the countryside. Ford was always eager to sell to farmers, who looked on the vehicle as a commercial device to help their business. Sales skyrocketed—several years posted 100% gains on the previous year. Always on the hunt for more efficiency and lower costs, in 1913 Ford introduced the moving assembly belts into his plants, which enabled an enormous increase in production. Although Henry Ford is often credited with the idea, contemporary sources indicate that the concept and its development came from employees Clarence Avery, Peter E. Martin, Charles E. Sorensen, and C. Harold Wills. (See Piquette Plant) Ford Assembly Line, 1913 Sales passed 250,000 in 1914. By 1916, as the price dropped to $360 for the basic touring car, sales reached 472,000. Lewis 1976, pp 41–59 (Using the Consumer Price Index, this price was equivalent to $7,020 in 2008 dollars.) By 1918, half of all cars in America were Model T's. However, it was a monolithic block; as Ford wrote in his autobiography, "Any customer can have a car painted any colour that he wants so long as it is black". Until the development of the assembly line, which mandated black because of its quicker drying time, Model T's were available in other colors including red. The design was fervently promoted and defended by Ford, and production continued as late as 1927; the final total production was 15,007,034. This record stood for the next 45 years. This record was achieved in just 19 years flat from the introduction of the first Model T (1908). President Woodrow Wilson asked Ford to run as a Democrat for the United States Senate from Michigan in 1918. Although the nation was at war, Ford ran as a peace candidate and a strong supporter of the proposed League of Nations. Watts, pp 243–48 Henry Ford turned the presidency of Ford Motor Company over to his son Edsel Ford in December 1918. Henry, however, retained final decision authority and sometimes reversed his son. Henry started another company, Henry Ford and Son, and made a show of taking himself and his best employees to the new company; the goal was to scare the remaining holdout stockholders of the Ford Motor Company to sell their stakes to him before they lost most of their value. (He was determined to have full control over strategic decisions). The ruse worked, and Henry and Edsel purchased all remaining stock from the other investors, thus giving the family sole ownership of the company. By the mid-1920s, sales of the Model T began to decline due to rising competition. Other auto makers offered payment plans through which consumers could buy their cars, which usually included more modern mechanical features and styling not available with the Model T. Despite urgings from Edsel, Henry steadfastly refused to incorporate new features into the Model T or to form a customer credit plan. Model A and Ford's later career By 1926, flagging sales of the Model T finally convinced Henry to make a new model. Henry pursued the project with a great deal of technical expertise in design of the engine, chassis, and other mechanical necessities, while leaving the body design to his son. Edsel also managed to prevail over his father's initial objections in the inclusion of a sliding-shift transmission. The result was the successful Ford Model A, introduced in December 1927 and produced through 1931, with a total output of more than 4 million. Subsequently, the company adopted an annual model change system similar to that in use by automakers today. Not until the 1930s did Ford overcome his objection to finance companies, and the Ford-owned Universal Credit Corporation became a major car-financing operation. Labor philosophy Time Magazine, January 14, 1935. Henry Ford was a pioneer of "welfare capitalism" designed to improve the lot of his workers and especially to reduce the heavy turnover that had many departments hiring 300 men per year to fill 100 slots. Efficiency meant hiring and keeping the best workers. Ford announced his $5-per-day program on January 5, 1914. The revolutionary program called for a raise in minimum daily pay from $2.34 to $5 for qualifying workers. It also set a new, reduced workweek, although the details vary in different accounts. Ford and Crowther in 1922 described it as six 8-hour days, giving a 48-hour week, Ford and Crowther 1922:126. while in 1926 they described it as five 8-hour days, giving a 40-hour week. Samuel Crowther Henry Ford: Why I Favor Five Days' Work With Six Days' Pay World's Work, October 1926 pp. 613–616 (Apparently the program started with Saturdays as workdays and sometime later made them days off.) Ford says that with this voluntary change, labor turnover in his plants went from huge to so small that he stopped bothering to measure it. Ford and Crowther 1922:129–130. When Ford started the 40-hour work week and a minimum wage he was criticized by other industrialists and by Wall Street. He proved, however, that paying people more would enable Ford workers to afford the cars they were producing and be good for the economy. Ford explained the change in part of the "Wages" chapter of My Life and Work. Ford and Crowther 1922:126–130. He labeled the increased compensation as profit-sharing rather than wages. The profit-sharing was offered to employees who had worked at the company for six months or more, and, importantly, conducted their lives in a manner of which Ford's "Social Department" approved. They frowned on heavy drinking, gambling, and what we today would call "deadbeat dads". The Social Department used 50 investigators, plus support staff, to maintain employee standards; a large percentage of workers were able to qualify for this "profit-sharing." Ford's incursion into his employees' private lives was highly controversial, and he soon backed off from the most intrusive aspects; by the time he wrote his 1922 memoir, he spoke of the Social Department and of the private conditions for profit-sharing in the past tense, and admitted that "paternalism has no place in industry. Welfare work that consists in prying into employees' private concerns is out of date. Men need counsel and men need help, oftentimes special help; and all this ought to be rendered for decency's sake. But the broad workable plan of investment and participation will do more to solidify industry and strengthen organization than will any social work on the outside. Without changing the principle we have changed the method of payment." Ford and Crowther 1922:130. Ford, an Episcopalian himself, protested against him being called upon by Brazilian authorities and labor unions to build a Catholic parish church for employees near his inland Brazilian factory and its workers settlement Fordlandia. Fordlandia, Michigan History Magazine Alexander said Henry Ford balked at building a Catholic church at Fordlandia—even though Catholicism was the predominant Christian religion in Brazil. The Catholic chapel was erected right away at Belterra.] Labor Unions Ford was adamantly against labor unions. He explained his views on unions in Chapter 18 of My Life and Work. Ford and Crowther 1922:253–266. He thought they were too heavily influenced by some leaders who, despite their ostensible good motives, would end up doing more harm than good for workers. Most wanted to restrict productivity as a means to foster employment, but Ford saw this as self-defeating because, in his view, productivity was necessary for any economic prosperity to exist. He believed that productivity gains that obviated certain jobs would nevertheless stimulate the larger economy and thus grow new jobs elsewhere, whether within the same corporation or in others. Ford also believed that union leaders (most particularly Leninist-leaning ones) had a perverse incentive to foment perpetual socio-economic crisis as a way to maintain their own power. Meanwhile, he believed that smart managers had an incentive to do right by their workers, because doing so would actually maximize their own profits. (Ford did acknowledge, however, that many managers were basically too bad at managing to understand this fact.) But Ford believed that eventually, if good managers such as himself could successfully fend off the attacks of misguided people from both left and right (i.e., both socialists and bad-manager reactionaries), the good managers would create a socio-economic system wherein neither bad management nor bad unions could find enough support to continue existing. To forestall union activity Ford promoted Harry Bennett, a former Navy boxer, to head the Service Department. Bennett employed various intimidation tactics to squash union organizing. Harris, J: Henry Ford, pages 91-92. Moffa Press, 1984. The most famous incident, in 1937, was a bloody brawl between company security men and organizers that became known as The Battle of the Overpass. In the late 1930s and early 1940s, Edsel (who was president of the company) thought it was necessary for Ford to come to some sort of collective bargaining agreement with the unions, because the violence, work disruptions, and bitter stalemates could not go on forever. But Henry (who still had the final veto in the company on a de facto basis even if not an official one) refused to cooperate. For several years, he kept Bennett in charge of talking to the unions that were trying to organize the Ford company. Sorensen's memoir . makes clear that Henry's purpose in putting Bennett in charge was to make sure no agreements were ever reached. The Ford company was the last Detroit automaker to recognize the United Auto Workers union (UAW). A sit-down strike by the UAW union in April 1941 closed the River Rouge Plant. Sorensen said . a distraught Henry Ford was very close to following through with a threat to break up the company rather than cooperate but that his wife, Clara, told him she would leave him if he destroyed the family business that she wanted to see her son and grandsons lead into the future. Henry complied with his wife's ultimatum, and Ford went literally overnight from the most stubborn holdout among automakers to the one with the most favorable UAW contract terms. The contract was signed in June 1941. Ford Airplane Company Ford, like other automobile companies, entered the aviation business during World War I, building Liberty engines. After the war, it returned to auto manufacturing until 1925, when Henry Ford acquired the Stout Metal Airplane Company. Ford 4-AT-F (EC-RRA) de L.A.P.E. Ford's most successful aircraft was the Ford 4AT Trimotor — called the “Tin Goose” because of its corrugated metal construction. It used a new alloy called Alclad that combined the corrosion resistance of aluminum with the strength of duralumin. The plane was similar to Fokker's V.VII-3m, and some say that Ford's engineers surreptitiously measured the Fokker plane and then copied it. The Trimotor first flew on June 11 1926, and was the first successful U.S. passenger airliner, accommodating about 12 passengers in a rather uncomfortable fashion. Several variants were also used by the U.S. Army. Henry Ford has been honored by the Smithsonian Institution for changing the aviation industry. About 200 Trimotors were built before it was discontinued in 1933, when the Ford Airplane Division shut down because of poor sales during the Great Depression. Willow Run President Franklin D. Roosevelt referred to Detroit as the "Arsenal of Democracy." The Ford Motor Company played a pivotal role in the Allied victory during World War I and World War II. Larry Lankton (November – December 1991). From Autos to ArmamentsMichigan History Magazine. Retrieved on April 2, 2007. With Europe under siege, the Ford company's genius turned to mass production for the war effort. Specifically, Ford examined the B-24 Liberator bomber, still the most-produced Allied bomber in history, which quickly shifted the balance of power. Before Ford, and under optimal conditions, the aviation industry could produce one Consolidated Aircraft B-24 Bomber a day at an aircraft plant. Ford showed the world how to produce one B-24 an hour at a peak of 600 per month in 24-hour shifts. Ford's Willow Run factory broke ground in April 1941. At the time, it was the largest assembly plant in the world, with over . Mass production of the B-24, led by Charles Sorensen and later Mead Bricker, began by August 1943. Many pilots slept on cots waiting for takeoff as the B-24 rolled off the assembly line at Ford's Willow Run facility. Jenny Nolan (compiled).Willow Run and the Arsenal of Democracy The Detroit News. Retrieved on April 2, 2007. Politics World War I era Henry Ford opposed war, which he thought was a waste of time. Henry Ford, Biography (March 25, 1999). A&E Television. Michigan History, January/February 1993 Marquis, Rev. Samuel S. (Episcopalian), with introduction by David Lewis. (2007/[1923]). Henry Ford: An Interpretation. Wayne State University Press Ford became highly critical of those who he felt financed war, and he seemed to do whatever he could to stop them. He felt time was better spent making things. In 1915, Jewish pacifist Rosika Schwimmer had gained the favor of Henry Ford, who agreed to fund a peace ship to Europe, where World War I was raging, for himself and about 170 other prominent peace leaders. Ford's Episcopalian pastor, Reverend Samuel S. Marquis, accompanied him on the mission. Marquis also headed Ford's Sociology Department from 1913 to 1921. Ford talked to President Wilson about the mission but had no government support. His group went to neutral Sweden and the Netherlands to meet with peace activists there. As a target of much ridicule, he left the ship as soon as it reached Sweden. An article G. K. Chesterton wrote for the December 12, 1916, issue of Illustrated London News, shows why Ford's effort was ridiculed. Referring to Ford as "the celebrated American comedian," Chesterton noted that Ford had been quoted claiming, "I believe that the sinking of the Lusitania was deliberately planned to get this country [America] into war. It was planned by the financiers of war." Chesterton expressed "difficulty in believing that bankers swim under the sea to cut holes in the bottoms of ships," and asked why, if what Ford said was true, Germany took responsibility for the sinking and "defended what it did not do." Mr. Ford's efforts, he concluded, "queer the pitch" of "more plausible and presentable" pacifists. On the other hand H.G. Wells, in The Shape of Things to Come, devoted an entire chapter to the Ford Peace Ship, stating that "despite its failure, this effort to stop the war will be remembered when the generals and their battles and senseless slaughter are forgotten." Wells claimed that the American armaments industry and banks, who made enormous profits from selling munitions to the warring European nations, deliberately spread lies in order to cause the failure of Ford's peace efforts. He noted, however, that when the U.S. entered the war in 1917, Ford took part and made considerable profits from the sale of munitions. The episode was fictionalized by the British novelist Douglas Galbraith in his novel King Henry. RandomHouse.ca | Books | King Henry by Douglas Galbraith In 1918, with the war still raging and the League of Nations a growing issue in global politics, President Woodrow Wilson encouraged Ford to run for a Michigan seat in the U.S. Senate, believing he would tip the scales in favor of Wilson's proposed League. "You are the only man in Michigan who can be elected and help bring about the peace you so desire," the president wrote Ford. Ford wrote back: "If they want to elect me let them do so, but I won't make a penny's investment." Ford did run, however, and came within 4,500 votes of winning, out of more than 400,000 cast statewide. Banham, Russ. (2002) The Ford Century. Tehabi Books. ISBN 1-887656-88-X, p. 44. World War II era Ford and Adolf Hitler admired each other's achievements. Adolf Hitler kept a life-size portrait of Ford next to his desk. "I regard Henry Ford as my inspiration," Hitler told a Detroit News reporter two years before becoming the Chancellor of Germany in 1933. In July 1938, four months after the German annexation of Austria, Ford was awarded the Grand Cross of the German Eagle, the highest medal awarded by Nazi Germany to foreigners. Ford disliked the administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt and did not approve of U.S. involvement in the war. Therefore, from 1939 to 1943, the War Production Board's dealings with the Ford Motor Company were with others in the organization, such as Edsel Ford and Charles Sorensen, much more than with Henry Ford. During this time Henry Ford did not stop his executives from cooperating with Washington, but he himself did not get deeply involved. He watched, focusing on his own pet side projects, as the work progressed. . After Edsel Ford's passing, Henry Ford resumed control of the company in 1943. After years of the Great Depression, labor strife, and New Deal, he suspected people in Washington were conspiring to wrest the company from his control. Ironically, his paranoia was trending toward self-fulfilling prophesy, as his attitude inspired background chatter in Washington about how to undermine his control of the company, whether by wartime government fiat or by instigating some sort of coup among executives and directors. . In 1945, the war ended, Henry Ford II became company president, and the storm was past. The Dearborn Independent The non-Ford publication The International Jew, the World's Foremost Problem. Articles from The Dearborn Independent, 1920 In 1918, Ford's closest aide and private secretary, Ernest G. Liebold, purchased an obscure weekly newspaper, The Dearborn Independent for Ford. The Independent ran for eight years, from 1920 until 1927, during which Liebold was editor. The newspaper published "Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion," which was discredited by The Times of London as a forgery during the Independent'''s publishing run. The American Jewish Historical Society described the ideas presented in the magazine as "anti-immigrant, anti-labor, anti-liquor, and anti-Semitic." In February 1921, the New York World published an interview with Ford, in which he said "The only statement I care to make about the Protocols is that they fit in with what is going on." During this period, Ford emerged as "a respected spokesman for right-wing extremism and religious prejudice," reaching around 700,000 readers through his newspaper. Glock, Charles Y. and Quinley, Harold E. (1983). Anti-Semitism in America. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 0-87855-940-X, p. 168. Along with the Protocols, anti-Jewish articles published by The Dearborn Independent also were released in the early 1920s as a set of four bound volumes, in a non-Ford publication in Weimar Republic Germany cumulatively titled The International Jew, the World's Foremost Problem. Vincent Curcio wrote of these publications that "they were widely distributed and had great influence, particularly in Nazi Germany, where no less a personage than Adolf Hitler read and admired them." Hitler, fascinated with automobiles, hung Ford's picture on his wall; Ford is the only American mentioned in Mein Kampf. Steven Watts wrote that Hitler "revered" Ford, proclaiming that "I shall do my best to put his theories into practice in Germany, and modeling the Volkswagen, the people's car, on the model T." Watts page xi. On 1 February 1924 Ford received a representative of Hitler, Kurt Ludecke, at his home. Ludecke was introduced to Ford by Siegfried Wagner (son of the famous composer Richard Wagner) and Siegfried's wife Winifred Wagner, both Nazi sympathizers and anti-Semites. Ludecke asked Ford for a contribution to the Nazi cause but was apparently refused. The American Axis: Henry Ford, Charles Lindbergh, and the Rise of the Third Reich, by Max Wallace (Macmillan, 2004), pp.50-54, ISBN 0312335318. Years later, in 1977, Winifred claimed that Ford had told her that he had helped finance Hitler. This, however, is the only credible evidence that Ford made a contribution. The company itself has always denied that any contribution was made and no documentary evidence has ever been found. Ibid p. 54. See also Henry Ford and the Jews: The Mass Production of Hate, by Neil Baldwin (PublicAffairs, 2002), pp. 185-189, ISBN 1586481630. Denounced by the Anti-Defamation League (ADL), the articles nevertheless explicitly condemned pogroms and violence against Jews (Volume 4, Chapter 80), preferring to blame incidents of mass violence on the Jews themselves. Ford, Henry (2003). The International Jew: The World's Foremost Problem. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0-7661-7829-3, p. 61. None of this work was actually written by Ford, who wrote almost nothing according to trial testimony. Friends and business associates have said they warned Ford about the contents of the Independent and that he probably never read them. (He claimed he only read the headlines.) Watts pp x, 376–387; Lewis (1976) pp 135–59. However, court testimony in a libel suit, brought by one of the targets of the newspaper, alleged that Ford did know about the contents of the Independent in advance of publication. Wallace, p. 30. A libel lawsuit brought by San Francisco lawyer and Jewish farm cooperative organizer Aaron Sapiro in response to anti-Semitic remarks led Ford to close the Independent in December 1927. News reports at the time quoted him as being shocked by the content and having been unaware of its nature. During the trial, the editor of Ford's "Own Page," William Cameron, testified that Ford had nothing to do with the editorials even though they were under his byline. Cameron testified at the libel trial that he never discussed the content of the pages or sent them to Ford for his approval. Lewis, (1976) pp. 140–156; Baldwin p 220–221. Investigative journalist Max Wallace noted that "whatever credibility this absurd claim may have had was soon undermined when James M. Miller, a former Dearborn Independent employee, swore under oath that Ford had told him he intended to expose Sapiro." Michael Barkun observed, "That Cameron would have continued to publish such controversial material without Ford's explicit instructions seemed unthinkable to those who knew both men. Mrs. Stanley Ruddiman, a Ford family intimate, remarked that 'I don't think Mr. Cameron ever wrote anything for publication without Mr. Ford's approval.'" Barkun, Michael (1996). Religion and the Racist Right: The Origins of the Christian Identity Movement. UNC Press. ISBN 0-8078-4638-4, p. 35. According to Spencer Blakeslee, The ADL mobilized prominent Jews and non-Jews to publicly oppose Ford's message. They formed a coalition of Jewish groups for the same purpose and raised constant objections in the Detroit press. Before leaving his presidency early in 1921, Woodrow Wilson joined other leading Americans in a statement that rebuked Ford and others for their antisemitic campaign. A boycott against Ford products by Jews and liberal Christians also had an impact, and Ford shut down the paper in 1927, recanting his views in a public letter to Sigmund Livingston, ADL. Blakeslee, Spencer (2000). The Death of American Antisemitism. Praeger/Greenwood. ISBN 0-275-96508-2, p. 83. Grand Cross of the German Eagle, an award bestowed to Mr. Ford Ford's 1927 apology had been well received, "Four-Fifths of the hundreds of letters addressed to Ford in July of 1927 were from Jews, and almost without exception they praised the Industrialist." , pp. 146–154. In January 1937, a Ford statement to the Detroit Jewish Chronicle disavowed "any connection whatsoever with the publication in Germany of a book known as the International Jew." In July 1938, prior to the outbreak of war, the German consul at Cleveland gave Ford, on his 75th birthday, the award of the Grand Cross of the German Eagle, the highest medal Nazi Germany could bestow on a foreigner, while James D. Mooney, vice-president of overseas operations for General Motors, received a similar medal, the Merit Cross of the German Eagle, First Class. Farber, David R. (2002). Sloan Rules: Alfred P. Sloan and the Triumph of General Motors. University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-23804-0, p. 228. Distribution of International Jew was halted in 1942 through legal action by Ford despite complications from a lack of copyright, but extremist groups often recycle the material; it still appears on antisemitic and neo-Nazi websites. One Jewish personality who was said to have been friendly with Ford is Detroit Judge Harry Keidan. When asked about this connection, Ford replied that Keidan was only half-Jewish. A close collaborator of Henry Ford during World War II reported that Ford, at the time being more than 80 years old, was shown a movie of the Nazi concentration camps. Lacey, Robert (1987). Ford: Des Hommes et des Machines, Libre Expression editor, ISBN 2-89111-335-7, p. 140. International business Ford's philosophy was one of economic independence for the United States. His River Rouge Plant became the world's largest industrial complex, even able to produce its own steel. Ford's goal was to produce a vehicle from scratch without reliance on foreign trade. He believed in the global expansion of his company. He believed that international trade and cooperation led to international peace, and he used the assembly line process and production of the Model T to demonstrate it. Watts 236–40 He opened Ford assembly plants in Britain and Canada in 1911, and soon became the biggest automotive producer in those countries. In 1912, Ford cooperated with Agnelli of Fiat to launch the first Italian automotive assembly plants. The first plants in Germany were built in the 1920s with the encouragement of Herbert Hoover and the Commerce Department, which agreed with Ford's theory that international trade was essential to world peace. Wilkins In the 1920s Ford also opened plants in Australia, India, and France, and by 1929, he had successful dealerships on six continents. Ford experimented with a commercial rubber plantation in the Amazon jungle called Fordlândia; it was one of the few failures. In 1929, Ford accepted Stalin's invitation to build a model plant (NNAZ, today GAZ) at Gorky, a city later renamed Nizhny Novgorod, and he sent American engineers and technicians to help set it up, including future labor leader Walter Reuther. Edsel Ford, Charles Lindbergh, and Henry Ford pose in the Ford hangar during Lindbergh's August 1927 visit. The technical assistance agreement between Ford Motor Company, VSNH and the Soviet-controlled Amtorg Trading Corporation KGB Deep Background: Reference Detail (as purchasing agent) was concluded for nine years and signed on May 31, 1929, by Ford, FMC vice-president Peter E. Martin, V. I. Mezhlauk, and the president of Amtorg, Saul G. Bron. The Ford Motor Company worked to conduct business in any nation where the United States had peaceful diplomatic relations: Ford of Australia Ford of Britain Ford of Argentina Ford of Brazil Ford of Canada Ford of Europe Ford India Ford South Africa Ford Mexico By 1932, Ford was manufacturing one third of all the world’s automobiles. Ford's image transfixed Europeans, especially the Germans, arousing the "fear of some, the infatuation of others, and the fascination among all". Nolan p 31 Germans who discussed "Fordism" often believed that it represented something quintessentially American. They saw the size, tempo, standardization, and philosophy of production demonstrated at the Ford Works as a national service—an "American thing" that represented the culture of United States. Both supporters and critics insisted that Fordism epitomized American capitalist development, and that the auto industry was the key to understanding economic and social relations in the United States. As one German explained, "Automobiles have so completely changed the American's mode of life that today one can hardly imagine being without a car. It is difficult to remember what life was like before Mr. Ford began preaching his doctrine of salvation" Nolan, p 31 For many Germans, Henry Ford embodied the essence of successful Americanism. In My Life and Work, Ford predicted essentially that if greed, racism, and short-sightedness could be overcome, then eventually economic and technologic development throughout the world would progress to the point that international trade would no longer be based on (what today would be called) colonial or neocolonial models and would truly benefit all peoples. Ford and Crowther 1922:242–244. His ideas here were vague, but they were idealistic and they seemed to indicate a belief in the inherent intelligence of all ethnicities (which some may find somewhat suspect coming from Ford). Racing Ford (standing) launched Barney Oldfield's career in 1902 Ford maintained an interest in auto racing from 1901 to 1913 and began his involvement in the sport as both a builder and a driver, later turning the wheel over to hired drivers. He entered stripped-down Model Ts in races, finishing first (although later disqualified) in an "ocean-to-ocean" (across the United States) race in 1909, and setting a one-mile (1.6 km) oval speed record at Detroit Fairgrounds in 1911 with driver Frank Kulick. In 1913, Ford attempted to enter a reworked Model T in the Indianapolis 500 but was told rules required the addition of another 1,000 pounds (450 kg) to the car before it could qualify. Ford dropped out of the race and soon thereafter dropped out of racing permanently, citing dissatisfaction with the sport's rules, demands on his time by the booming production of the Model Ts, and his low opinion of racing as a worthwhile activity. In My Life and Work Ford speaks (briefly) of racing in a rather dismissive tone, as something that is not at all a good measure of automobiles in general. He describes himself as someone who raced only because in the 1890s through 1910s, one had to race because prevailing ignorance held that racing was the way to prove the worth of an automobile. Ford did not agree. But he was determined that as long as this was the definition of success (flawed though the definition was), then his cars would be the best that there were at racing. Ford and Crowther 1922:50. Throughout the book he continually returns to ideals such as transportation, production efficiency, affordability, reliability, fuel efficiency, economic prosperity, and the automation of drudgery in farming and industry, but rarely mentions, and rather belittles, the idea of merely going fast from point A to point B. Nevertheless, Ford did make quite an impact on auto racing during his racing years, and he was inducted into the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America in 1996. Later career When Edsel, president of Ford Motor Company, died of cancer in May 1943, the elderly and ailing Henry Ford decided to assume the presidency. By this point in his life, he had had several cardiovascular events (variously cited as heart attack or stroke) and was mentally inconsistent, suspicious, and generally no longer fit for such a job. . Most of the directors did not want to see him as president. But for the previous 20 years, though he had long been without any official executive title, he had always had de facto control over the company; the board and the management had never seriously defied him, and this moment was not different. The directors elected him, . and he served until the end of the war. During this period the company began to decline, losing more than $10 million a month. The administration of President Franklin Roosevelt had been considering a government takeover of the company in order to ensure continued war production, but the idea never progressed. Death In ill health, he ceded the presidency to his grandson Henry Ford II in September 1945 and went into retirement. He died in 1947 of a cerebral hemorrhage at age 83 in Fair Lane, his Dearborn estate, and he is buried in the Ford Cemetery in Detroit. Sidelights Interest in materials science and engineering Henry Ford long had an interest in materials science and engineering. He enthusiastically described his company's adoption of vanadium steel alloys and subsequent metallurgic R&D work. Ford and Crowther 1922:18,65–67. Ford long had an interest in plastics developed from agricultural products, especially soybeans. He cultivated a relationship with George Washington Carver for this purpose. Soybean-based plastics were used in Ford automobiles throughout the 1930s in plastic parts such as car horns, in paint, etc. This project culminated in 1942, when Ford patented an automobile made almost entirely of plastic, attached to a tubular welded frame. It weighed 30% less than a steel car and was said to be able to withstand blows ten times greater than could steel. Furthermore, it ran on grain alcohol (ethanol) instead of gasoline. The design never caught on. Lewis 1995. Ford was interested in engineered woods ("Better wood can be made than is grown" Ford and Crowther 1922:281. ) (at this time plywood and particle board were little more than experimental ideas); corn as a fuel source, via both corn oil and ethanol; Ford and Crowther 1922:275–276. and the potential uses of cotton. Ford was instrumental in developing charcoal briquets, under the brand name "Kingsford". His brother in law, E.G. Kingsford, used wood scraps from the Ford factory to make the briquets. Georgia residence and community Ford maintained a vacation residence (known as the "Ford Plantation") in Richmond Hill, Georgia. He contributed substantially to the community, building a chapel and schoolhouse and employing numerous local residents. Preserving Americana in museums and villages Ford had an interest in "Americana." In the 1920s, Ford began work to turn Sudbury, Massachusetts, into a themed historical village. He moved the schoolhouse supposedly referred to in the nursery rhyme, Mary had a little lamb, from Sterling, Massachusetts, and purchased the historical Wayside Inn. This plan never saw fruition, but Ford repeated it with the creation of Greenfield Village in Dearborn, Michigan. It may have inspired the creation of Old Sturbridge Village as well. About the same time, he began collecting materials for his museum, which had a theme of practical technology. It was opened in 1929 as the Edison Institute and, although greatly modernized, remains open today. The invention of the automobile Both Henry Ford and Karl Benz are sometimes oversimplistically credited with the invention of the automobile, although (as is the case with most inventions) the reality of the automobile's development included many inventors. As Ford himself said, by the 1870s, the notion of a "horseless carriage was a common idea", Ford and Crowther 1922:25. and many attempts at steam-powered road vehicles had been made. What the following decades brought was the technical success of the idea, and the extension of the idea beyond steam power to other power sources (electric motors and internal combustion engines). Ford was, however, more influential than any other single person in changing the paradigm of the automobile from a scarce, heavy, hand-built toy for rich people into a lightweight, reliable, affordable, mass-produced mode of transportation for the masses of working people. The invention of the assembly line Both Henry Ford and Ransom E. Olds are sometimes oversimplistically credited with the invention of the assembly line, although (as is the case with most inventions) the reality of the assembly line's development included many inventors. One prerequisite was the idea of interchangeable parts (which was another gradual technological development, dating to the 18th century, often mistakenly attributed to one individual or another). Ford's first moving assembly line (employing conveyor belts), after 5 years of empirical development, first began mass production on or around April 1, 1913. The idea was tried first on subassemblies, and shortly after on the entire chassis. Again, although it is inaccurate to say that Henry Ford himself invented the assembly line, it is accurate to say that his sponsorship of its development was central to its explosive success in the 20th century. Miscellaneous Ford was the winner of the award of Car Entrepreneur of the Century in 1999. Henry Ford dressed up as Santa Claus and gave sleigh rides to children at Christmas time on his estate. Henry Ford was especially fond of Thomas Edison, and on Edison's deathbed, he demanded Edison's son catch his final breath in a test tube. The test tube can still be found today in Henry Ford Museum. Exquisite Corpse In 1923, Ford's pastor, and head of his sociology department, Episcopal minister Samuel S. Marquis, claimed that Ford believed, or "once believed" in reincarnation. Marquis, Samuel S. ([1923]/2007). Henry Ford: An Interpretation. Wayne State University Press. Though it is unclear whether or how long Ford kept such a belief, the San Francisco Examiner from August 26, 1928, published a quote which described Ford's beliefs: I adopted the theory of Reincarnation when I was twenty six. Religion offered nothing to the point. Even work could not give me complete satisfaction. Work is futile if we cannot utilise the experience we collect in one life in the next. When I discovered Reincarnation it was as if I had found a universal plan I realised that there was a chance to work out my ideas. Time was no longer limited. I was no longer a slave to the hands of the clock. Genius is experience. Some seem to think that it is a gift or talent, but it is the fruit of long experience in many lives. Some are older souls than others, and so they know more. The discovery of Reincarnation put my mind at ease. If you preserve a record of this conversation, write it so that it puts men’s minds at ease. I would like to communicate to others the calmness that the long view of life gives to us. Popular culture In Aldous Huxley's Brave New World, society is organized on 'Fordist' lines and the years are dated A.F. (After Ford). In the book, the expression 'My Ford' is used instead of 'My Lord'. Even human beings are produced via an assembly line, grown in large glass jars and provided in five models: Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta and Epsilon. As homage to the assembly line philosophy that so defined the mass-culture society of Brave New World, native individuals make the "sign of the T" instead of the "sign of the cross." Ford is a character in several historical fiction books, notably E. L. Doctorow's Ragtime, and Richard Powers' novel Three Farmers on the Way to a Dance. In the 2005 novel The Plot Against America, Philip Roth imagines Ford as Secretary of Interior in an imaginary Lindbergh administration. Ford, his family, and his company were the subjects of a 1986 biography by Robert Lacey entitled Ford: The Men and the Machine. The book was adapted in 1987 into a film starring Cliff Robertson and Michael Ironside. Honors In December 1999 Ford was among 18 included in Gallup's List of Widely Admired People of the 20th Century, from a poll conducted of the American people. See also Detroit, Toledo and Ironton Railroad Edison and Ford Winter Estates Fair Lane Fordlândia William B. Mayo Dodge v. Ford Motor Company Ford Family Tree List of most wealthy historical figures Notes References Memoirs by Ford Motor Company principals . Various republications, including ISBN 9781406500189. Original is public domain in U.S. . Co-edition, 1926, London, William Heinemann. Various republications, including ISBN 0-915299-36-4. . Co-edition, 1931, London, William Heinemann. . Apparent co-edition, 1930, as My Friend Mr. Edison, London, Ernest Benn. Republished as Edison as I Knew Him by American Thought and Action, San Diego, 1966, OCLC 3456201. Republished as Edison as I Know Him by Kessinger Publishing, LLC, 2007, ISBN 9781432561581. . . Various republications, including ISBN 9780814332795. Biographies Bak, Richard (2003). Henry and Edsel: The Creation of the Ford Empire. Wiley ISBN 0471234877 Brinkley, Douglas G. Wheels for the World: Henry Ford, His Company, and a Century of Progress (2003) Halberstam, David. "Citizen Ford" American Heritage 1986 37(6): 49–64. interpretive essay Jardim, Anne. The First Henry Ford: A Study in Personality and Business Leadership Massachusetts Inst. of Technology Press 1970. Lacey, Robert. Ford: The Men and the Machine Little, Brown, 1986. popular biography Nye, David E. Henry Ford: "Ignorant Idealist." Kennikat, 1979. Watts, Steven. The People's Tycoon: Henry Ford and the American Century (2005) Specialized studies Batchelor, Ray. Henry Ford: Mass Production, Modernism and Design Manchester U. Press, 1994. Bonin, Huber et al. Ford, 1902–2003: The European History 2 vol Paris 2003. ISBN 2-914369-06-9 scholarly essays in English; reviewed in * Holden, Len. "Fording the Atlantic: Ford and Fordism in Europe" in Business History Volume 47, #1 Jan 2005 pp 122–127 Brinkley, Douglas. "Prime Mover". American Heritage 2003 54(3): 44–53. on Model T Bryan, Ford R. Henry's Lieutenants, 1993; ISBN 0-8143-2428-2 Bryan, Ford R. Beyond the Model T: The Other Ventures of Henry Ford Wayne State Press 1990. Dempsey, Mary A. "Fordlandia," Michigan History 1994 78(4): 24–33. Ford's rubber plantation in Brazil Jacobson, D. S. "The Political Economy of Industrial Location: the Ford Motor Company at Cork 1912–26." Irish Economic and Social History 1977 4: 36–55. Ford and Irish politics Kraft, Barbara S. The Peace Ship: Henry Ford's Pacifist Adventure in the First World War Macmillan, 1978 Levinson, William A. Henry Ford's Lean Vision: Enduring Principles from the First Ford Motor Plant, 2002; ISBN 1-56327-260-1 Lewis, David L. "Ford and Kahn" Michigan History 1980 64(5): 17–28. Ford commissioned architect Albert Kahn to design factories Lewis, David L. "Henry Ford and His Magic Beanstalk" . Michigan History 1995 79(3): 10–17. Ford's interest in soybeans and plastics Lewis, David L. "Working Side by Side" Michigan History 1993 77(1): 24–30. Why Ford hired large numbers of black workers McIntyre, Stephen L. "The Failure of Fordism: Reform of the Automobile Repair Industry, 1913–1940: Technology and Culture 2000 41(2): 269–299. repair shops rejected flat rates Meyer, Stephen. The Five Dollar Day: Labor Management and Social Control in the Ford Motor Company, 1908–1921 (1981) Nolan; Mary. Visions of Modernity: American Business and the Modernization of Germany (1994) Pietrykowski, Bruce. "Fordism at Ford: Spatial Decentralization and Labor Segmentation at the Ford Motor Company, 1920–1950" Economic Geography 1995 71(4): 383–401. Roediger, David, ed "Americanism and Fordism – American Style: Kate Richards O'hare's 'Has Henry Ford Made Good?'" Labor History 1988 29(2): 241–252. Socialist praise for Ford in 1916 Segal, Howard P. "'Little Plants in the Country': Henry Ford's Village Industries and the Beginning of Decentralized Technology in Modern America" Prospects 1988 13: 181–223. Ford created 19 rural workplaces as pastoral retreats Tedlow, Richard S. "The Struggle for Dominance in the Automobile Market: the Early Years of Ford and General Motors" Business and Economic History 1988 17: 49–62. Ford stressed low price based on efficient factories but GM did better in oligopolistic competition by including investment in manufacturing, marketing, and management. Thomas, Robert Paul. "The Automobile Industry and its Tycoon" Explorations in Entrepreneurial History 1969 6(2): 139–157. argues Ford did NOT have much influence on US industry, Valdés, Dennis Nodin. "Perspiring Capitalists: Latinos and the Henry Ford Service School, 1918–1928" Aztlán 1981 12(2): 227–239. Ford brought hundreds of Mexicans in for training as managers Wilkins, Mira and Frank Ernest Hill, American Business Abroad: Ford on Six Continents Wayne State University Press, 1964 Williams, Karel, Colin Haslam and John Williams, "Ford versus `Fordism': The Beginning of Mass Production?" Work, Employment & Society, Vol. 6, No. 4, 517–555 (1992), stress on Ford's flexibility and commitment to continuous improvements Further reading Baldwin, Neil; Henry Ford and the Jews: The Mass Production of Hate; PublicAffairs, 2000; ISBN 1-58648-163-0 Foust, James C. "Mass-produced Reform: Henry Ford's Dearborn Independent" American Journalism 1997 14(3–4): 411–424. Higham, Charles, Trading With The Enemy The Nazi – American Money Plot 1933–1949 ; Delacorte Press 1983 Kandel, Alan D. "Ford and Israel" Michigan Jewish History 1999 39: 13–17. covers business and philanthropy Lee, Albert; Henry Ford and the Jews; Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 1980; ISBN 0-8128-2701-5 Lewis, David L. "Henry Ford's Anti-semitism and its Repercussions" Michigan Jewish History 1984 24(1): 3–10. Reich, Simon (1999) "The Ford Motor Company and the Third Reich" Dimensions, 13(2): 15 – 17 online Ribuffo, Leo P. "Henry Ford and the International Jew" American Jewish History 1980 69(4): 437–477. Sapiro, Aaron L. "A Retrospective View of the Aaron Sapiro-Henry Ford Case" Western States Jewish Historical Quarterly 1982 15(1): 79–84. Silverstein, K. (2000) "Ford and the Führer" The Nation 270(3): 11 – 16 Wallace, Max The American Axis: Henry Ford, Charles Lindbergh and the Rise of the Third Reich; ISBN 0-312-33531-8 Woeste, Victoria Saker. "Insecure Equality: Louis Marshall, Henry Ford, and the Problem of Defamatory Antisemitism, 1920–1929" Journal of American History 2004 91(3): 877–905. External links Automobile History Online – Henry Ford history and photos Full text of My Life and Work'' from Project Gutenberg Commentary on Ford's My Life and Work Notable quotations and speech excerpts Timeline Quotes Nevins and Hill tell the story of Peace Ship in American Heritage College student reports on the 1915 Peace Ship expedition The Henry Ford Heritage Association American Corporations and Hitler The Washington Post reports on Ford and General Motors response to alleged collaboration with Nazi Germany Power, Ignorance, and Anti-Semitism: Henry Ford and His War on Jews by Jonathan R. Logsdon, Hanover Historical Review 1999 Review of "Henry Ford and The Jews" by Neil Baldwin Review of "The People's Tycoon" by Steven Watts. Henry Ford may have regretted his innovation (SF Chronicle) References be-x-old:Генры Форд | Henry_Ford |@lemmatized henry:87 ford:345 july:6 april:6 american:31 founder:1 motor:25 company:61 father:6 modern:3 assembly:17 line:14 use:14 mass:14 production:18 introduction:3 model:27 automobile:28 revolutionize:1 transportation:3 industry:12 prolific:1 inventor:3 award:6 u:10 patent:2 owner:1 become:10 one:20 rich:3 best:6 know:10 people:12 world:25 credit:6 fordism:8 large:8 number:2 inexpensive:2 couple:1 high:4 wage:6 worker:12 global:3 vision:3 consumerism:1 key:2 peace:13 believe:13 accountant:1 amass:1 fortune:1 without:8 ever:4 audit:1 administration:4 intense:1 commitment:2 lower:2 cost:3 result:3 many:9 technical:4 business:13 innovation:2 include:13 franchise:2 system:3 put:5 dealership:2 every:6 city:5 north:2 america:9 major:2 six:8 continent:3 leave:8 vast:1 wealth:1 foundation:1 arrange:1 family:8 control:8 permanently:2 early:7 year:20 bear:4 farm:9 next:4 rural:2 town:1 west:1 detroit:19 michigan:15 area:2 part:6 dearborn:10 www:1 hfmgv:1 org:1 museum:4 life:18 william:8 county:1 cork:2 ireland:1 mother:4 mary:5 litogot:1 young:1 child:4 belgian:1 immigrant:2 parent:1 die:4 adopt:3 neighbor:2 herns:1 sibling:1 margaret:1 jane:1 c:5 robert:5 give:9 pocket:1 watch:3 teen:1 fifteen:1 dismantle:1 reassemble:1 timepiece:1 friend:3 dozen:1 time:18 gain:4 reputation:1 repairman:1 work:32 nevins:2 hill:4 tmc:1 twenty:4 walk:1 four:5 mile:4 episcopal:2 church:3 sunday:1 evans:1 harold:4 make:22 little:5 brown:2 new:16 york:2 devastate:1 expect:1 eventually:3 take:5 despise:1 tell:7 never:7 particular:1 love:2 edward:1 guest:1 talk:3 magazine:5 home:2 apprentice:1 machinist:1 first:15 james:5 f:3 flower:1 bros:1 later:10 dry:1 dock:1 co:4 return:3 adept:1 operate:1 westinghouse:2 portable:1 steam:4 engine:7 hire:3 service:4 five:5 old:7 marry:1 clara:2 ala:1 bryant:2 support:4 run:11 sawmill:1 single:2 edsel:11 engineer:5 edison:15 illuminate:1 promotion:1 chief:2 enough:2 money:2 devote:2 attention:1 personal:1 experiment:3 gasoline:2 culminate:2 completion:1 self:3 propelled:1 vehicle:5 name:4 quadricycle:3 test:4 drove:1 june:4 various:5 drive:5 brainstorm:1 way:4 improve:2 showroom:1 automotive:3 history:21 also:14 attend:1 meeting:1 executive:4 introduce:5 thomas:4 approve:3 experimentation:1 encourage:2 approval:3 design:11 build:10 second:2 complete:2 r:6 bryan:6 birth:1 heritage:5 association:2 retrieve:3 december:7 back:3 capital:3 lumber:1 baron:1 h:3 murphy:4 resign:1 found:1 august:4 however:11 produce:12 low:4 quality:1 price:7 like:4 ultimately:1 successful:7 dissolve:1 january:5 help:8 successfully:2 race:13 horsepower:2 october:4 success:5 stockholder:2 form:4 november:2 bring:8 leland:1 consultant:1 go:9 rename:2 cadillac:1 racer:1 get:3 barney:3 oldfield:3 victory:2 receive:4 backing:1 acquaintance:1 alexander:2 malcomson:6 coal:1 dealer:3 partnership:1 ltd:1 manufacture:2 duo:1 lease:1 factory:7 contract:3 machine:5 shop:2 john:3 horace:2 e:12 dodge:5 supply:1 sale:8 slow:1 crisis:2 arose:1 brother:4 demand:3 payment:3 shipment:1 harvey:1 firestone:1 ft:1 myers:1 florida:1 february:4 response:3 another:5 group:4 investor:3 convince:3 accept:2 portion:1 reincorporated:1 original:2 uncle:1 gray:1 rackham:1 couzens:1 newly:1 car:17 exhibition:1 ice:1 lake:1 st:1 clair:1 km:3 set:5 land:1 speed:2 record:5 per:6 hour:8 driver:6 honor:3 locomotive:1 day:11 around:3 country:4 brand:2 throughout:4 united:8 state:13 backer:1 indianapolis:2 astonish:1 offer:4 double:1 rate:2 consumer:3 index:2 equivalent:2 dollar:3 move:4 prove:4 extremely:1 profitable:1 instead:4 constant:2 turnover:3 employee:9 mechanic:1 flock:1 human:2 expertise:2 raise:3 productivity:4 training:2 call:8 motive:1 vertical:1 integration:1 gigantic:1 ship:9 raw:1 material:6 finished:1 steer:1 wheel:3 left:1 soon:6 copy:2 entire:3 transmission:2 enclose:1 cylinder:1 cast:2 solid:1 block:2 suspension:1 two:2 semi:1 elliptic:1 spring:2 simple:1 easy:1 cheap:2 repair:3 fell:1 majority:1 learn:1 create:3 massive:1 publicity:1 ensure:2 newspaper:5 carry:1 story:2 ad:1 product:3 network:1 local:3 ubiquitous:1 virtually:1 independent:12 grow:4 publicize:1 concept:2 club:1 explore:1 countryside:1 always:4 eager:1 sell:3 farmer:2 look:1 commercial:2 device:1 skyrocket:1 several:5 post:2 previous:2 hunt:1 efficiency:4 belt:2 plant:14 enable:2 enormous:2 increase:1 although:8 often:4 idea:12 contemporary:1 source:3 indicate:2 development:9 come:5 clarence:1 avery:1 peter:2 martin:2 charles:8 sorensen:5 see:5 piquette:1 pass:1 drop:3 basic:1 touring:1 reach:4 lewis:9 pp:10 half:2 monolithic:1 write:11 autobiography:1 customer:2 paint:2 colour:1 want:5 long:10 black:3 mandate:1 quicker:1 drying:1 available:2 color:1 red:1 fervently:1 promote:2 defend:2 continue:3 late:2 final:4 total:2 stand:2 achieve:1 flat:2 president:14 woodrow:3 wilson:5 ask:4 democrat:1 senate:2 nation:6 war:26 candidate:1 strong:1 supporter:2 propose:2 league:4 watt:4 turn:4 presidency:4 son:7 retain:1 decision:2 authority:2 sometimes:3 reverse:1 start:3 show:4 goal:2 scare:1 remain:3 holdout:2 stake:1 lose:2 value:1 determine:2 full:2 strategic:1 ruse:1 purchase:3 stock:1 thus:2 sole:1 ownership:1 mid:1 begin:8 decline:2 due:1 rise:3 competition:2 auto:7 maker:1 plan:7 could:11 buy:1 usually:1 mechanical:2 feature:2 style:2 despite:4 urging:1 steadfastly:1 refuse:3 incorporate:1 career:3 flag:1 finally:1 pursue:1 project:4 great:5 deal:2 chassis:2 necessity:1 body:1 manage:2 prevail:2 initial:1 objection:3 inclusion:1 slide:1 shift:3 output:1 million:2 subsequently:1 annual:1 change:8 similar:3 automaker:3 today:7 overcome:2 finance:2 universal:2 corporation:4 financing:1 operation:2 labor:11 philosophy:4 pioneer:1 welfare:2 capitalism:1 lot:1 especially:4 reduce:1 heavy:3 department:8 men:8 fill:1 slot:1 mean:2 hiring:1 keep:4 announce:1 program:3 revolutionary:1 minimum:2 daily:1 pay:3 qualify:3 reduced:1 workweek:1 detail:2 vary:1 different:2 account:1 crowther:13 describe:6 week:3 samuel:5 favor:3 apparently:2 saturday:1 workday:1 sometime:1 say:12 voluntary:1 huge:1 small:1 stop:4 bother:1 measure:3 criticize:1 industrialist:2 wall:2 street:1 would:15 afford:1 good:7 economy:3 explain:3 chapter:4 label:1 increased:1 compensation:1 profit:7 share:1 rather:5 sharing:3 month:4 importantly:1 conduct:3 manner:1 social:7 frown:1 drinking:1 gambling:1 deadbeat:1 dad:1 investigator:1 plus:1 staff:1 maintain:4 standard:1 percentage:1 able:3 incursion:1 private:4 highly:2 controversial:2 intrusive:1 aspect:1 memoir:3 speak:2 condition:2 past:2 tense:1 admit:1 paternalism:1 place:1 consist:1 pry:1 concern:1 date:3 need:2 counsel:1 oftentimes:1 special:1 ought:1 render:1 decency:1 sake:1 broad:1 workable:1 investment:3 participation:1 solidify:1 strengthen:1 organization:2 outside:1 principle:2 method:1 episcopalian:3 protest:1 upon:1 brazilian:2 union:12 catholic:3 parish:1 near:1 inland:1 settlement:1 fordlandia:4 balk:1 even:6 though:5 catholicism:1 predominant:1 christian:3 religion:3 brazil:3 chapel:2 erect:1 right:5 away:1 belterra:1 adamantly:1 view:5 think:5 heavily:1 influence:3 leader:4 ostensible:1 motif:1 end:3 harm:1 restrict:1 foster:1 employment:2 saw:3 defeating:1 necessary:2 economic:10 prosperity:2 exist:2 obviate:1 certain:1 job:3 nevertheless:3 stimulate:1 elsewhere:1 whether:3 within:2 others:6 particularly:2 leninist:1 lean:2 perverse:1 incentive:2 foment:1 perpetual:1 socio:2 power:7 meanwhile:1 smart:1 manager:6 actually:2 maximize:1 acknowledge:1 basically:1 bad:4 understand:1 fact:1 fend:1 attack:2 misguided:1 socialist:2 reactionary:1 wherein:1 neither:1 management:4 find:5 forestall:1 activity:2 harry:2 bennett:4 former:2 navy:1 boxer:1 head:3 employed:1 intimidation:1 tactic:1 squash:1 organize:3 harris:1 j:1 page:4 moffa:1 press:11 famous:2 incident:2 bloody:1 brawl:1 security:1 organizer:2 battle:2 overpass:1 sort:2 collective:1 bargaining:1 agreement:3 violence:3 disruption:1 bitter:1 stalemate:1 forever:1 still:5 veto:1 de:5 facto:2 basis:1 official:2 cooperate:4 charge:2 try:2 clear:1 purpose:3 sure:1 last:1 recognize:1 uaw:3 sit:1 strike:1 close:5 river:2 rouge:2 distraught:1 follow:2 threat:1 break:2 wife:3 destroy:1 grandson:2 lead:5 future:2 comply:1 ultimatum:1 literally:1 overnight:1 stubborn:1 among:4 favorable:1 term:1 sign:4 airplane:3 enter:4 aviation:3 liberty:1 manufacturing:2 acquire:1 stout:1 metal:2 ec:1 rra:1 l:8 p:16 aircraft:3 trimotor:2 tin:1 goose:1 corrugated:1 construction:1 alloy:2 alclad:1 combine:1 corrosion:1 resistance:1 aluminum:1 strength:1 duralumin:1 plane:2 fokker:2 v:3 vii:1 surreptitiously:1 fly:1 passenger:2 airliner:1 accommodate:1 uncomfortable:1 fashion:1 variant:1 army:1 smithsonian:1 institution:1 trimotors:1 discontinue:1 division:1 shut:2 poor:1 depression:2 willow:4 franklin:3 roosevelt:3 refer:3 arsenal:2 democracy:2 play:1 pivotal:1 role:1 allied:2 ii:5 larry:1 lankton:1 armamentsmichigan:1 europe:4 siege:1 genius:2 effort:5 specifically:1 examine:1 b:7 liberator:1 bomber:3 quickly:1 balance:1 optimal:1 consolidate:1 peak:1 ground:1 mead:1 bricker:1 pilot:1 sleep:1 cot:1 wait:1 takeoff:1 roll:1 facility:1 jenny:1 nolan:4 compile:1 news:4 politics:3 era:2 oppose:2 waste:1 biography:4 march:1 television:1 marquis:5 rev:1 david:9 interpretation:2 wayne:4 university:4 critical:1 felt:2 financed:1 seem:4 whatever:2 well:7 spent:1 thing:3 jewish:12 pacifist:3 rosika:1 schwimmer:1 agree:3 fund:1 rag:2 prominent:2 pastor:2 reverend:1 accompany:1 mission:2 sociology:2 government:3 neutral:1 sweden:2 netherlands:1 meet:1 activist:1 target:2 much:3 ridicule:2 article:4 g:6 k:2 chesterton:3 issue:2 illustrated:1 london:5 celebrated:1 comedian:1 note:4 quote:4 claiming:1 sinking:2 lusitania:1 deliberately:2 financier:1 express:1 difficulty:1 banker:1 swim:1 sea:1 cut:1 hole:1 bottom:1 true:1 germany:11 responsibility:1 mr:7 conclude:2 queer:1 pitch:1 plausible:1 presentable:1 hand:3 shape:1 failure:4 remember:2 general:6 senseless:1 slaughter:1 forget:1 claim:5 armament:1 bank:1 munition:2 european:3 spread:1 lie:1 order:2 cause:2 considerable:1 episode:1 fictionalize:1 british:1 novelist:1 douglas:4 galbraith:2 novel:3 king:2 randomhouse:1 ca:1 book:7 seat:1 tip:1 scale:1 man:1 elect:3 desire:1 let:1 win:2 penny:1 vote:1 statewide:1 banham:1 rus:1 century:7 tehabi:1 isbn:20 x:4 adolf:3 hitler:9 admire:3 achievement:1 size:2 portrait:1 desk:1 regard:1 inspiration:1 reporter:1 chancellor:1 german:10 annexation:1 austria:1 grand:3 cross:5 eagle:4 medal:3 nazi:9 foreigner:2 dislike:1 involvement:2 therefore:1 board:3 dealing:1 washington:5 deeply:1 involved:1 focus:1 pet:1 side:3 progress:4 passing:1 resume:1 strife:1 suspect:2 conspire:1 wrest:1 ironically:1 paranoia:1 trend:1 toward:1 fulfil:1 prophesy:1 attitude:1 inspire:2 background:2 chatter:1 undermine:1 wartime:1 fiat:2 instigate:1 coup:1 director:3 storm:1 non:3 publication:6 international:11 jew:17 foremost:3 problem:4 aide:1 secretary:2 ernest:3 liebold:2 obscure:1 weekly:1 ran:1 eight:1 editor:3 publish:5 protocol:3 learned:1 elder:1 zion:1 discredit:1 forgery:1 publishing:3 historical:7 society:4 present:1 anti:11 liquor:1 semitic:2 interview:1 statement:3 care:1 fit:2 period:2 emerge:1 respect:1 spokesman:1 wing:1 extremism:1 religious:1 prejudice:1 reader:1 glock:1 quinley:1 semitism:3 transaction:1 publisher:2 along:1 release:1 bound:1 volume:3 weimar:1 republic:1 cumulatively:1 title:2 vincent:1 curcio:1 widely:2 distribute:1 less:2 personage:1 read:4 fascinate:1 hung:1 picture:1 mention:2 mein:1 kampf:1 steven:3 watts:3 revere:1 proclaim:1 shall:1 theory:3 practice:1 volkswagen:1 xi:1 representative:1 kurt:1 ludecke:3 siegfried:2 wagner:3 composer:1 richard:4 winifred:2 sympathizer:1 semite:1 contribution:3 axis:2 lindbergh:5 third:4 reich:4 max:3 wallace:4 macmillan:2 credible:1 evidence:2 deny:1 documentary:1 ibid:1 hate:2 neil:3 baldwin:4 publicaffairs:2 denounce:1 defamation:1 adl:3 explicitly:1 condemn:1 pogrom:1 prefer:1 blame:1 kessinger:2 none:1 almost:3 nothing:3 accord:2 trial:3 testimony:2 associate:1 warn:1 content:4 probably:1 headline:1 court:1 libel:3 suit:1 allege:2 advance:1 lawsuit:1 san:3 francisco:2 lawyer:1 cooperative:1 aaron:3 sapiro:4 remark:2 report:4 shock:1 unaware:1 nature:1 cameron:4 testify:2 editorial:1 byline:1 discuss:2 send:2 investigative:1 journalist:1 credibility:1 absurd:1 may:6 undermined:1 miller:1 swore:1 oath:1 intend:1 expose:1 michael:3 barkun:2 observe:1 explicit:1 instruction:1 unthinkable:1 stanley:1 ruddiman:1 intimate:1 anything:1 racist:1 origin:1 identity:1 movement:1 unc:1 spencer:2 blakeslee:2 mobilize:1 publicly:1 message:1 coalition:1 join:1 rebuke:1 antisemitic:2 campaign:1 boycott:1 liberal:1 impact:2 paper:1 recant:1 public:2 letter:2 sigmund:1 livingston:1 death:2 antisemitism:2 praeger:1 greenwood:1 bestow:2 apology:1 fifth:1 hundred:2 address:1 exception:1 praise:2 chronicle:2 disavow:1 connection:2 whatsoever:1 prior:1 outbreak:1 consul:1 cleveland:1 birthday:1 mooney:1 vice:2 overseas:1 merit:1 class:1 farber:1 sloan:2 rule:3 alfred:1 triumph:1 chicago:1 distribution:1 halt:1 legal:1 action:2 complication:1 lack:1 copyright:1 extremist:1 recycle:1 appear:1 neo:1 website:1 personality:2 friendly:1 judge:1 keidan:2 reply:1 collaborator:1 movie:1 concentration:1 camp:1 lacey:3 hommes:1 et:2 libre:1 expression:2 independence:1 industrial:2 complex:1 steel:4 scratch:1 reliance:1 foreign:1 trade:4 expansion:1 cooperation:1 process:1 demonstrate:2 open:4 britain:2 canada:2 big:1 producer:1 agnelli:1 launch:2 italian:1 encouragement:1 herbert:1 hoover:1 commerce:1 essential:1 wilkins:2 australia:2 india:2 france:1 rubber:2 plantation:3 amazon:1 jungle:1 fordlândia:2 stalin:1 invitation:1 nnaz:1 gaz:1 gorky:1 nizhny:1 novgorod:1 technician:1 walter:1 reuther:1 pose:1 hangar:1 visit:1 assistance:1 vsnh:1 soviet:1 amtorg:2 trading:2 kgb:1 deep:1 reference:3 purchasing:1 agent:1 nine:1 fmc:1 mezhlauk:1 saul:1 bron:1 peaceful:1 diplomatic:1 relation:2 argentina:1 south:1 africa:1 mexico:1 image:1 transfixed:1 arouse:1 fear:1 infatuation:1 fascination:1 represent:2 something:2 quintessentially:1 tempo:1 standardization:1 national:1 culture:4 critic:1 insist:1 epitomize:1 capitalist:2 understanding:1 completely:1 mode:2 hardly:1 imagine:1 difficult:1 preach:1 doctrine:1 salvation:1 embody:1 essence:1 americanism:2 predict:1 essentially:1 greed:1 racism:1 short:1 sightedness:1 technologic:1 point:5 longer:2 base:3 colonial:1 neocolonial:1 truly:1 benefit:1 vague:1 idealistic:1 belief:3 inherent:1 intelligence:1 ethnicity:1 somewhat:1 racing:4 interest:6 sport:2 builder:1 hired:1 strip:1 finish:1 disqualify:1 ocean:2 across:1 oval:1 fairground:1 frank:2 kulick:1 attempt:2 reworked:1 require:1 addition:1 pound:1 kg:1 thereafter:1 cite:2 dissatisfaction:1 booming:1 opinion:1 worthwhile:1 briefly:1 dismissive:1 tone:1 someone:1 ignorance:2 hold:1 worth:1 definition:2 flaw:1 continually:1 ideal:1 affordability:1 reliability:1 fuel:2 automation:1 drudgery:1 rarely:1 belittles:1 merely:1 fast:1 quite:1 induct:1 motorsports:1 hall:1 fame:1 cancer:1 elderly:1 ail:1 decide:1 assume:1 cardiovascular:1 event:1 variously:1 heart:1 stroke:1 mentally:1 inconsistent:1 suspicious:1 generally:1 seriously:1 defy:1 moment:1 serve:1 consider:1 takeover:1 continued:1 ill:1 health:1 cede:1 september:1 retirement:1 cerebral:1 hemorrhage:1 age:1 fair:2 lane:2 estate:2 bury:1 cemetery:1 sidelight:1 science:2 engineering:2 enthusiastically:1 adoption:1 vanadium:1 subsequent:1 metallurgic:1 plastic:5 develop:2 agricultural:1 soybean:3 cultivate:1 relationship:1 george:1 carver:1 horn:1 etc:1 entirely:1 attach:1 tubular:1 weld:1 frame:1 weigh:1 withstand:1 blow:1 ten:1 furthermore:1 grain:1 alcohol:1 ethanol:2 catch:2 interested:1 engineered:1 wood:3 grown:1 plywood:1 particle:1 experimental:1 corn:2 via:2 oil:1 potential:1 us:1 cotton:1 instrumental:1 charcoal:1 briquet:2 kingsford:2 law:1 scrap:1 georgia:2 residence:2 community:2 vacation:1 richmond:1 contribute:1 substantially:1 schoolhouse:2 employ:2 numerous:1 resident:1 preserve:2 americana:2 village:5 sudbury:1 massachusetts:3 themed:1 supposedly:1 nursery:1 rhyme:1 lamb:1 sterling:1 wayside:1 inn:1 fruition:1 repeat:1 creation:3 greenfield:1 sturbridge:1 collect:2 theme:1 practical:1 technology:4 institute:1 greatly:1 modernize:1 invention:6 karl:1 benz:1 oversimplistically:2 case:3 reality:2 notion:1 horseless:1 carriage:1 common:1 road:1 decade:1 extension:1 beyond:2 electric:1 internal:1 combustion:1 influential:1 person:1 paradigm:1 scarce:1 built:1 toy:1 lightweight:1 reliable:1 affordable:1 ransom:1 prerequisite:1 interchangeable:1 gradual:1 technological:1 mistakenly:1 attribute:1 individual:2 conveyor:1 empirical:1 subassemblies:1 shortly:1 inaccurate:1 invent:1 accurate:1 sponsorship:1 central:1 explosive:1 miscellaneous:1 winner:1 entrepreneur:1 dress:1 santa:1 claus:1 sleigh:1 ride:1 christmas:1 fond:1 deathbed:1 breath:1 tube:2 exquisite:1 corpse:1 minister:1 reincarnation:4 unclear:1 examiner:1 satisfaction:1 futile:1 cannot:1 utilise:1 experience:3 discover:1 realise:1 chance:1 limited:1 slave:1 clock:1 gift:1 talent:1 fruit:1 soul:1 discovery:1 mind:2 ease:2 conversation:1 communicate:1 calmness:1 popular:2 aldous:1 huxley:1 brave:2 fordist:1 lord:1 glass:1 jar:1 provide:1 alpha:1 beta:1 gamma:1 delta:1 epsilon:1 homage:1 define:1 native:1 character:1 fiction:1 notably:1 doctorow:1 ragtime:1 three:1 dance:1 plot:2 philip:1 roth:1 imago:1 interior:1 imaginary:1 subject:1 entitle:1 adapt:1 film:1 star:1 cliff:1 robertson:1 ironside:1 gallup:1 list:2 poll:1 toledo:1 ironton:1 railroad:1 winter:1 estates:1 mayo:1 tree:1 wealthy:1 figure:1 principal:1 republication:3 domain:1 edition:3 heinemann:2 apparent:1 benn:1 republish:2 thought:1 diego:1 oclc:1 llc:1 bak:1 empire:1 wiley:1 brinkley:2 halberstam:1 citizen:1 interpretive:1 essay:2 jardim:1 anne:1 study:2 leadership:1 inst:1 nye:1 ignorant:1 idealist:1 kennikat:1 tycoon:3 specialize:1 batchelor:1 ray:1 modernism:1 manchester:1 bonin:1 huber:1 al:1 vol:2 paris:1 scholarly:1 english:1 review:4 holden:1 len:1 atlantic:1 jan:1 prime:1 mover:1 lieutenant:1 venture:1 dempsey:1 jacobson:1 political:1 location:1 irish:2 kraft:1 barbara:1 adventure:1 levinson:1 enduring:1 kahn:2 commission:1 architect:1 albert:2 magic:1 beanstalk:1 mcintyre:1 stephen:2 reform:2 reject:1 meyer:1 modernity:1 modernization:1 pietrykowski:1 bruce:1 spatial:1 decentralization:1 segmentation:1 geography:1 roediger:1 ed:1 kate:1 richards:1 hare:1 segal:1 howard:1 beginning:2 decentralized:1 prospect:1 workplace:1 pastoral:1 retreat:1 tedlow:1 struggle:1 dominance:1 market:1 stress:2 efficient:1 gm:1 oligopolistic:1 marketing:1 paul:1 exploration:1 entrepreneurial:1 argues:1 valdés:1 dennis:1 nodin:1 perspire:1 latino:1 school:1 aztlán:1 mexican:1 mira:1 abroad:1 williams:2 karel:1 colin:1 haslam:1 versus:1 flexibility:1 continuous:1 improvement:1 far:1 foust:1 journalism:1 higham:1 enemy:1 delacorte:1 kandel:1 alan:1 israel:1 cover:1 philanthropy:1 lee:1 rowman:1 littlefield:1 inc:1 repercussion:1 simon:1 dimension:1 online:2 ribuffo:1 leo:1 retrospective:1 western:1 quarterly:1 silverstein:1 führer:1 woeste:1 victoria:1 saker:1 insecure:1 equality:1 louis:1 marshall:1 defamatory:1 journal:1 external:1 link:1 photo:1 text:1 gutenberg:1 commentary:1 notable:1 quotation:1 speech:1 excerpt:1 timeline:1 college:1 student:1 expedition:1 collaboration:1 jonathan:1 logsdon:1 hanover:1 regret:1 sf:1 генры:1 форд:1 |@bigram ford_motor:19 dearborn_michigan:2 gasoline_engine:1 self_propelled:1 thomas_edison:3 st_clair:1 mile_km:2 raw_material:1 steer_wheel:1 woodrow_wilson:3 edsel_ford:4 steadfastly_refuse:1 ford_crowther:12 minimum_wage:1 past_tense:1 self_defeating:1 socio_economic:2 maximize_profit:1 collective_bargaining:1 bargaining_agreement:1 de_facto:2 detroit_automaker:1 corrosion_resistance:1 smithsonian_institution:1 franklin_roosevelt:3 liberator_bomber:1 k_chesterton:1 adolf_hitler:3 deeply_involved:1 fulfil_prophesy:1 dearborn_independent:6 elder_zion:1 anti_semitic:2 anti_semitism:3 weimar_republic:1 mein_kampf:1 richard_wagner:1 nazi_sympathizer:1 anti_semite:1 charles_lindbergh:3 third_reich:3 anti_defamation:1 defamation_league:1 kessinger_publishing:2 libel_suit:1 san_francisco:2 michael_barkun:1 barkun_michael:1 praeger_greenwood:1 vice_president:2 concentration_camp:1 herbert_hoover:1 rubber_plantation:2 amazon_jungle:1 nizhny_novgorod:1 diplomatic_relation:1 auto_racing:1 pound_kg:1 hall_fame:1 cerebral_hemorrhage:1 washington_carver:1 nursery_rhyme:1 greenfield_village:1 karl_benz:1 internal_combustion:1 combustion_engine:1 conveyor_belt:1 santa_claus:1 unclear_whether:1 francisco_examiner:1 aldous_huxley:1 huxley_brave:1 alpha_beta:1 beta_gamma:1 delta_epsilon:1 philip_roth:1 san_diego:1 publishing_llc:1 brinkley_douglas:2 halberstam_david:1 interpretive_essay:1 et_al:1 prime_mover:1 delacorte_press:1 rowman_littlefield:1 littlefield_publisher:1 external_link:1 project_gutenberg:1 |
1,618 | Ad_hominem | An ad hominem argument, also known as argumentum ad hominem (Latin: "argument to the man", "argument against the man") consists of replying to an argument or factual claim by attacking or appealing to a characteristic or belief of the source making the argument or claim, rather than by addressing the substance of the argument or producing evidence against the claim. The process of proving or disproving the claim is thereby subverted, and the argumentum ad hominem works to change the subject. Background Ad hominem argument is most commonly used to refer specifically to the ad hominem abusive, or argumentum ad personam, which consists of criticizing or attacking the person who proposed the argument (personal attack) in an attempt to discredit the argument. It is also used when an opponent is unable to find fault with an argument, yet for various reasons, the opponent disagrees with it. Other common subtypes of the ad hominem include the ad hominem circumstantial, or ad hominem circumstantiae, an attack which is directed at the circumstances or situation of the arguer; and the ad hominem tu quoque, which objects to an argument by characterizing the arguer as acting or arguing in accordance with the view that he is arguing against. Ad hominem arguments are always invalid in syllogistic logic, since the truth value of premises is taken as given, and the validity of a logical inference is independent of the source making the inference. However, ad hominem arguments are rarely presented as formal syllogisms, and their assessment lies in the domain of informal logic and the theory of evidence. The theory of evidence depends to a large degree on assessments of the credibility of witnesses, including eyewitness evidence and expert witness evidence. Evidence that a purported eyewitness is unreliable, or has a motive for lying, or that a purported expert witness lacks the claimed expertise can play a major role in making judgements from evidence. Argumentum ad hominem is the inverse of argumentum ad verecundiam, in which the arguer bases the truth value of an assertion on the authority of the source asserting it. Hence, while an ad hominem argument may make an assertion less compelling, by showing that the source making the assertion does not have the authority it claims, or has made mistaken assertions on similar topics in the past, it cannot provide an infallible counterargument. An ad hominem fallacy is a genetic fallacy and red herring, and is most often (but not always) an appeal to emotion. It does not include arguments posed by a source that contradict the source's actions. Ad hominem as informal fallacy A (fallacious) ad hominem argument has the basic form: Person A makes claim X There is something objectionable about Person A Therefore claim X is false Ad hominem is one of the best known of the logical and systematic fallacies usually enumerated in introductory logic and critical thinking textbooks. Both the fallacy itself, and accusations of having committed it, are often brandished in actual discourse (see also Argument from fallacy). As a technique of rhetoric, it is powerful and used often because of the natural inclination of the human brain to recognize patterns. Image:Eugenics ad hominem.svg The first premise is called a 'factual claim' and is the pivot point of much debate. The contention is referred to as an 'inferential claim' and represents the reasoning process. There are two types of inferential claim, explicit and implicit. The fallacy does not represent a valid form of reasoning because even if you accept both co-premises, that does not guarantee the truthfulness of the contention. This can also be thought of as the argument having an un-stated co-premise. Image:Eugenics expanded ad hominem.jpg In this example, the un-stated co-premise "everything that A claims is false" has been included, and the argument is therefore now a valid one. However in the ad hominem fallacy the un-stated co-premise is always false, thereby maintaining the fallacy. Note that this does not imply that the contention "eugenics is a bad idea" is false, merely un-supported by the pattern of reasoning below it. Usage In logic An ad hominem fallacy consists of asserting that an argument is wrong and/or the source is wrong to argue at all purely because of something discreditable/not-authoritative about the source or those sources cited by it rather than addressing the soundness of the argument itself. The implication is that the source's argument and/or ability to argue correctly lacks authority. Merely insulting a source in the middle of otherwise rational discourse does not necessarily constitute an ad hominem fallacy (though it is not usually regarded as acceptable). It must be clear that the purpose of the characterization is to discredit the source offering the argument, and, specifically, to invite others to discount its arguments. In the past, the term ad hominem was sometimes used more literally, to describe an argument that was based on an individual, or to describe any personal attack. However, this is not how the meaning of the term is typically introduced in modern logic and rhetoric textbooks, and logicians and rhetoricians are in agreement that this use is incorrect. Example: "You claim that this man is innocent, but you cannot be trusted since you are a criminal as well." This argument would generally be accepted as reasonable, as regards personal evidence, on the premise that criminals are likely to lie to protect each other. On the other hand, it is a valid example of ad hominem if the source making the claim is doing so on the basis of evidence independent of its own credibility. In general, ad hominem criticism of evidence cannot prove the negative of the proposition being claimed: Example: "Paula says the umpire made the correct call, but this can't be true, because Paula is a stupid idiot." Assuming the premise is correct, Paula's evidence is valueless, but the umpire may nonetheless have made the right call. Colloquially In common language, any personal attack, regardless of whether it is part of an argument, is often referred to as ad hominem. Types of ad hominems Three traditionally identified varieties are ad hominem abusive (or ad personam), ad hominem circumstantial, and ad hominem tu quoque. Ad hominem abusive Ad hominem abusive (also called argumentum ad personam) usually and most notoriously involves insulting or belittling one's opponent, but can also involve pointing out factual but ostensibly damning character flaws or actions which are irrelevant to the opponent's argument. This tactic is logically fallacious because insults and even true negative facts about the opponent's personal character have nothing to do with the logical merits of the opponent's arguments or assertions. This tactic is frequently employed as a propaganda tool among politicians who are attempting to influence the voter base in their favor through an appeal to emotion rather than by logical means, especially when their own position is logically weaker than their opponent's. Examples: "You can't believe Jack when he says God exists because he doesn't even have a job." "Candidate Jane Jones's proposal X is ridiculous. She was caught cheating on her taxes in 2003." Ad hominem circumstantial Ad hominem circumstantial involves pointing out that someone is in circumstances such that he is disposed to take a particular position. Essentially, ad hominem circumstantial constitutes an attack on the bias of a source. The reason that this is fallacious in syllogistic logic is that pointing out that one's opponent is disposed to make a certain argument does not make the argument, from a logical point of view, any less credible; this overlaps with the genetic fallacy (an argument that a claim is incorrect due to its source). On the other hand, where the source taking a position seeks to convince us by a claim of authority, or personal observation, observation of their circumstances may reduce the evidentiary weight of the claims, sometimes to zero. Examples: "Tobacco company representatives should not be believed when they say smoking doesn't seriously affect your health, because they're just defending their own multi-million-dollar financial interests." "He's physically addicted to nicotine. Of course he defends smoking!” "What do you know about politics? You're too young to vote!" Mandy Rice-Davies's famous testimony, during the Profumo Affair, "Well, he would [say that], wouldn't he?", is an example of a valid circumstantial argument. Her point is that since a man in a prominent position, accused of an affair with a callgirl, would deny the claim whether it was true or false, his denial, in itself, carries little evidential weight against the claim of an affair. Note, however, that this argument is valid only insofar as it devalues the denial; it does not bolster the original claim. To construe evidentiary invalidation of the denial as evidentiary validation of the original claim is fallacious (on several different bases, including that of argumentum ad hominem); however likely the man in question would be to deny an affair that did in fact happen, he could only be more likely to deny an affair that never did. Ad hominem tu quoque Ad hominem tu quoque (lit: "You too!") refers to a claim that the source making the argument has spoken or acted in a way inconsistent with the argument. In particular, if Source A criticizes the actions of Source B, a tu quoque response is that Source A has acted in the same way. Examples: "You say that stealing is wrong, but you do it as well." "He says we shouldn't enslave people, yet he himself owns slaves" Guilt by association Guilt by association can sometimes also be a type of ad hominem fallacy, if the argument attacks a source because of the similarity between the views of someone making an argument and other proponents of the argument. This form of the argument is as follows: Source A makes claim P. Group B also make claim P. Therefore, source A is a member of group B. Example: "You say the gap between the rich and poor is unacceptable, but communists also say this, therefore you are a communist" This fallacy can also take another form: Source A makes claim P. Group B make claims P and Q Therefore, Source A makes claim Q. Examples: "You say the gap between the rich and poor is unacceptable, but communists also say this, and they believe in revolution. Thus, you believe in revolution." A similar tactic may be employed to encourage someone to renounce an opinion, or force them to choose between renouncing an opinion or admitting membership in a group. For example: "You say the gap between the rich and poor is unacceptable. You don't really mean that, do you? Communists say the same thing. You're not a communist, are you?" Guilt by association may be combined with ad hominem abusive. For example: "You say the gap between the rich and poor is unacceptable, but communists also say this, and therefore you are a communist. Communists are unlikeable, and therefore everything they say is false, and therefore everything you say is false." A reductio ad Hitlerum argument can be seen as an example of a "guilt by association" fallacy, since it attacks a viewpoint simply because it was supposedly espoused by Adolf Hitler, as if it is impossible that such a man could have held any viewpoint that is correct. Inverse ad hominem An inverse ad hominem argument praises a source in order to add support for that source's argument or claim. A fallacious inverse ad hominem argument may go something like this: "That man was smartly-dressed and charming, so I'll accept his argument that I should vote for him" As with regular ad hominem arguments, not all cases of inverse ad hominem are fallacious. Consider the following: "Elizabeth has never told a lie in her entire life, and she says she saw him take the bag. She must be telling the truth." Here the arguer is not suggesting we accept Elizabeth's argument, but her testimony. Her being an honest person is relevant to the truth of the conclusion (that he took the bag), just as her having bad eyesight (a regular case of ad hominem) would give reason not to believe her. However, the last part of the argument is false even if the premise is true, since having never told a lie before does not mean she isn't now. Appeal to authority is a type of inverse ad hominem argument. See also Ad feminam "And you are lynching Negroes" Association fallacy Fair game (Scientology) Fundamental attribution error Shooting the messenger References Sources Copi, Irving M. and Cohen, Carl. Introduction to Logic (8th Ed.), p. 97-100. Further reading External links Nizkor.org: Fallacy: Ad Hominem. Nizkor.org: Fallacy: Circumstantial Ad Hominem. Argumentum Ad Hominem the ad hominem fallacy fallacy About.com: Argument Against the Person (Argumentum ad hominem) Logical Fallacies: Ad Hominem Infidels.org: Logic and Fallacies: Constructing a Logical Argument (Argumentum ad Hominem) theness.org: The New England Skeptical Society: How to Argue Mission Critical: Introduction to Ad Hominem Fallacies | Ad_hominem |@lemmatized ad:61 hominem:54 argument:51 also:13 know:2 argumentum:10 latin:1 man:7 consist:3 reply:1 factual:3 claim:28 attack:9 appeal:4 characteristic:1 belief:1 source:28 make:19 rather:3 address:2 substance:1 produce:1 evidence:11 process:2 prove:2 disprove:1 thereby:2 subvert:1 work:1 change:1 subject:1 background:1 commonly:1 use:5 refer:3 specifically:2 abusive:5 personam:3 criticize:2 person:5 propose:1 personal:6 attempt:2 discredit:2 opponent:8 unable:1 find:1 fault:1 yet:2 various:1 reason:5 disagree:1 common:2 subtypes:1 include:5 circumstantial:7 circumstantiae:1 direct:1 circumstance:3 situation:1 arguer:4 tu:5 quoque:5 object:1 characterize:1 act:3 argue:5 accordance:1 view:3 always:3 invalid:1 syllogistic:2 logic:8 since:5 truth:4 value:2 premise:9 take:6 give:2 validity:1 logical:7 inference:2 independent:2 however:6 rarely:1 present:1 formal:1 syllogism:1 assessment:2 lie:5 domain:1 informal:2 theory:2 depends:1 large:1 degree:1 credibility:2 witness:3 eyewitness:2 expert:2 purported:2 unreliable:1 motive:1 lack:2 claimed:1 expertise:1 play:1 major:1 role:1 judgement:1 inverse:6 verecundiam:1 base:4 assertion:5 authority:5 assert:2 hence:1 may:6 less:2 compelling:1 show:1 mistaken:1 similar:2 topic:1 past:2 cannot:3 provide:1 infallible:1 counterargument:1 fallacy:23 genetic:2 red:1 herring:1 often:4 emotion:2 pose:1 contradict:1 action:3 fallacious:6 basic:1 form:4 x:3 something:3 objectionable:1 therefore:8 false:8 one:4 best:1 known:1 systematic:1 usually:3 enumerate:1 introductory:1 critical:2 thinking:1 textbook:2 accusation:1 commit:1 brandish:1 actual:1 discourse:2 see:3 technique:1 rhetoric:2 powerful:1 natural:1 inclination:1 human:1 brain:1 recognize:1 pattern:2 image:2 eugenics:3 svg:1 first:1 call:4 pivot:1 point:6 much:1 debate:1 contention:3 inferential:2 represent:2 two:1 type:4 explicit:1 implicit:1 valid:5 reasoning:1 even:4 accept:4 co:4 guarantee:1 truthfulness:1 think:1 un:4 state:3 expand:1 jpg:1 example:13 everything:3 maintain:1 note:2 imply:1 bad:2 idea:1 merely:2 support:2 usage:1 wrong:3 purely:1 discreditable:1 authoritative:1 cite:1 soundness:1 implication:1 ability:1 correctly:1 insult:2 middle:1 otherwise:1 rational:1 necessarily:1 constitute:2 though:1 regard:2 acceptable:1 must:2 clear:1 purpose:1 characterization:1 offer:1 invite:1 others:1 discount:1 term:2 sometimes:3 literally:1 describe:2 individual:1 meaning:1 typically:1 introduce:1 modern:1 logician:1 rhetorician:1 agreement:1 incorrect:2 innocent:1 trust:1 criminal:2 well:3 would:5 generally:1 reasonable:1 likely:3 protect:1 hand:2 basis:1 general:1 criticism:1 negative:2 proposition:1 paula:3 say:17 umpire:2 correct:3 true:4 stupid:1 idiot:1 assume:1 valueless:1 nonetheless:1 right:1 colloquially:1 language:1 regardless:1 whether:2 part:2 hominems:1 three:1 traditionally:1 identify:1 variety:1 notoriously:1 involve:2 insulting:1 belittle:1 ostensibly:1 damn:1 character:2 flaw:1 irrelevant:1 tactic:3 logically:2 fact:2 nothing:1 merit:1 frequently:1 employ:2 propaganda:1 tool:1 among:1 politician:1 influence:1 voter:1 favor:1 mean:3 especially:1 position:4 weak:1 believe:5 jack:1 god:1 exist:1 job:1 candidate:1 jane:1 jones:1 proposal:1 ridiculous:1 catch:1 cheat:1 tax:1 involves:1 someone:3 dispose:2 particular:2 essentially:1 bias:1 certain:1 credible:1 overlap:1 due:1 seek:1 convince:1 u:1 observation:2 reduce:1 evidentiary:3 weight:2 zero:1 tobacco:1 company:1 representative:1 smoke:2 seriously:1 affect:1 health:1 defend:2 multi:1 million:1 dollar:1 financial:1 interest:1 physically:1 addict:1 nicotine:1 course:1 politics:1 young:1 vote:2 mandy:1 rice:1 davy:1 famous:1 testimony:2 profumo:1 affair:5 prominent:1 accuse:1 callgirl:1 deny:3 denial:3 carry:1 little:1 evidential:1 insofar:1 devalue:1 bolster:1 original:2 construe:1 invalidation:1 validation:1 several:1 different:1 question:1 happen:1 could:2 never:3 lit:1 refers:1 speak:1 way:2 inconsistent:1 b:4 response:1 steal:1 enslave:1 people:1 slave:1 guilt:4 association:5 similarity:1 proponent:1 follow:1 p:5 group:4 member:1 gap:4 rich:4 poor:4 unacceptable:4 communist:8 another:1 q:2 revolution:2 thus:1 encourage:1 renounce:2 opinion:2 force:1 choose:1 admit:1 membership:1 really:1 thing:1 combine:1 unlikeable:1 reductio:1 hitlerum:1 viewpoint:2 simply:1 supposedly:1 espouse:1 adolf:1 hitler:1 impossible:1 hold:1 praise:1 order:1 add:1 go:1 like:1 smartly:1 dress:1 charm:1 regular:2 case:2 consider:1 following:1 elizabeth:2 tell:3 entire:1 life:1 saw:1 bag:2 suggest:1 honest:1 relevant:1 conclusion:1 eyesight:1 last:1 feminam:1 lynch:1 negro:1 fair:1 game:1 scientology:1 fundamental:1 attribution:1 error:1 shoot:1 messenger:1 reference:1 copi:1 irving:1 cohen:1 carl:1 introduction:2 ed:1 read:1 external:1 link:1 nizkor:2 org:4 com:1 infidel:1 construct:1 theness:1 new:1 england:1 skeptical:1 society:1 mission:1 |@bigram ad_hominem:54 hominem_argument:10 argumentum_ad:10 prove_disprove:1 hominem_abusive:5 ad_personam:3 hominem_circumstantial:5 tu_quoque:5 hominem_fallacy:7 red_herring:1 informal_fallacy:1 explicit_implicit:1 reductio_ad:1 ad_hitlerum:1 adolf_hitler:1 external_link:1 logical_fallacy:1 |
1,619 | Camouflage | A flounder blending in with the rocks on the seafloor. Camouflage is a method of cryptic or concealing coloration that allows an otherwise visible organism or object to remain indiscernible from the surrounding environment through deception. Examples include a tiger's stripes and the battledress of a modern soldier. The theory of camouflage covers various strategies which are used. Cryptic coloration in nature The Egyptian Nightjar nests in the open sand with only its coloration to protect it Scorpion fish resting beside a rope Cryptic coloration is the most common form of camouflage, found to some extent in the majority of species. The simplest way is for an animal to be of a color similar to its surroundings. Examples include the "earth tones" of deer, squirrels, or moles (to match trees or dirt), or the combination of blue skin and white underbelly of sharks via countershading (which makes them difficult to detect from both above and below). More complex patterns can be seen in animals such as flounder, moths, and frogs, among many others. The type of camouflage a species will develop depends on several factors: The environment in which it lives. This is usually the most important factor. The physiology and behavior of an animal. Animals with need different camouflage than those with feathers or scales. Likewise, animals who live in groups use different camouflage techniques than those that are solitary. If the animal is preyed upon, then the behavior or characteristics of its predator can influence how the camouflage develops. For example, if the predator has achromatic vision, then the animal will not need to match the color of its surroundings. A common snakeneck turtle covered in camouflaging algae; when resting this individual would look like an algae covered rock Animals produce colors in two ways: Biochromes — natural microscopic pigments that absorb certain wavelengths of light and reflect others, creating a visible color that is targeted towards its primary predator. Microscopic physical structures, which act like prisms to reflect and scatter light to produce a color that is different from the skin, such as the translucent fur of the Polar Bear, which actually has black skin. Cryptic coloration can change as well. This can be due to just a changing of the seasons, or it can be in response to more rapid environmental changes. For example, the Arctic fox has a white coat in winter, and a brown coat in summer. Mammals and birds require a new fur coat and new set of feathers respectively, but some animals, such as cuttlefish, have deeper-level pigment cells, called chromatophores, that they can control. Other animals such as certain fish species or the nudibranch can actually change their skin coloration by changing their diet. However, the most well-known creature that changes color, the chameleon, usually does not do so for camouflage purposes, but instead to express its mood. A mackerel tabby cat blending with its (autumn) environment Beyond colors, skin patterns are often helpful in cryptic coloration as well. The Craik-O'Brien-Cornsweet illusion describes visual perception as occurring through contrasts of outlines. One recognizes a dog, for example, not by its color as much as by its shape. Often what matters most for good cryptic coloration is to break up the outline of a creature's body. This can be seen in common domestic pets such as tabby cats, but striping overall in other animals such as tigers and zebras help them blend into their environment, the jungle and the grasslands respectively. The latter two provide an interesting example, as one's initial impression might be that their coloration does not match their surroundings at all, but tigers' prey are usually color blind to a certain extent such that they cannot tell the difference between orange and green, and zebras' main predators, lions, are color blind. In the case of zebras, the stripes also blend together so that a herd of zebras looks like one large mass, making it difficult for a lion to pick out any individual zebra. This same concept is used by many striped fish species as well. Among birds, the white "chinstraps" of Canada geese make a flock in tall grass appear more like sticks and less like birds' heads. Crab with red algae all over its body at Moss Beach, California In nature, there is a strong evolutionary pressure for animals to blend into their environment or conceal their shape; for prey animals to avoid predators and for predators to be able to sneak up on prey. Natural camouflage is one method that animals use to meet these. There are a number of methods of doing so. One is for the animal to blend in with its surroundings, while another is for the animal to disguise itself as something uninteresting or something dangerous. There is a permanent co-evolution of the sensory abilities of animals for whom it is beneficial to be able to detect the camouflaged animal, and the cryptic characteristics of the concealing species. Different aspects of crypsis and sensory abilities may be more or less pronounced in given predator-prey pairs of species. Some cryptic animals also simulate natural movement, e.g., of a leaf in the wind. This is called procryptic behaviour or habit. Other animals attach or attract natural materials to their body for concealment. Countershaded Ibex are almost invisible in the Israeli desert. A few animals have chromatic response, changing color in changing environments, either seasonally (ermine, snowshoe hare) or far more rapidly with chromatophores in their integument (the cephalopod family). Some animals, notably in aquatic environments, also take steps to camouflage the odours they create that may attract predators. Some herd animals adopt a similar pattern to make it difficult to distinguish a single animal. Examples include stripes on zebras and the reflective scales on fish. Military camouflage A modern example of military camouflage. Pictured is a US Naval Corpsman wearing desert MARPAT camouflage. Camouflage was not in wide use in early western civilization based warfare. Eighteenth and 19th century armies tended to use bright colors and bold, impressive designs. These were intended to daunt the enemy, attract recruits, foster unit cohesion, or allow easier identification of units in the fog of war common to the battlefield before the invention of smokeless gun powder. Jäger riflemen in the 18th century were the first to adopt colors in relatively drab shades of green or grey. Major armies retained their bright colors until convinced otherwise. In 1857, the British in India were forced by casualties to dye their white hot weather uniforms to neutral tones, initially a muddy tan called khaki (from the Urdu word for 'dust'). This was only a temporary measure and the Army reverted to red or white uniforms until khaki became standard for Indian service in the 1880s. It was not until after the Second Boer War that, in 1902, the "home service" (i.e. non-tropical) field uniforms of the entire British army were standardised using a darker shade of khaki serge. Other armies, such as those of the United States, Russia, Italy, and Germany followed suit either with khaki, grey, blue-grey or other colors more suitable for their environments. Camouflage netting, natural materials, disruptive color patterns, and paint with special infrared, thermal, and radar qualities have also been used on military vehicles, ships, aircraft, installations and buildings. A striking example of this is the dazzle camouflage used on ships during WW I. Ghillie suits are worn by snipers and their spotters to take camouflage to a higher level, combining not just colors, but twigs, leaves and other foliage to break up the human silhouette and to replace the printed patterns of their uniform with colors and materials from their immediate environment so as to remain inconspicuous even while being directly observed through binoculars or from above by aircraft. Other human uses of cryptic coloration Hunters often use camouflage clothing that is visually tailored to the game they are hunting. The most striking example of this is the blaze orange camouflage, which makes the hunter obvious to humans but relies on the fact that most large game animals, such as deer, are dichromats, and perceive the orange as a dull color. On the other hand, ultraviolet dyes, commonly used in laundry detergents to make the laundered items appear brighter, are visible to many game animals; using these will cause what appears to the human eye to be cryptically colored clothing to stand out against the background, when viewed by an animal with ultraviolet-sensitive eyes. There are several different types of hunting camouflage. The use of each one is dependent upon the area in which the hunter is going to hunt. It can range in appearance from a mossy oak pattern to a sage brush pattern for hunters of large mammals. Waterfowl hunters can have camouflage that resembles swamp reeds. See also Active camouflage Animal coloration Aposematism Everett Warner References Roy R. Behrens - Art and Camouflage: An Annotated Bibliography Jon Latimer, Deception in War, London: John Murray, 2001. Everett L. Warner, “The Science of Marine Camouflage Design” in Transactions of the Illuminating Engineering Society 14 (5) 1919, pp. 215-219. Everett L. Warner, “Fooling the Iron Fish: The Inside Story of Marine Camouflage” in Everybody’s Magazine (November 1919), pp. 102-109. Notes Traver, Kacey "Life under the Sea.' Copyright 2008. External links Artists and Other Contributors to Camouflage in the 20th Century Roy R. Behrens, "The Thinking Eye: a Chronology of Camouflage" 2006 "An informal study into camouflage" | Camouflage |@lemmatized flounder:2 blending:1 rock:2 seafloor:1 camouflage:29 method:3 cryptic:9 conceal:2 coloration:11 allow:2 otherwise:2 visible:3 organism:1 object:1 remain:2 indiscernible:1 surround:1 environment:9 deception:2 example:10 include:3 tiger:3 stripe:3 battledress:1 modern:2 soldier:1 theory:1 cover:3 various:1 strategy:1 use:13 nature:2 egyptian:1 nightjar:1 nest:1 open:1 sand:1 protect:1 scorpion:1 fish:5 resting:1 beside:1 rope:1 common:4 form:1 find:1 extent:2 majority:1 specie:6 simple:1 way:2 animal:28 color:20 similar:2 surroundings:4 earth:1 tone:2 deer:2 squirrel:1 mole:1 match:3 tree:1 dirt:1 combination:1 blue:2 skin:5 white:5 underbelly:1 shark:1 via:1 countershading:1 make:6 difficult:3 detect:2 complex:1 pattern:7 see:3 moth:1 frog:1 among:2 many:3 others:2 type:2 develop:2 depends:1 several:2 factor:2 live:2 usually:3 important:1 physiology:1 behavior:2 need:2 different:5 feather:2 scale:2 likewise:1 group:1 technique:1 solitary:1 prey:5 upon:2 characteristic:2 predator:8 influence:1 achromatic:1 vision:1 snakeneck:1 turtle:1 algae:3 rest:1 individual:2 would:1 look:2 like:5 produce:2 two:2 biochromes:1 natural:5 microscopic:2 pigment:2 absorb:1 certain:3 wavelength:1 light:2 reflect:2 create:2 target:1 towards:1 primary:1 physical:1 structure:1 act:1 prism:1 scatter:1 translucent:1 fur:2 polar:1 bear:1 actually:2 black:1 change:7 well:4 due:1 changing:1 season:1 response:2 rapid:1 environmental:1 arctic:1 fox:1 coat:3 winter:1 brown:1 summer:1 mammal:2 bird:3 require:1 new:2 set:1 respectively:2 cuttlefish:1 deeper:1 level:2 cell:1 call:3 chromatophores:2 control:1 nudibranch:1 diet:1 however:1 know:1 creature:2 chameleon:1 purpose:1 instead:1 express:1 mood:1 mackerel:1 tabby:2 cat:2 blend:5 autumn:1 beyond:1 often:3 helpful:1 craik:1 brien:1 cornsweet:1 illusion:1 describe:1 visual:1 perception:1 occur:1 contrast:1 outline:2 one:6 recognize:1 dog:1 much:1 shape:2 matter:1 good:1 break:2 body:3 domestic:1 pet:1 strip:2 overall:1 zebra:5 help:1 jungle:1 grassland:1 latter:1 provide:1 interesting:1 initial:1 impression:1 might:1 blind:2 cannot:1 tell:1 difference:1 orange:3 green:2 main:1 lion:2 case:1 also:5 together:1 herd:2 zebras:1 large:3 mass:1 pick:1 concept:1 chinstraps:1 canada:1 geese:1 flock:1 tall:1 grass:1 appear:3 stick:1 less:2 head:1 crab:1 red:2 moss:1 beach:1 california:1 strong:1 evolutionary:1 pressure:1 avoid:1 able:2 sneak:1 meet:1 number:1 another:1 disguise:1 something:2 uninteresting:1 dangerous:1 permanent:1 co:1 evolution:1 sensory:2 ability:2 beneficial:1 camouflaged:1 concealing:1 aspect:1 crypsis:1 may:2 pronounced:1 give:1 pair:1 simulate:1 movement:1 e:2 g:1 leaf:2 wind:1 procryptic:1 behaviour:1 habit:1 attach:1 attract:3 material:3 concealment:1 countershaded:1 ibex:1 almost:1 invisible:1 israeli:1 desert:2 chromatic:1 either:2 seasonally:1 ermine:1 snowshoe:1 hare:1 far:1 rapidly:1 integument:1 cephalopod:1 family:1 notably:1 aquatic:1 take:2 step:1 odour:1 adopt:2 distinguish:1 single:1 reflective:1 military:3 picture:1 u:1 naval:1 corpsman:1 wear:2 marpat:1 wide:1 early:1 western:1 civilization:1 base:1 warfare:1 eighteenth:1 century:3 army:5 tend:1 bright:2 bold:1 impressive:1 design:2 intend:1 daunt:1 enemy:1 recruit:1 foster:1 unit:2 cohesion:1 easy:1 identification:1 fog:1 war:3 battlefield:1 invention:1 smokeless:1 gun:1 powder:1 jäger:1 rifleman:1 first:1 relatively:1 drab:1 shade:2 grey:3 major:1 retain:1 convinced:1 british:2 india:1 force:1 casualty:1 dye:2 hot:1 weather:1 uniform:4 neutral:1 initially:1 muddy:1 tan:1 khaki:4 urdu:1 word:1 dust:1 temporary:1 measure:1 revert:1 become:1 standard:1 indian:1 service:2 second:1 boer:1 home:1 non:1 tropical:1 field:1 entire:1 standardise:1 darker:1 serge:1 united:1 state:1 russia:1 italy:1 germany:1 follow:1 suit:2 suitable:1 netting:1 disruptive:1 paint:1 special:1 infrared:1 thermal:1 radar:1 quality:1 vehicle:1 ship:2 aircraft:2 installation:1 building:1 striking:2 dazzle:1 ww:1 ghillie:1 sniper:1 spotter:1 high:1 combine:1 twig:1 foliage:1 human:4 silhouette:1 replace:1 printed:1 immediate:1 inconspicuous:1 even:1 directly:1 observe:1 binoculars:1 us:1 hunter:5 clothing:2 visually:1 tailor:1 game:3 hunt:2 blaze:1 obvious:1 relies:1 fact:1 dichromat:1 perceive:1 dull:1 hand:1 ultraviolet:2 commonly:1 laundry:1 detergent:1 laundered:1 item:1 brighter:1 cause:1 eye:3 cryptically:1 stand:1 background:1 view:1 sensitive:1 hunting:1 dependent:1 area:1 go:1 range:1 appearance:1 mossy:1 oak:1 sage:1 brush:1 waterfowl:1 resemble:1 swamp:1 reed:1 active:1 aposematism:1 everett:3 warner:3 reference:1 roy:2 r:2 behrens:2 art:1 annotated:1 bibliography:1 jon:1 latimer:1 london:1 john:1 murray:1 l:2 science:1 marine:2 transaction:1 illuminate:1 engineering:1 society:1 pp:2 fool:1 iron:1 inside:1 story:1 everybody:1 magazine:1 november:1 note:1 traver:1 kacey:1 life:1 sea:1 copyright:1 external:1 link:1 artist:1 contributor:1 thinking:1 chronology:1 informal:1 study:1 |@bigram cryptic_coloration:6 arctic_fox:1 predator_prey:1 darker_shade:1 laundry_detergent:1 annotated_bibliography:1 external_link:1 |
1,620 | Anthropic_principle | In physics and cosmology, the anthropic principle is the collective name for several ways of asserting that physical and chemical theories, especially astrophysics and cosmology, need to take into account that there is life on Earth, and that one form of that life, Homo sapiens, has attained sapience. The only kind of universe humans can occupy is one that is similar to the current one. Originally proposed as a rule of reasoning, the term has since been extended to cover supposed "superlaws" that in various ways require the universe to support intelligent life, usually assumed to be carbon-based and occasionally asserted to be human beings. Anthropic reasoning assesses these constraints by analyzing the properties of hypothetical universes whose fundamental parameters or laws of physics differ from those of the real universe. Anthropic reasoning typically concludes that the stability of structures essential for life, from atomic nuclei to the whole universe, depends on delicate balances between different fundamental forces. These balances are believed to occur only in a tiny fraction of possible universes — so that this universe appears fine-tuned for life. Anthropic reasoning attempts to explain and quantify this fine tuning. Within the scientific community the usual approach is to invoke selection effects and to hypothesize an ensemble of alternate universes, in which case that which can be observed is subject to an anthropic bias. The term anthropic in "anthropic principle" has been argued to be a misnomer. While singling out our kind of carbon-based life, none of the coincidences require human life or demand that carbon-based life develop intelligence. The anthropic principle has given rise to some confusion and controversy, partly because the phrase has been applied to several distinct ideas. All versions of the principle have been accused of undermining the search for a deeper physical understanding of the universe. Those who invoke the anthropic principle often invoke multiple universes or an intelligent designer, both controversial and criticised for being untestable and therefore outside the purview of accepted science. Anthropic coincidences In 1961, Robert Dicke noted that the age of the universe as seen by living observers cannot be random. Instead, biological factors constrain the universe to be more or less in a "golden age," neither too young nor too old. If the universe were one tenth as old as its present age, there would not have been sufficient time to build up appreciable levels of metallicity (levels of elements besides hydrogen and helium) especially carbon, by nucleosynthesis. If the universe were 10 times older than it actually is, most stars would be too old to remain on the main sequence and would have turned into white and red dwarfs, and stable planetary systems would have already come to an end. Thus Dicke explained away the rough coincidence between large dimensionless numbers constructed from the constants of physics and the age of the universe, a coincidence which had inspired Dirac's varying-G theory. Dicke later reasoned that the density of matter in the universe must be almost exactly the critical density needed to prevent the Big Crunch (the "Dicke coincidences" argument). The most recent measurements find that the observed density of baryonic and dark matter is about 30% of this critical density, with the rest contributed by a cosmological constant. Steven Weinberg gave an anthropic explanation for this fact: he noted that the cosmological constant has a remarkably low value, some 120 orders of magnitude smaller than the value particle physics predicts (this is described as the "worst prediction in physics" http://www.newscientist.com/blog/space/2007/02/physicists-debate-nature-of-space-time.html ). However, if the cosmological constant were more than about 10 times its observed value, the universe would suffer catastrophic inflation, which would preclude the formation of stars, and hence life. The observed values of the dimensionless physical constants (such as the fine-structure constant) governing the four fundamental interactions are balanced as if fine-tuned to permit the emergence of life. A slight increase in the strong nuclear force would bind the dineutron and the diproton, and nuclear fusion would have converted all hydrogen in the early universe to helium. Water and the long-lived stable stars essential for the emergence of life would not exist. More generally, small changes in the relative strengths of the four fundamental interactions can greatly affect the universe's age, structure, and capacity for life. Hugh Ross lists a number of physical, cosmological, and chemical anthropic coincidences. Ross, H., web site: #The_Universe_as_a_Fit_Habitat Design and the Anthropic Principle, section "The Universe as a Fit Habitat." Origin The phrase "anthropic principle" first appeared in Brandon Carter's contribution to a 1973 Kraków symposium honouring Copernicus's 500th birthday. Carter, a theoretical astrophysicist, articulated the Anthropic Principle in reaction to the Copernican Principle, which states that humans do not occupy a privileged position (in time as well as space) in the Universe. As Carter said: "Although our situation is not necessarily central, it is inevitably privileged to some extent." Specifically, Carter disagreed with using the Copernican principle to justify the Perfect Cosmological Principle, which states that all large regions and times in the universe must be statistically identical. The latter principle underlay the steady-state theory, which had recently been falsified by the 1965 discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation. This discovery was unequivocal evidence that the universe has changed radically over time (starting with the Big Bang). Carter defined two forms of the Anthropic Principle, a "weak" one which referred only to anthropic selection of privileged spacetime locations in the universe, and a more controversial "strong" form which addressed the values of the fundamental constants of physics. Roger Penrose explained the weak form as follows: One reason this is plausible is that there are many other places and times in which we can imagine finding ourselves. But when applying the strong principle, we only have one Universe, with one set of fundamental parameters, so what exactly is the point being made? Carter offers two possibilities: First, we can use our own existence to make "predictions" about the parameters. But second, "as a last resort", we can convert these predictions into explanations by assuming that there is more than one Universe, in fact a large and possibly infinite collection of universes, something that is now called a multiverse ("world ensemble" was Carter's term), in which the parameters (and perhaps the laws of physics) vary across universes. The strong principle then becomes an example of a selection effect, exactly analogous to the weak principle. Postulating a multiverse is certainly a radical step, but taking it could provide at least a partial answer to a question which had seemed to be out of the reach of normal science: "why do the fundamental laws of physics take the particular form we observe and not another?" Since Carter's 1973 paper, the term "Anthropic Principle" has been extended to cover a number of ideas which differ in important ways from those he espoused. Particular confusion was caused by the influential book The Anthropic Cosmological Principle by John D. Barrow and Frank Tipler, which distinguished between "weak" and "strong" anthropic principle in a way very different from Carter's, as discussed in the next section. Carter was not the first to invoke some form of the anthropic principle. In fact, the evolutionary biologist Alfred Russel Wallace anticipated the anthropic principle as long ago as 1904: "Such a vast and complex universe as that which we know exists around us, may have been absolutely required ... in order to produce a world that should be precisely adapted in every detail for the orderly development of life culminating in man." In 1957, Robert Dicke wrote: "The age of the Universe 'now' is not random but conditioned by biological factors ... [changes in the values of the fundamental constants of physics] would preclude the existence of man to consider the problem." Variants Weak anthropic principle (WAP) (Carter): "we must be prepared to take account of the fact that our location in the universe is necessarily privileged to the extent of being compatible with our existence as observers."Note that for Carter, "location" refers to our location in time as well as space. Strong anthropic principle (SAP) (Carter): "the Universe (and hence the fundamental parameters on which it depends) must be such as to admit the creation of observers within it at some stage. To paraphrase Descartes, cogito ergo mundus talis est."The Latin tag ("I think, therefore the world is such [as it is]") makes it clear that "must" indicates a deduction from the fact of our existence; the statement is thus a truism. In their 1986 book, The Anthropic Cosmological Principle, John Barrow and Frank Tipler depart from Carter and define the WAP and SAP as follows: Barrow & Tipler's definitions are quoted verbatim at Genesis of Eden Diversity Encyclopedia. Weak anthropic principle (WAP) (Barrow and Tipler): "The observed values of all physical and cosmological quantities are not equally probable but they take on values restricted by the requirement that there exist sites where carbon-based life can evolve and by the requirements that the Universe be old enough for it to have already done so." Barrow and Tipler 1986: 16. Unlike Carter they restrict the principle to carbon-based life, rather than just "observers." A more important difference is that they apply the WAP to the fundamental physical constants, such as the fine structure constant, the number of spacetime dimensions, and the cosmological constant —, topics that fall under Carter's SAP. Strong anthropic principle (SAP) (Barrow and Tipler): "The Universe must have those properties which allow life to develop within it at some stage in its history." Barrow and Tipler 1986: 21. This looks very similar to Carter's SAP, but unlike the case with Carter's SAP, the "must" is an imperative, as shown by the following three possible elaborations of the SAP, each proposed by Barrow and Tipler: Barrow and Tipler 1986: 22. "There exists one possible Universe 'designed' with the goal of generating and sustaining 'observers.'"This can be seen as simply the classic design argument restated in the garb of contemporary cosmology. It implies that the purpose of the universe is to give rise to intelligent life, with the laws of nature and their fundamental physical constants set to ensure that life as we know it will emerge and evolve. "Observers are necessary to bring the Universe into being."Barrow and Tipler believe that this is a valid conclusion from quantum mechanics, as John Archibald Wheeler has suggested, especially via his participatory universe and Participatory Anthropic Principle (PAP). "An ensemble of other different universes is necessary for the existence of our Universe."By contrast, Carter merely says that an ensemble of universes is necessary for the SAP to count as an explanation. The philosophers John Leslie and Nick Bostrom 5 chapters available online. reject the Barrow and Tipler SAP as a fundamental misreading of Carter. For Bostrom, Carter's anthropic principle just warns us to make allowance for anthropic bias, that is, the bias created by anthropic selection effects (which Bostrom calls "observation" selection effects) — the necessity for observers to exist in order to get a result. He writes: Strong self-sampling assumption (SSSA) (Bostrom): "Each observer-moment should reason as if it were randomly selected from the class of all observer-moments in its reference class." Analysing an observer's experience into a sequence of "observer-moments" helps avoid certain paradoxes; but the main ambiguity is the selection of the appropriate "reference class": for Carter's WAP this might correspond to all real or potential observer-moments in our universe; for the SAP, to all in the multiverse. Bostrom's mathematical development shows that choosing either too broad or too narrow a reference class leads to counter-intuitive results, but he is not able to prescribe an ideal choice. According to Jürgen Schmidhuber, the anthropic principle essentially just says that the conditional probability of finding yourself in a universe compatible with your existence is always 1. It does not allow for any additional nontrivial predictions such as "gravity won't change tomorrow." To gain more predictive power, additional assumptions on the prior distribution of alternative universes are necessary Jürgen Schmidhuber, 2000, "Algorithmic theories of everything." Jürgen Schmidhuber, 2002, "The Speed Prior: A New Simplicity Measure Yielding Near-Optimal Computable Predictions." Proc. 15th Annual Conference on Computational Learning Theory (COLT 2002), Sydney, Australia, Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence. Springer: 216-28. . Playwright and novelist Michael Frayn describes a form of the Strong Anthropic Principle in his 2006 book The Human Touch, which explores what he characterises as "the central oddity of the Universe": Character of anthropic reasoning Carter chose to focus on a tautological aspect of his ideas, which has resulted in much confusion. In fact, anthropic reasoning interests scientists because of something that is only implicit in the above formal definitions, namely that we should give serious consideration to there being other universes with different values of the "fundamental parameters" — that is, the dimensionless physical constants and initial conditions for the Big Bang. Carter and others have argued that life as we know it would not be possible in most such universes. In other words, the universe we are in is fine tuned to permit life. Collins & Hawking (1973) characterise Carter's then-unpublished big idea as the postulate that "there is not one universe but a whole infinite ensemble of universes with all possible initial conditions". If this is granted, the anthropic principle provides a plausible explanation for the fine tuning of our universe: the "typical" universe is not fine-tuned, but given enough universes, a small fraction thereof will be capable of supporting intelligent life. Ours must be one of these, and so the observed fine tuning should be no cause for wonder. In this sense, the anthropic principle is in direct opposition to design arguments. But how seriously can we take the multiverse? And which specific multiverse should we assume? — this question must be answered before any quantitative anthropic predictions can be made. Although philosophers have discussed related concepts for centuries, in the early 1970s the only genuine physical theory yielding a multiverse of sorts was the many worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics. This would allow variation in initial conditions, but not in the truly fundamental constants. Since that time a number of mechanisms for producing a multiverse have been suggested: see the review by Max Tegmark . An important development in the 1980s was the combination of inflation theory with the hypothesis that some parameters are determined by symmetry breaking in the early universe, which allows parameters previously thought of as "fundamental constants" to vary over very large distances, thus eroding the distinction between Carter's weak and strong principles. At the beginning of the 21st century, the string landscape emerged as a mechanism for varying essentially all the constants, including the number of spatial dimensions. Strictly speaking, the number of non-compact dimensions, see String theory. The anthropic idea that fundamental parameters are selected from a multitude of different possibilities (each actual in some universe or other) contrasts with the traditional hope of physicists for a theory of everything having no free parameters: as Einstein said, "What really interests me is whether God had any choice in the creation of the world." Quite recently, proponents of the leading candidate for a "theory of everything", string theory, proclaimed "the end of the anthropic principle" since there would be no free parameters to select. Ironically, string theory now seems to offer no hope of predicting fundamental parameters, and now some who advocate it invoke the anthropic principle as well (see below). Opponents of intelligent design are not limited to those who hypothesize that other universes exist; they may also argue, anti-anthropically, that the universe is less fine-tuned than often claimed, or that accepting fine tuning as a brute fact is less astonishing than the idea of an intelligent creator. Furthermore, even accepting fine tuning, Sober (2005) Sober, Elliott, 2005, "The Design Argument" in Mann, W. E., ed., The Blackwell Guide to the Philosophy of Religion. Blackwell Publishers. and Ikeda and Jefferys Ikeda, M. and Jefferys, W., "The Anthropic Principle Does Not Support Supernaturalism," in The Improbability of God, Michael Martin and Ricki Monnier, Editors, pp. 150-166. Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Press. ISBN 1-59102-381-5 , Ikeda, M. and Jefferys, W. (2006). Unpublished FAQ "The Anthropic Principle Does Not Support Supernaturalism." argue that the Anthropic Principle as conventionally stated actually undermines intelligent design; see fine-tuned universe. Paul Davies's book The Goldilocks Enigma (2006) reviews the current state of the fine tuning debate in detail, and concludes by enumerating the following responses to that debate: The absurd universe Our universe just happens to be the way it is. The unique universe There is a deep underlying unity in physics which necessitates the universe being the way it is. Some Theory of Everything will explain why the various features of the Universe must have exactly the values that we see. The multiverse Multiple Universes exist, having all possible combinations of characteristics, and we inevitably find ourselves within a Universe that allows us to exist. Creationism A creator designed the Universe with the purpose of supporting complexity and the emergence of Intelligence. The life principle There is an underlying principle that constrains the universe to evolve towards life and mind. The self-explaining universe A closed explanatory or causal loop: "perhaps only universes with a capacity for consciousness can exist." This is Wheeler's Participatory Anthropic Principle (PAP). The fake universe We live inside a virtual reality simulation. Omitted here is Lee Smolin's model of cosmological natural selection, also known as "fecund universes," which proposes that universes have "offspring" which are more plentiful if they resemble our universe. Also see Gardner (2005). Gardner, James N., 2005, "The Physical Constants as Biosignature: An anthropic retrodiction of the Selfish Biocosm Hypothesis," International Journal of Astrobiology. Clearly each of these hypotheses resolve some aspects of the puzzle, while leaving others unanswered. Followers of Carter would admit only option 3 as an anthropic explanation, whereas 3 through 6 are covered by different versions of Barrow and Tipler's SAP (which would also include 7 if it is considered a variant of 4, as in Tipler 1994). The anthropic principle, at least as Carter conceived it, can be applied on scales much smaller than the whole universe. For example, Carter (1983) inverted the usual line of reasoning and pointed out that when interpreting the evolutionary record, one must take into account cosmological and astrophysical considerations. With this in mind, Carter concluded that given the best estimates of the age of the universe, the evolutionary chain culminating in Homo sapiens probably admits only one or two low probability links. Feoli and Rampone dispute this conclusion, arguing instead that the estimated size of our universe and the number of planets in it allows for a higher bound, so that there is no need to invoke intelligent design to explain evolution. Observational evidence No possible observational evidence bears on Carter's WAP, as it is merely advice to the scientist and asserts nothing debatable. The obvious test of Barrow's SAP, which says that the Universe is "required" to support life, is to find evidence of life in universes other than ours, which is currently impossible. John Leslie Leslie, J. (1986) op. cit. states that the Carter SAP (with multiverse) predicts the following: Physical theory will evolve so as to strengthen the hypothesis that early phase transitions occur probabilistically rather than deterministically, in which case there will be no deep physical reason for the values of fundamental constants; Various theories for generating multiple universes will prove robust; Evidence that the universe is fine tuned will continue to accumulate; No life with a non-carbon chemistry will be discovered; Mathematical studies of galaxy formation will confirm that it is sensitive to the rate of expansion of the universe. Hogan has emphasised that it would be very strange if all fundamental constants were strictly determined, since this would leave us with no ready explanation for apparent fine tuning. In fact we might have to resort to something akin to Barrow and Tipler's SAP: there would be no option for such a universe not to support life. Probabilistic predictions of parameter values can be made given: (i) a particular multiverse with a "measure", i.e. a well defined "density of universes" (so, for parameter X, one can calculate the prior probability P(X0) dX that X is in the range X0 < X < X0 + dX), and (ii) an estimate of the number of observers in each universe, N(X) (e.g. this might be taken as proportional to the number of stars in the universe). The probability of observing value X is then proportional to N(X) P(X). (A more sophisticated analysis is that of Nick Bostrom. Bostrom (2002), op. cit. ) A generic feature of an analysis of this nature is that the expected values of the fundamental physical constants should not be "over-tuned," i.e. if there is some perfectly tuned predicted value (e.g. zero), the observed value need be no closer to that predicted value than what is required to make life possible. The small but finite value of the cosmological constant can be regarded as a successful prediction in this sense. One thing that would not count as evidence for the Anthropic Principle is evidence that the Earth or the solar system occupied a privileged position in the universe, in violation of the Copernican principle (for possible counterevidence to this principle, see Copernican principle), unless there was some reason to think that that position was a necessary condition for our existence as observers. Applications of the Principle The nucleosynthesis of carbon-12 Fred Hoyle invoked anthropic reasoning to make a remarkable prediction of an astrophysical phenomenon. He reasoned from the prevalence on earth of life forms whose chemistry was based on carbon-12 atoms, that there must be an undiscovered resonance in the carbon-12 nucleus facilitating its synthesis in stellar interiors via the triple-alpha process. He then calculated the energy of this undiscovered resonance to be 7.6 million electron-volts. University of Birmingham Life, Bent Chains and the Anthropic Principle Rev. Mod. Phys. 29 (1957) 547 Willie Fowler's research group soon found this resonance, and its measured energy was close to Hoyle's prediction. Cosmic inflation Page criticized the entire theory of cosmic inflation as follows. He emphasized that initial conditions which made possible a thermodynamic arrow of time in a universe with a Big Bang origin, must include the assumption that at the initial singularity, the entropy of the universe was low and therefore extremely improbable. Paul Davies rebutted this criticism by invoking an inflationary version of the anthropic principle. While Davies accepted the premise that the initial state of the visible Universe (which filled a microscopic amount of space before inflating) had to possess a very low entropy value — due to random quantum fluctuations — to account for the observed thermodynamic arrow of time, he deemed this fact an advantage for the theory. That the tiny patch of space from which our observable Universe grew had to be extremely orderly, to allow the post-inflation universe to have an arrow of time, makes it unnecessary to adopt any "ad hoc" hypotheses about the initial entropy state, hypotheses other Big Bang theories require. String theory String theory predicts a large number of possible universes, called the "backgrounds" or "vacua." The set of these vacua is often called the "multiverse" or "anthropic landscape" or "string landscape." Leonard Susskind has argued that the existence of a large number of vacua puts anthropic reasoning on firm ground: only universes whose properties are such as to allow observers to exist are observed, while a possibly much larger set of universes lacking such properties go unnoticed. Steven Weinberg preprint believes the Anthropic Principle may be appropriated by cosmologists committed to nontheism, and refers to that Principle as a "turning point" in modern science because applying it to the string landscape "...may explain how the constants of nature that we observe can take values suitable for life without being fine-tuned by a benevolent creator." Others, most notably David Gross but also Lubos Motl, Peter Woit, and Lee Smolin, argue that this is not predictive. Max Tegmark, Tegmark (1998) op. cit. Mario Livio, and Martin Rees argue that only some aspects of a physical theory need be observable and/or testable for the theory to be accepted, and that many well-accepted theories are far from completely testable at present. Jürgen Schmidhuber (2000-2002) points out that Ray Solomonoff's theory of universal inductive inference and its extensions already provide a framework for maximizing our confidence in any theory, given a limited sequence of physical observations, and some prior distribution on the set of possible explanations of the universe. The Anthropic Cosmological Principle The most thorough extant study of the anthropic principle is the book The Anthropic Cosmological Principle by John D. Barrow, a cosmologist, and Frank J. Tipler, a mathematical physicist. This book sets out in great detail the many known anthropic coincidences and constraints, including many found by its authors. While the book is primarily a work of theoretical astrophysics, it also touches on quantum physics, chemistry, and earth science. An entire chapter argues that homo sapiens is, with high probability, the only intelligent species in the Milky Way. The book begins with an extensive review of many topics in the history of ideas the authors deem relevant to the anthropic principle, because the authors believe that principle has important antecedents in the notions of teleology and intelligent design. They discuss the writings of Fichte, Hegel, Bergson, and Alfred North Whitehead, and the omega point cosmology of Teilhard de Chardin. Barrow and Tipler carefully distinguish teleological reasoning from eutaxiological reasoning; the former asserts that order must have a consequent purpose; the latter asserts more modestly that order must have a planned cause. They attribute this important but nearly always overlooked distinction to an obscure 1883 book by L. E. Hicks. Seeing little sense in a principle requiring intelligent life to emerge while remaining indifferent to the possibility of its eventual extinction, Barrow and Tipler propose the: Barrow and Tipler submit that the FAP is both a valid physical statement and "closely connected with moral values." FAP places strong constraints on the structure of the universe, constraints developed further in Tipler's The Physics of Immortality. One such constraint is that the universe must end in a big crunch, which seems unlikely in view of the tentative conclusions drawn since 1998 about dark energy, based on observations of very distant supernovas. In his review Gardner, M., "WAP, SAP, PAP, and FAP," The New York Review of Books 23, No. 8 (May 8, 1986): 22-25. of Barrow and Tipler, Martin Gardner ridiculed the FAP by quoting the last two sentences of their book as defining a Completely Ridiculous Anthropic Principle (CRAP): In fairness to the authors, they state at the outset that they are not necessarily committed to the ideas they describe, and admit that the SAP and FAP are "quite speculative." Criticisms Carter himself e.g. Carter (2004) op. cit. has frequently regretted his own choice of the word "anthropic," because it conveys the misleading impression that the principle involves humans specifically, rather than intelligent observers in general. Others e.g. message from Martin Rees presented at the Kavli-CERCA conference (see video in External links) have criticised the word "principle" as being too grandiose to describe straightforward applications of selection effects. A common criticism of Carter's SAP is that it is an easy deus ex machina which discourages searches for physical explanations. To quote Penrose again: "it tends to be invoked by theorists whenever they do not have a good enough theory to explain the observed facts." Chapter 10. Carter's SAP and Barrow and Tipler's WAP have been dismissed as truisms or tautologies, that is, statements true solely by virtue of their verbal form and not because they conform to reality. As such, they are criticized as an elaborate way of saying "if things were different, they would be different," which is a valid argument, but does not prove any alternatives. The anthropic principles implicitly posit that our ability to ponder cosmology at all is contingent on one or more fundamental physical constants having numerical values falling within quite a narrow range, and this is not a tautology; nor is postulating a multiverse. Moreover, working out the consequences of a change in the fundamental constants for the existence of our species is far from trivial, and, as we have seen, can lead to quite unexpected constraints on physical theory. This reasoning does, however, demonstrate that carbon-based life is impossible under these transposed fundamental parameters. Critics of the Barrow and Tipler SAP claim that it is neither testable nor falsifiable, and thus is not a scientific statement. The same criticism has been leveled against the hypothesis of a multiverse, although some argue that it does make falsifiable predictions, albeit not very strong ones. A modified version of this criticism is that we understand so little about the emergence of life, especially intelligent life, that it is effectively impossible to calculate the number of observers in each universe. Also, the prior distribution of universes as a function of the fundamental constants is easily modified to get any desired result. See also this news story. In a lecture titled "The Confusion of Cause and Effect in Bad Science," the paleophysicist Caroline Miller said: Some applications of the anthropic principle have been criticized as an argument by lack of imagination, for tacitly assuming that carbon compounds and water are the only possible chemistry of life (sometimes called "carbon chauvinism", see also alternative biochemistry). e.g. The range of fundamental physical constants consistent with the evolution of carbon-based life may also be wider than those who advocate a fine tuned universe have argued. For instance, Harnik et al. preprint propose a weakless universe in which the weak nuclear force is eliminated. They show that this has no significant effect on the other fundamental interactions, provided some adjustments are made in how those interactions work. However, if some of the fine-tuned details of our universe were violated, that would rule out complex structures of any kind — stars, planets, galaxies, etc. Stephen Jay Gould , Michael Shermer and others claim that the Anthropic Principle seems to reverse known causes and effects. Gould compared the claim that the universe is fine-tuned for the benefit of our kind of life to saying that sausages were made long and narrow so that they could fit into modern hotdog buns, or saying that ships had been invented to house barnacles. These critics cite the vast physical, fossil, genetic, and other biological evidence consistent with life having been fine-tuned through natural selection to adapt to the physical and geophysical environment in which life exists. Life appears to have adapted to physics, and not vice versa. Careful analysis by philosophers of cosmology like John Earman Earman, John. (1987). "The SAP also rises: A critical examination of the anthropic principle." American Philosophical Quarterly, 24: 307-317. , Ernan McMullin McMullin, Ernan. (1994). "Fine-tuning the universe?" In M. Shale & G. Shields (ed.), Science, Technology, and Religious Ideas, Lanham: University Press of America. and Jesús Mosterín conclude that "in its weak version, the anthropic principle is a mere tautology, which does not allow us to explain anything or to predict anything that we did not already know. In its strong version, it is a gratuitous speculation" Mosterín, Jesús. (2005). Op. cit. . A further criticism by Mosterín concerns the flawed "anthropic" inference from the assumption of an infinity of worlds to the existence of one like ours: Lee Smolin argues using his fecund universes theory that fine-tuning for black hole creation is the fundamental cause for the observed values of physical constants. Conditions for carbon based life are similar to conditions for black hole creation which creates the illusion of the anthropic principle. Instead there is a black hole principle. Compare correlation is not causation See also Big Bounce Doomsday argument Final anthropic principle The Great Filter Inverse gambler's fallacy Metaphysical naturalism Nick Bostrom Principle of mediocrity Rare Earth hypothesis Selection bias Triple-alpha process The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya, in which Itsuki Koizumi gives Kyon an abridged definition of the anthropic principle. Footnotes References Barrow J. D. and Tipler, F. J. (1986) The Anthropic Cosmological Principle. Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN 0-19-282147-4. Stenger, Victor J. (1999), "Anthropic design," The Skeptical Inquirer 23 (August 31 1999): 40-43 Mosterín, Jesús. (2005). "Anthropic Explanations in Cosmology." In P. Háyek, L. Valdés and D. Westerstahl (ed.), Logic, Methodology and Philosophy of Science, Proceedings of the 12th International Congress of the LMPS. London: King’s College Publications, pp. 441–473. ISBN 1-904987-21-4. A simple anthropic argument for why there are 3 spatial and 1 temporal dimensions. Shows that some of the common criticisms of AP based on its relationship with numerology or the theological Design Argument are wrong. External links Caner, Taslaman, Anthropic Principle and Infinite Universes Nick Bostrom: web site devoted to the Anthropic Principle. Chown, Marcus, Anything Goes, New Scientist, 6 June 1998. On Max Tegmark's work. Stephen Hawking, Steven Weinberg, Alexander Vilenkin, David Gross and Lawrence Krauss: Debate on Anthropic Reasoning Kavli-CERCA Conference Video Archive. Tobin, Paul N., 2000, "Is the Universe Fine-Tuned for Life?" A critique of the Anthropic Principle from an atheist viewpoint. "Anthropic Coincidence"—the anthropic controversy as a segue to Lee Smolin's theory of cosmological natural selection. Leonard Susskind and Lee Smolin debate the Anthropic Principle. debate among scientists on arxiv.org. Evolutionary Probability and Fine Tuning Benevolent Design and the Anthropic Principle at MathPages Critical review of "The Privileged Planet" The Anthropic Principle - a review. Berger, Daniel, 2002, "An impertinent resumé of the Anthropic Cosmological Principle." A critique of Barrow & Tipler. Jürgen Schmidhuber: Papers on algorithmic theories of everything and the Anthropic Principle's lack of predictive power. Paul Davies: Cosmic Jackpot Interview about the Anthropic Principle (starts at 40 min), 15 May 2007. | Anthropic_principle |@lemmatized physic:13 cosmology:7 anthropic:87 principle:80 collective:1 name:1 several:2 way:8 assert:4 physical:23 chemical:2 theory:30 especially:4 astrophysics:2 need:5 take:9 account:4 life:43 earth:5 one:20 form:9 homo:3 sapiens:3 attain:1 sapience:1 kind:4 universe:103 human:6 occupy:3 similar:3 current:2 originally:1 propose:5 rule:2 reasoning:4 term:4 since:6 extend:2 cover:3 suppose:1 superlaws:1 various:3 require:5 support:7 intelligent:13 usually:1 assume:4 carbon:15 base:11 occasionally:1 reason:15 ass:1 constraint:6 analyze:1 property:4 hypothetical:1 whose:3 fundamental:27 parameter:15 law:4 differ:2 real:2 typically:1 conclude:3 stability:1 structure:6 essential:2 atomic:1 nucleus:2 whole:3 depend:2 delicate:1 balance:3 different:8 force:3 believe:4 occur:2 tiny:2 fraction:2 possible:13 appear:3 fine:25 tune:14 attempt:1 explain:9 quantify:1 tuning:9 within:5 scientific:2 community:1 usual:2 approach:1 invoke:9 selection:11 effect:8 hypothesize:2 ensemble:5 alternate:1 case:3 observe:5 subject:1 bias:4 argue:12 misnomer:1 single:1 none:1 coincidence:8 demand:1 develop:3 intelligence:3 give:9 rise:3 confusion:4 controversy:2 partly:1 phrase:2 apply:5 distinct:1 idea:9 version:6 accuse:1 undermine:1 search:2 deep:3 understanding:1 often:3 multiple:3 designer:1 controversial:2 criticise:2 untestable:1 therefore:3 outside:1 purview:1 accepted:2 science:7 robert:2 dicke:5 note:4 age:7 see:15 live:3 observer:17 cannot:1 random:3 instead:3 biological:3 factor:2 constrain:2 less:3 golden:1 neither:2 young:1 old:5 tenth:1 present:3 would:21 sufficient:1 time:13 build:1 appreciable:1 level:3 metallicity:1 element:1 besides:1 hydrogen:2 helium:2 nucleosynthesis:2 actually:2 star:5 remain:2 main:2 sequence:3 turn:1 white:1 red:1 dwarf:1 stable:2 planetary:1 system:2 already:4 come:1 end:3 thus:4 away:1 rough:1 large:7 dimensionless:3 number:13 construct:1 constant:27 inspire:1 dirac:1 vary:4 g:7 later:1 density:5 matter:2 must:16 almost:1 exactly:4 critical:4 prevent:1 big:8 crunch:2 argument:9 recent:1 measurement:1 find:7 observed:9 baryonic:1 dark:2 rest:1 contribute:1 cosmological:17 steven:3 weinberg:3 explanation:9 fact:10 remarkably:1 low:4 value:23 order:5 magnitude:1 small:5 particle:1 predicts:1 describe:4 bad:2 prediction:11 http:1 www:1 newscientist:1 com:1 blog:1 space:6 physicist:3 debate:6 nature:4 html:1 however:3 suffer:1 catastrophic:1 inflation:5 preclude:2 formation:2 hence:2 govern:1 four:2 interaction:4 permit:2 emergence:4 slight:1 increase:1 strong:13 nuclear:3 bind:1 dineutron:1 diproton:1 fusion:1 convert:2 early:4 water:2 long:3 exist:10 generally:1 change:5 relative:1 strength:1 greatly:1 affect:1 capacity:2 hugh:1 ross:2 list:1 h:1 web:2 site:3 design:13 section:2 fit:2 habitat:1 origin:2 first:3 brandon:1 carter:36 contribution:1 kraków:1 symposium:1 honour:1 copernicus:1 birthday:1 theoretical:2 astrophysicist:1 articulate:1 reaction:1 copernican:4 state:9 privileged:4 position:3 well:5 say:9 although:3 situation:1 necessarily:3 central:2 inevitably:2 privilege:2 extent:2 specifically:2 disagreed:1 use:3 justify:1 perfect:1 region:1 statistically:1 identical:1 latter:2 underlay:1 steady:1 recently:2 falsify:1 discovery:2 cosmic:4 microwave:1 background:2 radiation:1 unequivocal:1 evidence:8 radically:1 start:2 bang:4 define:4 two:4 weak:9 refer:1 spacetime:2 location:4 address:1 roger:1 penrose:2 follow:3 plausible:2 many:6 place:2 imagine:1 set:6 point:5 make:13 offer:2 possibility:3 existence:10 second:1 last:2 resort:2 possibly:2 infinite:3 collection:1 something:3 call:5 multiverse:13 world:6 perhaps:2 across:1 become:1 example:2 analogous:1 postulate:3 certainly:1 radical:1 step:1 could:2 provide:4 least:2 partial:1 answer:2 question:2 seem:4 reach:1 normal:1 particular:3 another:1 paper:2 important:5 espouse:1 cause:6 influential:1 book:11 john:8 barrow:23 frank:3 tipler:24 distinguish:2 discuss:3 next:1 evolutionary:4 biologist:1 alfred:2 russel:1 wallace:1 anticipate:1 ago:1 vast:2 complex:2 know:7 around:1 u:5 may:7 absolutely:1 required:2 produce:2 precisely:1 adapt:3 every:1 detail:4 orderly:2 development:3 culminating:2 man:2 write:2 condition:8 consider:2 problem:1 variant:2 wap:8 prepare:1 compatible:2 refers:2 sap:20 admit:4 creation:4 stage:2 paraphrase:1 descartes:1 cogito:1 ergo:1 mundus:1 talis:1 est:1 latin:1 tag:1 think:3 clear:1 indicate:1 deduction:1 statement:4 truism:2 depart:1 definition:3 quote:3 verbatim:1 genesis:1 eden:1 diversity:1 encyclopedia:1 quantity:1 equally:1 probable:1 restrict:2 requirement:2 evolve:4 enough:3 unlike:2 rather:3 difference:1 dimension:4 topic:2 fall:2 allow:9 history:2 look:1 imperative:1 show:4 following:3 three:1 elaboration:1 goal:1 generate:2 sustain:1 simply:1 classic:1 restate:1 garb:1 contemporary:1 imply:1 purpose:3 ensure:1 emerge:3 necessary:5 bring:1 valid:3 conclusion:3 quantum:4 mechanic:2 archibald:1 wheeler:2 suggest:2 via:2 participatory:3 pap:3 contrast:2 merely:2 count:2 philosopher:3 leslie:3 nick:4 bostrom:9 chapter:3 available:1 online:1 reject:1 misreading:1 warn:1 allowance:1 create:2 observation:3 necessity:1 get:2 result:4 self:2 sample:1 assumption:4 sssa:1 moment:4 randomly:1 select:3 class:4 reference:4 analyse:1 experience:1 help:1 avoid:1 certain:1 paradox:1 ambiguity:1 appropriate:2 might:3 correspond:1 potential:1 mathematical:3 choose:2 either:1 broad:1 narrow:3 lead:3 counter:1 intuitive:1 able:1 prescribe:1 ideal:1 choice:3 accord:1 jürgen:5 schmidhuber:5 essentially:2 conditional:1 probability:6 always:2 additional:2 nontrivial:1 gravity:1 win:1 tomorrow:1 gain:1 predictive:3 power:2 prior:5 distribution:3 alternative:3 algorithmic:2 everything:5 speed:1 new:3 simplicity:1 measure:2 yield:2 near:1 optimal:1 computable:1 proc:1 annual:1 conference:3 computational:1 learning:1 colt:1 sydney:1 australia:1 lecture:2 artificial:1 springer:1 playwright:1 novelist:1 michael:3 frayn:1 touch:2 explore:1 characterise:2 oddity:1 character:1 focus:1 tautological:1 aspect:3 much:3 interest:2 scientist:4 implicit:1 formal:1 namely:1 serious:1 consideration:2 initial:7 others:5 word:3 collins:1 hawking:1 unpublished:2 grant:1 typical:1 thereof:1 capable:1 wonder:1 sense:3 direct:1 opposition:1 seriously:1 specific:1 quantitative:1 related:1 concept:1 century:2 genuine:1 sort:1 interpretation:1 variation:1 truly:1 mechanism:2 review:7 max:3 tegmark:4 combination:2 hypothesis:6 determine:2 symmetry:1 breaking:1 previously:1 distance:1 erode:1 distinction:2 beginning:1 string:8 landscape:4 include:4 spatial:2 strictly:2 speak:1 non:2 compact:1 multitude:1 actual:1 traditional:1 hope:2 free:2 einstein:1 really:1 whether:1 god:2 quite:4 proponent:1 candidate:1 proclaim:1 ironically:1 predict:6 advocate:2 opponent:1 limited:2 also:12 anti:1 anthropically:1 claim:4 accept:4 brute:1 astonish:1 creator:3 furthermore:1 even:1 sober:2 elliott:1 mann:1 w:3 e:9 ed:3 blackwell:2 guide:1 philosophy:2 religion:1 publisher:1 ikeda:3 jefferys:3 supernaturalism:2 improbability:1 martin:4 ricki:1 monnier:1 editor:1 pp:2 amherst:1 n:5 prometheus:1 press:3 isbn:3 faq:1 conventionally:1 undermines:1 tuned:2 paul:4 davy:4 goldilocks:1 enigma:1 concludes:1 enumerate:1 response:1 absurd:1 happen:1 unique:1 underlying:2 unity:1 necessitate:1 feature:2 characteristic:1 creationism:1 complexity:1 towards:1 mind:2 closed:1 explanatory:1 causal:1 loop:1 universes:4 consciousness:1 fake:1 inside:1 virtual:1 reality:2 simulation:1 omit:1 lee:5 smolin:5 model:1 natural:3 fecund:2 offspring:1 plentiful:1 resemble:1 gardner:4 james:1 biosignature:1 retrodiction:1 selfish:1 biocosm:1 international:2 journal:1 astrobiology:1 clearly:1 resolve:1 puzzle:1 leave:2 unanswered:1 follower:1 option:2 whereas:1 conceive:1 scale:1 invert:1 line:1 interpret:1 record:1 astrophysical:2 best:1 estimate:2 chain:2 probably:1 link:3 feoli:1 rampone:1 dispute:1 estimated:1 size:1 planet:3 high:2 bound:1 evolution:2 observational:2 bear:1 advice:1 nothing:1 debatable:1 obvious:1 test:1 currently:1 impossible:3 j:5 op:5 cit:5 strengthen:1 phase:1 transition:1 probabilistically:1 deterministically:1 prove:2 robust:1 continue:1 accumulate:1 chemistry:4 discover:1 study:2 galaxy:2 confirm:1 sensitive:1 rate:1 expansion:1 hogan:1 emphasise:1 strange:1 ready:1 apparent:1 akin:1 probabilistic:1 x:7 calculate:3 p:3 dx:2 range:3 ii:1 proportional:2 sophisticated:1 analysis:3 generic:1 expected:1 perfectly:1 zero:1 close:2 finite:1 regard:1 successful:1 thing:2 solar:1 violation:1 counterevidence:1 unless:1 application:3 fred:1 hoyle:2 remarkable:1 phenomenon:1 prevalence:1 atom:1 undiscovered:2 resonance:3 facilitate:1 synthesis:1 stellar:1 interior:1 triple:2 alpha:2 process:2 energy:3 million:1 electron:1 volt:1 university:2 birmingham:1 bent:1 rev:1 mod:1 phys:1 willie:1 fowler:1 research:1 group:1 soon:1 measured:1 page:1 criticize:3 entire:2 emphasize:1 thermodynamic:2 arrow:3 singularity:1 entropy:3 extremely:2 improbable:1 rebut:1 criticism:7 inflationary:1 premise:1 visible:1 fill:1 microscopic:1 amount:1 inflate:1 possess:1 due:1 fluctuation:1 deem:2 advantage:1 patch:1 observable:2 grow:1 post:1 unnecessary:1 adopt:1 ad:1 hoc:1 hypotheses:2 vacua:1 vacuum:2 leonard:2 susskind:2 put:1 firm:1 ground:1 lack:3 go:2 unnoticed:1 preprint:2 cosmologist:2 commit:2 nontheism:1 turning:1 modern:2 suitable:1 without:1 benevolent:2 notably:1 david:2 gross:2 lubos:1 motl:1 peter:1 woit:1 mario:1 livio:1 rees:2 testable:3 far:3 completely:2 ray:1 solomonoff:1 universal:1 inductive:1 inference:2 extension:1 framework:1 maximize:1 confidence:1 thorough:1 extant:1 great:2 author:4 primarily:1 work:4 specie:2 milky:1 begin:1 extensive:1 relevant:1 antecedent:1 notion:1 teleology:1 writing:1 fichte:1 hegel:1 bergson:1 north:1 whitehead:1 omega:1 teilhard:1 de:1 chardin:1 carefully:1 teleological:1 eutaxiological:1 former:1 asserts:1 consequent:1 modestly:1 plan:1 attribute:1 nearly:1 overlook:1 obscure:1 l:2 hick:1 little:2 indifferent:1 eventual:1 extinction:1 submit:1 fap:5 closely:1 connect:1 moral:1 immortality:1 unlikely:1 view:1 tentative:1 draw:1 distant:1 supernova:1 york:1 ridicule:1 sentence:1 ridiculous:1 crap:1 fairness:1 outset:1 speculative:1 frequently:1 regret:1 convey:1 misleading:1 impression:1 involve:1 general:1 message:1 kavli:2 cerca:2 video:2 external:2 grandiose:1 straightforward:1 common:2 easy:1 deus:1 ex:1 machina:1 discourage:1 tend:1 theorist:1 whenever:1 good:1 dismiss:1 tautology:3 true:1 solely:1 virtue:1 verbal:1 conform:1 elaborate:1 principles:1 implicitly:1 posit:1 ability:1 ponder:1 contingent:1 numerical:1 moreover:1 consequence:1 trivial:1 unexpected:1 demonstrate:1 transposed:1 critic:2 falsifiable:2 albeit:1 modified:1 understand:1 effectively:1 function:1 easily:1 modify:1 desired:1 news:1 story:1 title:1 paleophysicist:1 caroline:1 miller:1 imagination:1 tacitly:1 compound:1 sometimes:1 chauvinism:1 biochemistry:1 consistent:2 wide:1 instance:1 harnik:1 et:1 al:1 weakless:1 eliminate:1 significant:1 adjustment:1 violate:1 etc:1 stephen:2 jay:1 gould:2 shermer:1 reverse:1 compare:2 benefit:1 sausage:1 hotdog:1 bun:1 ship:1 invent:1 house:1 barnacle:1 cite:1 fossil:1 genetic:1 geophysical:1 environment:1 exists:1 vice:1 versa:1 careful:1 like:2 earman:2 examination:1 american:1 philosophical:1 quarterly:1 ernan:2 mcmullin:2 shale:1 shield:1 technology:1 religious:1 lanham:1 america:1 jesús:3 mosterín:4 mere:1 anything:3 gratuitous:1 speculation:1 concern:1 flaw:1 infinity:1 black:3 hole:3 illusion:1 correlation:1 causation:1 bounce:1 doomsday:1 final:1 filter:1 inverse:1 gambler:1 fallacy:1 metaphysical:1 naturalism:1 mediocrity:1 rare:1 melancholy:1 haruhi:1 suzumiya:1 itsuki:1 koizumi:1 kyon:1 abridged:1 footnote:1 f:1 oxford:1 univ:1 stenger:1 victor:1 skeptical:1 inquirer:1 august:1 háyek:1 valdés:1 westerstahl:1 logic:1 methodology:1 proceeding:1 congress:1 lmps:1 london:1 king:1 college:1 publication:1 simple:1 temporal:1 ap:1 relationship:1 numerology:1 theological:1 wrong:1 caner:1 taslaman:1 devote:1 chown:1 marcus:1 june:1 hawk:1 alexander:1 vilenkin:1 lawrence:1 krauss:1 archive:1 tobin:1 critique:2 atheist:1 viewpoint:1 segue:1 among:1 arxiv:1 org:1 mathpages:1 berger:1 daniel:1 impertinent:1 resumé:1 jackpot:1 interview:1 min:1 |@bigram anthropic_principle:51 homo_sapiens:3 atomic_nucleus:1 tiny_fraction:1 fine_tuning:9 anthropic_bias:2 robert_dicke:2 big_crunch:2 cosmological_constant:5 steven_weinberg:3 http_www:1 newscientist_com:1 copernican_principle:4 cosmic_microwave:1 microwave_background:1 big_bang:4 roger_penrose:1 anthropic_cosmological:6 evolutionary_biologist:1 alfred_russel:1 russel_wallace:1 descartes_cogito:1 cogito_ergo:1 barrow_tipler:18 equally_probable:1 carter_sap:6 quantum_mechanic:2 archibald_wheeler:1 nick_bostrom:4 randomly_select:1 counter_intuitive:1 jürgen_schmidhuber:5 conditional_probability:1 artificial_intelligence:1 playwright_novelist:1 plausible_explanation:1 max_tegmark:3 symmetry_breaking:1 spatial_dimension:1 intelligent_design:4 blackwell_publisher:1 lee_smolin:5 op_cit:5 expected_value:1 fred_hoyle:1 carbon_atom:1 cosmic_inflation:2 quantum_fluctuation:1 observable_universe:1 ad_hoc:1 leonard_susskind:2 go_unnoticed:1 turning_point:1 inductive_inference:1 milky_way:1 teilhard_de:1 de_chardin:1 martin_gardner:1 external_link:2 deus_ex:1 ex_machina:1 et_al:1 stephen_jay:1 jay_gould:1 michael_shermer:1 vice_versa:1 black_hole:3 inverse_gambler:1 gambler_fallacy:1 metaphysical_naturalism:1 univ_press:1 skeptical_inquirer:1 spatial_temporal:1 arxiv_org:1 |
1,621 | Politics_of_the_Marshall_Islands | Politics of the Marshall Islands takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, and of an emerging multi-party system, whereby the President of the Marshall Islands is both head of state and head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Nitijela (Legislature). The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Executive branch |President |Litokwa Tomeing |UPP |7 January 2008 |} The president is elected by the Nitijela from among its members. Presidents pick cabinet members from the Nitijela. Amata Kabua was elected as the first president of the republic in 1979. Subsequently, he was re-elected to 4-year terms in 1983, 1987, 1991, and 1996. After Amata Kabua's death in office, his first cousin, Imata Kabua, won a special election in 1997. The current president was elected and took office in January 2008. Legislative branch The legislative branch of the government of the Marshall Islands consists of the Legislature (Nitijela) with an advisory council of high chiefs. The Nitijela has 33 members, elected for a four year term in 19 single-seat and five multi-seat constituencies. Members are called senators. The Legislature was last elected 17 November 2003 without the participation of parties, though part of the members could be members of the United Democratic Party. Political parties and elections Traditionally there have been no formally organized political parties; what has existed more closely resembles factions or interest groups because they do not have party headquarters, formal platforms, or party structures; the following two "groupings" have competed in legislative balloting in recent years - Kabua Party (Imata Kabua) and the United Democratic Party or UDP (Litokwa Tomeing). Judicial branch The Republic of the Marshall Islands has four court systems: Supreme Court, high court, district and community courts, and the traditional rights court. Trial is by jury or judge. Jurisdiction of the traditional rights court is limited to cases involving titles or land rights or other disputes arising from customary law and traditional practice. Political conditions Citizens of the Marshall Islands live with a relatively new democratic political system combined with a hierarchical traditional culture. The first two presidents were chiefs. Kessai Note is a commoner. There have been a number of local and national elections since the Republic of the Marshall Islands was founded, and in general, democracy has functioned well. There have been some incidents of human rights concern, however, such as undue government pressure on the judiciary and the press. The United Democratic Party, running on a reform platform, won the 1999 parliamentary election, taking control of the presidency and cabinet. The new government has publicly confirmed its commitment to an independent judiciary. The territorial claim by the Republic of the Marshall Islands on Wake Atoll leaves a certain amount of ambiguity regarding the actual or hypothetical role of the US military, responsible under agreement for the defence of Marshallese territory, in the event of any strategic crisis or hostilities involving Wake. The Atoll was formally annexed by the US in the 19th century and is still administered by the US Department of the Interior. Municipalities The Marshall islands is divided into 33 municipalities: Ailinginae Ailinglaplap Ailuk Arno Aur Bikar Bikini Ebon Enewetak Erikub JabatJaluit Jemo Kili Kwajalein Lae Lib Likiep Majuro Maloelap Mejit MiliNamorik Namu Rongelap Rongrik Taongi Toke Ujae Ujelang Utirik Wotho Wotje International organization participation AsDB, ESCAP, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, IDA, IFC, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, ITU, OPCW, Sparteca, SPC, SPF, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, WHO | Politics_of_the_Marshall_Islands |@lemmatized politics:1 marshall:8 islands:7 take:3 place:1 framework:1 parliamentary:2 representative:1 democratic:5 republic:5 emerge:1 multi:2 party:10 system:3 whereby:1 president:7 head:2 state:1 government:6 executive:3 power:2 exercise:1 legislative:4 vest:1 nitijela:5 legislature:4 judiciary:3 independent:2 branch:4 litokwa:2 tomeing:2 upp:1 january:2 elect:5 among:1 member:6 pick:1 cabinet:2 amata:2 kabua:5 first:3 subsequently:1 year:3 term:2 death:1 office:2 cousin:1 imata:2 win:2 special:1 election:4 current:1 consists:1 advisory:1 council:1 high:2 chief:2 four:2 single:1 seat:2 five:1 constituency:1 call:1 senator:1 last:1 elected:1 november:1 without:1 participation:2 though:1 part:1 could:1 united:3 political:4 traditionally:1 formally:2 organize:1 exist:1 closely:1 resembles:1 faction:1 interest:1 group:1 headquarters:1 formal:1 platform:2 structure:1 follow:1 two:2 grouping:1 compete:1 balloting:1 recent:1 udp:1 judicial:1 court:6 supreme:1 district:1 community:1 traditional:4 right:4 trial:1 jury:1 judge:1 jurisdiction:1 limit:1 case:1 involve:2 title:1 land:1 dispute:1 arise:1 customary:1 law:1 practice:1 condition:1 citizen:1 island:1 live:1 relatively:1 new:2 combine:1 hierarchical:1 culture:1 kessai:1 note:1 commoner:1 number:1 local:1 national:1 since:1 found:1 general:1 democracy:1 function:1 well:1 incident:1 human:1 concern:1 however:1 undue:1 pressure:1 press:1 run:1 reform:1 control:1 presidency:1 publicly:1 confirm:1 commitment:1 territorial:1 claim:1 wake:2 atoll:2 leave:1 certain:1 amount:1 ambiguity:1 regard:1 actual:1 hypothetical:1 role:1 u:3 military:1 responsible:1 agreement:1 defence:1 marshallese:1 territory:1 event:1 strategic:1 crisis:1 hostility:1 annex:1 century:1 still:1 administer:1 department:1 interior:1 municipalities:1 divide:1 municipality:1 ailinginae:1 ailinglaplap:1 ailuk:1 arno:1 aur:1 bikar:1 bikini:1 ebon:1 enewetak:1 erikub:1 jabatjaluit:1 jemo:1 kili:1 kwajalein:1 lae:1 lib:1 likiep:1 majuro:1 maloelap:1 mejit:1 milinamorik:1 namu:1 rongelap:1 rongrik:1 taongi:1 toke:1 ujae:1 ujelang:1 utirik:1 wotho:1 wotje:1 international:1 organization:1 asdb:1 escap:1 g:1 iaea:1 ibrd:1 icao:1 icc:1 ida:1 ifc:1 imf:1 imo:1 inmarsat:1 intelsat:1 nonsignatory:1 user:1 interpol:1 itu:1 opcw:1 sparteca:1 spc:1 spf:1 un:1 unctad:1 unesco:1 |@bigram marshall_islands:7 judiciary_independent:1 legislative_branch:2 seat_constituency:1 judicial_branch:1 supreme_court:1 participation_asdb:1 iaea_ibrd:1 ibrd_icao:1 icao_icc:1 imf_imo:1 imo_inmarsat:1 inmarsat_intelsat:1 intelsat_nonsignatory:1 nonsignatory_user:1 itu_opcw:1 un_unctad:1 unctad_unesco:1 |
1,622 | Electrical_telegraph | The electrical telegraph is a telegraph that uses electric signals. The electromagnetic telegraph is a device for human-to-human transmission of coded text messages over wire. History Early works and messages "Early Telegraph" historical marker outside Elizabethtown, Pennsylvania From early studies of electricity, electrical phenomena were known to travel with great speed, and many experimenters worked on the application of electricity to communications at a distance. All the known effects of electricity - such as sparks, electrostatic attraction, chemical changes, electric shocks, and in later more advanced studies, electromagnetism - were applied by various people to the problems of detecting controlled transmissions of electricity at various distances. In 1746 the French scientist and abbé Jean-Antoine Nollet gathered about two hundred monks into a circle about a mile (1.6 km) in circumference, with pieces of iron wire connecting them and discharged a battery of Leyden jars through them; he observed that each man reacted at substantially the same time to the electric shock, showing the speed of propagation to be very high. Tom Standage, The Victorian Internet, Walker Publishing, New York, 1998 ISBN 0-8027-1342-4, pp. 1-2 John Joseph Fahie, A history of electric telegraphy, to the year 1837, Spon, London, 1884, p59 In 1753 an anonymous writer in the Scots Magazine suggested an electrostatic telegraph. Using one wire for each letter of the alphabet, a message could be transmitted by connecting the wire terminals in turn to an electrostatic machine, and observing the deflection of pith balls at the far end. E. A. Marland, Early Electrical Communication, Abelard-Schuman Ltd, London 1964, no ISBN, Library of Congress 64-20875, pages 17-19; Telegraphs employing electrostatic attraction were the basis of early experiments in electrical telegraphy in Europe, but were abandoned as being impractical and were never developed into a useful communication system. In 1800 Alessandro Volta invented the Voltaic Pile, allowing for a continuous current of electricity for experimentation. This became a source of a low-voltage current that could be used to produce more distinct effects, and which was far less limited than the momentary discharge of an electrostatic machine, which with Leyden jars were the only previously known man-made sources of electricity. Another very early experiment in electrical telegraphy was an electrochemical telegraph created by the German physician, anatomist and inventor Samuel Thomas von Sömmering in 1809, based on an earlier, less robust design of 1804 by Catalan polymath and scientist Francisco Salvá i Campillo. Both their designs employed multiple wires (up to 35) in order to visually represent almost all Latin letters and numerals. Thus, messages could be conveyed electrically up to a few kilometers (in von Sömmering's design), with each of the telegraph receiver's wires immersed in a separate glass tube of acid. An electrical current was sequentially applied by the sender through the various wires representing each digit of a message; at the recipient's end the currents electrolysed the acid in the tubes in sequence, releasing streams of hydrogen bubbles next to each associated letter or numeral. The telegraph receiver's operator would visually observe the bubbles and could then record the transmitted message, albeit at a very low baud rate. Jones, R. Victor Samuel Thomas von Sömmering's "Space Multiplexed" Electrochemical Telegraph (1808-10), Harvard University website. Attributed to "Semaphore to Satellite" , International Telecommunication Union, Geneva 1965. Retrieved 2009-05-01 Hans Christian Ørsted discovered in 1820 that an electric current produces a magnetic field which will deflect a compass needle. In the same year Johann Schweigger invented the galvanometer, with a coil of wire around a compass, which could be used as a sensitive indicator for an electric current. In 1821, André-Marie Ampère suggested that telegraphy could be done by a system of galvanometers, with one wire per galvanometer to indicate each letter, and said he had experimented successfully with such a system. In 1824, Peter Barlow said that such a system only worked to a distance of about , and so was impractical. In 1825 William Sturgeon invented the electromagnet, with a single winding of uninsulated wire on a piece of varnished iron, which increased the magnetic force produced by electric current. Joseph Henry improved it in 1828 by placing several windings of insulated wire around the bar, creating a much more powerful electromagnet which could operate a telegraph through the high resistance of long telegraph wires. In 1832 an electromagnetic telegraph was created by Baron Schilling. Carl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Weber built an electromagnetic telegraph in 1833 in Göttingen. Then in 1835 Joseph Henry invented the critical electrical relay, by which a weak current could operate a powerful local electromagnet over very long distances. Gauss-Weber telegraph and Carl Steinheil Carl Friedrich Gauss, one of the most influential mathematicians of the early 19th century, developed a new theory of the Earth's magnetism in 1831, together with the physics professor Wilhelm Weber in Göttingen. Among the most important inventions of the time was the unifilar and bifilar magnetometer, enabling them to measure even the smallest deflections of the needle. They installed a 1000 m long wire above the town's roofs, which they were given permission for on 6 May 1833. Gauss combined the Poggendorff-Schweigger multiplicator with his magnetometer to build a more sensitive device, the galvanometer. To change the direction of the electric current, he constructed a commutator of his own. As a result, he was able to make the distant needle move in the direction set by the commutator on the other end of the line. At first, they used the telegraph to coordinate time, but soon they developed other signals; finally, their own alphabet. It was not binary, but based on four amplitudes of the needle. Gauss was convinced that this communication would be a help to his kingdom's towns. Later the same year, instead of a Voltaic pile, Gauss used an induction pulse, enabling him to transmit seven letters a minute instead of two. The inventors and university were too poor to develop the telegraph on their own, but received funding from Alexander von Humboldt. Carl August Steinheil in Munich was able to build a telegraph network within the city in 1835-6, and installed a telegraph line along the first German railroad in 1835. Schilling telegraph The telegraph invented by Baron Schilling von Canstatt in 1832 had a transmitting device which consisted of a keyboard with 16 black-and-white keys. These served for switching the electric current. The receiving instrument consisted of 6 galvanometers with magnetic needles, suspended from the silk threads. Both stations of Shilling's telegraph were connected by eight wires; six were connected with the galvanometers, one served for the return current and one - for a signal bell. When at the starting station the operator pressed a key, the corresponding pointer was deflected at the receiving station. Different positions of black and white flags on different disks gave combinations which corresponded to the letters or numbers. Later Pavel Shilling improved its apparatus. He reduced the number of connecting wires from 8 to 2. On October 21, 1832, Schilling managed a short-distance transmission of signals between two telegraphs in different rooms of his apartment. In 1836 the Schilling's telegraph was tested on a 5 km experimental underground - underwater cable, laid around the building of the main Admiralty in Saint Petersburg. Schilling also was one of the first to put into practice the idea of the binary system of signal transmission. William Fothergill Cooke studied anatomy in Heidelberg in 1834-6, where the physics professor introduced him to the Schilling telegraph in 1836. Alter and the Elderton Telegraph Across the Atlantic, in 1836 an American scientist, Dr. David Alter, invented the first known American electric telegraph, in Elderton, Pennsylvania, one year before the much more popular Morse telegraph was invented. Alter demonstrated it to witnesses. He was interviewed later for the book Biographical and Historical Cyclopedia of Indiana and Armstrong Counties, in which he said: "I may say that there is no connection at all between the telegraph of Morse and others and that of myself.... Professor Morse most probably never heard of me or my Elderton telegraph." Commercialization The first commercial electrical telegraph was constructed by Sir William Fothergill Cooke. Cooke and Charles Wheatstone patented it in May 1837 as an alarm system. It was first successfully demonstrated by Cooke and Wheatstone on 25 July 1837 between Euston and Camden Town in London. The electric telegraph, forerunner of the internet, celebrates 170 years BT Group Connected Earth Online Museum. Accessed July 2007 It entered commercial use on the Great Western Railway over the from Paddington station to West Drayton on 9 April 1839. In early 1845, John Tawell was apprehended following the use of a needle telegraph message from Slough to Paddington on 1 January 1845. This is thought to be the first use of the telegraph to catch a murderer. The message was: A MURDER HAS GUST BEEN COMMITTED AT SALT HILL AND THE SUSPECTED MURDERER WAS SEEN TO TAKE A FIRST CLASS TICKET TO LONDON BY THE TRAIN WHICH LEFT SLOUGH AT 742 PM HE IS IN THE GARB OF A KWAKER WITH A GREAT COAT ON WHICH REACHES NEARLY DOWN TO HIS FEET HE IS IN THE LAST COMPARTMENT OF THE SECOND CLASS COMPARTMENT The Cooke-Wheatstone system did not support punctuation, lower case, or the letters J, Q, and Z; hence the misspelling of 'just' and 'Quaker'. "Second class compartment" should also probably read "second first-class carriage"; this information was not significant, however, as Tawell was not arrested at the station, but at a nearby coffee shop. Morse telegraphs In the United States, the telegraph was developed by Samuel Morse and Alfred Vail. Samuel F. B. Morse independently developed an electrical telegraph in 1837, an alternative design that was capable of transmitting over long distances using poor quality wire. His assistant, Alfred Vail developed the Morse code signalling alphabet with Morse. The Morse code alphabet commonly used on the device was also named after Morse. On 6 January 1838 Morse first successfully tested the device at the Speedwell Ironworks near Morristown, New Jersey, and on 8 February he publicly demonstrated it to a scientific committee at the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. In 1843 the U.S. Congress appropriated $30,000 to fund an experimental telegraph line from Washington, D.C. to Baltimore. By May 1, 1844 the line had been completed from the U.S. Capitol to Annapolis Junction in Maryland. That day the Whig Party nominated Henry Clay at its national convention in Baltimore. News of the nomination was hand carried by railroad to Annapolis Junction where Vail wired it to Morse in the Capitol. The History of the Telegraph and Telegraphy at About.com On 24 May 1844, after the line was completed, Morse made the first public demonstration of his telegraph by sending a message from the Supreme Court Chamber in the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C. to the B&O Railroad "outer depot" (now the B&O Railroad Museum) in Baltimore. The famous message was: What hath God wrought (from the Biblical book of Numbers 23:23: Surely there is no enchantment against Jacob, neither is there any divination against Israel: according to this time it shall be said of Jacob and of Israel, What hath God wrought!). The Americas' first telegram, transmitted via a repeater: "What hath God wrought" sent by Samuel F.B. Morse in 1844. The Morse/Vail telegraph was quickly deployed in the following two decades. Morse failed to properly credit Vail for the powerful electromagnets used in his telegraph. The original Morse design, without the relay or the "intensity" and "quantity" electromagnets invented by Vail only worked to a distance of . The electrical telegraph owned and built by Samuel F. B. Morse This was a practical electrical telegraph system, and subsequently electrical telegraph came to refer to a signaling telegram - a system where an operator makes and breaks an electrical contact with a telegraph key which results in an audible signal at the other end produced by a telegraph sounder which is interpreted and transcribed by a human. Morse and Vail's first telegraphs used a pen and paper system to record the marks of the Morse Code, and interpreted the marks visually however, operators soon realized that they could "read" the clicking of the receiver directly by ear. Systems which automatically read the signals and print formed characters are generally called teletype rather than telegraph systems. Some electrical telegraphs used indicators which were read visually rather than by ear. The most notable of these was the early transatlantic telegraph cable. According to a Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission heritage marker installed along Pennsylvania Route 230 near Elizabethtown, Pennsylvania in 1947 (see image at right), the first commercial telegraph line in the United States ran along a railroad right-of-way (currently part of Amtrak's Keystone Corridor) between Lancaster, Pennsylvania and Harrisburg, Pennsylvania in 1845. The first message, received on January 8, 1846, was "Why don't you write, you rascals?" Pensylvannia Department of Labor & Industry: Labor and Industry Heritage Markers. As the transcontinental telegraph was laid it passed through Nebraska where Republican sympathizers prior to American Civil War were eager to gain statehood for Nevada before the next presidential election so that Abraham Lincoln would have enough votes to win. They rushed to send the entire state constitution by telegraph to the United States Congress, which approved it and sent it to the President for signature. They did not believe sending it by train would guarantee it would arrive on time. The constitution was sent on October 31, just 8 days before the election on November 7, 1864. On 24 October 1861, the first transcontinental telegraph system was established. Spanning North America, an existing network in the eastern United States was connected to the small network in California by a link between Omaha and Carson City via Salt Lake City. The first telegram on that line was sent by Brigham Young then governor or Utah which affirmed that the Territory had not seceded. It read "Utah has not seceded but is firm for the Constitution and the laws of our once happy country." Arrington, Leonard J., 1985, Brigham Young: The American Moses, New York: Knopf, p 294 The slower Pony Express system ceased operation two days later. Carson City has another claim in the history of telegraphs for the largest and costliest transmission ever sent came from there. Transatlantic era Major telegraph lines in 1891 The first successful transatlantic telegraph cable was completed on 27 July 1866, allowing transatlantic telegraph communications for the first time. Earlier submarine transatlantic cables installed in 1857 and 1858 only operated for a few days or weeks before they failed. The study of underwater telegraph cables accelerated interest in mathematical analysis of these transmission lines. Early telegraph links to Britain In 1867, David Brooks (while working for the Central Pacific Railroad) was awarded and for his improvements to telegraph insulators. He was also awarded reissue number 2,717 in 1867, for , which was originally awarded to him on 1864, for his insulator design. Brooks' patents allowed the Central Pacific to more easily communicate with construction crews building the First Transcontinental Railroad in America; the completion of the railroad was broadcast by telegraph on May 10, 1869, with the telegrapher striking his key in unison with the strikes on the Golden Spike during the completion ceremony. This telegram was sent by Orville Wright in December 1903 from Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, following the first successful aeroplane flight. Another advancement in telegraph technology occurred on August 9, 1892, when Thomas Edison received a patent for a two-way telegraph (, "Duplex Telegraph") . Global communication Within 29 years of its first installation at Euston Station, the telegraph network crossed the oceans to every continent but Antarctica, making instant global communication possible for the first time. The telegraph's greatest accomplishment was to expand information boundaries, allowing data to reach its destination before its usefulness expired; information like any other goods is only of value for a certain period of time. For instance, a person making a speculation in stocks requires the current market price; the old market price is of no value. As long as information travels at the speed of transportation vehicles, the distance over which it held its freshness was small. Bray, John "The First Telegraph and Cable Engineers" in The Communications Miracle – The Telecommunications Pioneers from Morse to the Information Superhighway, Plenum Press, New York, 1995, pp 35-49 A similar principle applies to news, so much so that the relationship between information and time results in the distinguishing news from history. Information about events that were at a significant distance were reported long after the events occurred, rendering it as history to the individuals that received it. Thus the telegraph liberated information transfer from transportation. The impetus of this was war, which created the need of expanding the telegraph's service. Its effects were immediate, reducing more than a day off delivery time. Thompson, Robert Luther, "Emergence of the American Telegraph" in Technology and Society – Wiring a Continent, The History of the Telegraph Industry in the United States 1832-1866, Arno Press, New York, 1972, pp299-310 News through newspapers also evolved due to the telegraph's inception. The telegraph could carry information, but there was a need for someone to obtain information to begin with. Through the rapid delivery of information created by the telegraph, it was no longer possible to rely on the delivery of distant newspapers. There was a need for an individual to gather the news at its distant source and deliver it to the telegraph office. Winston, Brian "The Telegraph" in Media Technology and Society, A History: From the Telegraph to the Internet, Routledge Publications, London, 1998, pp19-30 Newspapers could not use their own reporters as they would obstruct other reporters, jamming the telegraph line. The solution was co-operation. In New York for instance, the six major newspapers established an association for foreign news and a separate one for other sources - the first wire service. Ultimately this resulted in the proliferation of news with competition breaking out between the original six papers and other rivals. Thus the telegraph did not only transport news but also played a dominant role in establishing the industry and the profession of journalism. Winston, Brian "The Telegraph" in Media Technology and Society, A History: From the Telegraph to the Internet, Routledge Publications, London, 1998, pp19-30 End of the telegraph era On 27 January 2006, Western Union discontinued all telegram and commercial messaging services, though it still offered its money transfer services. See also Aurora (astronomy), Sept 2, 1859 Geomagnetically induced current, (GIC) Great Northern Telegraph Company Harrison Gray Dyar erected the first telegraph line and dispatched the first message Submarine communications cable References Further reading Biographical and Historical Cyclopedia of Indiana and Armstrong Counties, by Wiley, Samuel T., editor, John M. Gresham and Co., Philadelphia PA, 1891, pages 475-476. W.F. Cooke, The Electric Telegraph, Was it invented by Prof. Wheatstone?, London 1856. C.A. Steinheil, Ueber Telegraphie, München 1838. C.F. Gauß, Works, Göttingen 1863-1933. External links Morse Telegraph Club, Inc. (The Morse Telegraph Club is an international non-profit organization dedicated to the perpetuation of the knowledge and traditions of telegraphy.) http://collections.ic.gc.ca/canso/index.htm Shilling's telegraph- an exhibit of A.S. Popov Central Museum of Communications History of electromagnetic telegraph The first electric telegraphs The Dawn of Telegraphy Pavel Shilling and his telegraph- article in PCWeek, Russian edition. Distant Writing - The History of the Telegraph Companies in Britain between 1838 and 1868 NASA - Carrington Super Flare NASA 6 May 2008 How Cables Unite The World - a 1902 article about telegraph networks and technology from the magazine The World's Work | Electrical_telegraph |@lemmatized electrical:14 telegraph:95 use:15 electric:13 signal:9 electromagnetic:4 device:5 human:3 transmission:6 coded:1 text:1 message:12 wire:19 history:11 early:12 work:8 historical:4 marker:3 outside:1 elizabethtown:2 pennsylvania:8 study:3 electricity:6 phenomenon:1 know:3 travel:2 great:5 speed:3 many:1 experimenter:1 application:1 communication:10 distance:9 known:1 effect:3 spark:1 electrostatic:5 attraction:2 chemical:1 change:2 shock:2 later:5 advanced:1 electromagnetism:1 apply:2 various:3 people:1 problem:1 detect:1 controlled:1 french:1 scientist:3 abbé:1 jean:1 antoine:1 nollet:1 gather:2 two:6 hundred:1 monk:1 circle:1 mile:1 km:2 circumference:1 piece:2 iron:2 connect:7 discharge:2 battery:1 leyden:2 jar:2 observe:3 man:2 react:1 substantially:1 time:10 show:1 propagation:1 high:2 tom:1 standage:1 victorian:1 internet:4 walker:1 publishing:1 new:7 york:5 isbn:2 pp:2 john:4 joseph:3 fahie:1 telegraphy:7 year:6 spon:1 london:7 anonymous:1 writer:1 scot:1 magazine:2 suggest:2 one:8 letter:7 alphabet:4 could:11 transmit:4 terminal:1 turn:1 machine:2 deflection:2 pith:1 ball:1 far:3 end:5 e:1 marland:1 abelard:1 schuman:1 ltd:1 library:1 congress:3 page:2 employ:2 basis:1 experiment:3 europe:1 abandon:1 impractical:2 never:2 develop:7 useful:1 system:14 alessandro:1 volta:1 invent:8 voltaic:2 pile:2 allow:4 continuous:1 current:13 experimentation:1 become:1 source:4 low:3 voltage:1 produce:4 distinct:1 less:2 limited:1 momentary:1 previously:1 make:6 another:3 electrochemical:2 create:5 german:2 physician:1 anatomist:1 inventor:2 samuel:7 thomas:3 von:5 sömmering:3 base:2 robust:1 design:6 catalan:1 polymath:1 francisco:1 salvá:1 campillo:1 multiple:1 order:1 visually:4 represent:2 almost:1 latin:1 numeral:2 thus:3 convey:1 electrically:1 kilometer:1 receiver:3 immerse:1 separate:2 glass:1 tube:2 acid:2 sequentially:1 sender:1 digit:1 recipient:1 electrolysed:1 sequence:1 release:1 stream:1 hydrogen:1 bubble:2 next:2 associate:1 operator:4 would:6 record:2 transmitted:1 albeit:1 baud:1 rate:1 jones:1 r:1 victor:1 space:1 multiplexed:1 harvard:1 university:2 website:1 attribute:1 semaphore:1 satellite:1 international:2 telecommunication:2 union:2 geneva:1 retrieve:1 han:1 christian:1 ørsted:1 discover:1 magnetic:3 field:1 deflect:2 compass:2 needle:6 johann:1 schweigger:2 galvanometer:6 coil:1 around:3 sensitive:2 indicator:2 andré:1 marie:1 ampère:1 per:1 indicate:1 say:5 successfully:3 peter:1 barlow:1 william:3 sturgeon:1 electromagnet:5 single:1 winding:2 uninsulated:1 varnished:1 increase:1 force:1 henry:3 improve:2 place:1 several:1 insulated:1 bar:1 much:3 powerful:3 operate:3 resistance:1 long:6 baron:2 schilling:7 carl:4 friedrich:2 gauss:6 wilhelm:2 weber:3 build:5 göttingen:3 critical:1 relay:2 weak:1 local:1 steinheil:3 influential:1 mathematician:1 century:1 theory:1 earth:2 magnetism:1 together:1 physic:2 professor:3 among:1 important:1 invention:1 unifilar:1 bifilar:1 magnetometer:2 enable:2 measure:1 even:1 small:3 instal:4 town:3 roof:1 give:2 permission:1 may:7 combine:1 poggendorff:1 multiplicator:1 direction:2 construct:2 commutator:2 result:4 able:2 distant:4 move:1 set:1 line:11 first:28 coordinate:1 soon:2 finally:1 binary:2 four:1 amplitude:1 convince:1 help:1 kingdom:1 instead:2 induction:1 pulse:1 seven:1 minute:1 poor:2 receive:6 funding:1 alexander:1 humboldt:1 august:2 munich:1 network:5 within:2 city:4 along:3 railroad:8 canstatt:1 transmitting:1 consist:2 keyboard:1 black:2 white:2 key:4 serve:2 switch:1 instrument:1 suspend:1 silk:1 thread:1 station:6 shill:3 eight:1 six:3 return:1 bell:1 start:1 press:3 corresponding:1 pointer:1 different:3 position:1 flag:1 disk:1 combination:1 correspond:1 number:4 pavel:2 apparatus:1 reduce:2 october:3 manage:1 short:1 room:1 apartment:1 test:2 experimental:2 underground:1 underwater:2 cable:8 lay:2 building:1 main:1 admiralty:1 saint:1 petersburg:1 also:7 put:1 practice:1 idea:1 fothergill:2 cooke:6 studied:1 anatomy:1 heidelberg:1 introduce:1 alter:3 elderton:3 across:1 atlantic:1 american:5 dr:1 david:2 popular:1 morse:23 demonstrate:3 witness:1 interview:1 book:2 biographical:2 cyclopedia:2 indiana:2 armstrong:2 county:2 connection:1 others:1 probably:2 heard:1 commercialization:1 commercial:4 sir:1 charles:1 wheatstone:4 patent:3 alarm:1 july:3 euston:2 camden:1 forerunner:1 celebrate:1 bt:1 group:1 online:1 museum:4 access:1 enter:1 western:2 railway:1 paddington:2 west:1 drayton:1 april:1 tawell:2 apprehend:1 follow:2 slough:2 january:4 think:1 catch:1 murderer:2 murder:1 gust:1 commit:1 salt:2 hill:1 suspected:1 see:3 take:1 class:4 ticket:1 train:2 leave:1 pm:1 garb:1 kwaker:1 coat:1 reach:2 nearly:1 foot:1 last:1 compartment:3 second:3 support:1 punctuation:1 case:1 j:2 q:1 z:1 hence:1 misspelling:1 quaker:1 read:6 carriage:1 information:11 significant:2 however:2 arrest:1 nearby:1 coffee:1 shop:1 united:5 state:6 alfred:2 vail:7 f:5 b:5 independently:1 alternative:1 capable:1 quality:1 assistant:1 code:3 commonly:1 name:1 speedwell:1 ironwork:1 near:2 morristown:1 jersey:1 february:1 publicly:1 scientific:1 committee:1 franklin:1 institute:1 philadelphia:2 u:3 appropriate:1 fund:1 washington:2 c:4 baltimore:3 complete:3 capitol:3 annapolis:2 junction:2 maryland:1 day:5 whig:1 party:1 nominate:1 clay:1 national:1 convention:1 news:8 nomination:1 hand:1 carry:2 com:1 public:1 demonstration:1 send:8 supreme:1 court:1 chamber:1 outer:1 depot:1 famous:1 hath:3 god:3 wrought:2 biblical:1 surely:1 enchantment:1 jacob:2 neither:1 divination:1 israel:2 accord:2 shall:1 america:3 telegram:5 via:2 repeater:1 sent:1 quickly:1 deploy:1 following:1 decade:1 fail:2 properly:1 credit:1 original:2 without:1 intensity:1 quantity:1 practical:1 subsequently:1 come:2 refer:1 break:2 contact:1 audible:1 sounder:1 interpret:2 transcribe:1 pen:1 paper:2 mark:2 realize:1 clicking:1 directly:1 ear:2 automatically:1 print:1 form:1 character:1 generally:1 call:1 teletype:1 rather:2 notable:1 transatlantic:5 commission:1 heritage:2 route:1 image:1 right:2 run:1 way:2 currently:1 part:1 amtrak:1 keystone:1 corridor:1 lancaster:1 harrisburg:1 write:2 rascals:1 pensylvannia:1 department:1 labor:2 industry:4 transcontinental:3 pass:1 nebraska:1 republican:1 sympathizer:1 prior:1 civil:1 war:2 eager:1 gain:1 statehood:1 nevada:1 presidential:1 election:2 abraham:1 lincoln:1 enough:1 vote:1 win:1 rush:1 entire:1 constitution:3 approve:1 president:1 signature:1 believe:1 guarantee:1 arrive:1 november:1 establish:3 span:1 north:2 exist:1 eastern:1 california:1 link:3 omaha:1 carson:2 lake:1 brigham:2 young:2 governor:1 utah:2 affirm:1 territory:1 secede:2 firm:1 law:1 happy:1 country:1 arrington:1 leonard:1 moses:1 knopf:1 p:1 slow:1 pony:1 express:1 cease:1 operation:2 claim:1 large:1 costly:1 ever:1 era:2 major:2 successful:2 submarine:2 week:1 accelerate:1 interest:1 mathematical:1 analysis:1 britain:2 brook:2 central:3 pacific:2 award:3 improvement:1 insulator:2 reissue:1 originally:1 easily:1 communicate:1 construction:1 crew:1 completion:2 broadcast:1 telegrapher:1 strike:2 unison:1 golden:1 spike:1 ceremony:1 orville:1 wright:1 december:1 kitty:1 hawk:1 carolina:1 aeroplane:1 flight:1 advancement:1 technology:5 occur:2 edison:1 duplex:1 global:2 installation:1 cross:1 ocean:1 every:1 continent:2 antarctica:1 instant:1 possible:2 accomplishment:1 expand:2 boundary:1 data:1 destination:1 usefulness:1 expire:1 like:1 good:1 value:2 certain:1 period:1 instance:2 person:1 speculation:1 stock:1 require:1 market:2 price:2 old:1 transportation:2 vehicle:1 hold:1 freshness:1 bray:1 engineer:1 miracle:1 pioneer:1 superhighway:1 plenum:1 similar:1 principle:1 applies:1 relationship:1 distinguish:1 event:2 report:1 render:1 individual:2 liberate:1 transfer:2 impetus:1 need:3 service:4 immediate:1 delivery:3 thompson:1 robert:1 luther:1 emergence:1 society:3 arno:1 newspaper:4 evolve:1 due:1 inception:1 someone:1 obtain:1 begin:1 rapid:1 longer:1 rely:1 deliver:1 office:1 winston:2 brian:2 medium:2 routledge:2 publication:2 reporter:2 obstruct:1 jam:1 solution:1 co:2 association:1 foreign:1 ultimately:1 proliferation:1 competition:1 rival:1 transport:1 play:1 dominant:1 role:1 profession:1 journalism:1 discontinue:1 messaging:1 though:1 still:1 offer:1 money:1 aurora:1 astronomy:1 sept:1 geomagnetically:1 induced:1 gic:1 northern:1 company:2 harrison:1 gray:1 dyar:1 erect:1 dispatch:1 reference:1 wiley:1 editor:1 gresham:1 pa:1 w:1 invented:1 prof:1 ueber:1 telegraphie:1 münchen:1 gauß:1 external:1 club:2 inc:1 non:1 profit:1 organization:1 dedicate:1 perpetuation:1 knowledge:1 tradition:1 http:1 collection:1 ic:1 gc:1 ca:1 canso:1 index:1 htm:1 exhibit:1 popov:1 dawn:1 shilling:1 article:2 pcweek:1 russian:1 edition:1 nasa:2 carrington:1 super:1 flare:1 unite:1 world:2 |@bigram electrostatic_attraction:2 mile_km:1 leyden_jar:2 alessandro_volta:1 voltaic_pile:2 polymath_scientist:1 christian_ørsted:1 magnetic_field:1 compass_needle:1 andré_marie:1 marie_ampère:1 carl_friedrich:2 friedrich_gauss:2 von_humboldt:1 saint_petersburg:1 morse_telegraph:4 charles_wheatstone:1 paddington_station:1 coffee_shop:1 morse_code:3 philadelphia_pennsylvania:1 supreme_court:1 transatlantic_telegraph:3 lancaster_pennsylvania:1 harrisburg_pennsylvania:1 presidential_election:1 abraham_lincoln:1 brigham_young:2 pony_express:1 transcontinental_railroad:1 kitty_hawk:1 north_carolina:1 thomas_edison:1 philadelphia_pa:1 external_link:1 gc_ca:1 |
1,623 | Imam | An imam (, ) is an Islamic leadership position. Often the leader of a mosque and the community. Similar to spiritual leaders, the imam is the one who leads the prayer during Islamic gatherings. More often the community turns to the mosque imam, if they have an Islamic question. In smaller communities an imam could be the community leader based on the community setting. Shi'a imams In the Shi'a context, imam has a meaning more central to belief, referring to leaders of the community. Twelver and Ismaili Shi'a believe that these Imams are chosen by God to be perfect examples for the faithful and to lead all humanity in all aspects of life. They also believe that all the Imams chosen are free from committing any sin and have a status directly parallel to those of a prophet, infallibility which is called ismah. These leaders must be followed since they are appointed by God. Twelver Here follows a list of the Twelvers Imams: Number Name(Full/Kunya) Title(Arabic/Turkish) The Imam's Arabic titles are used by the majority of Twelver Shia who use Arabic as a liturgical language, including the Usooli, Akhbari, Shaykhi, and to a lesser extent Alawi. Turkish titles are generally used by Alevi, a fringe Twelver group, who make up around 10% of the world Shia population. The titles for each Imam literally translate as "First Ali", "Second Ali", and so forth. Birth–Death(CE/AH) The abbreviation CE refers to the Common Era solar calendar, while AH refers to the Islamic Hijri lunar calendar. Importance Birthplace (present day country) Place of death and burial1Ali ibn Abu Talibعلي بن أبي طالبAbu al-Hassanأبو الحسنAmir al-Mu'minin(Commander of the Faithful) Birinci Ali 600–66123–40 Tabatabae (1979), pp.190-192 The first Imam and the rightful successor of the Prophet of all Shia; however, the Sunnis acknowledge him as the fourth Caliph as well. He holds a high position in almost all Sufi Muslim orders (Turuq); the members of these orders trace their lineage to Muhammad through him.Mecca, Saudi ArabiaAssassinated by Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam, a Kharijite in Kufa, who slashed him with a poisoned sword. Tabatabae (1979), p.192 Buried at the Imam Ali Mosque in Najaf, Iraq.2Hassan ibn Aliالحسن بن عليAbu Muhammadأبو محمدal-MujtabaIkinci Ali624–680 3–50 Tabatabae (1979), pp.194-195 He was the eldest surviving grandson of Muhammad through Muhammad's daughter, Fatimah Zahra. Hasan succeeded his father as the caliph in Kufa, and on the basis of peace treaty with Muawiya I, he relinquished control of Iraq following a reign of seven months. Medina, Saudi ArabiaPoisoned by his wife in Medina, Saudi Arabia on the orders of the Caliph Muawiya. Tabatabae (1979), p.195 Buried in Jannat al-Baqi.3Husayn ibn Aliالحسین بن عليAbu Abdillahأبو عبداللهSayed al-ShuhadaŪçüncü Ali626–680 4–61 Tabatabae (1979), pp.196-199 He was a grandson of Muhammad. Husayn opposed the validity of Caliph Yazid I. As a result, he and his family were later killed in the Battle of Karbala by Yazid's forces. After this incident, the commemoration of Husayn ibn Ali has become a central ritual in Shia identity. Medina, Saudi ArabiaKilled and beheaded at the Battle of Karbala. Buried at the Imam Husayn Shrine in Karbala, Iraq.4Ali ibn al-Husseinعلي بن الحسینAbu Muhammadأبو محمدal-Sajjad, Zain al-Abedin Dorduncu Ali658-9 – 712 Tabatabae (1979), p.202 38–95Author of prayers in Sahifa al-Sajjadiyya, which is known as "The Psalm of the Household of the Prophet." Medina, Saudi ArabiaAccording to most Shia scholars, he was poisoned on the order of Caliph al-Walid I in Medina, Saudi Arabia. Buried in Jannat al-Baqi.5Muhammad ibn Aliمحمد بن عليAbu Ja'farأبو جعفرal-Baqir al-Ulum (splitting open knowledge) Besinci Ali 677–732 57–114Sunni and Shia sources both describe him as one of the early and most eminent legal scholars, teaching many students during his tenure. Tabatabae (1979), p.203 Medina, Saudi ArabiaAccording to some Shia scholars, he was poisoned by Ibrahim ibn Walid ibn 'Abdallah in Medina, Saudi Arabia on the order of Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik.. Buried in Jannat al-Baqi.6Ja'far ibn Muhammadجعفر بن محمدAbu Abdillahأبو عبداللهal-Sadiq Tabatabae (1979), p.203-204 (the Trustworthy) Altinci Ali 702–765 83–148 Established the Ja'fari jurisprudence and developed the Theology of Shia. He instructed many scholars in different fields, including Abu Hanifah and Malik ibn Anas in fiqh, Wasil ibn Ata and Hisham ibn Hakam in Islamic theology, and Geber in science and alchemy. Reseach Committee of Strasburg University, Imam Jafar Ibn Muhammad As-Sadiq A.S. The Great Muslim Scientist and Philosopher, translated by Kaukab Ali Mirza, 2000. Willowdale Ont. ISBN 0969949014. Medina, Saudi ArabiaAccording to Shia sources, he was poisoned in Medina, Saudi Arabia on the order of Caliph Al-Mansur.. Buried in Jannat al-Baqi.7Musa ibn Ja'farموسی بن جعفرAbu al-Hassan Iأبو الحسن الاول al-Kazim Tabatabae (1979), p.205 Yedinci Ali744–799 128–183Leader of the Shia community during the schism of Ismaili and other branches after the death of the former Imam, Jafar al-Sadiq. Tabatabae (1979) p. 78 He established the network of agents who collected khums in the Shia community of the Middle East and the Greater Khorasan. Sachedina (1988), pp.53-54 Medina, Saudi ArabiaImprisoned and poisoned in Baghdad, Iraq on the order of Caliph Harun al-Rashid. Buried in the Kazimayn shrine in Baghdad.8Ali ibn Musaعلي بن موسیAbu al-Hassan IIأبو الحسن الثانیal-Rida, Reza Tabatabae (1979), pp.205-207 Sekizinci Ali765–817 148–203Made crown-prince by Caliph Al-Ma'mun, and famous for his discussions with both Muslim and non-Muslim religious scholars.Medina, Saudi ArabiaAccording to Shia sources, he was poisoned in Mashad, Iran on the order of Caliph Al-Ma'mun. Buried in the Imam Reza shrine in Mashad.9Muhammad ibn Aliمحمد بن عليAbu Ja'farأبو جعفرal-Taqi, al-Jawad Tabatabae (1979), p. 207 Dokuzuncu Ali810–835 195–220Famous for his generosity and piety in the face of persecution by the Abbasid caliphate.Medina, Saudi ArabiaPoisoned by his wife, Al-Ma'mun's daughter, in Baghdad, Iraq on the order of Caliph Al-Mu'tasim. Buried in the Kazmain shrine in Baghdad.10Ali ibn Muhammadعلي بن محمدAbu al-Hassan IIIأبو الحسن الثالثal-Hadi, al-Naqi Onuncu Ali827–868 212–254Strengthened the network of deputies in the Shia community. He sent them instructions, and received in turn financial contributions of the faithful from the khums and religious vows.Surayya, a village near Medina, Saudi ArabiaAccording to Shia sources, he was poisoned in Samarra, Iraq on the order of Caliph Al-Mu'tazz. Tabatabae (1979), pp.208-209 Buried in the Al Askari Mosque in Samarra.11Hassan ibn Aliألحسن بن عليAbu Muhammadأبو محمدal-Askari Onbirinci Ali846–874 232–260For most of his life, the Abbasid Caliph, Al-Mu'tamid, placed restrictions on him after the death of his father. Repression of the Shi'ite population was particularly high at the time due to their large size and growing power. Tabatabae (1979) pp. 209-210 Medina, Saudi ArabiaAccording to Shia, he was poisoned on the order of Caliph Al-Mu'tamid in Samarra, Iraq. Buried in Al Askari Mosque in Samarra. Tabatabae (1979), pp.209-210 12Muhammad ibn al-Hassanمحمد بن الحسنAbu al-Qasimأبو القاسمal-Mahdi, Hidden Imam, al-Hujjah Onikinci Ali868–unknown Tabatabae (1979), pp.210-211 255–unknownAccording to Twelver doctrine, he is the current Imam and the promised Mahdi, a messianic figure who will return with Christ. He will reestablish the rightful governance of Islam and replete the earth with justice and peace. Tabatabae (1979), pp. 211-214 Samarra, IraqAccording to Shia doctrine, he has been living in the Occultation since 872, and will continue as long as God wills it. Fatimah, also Fatimah al-Zahraa, daughter of Muhammed (615–632), is also considered infallible but not an Imam. Many Shi'a believe that the last Imam will one day return. See Imamah (Shi'a Ismaili doctrine) for Ismaili list of Imams Sunni imams The term is also used for a recognized religious leader or teacher in Islam, often for the founding scholars of the four Sunni madhhabs, or schools of religious jurisprudence (fiqh). It may also refer to the imams of the sciences related to Hadith or to the heads of the Prophet's descendants in their times. In other words, Imam Ali is a phrase used by both Shi'a and Sunni Muslims, though with different connotations The Rightly-Guided Caliphs & The Four Imams . The Sunni sect does not have imams in the same sense as the Shi'a sect. The imam in the Sunni sect of Islam is the leader of prayers; the sermon is most often given by the Sheikh. However, there are some people whom Sunnis call "Imams" who are not prayer leaders. They are not Imams in the Shi'a sense of the word, but they are those who started the four Sunni Madhabs. List: MadhhabAqidahScience of hadithImam Abu HanifaImam al-AshariImam BukhariImam MalikImam Abu Mansur al-MaturidiImam Abu DawoodImam Shafi'iImam Fakhr al-RaziImam Ahmad ibn HanbalImam Abu Dawood Zaidi imams as rulers of Yemen In the Zaidi Shiite sect, Imams were temporal as well as spiritual leaders who held power in Yemen for more than a thousand years. In 897, a Zaidi ruler, Yahya al-Hadi ila'l Haqq, founded a line of such Imams, a theocratic form of government which survived until the second half of the 20th century. (See details under Zaidi, History of Yemen.) See also Shia Imam Women as imams Mullah Foot notes References External links A brief introduction of Twelve Imams A Brief History Of The Lives Of The Twelve Imams a chapter of Shi'a Islam (book) by Allameh Tabatabaei The Twelve Imams Taken From "A Shi'ite Anthology" By Allameh Tabatabaei A Short History of the Lives of The Twelve Imams Detailed description of the Shiite belief Graphical illustration of the Shia sects List of Sunni Imams The Imam Movie | Imam |@lemmatized imam:35 islamic:5 leadership:1 position:2 often:4 leader:9 mosque:5 community:9 similar:1 spiritual:2 one:3 lead:2 prayer:4 gathering:1 turn:2 question:1 small:1 could:1 base:1 set:1 shi:11 context:1 meaning:1 central:2 belief:2 refer:2 twelver:5 ismaili:4 believe:3 choose:2 god:3 perfect:1 example:1 faithful:3 humanity:1 aspect:1 life:4 also:6 free:1 commit:1 sin:1 status:1 directly:1 parallel:1 prophet:4 infallibility:1 call:2 ismah:1 must:1 follow:3 since:2 appoint:1 list:4 twelvers:1 number:1 name:1 full:1 kunya:1 title:4 arabic:3 turkish:2 use:5 majority:1 shia:18 liturgical:1 language:1 include:2 usooli:1 akhbari:1 shaykhi:1 less:1 extent:1 alawi:1 generally:1 alevi:1 fringe:1 group:1 make:1 around:1 world:1 population:2 literally:1 translate:2 first:2 ali:9 second:2 forth:1 birth:1 death:4 ce:2 ah:2 abbreviation:1 refers:2 common:1 era:1 solar:1 calendar:2 hijri:1 lunar:1 importance:1 birthplace:1 present:1 day:2 country:1 place:2 ibn:22 abu:6 talibعلي:1 بن:12 أبي:1 طالبabu:1 al:40 hassanأبو:1 الحسنamir:1 mu:5 minin:1 commander:1 birinci:1 tabatabae:17 pp:10 rightful:2 successor:1 however:2 sunni:8 acknowledge:1 fourth:1 caliph:15 well:2 hold:2 high:2 almost:1 sufi:1 muslim:5 order:11 turuq:1 member:1 trace:1 lineage:1 muhammad:5 mecca:1 saudi:15 arabiaassassinated:1 abd:2 rahman:1 muljam:1 kharijite:1 kufa:2 slash:1 poisoned:1 sword:1 p:8 bury:11 najaf:1 iraq:7 aliالحسن:1 عليabu:5 muhammadأبو:3 محمدal:3 mujtabaikinci:1 eldest:1 survive:2 grandson:2 daughter:3 fatimah:3 zahra:1 hasan:1 succeed:1 father:2 basis:1 peace:2 treaty:1 muawiya:2 relinquish:1 control:1 reign:1 seven:1 month:1 medina:14 arabiapoisoned:2 wife:2 arabia:4 jannat:4 baqi:4 aliالحسین:1 abdillahأبو:2 عبداللهsayed:1 shuhadaūçüncü:1 husayn:3 oppose:1 validity:1 yazid:2 result:1 family:1 later:1 kill:1 battle:2 karbala:3 force:1 incident:1 commemoration:1 become:1 ritual:1 identity:1 arabiakilled:1 behead:1 shrine:4 husseinعلي:1 الحسینabu:1 sajjad:1 zain:1 abedin:1 dorduncu:1 sahifa:1 sajjadiyya:1 know:1 psalm:1 household:1 arabiaaccording:6 scholar:6 poison:7 walid:2 aliمحمد:2 ja:4 farأبو:2 جعفرal:2 baqir:1 ulum:1 split:1 open:1 knowledge:1 besinci:1 source:4 describe:1 early:1 eminent:1 legal:1 teach:1 many:3 student:1 tenure:1 ibrahim:1 abdallah:1 hisham:2 malik:2 far:1 muhammadجعفر:1 محمدabu:2 عبداللهal:1 sadiq:3 trustworthy:1 altinci:1 establish:2 fari:1 jurisprudence:2 develop:1 theology:2 instruct:1 different:2 field:1 hanifah:1 ana:1 fiqh:2 wasil:1 ata:1 hakam:1 geber:1 science:2 alchemy:1 reseach:1 committee:1 strasburg:1 university:1 jafar:2 great:2 scientist:1 philosopher:1 kaukab:1 mirza:1 willowdale:1 ont:1 isbn:1 mansur:2 farموسی:1 جعفرabu:1 hassan:3 iأبو:1 الحسن:3 الاول:1 kazim:1 yedinci:1 schism:1 branch:1 former:1 network:2 agent:1 collect:1 khums:2 middle:1 east:1 khorasan:1 sachedina:1 arabiaimprisoned:1 baghdad:4 harun:1 rashid:1 kazimayn:1 musaعلي:1 موسیabu:1 iiأبو:1 الثانیal:1 rida:1 reza:2 sekizinci:1 crown:1 prince:1 mun:3 famous:1 discussion:1 non:1 religious:4 mashad:2 iran:1 taqi:1 jawad:1 dokuzuncu:1 generosity:1 piety:1 face:1 persecution:1 abbasid:2 caliphate:1 tasim:1 kazmain:1 muhammadعلي:1 iiiأبو:1 الثالثal:1 hadi:2 naqi:1 onuncu:1 deputy:1 send:1 instruction:1 receive:1 financial:1 contribution:1 vow:1 surayya:1 village:1 near:1 samarra:5 tazz:1 askari:3 aliألحسن:1 onbirinci:1 tamid:2 restriction:1 repression:1 ite:2 particularly:1 time:2 due:1 large:1 size:1 grow:1 power:2 hassanمحمد:1 الحسنabu:1 qasimأبو:1 القاسمal:1 mahdi:2 hidden:1 hujjah:1 onikinci:1 unknown:1 unknownaccording:1 doctrine:3 current:1 promised:1 messianic:1 figure:1 return:2 christ:1 reestablish:1 governance:1 islam:4 replete:1 earth:1 justice:1 iraqaccording:1 live:1 occultation:1 continue:1 long:1 zahraa:1 muhammed:1 consider:1 infallible:1 last:1 see:3 imamah:1 imams:6 term:1 recognize:1 teacher:1 founding:1 four:3 madhhabs:1 school:1 may:1 relate:1 hadith:1 head:1 descendant:1 word:2 phrase:1 though:1 connotation:1 rightly:1 guide:1 sect:4 sense:2 sermon:1 give:1 sheikh:1 people:1 sunnis:1 start:1 madhabs:1 madhhabaqidahscience:1 hadithimam:1 hanifaimam:1 ashariimam:1 bukhariimam:1 malikimam:1 maturidiimam:1 dawoodimam:1 shafi:1 iimam:1 fakhr:1 raziimam:1 ahmad:1 hanbalimam:1 dawood:1 zaidi:4 ruler:2 yemen:3 shiite:2 temporal:1 thousand:1 year:1 yahya:1 ila:1 l:1 haqq:1 found:1 line:1 theocratic:1 form:1 government:1 half:1 century:1 detail:1 history:3 woman:1 mullah:1 foot:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 brief:2 introduction:1 twelve:4 chapter:1 book:1 allameh:2 tabatabaei:2 take:1 anthology:1 short:1 detailed:1 description:1 graphical:1 illustration:1 sects:1 movie:1 |@bigram tabatabae_pp:9 rightful_successor:1 mecca_saudi:1 abd_al:2 imam_ali:2 najaf_iraq:1 بن_عليabu:5 medina_saudi:14 saudi_arabia:4 bury_jannat:4 jannat_al:4 al_baqi:4 husayn_ibn:1 saudi_arabiaaccording:6 arabiaaccording_shia:6 al_walid:1 ibrahim_ibn:1 hisham_ibn:2 ibn_abd:1 malik_ibn:1 al_mansur:1 caliph_harun:1 harun_al:1 taqi_al:1 abbasid_caliphate:1 al_askari:2 askari_mosque:2 abbasid_caliph:1 shi_ite:2 sunni_muslim:1 rightly_guide:1 ahmad_ibn:1 shia_imam:1 external_link:1 |
1,624 | Louis_Agassiz | Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz (May 28, 1807—December 14, 1873) was a paleontologist, glaciologist, and geologist, and was a prominent innovator in the study of the earth's natural history. He grew up in Switzerland and became a professor of natural history at University of Neuchâtel. Later, he accepted a professorship at Harvard University in the United States. Early life and education Louis Agassiz was born in Môtier (now part of Haut-Vully) in the canton of Fribourg, Switzerland. Educated first at home, then spending four years of secondary school in Bienne, he completed his elementary studies in Lausanne. Having adopted medicine as his profession, he studied successively at the universities of Zürich, Heidelberg and Munich; while there he extended his knowledge of natural history, especially of botany. In 1829 he received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Erlangen, and in 1830 that of doctor of medicine at Munich. Moving to Paris he fell under the tutelage of Alexander von Humboldt and Georges Cuvier, who launched him on his careers of geology and zoology respectively. Previously he had not paid special attention to the study of ichthyology, but it soon became the great focus of his life's work. After the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, Stanford President David Starr Jordan wrote, "Somebody—Dr. Angell, perhaps—remarked that 'Agassiz was great in the abstract but not in the concrete.'" Early work In 1819-1820, Johann Baptist von Spix and Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius were engaged in an expedition to Brazil, and on their return to Europe, amongst other collections of natural objects they brought home an important set of the fresh water fish of Brazil, and especially of the Amazon River. Spix, who died in 1826, did not live long enough to work out the history of these fish, and Agassiz (though fresh out of school) was selected by Martius for this purpose. He at once threw himself into the work with an enthusiasm which characterized him to the end of his busy life. The task of describing the Brazilian fish was completed and published in 1829. This was followed by research into the history of the fish found in Lake Neuchâtel. Enlarging his plans, in 1830 he issued a prospectus of a History of the Freshwater Fish of Central Europe. It was only in 1839, however, that the first part of this publication appeared, and it was completed in 1842. In 1832 he was appointed professor of natural history in the University of Neuchâtel. The fossil fish there soon attracted his attention. The fossil-rich stones furnished by the slates of Glarus and the limestones of Monte Bolca were known at the time, but very little had been accomplished in the way of scientific study of them. Agassiz, as early as 1829, planned the publication of the work which, more than any other, laid the foundation of his worldwide fame. Five volumes of his Recherches sur les poissons fossiles ("Research on Fossil Fish") appeared at intervals from 1833 to 1843. They were magnificently illustrated, chiefly by Joseph Dinkel. In gathering materials for this work Agassiz visited the principal museums in Europe, and meeting Cuvier in Paris, he received much encouragement and assistance from him. They had known him for seven years at the time. Agassiz found that his palaeontological labours made necessary a new basis of ichthyological classification. The fossils rarely exhibited any traces of the soft tissues of fish. They consisted chiefly of the teeth, scales and fins, even the bones being perfectly preserved in comparatively few instances. He therefore adopted a classification which divided fish into four groups: Ganoids, Placoids, Cycloids and Ctenoids, based on the nature of the scales and other dermal appendages. While Agassiz did much to place the subject on a scientific basis, this classification has been superseded by later work. As Agassiz's descriptive work proceeded, it became obvious that it would over-tax his resources unless financial assistance could be found. The British Association came to his aid, and the Earl of Ellesmere — then Lord Francis Egerton — gave him yet more efficient help. The 1,290 original drawings made for the work were purchased by the Earl, and presented by him to the Geological Society of London. In 1836 the Wollaston Medal was awarded to Agassiz by the council of that society for his work on fossil ichthyology; and in 1838 he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Society. Meanwhile invertebrate animals engaged his attention. In 1837 he issued the "Prodrome" of a monograph on the recent and fossil Echinodermata, the first part of which appeared in 1838; in 1839-1840 he published two quarto volumes on the fossil Echinoderms of Switzerland; and in 1840-1845 he issued his Etudes critiques sur les mollusques fossiles ("Critical Studies on Fossil Mollusks"). Before his first visit to England in 1834, the labours of Hugh Miller and other geologists brought to light the remarkable fish of the Old Red Sandstone of the northeast of Scotland. The strange forms of the Pterichthys, the Coccosteus and other genera were then made known to geologists for the first time. They were of intense interest to Agassiz, and formed the subject of a special monograph by him published in 1844-1845: Monographie des poissons fossiles du Vieux Gres Rouge, ou Systeme Devonien (Old Red Sandstone) des Iles Britanniques et de Russie ("Monograph on Fossil Fish of the Old Red Sandstone, or Devonian System of the British Isles and of Russia"). In the early stages of his career in Neuchatel, Agassiz also made a name for himself as a man who could run a scientific department well. Under his care, the University of Neuchâtel soon became a leading institution for scientific inquiry. Proposal of an ice age Louis Agassiz. In 1837 Agassiz was the first to scientifically propose that the Earth had been subject to a past ice age. E.P. Evans: The Authorship of the Glacial Theory, North American review. / Volume 145, Issue 368, July 1887. Accessed on February 25, 2008. Prior to this de Saussure, Venetz, Jean de Charpentier, Karl Friedrich Schimper and others had made the glaciers of the Alps the subjects of special study, and Charpentier as well as Schimper had even arrived at the conclusion that the erratic blocks of alpine rocks scattered over the slopes and summits of the Jura Mountains had been moved there by glaciers. The question having attracted the attention of Agassiz, he not only discussed it with Charpentier and Schimper and made successive journeys to the alpine regions in company with them, but he had a hut constructed upon one of the Aar Glaciers, which for a time he made his home, in order to investigate the structure and movements of the ice. These labours resulted, in 1840, in the publication of his work in two volumes entitled Etudes sur les glaciers ("Study on Glaciers"). Louis Agassiz: Études sur les glaciers, Neuchâtel 1840. Digital book on Wikisource. Accessed on February 25, 2008. In it he discussed the movements of the glaciers, their moraines, their influence in grooving and rounding the rocks over which they travelled, and in producing the striations and roches moutonnees seen in Alpine-style landscapes. He not only accepted Charpentier's and Schimper's idea that some of the alpine glaciers had extended across the wide plains and valleys drained by the Aar and the Rhône, but he went still farther. He concluded that, in the relatively recent past, Switzerland had been another Greenland; that instead of a few glaciers stretching across the areas referred to, one vast sheet of ice, originating in the higher Alps, had extended over the entire valley of northwestern Switzerland until it reached the southern slopes of the Jura, which, though they checked and deflected its further extension, did not prevent the ice from reaching in many places the summit of the range. The publication of this work gave a fresh impetus to the study of glacial phenomena in all parts of the world. Thus familiarized with the phenomena associated with the movements of recent glaciers, Agassiz was prepared for a discovery which he made in 1840, in conjunction with William Buckland. The two visited the mountains of Scotland together, and found in different locations clear evidence of ancient glacial action. The discovery was announced to the Geological Society of London in successive communications. The mountainous districts of England, Wales, and Ireland were also considered to constitute centres for the dispersion of glacial debris; and Agassiz remarked "that great sheets of ice, resembling those now existing in Greenland, once covered all the countries in which unstratified gravel (boulder drift) is found; that this gravel was in general produced by the trituration of the sheets of ice upon the subjacent surface, etc." Relocation to the United States In 1842-1846 he issued his Nomenclator Zoologicus, a classified list, with references, of all names employed in zoology for genera and groups — a work of great labour and research. With the aid of a grant of money from the King of Prussia, Agassiz crossed the Atlantic in the autumn of 1846 with the twin purposes of investigating the natural history and geology of North America and delivering a course of lectures on zoology, by invitation from J. A. Lowell, at the Lowell Institute in Boston, Massachusetts. The financial and scientific advantages presented to him in the United States induced him to settle there, where he remained to the end of his life. He was appointed professor of zoology and geology at Harvard University in 1847 where he founded the Museum of Comparative Zoology in 1859 and served as the museum's first director until his death in 1873. During his tenure at Harvard, he was, among many other things, an early student of the effect of the last Ice Age on North America. In 1850 he married an American college teacher, Elizabeth Cabot Cary Agassiz, who later wrote introductory books about natural history and, after his death, a lengthy biography of her husband. Agassiz served as a non-resident lecturer at Cornell while also being on faculty at Harvard. "A History of Cornell" by Morris Bishop (1962), pg. 83. In 1852 he accepted a medical professorship of comparative anatomy at Charlestown, Massachusetts, but he resigned in two years. From this time his scientific studies dropped off, but he was a profound influence on the American branches of his two fields, teaching decades worth of future prominent scientists, including David Starr Jordan, Joel Asaph Allen, Joseph Le Conte, Ernest Ingersoll, Nathaniel Shaler, Samuel Hubbard Scudder, Alpheus Packard, and his son Alexander Agassiz, among others. He had a profound impact on the paleontologist Charles Doolittle Walcott. In return his name appears attached to several species, as well as here and there throughout the American landscape, notably Lake Agassiz, the Pleistocene precursor to Lake Winnipeg and the Red River. During this time he grew in fame even in the public consciousness, becoming one of the best-known scientists in the world. By 1857 he was so well-loved that his friend Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote "The fiftieth birthday of Agassiz" in his honour. His own writing continued with four (of a planned ten) volumes of Natural History of the United States which were published from 1857 to 1862. During this time he also published a catalog of papers in his field, Bibliographia Zoologiae et Geologiae, in four volumes between 1848 and 1854. Stricken by ill health in the 1860s, he resolved to return to the field partly for relaxation, and partly to take up his studies of Brazilian fishes once again. In April 1865 he led a party to Brazil. Returning home in August 1866, an account of this expedition, entitled A Journey in Brazil, was published in 1868. From December 4th 1871 he made a second eight month excursion, known as the Hassler expedition, under the command of Commander Philip Carrigan Johnson (brother of Eastman Johnson), visiting the southern shores of North America, both on its Atlantic and its Pacific seaboards. The ship explored the Magellan Strait, which drew the praise of Charles Darwin himself. Elizabeth Aggasiz wrote, at the Strait: '…the Hassler pursued her course, past a seemingly endless panorama of mountains and forests rising into the pale regions of snow and ice, where lay glaciers in which every rift and crevasse, as well as the many cascades flowing down to join the waters beneath, could be counted as she steamed by them.... These were weeks of exquisite delight to Agassiz. The vessel often skirted the shore so closely that its geology could be studied from the deck.' Legacies In 1863, Agassiz's daughter Ida married Henry Lee Higginson, later to be founder of the Boston Symphony Orchestra and benefactor to Harvard University and other schools. In the last years of his life, Agassiz worked to establish a permanent school where zoological science could be pursued amid the living subjects of its study. In 1873, a private philanthropist (John Anderson) gave Agassiz the island of Penikese, in Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts (south of New Bedford), and presented him with $50,000 to permanently endow it as a practical school of natural science, especially devoted to the study of marine zoology. The John Anderson school collapsed soon after Agassiz's death, but is considered a precursor of the Marine Biological Laboratory, which is nearby. Agassiz's grave: front Agassiz's grave: side Agassiz's grave: side Agassiz is remembered today for his theories on ice ages, and for his resistance to Charles Darwin's theories on evolution, which he kept up his entire life. He died in Cambridge, Massachusetts in 1873 and was buried at Mount Auburn Cemetery. His monument is a boulder selected from the moraine of the glacier of the Aar near the site of the old Hotel des Neuchatelois, not far from the spot where his hut once stood; and the pine-trees that shelter his grave were sent from his old home in Switzerland. The Cambridge elementary school north of Harvard University was named in his honor and the surrounding neighborhood became known as "Agassiz" as a result. The school's name was changed to the Maria L. Baldwin school on May 21, 2002, in honor of the African-American principal of the school who served from 1889 until 1922. The neighborhood, however, continues to be known as Agassiz. An ancient glacial lake that formed in the Great Lakes region of North America, Lake Agassiz, is named after him, as are Mount Agassiz in California's Palisades, Mount Agassiz, Utah, in the Uinta Mountains, and Agassiz Peak in Arizona. Agassiz Glacier and Agassiz Creek in Glacier National Park also bear his name. A crater on Mars and a promontorium on the Moon are also named in his honour. In addition, several animal species are so named, including Apistogramma agassizi (Agassiz's dwarf cichlid), Isocapnia agassizi (Agassiz snowfly), and Gopherus agassizii (desert tortoise). In 2005 the EGU Division on Cryospheric Sciences established the Louis Agassiz Medal, awarded to individuals in recognition of their outstanding scientific contribution to the study of the cryosphere on Earth or elsewhere in the solar system. He took part in a monthly gathering called the Saturday Club at the Omni Parker House, a meeting of Boston writers and intellectuals. He was therefore mentioned in a stanza of the Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. poem, "At the Saturday Club," where the author dreams he sees some of his friends who are no longer: "There, at the table's further end I see In his old place our Poet's vis-à-vis, The great PROFESSOR, strong, broad-shouldered, square, In life's rich noontide, joyous, debonair. His social hour no leaden care alloys, His laugh rings loud and mirthful as a boy's,-- That lusty laugh the Puritan forgot,-- What ear has heard it and remembers not? How often, halting at some wide crevasse Amid the windings of his Alpine pass, High up the cliffs, the climbing mountaineer, Listening the far-off avalanche to hear, Silent, and leaning on his steel-shod staff, Has heard that cheery voice, that ringing laugh, From the rude cabin whose nomadic walls Creep with the moving glacier as it crawls! How does vast Nature lead her living train In ordered sequence through that spacious brain, As in the primal hour when Adam named The new-born tribes that young creation claimed!-- How will her realm be darkened, losing thee, Her darling, whom we call our AGASSIZ!" Racial classification scheme and racism After Agassiz came to the United States he became a prolific writer in what has been later termed the genre of scientific racism. Agassiz was specifically a believer and advocate in polygenism, that races came from separate origins (specifically separate creations), were endowed with unequal attributes, and could be classified into specific climatic zones, in the same way he felt other animals and plants could be classified. Edward Lurie, "Louis Agassiz and the Races of Man," Isis 45, no. 3 (1954): 227-242. These included Western American Temperate (the indigenous peoples west of the Rockies); Eastern American Temperate (east of the Rockies); Tropical Asiatic (south of the Himalayas); Temperate Asiatic (east of the Urals and north of the Himalayas); South American Temperate (South America); New Holland (Australia); Arctic (Alaska and Arctic Canada); Cape of Good Hope (South Africa); and American Tropical (Central America and the West Indies). Agassiz denied that species originated in single pairs, whether at a single location or at many. He argued instead that multiple individuals in each species were created at the same time and then distributed throughout the continents where God meant for them to dwell. His lectures on polygenism were popular among the slaveholders in the South; for many this opinion legitimized the belief in a lower standard of the Negro. John S. Haller, Jr., "The Species Problem: Nineteenth-Century Concepts of Racial Inferiority in the Origin of Man Controversy", American Anthropologist 72, no. 6 (1970): 1319-1329. Interestingly, his stance in this case was considered to be quite radical in its time, because it went against the more orthodox and standard reading of the Bible in his time which implied all human stock descended from a single couple (Adam and Eve), and in his defense Agassiz often used what now sounds like a very "modern" argument about the need for independence between science and religion; though Agassiz, unlike many polygeneticists, maintained his religious beliefs and was not anti-Biblical in general. For example, Louis Agassiz, "Diversity of Origin of the Human Races", Christian Examiner 49 (July 1850), 110-145. Stephen Jay Gould has argued that Agassiz's theories sprang from an initial revulsion in his encounters with African-Americans upon moving to the United States. Stephen Jay Gould, "Flaws in a Victorian Veil," Chapter 16 in The Panda's Thumb. Agassiz's racism was by no means unique for his time or context, though his reading of it into a formalized and scientific context gave it a sense of legitimacy, and allowed it to be easily exported to other contexts. In the context of ethnology and anthropology of the mid-19th century, Agassiz's polygenetic views became explicitly seen as opposing Darwin's views on race, which sought to show the common origin of all human races and the superficiality of racial differences. Darwin's second book on evolution, The Descent of Man, features extensive argumentation addressing the single origin of the races, at times explicitly opposing Agassiz's theories. See esp. the chapter "Races of Man." Agassiz's racial theories have, in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, become seen as tarnishing to his scientific record, occasionally prompting the renaming of landmarks, schoolhouses, and other institutions which bear the name of Agassiz (many of which abound in Massachusetts). Opinions on these events are often torn, given his extensive scientific legacy in other areas. See, i.e., one story about the attempt to rename a schoolhouse: "Political Correctness Run Amok: School Students Dishonor a Genius of Science", Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, no. 32 (Summer 2001): 74-75. On September 9, 2007 the Swiss Federal Council (Government) acknowledged the "racist thinking" of Agassiz but declined to rename the Agassizhorn summit. Works Recherches sur les poissons fossiles (1833-1843) History of the Freshwater Fishes of Central Europe (1839-1842) Etudes sur les glaciers (1840) Etudes critiques sur les mollusques fossiles (1840-1845) Nomenclator Zoologicus (1842-1846) Monographie des poissons fossiles du Vieux Gres Rouge, ou Systeme Devonien (Old Red Sandstone) des Iles Britanniques et de Russie (1844-1845) Bibliographia Zoologiae et Geologiae (1848) (with AA Gould) Principles of Zoology for the use of Schools and Colleges (Boston, 1848) Lake Superior: Its Physical Character, Vegetation and Animals, compared with those of other and similar regions (Boston: Gould, Kendall and Lincoln, 1850) Natural History of the United States (Boston: Little, Brown, 1847-1862) Geological Sketches ((Boston: Ticknor & Fields, 1866) A Journey in Brazil (1868) De l'espèce et de la classification en zoologie [Essay on classification] (Trans. Felix Vogeli. Paris: Bailière, 1869) Geological Sketches (Second Series) (Boston: J.R. Osgood, 1876) Essay on Classification, by Louis Agassiz (1962, Cambridge) Sources Numbers, Ronald L., "The Creationists: From Scientific Creationism to Intelligent Design", 2nd ed., 2006. Early Classics in Biography, Distribution, and Diversity Studies: to 1950. References External links "Geographical Distribution of Animals", by Louis Agassiz (1850) Runner of the Mountain Tops: The Life of Louis Agassiz, by Mabel Louise Robinson (1930) - free download at manybooks.net Thayer Expedition to Brazil, 1865-1866 (Agassiz went to Brazil to find glacial boulders and to refute Darwin. Dom Pedro II gave his support for Agassiz's expedition on the Amazon River.) | Louis_Agassiz |@lemmatized jean:2 louis:10 rodolphe:1 agassiz:64 may:2 december:2 paleontologist:2 glaciologist:1 geologist:3 prominent:2 innovator:1 study:16 earth:3 natural:10 history:13 grow:2 switzerland:6 become:9 professor:4 university:8 neuchâtel:5 later:4 accept:3 professorship:2 harvard:6 united:7 state:7 early:7 life:8 education:2 bear:4 môtier:1 part:5 haut:1 vully:1 canton:1 fribourg:1 educate:1 first:8 home:5 spend:1 four:4 year:4 secondary:1 school:12 bienne:1 complete:3 elementary:2 lausanne:1 adopt:2 medicine:2 profession:1 successively:1 zürich:1 heidelberg:1 munich:2 extend:3 knowledge:1 especially:3 botany:1 receive:2 degree:1 doctor:2 philosophy:1 erlangen:1 move:4 paris:3 fell:1 tutelage:1 alexander:2 von:3 humboldt:1 george:1 cuvier:2 launch:1 career:2 geology:4 zoology:7 respectively:1 previously:1 pay:1 special:3 attention:4 ichthyology:2 soon:4 great:6 focus:1 work:15 san:1 francisco:1 earthquake:1 stanford:1 president:1 david:2 starr:2 jordan:2 write:4 somebody:1 dr:1 angell:1 perhaps:1 remark:2 abstract:1 concrete:1 johann:1 baptist:1 spix:2 carl:1 friedrich:2 philipp:1 martius:2 engage:2 expedition:5 brazil:7 return:4 europe:4 amongst:1 collection:1 object:1 bring:2 important:1 set:1 fresh:3 water:2 fish:13 amazon:2 river:3 die:2 live:1 long:1 enough:1 though:4 select:2 purpose:2 throw:1 enthusiasm:1 characterize:1 end:3 busy:1 task:1 describe:1 brazilian:2 publish:6 follow:1 research:3 find:6 lake:6 enlarge:1 plan:3 issue:5 prospectus:1 freshwater:2 central:3 however:2 publication:4 appear:4 appoint:2 fossil:9 attract:2 rich:2 stone:1 furnish:1 slate:1 glarus:1 limestone:1 monte:1 bolca:1 know:7 time:12 little:2 accomplish:1 way:2 scientific:12 lay:2 foundation:1 worldwide:1 fame:2 five:1 volume:6 recherches:2 sur:7 le:7 poissons:4 fossiles:6 interval:1 magnificently:1 illustrate:1 chiefly:2 joseph:2 dinkel:1 gather:1 material:1 visit:4 principal:2 museum:3 meet:1 much:2 encouragement:1 assistance:2 seven:1 palaeontological:1 labour:4 make:9 necessary:1 new:4 basis:2 ichthyological:1 classification:7 rarely:1 exhibit:1 trace:1 soft:1 tissue:1 consist:1 teeth:1 scale:2 fin:1 even:3 bone:1 perfectly:1 preserve:1 comparatively:1 instance:1 therefore:2 divide:1 group:2 ganoid:1 placoids:1 cycloid:1 ctenoids:1 base:1 nature:2 dermal:1 appendage:1 place:3 subject:5 supersede:1 late:2 descriptive:1 proceed:1 obvious:1 would:1 tax:1 resource:1 unless:1 financial:2 could:7 british:2 association:1 come:3 aid:2 earl:2 ellesmere:1 lord:1 francis:1 egerton:1 give:6 yet:1 efficient:1 help:1 original:1 drawing:1 purchase:1 present:3 geological:4 society:4 london:2 wollaston:1 medal:2 award:2 council:2 elect:1 foreign:1 member:1 royal:1 meanwhile:1 invertebrate:1 animal:5 prodrome:1 monograph:3 recent:3 echinodermata:1 two:5 quarto:1 echinoderm:1 etude:2 critique:2 mollusques:2 critical:1 mollusk:1 england:2 hugh:1 miller:1 light:1 remarkable:1 old:7 red:5 sandstone:4 northeast:1 scotland:2 strange:1 form:3 pterichthys:1 coccosteus:1 genus:2 intense:1 interest:1 monographie:2 de:9 du:2 vieux:2 gres:2 rouge:2 ou:2 systeme:2 devonien:2 des:2 iles:2 britanniques:2 et:5 russie:2 devonian:1 system:2 isle:1 russia:1 stage:1 neuchatel:1 also:6 name:11 man:5 run:2 department:1 well:5 care:2 leading:1 institution:2 inquiry:1 proposal:1 ice:10 age:4 scientifically:1 propose:1 past:3 e:2 p:1 evans:1 authorship:1 glacial:6 theory:6 north:7 american:11 review:1 july:2 access:2 february:2 prior:1 saussure:1 venetz:1 charpentier:4 karl:1 schimper:4 others:2 glacier:16 alp:2 arrive:1 conclusion:1 erratic:1 block:1 alpine:5 rock:2 scatter:1 slope:2 summit:3 jura:2 mountain:5 question:1 discuss:2 successive:2 journey:3 region:4 company:1 hut:2 construct:1 upon:3 one:4 aar:3 order:1 investigate:2 structure:1 movement:3 result:2 entitle:2 études:1 les:1 digital:1 book:3 wikisource:1 moraine:2 influence:2 grooving:1 round:1 travel:1 produce:2 striation:1 roches:1 moutonnees:1 see:7 style:1 landscape:2 idea:1 across:2 wide:2 plain:1 valley:2 drain:1 rhône:1 go:3 still:1 far:3 conclude:1 relatively:1 another:1 greenland:2 instead:2 stretch:1 area:2 refer:1 vast:2 sheet:3 originate:2 high:3 entire:2 northwestern:1 reach:2 southern:2 check:1 deflect:1 extension:1 prevent:1 many:7 range:1 impetus:1 phenomenon:2 world:2 thus:1 familiarize:1 associate:1 prepare:1 discovery:2 conjunction:1 william:1 buckland:1 together:1 different:1 location:2 clear:1 evidence:1 ancient:2 action:1 announce:1 communication:1 mountainous:1 district:1 wale:1 ireland:1 consider:3 constitute:1 centre:1 dispersion:1 debris:1 resemble:1 exist:1 cover:1 country:1 unstratified:1 gravel:2 boulder:3 drift:1 general:2 trituration:1 subjacent:1 surface:1 etc:1 relocation:1 nomenclator:2 zoologicus:2 classified:1 list:1 reference:2 employ:1 grant:1 money:1 king:1 prussia:1 cross:1 atlantic:2 autumn:1 twin:1 america:6 deliver:1 course:2 lecture:2 invitation:1 j:2 lowell:2 institute:1 boston:8 massachusetts:5 advantage:1 induce:1 settle:1 remain:1 found:1 comparative:2 serve:3 director:1 death:3 tenure:1 among:3 thing:1 student:2 effect:1 last:2 marry:2 college:2 teacher:1 elizabeth:2 cabot:1 cary:1 introductory:1 lengthy:1 biography:2 husband:1 non:1 resident:1 lecturer:1 cornell:2 faculty:1 morris:1 bishop:1 pg:1 medical:1 anatomy:1 charlestown:1 resign:1 drop:1 profound:2 branch:1 field:4 teach:1 decade:1 worth:1 future:1 scientist:2 include:3 joel:1 asaph:1 allen:1 conte:1 ernest:1 ingersoll:1 nathaniel:1 shaler:1 samuel:1 hubbard:1 scudder:1 alpheus:1 packard:1 son:1 impact:1 charles:3 doolittle:1 walcott:1 attach:1 several:2 specie:5 throughout:2 notably:1 pleistocene:1 precursor:2 winnipeg:1 public:1 consciousness:1 best:1 love:1 friend:2 henry:2 wadsworth:1 longfellow:1 fiftieth:1 birthday:1 honour:2 writing:1 continue:2 ten:1 catalog:1 paper:1 bibliographia:2 zoologiae:2 geologiae:2 stricken:1 ill:1 health:1 resolve:1 partly:2 relaxation:1 take:2 april:1 lead:2 party:1 august:1 account:1 second:3 eight:1 month:1 excursion:1 hassler:2 command:1 commander:1 philip:1 carrigan:1 johnson:2 brother:1 eastman:1 shore:2 pacific:1 seaboard:1 ship:1 explore:1 magellan:1 strait:2 draw:1 praise:1 darwin:5 aggasiz:1 pursue:2 seemingly:1 endless:1 panorama:1 forest:1 rise:1 pale:1 snow:1 every:1 rift:1 crevasse:2 cascade:1 flow:1 join:1 beneath:1 count:1 steam:1 week:1 exquisite:1 delight:1 vessel:1 often:4 skirt:1 closely:1 deck:1 legacy:2 daughter:1 ida:1 lee:1 higginson:1 founder:1 symphony:1 orchestra:1 benefactor:1 establish:2 permanent:1 zoological:1 science:5 amid:2 living:2 private:1 philanthropist:1 john:3 anderson:2 island:1 penikese:1 buzzard:1 bay:1 south:6 bedford:1 permanently:1 endow:2 practical:1 devote:1 marine:2 collapse:1 biological:1 laboratory:1 nearby:1 grave:4 front:1 side:2 remember:2 today:1 resistance:1 evolution:2 keep:1 cambridge:3 bury:1 mount:3 auburn:1 cemetery:1 monument:1 near:1 site:1 hotel:1 neuchatelois:1 spot:1 stand:1 pine:1 tree:1 shelter:1 send:1 honor:2 surround:1 neighborhood:2 change:1 maria:1 l:3 baldwin:1 african:2 lakes:1 california:1 palisade:1 utah:1 uinta:1 peak:1 arizona:1 creek:1 national:1 park:1 crater:1 mar:1 promontorium:1 moon:1 addition:1 apistogramma:1 agassizi:2 dwarf:1 cichlid:1 isocapnia:1 snowfly:1 gopherus:1 agassizii:1 desert:1 tortoise:1 egu:1 division:1 cryospheric:1 individual:2 recognition:1 outstanding:1 contribution:1 cryosphere:1 elsewhere:1 solar:1 monthly:1 gathering:1 call:2 saturday:2 club:2 omni:1 parker:1 house:1 meeting:1 writer:2 intellectual:1 mention:1 stanza:1 oliver:1 wendell:1 holmes:1 sr:1 poem:1 author:1 dream:1 longer:1 table:1 poet:1 vi:2 à:1 strong:1 broad:1 shoulder:1 square:1 noontide:1 joyous:1 debonair:1 social:1 hour:2 leaden:1 alloy:1 laugh:3 ring:2 loud:1 mirthful:1 boy:1 lusty:1 puritan:1 forget:1 ear:1 hear:3 halt:1 winding:1 pas:1 cliff:1 climb:1 mountaineer:1 listen:1 avalanche:1 silent:1 lean:1 steel:1 shod:1 staff:1 cheery:1 voice:1 rude:1 cabin:1 whose:1 nomadic:1 wall:1 creep:1 crawl:1 train:1 ordered:1 sequence:1 spacious:1 brain:1 primal:1 adam:2 tribe:1 young:1 creation:2 claim:1 realm:1 darken:1 lose:1 thee:1 darling:1 racial:4 scheme:1 racism:3 prolific:1 term:1 genre:1 specifically:2 believer:1 advocate:1 polygenism:2 race:7 separate:2 origin:5 unequal:1 attribute:1 classify:2 specific:1 climatic:1 zone:1 felt:1 plant:1 edward:1 lurie:1 isi:1 western:1 temperate:4 indigenous:1 people:1 west:2 rockies:2 eastern:1 east:2 tropical:2 asiatic:2 himalaya:2 urals:1 holland:1 australia:1 arctic:2 alaska:1 canada:1 cape:1 good:1 hope:1 africa:1 indies:1 deny:1 single:4 pair:1 whether:1 argue:2 multiple:1 create:1 distribute:1 continent:1 god:1 meant:1 dwell:1 popular:1 slaveholder:1 opinion:2 legitimize:1 belief:2 low:1 standard:2 negro:1 haller:1 jr:1 problem:1 nineteenth:1 century:3 concept:1 inferiority:1 controversy:1 anthropologist:1 interestingly:1 stance:1 case:1 quite:1 radical:1 orthodox:1 reading:2 bible:1 imply:1 human:3 stock:1 descend:1 couple:1 eve:1 defense:1 use:2 sound:1 like:1 modern:1 argument:1 need:1 independence:1 religion:1 unlike:1 polygeneticists:1 maintain:1 religious:1 anti:1 biblical:1 example:1 diversity:2 christian:1 examiner:1 stephen:2 jay:2 gould:4 spring:1 initial:1 revulsion:1 encounter:1 flaw:1 victorian:1 veil:1 chapter:2 panda:1 thumb:1 mean:1 unique:1 context:4 formalized:1 sense:1 legitimacy:1 allow:1 easily:1 export:1 ethnology:1 anthropology:1 mid:1 polygenetic:1 view:2 explicitly:2 oppose:2 seek:1 show:1 common:1 superficiality:1 difference:1 descent:1 feature:1 extensive:2 argumentation:1 address:1 esp:1 twentieth:1 twenty:1 tarnish:1 record:1 occasionally:1 prompt:1 renaming:1 landmark:1 schoolhouse:2 abound:1 event:1 torn:1 story:1 attempt:1 rename:2 political:1 correctness:1 amok:1 dishonor:1 genius:1 journal:1 black:1 summer:1 september:1 swiss:1 federal:1 government:1 acknowledge:1 racist:1 think:1 decline:1 agassizhorn:1 etudes:2 aa:1 principle:1 superior:1 physical:1 character:1 vegetation:1 compare:1 similar:1 kendall:1 lincoln:1 brown:1 sketch:2 ticknor:1 espèce:1 la:1 en:1 zoologie:1 essay:2 trans:1 felix:1 vogeli:1 bailière:1 series:1 r:1 osgood:1 source:1 number:1 ronald:1 creationists:1 creationism:1 intelligent:1 design:1 ed:1 classic:1 distribution:2 external:1 link:1 geographical:1 runner:1 top:1 mabel:1 louise:1 robinson:1 free:1 download:1 manybooks:1 net:1 thayer:1 refute:1 dom:1 pedro:1 ii:1 support:1 |@bigram louis_agassiz:9 von_humboldt:1 george_cuvier:1 san_francisco:1 carl_friedrich:1 philipp_von:1 freshwater_fish:2 recherches_sur:2 sur_le:6 soft_tissue:1 de_charpentier:1 jura_mountain:1 sur_les:1 alpine_glacier:1 william_buckland:1 boston_massachusetts:1 comparative_zoology:1 comparative_anatomy:1 henry_wadsworth:1 wadsworth_longfellow:1 charles_darwin:2 seemingly_endless:1 symphony_orchestra:1 dwarf_cichlid:1 oliver_wendell:1 wendell_holmes:1 vi_à:1 à_vi:1 climatic_zone:1 west_indies:1 nineteenth_century:1 adam_eve:1 stephen_jay:2 jay_gould:2 political_correctness:1 creationism_intelligent:1 intelligent_design:1 external_link:1 dom_pedro:1 |
1,625 | Disbarment | Disbarment is the disqualification of a lawyer from a bar association or the practice of law, thus revoking his admission to practice law or law license. Procedures vary depending on countries. In the U.S. Overview Generally disbarment is imposed as a sanction for conduct indicating that an attorney is not fit to practice law, willfully disregarding the interests of a client, or engaging in fraud which impedes the administration of justice. In addition, any lawyer who is convicted of a felony is automatically disbarred in most jurisdictions. In the United States legal system, disbarment is specific to regions; one can be disbarred from some courts, while still being a member of the bar in another jurisdiction. However, under the American Bar Association's Model Rules of Professional Conduct, which have been adopted in most states, disbarment in one state or court is grounds for disbarment in a jurisdiction which has adopted the Model Rules. Disbarment is quite rare. Instead, lawyers are usually sanctioned by their own clients through civil malpractice proceedings, or via fine, censure, suspension, or other punishments from the disciplinary boards. To be disbarred is considered a great embarrassment and shame, even if one no longer wishes to pursue a career in the law; it is akin, in effect, to a dishonorable discharge in a military situation. Because disbarment rules vary by area, different rules can apply depending on where a lawyer is disbarred. Notably, the majority of US states have no procedure for permanently disbarring a person. Depending on the jurisdiction, a lawyer may reapply to the bar immediately, after five to seven years, or be banned for life. Should Permanent Disbarment be Permanent? | Georgetown Journal of Legal Ethics, The | Find Articles at BNET.com Notable U.S. disbarments The 20th Century saw one former U.S. president and one former U.S. vice-president disbarred, and another president be both suspended from one bar and resign from another bar rather than face disbarment. Former Vice President Spiro Agnew, having pleaded no contest (which subjects a person to the same penalties as a guilty plea) to charges of bribery and tax evasion, was disbarred from Maryland, the state of which he had previously been governor. Former President Richard Nixon was disbarred from New York in 1976 http://www.history.com/exhibits/impeach/whthous1.html for obstruction of justice related to the Watergate scandal. In 2001, former President Bill Clinton resigned from the Supreme Court bar rather than face near-certain disbarment, for perjury related to Lewinsky scandal CNN.com - Clinton to contest Supreme Court suspension - October 2, 2001 . In a separate, but related action, the Arkansas bar moved to disbar Clinton, but offered a deal that saw him suspended for five years. http://www.11alive.com/rss/article.aspx?storyid=74815 Because he was allowed to reapply to the bar after the suspension ended in 2006, his punishment is not considered disbarment. Because disbarment is not always permanent, his punishment was functionally identical to disbarment. Alger Hiss was disbarred for a felony conviction, but later became the first person reinstated to the bar in Massachusetts after disbarment. iWannaGetThat - Retroville - 1948 - In the News - Alger Hiss In 2007, Mike Nifong, the District Attorney of Durham County, North Carolina who presided over the 2006 Duke University lacrosse case, was disbarred for prosecutorial misconduct related to his handling of the case. ABC News: Duke Lacrosse Prosecutor Disbarred Jack Thompson, the Florida lawyer noted for his activism against video games was permanently disbarred for various charges of misconduct. The action was the result of several grievances claiming that Thompson had made defamatory, false statements and attempted to humiliate, embarrass, harass or intimidate them. The order was made on September 25th 2008, effective October 25th. However, Thompson attempted to appeal to the higher courts in order to avoid the penalty actually taking effect. http://kotaku.com/5054772/jack-thompson-disbarred . Neither the US District court, nor the US Supreme Court http://www.supremecourtus.gov/orders/courtorders/042009zor.pdf would hear his appeal, rendering the judgement of the Florida Supreme Court final. Ed Fagan, a New York lawyer, originally getting celebrity status for his representation of Holocaust victims against Swiss banks, was disbarred in New York (in 2008) Noeleen G. Walder. Lawyer Disbarred for Failing to Pay Sanctions, Fees in Holocaust Case. New York Law Journal. December 12, 2008. http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jsp?id=1202426698941 and New Jersey (in 2009) for failing to pay court fines and fees and for stealing money from Holocaust survivors. Koloff, Abbott. NJ: Disbar ex-Parsippany lawyer for stealing from Holocaust survivors. Daily Record. January 22, 2009. See also List of disbarred lawyers References | Disbarment |@lemmatized disbarment:14 disqualification:1 lawyer:10 bar:10 association:2 practice:3 law:7 thus:1 revoke:1 admission:1 license:1 procedure:2 vary:2 depend:3 country:1 u:7 overview:1 generally:1 impose:1 sanction:3 conduct:2 indicating:1 attorney:2 fit:1 willfully:1 disregard:1 interest:1 client:2 engage:1 fraud:1 impede:1 administration:1 justice:2 addition:1 convict:1 felony:2 automatically:1 disbar:17 jurisdiction:4 united:1 state:5 legal:2 system:1 specific:1 region:1 one:6 court:9 still:1 member:1 another:3 however:2 american:1 model:2 rule:4 professional:1 adopt:2 ground:1 quite:1 rare:1 instead:1 usually:1 civil:1 malpractice:1 proceeding:1 via:1 fine:2 censure:1 suspension:3 punishment:3 disciplinary:1 board:1 consider:2 great:1 embarrassment:1 shame:1 even:1 longer:1 wish:1 pursue:1 career:1 akin:1 effect:2 dishonorable:1 discharge:1 military:1 situation:1 area:1 different:1 apply:1 notably:1 majority:1 permanently:2 person:3 may:1 reapply:2 immediately:1 five:2 seven:1 year:2 ban:1 life:1 permanent:3 georgetown:1 journal:2 ethic:1 find:1 article:3 bnet:1 com:6 notable:1 disbarments:1 century:1 saw:2 former:5 president:6 vice:2 suspend:2 resign:2 rather:2 face:2 spiro:1 agnew:1 plead:1 contest:2 subject:1 penalty:2 guilty:1 plea:1 charge:2 bribery:1 tax:1 evasion:1 maryland:1 previously:1 governor:1 richard:1 nixon:1 new:5 york:4 http:5 www:4 history:1 exhibit:1 impeach:1 html:1 obstruction:1 relate:3 watergate:1 scandal:2 bill:1 clinton:3 supreme:4 near:1 certain:1 perjury:1 lewinsky:1 cnn:1 october:2 separate:1 related:1 action:2 arkansas:1 move:1 offer:1 deal:1 r:1 aspx:1 storyid:1 allow:1 end:1 always:1 functionally:1 identical:1 alger:2 hiss:2 conviction:1 later:1 become:1 first:1 reinstate:1 massachusetts:1 iwannagetthat:1 retroville:1 news:2 mike:1 nifong:1 district:2 durham:1 county:1 north:1 carolina:1 preside:1 duke:2 university:1 lacrosse:2 case:3 prosecutorial:1 misconduct:2 handling:1 abc:1 prosecutor:1 jack:2 thompson:4 florida:2 note:1 activism:1 video:1 game:1 various:1 result:1 several:1 grievance:1 claim:1 make:2 defamatory:1 false:1 statement:1 attempt:2 humiliate:1 embarrass:1 harass:1 intimidate:1 order:3 september:1 effective:1 appeal:2 high:1 avoid:1 actually:1 take:1 kotaku:1 neither:1 supremecourtus:1 gov:1 courtorders:1 pdf:1 would:1 hear:1 render:1 judgement:1 final:1 ed:1 fagan:1 originally:1 get:1 celebrity:1 status:1 representation:1 holocaust:4 victim:1 swiss:1 bank:1 noeleen:1 g:1 walder:1 fail:2 pay:2 fee:2 december:1 jsp:2 id:1 jersey:1 steal:2 money:1 survivor:2 koloff:1 abbott:1 nj:1 ex:1 parsippany:1 daily:1 record:1 january:1 see:1 also:1 list:1 disbarred:1 reference:1 |@bigram convict_felony:1 article_bnet:1 bnet_com:1 vice_president:2 president_spiro:1 spiro_agnew:1 plead_contest:1 guilty_plea:1 tax_evasion:1 richard_nixon:1 http_www:4 obstruction_justice:1 watergate_scandal:1 bill_clinton:1 supreme_court:4 lewinsky_scandal:1 cnn_com:1 functionally_identical:1 alger_hiss:2 north_carolina:1 jsp_id:1 holocaust_survivor:2 |
1,626 | Loyalty_program | Loyalty programs are structured marketing efforts that reward, and therefore encourage, loyal buying behavior — behavior which is potentially of benefit to the firm. Sharp, Byron and Anne Sharp (1997), "Loyalty Programs and Their Impact on Repeat-Purchase Loyalty Patterns", International Journal of Research in Marketing, 14 (5), 473-86. In marketing generally and in retailing more specifically, a loyalty card, rewards card, points card, advantage card, or club card is a plastic or paper card, visually similar to a credit card or debit card, that identifies the card holder as a member in a loyalty program. Loyalty cards are a system of the loyalty business model. In the United Kingdom it is typically called a loyalty card, in Canada a rewards card or a points card, and in the United States either a discount card, a club card or a rewards card. Cards typically have a barcode or magstripe that can be easily scanned, and some are even chip cards. Small keyring cards (also known as keytags) which serve as key fobs are often used for convenience in carrying and ease of access. A retail establishment or a retail group may issue a loyalty card to a consumer who can then use it as a form of identification when dealing with that retailer. By presenting the card, the purchaser is typically entitled to either a discount on the current purchase, or an allotment of points that can be used for future purchases. Hence, the card is the visible means of implementing a type of what economists call a two-part tariff. The card issuer requests or requires customers seeking the issuance of a loyalty card to provide a usually minimal amount of identifying or demographic data, such as name and address. Application forms usually entail agreements by the store concerning customer privacy, typically non-disclosure (by the store) of non-aggregate data about customers. The store — one might expect — uses aggregate data internally (and sometimes externally) as part of its marketing research. These cards can be used to determine, for example, a given customer's favorite brand of beer, or whether she is a vegetarian. Where a customer has provided sufficient identifying information, the loyalty card may also be used to access such information to expedite verification during receipt of cheques or dispensing of medical prescription preparations, or for other membership privileges (e.g., access to a club lounge in airports, using a frequent flyer card). By continent and country North America United States In the U.S., several major supermarket chains and at least one major pharmacy require the cards in order for customers to receive the advertised loyalty price. These include Kroger and Safeway (each through both their own name and many of their regional chain names), Albertsons, Winn-Dixie, Harris Teeter, Ingles, Giant Eagle, Tops, and CVS/pharmacy. Cards from other, even competing chains will generally work at other stores to receive the advertised loyalty price, because only a few companies make the cards, but stores generally will not allow this since it will not allow a customer to be tracked, though a customer can make it work if they use a self-checkout. Even though this will work to receive the advertised loyalty price, any points and/or future discounts someone may be trying to earn from using the card at another store will not be added since a different chain would use a tracking system with a database independent of the other chain. However, some stores may also allow a customer to use the store's card if a customer does not have theirs on hand (Kroger does not allow this although customers can enter their phone number to bring their card up if they forget it, or have another customer's phone number entered) or if the customer is new and agrees to sign up right away. Many of the stores allow accumulation of fuel discounts. Some have tie-ins with airline frequent flyer programs, and some agree to donate a percentage of sales to a designated charity. Most notably, Wal-Mart does not have a loyalty card plan (though someone who purchases a gift card can generally get a 3 cent discount per gallon of gas at the fuel stations located on Wal-Mart premises). The practice is also common among book and music retailers, from large chains to independent retailers. In some instances, the customer purchases the card and receives a percentage discount on all purchases for a period of time (often one year), while in other instances, a customer receives a one-time percentage discount upon reaching a specified purchase level. (For example, a bookseller's loyalty card program might provide a customer with a 10% off coupon once the customer has spent $200.00 at the bookseller.) Best Buy's loyalty program similarly offers points redeemable for dollar-amount discounts after accumulating a set number of points along with other discounts from time to time, though the card is not required to receive their advertised price in most cases. Independent hardware stores such as Ace Hardware and True Value added customer loyalty programs in order to compete more effectively against larger chains as well as gather customer data. In addition, office supply retailers Staples, Inc. and Office Depot started issuing club cards in 2005. Almost all of the major hotel chains (Best Western, Choice Hotels, Holiday Inn, Marriott, Super 8 Motels, etc.) have similar cards that allow guests to earn either points (redeemable for discounts, future stays or other prizes) or airline miles (Hilton's HHonors program allows guests to earn both points and miles on the same stay, the only program to date that does so). All major US Airlines also offer rewards credit cards. Other travel related reward programs include SeaMiles, with points that can be redeemed for cruises. For now, most American retailers have not implemented club cards. In a few cases (e.g., Federated Department Stores, Kohl's) this is because the retailer already issues its own credit cards, and thus already has a direct relationship with the consumers most likely to shop at its stores. Also, many retailers are simply not large enough to justify the cost of creating, promoting, and operating a club card program. Some supermarket customer loyalty cards inadvertently work at the scanners of other non-affiliated stores. For example, a Kroger card has been successfully recognized as a respective loyal club member at stores in the Food Lion, Pathmark and Winn-Dixie chains. An example of a consumer-centric card (without cost, registration, or information-tracking) is the MyJoeCard, which advertises the business members through the website in Kansas City, Tulsa, and Denver. Max & Erma's has a loyalty program called Good Neighbor Rewards. Guests are rewarded based on their number of visits by either 5%, 10%, or 15%. Additionally, guests are periodically given additional rewards by way of free items added to their loyalty card electronically. A few states have begun regulating club cards. For example, supermarkets in the U.S. state of California are subject to the Supermarket Club Card Disclosure Act of 1999 . Some grocery chains have dropped their loyalty card programs. Rainbow Foods in Minnesota ended its loyalty card program after being acquired by Roundy's, leaving Minnesota with no major grocers that use such cards. There are a few online loyalty programs that offer rewards for being a loyal shopper. The largest of these are Memolink, Mypoints, ClubShop and Ebates. Some online loyalty programs focus on "other-directed" consumers, these include uPromise, Schoolpop, The BSP Rewards Network and iGive.com. Canada The oldest loyalty program in Canada is probably Canadian Tire money, in which the Canadian Tire company gives out coupons which look like currency. The Air Miles reward program is Canada's largest loyalty program - Air Miles can be earned at more than 100 different sponsors and there are almost a thousand different rewards to redeem for. The Bank of Montreal offers an Air Miles-sponsored program and CIBC offers an Aeroplan program to customers who are enrolled in certain credit card programs or accounts. Another large Canadian loyalty program that has been around for a long time is the HBC Rewards/Club Z program first started by Zellers. Loblaws offers the President's Choice Financial program where users of the service get PC Points towards free groceries. Some retailers run their own rewards programs, such as Shoppers Drug Mart's Shoppers Optimum Card and Staples Business Depot's Dividends Card. The irewards program is Canada's largest loyalty program for booklovers, offering everyday discounts and special coupons at Chapters, Indigo Books and Music, Coles, SmithBooks, the World's Biggest Bookstore and chapters.indigo.ca. Almost every gas station in Canada offers some sort of program such as Esso Extra at the Esso gas stations, Petro Points at Petro-Canada, Save-On-More at some Chevron stations in BC, Canadian Tire money at Canadian Tire gas stations, or a coupon that grants the customer 3.5 cents off per litre of fuel purchased at Sobeys Fast Fuel locations that can be used at a Sobeys banner store. Loblaws, Atlantic Superstore, and Real Canadian Superstore also grant a 3.5 cent a litre coupon that can be used at their stores. Sunoco's CAA reward offering ends at the end of 2007, to be replaced with Sunoco's own Performance Points reward program. Many hotel chains also offer some sort of loyalty program. Canada is also home to Air Canada's Aeroplan. Oceania Australia The largest loyalty program in Australia is FlyBuys, established in 1994 and backed by Wesfarmers (formerly Coles Group) and National Australia Bank. About 2.7 million Australian households are active members of FlyBuys using about six million cards . Rival retailer Woolworths launched its Everyday Rewards fuel discount card nationally in 2008 and by July 2008 had three million cardholders. Among other Australian retailers, the largest programs are Myer's MYER one program (department store), the Priceline Club Card (health, beauty, home), Amcal Club (pharmacy), Millers Retail Club(apparel), and the BB Retail Capital (formerly Brazin Limited) Pulse Rewards program (Virgin, HMV, Sanity, dusk, Bras n Things, and SX sunglasses). Pulse has more than a million members. All major Australian banks offer credit cards with reward programs. Many offer points conversion with the Qantas frequent flyer program. Rival airline Virgin Blue offers the Velocity Rewards card partnered with National Australia Bank. The largest online rewards program is EmailCash. Europe United Kingdom The loyalty card market in the UK is one of the most significant in the world, with most major chains operating some form of reward system. Of the "big four" supermarkets, only Sainsbury's and Tesco operate loyalty cards. Both Nectar and Tesco's Clubcard scheme have been criticised for not offering value for money. When Clubcard or Nectar points are used for money off supermarket shopping, they roughly equate to a 1% discount, although offers can increase this discount by as much as 4 times for certain rewards. Some retailers with banking operations also award points for every pound spent on their credit cards, as well as bonus points for purchasing financial services. A report in The Economist suggested that the real benefit of loyalty cards to UK outlets is the massive database potential they offer. After trials in 1994, Tesco launched its Clubcard program, the UK's first nationwide supermarket-only loyalty card scheme, in 1995 with dunnhumby. Sainsbury's launched its Reward Card in 1996. This was replaced by the Nectar card in 2002, which was launched in partnership with other major brands. The patronage dividend rewarded the loyalty of the owner members of Britain's retail consumer co-operatives since the Rochdale Pioneers of the 1840s. Paper record-keeping transformed in the 1960s into a trading stamp scheme managed by the Co-operative Wholesale Society (CWS), which was gradually withdrawn as margins declined. The loyalty card concept was used by some co-operatives to restore dividend payments at the turn of the 21st century, notably by the CWS's "Dividend" card, which was replaced by The Co-operative Membership card program, adopted by several larger co-operatives. Safeway's ABC Card was discontinued in 2000. Airlines, Hotels and other loyalty schemes also offer cards. Marks and Spencer and the John Lewis Partnership have credit cards which give vouchers in return for spending, and do not issue separate loyalty cards. GAME has a reward card scheme for which every pound spent a customer is rewarded 10 points; for every 1000 points that one collects, one gets £2.50 to redeem in the store, or online. Preorders earn a customer 20 points per pound. Ipoints is a coalition program featuring online retail partners. Rewards are redeemable from 200 ipoints. UK Websaver is a loyalty card designed to encourage communities to use local businesses. Republic of Ireland In the Republic of Ireland loyalty cards have been in operation since 1993, when Superquinn introduced its SuperClub loyalty card scheme. This is regarded as having been the prototype for such schemes in Europe. However, loyalty cards did not expand until 1997, when Tesco Ireland introduced its Clubcard scheme, shortly after its purchase of Power Supermarkets. This was essentially a simple expansion of the UK scheme (see above) - cards for this are physically identical to those used by Tesco in the UK and they can be used in both countries. Dunnes Stores responded with the introduction of their own ValueClub scheme in June 1997. Today these are three main schemes operating in Ireland, although ValueClub has been withdrawn from Dunnes' Northern Ireland stores. All five major petrol station chains in the country operated a scheme during the late 1990s - Esso had "Tiger Miles" (with Tesco ClubCard points offered as an alternative), Maxol had "Points Plus", both of which operated on the principle of getting items from a gift catalogue, with Shell using Dunnes' scheme, Texaco using the SuperQuinn system, and Statoil operating a cash-back system, "Premium Club". Due to increasing oil prices and tightening of margins, all of these schemes ended by the end of 2005. Tesco Ireland's petrol stations still, however, give Clubcard points. GAME, a major computer game and hardware retailer also operate a cashback card scheme, which was merged with Electronics Boutique's programme following the separation of their northern European stores into the hands of GAME. The scheme returns one-fortieth of the spend, more than twice as generous as Tesco. Germany The largest loyalty program in Germany is PayBack, which was launched in 2000. According to a study in August 2007 by GfK , 61% of German households have a Payback card. It listed the HappyDigits program as having a 42% share, with the Shell ClubSmart program as third most popular with 13%. In March 2008, the coalition program DeutschlandCard was launched by Arvato. As at March 2009 it had more than 4.5 million active cardholders. Switzerland Loyalty programs are popular in Switzerland, with the two main supermarket chains, Migros and Coop, leading the field with their offerings. The Migros card can be used at the Migros supermarkets, Ex Libris (books, DVD's), SportXX, and more. The Coop Supercard earns points on purchases at Coop and a variety of other associated stores. Other stores such as Interio, a furniture retailer, are also joining the market with loyalty cards and store-based incentivised credit cards. In recent years, online loyalty programs have also started to target the Swiss. First to make an offering in Switzerland was German-based Webmiles. Claiming to be Switzerland's first online bonus program, Bonuspoints was launched in early 2008 and offers incentives for shopping at 70 different online stores. Hungary Two coalition loyalty programs loyalty programs in Hungary are SuperShop and Multipont. SuperShop was established in April 2000 and is backed by premium partners Kaiser's Supermarket, K&H Bank, OBI, OMV, Photo hall and PLUS Supermarket. Spain VOILÀ Hotel Rewards launched in June 2008 with "Husa Plus," a co-branded loyalty program for Husa Hoteles . The Husa Plus program is currently offered at approximately 145 Husa Hotels, primarily located in Spain. Asia Malaysia In Malaysia, the BonusLink program was introduced in a joint venture between Shell, Parkson, Maxis and MBF. The BonusLink program is coalition with earning and redemption partners allowing members to earn points at a number of Malaysian retailers. Another card is Real Rewards where holders who spend at their merchants get to exchange points for free gifts. Genting Highlands Resort has its own loyalty card, WorldCard (same as mentioned below) that is primarily used to gain points in Genting Highlands' Resorts and Attractions. However, it can also be used for Starbucks, Coffee Bean and Häagen-Dazs and it is valid in three countries, namely Malaysia (where Genting Group is based), Singapore and Hong Kong. Jusco also has its own loyalty card, known as J Card. In early 2008, ValueClub Marketing and Services Sdn. Bhd. launched it V-Kad at North Malaysia especially in Penang state. V-Kad has actively joint by various industries such as F&B, fashion, saloon and optics. It provides V-Kad members to collect V-Points to redeem gift and exchange services with the participating merchants. Singapore The three largest loyalty programs are LinkPoints, WorldCard (aggregate program of Genting Resorts, Suntec City Mall, Star Cruises & Indigoz)and SAFRA Card. The LinkPoints Programme has more than 1 million members and over 600 participating merchant outlets. Indonesia Centro Friends card is a loyalty card for Shoppers of Centro Department Stores. The Body Shop People card is the loyalty card for The Body Shop stores in Indonesia. Other notable programs in Asia include KrisFlyer, the Singapore Airlines rewards program, and Asia Miles, which was part of Cathay Pacific. India i-mint is India's largest coalition loyalty program, with approximately 5 million members. BPCL's PetroBonus is a pioneering program and also one of the largest in the country with about 2 million members for the fuel card program. It also has variants for fleets and convenience store customers. Likewise IOC's Fleet Card Program XTRAPOWER has recently crossed 1 million mark. IOC has launched a loyalty program XTRAREWARDS for Retail Customers. The Maruti Suzuki AutoCard, launched in association with Citibank and Indian Oil had 370,000 cardholders as at October 2008. Republic of China Shanghai The Smartclub program allows all Shanghai residents to earn SmartPoints free, each time they take the subway, bus, or taxi. Those SmartPoints can be combined with points earned at McDonald's, eLong, Sport100, cinemas, bookstores, and other SmartClub partner retailers. Hong Kong SAR Hong Kong also offers the Octopus Rewards program, which started as a chip based smartcard for transport and now, the octopus cards can be used to earn points in certain shops. Taiwan The French retailer, Carrefour has recently introduced a new loyalty scheme whereby customers can earn and redeem points for purchases made in the store, and also earn additional points for all purchases made using a Carrefour branded credit card. The largest online rewards program is EmailCash. Program management Across the globe loyalty programs are increasingly finding the need to outsource strategic and operational aspects of their programs, given the size and complexity a loyalty program entails. Program managers are typically agencies with specialist skills in loyalty consulting, creative and communication, data analytics, loyalty software, and back end operations. The advent of Web 2.0 and SaaS online-based services has provided lower-cost options for small businesses to offer and manage their own loyalty programs. Criticism Companies complain that these loyalty program discount goods to people that are buying their goods anyway, and that the expense of doing these programs rarely pays. Other critics see the lower prices and rewards as bribes to manipulate customer loyalty and purchasing decisions, or in the case of infrequent-spenders, a means of subsidizing frequent-spenders. Commercial use of the personal data collected as part of the programmes has the potential for abuse. It is highly likely that consumer purchases are tracked and analyzed towards more efficient marketing and advertising (in fact, this can be one of the purposes of the loyalty card.) To some, participating in a loyalty program (even with a fake or anonymous card) funds activities that violate privacy. There has also been concern expressed regarding RFID technology being introduced to loyalty cards. Loyalty and credit card reward plans might be viewed as modern day examples of a kickback. An employee who needs to buy something (such as a hotel room or an airline flight) for a business trip but who has discretion to decide which airline or hotel chain to use has a powerful incentive to choose the payment method that provides the most credit card rewards or loyalty points instead of minimizing cost for the organization. See also Incentive Program Loyalty Marketing Incentive Identity management References | Loyalty_program |@lemmatized loyalty:71 program:76 structure:1 marketing:6 effort:1 reward:37 therefore:1 encourage:2 loyal:3 buying:1 behavior:2 potentially:1 benefit:2 firm:1 sharp:2 byron:1 anne:1 impact:1 repeat:1 purchase:14 pattern:1 international:1 journal:1 research:2 market:3 generally:4 retail:8 specifically:1 card:104 point:32 advantage:1 club:14 plastic:1 paper:2 visually:1 similar:2 credit:11 debit:1 identify:3 holder:2 member:11 system:5 business:6 model:1 united:4 kingdom:2 typically:5 call:3 canada:9 state:5 either:4 discount:15 barcode:1 magstripe:1 easily:1 scan:1 even:4 chip:2 small:2 keyring:1 also:22 know:2 keytags:1 serve:1 key:1 fob:1 often:2 use:28 convenience:2 carry:1 ease:1 access:3 establishment:1 group:3 may:4 issue:4 consumer:6 form:3 identification:1 deal:1 retailer:16 present:1 purchaser:1 entitle:1 current:1 allotment:1 future:3 hence:1 visible:1 mean:2 implement:2 type:1 economist:2 two:3 part:4 tariff:1 issuer:1 request:1 require:3 customer:28 seek:1 issuance:1 provide:6 usually:2 minimal:1 amount:2 demographic:1 data:6 name:3 address:1 application:1 entail:2 agreement:1 store:29 concern:2 privacy:2 non:3 disclosure:2 aggregate:3 one:11 might:3 expect:1 us:1 internally:1 sometimes:1 externally:1 determine:1 example:6 give:6 favorite:1 brand:4 beer:1 whether:1 vegetarian:1 sufficient:1 information:3 expedite:1 verification:1 receipt:1 cheque:1 dispensing:1 medical:1 prescription:1 preparation:1 membership:2 privilege:1 e:2 g:2 lounge:1 airport:1 frequent:4 flyer:3 continent:1 country:5 north:2 america:1 u:3 several:2 major:10 supermarket:12 chain:15 least:1 pharmacy:3 order:2 receive:6 advertised:4 price:6 include:4 kroger:3 safeway:2 many:5 regional:1 albertsons:1 winn:2 dixie:2 harris:1 teeter:1 ingles:1 giant:1 eagle:1 top:1 cv:1 compete:2 work:4 company:3 make:5 allow:9 since:4 track:2 though:4 self:1 checkout:1 someone:2 try:1 earn:12 another:4 add:3 different:4 would:1 tracking:2 database:2 independent:3 however:4 hand:2 although:3 enter:2 phone:2 number:5 bring:1 forget:1 new:2 agree:2 sign:1 right:1 away:1 accumulation:1 fuel:6 tie:1 airline:8 donate:1 percentage:3 sale:1 designate:1 charity:1 notably:2 wal:2 mart:3 plan:2 gift:4 get:5 cent:3 per:3 gallon:1 gas:4 station:7 locate:2 premise:1 practice:1 common:1 among:2 book:3 music:2 large:16 instance:2 period:1 time:7 year:2 upon:1 reach:1 specified:1 level:1 bookseller:2 coupon:5 spend:5 best:2 buy:3 similarly:1 offer:22 redeemable:3 dollar:1 accumulate:1 set:1 along:1 case:3 hardware:3 ace:1 true:1 value:2 effectively:1 well:2 gather:1 addition:1 office:2 supply:1 staple:2 inc:1 depot:2 start:4 almost:3 hotel:8 western:1 choice:2 holiday:1 inn:1 marriott:1 super:1 motel:1 etc:1 guest:4 stay:2 prize:1 mile:7 hilton:1 hhonors:1 date:1 travel:1 relate:1 seamiles:1 redeem:5 cruise:2 american:1 federate:1 department:3 kohl:1 already:2 thus:1 direct:2 relationship:1 likely:2 shop:4 simply:1 enough:1 justify:1 cost:4 create:1 promoting:1 operate:8 inadvertently:1 scanner:1 affiliated:1 successfully:1 recognize:1 respective:1 food:2 lion:1 pathmark:1 centric:1 without:1 registration:1 myjoecard:1 advertise:1 website:1 kansas:1 city:2 tulsa:1 denver:1 max:1 erma:1 good:3 neighbor:1 base:6 visit:1 additionally:1 periodically:1 additional:2 way:1 free:4 item:2 electronically:1 begin:1 regulate:1 california:1 subject:1 act:1 grocery:2 drop:1 rainbow:1 minnesota:2 end:6 acquire:1 roundy:1 leave:1 grocer:1 online:10 shopper:4 memolink:1 mypoints:1 clubshop:1 ebates:1 focus:1 upromise:1 schoolpop:1 bsp:1 network:1 igive:1 com:1 old:1 probably:1 canadian:6 tire:4 money:4 look:1 like:1 currency:1 air:4 sponsor:2 thousand:1 bank:5 montreal:1 cibc:1 aeroplan:2 enrol:1 certain:3 account:1 around:1 long:1 hbc:1 z:1 first:4 zellers:1 loblaws:2 president:1 financial:2 user:1 service:5 pc:1 towards:2 run:1 drug:1 optimum:1 dividend:4 irewards:1 booklover:1 everyday:2 special:1 chapter:2 indigo:2 cole:2 smithbooks:1 world:2 big:2 bookstore:2 ca:1 every:4 sort:2 esso:3 extra:1 petro:2 save:1 chevron:1 bc:1 grant:2 litre:2 sobeys:2 fast:1 location:1 banner:1 atlantic:1 superstore:2 real:3 sunoco:2 caa:1 replace:3 performance:1 home:2 oceania:1 australia:4 flybuys:2 establish:2 back:4 wesfarmers:1 formerly:2 national:2 million:9 australian:3 household:2 active:2 six:1 rival:2 woolworth:1 launch:11 nationally:1 july:1 three:4 cardholder:3 myer:2 priceline:1 health:1 beauty:1 amcal:1 miller:1 apparel:1 bb:1 capital:1 brazin:1 limited:1 pulse:2 virgin:2 hmv:1 sanity:1 dusk:1 bra:1 n:1 thing:1 sx:1 sunglass:1 conversion:1 qantas:1 blue:1 velocity:1 partner:5 emailcash:2 europe:2 uk:6 significant:1 four:1 sainsbury:2 tesco:8 nectar:3 clubcard:6 scheme:17 criticise:1 shopping:2 roughly:1 equate:1 increase:2 much:1 banking:1 operation:3 award:1 pound:3 bonus:2 report:1 suggest:1 outlet:2 massive:1 potential:2 trial:1 nationwide:1 dunnhumby:1 partnership:2 patronage:1 owner:1 britain:1 co:6 operative:5 rochdale:1 pioneer:1 record:1 keep:1 transform:1 trading:1 stamp:1 manage:2 wholesale:1 society:1 cws:2 gradually:1 withdraw:2 margin:2 decline:1 concept:1 restore:1 payment:2 turn:1 century:1 adopt:1 abc:1 discontinue:1 mark:2 spencer:1 john:1 lewis:1 voucher:1 return:2 spending:1 separate:1 game:4 collect:3 preorders:1 ipoints:2 coalition:5 feature:1 websaver:1 design:1 community:1 local:1 republic:3 ireland:6 superquinn:2 introduce:5 superclub:1 regard:2 prototype:1 expand:1 shortly:1 power:1 essentially:1 simple:1 expansion:1 see:3 physically:1 identical:1 dunnes:3 respond:1 introduction:1 valueclub:3 june:2 today:1 main:2 northern:2 five:1 petrol:2 late:1 tiger:1 alternative:1 maxol:1 plus:4 principle:1 catalogue:1 shell:3 texaco:1 statoil:1 cash:1 premium:2 due:1 oil:2 tightening:1 still:1 computer:1 cashback:1 merge:1 electronics:1 boutique:1 programme:3 follow:1 separation:1 european:1 fortieth:1 twice:1 generous:1 germany:2 payback:2 accord:1 study:1 august:1 gfk:1 german:2 list:1 happydigits:1 share:1 clubsmart:1 third:1 popular:2 march:2 deutschlandcard:1 arvato:1 switzerland:4 migros:3 coop:3 lead:1 field:1 offering:2 ex:1 libris:1 dvd:1 sportxx:1 supercard:1 variety:1 associate:1 interio:1 furniture:1 join:1 incentivised:1 recent:1 target:1 swiss:1 webmiles:1 claim:1 bonuspoints:1 early:2 incentive:4 hungary:2 supershop:2 multipont:1 april:1 kaiser:1 k:1 h:1 obi:1 omv:1 photo:1 hall:1 spain:2 voilà:1 husa:4 hoteles:1 currently:1 approximately:2 primarily:2 asia:3 malaysia:4 bonuslink:2 joint:2 venture:1 parkson:1 maxi:1 mbf:1 earning:1 redemption:1 malaysian:1 merchant:3 exchange:2 genting:4 highland:2 resort:3 worldcard:2 mention:1 gain:1 attraction:1 starbucks:1 coffee:1 bean:1 häagen:1 dazs:1 valid:1 namely:1 singapore:3 hong:3 kong:3 jusco:1 j:1 sdn:1 bhd:1 v:4 kad:3 especially:1 penang:1 actively:1 various:1 industry:1 f:1 b:1 fashion:1 saloon:1 optic:1 participate:3 linkpoints:2 suntec:1 mall:1 star:1 indigoz:1 safra:1 indonesia:2 centro:2 friend:1 body:2 people:2 notable:1 krisflyer:1 cathay:1 pacific:1 india:2 mint:1 bpcl:1 petrobonus:1 pioneering:1 variant:1 fleet:2 likewise:1 ioc:2 xtrapower:1 recently:2 cross:1 xtrarewards:1 maruti:1 suzuki:1 autocard:1 association:1 citibank:1 indian:1 october:1 china:1 shanghai:2 smartclub:2 resident:1 smartpoints:2 take:1 subway:1 bus:1 taxi:1 combine:1 mcdonald:1 elong:1 cinema:1 sar:1 octopus:2 smartcard:1 transport:1 taiwan:1 french:1 carrefour:2 whereby:1 management:2 across:1 globe:1 increasingly:1 find:1 need:2 outsource:1 strategic:1 operational:1 aspect:1 size:1 complexity:1 manager:1 agency:1 specialist:1 skill:1 consulting:1 creative:1 communication:1 analytics:1 software:1 advent:1 web:1 saas:1 low:2 option:1 criticism:1 complain:1 anyway:1 expense:1 rarely:1 pay:1 critic:1 bribe:1 manipulate:1 purchasing:1 decision:1 infrequent:1 spender:2 subsidize:1 commercial:1 personal:1 abuse:1 highly:1 analyze:1 efficient:1 advertising:1 fact:1 purpose:1 fake:1 anonymous:1 fund:1 activity:1 violate:1 express:1 rfid:1 technology:1 view:1 modern:1 day:1 kickback:1 employee:1 something:1 room:1 flight:1 trip:1 discretion:1 decide:1 powerful:1 choose:1 method:1 instead:1 minimize:1 organization:1 identity:1 reference:1 |@bigram debit_card:1 frequent_flyer:3 wal_mart:2 holiday_inn:1 co_operative:5 tesco_ireland:2 joint_venture:1 coffee_bean:1 hong_kong:3 sdn_bhd:1 cathay_pacific:1 convenience_store:1 |
1,627 | Cary_Elwes | Cary Elwes (born October 26, 1962) is a British actor, known for his performances in The Princess Bride; Robin Hood: Men in Tights; Hot Shots!; Glory; Liar, Liar; Saw; and Twister. Biography Early life Elwes (pronounced El-wez) was born Ivan Simon Cary Elwes in Westminster, London. He is the third and youngest son of English portrait-painter Dominick Elwes and Cary Elwes Biography (1962-) , interior designer Tessa Georgina Kennedy, who is of Croatian and Anglo-Irish descent. The two eloped to great scandal in 1958. He has two brothers, film agent Cassian Elwes, and artist Damian Elwes. Family Tree Maker's Genealogy Site: User Home Page Book: Cary Elwes: Title Page His grandfather, Simon Elwes, was a very well-known British portrait painter. He attended Harrow School in London and Sarah Lawrence College in Bronxville, New York, where he studied, among other acting-related subjects, German Expressionist Film. Career Elwes made his acting debut in Mariek Kanievska's famous film Another Country (where he played James Harcourt, a young and sentimental homosexual student from an Eton-esque traditional English boarding school), with Rupert Everett and Colin Firth. The film, adapted from a play, was loosely based on the formative years of British spies Guy Burgess, Kim Philby and Donald Maclean. His first notable role was Guilford Dudley in the highly acclaimed British epic Lady Jane after being personally chosen by distinguished Director of the Royal Shakespeare Company, Trevor Nunn. His performance in Lady Jane led director Rob Reiner to cast him in another leading role, this time as the stable boy turned hero Westley in the American comedy The Princess Bride, which required Elwes to do all of his own swordfighting and acrobatics. Elwes' breakthrough performance in The Princess Bride gained international acclaim and was his first major attempt at comedy. Prior to this film, he had no comedic experience, having only studied and worked in drama. He continued working steadily, varying between dramatic roles, as in the Academy Award-winning Glory, and comedic roles, as in Hot Shots!. He starred as Robin Hood in Mel Brooks' Robin Hood: Men in Tights, parodying Errol Flynn and Kevin Costner in The Adventures of Robin Hood and Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves, respectively. ("Unlike other Robin Hoods," he quips in the film, taking aim directly at Costner and Flynn, "I can speak with an English accent!"). Elwes continued to appear in such popular movies as Bram Stoker's Dracula, The Crush, The Jungle Book, Twister, Liar Liar, Cradle Will Rock, The Cat's Meow and Kiss the Girls. He did not appear in another blockbuster until 2004 in the horror/thriller Saw. The same year he appeared in the film Ella Enchanted, portraying the villain rather than the hero. In 2007, he made another "bad guy" appearance in Georgia Rule. Elwes has also appeared on television. In 1996, he played a bit part as "David Libner" on the hit show Seinfeld, opposite Debra Messing. In 1998, he played Astronaut Michael Collins in the Golden Globe Award-winning HBO miniseries From the Earth To the Moon. In 1999, he guest starred as Dr. John York in the Ripper episode of the television series The Outer Limits. He earned two Golden Satellite Award nominations for his performances in the television films The Pentagon Wars and Uprising. He had a recurring role in the final season (2001-2002) of The X-Files as FBI Assistant Director Brad Follmer. Chris Carter, creator of the X-Files, wrote the character especially for him. In 2004, he received great praise with his portrayal of serial killer Ted Bundy in the A&E Network film The Riverman, which was based on the book The Riverman: Ted Bundy and I Hunt for the Green River Killer written by Robert D. Keppel. The Riverman became one of the highest rated original movies in the network’s history and garnered a prestigious BANFF Rockie Award nomination. In 2005 he again received critical acclaim, internationally, with his portrayal of the young, pre-Pope John Paul II in the CBS made-for-TV movie epic Pope John Paul II. This epic was highly successful not only in North America, but also in Europe, where it broke box office records in the late pope's native Poland and became the first film ever to break $1 million (GBP588,200) in three days. His voice-over works include the narrator in James Patterson's audio book The Jester as well as characters in film and television animations such as Quest for Camelot, Hercules, Batman Beyond, and the English versions of the Japanese films Porco Rosso, Whisper of the Heart, and The Cat Returns. For the 2004 video game The Bard's Tale, he served as scriptwriter, improviser, and voice actor of the main character The Bard. He made an uncredited appearance as Sam Green, the man who introduced Andy Warhol to Edie Sedgwick, in the 2006 film Factory Girl. In 2007, he made a guest appearance on Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. He has also performed in the Bob Balaban-directed off-Broadway dramatic stage play The Exonerated in New York during the March 18-23, 2003 week run. In August 2005, he filed a lawsuit against his management firm and the producers of Saw. He alleged that he was promised a percentage of the profits and did not receive the full amount as promised. More recently Elwes appeared in two motion capture 3-D films: Robert Zemeckis' adaptation of Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol and Steven Spielberg and Peter Jackson's The Adventures of Tintin: Secret of the Unicorn. Personal life Elwes and Lisa Marie Kurbikoff met in 1991. The couple became engaged in 1997 in Paris and wed in 2000. The couple have one daughter. Elwes has been active in fighting for the rights of Native Americans and for the end of the genocide in Darfur. Filmography Year Film Role Other notes 1984 Another Country James Harcourt Oxford Blues Lionel 1985 The Bride Captain Josef Schoden 1986 Lady Jane Guilford Dudley 1987 Maschenka Ganin The Princess Bride Westley/The Dread Pirate Roberts 1988 Never on Tuesday Tow Truck Driver Uncredited 1989 Glory Major Cabot Forbes 1990 Days of Thunder Russ Wheeler 1991 Hot Shots! Lieutenant Kent Gregory 1992 Bram Stoker's Dracula Lord Arthur Holmwood Porco Rosso Curtis Voice (English dub) Leather Jackets Dobbs 1993 Robin Hood: Men in Tights Robin Hood The Crush Nick Eliot 1994 The Jungle Book Captain William Boone The Chase Steve Horsegroovy 1995 Whisper of the Heart The Baron Voice (English dub) 1996 Twister Dr. Jonas Miller 1997 Kiss the Girls Detective Nick Ruskin/Casanova The Informant Lieutenant David Ferris Liar Liar Jerry 1998 Quest for Camelot Garrett Voice The Pentagon Wars Lieutenant Colonel James Burton 1999 Cradle Will Rock John Houseman 2000 Shadow of the Vampire Fritz Arno "Firtzy" Wagner Race Against Time Burke TV 2001 Uprising Dr. Fritz Hippler The Cat's Meow Thomas H. Ince 2002 The Cat Returns The Baron Voice (English dub) Wish You Were Dead Mac "Macbeth" Wilson Comic Book Villains Carter 2004 The Riverman Ted Bundy TV Saw Dr. Lawrence Gordon Ella Enchanted Sir Edgar American Crime Albert Bodine The Bard's Tale The Bard Video GameVoice 2005 Pope John Paul II Young Karol Wojtyla TV Edison Reigert aka Edison Force Neo Ned Dr. Magnuson 2006 Haskett's Chance TV National Lampoon's Pucked Norman aka National Lampoon's Puckedaka National Lampoon's The Trouble with Frank Walk the Talk Erik 2007 Georgia Rule Arnold 2008 The Alphabet Killer Capt. Kenneth Shine Sakura: Blue-Eyed Samurai Evan Prescott 2009 A Christmas Carol TBA The Adventures of Tintin: Secret of the Unicorn TBA References External links Elwes's wife: | Cary_Elwes |@lemmatized cary:4 elwes:18 born:1 october:1 british:4 actor:2 know:2 performance:4 princess:4 bride:5 robin:8 hood:8 men:3 tights:3 hot:3 shot:3 glory:3 liar:6 saw:4 twister:3 biography:2 early:1 life:2 pronounced:1 el:1 wez:1 bear:1 ivan:1 simon:2 westminster:1 london:2 third:1 young:4 son:1 english:7 portrait:2 painter:2 dominick:1 interior:1 designer:1 tessa:1 georgina:1 kennedy:1 croatian:1 anglo:1 irish:1 descent:1 two:4 elope:1 great:2 scandal:1 brother:1 film:15 agent:1 cassian:1 artist:1 damian:1 family:1 tree:1 maker:1 genealogy:1 site:1 user:1 home:1 page:2 book:6 title:1 grandfather:1 well:2 attend:1 harrow:1 school:2 sarah:1 lawrence:2 college:1 bronxville:1 new:2 york:3 study:2 among:1 act:2 related:1 subject:1 german:1 expressionist:1 career:1 make:5 debut:1 mariek:1 kanievska:1 famous:1 another:5 country:2 play:5 james:3 harcourt:2 sentimental:1 homosexual:1 student:1 eton:1 esque:1 traditional:1 boarding:1 rupert:1 everett:1 colin:1 firth:1 adapt:1 loosely:1 base:2 formative:1 year:3 spy:1 guy:2 burgess:1 kim:1 philby:1 donald:1 maclean:1 first:3 notable:1 role:6 guilford:2 dudley:2 highly:2 acclaimed:1 epic:3 lady:3 jane:3 personally:1 choose:1 distinguished:1 director:3 royal:1 shakespeare:1 company:1 trevor:1 nunn:1 lead:1 rob:1 reiner:1 cast:1 leading:1 time:2 stable:1 boy:1 turn:1 hero:2 westley:2 american:3 comedy:2 require:1 swordfighting:1 acrobatics:1 breakthrough:1 gain:1 international:1 acclaim:2 major:2 attempt:1 prior:1 comedic:2 experience:1 work:3 drama:1 continue:2 steadily:1 vary:1 dramatic:2 academy:1 award:4 win:2 star:2 mel:1 brook:1 parody:1 errol:1 flynn:2 kevin:1 costner:2 adventure:3 prince:1 thief:1 respectively:1 unlike:1 quip:1 take:1 aim:1 directly:1 speak:1 accent:1 appear:5 popular:1 movie:3 bram:2 stoker:2 dracula:2 crush:2 jungle:2 cradle:2 rock:2 cat:4 meow:2 kiss:2 girl:3 blockbuster:1 horror:1 thriller:1 ella:2 enchant:2 portray:1 villain:2 rather:1 bad:1 appearance:3 georgia:2 rule:2 also:3 television:4 bit:1 part:1 david:2 libner:1 hit:1 show:1 seinfeld:1 opposite:1 debra:1 messing:1 astronaut:1 michael:1 collins:1 golden:2 globe:1 hbo:1 miniseries:1 earth:1 moon:1 guest:2 dr:5 john:5 ripper:1 episode:1 series:1 limit:1 earn:1 satellite:1 nomination:2 pentagon:2 war:2 uprising:2 recur:1 final:1 season:1 x:2 file:3 fbi:1 assistant:1 brad:1 follmer:1 chris:1 carter:2 creator:1 write:2 character:3 especially:1 receive:3 praise:1 portrayal:2 serial:1 killer:3 ted:3 bundy:3 e:1 network:2 riverman:4 hunt:1 green:2 river:1 robert:3 keppel:1 become:3 one:2 high:1 rat:1 original:1 history:1 garner:1 prestigious:1 banff:1 rockie:1 critical:1 internationally:1 pre:1 pope:4 paul:3 ii:3 cbs:1 tv:5 successful:1 north:1 america:1 europe:1 break:2 box:1 office:1 record:1 late:1 native:2 poland:1 ever:1 million:1 three:1 day:2 voice:6 include:1 narrator:1 patterson:1 audio:1 jester:1 animation:1 quest:2 camelot:2 hercules:1 batman:1 beyond:1 version:1 japanese:1 porco:2 rosso:2 whisper:2 heart:2 return:2 video:2 game:1 bard:4 tale:2 serve:1 scriptwriter:1 improviser:1 main:1 uncredited:2 sam:1 man:1 introduce:1 andy:1 warhol:1 edie:1 sedgwick:1 factory:1 law:1 order:1 special:1 victim:1 unit:1 perform:1 bob:1 balaban:1 direct:1 broadway:1 stage:1 exonerate:1 march:1 week:1 run:1 august:1 lawsuit:1 management:1 firm:1 producer:1 allege:1 promise:2 percentage:1 profit:1 full:1 amount:1 recently:1 motion:1 capture:1 zemeckis:1 adaptation:1 charles:1 dickens:1 christmas:2 carol:2 steven:1 spielberg:1 peter:1 jackson:1 tintin:2 secret:2 unicorn:2 personal:1 lisa:1 marie:1 kurbikoff:1 meet:1 couple:2 engage:1 paris:1 wed:1 daughter:1 active:1 fight:1 right:1 end:1 genocide:1 darfur:1 filmography:1 note:1 jam:1 oxford:1 blue:2 lionel:1 captain:2 josef:1 schoden:1 maschenka:1 ganin:1 dread:1 pirate:1 never:1 tuesday:1 tow:1 truck:1 driver:1 cabot:1 forbes:1 thunder:1 rus:1 wheeler:1 lieutenant:3 kent:1 gregory:1 lord:1 arthur:1 holmwood:1 curtis:1 dub:3 leather:1 jacket:1 dobbs:1 nick:2 eliot:1 william:1 boone:1 chase:1 steve:1 horsegroovy:1 baron:2 jonas:1 miller:1 detective:1 ruskin:1 casanova:1 informant:1 ferris:1 jerry:1 garrett:1 colonel:1 burton:1 houseman:1 shadow:1 vampire:1 fritz:2 arno:1 firtzy:1 wagner:1 race:1 burke:1 hippler:1 thomas:1 h:1 ince:1 wish:1 dead:1 mac:1 macbeth:1 wilson:1 comic:1 gordon:1 sir:1 edgar:1 crime:1 albert:1 bodine:1 gamevoice:1 karol:1 wojtyla:1 edison:2 reigert:1 aka:2 force:1 neo:1 ned:1 magnuson:1 haskett:1 chance:1 national:3 lampoon:3 pucked:1 norman:1 puckedaka:1 trouble:1 frank:1 walk:1 talk:1 erik:1 arnold:1 alphabet:1 capt:1 kenneth:1 shine:1 sakura:1 eyed:1 samurai:1 evan:1 prescott:1 tba:2 reference:1 external:1 link:1 wife:1 |@bigram princess_bride:4 robin_hood:8 men_tights:3 liar_liar:3 colin_firth:1 guy_burgess:1 kim_philby:1 donald_maclean:1 highly_acclaimed:1 trevor_nunn:1 rob_reiner:1 mel_brook:1 errol_flynn:1 kevin_costner:1 bram_stoker:2 stoker_dracula:2 cat_meow:2 golden_globe:1 award_nomination:2 serial_killer:1 ted_bundy:3 critical_acclaim:1 porco_rosso:2 andy_warhol:1 edie_sedgwick:1 robert_zemeckis:1 charles_dickens:1 christmas_carol:2 steven_spielberg:1 adventure_tintin:2 leather_jacket:1 lieutenant_colonel:1 external_link:1 |
1,628 | Design_of_experiments | Design of experiments, or experimental design, is the design of all information-gathering exercises where variation is present, whether under the full control of the experimenter or not. (The latter situation is usually called an observational study.) Often the experimenter is interested in the effect of some process or intervention (the "treatment") on some objects (the "experimental units"), which may be people, parts of people, groups of people, etc. Design of experiments is thus a discipline that has very broad application across all the natural and social sciences. Early examples of experimental design Controlled experimentation on scurvy In 1747, while serving as surgeon on HM Bark Salisbury, James Lind, the ship's surgeon, carried out a controlled experiment to develop a cure for scurvy. Lind selected 12 men from the ship, all suffering from scurvy, and divided them into six pairs, giving each group different additions to their basic diet for a period of two weeks. The treatments were all remedies that had been proposed at one time or another. They were: A quart of cider every day Twenty five gutts (drops) of elixir vitriol (sulphuric acid) three times a day upon an empty stomach, One half-pint of seawater every day A mixture of garlic, mustard, and horseradish in a lump the size of a nutmeg Two spoonfuls of vinegar three times a day Two oranges and one lemon every day. The men who had been given citrus fruits recovered dramatically within a week. One of them returned to duty after 6 days and the other became nurse to the rest. The others experienced some improvement, but nothing was comparable to the citrus fruits, which were proved to be substantially superior to the other treatments. In this study his subjects' cases "were as similar as I could have them", that is he provided strict entry requirements to reduce extraneous variation. The men were paired, which provided replication. From a modern perspective, the main thing that is missing is randomized allocation of subjects to treatments. Statistical experiments, following Charles S. Peirce The theory of statistical inference was developed by Charles S. Peirce in "Illustrations of the Logic of Science" (1877–1878) and "A Theory of Probable Inference" (1883), two publications that emphasized the importance of randomization-based inference in statistics. Randomized experiments Charles S. Peirce randomly assigned volunteers to a blinded, repeated-measures design to evaluate their ability to discriminate weights. http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Peirce/small-diffs.htm Peirce's randomized, blinded experiments are also discussed in the following articles: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Peirce/small-diffs.htm Peirce's experiment inspired other researchers in psychology and education, which developed a research tradition of randomized experiments in laboratories and specialized textbooks in the eighteen-hundreds. Randomized experiments were institutionalized in psychology and education in the late eighteen hundreds. These articles document textbooks and laboratory practices: Optimal designs for regression models Charles S. Peirce also contributed the first English-language publication on an optimal design for regression-models: Principles of experimental design, following Ronald A. Fisher A methodology for designing experiments was proposed by Ronald A. Fisher, in his innovative book The Design of Experiments. As an example, he described how to test the hypothesis that a certain lady could distinguish by flavour alone whether the milk or the tea was first placed in the cup. While this sounds like a frivolous application, it allowed him to illustrate the most important ideas of experimental design: 1.) Comparison In many fields of study it is hard to reproduce measured results exactly. Comparisons between treatments are much more reproducible and are usually preferable. Often one compares against a standard or traditional treatment that acts as baseline. 2.) Randomization There is an extensive body of mathematical theory that explores the consequences of making the allocation of units to treatments by means of some random mechanism such as tables of random numbers, or the use of randomization devices such as playing cards or dice. Provided the sample size is adequate, the risks associated with random allocation (such as failing to obtain a representative sample in a survey, or having a serious imbalance in a key characteristic between a treatment group and a control group) are calculable and hence can be managed down to an acceptable level. Random does not mean haphazard, and great care must be taken that appropriate random methods are used. 3.) Replication Measurements are usually subject to variation, both between repeated measurements and between replicated items or processes. Multiple measurements of replicated items are necessary so the variation can be estimated. 4.) Blocking Blocking is the arrangement of experimental units into groups (blocks) that are similar to one another. Blocking reduces known but irrelevant sources of variation between units and thus allows greater precision in the estimation of the source of variation under study. 5.) Orthogonality Orthogonality concerns the forms of comparison (contrasts) that can be legitimately and efficiently carried out. Contrasts can be represented by vectors and sets of orthogonal contrasts are uncorrelated and independently distributed if the data are normal. Because of this independence, each orthogonal treatment provides different information to the others. If there are T treatments and T – 1 orthogonal contrasts, all the information that can be captured from the experiment is obtainable from the set of contrasts. 6.) Use of factorial experiments instead of the one-factor-at-a-time method. These are efficient at evaluating the effects and possible interactions of several factors (independent variables). Analysis of the design of experiments was built on the foundation of the analysis of variance, a collection of models in which the observed variance is partitioned into components due to different factors which are estimated and/or tested. Some efficient designs for estimating several main effects simultaneously were found by Raj Chandra Bose and K. Kishen in 1940 at the Indian Statistical Institute, but remained little known until the Plackett-Burman designs were published in Biometrika in 1946. About the same time, C. R. Rao introduced the concepts of orthogonal arrays as experimental designs. This was a concept which played a central role in the development of Taguchi methods by Genichi Taguchi, which took place during his visit to Indian Statistical Institute in early 1950s. His methods were successfully applied and adopted by Japanese and Indian industries and subsequently were also embraced by US industry albeit with some reservations. In 1950, Gertrude Mary Cox and William Gemmell Cochran published the book Experimental Designs which became the major reference work on the design of experiments for statisticians for years afterwards. Developments of the theory of linear models have encompassed and surpassed the cases that concerned early writers. Today, the theory rests on advanced topics in linear algebra, abstract algebra and combinatorics. As with all other branches of statistics, there is both classical and Bayesian experimental design. Some important contributors to the field of experimental designs are C. S. Peirce, R. A. Fisher, F. Yates, R. C. Bose, C. R. Rao, W. G. Cochran, O. Kempthorne, W. T. Federer, J. Kiefer, J. N. Srivastava, Shrikhande S. S., Genichi Taguchi, J. A. Nelder, D. Raghavarao, D. R. Cox, H. P. Wynn, A. C. Atkinson, W. J. Studden, and A. S. Hedayat. The textbooks of D. Montgomery and R. Myers have reached generations of students and practitioners. Example This example is attributed to Harold Hotelling. Herman Chernoff, Sequential Analysis and Optimal Design, SIAM Monograph, 1972. It conveys some of the flavor of those aspects of the subject that involve combinatorial designs. The weights of eight objects are to be measured using a pan balance and set of standard weights. Each weighing measures the weight difference between objects placed in the left pan vs. any objects placed in the right pan by adding calibrated weights to the lighter pan until the balance is in equilibrium. Each measurement has a random error. The average error is zero; the standard deviations of the probability distribution of the errors is the same number σ on different weighings; and errors on different weighings are independent. Denote the true weights by We consider two different experiments: Weigh each object in one pan, with the other pan empty. Let Xi be the measured weight of the ith object, for i = 1, ..., 8. Do the eight weighings according to the following schedule and let Yi be the measured difference for i = 1, ..., 8: Then the estimated value of the weight θ1 is Similar estimates can be found for the weights of the other items. For example The question of design of experiments is: which experiment is better? The variance of the estimate X1 of θ1 is σ2 if we use the first experiment. But if we use the second experiment, the variance of the estimate given above is σ<sup>2</sub>/8. Thus the second experiment gives us 8 times as much precision for the estimate of a single item, and estimates all items simultaneously, with the same precision. What is achieved with 8 weighings in the second experiment would require 64 weighings if items are weighed separately. However, note that the estimates for the items obtained in the second experiment have errors which are correlated with other. Many problems of the design of experiments involve combinatorial designs, as in this example. Step-by-step procedure in the effective design of an experiment Experiment design Dr. Paul Green, Industrial and Operations Engineering Adjunct Associate Professor, University of Michigan UMTRI, 2009. : 1. Select problem In order to design an experiment, a problem has to be selected and phrased. It is the selection and the phrasing of the problem that will direct the design and outcomes of an experiment. The simplest and most concise way of phrasing a problem is by addressing the “Who, What, When, Why and How” questions. To illustrate the purpose of stating a problem, assume an experiment is designed in which data on automobile accidents is collected. Depending on how the problem is stated, the experiment could be serving to either design a new automobile, or design a new road surface. Thus, even though the same set of data is used, the purpose of the experiment is vastly different, depending on how the problem is stated. Many times, research or experiments have already been completed regarding this issue or similar to your question. In designing the experiment, you need to consider underlying models that have already been proven to make your research more in depth and accurate. 2. Determining dependent variables The dependent variables are the variables that are being measured throughout the experiment. There can be many different dependent variables measured during an experiment. First, you need to split the dependent variables into two different subcategories, system level and individual level. On a system level, questions are taken into consideration regarding the experiment itself taking place. System level variables need to be created to ensure that when the conclusion is reached, it is backed up by as many different angles as possible to support the conclusion. This idea is known as converging operations. For example, a system level dependent variable is how many experimenters are used during a certain task. On an individual level, the dependent variables are measurements of a particular subject. Individual level dependent variables need to be a reducible and analyzable measurement. If the experiment were repeated identically, the individual variables need to provide identical data while removing all risks possible. For example, the amount of time it takes for a certain participant to complete a task. Both system-level and individual level dependent variables need to be concrete enough that the audience reading the experiment will accept the found data. Dependent variables can include performance measures, subjective measures, and physical response. Performance measures include examples such as how long it took for the participant to complete the task as well as the number of mistakes that were made. Subjective measures include whether or not the participants preferred the method used and how many scales were used during the experiment. Finally, physical responses include injuries that occurred or changes in physiological measurements. 3. Determining independent variables The independent variables are the variables that are manipulated in the experiment. Independent variables include things related to people such as age, sex, vision, level of education or general work experience. This brings about the topic of obtaining suitable human subjects. To ensure that the specifications of the independent variables are met, subjects should be screened prior to running the experiment. Subjects may be offered an incentive in cash or kind in exchange for their cooperation. 4. Determining the number of levels of independent variables The number of levels of independent variables determines the number of experimental conditions to be manipulated. This is important in determining the extent of the scope of the experiment. For example, if an experimenter were to design an experiment to examine the relative performance of 10 automobiles, the independent variable, in this case the type of automobile, would have 10 levels. 5. Determining the possible combinations The types of combinations between the independent variables have to be established in order for the experiment to be valid. Using the earlier example of automobiles, it may not be feasible to compare Model A with an automatic transmission with Model B which has a manual transmission. Therefore, it is important to establish the possible types of combinations. 6. Determining the number of observations It is insufficient to obtain one observation. Depending on the desired analysis, there are certain factors that need to be taken into consideration when deciding on the number of observations. This includes the number of trials before a subject becomes familiar with the experiment, the number of trials before fatigue sets in and the number of trials required to obtain statically significant data. 7. Redesign Redesign is necessary in order to obtain the optimal design. When flaws or inconsistencies are found in the current experiment design, a redesign is necessary to correct them. Examples of flaws and inconsistencies include inaccurate statement of the problem, choosing the wrong variables and not being able to obtain the required apparatus. The recommended timeframe for redesign is as follows; • 45% - Planning and scheduling • 5-10% - Testing • 45-50% - Reduction, analysis and writing 8. Randomization A randomized, controlled trial is considered the most reliable and impartial method of determining necessary data. Randomization is a process that assigns research participants by chance, rather than by choice, to either the investigation group or the control group. Normally, groups of subjects are organized by age, sex, or education, depending on the experiment, to gather concrete data. This process ensures that the trials are not set to receive the preferred results. 9. Institutional review board In the United States, the Institutional Review Board (IRB) is the standing regulating authority on all experiments conducted on humans to ensure that they protect the rights and welfare of the research subjects. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and Department of Health and Human Services regulations have empowered the IRB to approve, require modifications in planned research prior to approval, or disapprove research. Prior to conducting any experiment involving human subjects, approval has to be sought from the IRB. 10. Mathematical model In order to ensure that the experiment is valid, it is useful to develop a mathematical model to the entire system. By doing this, anomalies and infeasible ideas can be weeded out immediately. By basing the experiment upon valid mathematical principles, it ensures that all aspects of the experiment are practical and feasible. 11. Data collection The data collection portion of experiment design must make sure that the experiment is supported by factual data. This involves collecting raw data while adhering to the experimental conditions. The data from this portion is expected to be large and chunky. 12. Data reduction This portion involves cleaning up the raw data into manageable chunks which can then be utilized. Not all the data that was collected may be pertinent and thus should be excluded from the analysis. 13. Data verification The most important part of the entire process is the data verification. This is often done by plotting the reduced data, allowing the experimenter to visually locate significant outlying points which may indicate erroneous data collection. If the data is skewed in anyway, experimenters look back at the methods used and go back to redesign phase or faithfully cite their findings. Statistical control It is best for a process to be in reasonable statistical control prior to conducting designed experiments. When this is not possible, proper blocking, replication, and randomization allow for the careful conduct of designed experiments.<ref>Bisgaard, S: "Must a Process be in Statistical Control before Conducting Designed Experiments?", Quality Engineering", ASQ, pp 143 - 176, 2008, Vol 20, Nr2</ref> See also Control variable Bayesian experimental design Dependent variable Experimental techniques Factorial experiment Fisher's inequality Glossary of experimental design Independent variable Optimal Designs Randomized block design Randomized controlled trial Response surface methodology Sample size Statistics Statistical theory Survey sampling Taguchi methods Applications: Process Analytical Technology (PAT) Test and learn Retail testing (commercial) Clinical trials First-in-man study Citations References Randomized experiments were institutionalized in psychology and education in the late eighteen-hundreds, following the invention of randomized experiments by Charles S. Peirce. http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Peirce/small-diffs.htm Randomization was emphasized by Charles S. Peirce in "Illustrations of the Logic of Science" (1877–1878) and "A Theory of Probable Inference" (1883). The principle of randomization was popularized by Ronald A. Fisher, who developed many new designs and analyses. Charles S. Peirce also contributed the first English-language publication on an optimal design for regression-models: Such designs are now studied in response surface methodology: Box,G. E, Hunter,W.G., Hunter, J.S., Hunter,W.G., "Statistics for Experimenters: Design, Innovation, and Discovery", 2nd Edition, Wiley, 2005, ISBN 0471718130 Discussions of causality, randomization, and experimental manipulation have continued from the time of Francis Bacon to today: Pearl, J. Causality: Models, Reasoning and Inference'', Cambridge University Press, 2000. External links The Unscrambler (free-to-try commercial MVA + DoE software for Windows) A chapter from a "NIST/SEMATECH Handbook on Engineering Statistics" at NIST Box-Behnken designs from a "NIST/SEMATECH Handbook on Engineering Statistics" ] at NIST Articles on Design of Experiments Case Studies and Articles on Design of Experiments (DOE) Czitrom (1999) "One-Factor-at-a-Time Versus Designed Experiments", American Statistician, 53, 2. Design Resources Server a mobile library on Design of Experiments. The server is dynamic in nature and new additions would be posted on this site from time to time. Gosset: A General-Purpose Program for Designing Experiments SAS Examples for Experimental Design WebDOE: a web site that offers free, online design of experiments. Design DB: A database of combinatorial, statistical, experimental block designs The I-Optimal Design Assistant: a free on-line library of I-Optimal designs | Design_of_experiments |@lemmatized design:61 experiment:66 experimental:18 information:3 gathering:1 exercise:1 variation:6 present:1 whether:3 full:1 control:9 experimenter:7 latter:1 situation:1 usually:3 call:1 observational:1 study:7 often:3 interested:1 effect:3 process:8 intervention:1 treatment:10 object:6 unit:4 may:5 people:4 part:2 group:8 etc:1 thus:5 discipline:1 broad:1 application:3 across:1 natural:1 social:1 science:3 early:4 example:13 experimentation:1 scurvy:3 serve:2 surgeon:2 hm:1 bark:1 salisbury:1 james:1 lind:2 ship:2 carry:2 controlled:2 develop:5 cure:1 select:3 men:3 suffering:1 divide:1 six:1 pair:2 give:4 different:10 addition:2 basic:1 diet:1 period:1 two:6 week:2 remedy:1 propose:2 one:10 time:12 another:2 quart:1 cider:1 every:3 day:6 twenty:1 five:1 gutts:1 drop:1 elixir:1 vitriol:1 sulphuric:1 acid:1 three:2 upon:2 empty:2 stomach:1 half:1 pint:1 seawater:1 mixture:1 garlic:1 mustard:1 horseradish:1 lump:1 size:3 nutmeg:1 spoonful:1 vinegar:1 orange:1 lemon:1 citrus:2 fruit:2 recover:1 dramatically:1 within:1 return:1 duty:1 become:3 nurse:1 rest:2 others:2 experience:2 improvement:1 nothing:1 comparable:1 prove:2 substantially:1 superior:1 subject:12 case:4 similar:4 could:3 provide:5 strict:1 entry:1 requirement:1 reduce:2 extraneous:1 replication:3 modern:1 perspective:1 main:2 thing:2 miss:1 randomize:8 allocation:3 statistical:9 follow:4 charles:7 peirce:13 theory:7 inference:5 illustration:2 logic:2 probable:2 publication:3 emphasize:2 importance:1 randomization:9 base:2 statistic:6 randomly:1 assign:2 volunteer:1 blind:2 repeat:3 measure:10 evaluate:2 ability:1 discriminate:1 weight:9 http:3 psychclassics:3 yorku:3 ca:3 small:3 diffs:3 htm:3 also:5 discuss:1 following:2 article:4 inspire:1 researcher:1 psychology:3 education:5 research:7 tradition:1 randomized:2 laboratory:2 specialized:1 textbook:3 eighteen:3 hundred:3 institutionalize:2 late:2 document:1 practice:1 optimal:8 regression:3 model:11 contribute:2 first:6 english:2 language:2 principle:3 ronald:3 fisher:5 methodology:3 innovative:1 book:2 describe:1 test:3 hypothesis:1 certain:4 lady:1 distinguish:1 flavour:1 alone:1 milk:1 tea:1 place:5 cup:1 sound:1 like:1 frivolous:1 allow:4 illustrate:2 important:5 idea:3 comparison:3 many:8 field:2 hard:1 reproduce:1 result:2 exactly:1 much:2 reproducible:1 preferable:1 compare:2 standard:3 traditional:1 act:1 baseline:1 extensive:1 body:1 mathematical:4 explore:1 consequence:1 make:4 mean:2 random:6 mechanism:1 table:1 number:11 use:12 device:1 play:2 card:1 dice:1 sample:4 adequate:1 risk:2 associate:2 fail:1 obtain:7 representative:1 survey:2 serious:1 imbalance:1 key:1 characteristic:1 calculable:1 hence:1 manage:1 acceptable:1 level:14 haphazard:1 great:2 care:1 must:3 take:7 appropriate:1 method:8 measurement:7 replicate:1 item:7 multiple:1 replicated:1 necessary:4 estimate:10 block:5 blocking:2 arrangement:1 reduces:1 know:3 irrelevant:1 source:2 precision:3 estimation:1 orthogonality:2 concern:2 form:1 contrast:5 legitimately:1 efficiently:1 represent:1 vector:1 set:6 orthogonal:4 uncorrelated:1 independently:1 distribute:1 data:21 normal:1 independence:1 capture:1 obtainable:1 factorial:2 instead:1 factor:5 efficient:2 possible:6 interaction:1 several:2 independent:11 variable:26 analysis:7 build:1 foundation:1 variance:4 collection:4 observed:1 partition:1 component:1 due:1 simultaneously:2 find:4 raj:1 chandra:1 bose:2 k:1 kishen:1 indian:3 institute:2 remain:1 little:1 plackett:1 burman:1 publish:2 biometrika:1 c:5 r:6 rao:2 introduce:1 concept:2 array:1 central:1 role:1 development:2 taguchi:4 genichi:2 visit:1 successfully:1 apply:1 adopt:1 japanese:1 industry:2 subsequently:1 embrace:1 u:2 albeit:1 reservation:1 gertrude:1 mary:1 cox:2 william:1 gemmell:1 cochran:2 major:1 reference:2 work:2 statistician:2 year:1 afterwards:1 linear:2 encompass:1 surpass:1 writer:1 today:2 advanced:1 topic:2 algebra:2 abstract:1 combinatorics:1 branch:1 classical:1 bayesian:2 contributor:1 f:1 yates:1 w:5 g:4 kempthorne:1 federer:1 j:6 kiefer:1 n:1 srivastava:1 shrikhande:1 nelder:1 raghavarao:1 h:1 p:1 wynn:1 atkinson:1 studden:1 hedayat:1 montgomery:1 myers:1 reach:2 generation:1 student:1 practitioner:1 attribute:1 harold:1 hotelling:1 herman:1 chernoff:1 sequential:1 siam:1 monograph:1 convey:1 flavor:1 aspect:2 involve:5 combinatorial:3 eight:2 pan:6 balance:2 weigh:3 difference:2 left:1 v:1 right:2 add:1 calibrated:1 light:1 equilibrium:1 error:5 average:1 zero:1 deviation:1 probability:1 distribution:1 σ:2 weighing:5 denote:1 true:1 consider:3 let:2 xi:1 measured:2 ith:1 accord:1 schedule:2 yi:1 value:1 question:4 well:2 second:4 sup:1 sub:1 single:1 achieve:1 would:3 require:3 separately:1 however:1 note:1 correlate:1 problem:9 step:2 procedure:1 effective:1 dr:1 paul:1 green:1 industrial:1 operation:2 engineering:4 adjunct:1 professor:1 university:2 michigan:1 umtri:1 order:4 phrase:2 selection:1 phrasing:1 direct:1 outcome:1 simple:1 concise:1 way:1 address:1 purpose:3 state:4 assume:1 automobile:5 accident:1 collect:3 depend:4 either:2 new:4 road:1 surface:3 even:1 though:1 vastly:1 already:2 complete:3 regard:2 issue:1 need:7 underlying:1 depth:1 accurate:1 determine:8 dependent:10 throughout:1 split:1 subcategories:1 system:6 individual:5 consideration:2 create:1 ensure:6 conclusion:2 back:3 angle:1 support:2 converge:1 task:3 particular:1 reducible:1 analyzable:1 identically:1 identical:1 remove:1 amount:1 participant:4 concrete:2 enough:1 audience:1 read:1 accept:1 include:7 performance:3 subjective:2 physical:2 response:4 long:1 mistake:1 prefer:1 scale:1 finally:1 injury:1 occur:1 change:1 physiological:1 manipulate:2 relate:1 age:2 sex:2 vision:1 general:2 bring:1 suitable:1 human:4 specification:1 meet:1 screen:1 prior:4 run:1 offer:2 incentive:1 cash:1 kind:1 exchange:1 cooperation:1 condition:2 extent:1 scope:1 examine:1 relative:1 type:3 combination:3 establish:2 valid:3 feasible:2 automatic:1 transmission:2 b:1 manual:1 therefore:1 observation:3 insufficient:1 desired:1 decide:1 trial:7 familiar:1 fatigue:1 statically:1 significant:2 redesign:5 flaw:2 inconsistency:2 current:1 correct:1 inaccurate:1 statement:1 choose:1 wrong:1 able:1 required:1 apparatus:1 recommended:1 timeframe:1 planning:1 testing:2 reduction:2 write:1 reliable:1 impartial:1 chance:1 rather:1 choice:1 investigation:1 normally:1 organize:1 gather:1 receive:1 preferred:1 institutional:2 review:2 board:2 united:1 irb:3 stand:1 regulating:1 authority:1 conduct:5 protect:1 welfare:1 food:1 drug:1 administration:1 fda:1 department:1 health:1 service:1 regulation:1 empower:1 approve:1 modification:1 plan:1 approval:2 disapprove:1 seek:1 useful:1 entire:2 anomaly:1 infeasible:1 weed:1 immediately:1 practical:1 portion:3 sure:1 factual:1 raw:2 adhere:1 expect:1 large:1 chunky:1 clean:1 manageable:1 chunk:1 utilize:1 pertinent:1 exclude:1 verification:2 plot:1 visually:1 locate:1 outlying:1 point:1 indicate:1 erroneous:1 skew:1 anyway:1 look:1 go:1 phase:1 faithfully:1 cite:1 finding:1 best:1 reasonable:1 proper:1 careful:1 ref:2 bisgaard:1 quality:1 asq:1 pp:1 vol:1 see:1 technique:1 inequality:1 glossary:1 analytical:1 technology:1 pat:1 learn:1 retail:1 commercial:2 clinical:1 man:1 citation:1 invention:1 popularize:1 box:2 e:1 hunter:3 innovation:1 discovery:1 edition:1 wiley:1 isbn:1 discussion:1 causality:2 manipulation:1 continue:1 francis:1 bacon:1 pearl:1 reason:1 cambridge:1 press:1 external:1 link:1 unscrambler:1 free:3 try:1 mva:1 doe:2 software:1 window:1 chapter:1 nist:4 sematech:2 handbook:2 behnken:1 czitrom:1 versus:1 american:1 resource:1 server:2 mobile:1 library:2 dynamic:1 nature:1 post:1 site:2 gosset:1 program:1 sas:1 webdoe:1 web:1 online:1 db:1 database:1 assistant:1 line:1 |@bigram cure_scurvy:1 sulphuric_acid:1 citrus_fruit:2 statistical_inference:1 probable_inference:2 randomly_assign:1 http_psychclassics:3 psychclassics_yorku:3 yorku_ca:3 small_diffs:3 diffs_htm:3 randomized_experiment:2 ronald_fisher:3 milk_tea:1 chandra_bose:1 abstract_algebra:1 probability_distribution:1 sup_sub:1 automobile_accident:1 administration_fda:1 randomize_controlled:1 clinical_trial:1 francis_bacon:1 external_link:1 |
1,629 | Aardvark | The Aardvark (Orycteropus afer) (afer: from Africa) is a medium-sized, burrowing, nocturnal mammal native to Africa. It is sometimes called "antbear", "anteater", "Cape anteater" (after the Cape of Good Hope), "earth hog" or "earth pig". The name comes from the Afrikaans/Dutch for "earth pig" (aarde earth, varken pig), because early settlers from Europe thought it resembled a domesticated pig. However, the aardvark is not closely related to the pig; rather, it is the sole recent representative of the obscure mammalian order Tubulidentata, in which it is usually considered to form a single variable species of the genus Orycteropus, coextensive with the family Orycteropodidae. Nor is the aardvark closely related to the South American anteater, despite sharing some characteristics and a superficial resemblance. The closest living relatives of the aardvark are the elephant shrews, along with the sirenians, hyraxes, tenrecs, and elephants. Description One of the most distinctive characteristics of the Tubulidentata is (as the name implies) their teeth. Instead of having a pulp cavity, each tooth has a cluster of thin, upright, parallel tubes of vasodentin (a modified form of dentine), with individual pulp canals, held together by cementum. The teeth have no enamel coating and are worn away and regrow continuously. The aardvark is born with conventional incisors and canines at the front of the jaw, which fall out and are not replaced. Adult aardvarks only have cheek teeth at the back of the jaw, and have a dental formula of: Genetically speaking, the aardvark is a living fossil, as its chromosomes are highly conserved, reflecting much of the early eutherian arrangement before the divergence of the major modern taxa. The aardvark is vaguely pig-like in appearance. Its body is stout with an arched back and is sparsely covered with coarse hairs. The limbs are of moderate length. The front feet have lost the pollex (or 'thumb') — resulting in four toes — but the rear feet have all five toes. Each toe bears a large, robust nail which is somewhat flattened and shovel-like, and appears to be intermediate between a claw and a hoof. The ears are disproportionately long, and the tail is very thick at the base and gradually tapers. The greatly elongated head is set on a short, thick neck, and the end of the snout bears a disc, which houses the nostrils. The mouth is small and tubular, typical of species that feed on termites. The aardvark has a long, thin, snakelike, protruding tongue and elaborate structures supporting a keen sense of smell. An aardvark's weight is typically between 40 and 65 kg. An aardvark's length is usually between 1 and 1.3 meters, and can reach lengths of 2.2 meters when its tail (which can be up to 70 centimeters) is taken into account. The aardvark is pale yellowish gray in color and often stained reddish-brown by soil. The aardvark's coat is thin and the animal's primary protection is its tough skin. The aardvark has been known to sleep in a recently excavated ant nest, which also serves as protection. Behavior Resting aardvark in Himeji City Zoo The aardvark is nocturnal and is a solitary creature that feeds almost exclusively on ants and termites (formicivore); the only fruit eaten by aardvarks is the aardvark cucumber. An aardvark emerges from its burrow in the late afternoon or shortly after sunset, and forages over a considerable home range encompassing 10 to 30 kilometers, swinging its long nose from side to side to pick up the scent of food. When a concentration of ants or termites is detected, the aardvark digs into it with its powerful front legs, keeping its long ears upright to listen for predators, and takes up an astonishing number of insects with its long, sticky tongue—as many as 50,000 in one night have been recorded. It is an exceptionally fast digger, but otherwise moves fairly slowly. Its claws enable it to dig through the extremely hard crust of a termite or ant mound quickly, avoiding the dust by sealing the nostrils. When successful, the aardvark's long (as long as 30 centimeters) tongue licks up the insects; the termites' biting, or the ants' stinging attacks are rendered futile by the tough skin. Its keen hearing warns it of predators: lions, leopards, hyenas, and pythons. Aside from digging out ants and termites, the aardvark also excavates burrows in which to live: temporary sites are scattered around the home range as refuges, and a main burrow is used for breeding. Main burrows can be deep and extensive, have several entrances and can be as long as 13 meters. The aardvark changes the layout of its home burrow regularly, and from time to time moves on and makes a new one; the old burrows are then inhabited by smaller animals like the African Wild Dog. Only mothers and young share burrows. If attacked in the tunnel, it will seal the tunnel off behind itself or turn around and attack with its claws. Aardvark mother and young Aardvarks only pair during the breeding season; after a gestation period of 7 months, a single cub weighing around 2 kg is born, and is able to leave the burrow to accompany its mother after only two weeks, and is eating termites at 14 weeks and is weaned by 16 weeks. At six months of age it is able to dig its own burrows, but it will often remain with the mother until the next mating season, and is sexually capable by the season after that. Aardvarks can live to be over 24 years old in captivity. The aardvark's main predators are lions, leopards, hunting dogs and pythons. Aardvarks can dig fast or run in zigzag fashion to elude enemies, but if all else fails, they will strike with their claws, tail and shoulders, sometimes flipping onto their backs to lash with all fours. Their thick skin also protects them to some extent. Habitat Aardvarks live in subsaharan Africa, where there is suitable habitat for them to live, such as savannas, grasslands, woodlands and bushland, and available food (i.e., ants and termites). Mythology and popular culture In African folklore the aardvark is much admired because of its diligent quest for food and its fearless response to the strong, warlike soldier ant. Hausa magicians make a charm from the heart, skin, forehead, and nails of the aardvark, which they then proceed to pound together with the root of a certain tree. Wrapped in a piece of skin and worn on the chest the charm is said to give the owner the ability to pass through walls or roofs at night. The charm is said to be used by burglars and those seeking to visit young girls without their parents' permission. In English-speaking countries, the aardvark enjoys unusual notoriety, since it is the first noun, and often the first illustrated entry, in many English dictionaries. The main character of Arthur, a popular animated television series for children produced by WGBH-TV and shown in more than 100 countries, is an aardvark. http://www.wkyc.com/news/local/news_article.aspx?storyid=107290&catid=3 Cerebus the Aardvark was the title character of a comic-book series by Dave Sim and Gerhard that ran from 1977 to 2004, and is still sold in collected volumes of reprints. External links Aardvark. California Academy of Sciences – Research. Aardvark – Quick facts and summary. Wild life wonders from southern Africa. ADW: Orycteropus afer: Information. Animal Diversity Web: University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. "The Biology of the Aardvark" (Orycteropus afer) diploma thesis (without pictures) "The Biology of the Aardvark" (Orycteropus afer) same diploma thesis (including the pictures) Notes and references | Aardvark |@lemmatized aardvark:37 orycteropus:5 afer:5 africa:4 medium:1 size:1 burrow:10 nocturnal:2 mammal:1 native:1 sometimes:2 call:1 antbear:1 anteater:3 cape:2 good:1 hope:1 earth:4 hog:1 pig:6 name:2 come:1 afrikaans:1 dutch:1 aarde:1 varken:1 early:2 settler:1 europe:1 think:1 resemble:1 domesticated:1 however:1 closely:2 relate:2 rather:1 sole:1 recent:1 representative:1 obscure:1 mammalian:1 order:1 tubulidentata:2 usually:2 consider:1 form:2 single:2 variable:1 specie:2 genus:1 coextensive:1 family:1 orycteropodidae:1 south:1 american:1 despite:1 share:2 characteristic:2 superficial:1 resemblance:1 close:1 living:2 relative:1 elephant:2 shrew:1 along:1 sirenian:1 hyrax:1 tenrec:1 description:1 one:3 distinctive:1 implies:1 teeth:3 instead:1 pulp:2 cavity:1 tooth:1 cluster:1 thin:3 upright:2 parallel:1 tube:1 vasodentin:1 modify:1 dentine:1 individual:1 canal:1 hold:1 together:2 cementum:1 enamel:1 coating:1 wear:1 away:1 regrow:1 continuously:1 bear:4 conventional:1 incisor:1 canine:1 front:3 jaw:2 fall:1 replace:1 adult:1 aardvarks:1 cheek:1 back:3 dental:1 formula:1 genetically:1 speak:1 fossil:1 chromosome:1 highly:1 conserve:1 reflect:1 much:2 eutherian:1 arrangement:1 divergence:1 major:1 modern:1 taxon:1 vaguely:1 like:3 appearance:1 body:1 stout:1 arch:1 sparsely:1 cover:1 coarse:1 hair:1 limb:1 moderate:1 length:3 foot:2 lose:1 pollex:1 thumb:1 result:1 four:2 toe:3 rear:1 five:1 large:1 robust:1 nail:2 somewhat:1 flattened:1 shovel:1 appear:1 intermediate:1 claw:4 hoof:1 ear:2 disproportionately:1 long:8 tail:3 thick:3 base:1 gradually:1 taper:1 greatly:1 elongated:1 head:1 set:1 short:1 neck:1 end:1 snout:1 disc:1 house:1 nostril:2 mouth:1 small:2 tubular:1 typical:1 fee:1 termite:8 snakelike:1 protrude:1 tongue:3 elaborate:1 structure:1 support:1 keen:2 sense:1 smell:1 weight:1 typically:1 kg:2 meter:3 reach:1 centimeter:2 take:2 account:1 pale:1 yellowish:1 gray:1 color:1 often:3 stain:1 reddish:1 brown:1 soil:1 coat:1 animal:3 primary:1 protection:2 tough:2 skin:5 know:1 sleep:1 recently:1 excavate:2 ant:8 nest:1 also:3 serve:1 behavior:1 rest:1 himeji:1 city:1 zoo:1 solitary:1 creature:1 feed:1 almost:1 exclusively:1 formicivore:1 fruit:1 eat:2 cucumber:1 emerge:1 late:1 afternoon:1 shortly:1 sunset:1 forage:1 considerable:1 home:3 range:2 encompass:1 kilometer:1 swing:1 nose:1 side:2 pick:1 scent:1 food:3 concentration:1 detect:1 dig:5 powerful:1 leg:1 keep:1 listen:1 predator:3 astonishing:1 number:1 insect:2 sticky:1 many:2 night:2 record:1 exceptionally:1 fast:2 digger:1 otherwise:1 move:2 fairly:1 slowly:1 enable:1 extremely:1 hard:1 crust:1 mound:1 quickly:1 avoid:1 dust:1 seal:2 successful:1 lick:1 biting:1 stinging:1 attack:3 render:1 futile:1 hearing:1 warn:1 lion:2 leopard:2 hyena:1 python:2 aside:1 live:4 temporary:1 site:1 scatter:1 around:3 refuge:1 main:4 use:2 breed:1 deep:1 extensive:1 several:1 entrance:1 change:1 layout:1 regularly:1 time:2 make:2 new:1 old:2 inhabit:1 african:2 wild:2 dog:2 mother:4 young:3 tunnel:2 behind:1 turn:1 pair:1 breeding:1 season:3 gestation:1 period:1 month:2 cub:1 weigh:1 able:2 leave:1 accompany:1 two:1 week:3 wean:1 six:1 age:1 remain:1 next:1 mating:1 sexually:1 capable:1 year:1 captivity:1 hunt:1 run:2 zigzag:1 fashion:1 elude:1 enemy:1 else:1 fail:1 strike:1 shoulder:1 flip:1 onto:1 lash:1 protect:1 extent:1 habitat:2 subsaharan:1 suitable:1 savanna:1 grassland:1 woodland:1 bushland:1 available:1 e:1 mythology:1 popular:2 culture:1 folklore:1 admire:1 diligent:1 quest:1 fearless:1 response:1 strong:1 warlike:1 soldier:1 hausa:1 magician:1 charm:3 heart:1 forehead:1 proceed:1 pound:1 root:1 certain:1 tree:1 wrap:1 piece:1 worn:1 chest:1 say:2 give:1 owner:1 ability:1 pass:1 wall:1 roof:1 burglar:1 seek:1 visit:1 girl:1 without:2 parent:1 permission:1 english:2 speaking:1 country:2 enjoy:1 unusual:1 notoriety:1 since:1 first:2 noun:1 illustrated:1 entry:1 dictionary:1 character:2 arthur:1 animated:1 television:1 series:2 child:1 produce:1 wgbh:1 tv:1 show:1 http:1 www:1 wkyc:1 com:1 news:1 local:1 aspx:1 storyid:1 catid:1 cerebus:1 title:1 comic:1 book:1 dave:1 sim:1 gerhard:1 still:1 sell:1 collected:1 volume:1 reprint:1 external:1 link:1 california:1 academy:1 science:1 research:1 quick:1 fact:1 summary:1 life:1 wonder:1 southern:1 adw:1 information:1 diversity:1 web:1 university:1 michigan:1 museum:1 zoology:1 biology:2 diploma:2 thesis:2 picture:2 include:1 note:1 reference:1 |@bigram closely_relate:2 superficial_resemblance:1 cheek_teeth:1 gradually_taper:1 sense_smell:1 reddish_brown:1 ant_nest:1 almost_exclusively:1 ant_termite:4 savanna_grassland:1 http_www:1 external_link:1 |
1,630 | Nikolai_Bukharin | Nikolai Ivanovich Bukharin (), ( – March 15, 1938) was a Bolshevik revolutionary and intellectual and Soviet politician. Before the 1917 Revolution Bukharin was born in Moscow to two primary school teachers. His political life began at the age of sixteen when, together with his lifelong friend Ilya Ehrenburg, he participated in student activities at Moscow University related to the Russian Revolution of 1905. He joined the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in 1906, becoming a member of the Bolshevik faction. With Grigori Sokolnikov, he convened the 1907 national youth conference in Moscow, which was later considered the founding of the Komsomol. By age 20, he was a member of the Moscow Committee of the party. The committee was heavily infiltrated by the tsarist secret police, or Okhrana. As one of its leaders, Bukharin quickly became a person of interest to them. During this time, he became closely associated with N. Osinskii and Vladimir Smirnov and met his future wife, Nadezhda Mikhailovna Lukina, the sister of Nikolai Lukin. They married soon after his exile. In 1911, after a brief imprisonment, Bukharin was exiled to Onega in Arkhangelsk, but soon appeared in Hanover. During this exile, he continued his education and became a major Bolshevik theorist. He developed an interest in the works of non-Marxist economic theorists, such as Aleksandr Bogdanov, who deviated from Leninist positions. While in exile, Bukharin wrote several books and edited the newspaper Novy Mir (New World) with Leon Trotsky and Alexandra Kollontai in New York City. During World War I, he wrote a small book on imperialism from which Vladimir Lenin later drew some of the ideas he put forward in his larger and better known work, Imperialism—The Highest Stage of Capitalism. Upon his return to Russia, Bukharin became one of the leading Bolsheviks in Moscow and was elected to the Central Committee. The 1917 Revolution to 1928 Nikolai Bukharin Bukharin did not play a significant role in the Bolshevik seizure of power. After the revolution, he became editor of Pravda. In 1920 Bukharin wrote the textbook "The ABC of Communism" together with Evgenii Preobrazhensky. Bukharin led the opposition of the Left Communists to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, arguing instead for the Bolsheviks to continue the war effort and turn it into a world-wide push for proletarian revolution. In 1921, he changed his position and accepted Lenin's policies, encouraging the development of the New Economic Policy (NEP). Whilst some have criticised Bukharin for this apparent U-turn, his change of emphasis can be partially explained by the necessity for peace and stability following seven years of war in Russia, and the failure of Communist Revolutions in Central and Eastern Europe. After Lenin's death, Bukharin became a full member of the Politburo in 1924, and the president of the Communist International (Comintern) in 1926. After 1926, Bukharin, by then regarded as the leader of the Communist Party's right wing, became an ally of the center of the party, which was led by Stalin and which constituted the ruling group after Stalin broke his earlier alliance with Kamenev and Zinoviev. It was Bukharin who detailed the thesis of "Socialism in One Country" put forth by Stalin in 1924, which argued that socialism (in Leninist theory, the transitional stage from capitalism to communism) could be developed in a single country, even one as underdeveloped as Russia. This new theory stated that revolution need no longer be encouraged in the capitalist countries, since Russia could and should achieve socialism alone. The thesis would become a hallmark of Stalinism. Fall from power In 1928, Stalin proposed a program of collectivisation, because he believed that the NEP was not working fast enough to achieve industrialisation. Bukharin was worried by the prospect of a collectivisation policy. He believed that controlling the peasants would make them resentful and, as a result, less productive. Bukharin did want the Soviet Union to achieve industrialisation but he preferred the more moderate approach of offering the peasants the opportunity to become prosperous. This would lead to greater grain production for sale abroad. Essentially, Bukharin supported a continuation of the NEP. Bukharin pressed his views throughout 1928 in meetings of the Politburo and at the Party Congress, insisting that enforced grain requisition would be counter-productive, as War Communism had been a decade earlier. Bukharin attempted to gain support, including from Kamenev and Zinoviev who had fallen from power and held mid-level positions within the Communist party. Stalin attacked Bukharin's views, portraying them as capitalist and declaring that the revolution would be at risk without a strong policy that encouraged rapid industrialisation. He accused Bukharin of factionalism, citing Bukharin's meetings with Kamenev and Zinoviev as evidence of this. Stalin used his control of the party machine to win the debate. He forced Bukharin to renounce his views. As a result, Bukharin lost his position in the Comintern in April 1929 and was expelled from the Politburo on November 17 of that year. International supporters of Bukharin, led by Jay Lovestone of the Communist Party USA, were also expelled from the Comintern. They formed an international alliance to promote their views, calling it the International Communist Opposition, though it became better known as the Right Opposition, after a term used by the Trotskyist Left Opposition in the Soviet Union to refer to Bukharin and his supporters there. Execution Bukharin was politically rehabilitated by Stalin and was made editor of Izvestia in 1934. There, he consistently highlighted the dangers of Fascist regimes in Europe. Bukharin was arrested following a plenum of the Central Committee in 1937, and charged with conspiring to overthrow the Soviet state. He was tried in March 1938 as part of the Trial of the Twenty One during the Great Purges, and was executed by the NKVD, on March 15 1938. News of his death was overshadowed by the Nazi Anschluss by Germany of Austria. 'Koba, why do you need me to die?' Bukharin wrote in a note to Stalin after the death sentence was pronounced on him. ("Koba" was Stalin's revolutionary pseudonym, and Bukharin's use of it was a sign of how close the two had once been. The note was found still in Stalin's desk after his death in 1953.). See Zhores A. Medvedev & Roy A. Medvedev, translated by Ellen Dahrendorf, The Unknown Stalin, I.B. Tauris, 2006, ISBN 185043980X, 9781850439806, Chapter 14, p. 296 Bukharin was officially rehabilitated by the Soviet state under Mikhail Gorbachev in 1988. Bukharin was the principal framer of the Soviet Constitution of 1936, which promised freedom of speech, the press, assembly, religion, and the privacy of the person, his home, and his correspondence. Political stature and achievements Bukharin was immensely popular within the party throughout the twenties and thirties, even after his fall from power. In his testament, Lenin portrayed him as 'the Golden Boy' of the party and writing: Speaking of the young C.C. members, I wish to say a few words about Bukharin and Pyatakov. They are, in my opinion, the most outstanding figures (among the youngest ones), and the following must be borne in mind about them: Bukharin is not only a most valuable and major theorist of the Party; he is also rightly considered the favourite of the whole Party, but his theoretical views can be classified as fully Marxist only with great reserve, for there is something scholastic about him (he has never made a study of the dialectics, and, I think, never fully understood it)... Both of these remarks, of course, are made only for the present, on the assumption that both these outstanding and devoted Party workers fail to find an occasion to enhance their knowledge and amend their one-sidedness. Bukharin made several notable contributions to Marxist-Leninist thought, most notably 'The Economics of the Transition Period' (1918) and his recently reprinted prison writings, 'Philosophical Arabesques' (a text which clearly reveals Bukharin had corrected the 'one-sidedness' of his thought), as well as being a founding member of the Soviet Academy of Arts and Sciences, and a keen botanist. "Voice of the stalking shadow" (Pin thodarum nizhalin kural), a Tamil novel by Jeyamohan is based on the life of Nikolai Bukharin. See also: Communist Party of the Soviet Union Cartoonist Nikolai Bukharin was a gifted cartoonist who left many cartoons on contemporary Soviet politicians. They are sometimes used to illustrate biographies of Soviet officials. Russian historian Yury Zhukov stated that Nikolai Bukarin's portraits of Joseph Stalin were the only ones drawn from the original, not from a photograph. KP.RU // «Не надо вешать всех собак на Сталина» at www.kp.ru (Komsomolskaya Pravda) Notes Further reading Anna Larina, This I Cannot Forget: The Memoirs of Nikolai Bukharin's Widow, W. W. Norton, 1991, hardcover, 384 pages, ISBN 0-393-03025-3 Stephen F. Cohen, Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution: A political biography, 1888–1938, Knopf, 1973, hardcover, 495 pages, ISBN 0-394-46014-6; trade paperback, Oxford University Press, 1980, ISBN 0-19-502697-7; trade paperback, Vintage Books, ISBN 0-394-71261-7 External links Nikolai Bukharin archive at marxists.org The evil that Stalin did, George Walden on Bukharin's death-cell letter to Stalin | Nikolai_Bukharin |@lemmatized nikolai:8 ivanovich:1 bukharin:43 march:3 bolshevik:7 revolutionary:2 intellectual:1 soviet:10 politician:2 revolution:9 bear:2 moscow:5 two:2 primary:1 school:1 teacher:1 political:3 life:2 begin:1 age:2 sixteen:1 together:2 lifelong:1 friend:1 ilya:1 ehrenburg:1 participate:1 student:1 activity:1 university:2 relate:1 russian:3 join:1 social:1 democratic:1 labour:1 party:14 become:11 member:5 faction:1 grigori:1 sokolnikov:1 convene:1 national:1 youth:1 conference:1 later:2 consider:2 founding:2 komsomol:1 committee:4 heavily:1 infiltrate:1 tsarist:1 secret:1 police:1 okhrana:1 one:9 leader:2 quickly:1 person:2 interest:2 time:1 closely:1 associate:1 n:1 osinskii:1 vladimir:2 smirnov:1 meet:1 future:1 wife:1 nadezhda:1 mikhailovna:1 lukina:1 sister:1 lukin:1 marry:1 soon:2 exile:4 brief:1 imprisonment:1 onega:1 arkhangelsk:1 appear:1 hanover:1 continue:2 education:1 major:2 theorist:3 develop:2 work:3 non:1 marxist:4 economic:2 aleksandr:1 bogdanov:1 deviate:1 leninist:3 position:4 write:4 several:2 book:3 edit:1 newspaper:1 novy:1 mir:1 new:4 world:3 leon:1 trotsky:1 alexandra:1 kollontai:1 york:1 city:1 war:4 small:1 imperialism:2 lenin:4 draw:2 idea:1 put:2 forward:1 large:1 well:3 know:2 high:1 stage:2 capitalism:2 upon:1 return:1 russia:4 lead:5 elect:1 central:3 play:1 significant:1 role:1 seizure:1 power:4 editor:2 pravda:2 textbook:1 abc:1 communism:3 evgenii:1 preobrazhensky:1 opposition:4 left:1 communists:1 treaty:1 brest:1 litovsk:1 argue:2 instead:1 effort:1 turn:2 wide:1 push:1 proletarian:1 change:2 accept:1 policy:4 encourage:3 development:1 nep:3 whilst:1 criticise:1 apparent:1 u:1 emphasis:1 partially:1 explain:1 necessity:1 peace:1 stability:1 follow:2 seven:1 year:2 failure:1 communist:7 eastern:1 europe:2 death:5 full:1 politburo:3 president:1 international:4 comintern:3 regard:1 right:2 wing:1 ally:1 center:1 stalin:14 constitute:1 ruling:1 group:1 break:1 early:1 alliance:2 kamenev:3 zinoviev:3 detail:1 thesis:2 socialism:3 country:3 forth:1 theory:2 transitional:1 could:2 single:1 even:2 underdeveloped:1 state:4 need:2 longer:1 capitalist:2 since:1 achieve:3 alone:1 would:5 hallmark:1 stalinism:1 fall:3 propose:1 program:1 collectivisation:2 believe:2 fast:1 enough:1 industrialisation:3 worry:1 prospect:1 control:2 peasant:2 make:5 resentful:1 result:2 less:1 productive:2 want:1 union:3 prefer:1 moderate:1 approach:1 offer:1 opportunity:1 prosperous:1 great:3 grain:2 production:1 sale:1 abroad:1 essentially:1 support:2 continuation:1 press:3 view:5 throughout:2 meeting:2 congress:1 insist:1 enforce:1 requisition:1 counter:1 decade:1 earlier:1 attempt:1 gain:1 include:1 hold:1 mid:1 level:1 within:2 attack:1 portray:2 declare:1 risk:1 without:1 strong:1 rapid:1 accuse:1 factionalism:1 cite:1 evidence:1 use:4 machine:1 win:1 debate:1 force:1 renounce:1 lose:1 april:1 expel:2 november:1 supporter:2 jay:1 lovestone:1 usa:1 also:3 form:1 promote:1 call:1 though:1 term:1 trotskyist:1 leave:2 refer:1 execution:1 politically:1 rehabilitate:2 izvestia:1 consistently:1 highlight:1 danger:1 fascist:1 regime:1 arrest:1 plenum:1 charge:1 conspire:1 overthrow:1 try:1 part:1 trial:1 twenty:2 purge:1 execute:1 nkvd:1 news:1 overshadow:1 nazi:1 anschluss:1 germany:1 austria:1 koba:2 die:1 note:3 sentence:1 pronounce:1 pseudonym:1 sign:1 close:1 find:2 still:1 desk:1 see:2 zhores:1 medvedev:2 roy:1 translate:1 ellen:1 dahrendorf:1 unknown:1 b:1 tauris:1 isbn:5 chapter:1 p:1 officially:1 mikhail:1 gorbachev:1 principal:1 framer:1 constitution:1 promise:1 freedom:1 speech:1 assembly:1 religion:1 privacy:1 home:1 correspondence:1 stature:1 achievement:1 immensely:1 popular:1 thirty:1 testament:1 golden:1 boy:1 writing:2 speaking:1 young:2 c:2 wish:1 say:1 word:1 pyatakov:1 opinion:1 outstanding:2 figure:1 among:1 following:1 must:1 mind:1 valuable:1 rightly:1 favourite:1 whole:1 theoretical:1 classify:1 fully:2 reserve:1 something:1 scholastic:1 never:2 study:1 dialectic:1 think:2 understood:1 remark:1 course:1 present:1 assumption:1 devote:1 worker:1 fail:1 occasion:1 enhance:1 knowledge:1 amend:1 sidedness:2 notable:1 contribution:1 notably:1 economics:1 transition:1 period:1 recently:1 reprint:1 prison:1 philosophical:1 arabesque:1 text:1 clearly:1 reveal:1 correct:1 thought:1 academy:1 art:1 science:1 keen:1 botanist:1 voice:1 stalk:1 shadow:1 pin:1 thodarum:1 nizhalin:1 kural:1 tamil:1 novel:1 jeyamohan:1 base:1 cartoonist:2 gifted:1 many:1 cartoon:1 contemporary:1 sometimes:1 illustrate:1 biography:2 official:1 historian:1 yury:1 zhukov:1 bukarin:1 portrait:1 joseph:1 original:1 photograph:1 kp:2 ru:2 не:1 надо:1 вешать:1 всех:1 собак:1 на:1 сталина:1 www:1 komsomolskaya:1 reading:1 anna:1 larina:1 cannot:1 forget:1 memoir:1 widow:1 w:2 norton:1 hardcover:2 page:2 stephen:1 f:1 cohen:1 knopf:1 trade:2 paperback:2 oxford:1 vintage:1 external:1 link:1 archive:1 org:1 evil:1 george:1 walden:1 cell:1 letter:1 |@bigram leon_trotsky:1 vladimir_lenin:1 nikolai_bukharin:5 treaty_brest:1 brest_litovsk:1 proletarian_revolution:1 kamenev_zinoviev:3 soviet_union:3 b_tauris:1 mikhail_gorbachev:1 immensely_popular:1 marxist_leninist:1 w_norton:1 external_link:1 |
1,631 | History_of_Honduras | The History of Honduras concerns the history of Honduras. Honduras was already occupied by many indigenous peoples when the Spanish arrived in the 16th century. The area in extreme western Honduras was occupied by the Maya people; the western-central part of Honduras was inhabited by the Lencas, the central north coast by the Tol, the area east of Trujillo by the Pech and the Miskito and Sumo. These autonomous groups maintained commercial relationships with each other and with other populations as distant as Panama and Mexico. Timeline of Honduran history 1821 gained independence from Spain as a part of the Federal Republic of Central America 1840 became an independent state 1880 Capital moved from Comayagua to Tegucigalpa 1969 War with El Salvador 1982 Returned to civilian rule 1982 New constitution approved 1982 Appeared in the World Cup 1981-85 Nicaraguan Contra War 1998 Hurricane Mitch destroys infrastructure and takes lives Pre-Columbian era In pre-Columbian times, modern Honduras was part of the Mesoamerican cultural area. In the west, the Maya civilization flourished for hundreds of years until the early 9th century. Notable Mayan ruins include the city-state of Copán. Remains of other Pre-Columbian cultures are found throughout the country. Archaeologists have studied sites such as Naco and La Sierra in the Naco Valley, Los Naranjos on Lake Yojoa, Yarumela in the Comayagua Valley, La Ceiba and Salitron Viejo (both now under the Cajon Dam reservoir), Selin Farm and Cuyamel in the Aguan valley, Cerro Palenque, Travesia, Curruste, Ticamaya, Despoloncal in the lower Ulua river valley, and many others. Spanish period Christopher Columbus landed on the mainland near modern Trujillo in 1502 and named the country Honduras ("Depths") for the deep waters off its coast. In January, 1524, Cortés directed captain Cristóbal de Olid to establish a colony for him in Honduras. Olid sailed with a force of several ships and over 400 soldiers and colonists. He sailed first to Cuba, to pick up supplies Cortés had arranged for him, where Governor Velázquez convinced him to go and claim the colony he was to found as his own. Olid sailed from Cuba to the coast of Honduras, coming ashore east of Puerto Caballos at Triunfo de la Cruz where he initially settled and declared himself governor. Hernán Cortés, however, in 1524, got word of Olid's insurrection and sent his cousin, Francisco de las Casas, along with several ships to Honduras to remove Olid and claim the area for Cortés. Las Casas, however, lost most of his fleet in a series of storms along the coast of Belize and Honduras. His ships limped into the bay at Triunfo, where Olid had established his headquarters. When Las Casas arrived at Olid's headquarters, a large part of Olid's army was inland, dealing with another threat from a party of Spaniards under Gil González Dávila. Nevertheless, Olid decided to launch an attack with two caravels. Las Casa returned fire and sent boarding parties which captured Olid's ships. Under the circumstances, Olid proposed a truce to which Las Casas agreed, and he did not land his forces. During the night, a fierce storm destroyed his fleet and about a third of his men were lost. The remainder were taken prisoner after two days of exposure and without food. After being forced to swear loyalty to Olid, they were released. However, Las Casas was kept a prisoner, soon to be joined by González, who had been captured by Olid's inland force. The Spanish record two different stories about what happened next. Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas writing in the 17th century, records that Olid's soldiers rose up and murdered him. Bernal Diaz del Castillo, in his Verdadera Historia de la Conquista de Nueva España, recalls that Las Casas captured Olid and beheaded him at Naco. In the meantime, Cortés had marched overland from Mexico to Honduras, arriving in 1525. Cortés ordered the founding of two cities, Nuestra Señora de la Navidad, near modern Puerto Cortés, and Trujillo, and named Francisco de las Casas Governor. However, both las Casas and Cortés sail back to Mexico before the end of 1525, where Francisco was arrested and sent back to Spain as a prisoner by Estrada and Alboronoz. Francisco returned to Mexico in 1527, and returned again to Spain with Cortés in 1528. During the period leading up to the conquest of Honduras by Pedro de Alvarado, many indigenous people along the north coast of Honduras were captured and taken as slaves to work on Spain's Caribbean plantations. It wasn't until Pedro de Alvarado defeated the indigenous resistance headed by Çocamba near Ticamaya, that the Spanish began to conquer the country in 1536. Alvarado divided the native towns and gave their labor to the Spanish conquistadors in repartimiento. Further indigenous uprisings near Gracias a Dios, Comayagua, and Olancho occurred in 1537-38. The uprising near Gracias a Dios was lead by Lempira, who is honored today by the name of the Honduran currency. During the colonial period, Honduras came under the control of the Captaincy General of Guatemala, and the towns of Comayagua and Tegucigalpa -- today's capital -- arose as mining centers. Independence from Spain Honduras, along with the other Central American provinces, gained independence from Spain in 1821; it then briefly was annexed to the Mexican Empire. In 1823, Honduras joined the newly formed United Provinces of Central America. Before long, social and economic differences between Honduras and its regional neighbors exacerbated harsh partisan strife among its leaders, bringing about the federation's collapse in 1838-39. General Francisco Morazán, a Honduran national hero, led unsuccessful efforts to maintain the federation. Restoring Central American unity remained the officially stated chief aim of Honduran foreign policy until after World War I. In 1888, a projected railroad line from the Caribbean coast to the capital, Tegucigalpa, ran out of money when it reached San Pedro Sula, resulting in its growth into the nation's main industrial center and second largest city. U.S. Influence 1899-1948 The year 1899 was a watershed: the peaceful election of Terencio Sierra, and the first shipment of bananas from Honduras to New Orleans, shipped by The Vaccaro Brothers. The Vaccaro's business would evolve into the Standard Fruit Company, the first of three banana companies that would have a determinative effect on the country's future. The economic dominance and political influence of these companies was so great from the late 19th until the mid 20th century that Honduras became the original model for the banana republic. President Manuel Bonilla would successfully establish the border with Nicaragua and resist an invasion from Guatemala in 1906. But Nicaragua's powerful President José Santos Zelaya began to undermine Bonilla. The United States noticed: it was in American interests to contain Zelaya, protect the region of the new Panama Canal, and defend the increasingly important banana trade. Mexico and the U.S. called the five Central American countries into diplomatic talks, the Central American Peace Conference, in 1907, to increase stability in the area. Standard Fruit was joined by new rivals, Samuel Zemurray's Cuyamel Fruit Company, and the United Fruit Company, all of which tended to be vertically integrated, owning their own lands and railroad companies and ship lines such as United's "Great White Fleet". Through land subsidies granted to the railroads, they soon came to control vast tracts of the best land along the Caribbean coast. Coastal cities such as La Ceiba, Tela, and Trujillo and towns further inland such as El Progreso and La Lima became virtual company towns. For the next twenty years, the U.S. government was involved in quelling Central American disputes, insurrections, and revolutions, whether supported by neighboring governments or by United States companies. For instance, in 1917 the Cuyamel Fruit Company extended its rail lines into disputed Guatemalan territory. As part of the so-called Banana Wars all around the Caribbean, Honduras saw the insertion of American troops in 1903, 1907, 1911, 1912, 1919, 1924, and 1925. During the relatively stable years of the Great Depression, authoritarian General Tiburcio Carías controlled Honduras in an unusually long 16-year regime. His ties to dictators in neighboring countries and to the banana companies helped him maintain power until 1948. By then, provincial military leaders had begun to gain control of the two major parties, the National Party of Honduras (PNH) and the Liberal Party of Honduras (PLH). From military to civilian rule In October 1955, after a general strike by banana workers on the north coast in 1954, young military reformists staged a coup that installed a provisional junta. Capital punishment was abolished in 1956, though the last person to be executed was in 1940 (The current PNH presidential candidate Porfirio "Pepe" Lobo wants to bring it back). There were constituent assembly elections in 1957 which appointed Ramón Villeda as President, and itself becoming a national Congress with a 6-year term. The PLH ruled during 1957-63. The military began to become a professional institution independent of politics, with the newly created military academy graduating its first class in 1960. In October 1963, conservative military officers preempted constitutional elections and deposed Villeda in a bloody coup. These officers exiled PLH members and governed under General Oswaldo López until 1970. In July 1969, Honduras was invaded by El Salvador in the short Soccer War. Tensions in the aftermath of the conflict remain. A civilian president for the PNH, Ramón Ernesto Cruz, took power briefly in 1970 until, in December 1972, Oswaldo López staged another coup. This time round, he adopted more progressive policies, including land reform. López's successors continued armed forces modernization programs, building army and security forces, and concentrating on Honduran air force superiority over its neighbors. During the governments of General Juan Alberto Melgar (1975-78) and General Policarpo Paz (1978-83), Honduras built most of its physical infrastructure and electricity and terrestrial telecommunications systems, both of which are state monopolies. The country experienced economic growth during this period, with greater international demand for its products and the increased availability of foreign commercial capital. The 1980s In 1979, the country returned to civilian rule. A constituent assembly was popularly elected in April 1980 and general elections were held in November 1981. A new constitution was approved in 1982 and the PLH government of Roberto Suazo assumed power. Between 1979 and 1985, under John Negroponte's appointment as U.S. diplomat from 1981 to 1985, U.S. military and economic aid to Honduras jumped from $31 million to $282 million. Between 1979 and 1985, U.S. development aid fell from 80% of the total to 6%. Senator Christopher Dodd of Connecticut, on September 14, 2001, as reported in the Congressional Record, aired his suspicions on the occasion of Negroponte's nomination to the position of UN ambassador: "Based upon the Committee's review of State Department and CIA documents, it would seem that Ambassador Negroponte knew far more about government perpetuated human rights abuses than he chose to share with the committee in 1989 or in Embassy contributions at the time to annual State Department Human Rights reports." Nomination of John Negroponte In April 2005, as the Senate confirmation hearings for the National Intelligence post took place, hundreds of documents were released by the State Department in response to a FOIA request by the Washington Post. The documents, cables that Negroponte sent to Washington while serving as ambassador to Honduras, indicated that he played a more active role than previously known in managing the US covert war against the Sandinistas. According to Post, the image of Negroponte that emerges from the cables is that of an exceptionally energetic, action-oriented ambassador whose anti-communist convictions led him to play down human rights abuses in Honduras, the most reliable U.S. ally in the region. There is little in the documents the State Department has released so far to support his assertion that he used "quiet diplomacy" to persuade the Honduran authorities to investigate the most egregious violations, including the mysterious disappearance of dozens of government opponents. Papers Illustrate Negroponte's Contra Role (washingtonpost.com) The New York Times wrote that the documents revealeda tough cold warrior who enthusiastically carried out President Ronald Reagan's strategy. They show he sent admiring reports to Washington about the Honduran military chief, who was blamed for human rights violations, warned that peace talks with the Nicaraguan regime might be a dangerous "Trojan horse" and pleaded with officials in Washington to impose greater secrecy on the Honduran role in aiding the contras. ''The cables show that Mr. Negroponte worked closely with William J. Casey, then director of central intelligence, on the Reagan administration's anti-Communist offensive in Central America. He helped word a secret 1983 presidential "finding" authorizing support for the contras, as the Nicaraguan rebels were known, and met regularly with Honduran military officials to win and retain their backing for the covert action. The New York Times > Washington > Cables Show Central Negroponte Role in 80's Covert War Against Nicaragua Recent Presidents Suazo As the November 1985 election approached, the PLH could not settle on a presidential candidate and interpreted election law as permitting multiple candidates from any one party. The PLH claimed victory when its presidential candidates collectively outpolled the PNH candidate, Rafael Leonardo Callejas, who received 42% of the total vote. José Azcona, the candidate receiving the most votes (27%) among the PLH, assumed the presidency in January 1986. With strong endorsement and support from the Honduran military, the Suazo Administration ushered in the first peaceful transfer of power between civilian presidents in more than 30 years. Suazo, relying on U.S. support, created ambitious social and economic development projects to help with a severe economic recession and with the perceived threats of regional instability. Honduras became host to the largest Peace Corps mission in the world and non-governmental organizations and international voluntary agencies proliferated. Azcona José Azcona started his presidency on January 1986. Callejas In January 1990, Rafael Leonardo Callejas, having won the presidential election, took office, concentrating on economic reform, reducing the deficit. He began a movement to place the military under civilian control and laid the groundwork for the creation of the public prosecution service. Reina In 1993, PLH candidate Carlos Roberto Reina was elected with 56% of the vote against PNH contender Oswaldo Ramos. He won on a platform calling for a "Moral Revolution," making active efforts to prosecute corruption and pursued those responsible for alleged human rights abuses in the 1980s. The Reina administration successfully increased civilian control over the armed forces, transferring o the national police from military to civilian authority. In 1996, Reina named his own defense minister, breaking the precedent of accepting the nominee of the armed forces leadership. His administration substantially increased Central Bank net international reserves, reduced inflation to 12.8% a year, restored a better pace of economic growth (about 5% in 1997), and held down spending to achieve a 1.1% non-financial public sector deficit in 1997. Flores PLH's Carlos Roberto Flores took office on January 27, 1998, as Honduras' fifth democratically elected President since free elections were restored in 1981, with a 10% margin over his main opponent PNH nominee Nora Gúnera de Melgar (the widow of former leader Juan Alberto Melgar). Flores inaugurated International Monetary Fund (IMF) programs of reform and modernization of the Honduran Government and economy, with emphasis on maintaining the country's fiscal health and improving international competitiveness. In October 1998, Hurricane Mitch devastated Honduras, leaving more than 5,000 people dead and 1.5 million displaced. Damages totaled nearly $3 billion. International donors came forward to assist in rebuilding infrastructure, donating US$1400 million in 2000.. Maduro In November 2001, the National Party won presidential and parliamentary elections. The PNH gained 61 seats in Congress and the PLH won 55. The PLH candidate Rafael Pineda was defeated by the PNH candidate Ricardo Maduro, who took office in January 2002. On November 27, 2005 the PLH candidate Manuel Zelaya beat the PNH candidate and current Head of Congress Porfirio "Pepe" Lobo, and became the new President on January 27, 2006. Zelaya Jose Manuel Zelaya Rosales of the Liberal Party of Honduras won the November 27, 2005 presidential elections with less than a 4% margin of victory, the smallest margin ever in Honduran electoral history. Zelaya's campaign theme was "citizen power," and he vowed to increase transparency and combat narcotrafficking, while maintaining macroeconomic stability. The Liberal Party won 62 of the 128 congressional seats, just short of an absolute majority. References | History_of_Honduras |@lemmatized history:4 honduras:33 concern:1 already:1 occupy:2 many:3 indigenous:4 people:4 spanish:5 arrive:3 century:4 area:5 extreme:1 western:2 maya:2 central:13 part:5 inhabit:1 lencas:1 north:3 coast:8 tol:1 east:2 trujillo:4 pech:1 miskito:1 sumo:1 autonomous:1 group:1 maintain:5 commercial:2 relationship:1 population:1 distant:1 panama:2 mexico:5 timeline:1 honduran:12 gain:4 independence:3 spain:6 federal:1 republic:2 america:3 become:7 independent:2 state:10 capital:5 move:1 comayagua:4 tegucigalpa:3 war:7 el:3 salvador:2 return:5 civilian:8 rule:4 new:8 constitution:2 approve:2 appear:1 world:3 cup:1 nicaraguan:3 contra:4 hurricane:2 mitch:2 destroy:2 infrastructure:3 take:8 life:1 pre:3 columbian:3 era:1 time:5 modern:3 mesoamerican:1 cultural:1 west:1 civilization:1 flourish:1 hundred:2 year:8 early:1 notable:1 mayan:1 ruin:1 include:3 city:4 copán:1 remains:1 culture:1 find:3 throughout:1 country:9 archaeologist:1 study:1 site:1 naco:3 la:12 sierra:2 valley:4 los:1 naranjos:1 lake:1 yojoa:1 yarumela:1 ceiba:2 salitron:1 viejo:1 cajon:1 dam:1 reservoir:1 selin:1 farm:1 cuyamel:3 aguan:1 cerro:1 palenque:1 travesia:1 curruste:1 ticamaya:2 despoloncal:1 low:1 ulua:1 river:1 others:1 period:4 christopher:2 columbus:1 land:6 mainland:1 near:5 name:4 depth:1 deep:1 water:1 january:7 cortés:9 direct:1 captain:1 cristóbal:1 de:11 olid:15 establish:3 colony:2 sail:4 force:9 several:2 ship:6 soldier:2 colonist:1 first:5 cuba:2 pick:1 supply:1 arrange:1 governor:3 velázquez:1 convince:1 go:1 claim:3 come:4 ashore:1 puerto:2 caballos:1 triunfo:2 cruz:2 initially:1 settle:2 declare:1 hernán:1 however:4 get:1 word:2 insurrection:2 send:5 cousin:1 francisco:5 casas:8 along:5 remove:1 las:4 lose:2 fleet:3 series:1 storm:2 belize:1 limp:1 bay:1 headquarters:2 large:3 army:2 inland:3 deal:1 another:2 threat:2 party:9 spaniard:1 gil:1 gonzález:2 dávila:1 nevertheless:1 decide:1 launch:1 attack:1 two:5 caravels:1 casa:1 fire:1 boarding:1 capture:4 circumstance:1 propose:1 truce:1 agree:1 night:1 fierce:1 third:1 men:1 remainder:1 prisoner:3 day:1 exposure:1 without:1 food:1 swear:1 loyalty:1 release:3 keep:1 soon:2 join:3 record:3 different:1 story:1 happen:1 next:2 antonio:1 herrera:1 tordesillas:1 write:2 rise:1 murder:1 bernal:1 diaz:1 del:1 castillo:1 verdadera:1 historia:1 conquista:1 nueva:1 españa:1 recall:1 behead:1 meantime:1 march:1 overland:1 order:1 founding:1 nuestra:1 señora:1 navidad:1 back:3 end:1 arrest:1 estrada:1 alboronoz:1 lead:4 conquest:1 pedro:3 alvarado:3 slave:1 work:2 caribbean:4 plantation:1 defeat:2 resistance:1 head:2 çocamba:1 begin:5 conquer:1 divide:1 native:1 town:3 give:1 labor:1 conquistador:1 repartimiento:1 far:3 uprising:2 gracias:2 dios:2 olancho:1 occur:1 lempira:1 honor:1 today:2 currency:1 colonial:1 control:6 captaincy:1 general:8 guatemala:2 arise:1 mining:1 center:2 american:7 province:2 briefly:2 annex:1 mexican:1 empire:1 newly:2 form:1 united:5 long:2 social:2 economic:8 difference:1 regional:2 neighbor:4 exacerbate:1 harsh:1 partisan:1 strife:1 among:2 leader:3 bring:2 federation:2 collapse:1 morazán:1 national:6 hero:1 unsuccessful:1 effort:2 restore:3 unity:1 remain:2 officially:1 chief:2 aim:1 foreign:2 policy:2 project:2 railroad:3 line:3 run:1 money:1 reach:1 san:1 sula:1 result:1 growth:3 nation:1 main:2 industrial:1 second:1 u:10 influence:2 watershed:1 peaceful:2 election:10 terencio:1 shipment:1 banana:7 orleans:1 vaccaro:2 brother:1 business:1 would:4 evolve:1 standard:2 fruit:5 company:10 three:1 determinative:1 effect:1 future:1 dominance:1 political:1 great:5 late:1 mid:1 original:1 model:1 president:9 manuel:3 bonilla:2 successfully:2 border:1 nicaragua:3 resist:1 invasion:1 powerful:1 josé:3 santos:1 zelaya:6 undermine:1 notice:1 interest:1 contain:1 protect:1 region:2 canal:1 defend:1 increasingly:1 important:1 trade:1 call:3 five:1 diplomatic:1 talk:2 peace:3 conference:1 increase:4 stability:2 rival:1 samuel:1 zemurray:1 tend:1 vertically:1 integrated:1 white:1 subsidy:1 grant:1 vast:1 tract:1 best:1 coastal:1 tela:1 towns:1 progreso:1 lima:1 virtual:1 twenty:1 government:7 involve:1 quell:1 dispute:2 revolution:2 whether:1 support:5 instance:1 extend:1 rail:1 guatemalan:1 territory:1 around:1 saw:1 insertion:1 troop:1 relatively:1 stable:1 depression:1 authoritarian:1 tiburcio:1 carías:1 unusually:1 regime:2 tie:1 dictator:1 help:3 power:5 provincial:1 military:12 major:1 pnh:9 liberal:3 plh:12 october:3 strike:1 worker:1 young:1 reformist:1 stag:2 coup:3 instal:1 provisional:1 junta:1 punishment:1 abolish:1 though:1 last:1 person:1 execute:1 current:2 presidential:7 candidate:11 porfirio:2 pepe:2 lobo:2 want:1 constituent:2 assembly:2 appoint:1 ramón:2 villeda:2 congress:3 term:1 professional:1 institution:1 politics:1 create:2 academy:1 graduate:1 class:1 conservative:1 officer:2 preempt:1 constitutional:1 depose:1 bloody:1 exile:1 member:1 govern:1 oswaldo:3 lópez:3 july:1 invade:1 short:2 soccer:1 tension:1 aftermath:1 conflict:1 ernesto:1 december:1 round:1 adopt:1 progressive:1 reform:3 successor:1 continue:1 armed:3 modernization:2 program:2 build:2 security:1 concentrate:2 air:2 superiority:1 juan:2 alberto:2 melgar:3 policarpo:1 paz:1 physical:1 electricity:1 terrestrial:1 telecommunication:1 system:1 monopoly:1 experience:1 international:6 demand:1 product:1 increased:1 availability:1 popularly:1 elect:3 april:2 hold:2 november:5 roberto:3 suazo:4 assume:2 john:2 negroponte:9 appointment:1 diplomat:1 aid:3 jumped:1 million:4 development:2 fell:1 total:3 senator:1 dodd:1 connecticut:1 september:1 report:3 congressional:2 suspicion:1 occasion:1 nomination:2 position:1 un:1 ambassador:4 base:1 upon:1 committee:2 review:1 department:4 cia:1 document:5 seem:1 know:3 perpetuate:1 human:5 right:5 abuse:3 choose:1 share:1 embassy:1 contribution:1 annual:1 senate:1 confirmation:1 hearing:1 intelligence:2 post:3 place:2 response:1 foia:1 request:1 washington:5 cable:4 serve:1 indicate:1 play:2 active:2 role:4 previously:1 manage:1 covert:3 sandinistas:1 accord:1 image:1 emerge:1 exceptionally:1 energetic:1 action:2 oriented:1 whose:1 anti:2 communist:2 conviction:1 reliable:1 ally:1 little:1 assertion:1 use:1 quiet:1 diplomacy:1 persuade:1 authority:2 investigate:1 egregious:1 violation:2 mysterious:1 disappearance:1 dozen:1 opponent:2 paper:1 illustrate:1 washingtonpost:1 com:1 york:2 revealeda:1 tough:1 cold:1 warrior:1 enthusiastically:1 carry:1 ronald:1 reagan:2 strategy:1 show:3 admire:1 blame:1 warn:1 might:1 dangerous:1 trojan:1 horse:1 plead:1 official:2 impose:1 secrecy:1 mr:1 closely:1 william:1 j:1 casey:1 director:1 administration:4 offensive:1 secret:1 authorize:1 rebel:1 meet:1 regularly:1 win:7 retain:1 backing:1 recent:1 approach:1 could:1 interpret:1 law:1 permit:1 multiple:1 one:1 victory:2 collectively:1 outpolled:1 rafael:3 leonardo:2 callejas:3 receive:2 vote:3 azcona:3 presidency:2 strong:1 endorsement:1 usher:1 transfer:2 rely:1 ambitious:1 severe:1 recession:1 perceived:1 instability:1 host:1 corp:1 mission:1 non:2 governmental:1 organization:1 voluntary:1 agency:1 proliferate:1 start:1 office:3 reduce:2 deficit:2 movement:1 lay:1 groundwork:1 creation:1 public:2 prosecution:1 service:1 reina:4 carlos:2 contender:1 ramos:1 platform:1 moral:1 make:1 prosecute:1 corruption:1 pursue:1 responsible:1 alleged:1 police:1 defense:1 minister:1 break:1 precedent:1 accept:1 nominee:2 leadership:1 substantially:1 bank:1 net:1 reserve:1 inflation:1 good:1 pace:1 spend:1 achieve:1 financial:1 sector:1 flores:3 fifth:1 democratically:1 since:1 free:1 margin:3 nora:1 gúnera:1 widow:1 former:1 inaugurate:1 monetary:1 fund:1 imf:1 economy:1 emphasis:1 fiscal:1 health:1 improve:1 competitiveness:1 devastate:1 leave:1 dead:1 displace:1 damage:1 nearly:1 billion:1 donor:1 forward:1 assist:1 rebuild:1 donate:1 maduro:2 parliamentary:1 seat:2 pineda:1 ricardo:1 beat:1 jose:1 rosales:1 less:1 small:1 ever:1 electoral:1 campaign:1 theme:1 citizen:1 vow:1 transparency:1 combat:1 narcotrafficking:1 macroeconomic:1 absolute:1 majority:1 reference:1 |@bigram honduras_honduras:1 el_salvador:2 hurricane_mitch:2 pre_columbian:3 maya_civilization:1 la_ceiba:2 christopher_columbus:1 hernán_cortés:1 la_casas:4 las_casas:4 gonzález_dávila:1 swear_loyalty:1 del_castillo:1 la_conquista:1 nueva_españa:1 nuestra_señora:1 señora_de:1 la_navidad:1 spanish_conquistador:1 gracias_dios:2 san_pedro:1 pedro_sula:1 santos_zelaya:1 panama_canal:1 vertically_integrated:1 stag_coup:1 presidential_candidate:3 porfirio_pepe:2 pepe_lobo:2 constituent_assembly:2 confirmation_hearing:1 washingtonpost_com:1 ronald_reagan:1 trojan_horse:1 presidential_election:2 lay_groundwork:1 carlos_roberto:2 roberto_flores:1 democratically_elect:1 monetary_fund:1 fund_imf:1 manuel_zelaya:2 macroeconomic_stability:1 |
1,632 | Beryl | Crystal structure of beryl The mineral beryl is a beryllium aluminium cyclosilicate with the chemical formula Be3Al2(SiO3)6. The hexagonal crystals of beryl may be very small or range to several meters in size. Terminated crystals are relatively rare. Beryl exhibits conchoidal fracture, has a hardness of 7.5–8, and a specific gravity of 2.63–2.80. It has a vitreous luster and can be transparent or translucent. Its cleavage is poor basal and its habit is dihexagonal bipyramidal. Pure beryl is colorless, but it is frequently tinted by impurities; possible colors are green, blue, yellow, red, and white. The name comes from the Greek beryllos which referred to a precious blue-green color-of-sea-water stone. The term was later adopted for the mineral beryl more exclusively. Varieties Varieties of beryl have been considered gemstones since prehistoric times. Colorless beryl is called goshenite, pink beryl is morganite, red beryl is bixbite or "red emerald" or "scarlet emerald," clear bright yellow beryl is "golden beryl," yellow-green beryl is heliodor, green beryl is emerald, blue beryl is aquamarine, and deep blue beryl is maxixe. Red beryl is extremely rare. Usually gems are under a carat, and are only used in very special jewelry. It is mined primarily in Utah. Blue beryl (aquamarine) will not fade in color when exposed to sunlight. Maxixe is a deep blue stone that fades to white when exposed to sunlight or is subjected to heat treatment, though the color returns with irradiation. Other, unnamed shades such as honey yellow are also known. Deposits Beryl of various colors is found most commonly in granitic pegmatites, but also occurs in mica schists in the Ural Mountains, and limestone in Colombia. Beryl is often associated with tin and tungsten ore bodies. Beryl is found in Europe in Norway, Austria, Germany, and Ireland, as well as Brazil, Colombia, Madagascar Sweden (especially morganite), Russia, South Africa, the United States, and Zambia. U.S. beryl locations are in California, Colorado, Idaho, Maine, Connecticut, New Hampshire, North Carolina, South Dakota, and Utah. The most famous source of emeralds in the world is at Muzo and Chivor, Boyacá, Colombia, where they make a unique appearance in limestone. Emerald are also found in the Transvaal, South Africa; Minas Gerais, Brazil; Zambia, and near Mursinka in the Urals in Russia. In the United States, emeralds are found in North Carolina. New England's pegmatites have produced some of the largest beryls found, including one massive crystal from the Bumpus Quarry in Albany, Maine with dimensions 5.5 m by 1.2 m (18 ft by 4 ft) with a mass of around 18 metric tons; it is New Hampshire's state mineral. As of 1999, the largest known crystal of any mineral in the world is a crystal of beryl from Madagascar, 18 metres long and 3.5 metres in diameter. G. Cressey and I. F. Mercer, Crystals, London, Natural History Museum, 1999 Applications Massive beryl is a primary ore of the metal beryllium. References Sinkankas, John, 1994, Emerald & Other Beryls, Geoscience Press, ISBN 0-8019-7114-4 Hurlbut, Cornelius S.; Klein, Cornelis, 1985, Manual of Mineralogy, 20th ed., John Wiley and Sons, New York ISBN 0-471-80580-7 Minerals.net Mineral Galleries See also List of minerals | Beryl |@lemmatized crystal:7 structure:1 beryl:26 mineral:7 beryllium:2 aluminium:1 cyclosilicate:1 chemical:1 formula:1 hexagonal:1 may:1 small:1 range:1 several:1 meter:1 size:1 terminate:1 relatively:1 rare:2 exhibit:1 conchoidal:1 fracture:1 hardness:1 specific:1 gravity:1 vitreous:1 luster:1 transparent:1 translucent:1 cleavage:1 poor:1 basal:1 habit:1 dihexagonal:1 bipyramidal:1 pure:1 colorless:2 frequently:1 tint:1 impurity:1 possible:1 color:5 green:4 blue:6 yellow:4 red:4 white:2 name:1 come:1 greek:1 beryllos:1 refer:1 precious:1 sea:1 water:1 stone:2 term:1 later:1 adopt:1 exclusively:1 variety:2 consider:1 gemstone:1 since:1 prehistoric:1 time:1 call:1 goshenite:1 pink:1 morganite:2 bixbite:1 emerald:7 scarlet:1 clear:1 bright:1 golden:1 heliodor:1 aquamarine:2 deep:2 maxixe:2 extremely:1 usually:1 gem:1 carat:1 use:1 special:1 jewelry:1 mine:1 primarily:1 utah:2 fade:2 expose:2 sunlight:2 subject:1 heat:1 treatment:1 though:1 return:1 irradiation:1 unnamed:1 shade:1 honey:1 also:4 know:1 deposit:1 various:1 find:5 commonly:1 granitic:1 pegmatite:2 occur:1 mica:1 schist:1 ural:1 mountain:1 limestone:2 colombia:3 often:1 associate:1 tin:1 tungsten:1 ore:2 body:1 europe:1 norway:1 austria:1 germany:1 ireland:1 well:1 brazil:2 madagascar:2 sweden:1 especially:1 russia:2 south:3 africa:2 united:2 state:3 zambia:2 u:1 location:1 california:1 colorado:1 idaho:1 maine:2 connecticut:1 new:4 hampshire:2 north:2 carolina:2 dakota:1 famous:1 source:1 world:2 muzo:1 chivor:1 boyacá:1 make:1 unique:1 appearance:1 transvaal:1 mina:1 gerais:1 near:1 mursinka:1 urals:1 england:1 produce:1 large:2 include:1 one:1 massive:2 bumpus:1 quarry:1 albany:1 dimension:1 ft:2 mass:1 around:1 metric:1 ton:1 known:1 metre:2 long:1 diameter:1 g:1 cressey:1 f:1 mercer:1 london:1 natural:1 history:1 museum:1 application:1 primary:1 metal:1 reference:1 sinkankas:1 john:2 geoscience:1 press:1 isbn:2 hurlbut:1 cornelius:1 klein:1 cornelis:1 manual:1 mineralogy:1 ed:1 wiley:1 son:1 york:1 net:1 gallery:1 see:1 list:1 |@bigram hexagonal_crystal:1 ural_mountain:1 north_carolina:2 mina_gerais:1 ft_ft:1 metric_ton:1 hurlbut_cornelius:1 klein_cornelis:1 manual_mineralogy:1 wiley_son:1 |
1,633 | Military_of_Bulgaria | The Bulgarian Army () represents the Armed Forces of the Republic of Bulgaria. The Commander-in-Chief is the President of Bulgaria Georgi Parvanov. The Ministry of Defense is in charge of political leadership while military command remains in the hands of the General Staff, headed by the Chief of Staff. Operational elements of the Bulgarian Army include: Bulgarian Land Forces (army), Bulgarian Navy (navy), and the Bulgarian Air Forces (air force). The patron saint of the Bulgarian Army is St. George, and Valor Day (May 6, also known as St. George's Day) has long been celebrated as Valor and Army Day. It is an official holiday in Bulgaria. After the country became a NATO member in April 2004, the Bulgarian Ministry of Defense has begun a new downsizing, modernization, and reform program (known as PLAN 2004) that will result in the adoption of a smaller force structure of around 50,000 personnel, based upon a rapid reaction force and two additional corps headquarters, all with subordinate brigades. As of 1 January 2008 the military of Bulgaria has disbanded its compulsory military service. History of the Bulgarian Army Bulgarian militiamen from the region of Macedonia, ca. 1900 The military of Bulgaria dates back to ancient times, including the armies of the Bolgar states in Asia, Old Great Bulgaria, Volga Bulgaria and finally, Danube Bulgaria, the only existing Bulgarian state nowadays. The leader of the military traditionally has been the khan, but after the First Bulgarian Empire converted to Christianity, the state was headed by a knyaz or tzar. Serbo-Bulgarian war The Serbo-Bulgarian War was the first armed conflict after Bulgaria's liberation. It was a result of the unification with Eastern Rumelia, which happened on September 6, 1885. The unification was not completely recognized, however, and one of the countries which refused to recognize the act was the Kingdom of Serbia. The Austro-Hungarian Empire had been expanding its influence in the Balkans and was particularly opposed. Serbia also feared this would diminish its dominance in the region. In addition, Serbia's ruler Milan Obrenović IV was annoyed that Serbian opposition leaders like Nikola Pašić, who had escaped persecution after the Timok Rebellion, had found asylum in Bulgaria. Lured by Austria-Hungary's promises for territorial gains from Bulgaria (in return for concessions in the Western Balkans), Milan IV declared war on Bulgaria on November 14, 1885. The military strategy relied largely on surprise, as Bulgaria had moved most of its troops near the border with the Ottoman Empire, in the southeast. As it happened, the Ottomans did not intervene and the Serbian army's advance was stopped after the Battle of Slivnitsa. The main body of the Bulgarian army traveled from the Ottoman border in the southeast to the Serbian border in the northwest to defend the capital Sofia. After the defensive battles at Slivnitsa and Vidin, Bulgaria began an offensive which took the city of Pirot. At this point, the Austro-Hungarian Empire stepped in, threatening to join the war on Serbia's side if the Bulgarian troops did not retreat. Fighting lasted for only 14 days, from November 14 to November 28. The peace treaty was signed in Bucharest on February 19, 1886. Military casualties from the Bulgarian side numbered 771 killed, and from the Serbian side - 746 killed. No territorial changes were made to either country, but the Bulgarian unification was recognized by the Great Powers. However, the relationship of trust and friendship between Serbia and Bulgaria, built during their long common fight against Ottoman rule, suffered irreparable damage. First Balkan war Soldiers preparing for an assault against Adrianople, 1912 The instability in the Balkan region in the early 1900s quickly became a precondition for a new war. Serbia's aspirations towards Bosnia and Herzegovina were thwarted by the Austrian annexation of the province in October 1908, and so the Serbs focused their attention onto their historic cradle, Kosovo and to the south for expansion. Greek officers, revolting in August 1909, had secured the appointment of a progressive government under Eleftherios Venizelos which they hoped would resolve the Cretan issue in Greece's favour and reverse their defeat of 1897 by the Ottomans. Bulgaria, which had secured Ottoman recognition of her independence in April 1909 and enjoyed the friendship of Russia, also looked to districts of Ottoman Thrace and Macedonia for expansion. In March 1910, an Albanian insurrection broke out in Kosovo. In August 1910, Montenegro followed Bulgaria's precedent by becoming a kingdom. In 1911, Italy launched an invasion of Tripolitania, which was quickly followed by the occupation of the Dodecanese Islands. The Italians' decisive military victories over the Ottoman Empire greatly influenced the Balkan states to prepare for war against Turkey. Thus in the spring of 1912, consultations between the various Christian Balkan nations resulted in a network of military alliances which became known as the Balkan League. The Great Powers, most notably France and Austria-Hungary, reacted to this diplomatic sensation by trying to dissuade the League from going to war, but failed. In late September, both the League and the Ottoman Empire mobilized their armies. Montenegro was the first to declare war, on September 25 (O.S.)/October 8. The other three states, after issuing an impossible ultimatum to the Porte on October 13, declared war on Turkey on October 17. The Balkan League relied on 700,000 troops, 370,000 of which were Bulgarians. Bulgaria, often dubbed "Prussia of the Balkans", Emile Joseph Dillon, "The Inside Story of the Peace Conference", Ch. XV was militarily the most powerful of the four states, with a large, well-trained and well-equipped army. Hall (2000), p. 16 The peacetime army of 60,000 men was expanded during the war to 370,000, Hall (2000), p. 16 with almost 600,000 men mobilized in total, out of a population of 4,300,000. Hall (2000), p. 18 The Bulgarian field army counted for 9 infantry divisions, 1 cavalry division and 1,116 artillery units. Hall (2000), p. 16 Commander-in-Chief was Tsar Ferdinand, while the actual command was in the hands of his deputy, General Michail Savov. The Bulgarians also possessed a small navy of six torpedo boats, which were restricted to operations along the country's Black Sea coast. Hall (2000), p. 17 Bulgaria's war aims were focused on Thrace and Macedonia. For the latter Bulgaria had a secret agreement with Serbia to divide it between them signed at 13 March 1912 during the negotiations that led to the establishment of the Balkan League. But it was not a secret that Bulgaria's target was the fulfilment of the never materialized Treaty of San Stefano signed after the Russo-Turkish War, 1877–78. They deployed their main force in Thrace, forming three armies. The First Army, under general Vasil Kutinchev with 3 infantry divisions, was deployed to the south of Yambol, with direction of operations along the Tundzha river. The Second Army, under general Nikola Ivanov, with 2 infantry divisions and 1 infantry brigade, was deployed west of the First and was assigned to capture the strong fortress of Adrianopel (now Edirne). According to the plans, the third Army, under general Radko Dimitriev, was deployed east of and behind the First, and was covered by the cavalry division hiding it from the Turkish view. The Third Army had 3 infantry divisions and was assigned to cross the Stranja mountain and to take the fortress of Lozengrad (Kirk Kilisse). The 2nd and 7th divisions were assigned independent roles, operating in Western Thrace and eastern Macedonia respectively. The first great battles were at the Adrianople - Kirk Kilisse defensive line, where the Bulgarian 1st and 3rd Armies (together 110,000 men) defeated the Ottoman East Army (130,000 men) near Gechkenli, Seliolu and Petra. The fortress of Adrianople was besieged and Kirk Kilisse was taken without resistance under the pressure of the Bulgarian Third Army. The initial Bulgarian attack by First and Third Army defeated the Turkish forces, numbering some 130,000, and reached the Sea of Marmara. But the Turks, with the aid of fresh reinforcements from the Asian provinces, established their third and strongest defensive position at the Chataldja Line, across the peninsula where Constantinople is located. New Turkish forces landed at Bulair and Şarköy but after heavy fighting they were crushed and overthrown by the newly formed 4th Bulgarian army under the command of General Stilian Kovachev. The offensive at Chataldja failed too. On 11 March, the final Bulgarian assault on Adrianople began. Under the command of General Georgi Vazov the Bulgarians, reinforced with two Serb divisions, conquered the "untakable" city. On 17/30 May a peace treaty was signed between Turkey and the Balkan Alliance. The First Balkan War, which lasted from October 1912 to May 1913, strengthened Bulgaria's position as a regional military power, significantly reduced Ottoman influence over the Balkans, and resulted in the formation of an independent Albanian state. Second Balkan War The peace settlement of the First Balkan War proved unsatisfactory for both Serbia and Bulgaria. Serbia refused to cede a part of the territories in Macedonia, which it occupied and promised to give to Bulgaria according a secret agreement. Serbia, on its side, was not satisfied with the independence of Albania, and sought a secret alliance with Greece. Armed skirmishes between Serbian and Bulgarian troops occurred. On June 16, 1913, just a few months after the end of the first war, the Bulgarian government ordered an attack on Serbian and Greek positions in Macedonia, without declaring war. Almost all of Bulgaria's 500,000-man standing army was positioned against these two countries, on two fronts - western and southern, while the borders with Romania and the Ottoman Empire were left almost unguarded. Montenegro sent a 12,000-strong force to assist the Serbs. Exhausted from the previous war, which took the highest toll on Bulgaria, the Bulgarian army soon turned on the defensive. Romania attacked from the north and north-east, the Ottoman empire also intervened in Thrace. Allied numerical superiority was almost 2:1. After a month and two days of fighting, the war ended as a disaster for Bulgaria, which lost large territories; its economy was ruined, and the military - demoralized. First World War Soldiers on their way to the front The Kingdom of Bulgaria participated in World War I on the side of the Central Powers between 15 October 1915, when the country declared war on Serbia, to 29 September 1918, when the Armistice of Thessalonica was signed. In the aftermath of the Balkan Wars, Bulgarian opinion turned against Russia and the western powers, whom the Bulgarians felt had done nothing to help them. The government of Vasil Radoslavov aligned the country with Germany and Austria-Hungary, even though this meant also becoming an ally of the Ottomans, Bulgaria's traditional enemy. But Bulgaria now had no claims against the Ottomans, whereas Serbia, Greece and Romania (allies of Britain and France) were all in possession of lands perceived in Bulgaria as its own. In 1915 Germany promised to restore the boundaries according to the Treaty of San Stefano and Bulgaria, which had the largest army in the Balkans, declared war on Serbia in October the same year. In the First World War Bulgaria decisively asserted its military capabilities. The second Battle of Doiran, with general Vladimir Vazov as commander, inflicted a heavy blow on the numerically superior British army, which suffered 12,000 casualties against 2,000 from the opposite side. One year later, during the third battle of Doiran, the United Kingdom, supported by Greece, once again suffered a humiliating defeat, losing 3,155 men against just about 500 for the Bulgarian side. The reputation of the French army also suffered badly. The Battle of the Red Wall was marked with the total defeat of the French forces, with 5,700 out of 6,000 men killed. The 261 frenchmen who survived, were captured by Bulgarian soldiers. Despite the outstanding victories, Germany was near its defeat, which meant that Bulgaria will be left without its most powerful ally. The war was already unpopular among Bulgarians themselves, as they were allied with the muslim Ottomans against their Orthodox Christian neighbours. The Agrarian Party leader, Aleksandur Stamboliyski, was imprisoned for his opposition to the war. The Russian Revolution of February 1917 had a great effect in Bulgaria, spreading antiwar and anti-monarchist sentiment among the troops and in the cities. In June Radoslavov's government resigned. Mutinies broke out in the army, Stamboliyski was released and a republic was proclaimed. In 1919 Bulgaria officially left the war with the Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine. The army between the World Wars The Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine proved to be a severe blow for Bulgaria's military. According to the treaty, the country had no right to organize a conscription-based military. The professional army was to be no more than 32,000 men, including internal forces and border guard. Equipping the army with tanks, submarines, bombers and heavy artillery was strictly prohibited, although Bulgaria managed to get round some of these prohibitions. Nevertheless, in the eve of World War II the Bulgarian army was still well-trained and well-equipped. World War II Bulgarian soldier on his post, Sofia, 1942 The government of the Kingdom of Bulgaria under Prime Minister Bogdan Filov declared a position of neutrality upon the outbreak of World War II. Bulgaria was determined to observe it until the end of the war; but it hoped for bloodless territorial gains, especially in the lands with a significant Bulgarian population occupied by neighbouring countries after the Second Balkan War and World War I. However, it was clear that the central geopolitical position of Bulgaria in the Balkans would inevitably lead to strong external pressure by both World War II factions. Turkey had a non-aggression pact with Bulgaria. On 7 September 1940, Bulgaria succeeded in negotiating a recovery of Southern Dobruja in the Axis-sponsored Treaty of Craiova (see Second Vienna Award). Southern Dobruja had been part of Romania since 1913. This recovery of territory reinforced hopes for resolving other territorial problems without direct involvement in the War. The country was forced to join the Axis Powers in 1941, when German troops preparing to invade Yugoslavia and Greece reached the Bulgarian borders and demanded permission to pass through its territory. On 1 March 1941, Bulgaria signed the Tripartite Pact and Tsar Boris III officially joined the Axis bloc. With the Soviet Union in a non-aggression pact with Germany, there was little popular opposition to the decision. After a short period of inaction, the army launched an operation against Yugoslavia and Greece. The goal of reaching the shores of the Aegean sea and completely occupying the region of Macedonia came to success. Even though Bulgaria did not send any troops to support the German invasion of the Soviet Union, the Navy was involved in a number of skirmishes with the Soviet Black Sea Fleet, which attacked Bulgarian shipping. Besides this, Bulgarian armed forces garrisoned in the Balkans battled various resistance groups. The Bulgarian government was forced by the Germans to declare a token war on the United Kingdom and the United States near the end of 1941, an act which resulted in the bombing of Sofia and other Bulgarian cities by Allied aircraft. The German invasion of the Soviet Union caused a significant wave of protests, which led to the activation of a mass guerrilla movement headed by the underground Bulgarian Communist Party. A resistance movement called Otechestven front (Fatherland front, Bulgarian: Отечествен фронт) was set up in August 1942 by the Communist Party, the Zveno movement and a number of other parties to oppose the then pro-Nazi government, after a number of Allied victories indicated that the Axis might lose the War. In 1943, tsar Boris III died suddenly. In the summer of 1944, after having crushed the Nazi defence around Iaşi and Chişinău, the Soviet Army was approaching the Balkans and Bulgaria. On 23 August 1944, Romania quit the Axis Powers and declared war on Germany, and allowed Soviet forces to cross its territory to reach Bulgaria. On 26 August 1944, the Fatherland Front made the decision to incite an armed rebellion against the government, which led to the appointment of a new government on 2 September. Support for the government was withheld by the Fatherland Front, since it was composed of pro-Nazi circles, in a desperate attempt to hold on to power. On 5 September 1944, the Soviet Union declared war on Bulgaria and invaded, facing no resistance as the Soviets were perceived as liberators. On 8 September 1944, the Bulgarians changed sides and joined the Soviet Union in its war against Nazi Germany. Cold War era Communist partisans in the Balkan mountains As the Red Army helped for the installment of a new communist government, the armed forces started to rapidly reorganize following the Soviet model, and were re-named as the Bulgarian People's Army (Bulgarska Narodna Armiya, BNA). Moscow quickly supplied Bulgaria with T-34/85 tanks, SU-100 guns, Il-2 attack planes and other new combat machinery. As the country continued to be a Soviet ally, it finally entered the Warsaw Pact as one of its founders. By the time the army had expanded to over 200,000 men with hundreds of thousands of more reserve troops. Conscription service was obligatory. Turkey and Greece were perceived as Bulgaria's most dangerous enemies, as they did not ally with the USSR. A special defensive line, known as the Krali Marko defensive line, was constructed along the entire border with Turkey. It was heavily fortified with concrete walls and turrets of T-34, Panzer III and Panzer IV tanks. Bulgaria was the only Eastern Bloc state apart from the Soviet Union to participate in the suppression of the 1956 Hungarian revolution and the Prague spring events. In the meantime, during the rule of Todor Zhivkov, a significant military industrial complex was established, capable of producing armored vehicles, self-proppelled artillery, small arms and ammunition, as well as aircraft engines and spare parts. Bulgaria provided weapons to Algeria, Yemen, Libya, Iraq and Syria, and also sent military advisors in some of these countries. Some military and medical aid was also supplied to North Vietnam during the Vietnam War. During the 1970s the Air Force was at the apogee of its power, possessing at least 500 modern combat aircraft in its inventory. In 1989, when the Cold War was coming to its end, the army numbered at least 120,000 regular troops. Modern era After recovering from the 1990s crisis, the army became a part of the common defensive system of NATO. As its member, Bulgaria sent a small force of about 100 men in Iraq in 2004. The force patrolled around the streets of several Iraqi cities, at some moments seeing combat against insurgents. Until the withdrawal of the force in December 2008, 13 casualties were given. The Bulgarian soldiers managed to train an entire battallion of the New Iraqi Army. Bulgaria currently maintains a nearly 610 men-strong force in Afghanistan. Organization General Staff The Bulgarian Armed Forces are Headquartered in Sofia, where most of the general staff is based. Currently headed by Chief of Staff General Zlatan Kirilov Stoykov, the General Staff is responsible for operational command of the Bulgarian Army and its 3 major branches. Deputies: Vice Admiral Petar Petrov, General Atanas Zaprianov, General Dimitar Zehtinov. Chief commanders: Land Forces: Major General Ivan Dobrev Air Force: Major General Simeon Simeonov Naval Forces: Rear admiral Minko Kavaldzhiev Personnel The Central Military Club in Sofia holds the Central Army Library, which contains about 120,000 books. Bulgaria's military personnel is estimated to be between 39,000 and 45,000 men. The Land Forces are the largest branch, with at least 30,000 men serving there. Opposing to many former Soviet bloc militaries, discipline and morale problems are not common. During the Communist era, the army members enjoyed extensive social privileges. After the fall of Communism and Bulgaria's transition to a market economy, wages fell severely. For almost a decade social benefits were virtually non-existent, and some of them have been restored but recently. The current defence minister, Nikolai Tsonev, has undertaken steps to provide the members of the military and their families with certain privileges in terms of healthcare and education, and to improve living conditions. Training Bulgarian and American paratroops on a joint drill The Land Forces practice extensive year-round military training in various conditions. Cooperative drills with the United States are very common, the last series of them conducted in 2008. Joint exercises with other states are rare, though. Until recent years the Air Force somewhat suffered from a fuel shortage, which was finally overcomed in 2008. Fighter pilots have year-round flights, but gunship pilots do not fly often due to the yet unfulfilled modernization of the Mi-24 gunships. Transport aircraft have no flying time problems, however. It is expected the combat helicopters will be modernized about 2009-2010. The Navy also has some fuel shortage problems, but military training is still effective. Despite these problems, overall discipline is good, and combat readiness and preparation level is above the average for NATO. Budget After the collapse of the Warsaw pact, Bulgaria lost the ability to acquire cheap fuel and spares for its military. A large portion of its nearly 2,000 T-55 tanks fell into disrepair, and eventually almost all of them were scrapped or sold to other countries. In the early 1990s the budget was so small, that regulars only received token-value payments. Many educated and well-trained officers lost the opportunity to educate younger soldiers, as the necessary equipment and basis lacked adequate funding. Military spending increased gradually, especially in the last 10 years. As of 2005, the budget was no more than $400 mln., and the projected budget for 2009 is about $1,3 bln. - almost a triple increase for 4 years. Despite this growth, the military still does not receive sufficient funds for modernization due to mismanagement, and to a minor extent - corruption. An example of bad spending plans is the large-scale purchasing of transport aircraft, while the Air Force has a severe need of new fighters (the MiG-29s, even though modernized, are nearing their operational limits). The planned procurement of 2-4 Gowind class corvettes will probably leave the Navy without any working submarines, as its single Romeo class submarine has long passed its operational limit. As of 2009, military spending is planned to be about 1,98% of GDP. In 2010 the budget is to be 1,89%. Land Forces Bulgarian Land Forces Training Operation. Three T-72 Main Battle Tanks move forward to attack the OPFOR during a movement to contact during joint exercise Immediate Response at Novo Selo Training Area, Bulgaria. Bulgarian BMP-23 in Iraq. S-300 launcher on parade. Bulgarian T-72 tank at a parade in Sofia. Bulgarian soldiers on Shipka peak Bulgarian T-72M2 tank on a parade. Note the new one-color camouflage. A BMP-23 on a parade. An SS-21 Scarab-A missile on parade in Sofia. The Land Forces are functionally divided into Active and Reserve Forces. Their main functions include deterrence, defense, peace support and crisis management, humanitarian and rescue missions, as well as social functions within Bulgarian society. The Active Forces mainly have peacekeeping and defensive duties, and are further divided into Deployment Forces, Immediate Reaction, and Main Defense Forces. The Reserve Forces consists of Enhancement Forces, Territorial Defense Forces, and Training Grounds. They deal with planning and reservist preparation, armaments and equipment storage, training of formations for active forces rotation or increase in personnel. During peacetime the Land Forces maintain permanent combat and mobilization readiness. They become part of multinational military formations in compliance with international treaties Bulgaria is a signatory to, participate in the preparation of the population, the national economy and the maintenance of wartime reserves and the infrastructure of the country for defense. In times of crisis the Land Forces' main tasks relate to participation in operations countering terrorist activities and defense of strategic facilities (such as nuclear power plants and major industrial facilities), assisting the security forces in proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, illegal armaments traffic and international terrorism. In case of low- and medium-intensity military conflict the Active Forces that are part of the Land Forces participate in carrying out the initial tasks for the defense of the territorial integrity and sovereignty of the country. In case of a military conflict of high intensity the Land Forces, together with the Air Force and the Navy, form the defense group of the Bulgarian Army aiming at countering aggression and protection of the territorial integrity and sovereignty of the country. The Bulgarian Land Forces are scheduled to become fully professional by 1 January 2008, bringing an end to mandatory military service. The Bulgarian Air Force and Naval Forces are already fully professional. Tactics Traditionally, the Bulgarian Army has relied on large numbers of well-trained infantry. During the Cold War the armed forces were expanded to a number of more than 200 000 men, supported by a very large Air Force, thousands of artillery pieces and anti-tank missiles, tactical ballistic missiles, hundreds of SAMs and AA cannons, and more than 1 500 tanks. All that was needed as a deterrence against its large southern NATO-member neighbour - Turkey, and to a lesser degree, Greece. In case of a conflict with NATO, Bulgaria was to use its anti-aircraft missiles and ATGMs to effectively destroy most of the enemy armor and aircraft, while the tanks and jet fighters were to combat the enemy units until back-up forces from the USSR arrived. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union Bulgaria's army has been reduced significantly in terms of numbers, but the number of defensive equipment (ATGMs and SAMs) has not been reduced drastically. National guard unit The National Guard of Bulgaria, founded in 1879, is the successor to the personal guards of Knyaz Alexander I. On July 12 of that year, the guards escorted the Bulgarian knyaz for the first time; today, July 12 is the official holiday of the National Guard. Throughout the years the structure of the guards has evolved, going from convoy to squadron, to regiment and, subsequent to 1942, to division. Today it includes military units for army salute and wind orchestra duties. In 2001, the National Guard unit was designated an official military unit of the Bulgarian army and one of the symbols of state authority, along with the flag, the coat of arms and the national anthem. Inventory of the Bulgarian armed forces Total units of equipment, incl. those in reserve: MBTs: 590 Armored Personnel Carriers: ~1250 IFVs: ~100 Armored cars: ~360 Anti-tank vehicles: 24 Towed artillery: 529 Self-propelled artillery: ~1600 SAM launchers: 208 AA artillery: ~350 Infantry and anti-tank weapons AR-M1 (Bulgarian-made enhanced assault rifle built off AK-47 platform) AKS-74u (assault rifle) RPG-7 RPG-22 Dragunov sniper rifle Barrett M82 sniper rifle RPD machine guns RPK light machine guns Uzi submachine guns (special forces) Makarov PM Handgun Arcus 98DA Handgun SPG-9DNM recoilless rifles Mk 19 grenade launchers M2 Browning heavy machine guns hundreds of mortars of various calibre: 60 mm 81 mm 82 mm 100 mm AT-2 Swatter ATGMs AT-3 Sagger ATGMs (200) AT-4 Spigot ATGMs (222) AT-5 Spandrel ATGMs (300+) AT-6 Spiral ATGMs (500+) AT-7 Saxhorn ATGMs (50+) AT-10 Stabber ATGMs SA-7 Grail MANPADS (locally-built modified version Strela-2M) SA-14 Gremlin MANPADS SA-16 Gimlet MANPADS SA-18 Grouse MANPADS Armored vehicles 160 T-72M2 tanks and some 270 in reserve Modernization plan of the Bulgarian military 160 - 400 T-55AM2 tanks (used for training and some in active service) 12 BRDM-2 armored scout cars (~60 in reserve) 24 BRDM-2 Konkurs (dedicated anti-tank vehicle armed with 5x AT-5 Spandrel) ~50 BMP-23 IFVs (~50 in reserve) ~20 BMP-1P IFVs (~80 in reserve) ~150 BTR-60PB-MD1 APCs (~700 in reserve) ~150 MT-LB (Bulgarian-made) (~800 in reserve) ~300 Mercedes-Benz G-Class armored jeeps (600 ordered, to be delivered by 2010) 52 HMMWV (Some deployed in Afghanistan) България | Купуват 50 Хамъра за Сухопътни войски - Dnevnik.bg 7 M1117 armored fighting vehicles (6 for the Bulgarian mission in Afghanistan and 1 for the light armored brigade in Stara Zagora, more to be delivered) TV-62M armored recovery vehicles, made by a modified T-62 tank hull with parts of a T-55 turret. These are widely deployed for various purposes. Maritza NBC vehicles Note: Numbers in italics mean that the current number of vehicles may be smaller than shown here. Artillery 122 mm BM-21 multiple-launch rocket system (100); (250 in reserve) 152 mm D-20 towed guns 130 mm M-46 towed guns 122 mm M-30 towed howitzers 122 mm 2S1 Gvozdika self-propelled howitzers 120 mm 2S12 Tundzha self-propelled mortars (247) 82 mm 2S12 Tundzha self-propelled mortars 100 mm SU-100 self-propelled anti-tank guns (68, in storage) 100 mm MT-12 anti tank gun//artillery cannon (126) 100 mm BS-3 field gun (16) 120 mm 2S11 self-propelled guns (359) Some special rounds: Starshel ECM (122 mm / 152 mm) BM-2 APFSDS-T (100 mm) Air defence equipment SA-2 Guideline missiles (18 launchers) SA-3 Goa missiles (30 launchers) SA-4 Ganef missiles (26 launchers, stored. One given to the National Military History Museum) SA-5 Gammon missiles (1 battalion - 10 launchers) SA-6 Gainful missiles (20 launchers) SA-8 Gecko self-propelled air defence missile systems (24) SA-9 Gaskin self-propelled air defence missile systems (50) SA-10 Grumble air defence missile systems (2 batteries with each 5 missile launch units) SA-13 Gopher self-propelled air defence missile systems (20) various types of AA cannons ZSU-57-2 (dozens) ZSU-23-4 (27) ZU-23-2 (128) S-60 (90) ZPU-4 (dozens) Ballistic missile systems SS-21 Scarab-A tactical ballistic missile complex (18 launchers + at least 36 missiles), 70 km range. Retired equipment T-62 tanks (200, sold to Ethiopia, Yemen and Angola) T-34 tanks (177, some sold to Mali and other countries, the rest were scrapped) BRDM-1 BTR-152 BTR-40 2S3 Akatsiya (some 20) SS-23 (8 launchers + 24 missiles, destroyed) FROG-7 (24 launchers + dozens of missiles, destroyed) Scud-B (36 launchers + dozens of missiles, destroyed) AT-1 Snapper ATGMs BM-13 multiple rocket launchers Navy Naval Ensign of Bulgaria Naval Jack of Bulgaria Coastguard Ensign of Bulgaria Wielingen class frigate. Former F911 Westdiep - now BGS Gordi (43) Project 1241.2E (Pauk-class) corvette "Reshitelni" The navy has been largely overlooked in the reforms that the Bulgarian armed forces had to go through in order to comply with NATO standards, mostly because of the great expense involved and the fact that naval assaults are not considered to be a great concern for the country's security. That is why three of the four combat submarines (excluding the Romeo class sub Slava) are now docked and have been out of operation for some time. Only the more modern frigates, corvettes and missile crafts are on active duty. In order to meet at least some of the NATO requirements, in 2005 the Bulgarian government bought from Belgium a Wielingen-class frigate, the BNS Wandelaar (F-912) (built in 1977), and after being renamed to the BG Druzki the frigate serves as the flagship of the Bulgarian Navy. In 2006, following a decision of the Bulgarian Parliament, Druzki took part in the United Nations Interim Forces in Lebanon (UNIFIL), patrolling the territorial waters of Lebanon under German command. This was the first time ever the Bulgarian Navy took part in an international peacekeeping operation. In 2008 the other two Belgian Wielingen-class frigates have been purchased, and renamed to Smeli and Gordi. A Tripartite class minehunter has also been acquired. The Bulgarian Navy is centered in two main bases. One is near the city of Varna. The other is Atiya, near the city of Bourgas. Naval inventory one Tarantul class corvette (Mulniya); three Osa class missile boats; three Riga class frigates (decommissioned); two Pauk class corvettes; one Romeo class submarine (Slava); three Wielingen class frigates; one Tripartite class minehunter; two to four Gowind class corvettes (on order); four Sonya class minesweepers; four Vanya class minesweepers; two Polnocny class landing ships; P-15 Termit missiles; Exocet missiles; RIM-7 Sea Sparrow missiles; Mi-14 Haze naval helicopters (At this time the Navy's only aircraft comprise 12 Mil Mi-14PL helicopters for anti-submarine patrol, search and rescue, and other naval support tasks located near Varna. SA-N-4 air defence missiles; SA-N-5 air defence missiles; Air Force Bulgarian Air force In the past decade Bulgaria has been trying actively to restructure its army as a whole and a lot of attention has been placed on keeping the aging Russian aircraft operational. Currently the attack and defence branches of the Bulgarian air force are comprised mainly of MIG-21s, MIG-29s and Su-25s. About 16 MiG-29 fighters are being modernized in order to meet NATO standards. The first aircraft arrived on 11/29/07 and final delivery is due in 03/09. In about 2 years time the government intends to purchase 16 modern jet fighters but due to the lack of funding the procedure of choosing the best alternative could prolong itself. The main competitors are expected to be Eurofighter, Dassault Rafale, JAS 39 Gripen, F-15 and F-18. In 2006 the Bulgarian government signed a contract with Alenia Aeronautica for the delivery of five C-27J Spartan transport aircraft in order to replace the old soviet made An-24 and An-26. The first Spartan is expected to arrive in year 2007 and the remaining four until 2011. Modern EU-made transport helicopters were purchased in 2005 and until now 8 have arrived. In 2-3 years the Bulgarian Air Force will have 12 Eurocopter Cougar helicopters (8 transport and 4 S&R). Until then the Bulgarian Air force would have to rely on the Mi-8s and Mi-17s. Recently, the Ministry of Defense terminated the contract with Elbit Systems for modernizing 12 Mi-25 and 6 Mi-35 helicopters. Branches of the airforce include: fighter aviation, assault aviation, intelligence aviation and transportation aviation, aid defense troops, radio-technical troops, communications troops, radio-technical support troops, logistics and medical troops. Weapons inventory Kh-29 air-to-ground missile (on Su-25 ground attack jets) S-5 unguided rocket (on Su-25 and Mi-24 helicopters, manufactured locally) GSh-30-1 cannon GSh-23 cannon NR-30 cannon AA-2 Atoll short-range AA missile AA-8 Aphid short-range AA missile AA-10 Alamo medium-range AA missile AA-11 Archer short-range AA missile different types of free-falling bombs and machine guns Aircraft Inventory With the exception of the Navy's small helicopter fleet, the Air Forces are responsible for all military aircraft in Bulgaria. The Air Forces' inventory numbers 124 aircraft, including 46 combat jets and 42 helicopters. Aircraft of western origin have only begun to enter the fleet, numbering 13 of the total in service. ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Aircraft ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Origin ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Type ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Versions ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|In service "World Military Aircraft Inventory", Aerospace Source Book 2007, Aviation Week & Space Technology, January 15, 2007. ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Notes ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Image |----- | Aero L-39 Albatros | | advanced trainer/light attack aircraft | L-39ZA | 12 | | |----- | Alenia C-27J Spartan | / | transport | C-27J | 1 4 more under delivery | | |----- | Antonov An-24 Coke | | transport | An-24 | 2 | | |----- | Antonov An-26 Curl | | transport | An-26 | 3 | | |----- | Antonov An-30 Clank | | aerial survey | An-30 | 1 | | |----- | Bell 206 JetRanger | | utility helicopter | Bell 206 | 6 | | |----- | Eurocopter AS 532 Cougar | | transport helicopter | AS 532 | 10 2 under delivery, 4 in CSAR configuration | | |----- | Eurocopter AS 565 Panther | | naval helicopter | AS 565 | 6 under delivery for the Naval Aviation Service, to be operated onboard the new multirole corvettes | | |----- | Let L-410 Turbolet | | transport | L-410UVP-E | 7 | | |----- | Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 Fishbed | | fighterlead-in trainer | MiG-21bisMiG-21U | 183 | although source claimed 21 in service, some 60 or more are parked on Graf Ignatievo Air Base. | |---- | Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-29 Fulcrum | | fighterlead-in trainer | MiG-29MiG-29UB | 164 | | |----- | Mil Mi-14 Haze | | naval helicopter | Mi-14PL | 7, to be replaced by Eurocopter Cougars | | |----- | Mil Mi-17 Hip-H | | transport helicopter | Mi-17 | 18 | | |----- | Mil Mi-24 Hind | | attack helicopter | Mi-25 (export version of Mi-24D)Mi-35 (export version of Mi-24V) | 126 | | |----- | Pilatus PC-9 | | trainer/light attack | PC-9M | 6 | | |----- | Pilatus PC-12 | | utility transport | PC-12 | 1 | | |----- | Sukhoi Su-25 Frogfoot | | close supportlead-in trainer | Su-25Su-25UB | 284 | | |} Former equipment ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Aircraft ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Origin ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Type ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Versions ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Notes |----- | Ilyushin Il-28 | | medium-range bomber | Il-28, Il-28U | |----- | MiG-15 | | fighter | | |----- | MiG-17 | | fighter | | |----- | MiG-19 | | fighter | | |----- | MiG-23 | | fighter/bomber | | |----- | MiG-25 | | advanced interceptor | | Originally 4 delivered (MiG-25RBT/RU varians). Used in recon configuration. One crashed, the rest were sold back to Russia in exchange for 4 MiG-23s |----- | Mil Mi-1 | | utility helicopter | | |----- | Mil Mi-2 | | transport helicopter | | retired from military service, some are used as agriculture and civilian parachute training helicopters |----- | Mil Mi-4 | | transport helicopter | | |----- | Mil Mi-6 | | transport helicopter | | |----- | Lisunov Li-2 | | transport airplane | | |----- | Yakovlev Yak-18 | | piston-engine trainer | | |----- | Yakovlev Yak-23 | | jet fighter | | |----- | Ilyushin Il-10 | | piston-engined attack plane | | retired in 1954 |----- | Tupolev Tu-2 | | piston-engined bomber | | |----- | Su-22M4 | | bomber/recon | | Used for air reconnaissance |} References Sources External links Ministry of Defence of Bulgaria Equipment holdings in 1996 See also Bulgaria and weapons of mass destruction Medieval Bulgarian Army | Military_of_Bulgaria |@lemmatized bulgarian:79 army:51 represent:1 armed:4 force:65 republic:2 bulgaria:69 commander:4 chief:5 president:1 georgi:2 parvanov:1 ministry:4 defense:11 charge:1 political:1 leadership:1 military:38 command:6 remain:2 hand:2 general:16 staff:6 head:4 operational:5 element:1 include:7 land:15 navy:14 air:26 patron:1 saint:1 st:2 george:2 valor:2 day:5 may:4 also:12 know:4 long:3 celebrate:1 official:3 holiday:2 country:18 become:8 nato:8 member:5 april:2 begin:4 new:10 downsizing:1 modernization:4 reform:2 program:1 plan:5 result:5 adoption:1 small:7 structure:2 around:3 personnel:5 base:5 upon:2 rapid:1 reaction:2 two:10 additional:1 corp:1 headquarters:1 subordinate:1 brigade:3 january:3 disband:1 compulsory:1 service:9 history:2 militiaman:1 region:4 macedonia:7 ca:1 date:1 back:3 ancient:1 time:9 bolgar:1 state:12 asia:1 old:2 great:7 volga:1 finally:3 danube:1 exist:1 nowadays:1 leader:3 traditionally:2 khan:1 first:18 empire:8 convert:1 christianity:1 knyaz:3 tzar:1 serbo:2 war:47 arm:9 conflict:4 liberation:1 unification:3 eastern:3 rumelia:1 happen:2 september:8 completely:2 recognize:3 however:4 one:11 refuse:2 act:2 kingdom:6 serbia:13 austro:2 hungarian:3 expand:4 influence:3 balkan:22 particularly:1 oppose:3 fear:1 would:4 diminish:1 dominance:1 addition:1 ruler:1 milan:2 obrenović:1 iv:3 annoy:1 serbian:6 opposition:3 like:1 nikola:2 pašić:1 escape:1 persecution:1 timok:1 rebellion:2 find:1 asylum:1 lure:1 austria:3 hungary:3 promise:3 territorial:8 gain:2 return:1 concession:1 western:5 declare:10 november:3 strategy:1 rely:4 largely:2 surprise:1 move:2 troop:14 near:8 border:7 ottoman:16 southeast:2 intervene:2 advance:3 stop:1 battle:8 slivnitsa:2 main:8 body:1 travel:1 northwest:1 defend:1 capital:1 sofia:7 defensive:9 vidin:1 offensive:2 take:6 city:7 pirot:1 point:1 step:2 threaten:1 join:4 side:8 retreat:1 fight:3 last:4 peace:5 treaty:9 sign:7 bucharest:1 february:2 casualty:3 number:14 kill:3 change:2 make:7 either:1 power:10 relationship:1 trust:1 friendship:2 build:4 common:4 rule:2 suffer:5 irreparable:1 damage:1 soldier:7 prepare:3 assault:6 adrianople:4 instability:1 early:2 quickly:3 precondition:1 aspiration:1 towards:1 bosnia:1 herzegovina:1 thwart:1 austrian:1 annexation:1 province:2 october:7 serb:3 focus:2 attention:2 onto:1 historic:1 cradle:1 kosovo:2 south:2 expansion:2 greek:2 officer:2 revolt:1 august:5 secure:2 appointment:2 progressive:1 government:14 eleftherios:1 venizelos:1 hop:2 resolve:2 cretan:1 issue:2 greece:8 favour:1 reverse:1 defeat:6 recognition:1 independence:2 enjoy:2 russia:3 look:1 district:1 thrace:5 march:4 albanian:2 insurrection:1 break:2 montenegro:3 follow:4 precedent:1 italy:1 launch:4 invasion:3 tripolitania:1 occupation:1 dodecanese:1 island:1 italian:1 decisive:1 victory:3 greatly:1 turkey:7 thus:1 spring:2 consultation:1 various:6 christian:2 nation:2 network:1 alliance:3 league:5 notably:1 france:2 react:1 diplomatic:1 sensation:1 try:2 dissuade:1 go:3 fail:2 late:1 mobilize:2 three:7 impossible:1 ultimatum:1 porte:1 often:2 dub:1 prussia:1 emile:1 joseph:1 dillon:1 inside:1 story:1 conference:1 ch:1 xv:1 militarily:1 powerful:2 four:6 large:9 well:8 train:6 equip:3 hall:5 p:6 peacetime:2 men:13 almost:7 total:4 population:3 field:2 count:1 infantry:7 division:9 cavalry:2 artillery:9 unit:8 tsar:3 ferdinand:1 actual:1 deputy:2 michail:1 savov:1 possess:2 six:1 torpedo:1 boat:2 restrict:1 operation:7 along:4 black:2 sea:5 coast:1 aim:2 latter:1 secret:4 agreement:2 divide:3 negotiation:1 lead:4 establishment:1 target:1 fulfilment:1 never:1 materialize:1 san:2 stefano:2 russo:1 turkish:4 deploy:6 form:3 vasil:2 kutinchev:1 yambol:1 direction:1 tundzha:3 river:1 second:5 ivanov:1 west:1 assign:3 capture:2 strong:5 fortress:3 adrianopel:1 edirne:1 accord:4 third:6 radko:1 dimitriev:1 east:3 behind:1 cover:1 hide:1 view:1 cross:2 stranja:1 mountain:1 lozengrad:1 kirk:3 kilisse:3 independent:2 role:1 operate:2 respectively:1 line:4 together:2 gechkenli:1 seliolu:1 petra:1 besiege:1 without:5 resistance:4 pressure:2 initial:2 attack:12 reach:4 marmara:1 turk:1 aid:3 fresh:1 reinforcement:1 asian:1 establish:2 position:6 chataldja:2 across:1 peninsula:1 constantinople:1 locate:2 bulair:1 şarköy:1 heavy:4 crush:2 overthrow:1 newly:1 stilian:1 kovachev:1 final:2 vazov:2 reinforce:2 conquer:1 untakable:1 strengthen:1 regional:1 significantly:2 reduce:3 formation:3 settlement:1 prove:2 unsatisfactory:1 cede:1 part:9 territory:5 occupy:3 give:3 satisfy:1 albania:1 seek:1 skirmish:2 occur:1 june:2 month:2 end:6 order:7 man:1 stand:1 front:6 southern:4 romania:5 leave:4 unguarded:1 send:4 assist:2 exhaust:1 previous:1 high:2 toll:1 soon:1 turn:2 north:3 allied:3 numerical:1 superiority:1 fighting:2 disaster:1 lose:5 economy:3 ruin:1 demoralize:1 world:10 way:1 participate:4 central:4 armistice:1 thessalonica:1 aftermath:1 opinion:1 felt:1 nothing:1 help:2 radoslavov:2 align:13 germany:6 even:3 though:4 meant:1 ally:6 traditional:1 enemy:4 claim:2 whereas:1 britain:1 possession:1 perceive:3 restore:2 boundary:1 year:12 decisively:1 assert:1 capability:1 doiran:2 vladimir:1 inflict:1 blow:2 numerically:1 superior:1 british:1 opposite:1 later:1 united:5 support:7 humiliating:1 reputation:1 french:2 badly:1 red:2 wall:2 mark:1 frenchman:1 survive:1 despite:3 outstanding:1 mean:2 already:2 unpopular:1 among:2 muslim:1 orthodox:1 neighbour:3 agrarian:1 party:4 aleksandur:1 stamboliyski:2 imprison:1 russian:2 revolution:2 effect:1 spread:1 antiwar:1 anti:9 monarchist:1 sentiment:1 resign:1 mutiny:1 release:1 proclaim:1 officially:2 neuilly:2 sur:2 seine:2 severe:2 right:1 organize:1 conscription:2 professional:3 internal:1 guard:8 tank:20 submarine:6 bomber:5 strictly:1 prohibit:1 although:2 manage:2 get:1 round:4 prohibition:1 nevertheless:1 eve:1 ii:4 still:3 post:1 prime:1 minister:2 bogdan:1 filov:1 neutrality:1 outbreak:1 determine:1 observe:1 bloodless:1 especially:2 significant:3 clear:1 geopolitical:1 inevitably:1 external:2 faction:1 non:3 aggression:3 pact:5 succeed:1 negotiate:1 recovery:3 dobruja:2 axis:5 sponsor:1 craiova:1 see:3 vienna:1 award:1 since:3 hope:1 problem:5 direct:1 involvement:1 german:5 invade:2 yugoslavia:2 demand:1 permission:1 pass:2 tripartite:3 boris:2 iii:3 bloc:3 soviet:15 union:7 little:1 popular:1 decision:3 short:4 period:1 inaction:1 goal:1 shore:1 aegean:1 come:2 success:1 involve:2 fleet:3 shipping:1 besides:1 garrison:1 group:2 token:2 bombing:1 aircraft:19 cause:1 wave:1 protest:1 activation:1 mass:3 guerrilla:1 movement:4 underground:1 communist:5 call:1 otechestven:1 fatherland:3 отечествен:1 фронт:1 set:1 zveno:1 pro:2 nazi:4 indicate:1 might:1 die:1 suddenly:1 summer:1 defence:11 iaşi:1 chişinău:1 approach:1 quit:1 allow:1 incite:1 withhold:1 compose:1 circle:1 desperate:1 attempt:1 hold:2 face:1 liberator:1 cold:3 era:3 partisan:1 mountains:1 installment:1 start:1 rapidly:1 reorganize:1 model:1 name:1 people:1 bulgarska:1 narodna:1 armiya:1 bna:1 moscow:1 supply:2 su:8 gun:12 il:5 plane:2 combat:9 machinery:1 continue:1 enter:2 warsaw:2 founder:1 hundred:3 thousand:2 reserve:12 obligatory:1 dangerous:1 ussr:2 special:3 krali:1 marko:1 construct:1 entire:2 heavily:1 fortify:1 concrete:1 turret:2 panzer:2 apart:1 suppression:1 prague:1 event:1 meantime:1 todor:1 zhivkov:1 industrial:2 complex:2 capable:1 produce:1 armored:6 vehicle:8 self:10 proppelled:1 ammunition:1 engine:2 spare:2 provide:2 weapon:5 algeria:1 yemen:2 libya:1 iraq:3 syria:1 advisor:1 medical:2 vietnam:2 apogee:1 least:5 modern:5 inventory:7 regular:1 recover:1 crisis:3 system:8 patrol:3 street:1 several:1 iraqi:2 moment:1 insurgent:1 withdrawal:1 december:1 battallion:1 currently:3 maintain:2 nearly:2 afghanistan:3 organization:1 headquarter:1 zlatan:1 kirilov:1 stoykov:1 responsible:2 major:4 branch:4 vice:1 admiral:2 petar:1 petrov:1 atanas:1 zaprianov:1 dimitar:1 zehtinov:1 ivan:1 dobrev:1 simeon:1 simeonov:1 naval:11 rear:1 minko:1 kavaldzhiev:1 club:1 library:1 contain:1 book:2 estimate:1 serve:1 many:2 former:3 discipline:2 morale:1 extensive:2 social:3 privilege:2 fall:2 communism:1 transition:1 market:1 wage:1 fell:2 severely:1 decade:2 benefit:1 virtually:1 existent:1 recently:2 current:2 nikolai:1 tsonev:1 undertake:1 family:1 certain:1 term:2 healthcare:1 education:1 improve:1 living:1 condition:2 training:7 american:1 paratroops:1 joint:3 drill:2 practice:1 cooperative:1 series:1 conduct:1 exercise:2 rare:1 recent:1 somewhat:1 fuel:3 shortage:2 overcome:1 fighter:11 pilot:2 flight:1 gunship:1 fly:2 due:4 yet:1 unfulfilled:1 mi:21 gunships:1 transport:16 expect:3 helicopter:20 modernize:4 effective:1 overall:1 good:1 readiness:2 preparation:3 level:1 average:1 budget:5 collapse:2 ability:1 acquire:2 cheap:1 portion:1 disrepair:1 eventually:1 scrap:2 sell:4 regulars:1 receive:2 value:1 payment:1 educate:2 opportunity:1 young:1 necessary:1 equipment:8 basis:1 lack:2 adequate:1 funding:1 spending:3 increase:3 gradually:1 mln:1 projected:1 bln:1 triple:1 growth:1 sufficient:1 fund:2 mismanagement:1 minor:1 extent:1 corruption:1 example:1 bad:1 scale:1 purchasing:1 need:2 mig:15 limit:2 planned:1 procurement:1 gowind:2 class:20 corvette:7 probably:1 work:1 single:1 romeo:3 gdp:1 forward:1 opfor:1 contact:1 immediate:2 response:1 novo:1 selo:1 area:1 bmp:4 launcher:13 parade:5 shipka:1 peak:1 note:4 color:1 camouflage:1 ss:2 scarab:2 missile:32 functionally:1 active:6 function:2 deterrence:2 management:1 humanitarian:1 rescue:2 mission:2 within:1 society:1 mainly:2 peacekeeping:2 duty:3 deployment:1 consist:1 enhancement:1 ground:3 deal:1 planning:1 reservist:1 armament:2 storage:2 rotation:1 permanent:1 mobilization:1 multinational:1 compliance:1 international:3 signatory:1 national:7 maintenance:1 wartime:1 infrastructure:1 task:3 relate:1 participation:1 counter:2 terrorist:1 activity:1 strategic:1 facility:2 nuclear:1 plant:1 security:2 proliferation:1 destruction:2 illegal:1 traffic:1 terrorism:1 case:3 low:1 medium:3 intensity:2 carry:1 integrity:2 sovereignty:2 protection:1 schedule:1 fully:2 bring:1 mandatory:1 tactic:1 trained:1 piece:1 tactical:2 ballistic:3 sam:3 aa:11 cannon:6 less:1 degree:1 use:5 atgms:10 effectively:1 destroy:4 armor:4 jet:5 arrive:4 drastically:1 found:1 successor:1 personal:1 alexander:1 july:2 escort:1 today:2 throughout:1 evolve:1 convoy:1 squadron:1 regiment:1 subsequent:1 salute:1 wind:1 orchestra:1 designate:1 symbol:1 authority:1 flag:1 coat:1 anthem:1 incl:1 mbts:1 carrier:1 ifvs:3 car:2 tow:4 propel:9 ar:1 enhanced:1 rifle:5 ak:1 platform:1 aks:1 rpg:2 dragunov:1 sniper:2 barrett:1 rpd:1 machine:4 rpk:1 light:4 uzi:1 submachine:1 makarov:1 pm:1 handgun:2 arcus:1 spg:1 recoilless:1 mk:1 grenade:1 brown:1 mortar:3 calibre:1 mm:18 swatter:1 sagger:1 spigot:1 spandrel:2 spiral:1 saxhorn:1 stabber:1 sa:15 grail:1 manpad:4 locally:2 modified:2 version:5 strela:1 gremlin:1 gimlet:1 grouse:1 brdm:3 scout:1 konkurs:1 dedicate:1 btr:3 apc:1 mt:2 lb:1 mercedes:1 benz:1 g:1 jeep:1 deliver:3 hmmwv:1 българия:1 купуват:1 хамъра:1 за:1 сухопътни:1 войски:1 dnevnik:1 bg:2 stara:1 zagora:1 tv:1 hull:1 widely:1 purpose:1 maritza:1 nbc:1 italic:1 show:1 bm:3 multiple:2 rocket:3 howitzer:2 gvozdika:1 b:2 starshel:1 ecm:1 apfsds:1 guideline:1 goa:1 ganef:1 store:1 museum:1 gammon:1 battalion:1 gainful:1 gecko:1 gaskin:1 grumble:1 battery:1 gopher:1 type:4 zsu:2 dozen:4 zu:1 zpu:1 km:1 range:6 retired:1 ethiopia:1 angola:1 mali:1 rest:2 akatsiya:1 frog:1 scud:1 snapper:1 ensign:2 jack:1 coastguard:1 wielingen:4 frigate:6 westdiep:1 bgs:1 gordi:2 project:1 pauk:2 reshitelni:1 overlook:1 comply:1 standard:2 mostly:1 expense:1 fact:1 consider:1 concern:1 exclude:1 sub:1 slava:2 dock:1 craft:1 meet:2 requirement:1 buy:1 belgium:1 bns:1 wandelaar:1 f:3 rename:2 druzki:2 serf:1 flagship:1 parliament:1 interim:1 lebanon:2 unifil:1 water:1 ever:1 belgian:1 purchase:3 smeli:1 minehunter:2 center:1 varna:2 atiya:1 bourgas:1 tarantul:1 mulniya:1 osa:1 riga:1 decommission:1 frigates:1 sonya:1 minesweeper:2 vanya:1 polnocny:1 landing:1 ship:1 termit:1 exocet:1 rim:1 sparrow:1 haze:2 comprise:2 mil:8 search:1 n:2 past:1 actively:1 restructure:1 whole:1 lot:1 place:1 keep:1 age:1 delivery:5 intend:1 procedure:1 choose:1 best:1 alternative:1 could:1 prolong:1 competitor:1 eurofighter:1 dassault:1 rafale:1 jas:1 gripen:1 contract:2 alenia:2 aeronautica:1 five:1 c:3 spartan:3 replace:2 eu:1 eurocopter:4 cougar:3 r:1 terminate:1 elbit:1 airforce:1 aviation:6 intelligence:1 transportation:1 radio:2 technical:2 communication:1 logistics:1 kh:1 unguided:1 manufacture:1 gsh:2 nr:1 atoll:1 aphid:1 alamo:1 archer:1 different:1 free:1 bomb:1 exception:1 origin:3 style:12 text:12 left:12 background:12 aacccc:12 aerospace:1 source:3 week:1 space:1 technology:1 image:1 aero:1 l:4 albatros:1 trainer:6 antonov:3 coke:1 curl:1 clank:1 aerial:1 survey:1 bell:2 jetranger:1 utility:3 csar:1 configuration:2 panther:1 onboard:1 multirole:1 let:1 turbolet:1 e:1 mikoyan:2 gurevich:2 fishbed:1 fighterlead:2 park:1 graf:1 ignatievo:1 fulcrum:1 hip:1 h:1 hind:1 export:2 pilatus:2 pc:4 sukhoi:1 frogfoot:1 close:1 supportlead:1 ilyushin:2 interceptor:1 originally:1 ru:1 varians:1 recon:2 crashed:1 exchange:1 retire:2 agriculture:1 civilian:1 parachute:1 lisunov:1 li:1 airplane:1 yakovlev:2 yak:2 piston:3 engined:2 tupolev:1 tu:1 reconnaissance:1 reference:1 link:1 holding:1 medieval:1 |@bigram commander_chief:2 georgi_parvanov:1 chief_staff:2 patron_saint:1 volga_bulgaria:1 serbo_bulgarian:2 eastern_rumelia:1 austro_hungarian:2 austria_hungary:3 ottoman_empire:5 irreparable_damage:1 bosnia_herzegovina:1 eleftherios_venizelos:1 thrace_macedonia:2 torpedo_boat:1 never_materialize:1 san_stefano:2 russo_turkish:1 infantry_brigade:1 battle_adrianople:1 sea_marmara:1 numerical_superiority:1 numerically_superior:1 suffer_humiliating:1 humiliating_defeat:1 neuilly_sur:2 sur_seine:2 prime_minister:1 aggression_pact:2 tripartite_pact:1 tsar_boris:2 soviet_union:7 aegean_sea:1 balkan_mountains:1 warsaw_pact:2 hundred_thousand:1 heavily_fortify:1 eastern_bloc:1 vice_admiral:1 rear_admiral:1 non_existent:1 fell_disrepair:1 territorial_integrity:2 ballistic_missile:3 coat_arm:1 armored_personnel:1 tow_artillery:1 self_propel:9 propel_artillery:1 assault_rifle:2 sniper_rifle:2 submachine_gun:1 recoilless_rifle:1 mk_grenade:1 grenade_launcher:1 mm_mm:4 btr_apc:1 mercedes_benz:1 stara_zagora:1 launcher_sa:4 btr_btr:1 rocket_launcher:1 lebanon_unifil:1 exocet_missile:1 sparrow_missile:1 mil_mi:8 mig_mig:1 mig_su:1 mig_fighter:5 dassault_rafale:1 jas_gripen:1 unguided_rocket:1 align_left:12 background_aacccc:12 inventory_aerospace:1 l_albatros:1 antonov_curl:1 utility_helicopter:2 mikoyan_gurevich:2 gurevich_mig:2 mig_fishbed:1 trainer_mig:2 mig_fulcrum:1 mi_hind:1 sukhoi_su:1 ilyushin_il:2 fighter_bomber:1 helicopter_mil:3 yakovlev_yak:2 piston_engine:1 piston_engined:2 tupolev_tu:1 engined_bomber:1 external_link:1 |
1,634 | Chinese_dominoes | A set of Chinese dominoes Chinese dominoes are used in several tile-based games, namely, Tien Gow, Pai Gow, Gwat Pai, Che Deng, Tiu U, Kap Tai Shap. References to Chinese domino tiles can be traced to writings from the Song Dynasty (AD 1120). Chinese dominoes should not be confused with mahjong tiles, which use a different tileset. Each tile pattern in the Chinese domino set is made up of the outcome of a throw of two six-sided dice. There are therefore 21 unique patterns. A tile set consists of 32 tiles in two "suits" or groups called "military" and "civilian". There are no markings on the tiles to distinguish these suits; a player must simply remember which tiles belong to which group. The tile set contains two each of eleven civilian suit tiles (6-6, 1-1, 4-4, 1-3, 5-5, 3-3, 2-2, 5-6, 4-6, 1-6, 1-5) and one each of ten military suit tiles (3-6, 4-5; 2-6, 3-5; 2-5, 3-4; 2-4; 1-4, 2-3; 1-2). Each civilian tile also has a Chinese name (and common rough translation to English): The 6-6 is tin (天 heaven), 1-1 is dei (地 earth), 4-4 is yan (人 man), 1-3 is ngo (鵝 goose or 和 harmony), 5-5 is mui (梅 plum flower), 3-3 is cheung (長 long), 2-2 is ban (板 board), 5-6 is fu (斧 hatchet), 4-6 is ping (屏 partition), 1-6 is tsat (七) (long leg seven), and 1-5 is luk (六) (big head six). The civilian tiles are ranked according to the Chinese cultural significance of the tile names, and must be memorized. For example, heaven ranks higher than earth; earth ranks higher than man etc. Remembering the suits and rankings of the tiles is easier if one understands the Chinese names of the tiles and the symbolism behind them. The military tiles are named and ranked according to the total points on the tiles. For example, the "nines" (3-6 and 4-5) rank higher than the "eights" (2-6 and 3-5). The military tiles (since there is only one each) are also considered to be five mixed "pairs" (for example, the 3-6 and 4-5 tiles "match" because they have same total points and both in the military suit). Among the military tiles, individual tiles of the same pair (such as 1-4 and 2-3) rank equally. The 2-4 and 1-2 are an odd pair. They are the only tiles in the whole set that don't match other tiles in the normal sense. This pair when played together is considered a suit on its own, called the Gee Joon (至尊 Supreme). It is the highest ranking pair in the game of Pai Gow, though the tiles rank low individually (in their normal order). When a tile of this pair is played individually in the game of Tien Gow, each takes its regular ranking among other military suit tiles according to the total points. The rankings of the individual tiles are similar in most games. However, the ranking of combination tiles is slightly different in Pai Gow and Tien Gow. Using the same coloring scheme of the traditional Chinese dice, every half-domino with 1 or 4 spots has those spots colored red (for example, the 4-5 domino has four red spots and five white spots). The only exception is the pair of 6-6 tiles. Half of the spots on the 6-6 domino are colored red to make them stand out as the top ranking tiles. External links Rules of Domino games Pictures of the Chinese tiles an article dated back to 1893 Dominoes Rules at Digital Gamers Rules for 9 Chinese, Korean, and Tibetan domino games | Chinese_dominoes |@lemmatized set:5 chinese:11 domino:11 use:3 several:1 tile:32 base:1 game:6 namely:1 tien:3 gow:6 pai:4 gwat:1 che:1 deng:1 tiu:1 u:1 kap:1 tai:1 shap:1 reference:1 trace:1 writing:1 song:1 dynasty:1 ad:1 confuse:1 mahjong:1 different:2 tileset:1 pattern:2 make:2 outcome:1 throw:1 two:3 six:2 side:1 dice:2 therefore:1 unique:1 consists:1 suit:8 group:2 call:2 military:7 civilian:4 marking:1 distinguish:1 player:1 must:2 simply:1 remember:2 belong:1 contains:1 eleven:1 one:3 ten:1 also:2 name:4 common:1 rough:1 translation:1 english:1 tin:1 天:1 heaven:2 dei:1 地:1 earth:3 yan:1 人:1 man:2 ngo:1 鵝:1 goose:1 和:1 harmony:1 mui:1 梅:1 plum:1 flower:1 cheung:1 長:1 long:2 ban:1 板:1 board:1 fu:1 斧:1 hatchet:1 ping:1 屏:1 partition:1 tsat:1 七:1 leg:1 seven:1 luk:1 六:1 big:1 head:1 rank:7 accord:3 cultural:1 significance:1 memorize:1 example:4 high:4 etc:1 ranking:6 easy:1 understand:1 symbolism:1 behind:1 total:3 point:3 nine:1 eight:1 since:1 consider:2 five:2 mixed:1 pair:7 match:2 among:2 individual:2 equally:1 odd:1 whole:1 normal:2 sense:1 play:2 together:1 gee:1 joon:1 至尊:1 supreme:1 though:1 low:1 individually:2 order:1 take:1 regular:1 similar:1 however:1 combination:1 slightly:1 color:3 scheme:1 traditional:1 every:1 half:2 spot:5 red:3 four:1 white:1 exception:1 stand:1 top:1 external:1 link:1 rule:3 picture:1 article:1 date:1 back:1 digital:1 gamers:1 korean:1 tibetan:1 |@bigram pai_gow:3 domino_tile:1 mahjong_tile:1 external_link:1 |
1,635 | North_American_B-25_Mitchell | The North American B-25 Mitchell was an American twin-engined medium bomber manufactured by North American Aviation. It was used by many Allied air forces, in every theater of World War II, as well as many other air forces after the war ended, and saw service across four decades. The B-25 was named in honor of General Billy Mitchell, a pioneer of U.S. military aviation. The B-25 is the only American military aircraft named after a specific person. By the end of its production, nearly 10,000 B-25s in numerous models had been built. These included a few limited variations, such as the US Navy's and US Marine Corps' PBJ-1 patrol bomber and the Army Air Forces' F-10 photo reconnaissance aircraft. Design and development Flight Performance School also included work in evaluating the performance of this B-25 Mitchell medium bomber The B-25 was a descendant of the earlier XB-21 (North American-39) project of the mid-1930s. Experience gained in developing that aircraft was eventually used by North American in designing the B-25 (called the NA-40 by the company). One NA-40 was built, with several modifications later being done to test a number of potential improvements. These improvements included Wright R-2600 radial engines, which would become standard on the later B-25. In 1939, the modified and improved NA-40B was submitted to the United States Army Air Corps for evaluation. This aircraft was originally intended to be an attack bomber for export to the United Kingdom and France, both of which had a pressing requirement for such aircraft in the early stages of World War II. However, those countries changed their minds, opting instead for the also-new Douglas DB-7 (later to be used by the US as the A-20 Havoc). Despite this loss of sales, the NA-40B re-entered the spotlight when the Army Air Corps evaluated it for use as a medium bomber. Unfortunately, the NA-40B was destroyed in a crash on 11 April 1939. Nonetheless, the type was ordered into production, along with the Army's other new medium bomber, the Martin B-26 Marauder. Early production Mitchell production in Kansas City in 1942 An improvement of the NA-40B, dubbed the NA-62, was the basis for the first actual B-25. Due to the pressing need for medium bombers by the Army, no experimental or service-test versions were built. Any necessary modifications were made during production runs, or to existing aircraft at field modification centers around the world. A significant change in the early days of B-25 production was a re-design of the wing. In the first nine aircraft, a constant-dihedral wing was used, in which the wing had a consistent, straight, slight upward angle from the fuselage to the wing tip. This design caused stability problems, and as a result, the dihedral angle was nullified on the outboard wing sections, giving the B-25 its slightly gull wing configuration. Less noticeable changes during this period included an increase in the size of the tail fins and a decrease in their inward cant. A total of 6,608 B-25s were built at North American's Fairfax Airport plant in Kansas City, Kansas. A descendant of the B-25 was the North American XB-28, meant to be a high-altitude version of the B-25. Despite this premise, the actual aircraft bore little resemblance to the Mitchell. It had much more in common with the B-26 Marauder. Operational history Lt. Peddy and crew, showing how many people were required to keep a B-25 flying Doolittle Raid B-25Bs aboard USS Hornet A B-25C being refueled B-25 of 13th Squadron, 3rd Bomb Group, on low-level "skip-bombing" mission in New Guinea B-25G Mitchell from the AAF Tactical Center, Orlando AAB, Florida, 17 April 1944 Closeup of an early model B-25 gun pod The B-25 first gained fame as the bomber used in the April 18, 1942 Doolittle Raid, in which 16 B-25Bs, led by the legendary Lieutenant Colonel Jimmy Doolittle, took off from the carrier and successfully bombed Tokyo and four other Japanese cities without loss. However, 15 subsequently crash-landed en route to recovery fields in Eastern China. These losses were the result of the task force being spotted by Japanese fishing vessels forcing the bombers to take off early, fuel exhaustion, stormy nighttime conditions with zero visibility, and lack of electronic homing aids at the recovery bases. Only one landed intact; it came down in the Soviet Union, where its five-man crew was interned and the aircraft confiscated. Of the 80 aircrew, 69 survived their historic mission and eventually made it back to American lines. Following a number of additional modifications, including the addition of Plexiglas windows for the navigator and radio operator, heavier nose armament, and deicing and anti-icing equipment, the B-25C was released to the Army. This was the second mass-produced version of the Mitchell, the first being the lightly-armed B-25B used by the Doolittle Raiders. The B-25C and B-25D differed only in location of manufacture: -Cs at Inglewood, California, -Ds at Kansas City, Kansas. A total of 3,915 B-25Cs and -Ds were built by North American during World War II. Although the B-25 was originally designed to bomb from medium altitudes in level flight, it was used frequently in the Southwest Pacific theater (SWPA) on treetop-level strafing and parafrag (parachute-retarded fragmentation bombs) missions against Japanese airfields in New Guinea and the Philippines. These heavily-armed Mitchells, field-modified by Major Paul I. "Pappy" Gunn, were also used on strafing and skip-bombing missions against Japanese shipping trying to re-supply their land-based armies. Under the leadership of Lieutenant General George C. Kenney, B-25s of the Fifth and Thirteenth Air Forces devastated Japanese targets in the SWPA from 1942 to 1945, and played a significant role in pushing the Japanese back to their home islands. B-25s were also used with devastating effect in the Central Pacific, Alaska, North Africa, Mediterranean and China-Burma-India (CBI) theaters. Because of the urgent need for hard-hitting strafer aircraft, a version dubbed the B-25G was developed, in which the standard-length transparent nose and the bombardier were replaced by a shorter solid nose containing two fixed .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns and a 75 mm (2.95 in) M4 cannon, one of the largest weapons fitted to an aircraft, similar to the experimental British Mosquito Mk. XVIII, and German Ju 88P heavy cannon carrying aircraft. The cannon was manually loaded and serviced by the navigator, who was able to perform these operations without leaving his crew station just behind the pilot. This was possible due to the shorter nose of the G-model and the length of the M4, which allowed the breech to extend into the navigator's compartment. The B-25G's successor, the B-25H, had even more firepower. The M4 gun was replaced by the lighter T13E1, designed specifically for the aircraft. The 75 mm (2.95 in) gun fired at a muzzle velocity of 2,362 ft/s (about 720 m/s). Due to its low rate of fire (approximately four rounds could be fired in a single strafing run) and relative ineffectiveness against ground targets, as well as substantial recoil, the 75 mm (2.95 in) gun was sometimes removed from both G and H models and replaced with two additional .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns as a field modification. Kinzey 1999, p. 51, 53. The -H also mounted four fixed forward-firing .50 (12.7 mm) machine guns in the nose, four more fixed ones in forward-firing cheek blisters, two more in the top turret, one each in a pair of new waist positions, and a final pair in a new tail gunner's position. Company promotional material bragged the B-25H could "bring to bear 10 machine guns coming and four going, in addition to the 75 mm cannon, a brace of eight rockets and 3,000 lb (1,360 kg) of bombs." Yenne 1989, p.40. The B-25H also featured a redesigned cockpit area, with the top turret moved forward to the navigator's compartment (thus requiring the addition of the waist and tail gun positions), and a heavily modified cockpit designed to be operated by a single pilot, the co-pilot's station and controls deleted, and the seat cut down and used by the navigator/cannoneer, the radio operator being moved to the aft compartment, operating the waist guns. Kinzey 1999, p. 52–53. A total of 1,400 B-25Gs and B-25Hs were built in all. The final version of the Mitchell, the B-25J, looked much like the earlier B, C and D, having reverted to the longer nose. The less-than-successful 75 mm (2.95 in) cannon was deleted on the J model. Instead, 800 of this version were built with a solid nose containing eight .50 (12.7 mm) machine guns, while other J-models featured the earlier "greenhouse" style nose containing the bombardier's position. Regardless of the nose style used, all J-models also included two .50 in (12.7 mm) guns in a "fuselage package" located directly under the pilot's station, and two more such guns in an identical package just under the co-pilot's compartment. The solid-nose B-25J variant carried an impressive total of 18 .50 in (12.7 mm) guns: eight in the nose, four in under-cockpit packages, two in an upper turret, two in the waist, and a pair in the tail. No other bomber of World War II carried as many guns. However, the first 555 B-25Js (the B-25J-1-NC production block) were delivered without the fuselage package guns, because it was discovered muzzle blast from these guns was causing severe stress in the fuselage; while later production runs returned these guns, they were often removed as a field modification for the same reason. Kinzey 1999, p. 60. In all, 4,318 B-25Js were built. The B-25 was a safe and forgiving aircraft to fly. With an engine out, 60° banking turns into the dead engine were possible, and control could be easily maintained down to 145 mph (230 km/h). However, the pilot had to remember and maintain engine-out directional control at low speeds after take off with rudder - if this was attempted with ailerons, the aircraft would snap out of control. The tricycle landing gear made for excellent visibility while taxiing. The only significant complaint about the B-25 was the extremely high noise level produced by its engines; as a result, many pilots eventually suffered from various degrees of hearing loss. Higham 1978 The Mitchell was also an amazingly sturdy aircraft and could withstand tremendous punishment. One well-known B-25C of the 321st Bomb Group was nicknamed "Patches" because its crew chief painted all the aircraft's flak hole patches with high-visibility zinc chromate paint. By the end of the war, this aircraft had completed over 300 missions, was belly-landed six times and sported over 400 patched holes. The airframe was so bent, straight-and-level flight required 8° of left aileron trim and 6° of right rudder, causing the aircraft to "crab" sideways across the sky. An interesting characteristic of the B-25 was its ability to extend range by using one-quarter wing flap settings. Since the aircraft normally cruised in a slightly nose-high attitude, about 40 gal (150 l) of fuel was below the fuel pickup point and thus unavailable for use. The flaps-down setting gave the aircraft a more level flight attitude, which resulted in this fuel becoming available, thus slightly extending the aircraft's range. By the time a separate United States Air Force was established in 1947, most B-25s had been consigned to long-term storage. However, a select number continued in service through the late 1940s and 1950s in a variety of training, reconnaissance and support roles. Its principal use during this period was for undergraduate training of multi-engine aircraft pilots slated for reciprocating engine or turboprop cargo, aerial refueling or reconnaissance aircraft. Still others were assigned to units of the Air National Guard in training roles in support of F-89 Scorpion and F-94 Starfire operations. The final example of a B-25 was struck from the active USAF roles in January 1959. http://www.b25.net/pages/b25postwar.html Today, many B-25 are kept in airworthy condition by air museums and collectors. Empire State Building incident On Saturday, 28 July 1945, at 0940 (while flying in thick fog), a USAAF B-25D crashed into the north side of the Empire State Building, hitting between the 79th and 80th floor. Fourteen people were killed — 11 in the building, along with Colonel William Smith and the other two occupants of the bomber. Roberts, William. Elevator World, March 1996. Retrieved: 1 December 2006. Betty Lou Oliver, an elevator attendant, survived the impact and a subsequent accident with the elevator. It was partly because of this incident that towers 1 and 2 of the World Trade Center were designed to withstand the impact of a Boeing 707 aircraft. Hamburger, Ronald, et al. "World Trade Center Building Performance Study." Federal Emergency Management Agency.Retrieved: 27 July 2006. Variants B-25C Mitchell USAAF B-25C/D. Note the early radar fitted to the nose B-25J B-25J warbird B-25J N345BG '44-86777' B-25 The first version of the B-25 delivered. No prototypes were ordered. The first nine aircraft were built with constant dihedral angle. Due to low stability, the wing was redesigned so that the dihedral was eliminated on the outboard section. (Number made: 24.) B-25A Version of the B-25 modified to make it combat ready; additions included self-sealing fuel tanks, crew armor, and an improved tail gunner station. No changes were made in the armament. Re-designated obsolete (RB-25A designation) in 1942. (Number made: 40.) B-25B Rear turret deleted; manned dorsal and remotely-operated ventral turrets added, each with a pair of .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns. The ventral turret was retractable, but the increased drag still reduced the cruise speed by 30 mph (48 km/h). 23 were delivered to the RAF as the Mitchell Mk I. The Doolittle Raiders flew B-25Bs on their famous mission. (Number made: 120.) B-25C Improved version of the B-25B: powerplants upgraded from Wright R-2600-9 radials to R-2600-13s; de-icing and anti-icing equipment added; the navigator received a sighting blister; nose armament was increased to two .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns, one fixed and one flexible. The B-25C model was the first mass-produced B-25 version; it was also used in the United Kingdom (as the Mitchell II), in Canada, the People's Republic of China, the Netherlands, and the Soviet Union. First mass-produced B-25 model. (Number made: 1,625.) ZB-25C B-25D Identical to the B-25C, the only difference was that the B-25D was made in Kansas City, Kansas, whereas the B-25C was made in Inglewood, California. First flew on 3 January 1942. (Number made: 2,290.) ZB-25D XB-25E Single B-25C modified to test de-icing and anti-icing equipment that circulated exhaust from the engines in chambers in the leading and trailing edges and empennage. The aircraft was tested for almost two years, beginning in 1942; while the system proved extremely effective, no production models were built that used it prior to the end of World War II. Many prop aircraft today use the XB-25E system. (Number made: 1, converted.) ZXB-25E XB-25F-A Modified B-25C that tested the use of insulated electrical de-icing coils mounted inside the wing and empennage leading edges as a de-icing system. The hot air de-icing system tested on the XB-25E was more practical. (Number made: 1, converted.) XB-25G Modified B-25C in which the transparent nose was replaced by a solid one carrying two fixed .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns and a 75 mm (2.95 in) M4 cannon, then the largest weapon ever carried on an American bomber. (Number made: 1, converted.) B-25G To satisfy the dire need for ground-attack and strafing aircraft, the B-25G was made following the success of the prototype XB-25G. The production model featured increased armor and a greater fuel supply than the XB-25G. One B-25G was passed to the British, who gave it the name Mitchell II that had been used for the B-25C. (Number made: 420.) B-25H B-25H Barbie III taxiing at Centennial Airport, Colorado An improved version of the B-25G. It featured two additional fixed .50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns in the nose and four in fuselage-mounted pods; the heavy M4 cannon was replaced by a lighter 75 mm (2.95 in) T13E1. (Number made: 1,000; number left flying in the world: 1.) B-25J The last production model of the B-25, often called a cross between the B-25C and the B-25H. It had a transparent nose, but many of the delivered aircraft were modified to have a solid nose. Most of its 14–18 machine guns were forward-facing for strafing missions. 316 were delivered to the Royal Air Force as the Mitchell III. (Number made: 4,318.) CB-25J Utility transport version. VB-25J A number of B-25s were converted for use as staff and VIP transports. Henry H. Arnold and Dwight D. Eisenhower both used converted B-25Js as their personal transports. Trainer variants Most models of the B-25 were used at some point as training aircraft. TB-25D Originally designated AT-24A (Advanced Trainer, Model 24, Version A). Trainer modification of B-25D. In total, 60 AT-24s were built. TB-25G Originally designated AT-24B. Trainer modification of B-25G. TB-25C Originally designated AT-24C. Trainer modification of B-25C. TB-25J Originally designated AT-24D. Trainer modification of B-25J. Another 600 B-25Js were modified after the war. TB-25K Hughes E1 fire-control radar trainer (Hughes). (Number made: 117.) TB-25L Hayes pilot-trainer conversion. (Number made: 90.) TB-25M Hughes E5 fire-control radar trainer. (Number made: 40.) TB-25N Hayes navigator-trainer conversion. (Number made: 47.) U.S. Navy / U.S. Marine Corps variants A PBJ-1H of VMB-613. Two PBJ-1Js on Mindanao,1945. PBJ-1C Similar to the B-25C for the US Navy; often fitted with airborne search radar and used in the anti-submarine role. PBJ-1D Similar to the B-25D for the US Navy and US Marine Corps. Differed in having a single .50 in (12.7 mm) machine gun in the tail turret and beam gun positions similar to the B-25H. Often fitted with airborne search radar and used in the anti-submarine role. PBJ-1G US Navy/US Marine Corps designation for the B-25G PBJ-1H US Navy/US Marine Corps designation for the B-25H PBJ-1J US Navy designation for the B-25J-NC (Blocks -1 through -35) with improvements in radio and other equipment. Often fitted with "package guns" and wingtip search radar for the anti-shipping/anti-submarine role. Operators B-25 Mitchell bombers from No. 18 (NEI) Squadron RAAF on a training flight near Canberra in 1942 B-25J in 98 RAF Squadron markings Royal Australian Air Force No. 2 Squadron RAAF Biafran Air Force operated two aircraft. Brazilian Air Force (75 units) Royal Canadian Air Force - bomber, light transport, training aircraft, "special" mission roles The Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) was an important user of the B-25 Mitchell, although most of the RCAF use of the Mitchell was postwar. The first B-25s for the RCAF had originally been diverted to Canada from RAF orders. These included one Mitchell I, 42 Mitchell IIs, and 19 Mitchell IIIs. No 13 (P) Squadron was formed unofficially at Rockliffe in May of 1944. They operated Mitchell IIs on high altitude aerial photography sorties. This unit gained official status in November of 1946 and became No 413 (P) Squadron in April 1947. They retained the Mitchell until October 1948. No 418 (Auxiliary) Squadron received its first Mitchell IIs in January 1947. It was followed by No 406 (auxiliary) which flew Mitchell IIIs from April 1947 to June 1958. No 418 Operated a mix of IIs and IIIs until March of 1958. No 12 Squadron of Air Transport Command also flew Mitchell IIIs along with other types from September 1956 to November 1960. In 1951, the RCAF received an additional 75 B-25Js from USAF stocks to make good attrition and to equip various second-line units. Many post-war RCAF Mitchells encorporated a new exhaust system where the top S-shaped stacks were replaced by semi-collector rings. People's Liberation Army Air Force operated captured Nationalist Chinese aircraft. Indonesian Air Force received some B-25 Mitchell from Netherlands, last example retired in 1979. Royal Netherlands Air Force No. 18 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron RAAF No. 119 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron RAAF No. 320 Squadron, Royal Dutch Naval Air Service Polish Air Forces on exile in Great Britain No. 305 Polish Bomber Squadron Spanish State Spanish Air Force former USAAF serial number 41-30338 interned in 1944 and operated between 1948-1956. Cuatro Vientos - Madrid Soviet Air Force received a total of 866 B-25s (of types C/D/S/G/J). Royal Air Force received more than 900 aircraft. No. 98 Squadron RAF No. 180 Squadron RAF No. 226 Squadron RAF No. 342 Squadron RAF No. 681 Squadron RAF No. 684 Squadron RAF United States Army Air Forces United States Navy United States Marine Corps Survivors B-25D Tondelayo, N3476G s/n 44-28932. Specifications (B-25J) Popular culture The B-25 is featured in the 1961 novel Catch-22 translated into the 1970 Catch-22 (film) which had a large number of film unit B-25s in flying condition. The B-25 also had feature roles in the movies: Thirty Seconds over Tokyo (1944) (one pilot's account of the Doolittle Raid), Hanover Street (1979) based a fictional B-25 unit stationed in England, Forever Young (1992), following a B-25 test pilot's story both in the past and present, and Pearl Harbor (2001) which culminates in a depiction of the Doolittle Raid. See also References Notes Bibliography Bridgman, Leonard, ed. "The North American Mitchell." Jane's Fighting Aircraft of World War II. London: Studio, 1946. ISBN 1-85170-493-0. Green, William. Famous Bombers of the Second World War. New York: Doubleday & Company, 1975. ISBN 0-385-12467-8. Higham, Roy and Carol Williams, eds. Flying Combat Aircraft of USAAF-USAF (Vol. 1). Andrews AFB, Maryland: Air Force Historical Foundation, 1975. ISBN 0-8138-0325-X. Higham, Roy and Carol Williams, eds. Flying Combat Aircraft of USAAF-USAF (Vol. 2). Andrews AFB, Maryland: Air Force Historical Foundation, 1978. ISBN 0-8138-0375-6. Johnsen, Frederick A. North American B-25 Mitchell. Stillwater, Minnesota: Voyageur Press, 1997. ISBN 0-933424-77-9. Kinzey, Bert. B-25 Mitchell In Detail. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications Inc., 1999. ISBN 1-888974-13-3. Kit, Mister and Jean-Pierre De Cock. North American B-25 Mitchell (in French). Paris, France: Éditions Atlas, 1980. McDowell, Ernest R. B-25 Mitchell in Action (Aircraft number 34). Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications Inc., 1978. ISBN 0-89747-033-8. McDowell, Ernest R. North American B-25A/J Mitchell (Aircam No.22). Canterbury, Kent, UK: Osprey Publications Ltd., 1971. ISBN 0-85045-027-6. Mizrahi, J.V. North American B-25: The Full Story of World War II's Classic Medium. Hollywood, California: Challenge Publications Inc., 1965. Pace, Steve. Warbird History: B-25 Mitchell. Osceola, Wisconsin: Motorbooks International, 1994. ISBN 0-87938-939-7. Scutts, Jerry. B-25 Mitchell at War. London: Ian Allan Ltd., 1983. ISBN 0-71101219-9. Scutts, Jerry. North American B-25 Mitchell. Ramsbury, Marlborough, Wiltshire, UK: Crowood Press, 2001. ISBN 1-86126-394-5. Swanborough, Gordon. North American, An Aircraft Album No. 6. New York: Arco Publishing Company Inc., 1973. ISBN 0-668-03318-5. Wolf, William. North American B-25 Mitchell, The Ultimate Look: from Drawing Board to Flying Arsenal. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, 2008. ISBN 978-0-76432930-2. Yenne, Bill, Rockwell: The Heritage of North American. New York: Crescent Books, 1989. ISBN 0-517-67252-9. External links American Aeronautical Foundation B-25J "Executive Sweet" Warbird Central - Warbird Information Website Boeing: History -- Products - North American Aviation B-25 Mitchell Bomber Aero Vintage B-25 locator Fantasy of Flight's B-25 Russell's Raiders B25 - Jet Alpine Fighter VMB-613 - a marine bombing squadron that used the naval version of the B-25 known as the PBJ-1 Militaire Luchtvaart Museum, Kamp Zeist, Soesterberg, Netherlands Warbirds Unlimited Foundation - Mesa, AZ - operators of the last flying H-model B-25 with 75mm cannon | North_American_B-25_Mitchell |@lemmatized north:19 american:22 b:131 mitchell:39 twin:1 engined:1 medium:7 bomber:17 manufacture:2 aviation:3 use:27 many:9 allied:1 air:28 force:23 every:1 theater:3 world:13 war:13 ii:13 well:3 end:4 saw:1 service:5 across:2 four:8 decade:1 name:3 honor:1 general:2 billy:1 pioneer:1 u:14 military:2 aircraft:40 specific:1 person:1 production:11 nearly:1 numerous:1 model:15 build:12 include:8 limited:1 variation:1 navy:8 marine:7 corps:6 pbj:9 patrol:1 army:9 f:3 photo:1 reconnaissance:3 design:8 development:1 flight:6 performance:3 school:1 also:12 work:1 evaluate:2 descendant:2 early:9 xb:9 project:1 mid:1 experience:1 gain:3 develop:2 eventually:3 call:2 na:7 company:4 one:13 several:1 modification:10 later:3 test:7 number:23 potential:1 improvement:4 wright:2 r:5 radial:2 engine:8 would:2 become:3 standard:2 modify:8 improve:1 submit:1 united:7 state:8 corp:2 evaluation:1 originally:7 intend:1 attack:2 export:1 kingdom:2 france:2 pressing:1 requirement:1 stage:1 however:5 country:1 change:4 mind:1 opt:1 instead:2 new:10 douglas:1 db:1 havoc:1 despite:2 loss:4 sale:1 enter:1 spotlight:1 unfortunately:1 destroy:1 crash:3 april:5 nonetheless:1 type:3 order:3 along:3 martin:1 marauder:2 kansas:3 city:5 dub:2 basis:1 first:12 actual:2 due:4 press:3 need:3 experimental:2 version:14 necessary:1 make:24 run:3 exist:1 field:5 center:4 around:1 significant:3 day:1 wing:9 nine:2 constant:2 dihedral:4 consistent:1 straight:2 slight:1 upward:1 angle:3 fuselage:5 tip:1 cause:3 stability:2 problem:1 result:4 nullify:1 outboard:2 section:2 give:3 slightly:3 gull:1 configuration:1 less:2 noticeable:1 period:2 increase:3 size:1 tail:6 fin:1 decrease:1 inward:1 cant:1 total:6 fairfax:1 airport:2 plant:1 kansa:4 mean:1 high:5 altitude:3 premise:1 bore:1 little:1 resemblance:1 much:2 common:1 operational:1 history:3 lt:1 peddy:1 crew:5 show:1 people:4 require:3 keep:2 fly:12 doolittle:7 raid:4 aboard:1 uss:1 hornet:1 refuel:1 squadron:21 bomb:7 group:2 low:4 level:6 skip:2 mission:8 guinea:2 aaf:1 tactical:1 orlando:1 aab:1 florida:1 closeup:1 gun:26 pod:2 fame:1 lead:1 legendary:1 lieutenant:2 colonel:2 jimmy:1 take:3 carrier:1 successfully:1 bombed:1 tokyo:2 japanese:6 without:3 subsequently:1 land:5 en:1 route:1 recovery:2 eastern:1 china:3 task:1 spot:1 fishing:1 vessel:1 fuel:6 exhaustion:1 stormy:1 nighttime:1 condition:3 zero:1 visibility:3 lack:1 electronic:1 homing:1 aid:1 base:3 intact:1 come:2 soviet:3 union:2 five:1 man:2 intern:2 confiscate:1 aircrew:1 survive:2 historic:1 back:2 line:2 follow:4 additional:4 addition:4 plexiglas:1 window:1 navigator:7 radio:3 operator:4 heavy:3 nose:18 armament:3 deice:1 anti:7 icing:6 equipment:4 release:1 second:4 mass:3 produce:4 lightly:1 arm:1 raider:3 differ:2 location:1 c:4 inglewood:2 california:3 although:2 frequently:1 southwest:1 pacific:2 swpa:2 treetop:1 strafing:3 parafrag:1 parachute:1 retarded:1 fragmentation:1 airfield:1 philippine:1 heavily:2 armed:1 major:1 paul:1 pappy:1 gunn:1 strafe:2 ship:1 try:1 supply:2 leadership:1 george:1 kenney:1 fifth:1 thirteenth:1 devastate:2 target:2 play:1 role:8 push:1 home:1 island:1 effect:1 central:2 alaska:1 africa:1 mediterranean:1 burma:1 india:1 cbi:1 urgent:1 hard:1 hitting:1 strafer:1 length:2 transparent:3 bombardier:2 replace:6 short:2 solid:5 contain:3 two:14 fix:5 mm:18 machine:11 cannon:8 large:3 weapon:2 fit:5 similar:4 british:2 mosquito:1 mk:2 xviii:1 german:1 ju:1 carry:5 manually:1 load:1 able:1 perform:1 operation:2 leave:2 station:5 behind:1 pilot:11 possible:2 g:3 allow:1 breech:1 extend:3 compartment:4 successor:1 even:1 firepower:1 light:3 specifically:1 fire:6 muzzle:2 velocity:1 ft:1 rate:1 approximately:1 round:1 could:4 single:4 relative:1 ineffectiveness:1 ground:2 substantial:1 recoil:1 sometimes:1 remove:2 h:6 kinzey:4 p:6 mount:3 forward:4 firing:1 fixed:1 cheek:1 blister:2 top:3 turret:7 pair:4 waist:4 position:5 final:3 gunner:2 promotional:1 material:1 brag:1 bring:1 bear:1 go:1 brace:1 eight:3 rocket:1 lb:1 kg:1 yenne:2 feature:6 redesigned:1 cockpit:3 area:1 move:2 thus:3 operate:7 co:2 control:6 delete:3 seat:1 cut:1 cannoneer:1 aft:1 look:2 like:1 revert:1 long:2 successful:1 j:6 greenhouse:1 style:2 regardless:1 package:5 locate:1 directly:1 identical:2 variant:4 impressive:1 upper:1 nc:2 block:2 deliver:5 discover:1 blast:1 severe:1 stress:1 late:2 return:1 often:5 reason:1 safe:1 forgive:1 banking:1 turn:1 dead:1 easily:1 maintain:2 mph:2 km:2 remember:1 directional:1 speed:2 rudder:2 attempt:1 aileron:2 snap:1 tricycle:1 gear:1 excellent:1 taxi:2 complaint:1 extremely:2 noise:1 suffer:1 various:2 degree:1 hear:1 higham:3 amazingly:1 sturdy:1 withstand:2 tremendous:1 punishment:1 know:2 nickname:1 patch:2 chief:1 paint:2 flak:1 hole:2 zinc:1 chromate:1 complete:1 belly:1 six:1 time:2 sport:1 patched:1 airframe:1 bent:1 left:1 trim:1 right:1 crab:1 sideways:1 sky:1 interesting:1 characteristic:1 ability:1 range:2 quarter:1 flap:1 setting:1 since:1 normally:1 cruise:2 attitude:2 gal:1 l:1 pickup:1 point:2 unavailable:1 flaps:1 set:1 available:1 separate:1 establish:1 consign:1 term:1 storage:1 select:1 continue:1 variety:1 training:5 support:2 principal:1 undergraduate:1 multi:1 slat:1 reciprocate:1 turboprop:1 cargo:1 aerial:2 refueling:1 still:2 others:1 assign:1 unit:6 national:1 guard:1 train:1 scorpion:1 starfire:1 example:2 strike:1 active:1 usaf:4 january:3 http:1 www:1 net:1 page:1 html:1 today:2 airworthy:1 museum:2 collector:2 empire:2 building:3 incident:2 saturday:1 july:2 thick:1 fog:1 usaaf:5 side:1 hit:1 floor:1 fourteen:1 kill:1 william:4 smith:1 occupant:1 robert:1 elevator:3 march:2 retrieve:2 december:1 betty:1 lou:1 oliver:1 attendant:1 impact:2 subsequent:1 accident:1 partly:1 tower:1 trade:2 boeing:2 hamburger:1 ronald:1 et:1 al:1 study:1 federal:1 emergency:1 management:1 agency:1 note:2 radar:6 warbird:4 prototype:2 redesign:1 eliminate:1 combat:3 ready:1 self:1 seal:1 tank:1 armor:2 improved:3 designate:5 obsolete:1 rb:1 designation:4 rear:1 dorsal:1 remotely:1 operated:1 ventral:2 add:2 retractable:1 drag:1 reduce:1 raf:9 famous:2 powerplants:1 upgrade:1 de:6 ice:2 receive:6 sighting:1 flexible:1 canada:2 republic:1 netherlands:6 zb:2 difference:1 whereas:1 circulate:1 exhaust:2 chamber:1 leading:2 trailing:1 edge:2 empennage:2 almost:1 year:1 begin:1 system:5 prove:1 effective:1 prior:1 prop:1 convert:5 zxb:1 modified:1 insulated:1 electrical:1 coil:1 inside:1 hot:1 practical:1 ever:1 satisfy:1 dire:1 success:1 increased:1 great:2 pass:1 barbie:1 iii:6 centennial:1 colorado:1 last:3 cross:1 facing:1 royal:7 cb:1 utility:1 transport:5 vb:1 staff:1 vip:1 henry:1 arnold:1 dwight:1 eisenhower:1 personal:1 trainer:10 tb:8 advanced:1 another:1 hughes:3 hayes:2 conversion:2 vmb:2 mindanao:1 airborne:2 search:3 submarine:3 beam:1 wingtip:1 shipping:1 nei:1 raaf:4 near:1 canberra:1 marking:1 australian:1 biafran:1 brazilian:1 canadian:2 special:1 roles:1 rcaf:5 important:1 user:1 postwar:1 divert:1 form:1 unofficially:1 rockliffe:1 may:1 photography:1 sortie:1 official:1 status:1 november:2 retain:1 october:1 auxiliary:2 june:1 mix:1 command:1 september:1 stock:1 good:1 attrition:1 equip:1 post:1 encorporated:1 shaped:1 stack:1 semi:1 ring:1 liberation:1 captured:1 nationalist:1 chinese:1 indonesian:1 retire:1 east:2 indie:2 dutch:1 naval:2 polish:2 exile:1 britain:1 spanish:2 former:1 serial:1 cuatro:1 vientos:1 madrid:1 survivor:1 tondelayo:1 n:1 specification:1 popular:1 culture:1 novel:1 catch:2 translate:1 film:2 movie:1 thirty:1 account:1 hanover:1 street:1 fictional:1 england:1 forever:1 young:1 story:2 past:1 present:1 pearl:1 harbor:1 culminate:1 depiction:1 see:1 reference:1 bibliography:1 bridgman:1 leonard:1 ed:3 jane:1 fight:1 london:2 studio:1 isbn:14 green:1 york:3 doubleday:1 roy:2 carol:2 williams:2 vol:2 andrew:2 afb:2 maryland:2 historical:2 foundation:4 x:1 johnsen:1 frederick:1 stillwater:1 minnesota:1 voyageur:1 bert:1 detail:1 carrollton:2 texas:2 signal:2 publication:4 inc:4 kit:1 mister:1 jean:1 pierre:1 cock:1 french:1 paris:1 éditions:1 atlas:1 mcdowell:2 ernest:2 action:1 aircam:1 canterbury:1 kent:1 uk:2 osprey:1 ltd:2 mizrahi:1 v:1 full:1 classic:1 hollywood:1 challenge:1 pace:1 steve:1 osceola:1 wisconsin:1 motorbooks:1 international:1 scutts:2 jerry:2 ian:1 allan:1 ramsbury:1 marlborough:1 wiltshire:1 crowood:1 swanborough:1 gordon:1 album:1 arco:1 publishing:2 wolf:1 ultimate:1 draw:1 board:1 arsenal:1 atglen:1 pennsylvania:1 schiffer:1 bill:1 rockwell:1 heritage:1 crescent:1 book:1 external:1 link:1 aeronautical:1 executive:1 sweet:1 information:1 website:1 product:1 aero:1 vintage:1 locator:1 fantasy:1 russell:1 jet:1 alpine:1 fighter:1 bombing:1 militaire:1 luchtvaart:1 kamp:1 zeist:1 soesterberg:1 warbirds:1 unlimited:1 mesa:1 az:1 flying:1 |@bigram twin_engined:1 marine_corps:6 photo_reconnaissance:1 dihedral_angle:2 gull_wing:1 doolittle_raid:4 aboard_uss:1 uss_hornet:1 lieutenant_colonel:1 en_route:1 soviet_union:2 mosquito_mk:1 muzzle_velocity:1 tail_gunner:2 lb_kg:1 muzzle_blast:1 mph_km:2 reciprocate_engine:1 aerial_refueling:1 http_www:1 et_al:1 remotely_operated:1 trailing_edge:1 vip_transport:1 dwight_eisenhower:1 squadron_raaf:4 raf_squadron:6 aerial_photography:1 squadron_raf:6 pearl_harbor:1 johnsen_frederick:1 voyageur_press:1 carrollton_texas:2 jean_pierre:1 motorbooks_international:1 scutts_jerry:2 ian_allan:1 ramsbury_marlborough:1 uk_crowood:1 crowood_press:1 arco_publishing:1 atglen_pennsylvania:1 pennsylvania_schiffer:1 schiffer_publishing:1 external_link:1 |
1,636 | Gdynia | View from Kosciuszko Square; Dar Pomorza on the left, Sea Towers on the right Gdynia ( (until 1939), Gotenhafen (1939-1945); ) is a city in the Pomeranian Voivodeship of Poland and an important seaport at Gdańsk Bay on the south coast of the Baltic Sea. Located in Kashubia in Eastern Pomerania, Gdynia is part of a conurbation with the spa town of Sopot, the city of Gdańsk and suburban communities, which together form a metropolitan area called the Tricity (Trójmiasto), with a population of over a million people. History The first known mention of the name "Gdynia" was of a Pomeranian (Kashubian) fishing village, in 1253. Oxhöft, now known as Oksywie, a part of Gdynia, was mentioned even earlier, in 1209. It was there that the first church on the this part of the Baltic Sea coast was built. In 1380 the owner of the village which became Gdynia, Peter from Rusocin, gave the village to the Cisterian Order, so in the years 1382–1772 Gdynia belonged to the Cistercian abbey in Oliva, now Oliwa. In 1789 there were only 21 houses in the village. The area of the later city of Gdynia shared its history with Pomerelia (Eastern Pomerania); in prehistoric times it was the center of Oksywie culture; it was later populated by Slavs with some Baltic Prussian influences. As a part of Pomerania, it was a province of Poland from circa 990–1308. In 1309-1310 it was conquered by the Teutonic Order (1309–1454/66), but afterwards became part of Royal Prussia within the Kingdom of Poland (1466–1772). In the First Partition of Poland in 1772 it was annexed into the Kingdom of Prussia (1772–1918), and as part of Prussia became part of the German Empire (1870–1918). In 1870, the village of Gdingen had some 1,200 inhabitants, and it was not a poor fishing village as it is sometimes described. It was a popular tourist spot with several guest houses, restaurants, cafes, several brick houses and a small harbour with a pier for small trading ships. The first Kashubian mayor of Gdingen was Jan Radtke. After the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, Gdingen or Gdynia - as it was now called - along with other parts of former West Prussia, became a part of the new Republic of Poland; simultaneously, the city of Danzig and surrounding area was declared a free city and put under the League of Nations, though Poland was given economic liberties and requisitioned for matters of foreign representation. Construction of the seaport The decision to build a major seaport at the Gdynia village was made by the Polish government in the winter of 1920, in the midst of the Polish-Soviet War (1919–1920). The authorities and seaport workers of the Free City of Danzig felt Poland's economic rights in the city were being misappropriated to help fight the war. Despite these demands, the workers went on strike, and Poland realized the need for a port city it was in complete control of, economically and politically. Construction of Gdynia seaport was started in 1921, but because of financial difficulties was conducted slowly and with interruptions. It was accelerated after the Sejm (Polish parliament) passed the Gdynia Seaport Construction Act on 23 September 1922. By 1923 a 550-metre pier, 175 metres of a wooden tide breaker, and a small harbour had been constructed. Ceremonial inauguration of Gdynia as a temporary military port and fishers' shelter took place on 23 April 1923, and the first major seagoing ship arrived on 13 August 1923. To speed up the construction works, the Polish government in November 1924 signed a contract with the French-Polish Consortium for Gdynia Seaport Construction, which by the end of 1925 had built a small seven-metre-deep harbour, the south pier, part of the north pier, a railway, and had also ordered the trans-shipment equipment. The works were going more slowly than expected, however. They accelerated only after May 1926, because of an increase in Polish exports by sea, economic prosperity, the outbreak of the German–Polish trade war which reverted most Polish international trade to sea routes, and also thanks to the personal engagement of Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski, Polish Minister of Industry and Trade, also responsible for construction of Centralny Okręg Przemysłowy. Till the end of 1930 docks, piers, breakwaters and many auxiliary and industrial installations were constructed (such as depots, trans-shipment equipment, and a rice processing factory) or started (such as a large clod room). Trans-shipments rose from 10,000 tons (1924) to 2,923,000 tons (1929). At this time Gdynia was the only transit and special seaport designed for coal exports. In the years 1931–1939 the Gdynia harbour was further extended to become a universal seaport. In 1938 Gdynia was the largest and most modern seaport on the Baltic Sea, as well as the tenth biggest in Europe. The trans-shipments rose to 8.7 million tons, which was 46% of Polish foreign trade. In 1938 the Gdynia shipyard started to build its first full-sea ship, the Olza. Construction of the city The city was constructed later than the seaport. In 1925 a special committee was inaugurated to build the city; city expansion plans were designed and city rights were granted in 1926, and tax privileges were granted for investors in 1927. The city started to grow significantly after 1928 and the population grew rapidly to over 120,000 in 1939. In 1930 the Baltic Institute in Toruń, an institution designed to research Polish heritage in Pomerania, opened its branch in Gdynia. Gdynia during World War II (1939–1945) The city and seaport were occupied in September 1939 by German troops and renamed Gotenhafen after the Goths, an ancient Germanic tribe. Some 50,000 Polish citizens, who had earlier been introduced into the area by the Polish government, after the decision to enlarge the harbour was made, were expelled into the General Gouvernment. Kashubians who were suspected to support the Polish cause, particularly those with higher education, were arrested and executed, the main place of executions being Piaśnica (Groß Plaßnitz), where according 12,000 were executed. The German administrator of the area Albert Forster considered Kashubians of "low value" and didn't support any attempts to create Kashubian nationality. Some Kashubians organized anti-Nazi resistance groups, "Gryf Kaszubski" (later "Gryf Pomorski"), and the exiled "Zwiaziek Pomorski" in Great Britain The harbour was turned into a German naval base. The shipyard was expanded in 1940 and became a branch of the Kiel shipyard, (Deutsche Werke Kiel A.G.). Gdynia became an important German naval base, due to its being relatively distant from the war theater, and many German large ships - battleships and heavy cruisers were harbored there. Both the seaport and the shipyard witnessed several air raids by the Allies from 1943 onwards, but suffered little damage. The seaport area was largely destroyed by withdrawing German troops in 1945 (90% of the buildings and equipment were destroyed) and the harbour entrance was blocked by the German battlecruiser Gneisenau that had been brought to Gdynia for major repairs. The city was also the location for the Nazi concentration camp Gotenhafen, a subcamp of the Stutthof concentration camp near Danzig. The harbour of Gotenhafen was also used in winter 1944-45 to evacuate German troops and refugees trapped by the Red Army. Some of the ships were hit by torpedoes from Soviet submarines in the Baltic Sea on the route West. For example, the ship Wilhelm Gustloff sank taking about 9,400 people with her the worst loss of life in a single sinking in maritime history. Gdynia after World War II On March 28, 1945, Gdynia was captured by the Soviets and assigned to Polish Gdańsk Voivodeship. In the Polish 1970 protests, worker demonstrations took place at Gdynia Shipyard. Workers were fired upon by the police. The fallen became symbolized by a fictitious worker Janek Wiśniewski, commemorated in a song by Mieczysław Cholewa, Pieśń o Janku z Gdyni. One of Gdynia's important streets is named after Janek Wiśniewski. The same person was portrayed by Andrzej Wajda in his movie Man of Iron as Mateusz Birkut. Ernst Stavro Blofeld, the archenemy of the character James Bond known for his white persian cat, comes from Gdynia. On December 4, 1999, a storm destroyed a huge crane in a shipyard, which was able to lift 900 tons . Economy Notable companies that have their headquarters in Gdynia: Stocznia Gdynia, the largest Polish shipyard PROKOM SA, the largest Polish I.T. company C. Hartwig Gdynia SA, one of the largest Polish frightforwarders Some shipping lines. Port of Gdynia Cutty Sark Tall Ships' Races 2003; Stad Amsterdam, Dar Młodzieży and Dar Pomorza. Cargo statistics: 1924: 10,000 tons 1929: 2,923,000 tons 1938: 8,700,000 tons 2002: 9,365,200 tons 2003: 9,748,000 tons 2004: 10,744,000 tons 2005: 12,230,000 tons 2006: 14,199,000 tons 2007: 17,025,000 tons Containers: 2003: 2004: 2005: 2006: 2007: Passengers 364,202 See also: Ports of the Baltic Sea Education Orłowo There are currently 8 universities and institutions of higher education based in Gdynia. Many students from Gdynia attend also universities located in the Tricity. State-owned: Gdynia Maritime University Polish Naval Academy in Gdynia University of Gdansk - departments of Biology, Geography and Oceanology Privately owned: Academy of International Economic and Political Relations in Gdynia Kwiatkowski Graduate School of Business Administration in Gdynia Pomeranian Higher School of Humanities in Gdynia Cardinal Stefan Wyszynski University - department in Gdynia Higher School of Social Communication See also: Education in Gdynia Gdynia is the surprise second wildcard city in the here and now world edition of monopoly. Sports There are many popular professional sports teams in Gdynia and Tricity area. Amateur sports are played by thousands of Gdynia’s citizens, as well as in schools and universities. Sports in Gdynia Arka Gdynia - men’s football team (Polish Cup winner 1979, 2nd league 2003/2004, 2004/2005 and 2007/2008 seasons, 1st league at season 2005/2006, 2006/2007 and 2008/2009) Bałtyk Gdynia - men's football team, 4th league at season 2005/2006 and 2006/2007 Lotos VBW Clima Gdynia - women’s basketball team (Polish Champion 2004 in Sharp Torell Basket Liga) Kager Gdynia - men’s basketball team (Dominet Bank Ekstraliga) KS Laczpol Gdynia - women’s handball team (1st league in season 2003/2004) RC Arka Gdynia - rugby team (Champions of Poland in seasons 2003/2004 & 2004/2005) Politics Gdynia/Słupsk constituency Members of Parliament (Sejm) elected from Gdynia/Słupsk constituency Marek Biernacki, PO Jolanta Szczypińska, PiS Jarosław Sellin, PiS Robert Strąk, LPR Joanna Senyszyn, SLD-UP Izabela Jaruga-Nowacka, SLD-UP Kazimierz Plocke, PO Tadeusz Aziewicz, PO Jerzy Budnik, PO Zbigniew Kozak, PiS Kazimierz Kleina, PO Ryszard Kaczyński, PiS Stanisław Lamczyk, PO Lech Woszczerowicz, Samoobrona Members of Senat elected from Gdynia/Słupsk constituency Dorota Arciszewska-Mielewczyk, PiS Antoni Szymański, PiS Edmund Wittbrodt, PO Sights and tourist attractions Building of Sea Towers Gdynia is a relatively modern city, there are not many historical buildings. The oldest building in Gdynia is the 13th century St. Michael the Archangel's Church in Oksywie. There is also a 17th century neo-Gothic manor house located on Folwarczna Street in Orłowo. However, what attracts most tourists in Gdynia deals with its recent past. In the harbour, there are two anchored museum ships, the ORP Blyskawica destroyer and the Dar Pomorza Tall Ship frigate. Gdynia is famous for its numerous examples of early 20th century architecture, especially monumentalism and early functionalism. Recently reconstructed Świętojańska street and Kościuszko square are also worth a mention. The surrounding hills and the coastline attract many nature lovers. A leisure pier and a cliff-like coastline in Kępa Redłowska, as well as the surrounding Reservation Park, are also popular locations. A 1.5 kilometre long promenade leads from the marina in the city centre, to the beach in Redłowo. Most of Gdynia can be seen from Kamienna Góra (54 metres asl) or a newly built observation point near Chwaszczyno. You can also take a hydrofoil or ship trip to Gdańsk Westerplatte, Hel or just see the port. There are also two remarkable observation towers, one at Góra Donas, the other at Kolibki. The third one, on the 38th floor of the Sea Towers building, will be probably opened to visitors in 2009. Gdynia is remarkable for this construction, since at 141 meters of height, it is the tallest residential building in Poland and the country's tallest skyscraper outside of Warsaw. Gdynia is also the host of the Heineken Open'er Festival, one of the biggest contemporary music festivals in Poland. The festival welcomes many foreign hip-hop, rock and electronic music artists every year. The second most important summer event in Gdynia is Viva Beach Party, which is a large two-day techno party made on Gdynia's Public Beach, usually held in August. Modern division into neighbourhoods Steam train "Costerina" Gdynia - Kościerzyna Babie Doły Chwarzno Wiczlino Chylonia Cisowa Działki Leśne Dąbrowa Grabówek Kamienna Góra Karwiny Leszczynki Mały Kack Obłuże Oksywie Orłowo Pogórze Pustki Cisowskie-Demptowo Redłowo Śródmieście Wielki Kack Witomino Leśniczówka Witomino Radiostacja Wzgórze Św. Maksymiliana Population and area Coastline in Gdynia Orlowo Year Inhabitants Area 1870 1200 1920 1300 1926 12,000 6 km² 1939 127,000 66 km² 1945 70,000 66 km² 1960 150,200 73 km² 1970 191,500 75 km² 1975 221,100 134 km² 1980 236,400 134 km² 1990 251,500 136 km² 1994 252,000 136 km² 1995 251,400 136 km² 2000 255,420 135.49 km² (after GUS - Central Statistical Office in Warsaw) 2003 251,000 136 km² Sister cities Kaliningrad, Russia Plymouth, England, UK Seattle, USA Monopoly Worldwide Edition In 2008, Gdynia made it onto the Monopoly Worldwide Edition board after being voted by fans. Gdynia occupies the space traditionally held by Mediterranean Avenue, being the lowest voted city to make it onto the Monopoly Here and Now board. See also Donas Gdynia trolleybus Hydrofoil Ports of the Baltic Sea References Further reading (ed.) R. Wapiński, Dzieje Gdyni, Gdańsk 1980 (ed.). S. Gierszewski, Gdynia, Gdańsk 1968 Gdynia, in: Pomorze Gdańskie, nr 5, Gdańsk 1968 J. Borowik, Gdynia, port Rzeczypospolitej, Toruń 1934 B. Kasprowicz, Problemy ekonomiczne budowy i eksploatacji portu w Gdyni w latach 1920-1939, Zapiski Historyczne, nr 1-3/1956 M. Widernik, Główne problemy gospodarczo-społeczne miasta Gdyni w latach 1926-1939., Gdańsk 1970 (ed.) A. Bukowski, Gdynia. Sylwetki ludzi, oświata i nauka, literatura i kultura, Gdańsk 1979 Gminy województwa gdańskiego, Gdańsk 1995 H. Górnowicz, Z. Brocki, Nazwy miast Pomorza Gdańskiego, Wrocław 1978 Gerard Labuda (ed.), Historia Pomorza, vol. I-IV, Poznań 1969-2003 (ed.) W. Odyniec, Dzieje Pomorza Nadwiślańskiego od VII wieku do 1945 roku, Gdańsk 1978 L. Bądkowski, Pomorska myśl polityczna, Gdańsk 1990 L. Bądkowski, W. Samp, Poczet książąt Pomorza Gdańskiego, Gdańsk 1974 B. Śliwiński, Poczet książąt gdańskich, Gdańsk 1997 Józef Spors, Podziały administracyjne Pomorza Gdańskiego i Sławieńsko-Słupskiego od XII do początków XIV w, Słupsk 1983 M. Latoszek, Pomorze. Zagadnienia etniczno-regionalne, Gdańsk 1996 B. Bojarska, Eksterminacja inteligencji polskiej na Pomorzu Gdańskim (wrzesień-grudzień 1939), Poznań 1972 K. Ciechanowski, Ruch oporu na Pomorzu Gdańskim 1939-1945., Warszawa 1972 External links Gdynia city website Gdynia Portal (pl) Marina in Gdynia Maritime School Seattle sister city of Gdynia Maps, photos, albums and more than 200 postcards from Gotenhafen (1939-1945) Open Directory Project - Gdynia | Gdynia |@lemmatized view:1 kosciuszko:1 square:2 dar:4 pomorza:8 left:1 sea:12 tower:4 right:3 gdynia:75 gotenhafen:5 city:23 pomeranian:3 voivodeship:2 poland:11 important:4 seaport:14 gdańsk:15 bay:1 south:2 coast:2 baltic:8 locate:3 kashubia:1 eastern:2 pomerania:4 part:10 conurbation:1 spa:1 town:1 sopot:1 suburban:1 community:1 together:1 form:1 metropolitan:1 area:9 call:2 tricity:3 trójmiasto:1 population:3 million:2 people:2 history:3 first:6 know:3 mention:3 name:2 kashubian:3 fishing:2 village:7 oxhöft:1 oksywie:4 even:1 earlier:2 church:2 build:6 owner:1 become:8 peter:1 rusocin:1 give:2 cisterian:1 order:3 year:4 belong:1 cistercian:1 abbey:1 oliva:1 oliwa:1 house:4 late:1 share:1 pomerelia:1 prehistoric:1 time:2 center:1 culture:1 later:3 populate:1 slav:1 prussian:1 influence:1 province:1 circa:1 conquer:1 teutonic:1 afterwards:1 royal:1 prussia:4 within:1 kingdom:2 partition:1 annex:1 german:10 empire:1 gdingen:3 inhabitant:2 poor:1 sometimes:1 describe:1 popular:3 tourist:3 spot:1 several:3 guest:1 restaurant:1 cafe:1 brick:1 small:4 harbour:9 pier:6 trading:1 ship:10 mayor:1 jan:1 radtke:1 treaty:1 versailles:1 along:1 former:1 west:2 new:1 republic:1 simultaneously:1 danzig:3 surround:3 declare:1 free:2 put:1 league:5 nation:1 though:1 economic:4 liberty:1 requisition:1 matter:1 foreign:3 representation:1 construction:8 decision:2 major:3 make:5 polish:22 government:3 winter:2 midst:1 soviet:3 war:6 authority:1 worker:5 felt:1 misappropriate:1 help:1 fight:1 despite:1 demand:1 go:2 strike:1 realize:1 need:1 port:7 complete:1 control:1 economically:1 politically:1 start:4 financial:1 difficulty:1 conduct:1 slowly:2 interruption:1 accelerate:2 sejm:2 parliament:2 pass:1 act:1 september:2 metre:4 wooden:1 tide:1 breaker:1 construct:3 ceremonial:1 inauguration:1 temporary:1 military:1 fisher:1 shelter:1 take:4 place:3 april:1 seagoing:1 arrive:1 august:2 speed:1 work:2 november:1 sign:1 contract:1 french:1 consortium:1 end:2 seven:1 deep:1 north:1 railway:1 also:15 trans:4 shipment:4 equipment:3 expect:1 however:2 may:1 increase:1 export:2 prosperity:1 outbreak:1 trade:4 revert:1 international:2 route:2 thanks:1 personal:1 engagement:1 eugeniusz:1 kwiatkowski:2 minister:1 industry:1 responsible:1 centralny:1 okręg:1 przemysłowy:1 till:1 dock:1 breakwater:1 many:7 auxiliary:1 industrial:1 installation:1 depot:1 rice:1 process:1 factory:1 large:7 clod:1 room:1 rise:2 ton:13 transit:1 special:2 design:3 coal:1 far:2 extend:1 universal:1 modern:3 well:3 tenth:1 big:2 europe:1 shipyard:7 full:1 olza:1 committee:1 inaugurate:1 expansion:1 plan:1 grant:2 tax:1 privilege:1 investor:1 grow:2 significantly:1 rapidly:1 institute:1 toruń:2 institution:2 research:1 heritage:1 open:4 branch:2 world:3 ii:2 occupy:2 troop:3 rename:1 goth:1 ancient:1 germanic:1 tribe:1 citizen:2 introduce:1 enlarge:1 expel:1 general:1 gouvernment:1 kashubians:3 suspect:1 support:2 cause:1 particularly:1 high:4 education:4 arrest:1 execute:2 main:1 execution:1 piaśnica:1 groß:1 plaßnitz:1 accord:1 administrator:1 albert:1 forster:1 consider:1 low:2 value:1 attempt:1 create:1 nationality:1 organize:1 anti:1 nazi:2 resistance:1 group:1 gryf:2 kaszubski:1 pomorski:2 exiled:1 zwiaziek:1 great:1 britain:1 turn:1 naval:3 base:3 expand:1 kiel:2 deutsche:1 werke:1 g:1 due:1 relatively:2 distant:1 theater:1 battleship:1 heavy:1 cruiser:1 harbor:1 witness:1 air:1 raid:1 ally:1 onwards:1 suffer:1 little:1 damage:1 largely:1 destroy:3 withdraw:1 building:6 entrance:1 block:1 battlecruiser:1 gneisenau:1 bring:1 repair:1 location:2 concentration:2 camp:2 subcamp:1 stutthof:1 near:2 use:1 evacuate:1 refugee:1 trap:1 red:1 army:1 hit:1 torpedo:1 submarine:1 example:2 wilhelm:1 gustloff:1 sank:1 bad:1 loss:1 life:1 single:1 sinking:1 maritime:3 march:1 capture:1 assign:1 protest:1 demonstration:1 fire:1 upon:1 police:1 fallen:1 symbolize:1 fictitious:1 janek:2 wiśniewski:2 commemorate:1 song:1 mieczysław:1 cholewa:1 pieśń:1 janku:1 z:2 gdyni:4 one:5 street:3 person:1 portray:1 andrzej:1 wajda:1 movie:1 man:1 iron:1 mateusz:1 birkut:1 ernst:1 stavro:1 blofeld:1 archenemy:1 character:1 jam:1 bond:1 white:1 persian:1 cat:1 come:1 december:1 storm:1 huge:1 crane:1 able:1 lift:1 economy:1 notable:1 company:2 headquarters:1 stocznia:1 prokom:1 sa:2 c:1 hartwig:1 frightforwarders:1 shipping:1 line:1 cutty:1 sark:1 tall:4 race:1 stad:1 amsterdam:1 młodzieży:1 cargo:1 statistic:1 container:1 passenger:1 see:5 orłowo:3 currently:1 university:5 student:1 attend:1 universities:1 state:1 academy:2 gdansk:1 department:2 biology:1 geography:1 oceanology:1 privately:1 political:1 relation:1 graduate:1 school:5 business:1 administration:1 humanity:1 cardinal:1 stefan:1 wyszynski:1 social:1 communication:1 surprise:1 second:2 wildcard:1 edition:3 monopoly:4 sport:4 professional:1 team:7 amateur:1 play:1 thousand:1 arka:2 men:3 football:2 cup:1 winner:1 season:5 bałtyk:1 lotos:1 vbw:1 clima:1 woman:2 basketball:2 champion:2 sharp:1 torell:1 basket:1 liga:1 kager:1 dominet:1 bank:1 ekstraliga:1 k:2 laczpol:1 handball:1 rc:1 rugby:1 politics:1 słupsk:4 constituency:3 member:2 elect:2 marek:1 biernacki:1 po:7 jolanta:1 szczypińska:1 pi:5 jarosław:1 sellin:1 robert:1 strąk:1 lpr:1 joanna:1 senyszyn:1 sld:2 izabela:1 jaruga:1 nowacka:1 kazimierz:2 plocke:1 tadeusz:1 aziewicz:1 jerzy:1 budnik:1 zbigniew:1 kozak:1 kleina:1 ryszard:1 kaczyński:1 stanisław:1 lamczyk:1 lech:1 woszczerowicz:1 samoobrona:1 senat:1 dorota:1 arciszewska:1 mielewczyk:1 pis:1 antoni:1 szymański:1 edmund:1 wittbrodt:1 sight:1 attraction:1 historical:1 old:1 century:3 st:1 michael:1 archangel:1 neo:1 gothic:1 manor:1 folwarczna:1 attract:2 deal:1 recent:1 past:1 two:3 anchored:1 museum:1 orp:1 blyskawica:1 destroyer:1 frigate:1 famous:1 numerous:1 early:2 architecture:1 especially:1 monumentalism:1 functionalism:1 recently:1 reconstruct:1 świętojańska:1 kościuszko:1 worth:1 hill:1 coastline:3 nature:1 lover:1 leisure:1 cliff:1 like:1 kępa:1 redłowska:1 reservation:1 park:1 kilometre:1 long:1 promenade:1 lead:1 marina:2 centre:1 beach:3 redłowo:2 kamienna:2 góra:3 asl:1 newly:1 observation:2 point:1 chwaszczyno:1 hydrofoil:2 trip:1 westerplatte:1 hel:1 remarkable:2 dona:1 kolibki:1 third:1 floor:1 probably:1 visitor:1 since:1 meter:1 height:1 residential:1 country:1 skyscraper:1 outside:1 warsaw:2 host:1 heineken:1 er:1 festival:3 contemporary:1 music:2 welcome:1 hip:1 hop:1 rock:1 electronic:1 artist:1 every:1 summer:1 event:1 viva:1 party:2 day:1 techno:1 public:1 usually:1 hold:2 division:1 neighbourhood:1 steam:1 train:1 costerina:1 kościerzyna:1 babie:1 doły:1 chwarzno:1 wiczlino:1 chylonia:1 cisowa:1 działki:1 leśne:1 dąbrowa:1 grabówek:1 karwiny:1 leszczynki:1 mały:1 kack:2 obłuże:1 pogórze:1 pustki:1 cisowskie:1 demptowo:1 śródmieście:1 wielki:1 witomino:2 leśniczówka:1 radiostacja:1 wzgórze:1 św:1 maksymiliana:1 orlowo:1 gu:1 central:1 statistical:1 office:1 sister:2 kaliningrad:1 russia:1 plymouth:1 england:1 uk:1 seattle:2 usa:1 worldwide:2 onto:2 board:2 vote:1 fan:1 space:1 traditionally:1 mediterranean:1 avenue:1 voted:1 donas:1 trolleybus:1 reference:1 reading:1 ed:5 r:1 wapiński:1 dzieje:2 gierszewski:1 pomorze:2 gdańskie:1 nr:2 j:1 borowik:1 rzeczypospolitej:1 b:3 kasprowicz:1 problemy:2 ekonomiczne:1 budowy:1 eksploatacji:1 portu:1 w:6 latach:2 zapiski:1 historyczne:1 widernik:1 główne:1 gospodarczo:1 społeczne:1 miasta:1 bukowski:1 sylwetki:1 ludzi:1 oświata:1 nauka:1 literatura:1 kultura:1 gminy:1 województwa:1 gdańskiego:4 h:1 górnowicz:1 brocki:1 nazwy:1 miast:1 wrocław:1 gerard:1 labuda:1 historia:1 vol:1 iv:1 poznań:2 odyniec:1 nadwiślańskiego:1 od:2 vii:1 wieku:1 roku:1 l:2 bądkowski:2 pomorska:1 myśl:1 polityczna:1 samp:1 poczet:2 książąt:2 śliwiński:1 gdańskich:1 józef:1 spors:1 podziały:1 administracyjne:1 sławieńsko:1 słupskiego:1 xii:1 początków:1 xiv:1 latoszek:1 zagadnienia:1 etniczno:1 regionalne:1 bojarska:1 eksterminacja:1 inteligencji:1 polskiej:1 na:2 pomorzu:2 gdańskim:2 wrzesień:1 grudzień:1 ciechanowski:1 ruch:1 oporu:1 warszawa:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 portal:1 pl:1 map:1 photo:1 album:1 postcard:1 directory:1 project:1 |@bigram pomeranian_voivodeship:1 baltic_sea:6 cistercian_abbey:1 restaurant_cafe:1 treaty_versailles:1 economically_politically:1 seagoing_ship:1 trans_shipment:4 germanic_tribe:1 concentration_camp:2 wilhelm_gustloff:1 andrzej_wajda:1 cutty_sark:1 tourist_attraction:1 michael_archangel:1 tall_skyscraper:1 hip_hop:1 w_latach:2 external_link:1 |
1,637 | Mimosa | Mimosa hamanta in Hyderabad, India. Mimosa prior to a touch Mimosa with folded-in leaves immediately after a touch Mimosa is a genus of about 400 species of herbs and shrubs, in the subfamily Mimosoideae of the legume family Fabaceae. There are two species in the genus that are notable. First the Mimosa pudica because of the way it folds its leaves when touched or exposed to heat. It is native to southern Mexico, Uruguay and Central America but is widely cultivated elsewhere for its curiosity value, both as an indoor plant in temperate areas, and outdoors in the tropics. Outdoor cultivation has led to weedy invasion in some areas, notably Hawaii. Taxonomy The genus Mimosa has had a tortuous history, having gone through periods of splitting and lumping, ultimately accumulating over 3,000 names, many of which have either been synonymized under other species or transferred to other genera. In part due to these changing circumscriptions, the name "Mimosa" has also been applied to several other related species with similar pinnate or bipinnate leaves but now classified in other genera, most commonly to Albizia julibrissin (Silk Tree) and Acacia dealbata (Silver Wattle). Description Members of this genus are among the few plants capable of rapid movement; examples outside of Mimosa include the Telegraph plant, and the Venus Flytrap. Mimosa can be distinguished from the large related genera, Acacia and Albizia, since its flowers have 10 or fewer stamens. Note that, botanically, what appears to be a single globular flower is actually a cluster of many individual ones. Species There are about 400 species including: Mimosa aculeaticarpa Ortega Mimosa arenosa (Willd.) Poir. Mimosa asperata L. Mimosa borealis Gray Mimosa casta L. Mimosa ceratonia L. Mimosa diplotricha C.Wright ex Sauvalle Mimosa dysocarpa Benth. Mimosa dysocarpa var. dysocarpa Benth. Mimosa emoryana Benth. Mimosa grahamii Gray Mimosa grahamii var. grahamii Gray Mimosa hostilis Mimosa hystricina (Small ex Britt. et Rose) B.L.Turner Mimosa latidens (Small) B.L. Turner Mimosa laxiflora Benth. Mimosa malacophylla Gray Mimosa microphylla Dry. Mimosa nuttallii (DC.) B.L. Turner Mimosa pellita Kunth ex Willd. Mimosa pigra L. Mimosa pigra var. pigra L. Mimosa pudica L. - La sensitive Mimosa quadrivalvis L. Mimosa quadrivalvis var. hystricina (Small) Barneby Mimosa roemeriana Scheele Mimosa rupertiana B.L. Turner Mimosa scabrella Benth. Mimosa schomburgkii Benth. Mimosa somnians Mimosa strigillosa Torr. et Gray Mimosa tenuiflora (Willd.) Poir. (= Mimosa hostilis) Mimosa texana (Gray) Small Mimosa turneri Barneby Mimosa verrucosa References Barneby, R.C. 1992. Sensitivae Censitae: A description of the genus Mimosa Linnaeus (Mimosaceae) in the New World. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden, vol. 65. External links http://www.mimosa-pudica.de/e_index.html Two small videos showing the plant folding its leaves | Mimosa |@lemmatized mimosa:47 hamanta:1 hyderabad:1 india:1 prior:1 touch:3 folded:1 leaf:4 immediately:1 genus:8 specie:6 herb:1 shrub:1 subfamily:1 mimosoideae:1 legume:1 family:1 fabaceae:1 two:2 notable:1 first:1 pudica:3 way:1 fold:2 expose:1 heat:1 native:1 southern:1 mexico:1 uruguay:1 central:1 america:1 widely:1 cultivate:1 elsewhere:1 curiosity:1 value:1 indoor:1 plant:4 temperate:1 area:2 outdoors:1 tropic:1 outdoor:1 cultivation:1 lead:1 weedy:1 invasion:1 notably:1 hawaii:1 taxonomy:1 tortuous:1 history:1 go:1 period:1 splitting:1 lumping:1 ultimately:1 accumulate:1 name:2 many:2 either:1 synonymized:1 transfer:1 part:1 due:1 change:1 circumscription:1 also:1 apply:1 several:1 related:2 similar:1 pinnate:1 bipinnate:1 classify:1 commonly:1 albizia:2 julibrissin:1 silk:1 tree:1 acacia:2 dealbata:1 silver:1 wattle:1 description:2 member:1 among:1 capable:1 rapid:1 movement:1 example:1 outside:1 include:2 telegraph:1 venus:1 flytrap:1 distinguish:1 large:1 since:1 flower:2 stamen:1 note:1 botanically:1 appear:1 single:1 globular:1 actually:1 cluster:1 individual:1 one:1 aculeaticarpa:1 ortega:1 arenosa:1 willd:3 poir:2 asperata:1 l:11 borealis:1 gray:6 casta:1 ceratonia:1 diplotricha:1 c:2 wright:1 ex:3 sauvalle:1 dysocarpa:3 benth:6 var:4 emoryana:1 grahamii:3 hostilis:2 hystricina:2 small:5 britt:1 et:2 rise:1 b:4 turner:4 latidens:1 laxiflora:1 malacophylla:1 microphylla:1 dry:1 nuttallii:1 dc:1 pellita:1 kunth:1 pigra:3 la:1 sensitive:1 quadrivalvis:2 barneby:3 roemeriana:1 scheele:1 rupertiana:1 scabrella:1 schomburgkii:1 somnians:1 strigillosa:1 torr:1 tenuiflora:1 texana:1 turneri:1 verrucosa:1 reference:1 r:1 sensitivae:1 censitae:1 linnaeus:1 mimosaceae:1 new:2 world:1 memoir:1 york:1 botanical:1 garden:1 vol:1 external:1 link:1 http:1 www:1 de:1 html:1 video:1 show:1 |@bigram family_fabaceae:1 acacia_dealbata:1 dealbata_silver:1 silver_wattle:1 venus_flytrap:1 gray_mimosa:5 benth_mimosa:6 mimosa_hostilis:2 botanical_garden:1 external_link:1 http_www:1 |
1,638 | Grazia_Deledda | Grazia Deledda (September 27, 1871—August 15, 1936) was an Italian writer whose works won her a Nobel Prize for Literature in 1926. Biography Born in Nuoro, Sardinia, into a bourgeois family, she attended elementary school and then was educated by a private tutor (a guest of one of her relatives) and moved on to study literature on her own. She first published some novels on the magazine L'ultima moda when it still published works in prose and poetry. Nell'azzurro, published by Trevisani in 1890 might be considered as her first work. Still between prose and poetry are, among the first works, Paesaggi sardi, published by Speirani in 1896. In 1900, after having married Palmiro Madesani, functionary of the Ministry of War met in Cagliari in the October of 1899, the writer moved to Rome and after the publishing of Anime oneste in 1895 and of Il vecchio della montagna in 1900, plus the collaboration with magazines La Sardegna, Piccola rivista and Nuova Antologia, her work began to gain critical interest. In 1903 she published Elias Portolu that confirmed her as a writer and started her work as a successful writer of novels and theatrical works: Cenere (1904), L'edera (1906), Sino al confine (1911), Colombo e sparvieri (1912), Canne al vento (1913), L'incendio nell'oliveto (1918), Il Dio dei venti (1922). Cenere was the inspiration for a movie with the famous Italian actress Eleonora Duse. She died in Rome at the age of 64. Her work has been highly regarded by Luigi Capuana and Giovanni Verga plus some younger writers such as Enrico Thovez, Pietro Pancrazi and Renato Serra. Work Deledda's whole work is based on strong facts of love, pain and death upon which rests the feeling of sin and of an inevitable fatality. In her works we can recognize the influence of the verism of Giovanni Verga but, sometimes, also that of the decadentism by Gabriele D'Annunzio. In Deledda's novels there is always a strong connection between places and people, feelings and environment. The environment depicted is that one harsh of native Sardinia, but it is not depicted according to regional veristic schemes neither according to the otherworldly vision by D'Annunzio, but relived through the myth. Main works Fior di Sardegna (1892) La via del male (1896) Racconti sardi (1895) Anime oneste (1895) Elias Portolu (1903) Cenere (1904) L'edera (1908) Canne al vento (1913) Marianna Sirca (1915) La madre (1920) La fuga in Egitto (1925) Il sigillo d'amore (1926) Cosima (1937) published posthumously Il cedro del Libano (1939) published posthumously External links Works on the Web Nobel Prize autobiography Summary of works by Grazia Deledda and complete texts | Grazia_Deledda |@lemmatized grazia:2 deledda:4 september:1 august:1 italian:2 writer:5 whose:1 work:14 win:1 nobel:2 prize:2 literature:2 biography:1 bear:1 nuoro:1 sardinia:2 bourgeois:1 family:1 attend:1 elementary:1 school:1 educate:1 private:1 tutor:1 guest:1 one:2 relative:1 move:2 study:1 first:3 publish:7 novel:3 magazine:2 l:4 ultima:1 moda:1 still:2 prose:2 poetry:2 nell:2 azzurro:1 trevisani:1 might:1 consider:1 among:1 paesaggi:1 sardi:2 speirani:1 marry:1 palmiro:1 madesani:1 functionary:1 ministry:1 war:1 meet:1 cagliari:1 october:1 rome:2 publishing:1 anime:2 oneste:2 il:4 vecchio:1 della:1 montagna:1 plus:2 collaboration:1 la:4 sardegna:2 piccola:1 rivista:1 nuova:1 antologia:1 begin:1 gain:1 critical:1 interest:1 elias:1 portolu:2 confirm:1 start:1 successful:1 theatrical:1 cenere:3 edera:2 sino:1 al:3 confine:1 colombo:1 e:1 sparvieri:1 canne:2 vento:2 incendio:1 oliveto:1 dio:1 dei:1 venti:1 inspiration:1 movie:1 famous:1 actress:1 eleonora:1 duse:1 die:1 age:1 highly:1 regard:1 luigi:1 capuana:1 giovanni:2 verga:2 young:1 enrico:1 thovez:1 pietro:1 pancrazi:1 renato:1 serra:1 whole:1 base:1 strong:2 fact:1 love:1 pain:1 death:1 upon:1 rest:1 feeling:2 sin:1 inevitable:1 fatality:1 recognize:1 influence:1 verism:1 sometimes:1 also:1 decadentism:1 gabriele:1 annunzio:2 always:1 connection:1 place:1 people:1 environment:2 depict:2 harsh:1 native:1 accord:2 regional:1 veristic:1 scheme:1 neither:1 otherworldly:1 vision:1 relive:1 myth:1 main:1 fior:1 di:1 via:1 del:2 male:1 racconti:1 elia:1 marianna:1 sirca:1 madre:1 fuga:1 egitto:1 sigillo:1 amore:1 cosima:1 posthumously:2 cedro:1 libano:1 external:1 link:1 web:1 autobiography:1 summary:1 complete:1 text:1 |@bigram grazia_deledda:2 nobel_prize:2 gabriele_annunzio:1 publish_posthumously:2 external_link:1 |
1,639 | Cumin | Cumin (Cuminum cyminum, or , , and sometimes spelled cummin) is a flowering plant in the family Apiaceae, native from the east Mediterranean to East India. Etymology The English "cumin" derives from the French "cumin", which was borrowed indirectly from Arabic "كمون" Kammūn via Spanish comino during the Arab rule in Spain in the 15th century. The spice is native to Arabic-speaking Syria where cumin thrives in its hot and arid lands. Cumin seeds have been found in some ancient Syrian archeological sites. The word found its way from Syria to neighbouring Turkey and nearby Greece most likely before it found its way to Spain. Like many other Arabic words in the English language, cumin was acquired by Western Europe via Spain rather than the Grecian route. Some suggest that the word is derived from the Latin cuminum and Greek κύμινον. The Greek term itself has been borrowed from Arabic. Forms of this word are attested in several ancient Semitic languages, including kamūnu in Akkadian. "Kamūnu." premiumwanadoo.com. The ultimate source is believed to be the Sumerian word gamun. "KMN." American Heritage Dictionary (Fourth Edition), 2000. A folk etymology connects the word with the Persian city Kerman where, the story goes, most of ancient Persia's cumin was produced. For the Persians the expression "carrying cumin to Kerman" has the same meaning as the English language phrase "carrying coals to Newcastle". Kerman, locally called "Kermun", would have become "Kumun" and finally "cumin" in the European languages. In Northern India and Nepal, cumin is known as jeera (Devanagari जीरा) or jira, while in Iran and Pakistan it is known as zeera (Persian زيره); in Southern India it is called Jeerige ( ಜೀರಿಗೆ in ಕನ್ನಡ (Kannada)) or jeeragam or seeragam (Tamil (ஜீரகம்/சீரகம்)) or jilakarra (Telugu); in Sri Lanka it is known as duru, the white variety being suduru and the large variety, maduru; in Iran and Central Asia, cumin is known as zireh; in Turkey, cumin is known as kimyon; in northwestern China, cumin is known as ziran (孜然). In Arabic, it is known as al-kamuwn (الكمون). Cumin is called kemun in Ethiopian, and is one of the ingredients in the spice mix berbere. Description Cumin is the dried seed of the herb Cuminum cyminum, a member of the parsley family. The cumin plant grows to 30-50 cm (1-2 ft) tall and is harvested by hand. Cumin seeds resemble caraway seeds, being oblong in shape, longitudinally ridged, and yellow-brown in colour, like other members of the Umbelliferae family such as caraway, parsley and dill. History Cumin Seeds Cumin has been in use since ancient times. Seeds, excavated at the Syrian site Tell ed-Der, have been dated to the second millennium BC. They have also been reported from several New Kingdom levels of ancient Egyptian archaeological sites. Daniel Zohary and Maria Hopf, Domestication of plants in the Old World, third edition (Oxford: University Press, 2000), p. 206 Originally cultivated in Iran and Mediterranean region, cumin is mentioned in the Bible in both the Old Testament (Isaiah 28:27) and the New Testament (Matthew 23:23). It was also known in ancient Greece and Rome. The Greeks kept cumin at the dining table in its own container (much as pepper is frequently kept today), and this practice continues in Morocco. Cumin fell out of favour in Europe except in Spain and Malta during the Middle Ages. It was introduced to the Americas by Spanish colonists. Since returned to favour in parts of Europe, today it is mostly grown in Iran, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkey, Morocco, Egypt, India, Syria, Mexico, and Chile. Folklore Superstition during the Middle Ages cited that cumin kept chickens and lovers from wandering. It was also believed that a happy life awaited the bride and groom who carried cumin seed throughout the wedding ceremony. Cumin is also said to help in treatment of the common cold, when added to hot milk and consumed. In South Asia, cumin tea (dry seeds boiled in hot water) is used to distinguish false-labours (due to gas) from real labor. In Sri Lanka, toasting cumin seeds and then boiling them in water makes a tea used to soothe acute stomach problems. Cultivation and uses Cuminum cyminum Linn. It is an herbaceous annual plant, with a slender branched stem 20-30 cm tall. The leaves are 5-10 cm long, pinnate or bipinnate, thread-like leaflets. The flowers are small, white or pink, and borne in umbels. The fruit is a lateral fusiform or ovoid achene 4-5 mm long, containing a single seed. Cumin seeds are similar to fennel and anise seeds in appearance, but are smaller and darker in colour. Today, cumin is the second most popular spice in the world after black pepper. http://www.foodreference.com/html/fcumin.html Cumin seeds are used as a spice for their distinctive aroma, popular in Indian, Pakistan, North African, Middle Eastern, Sri Lankan, Cuban, Northern Mexican cuisines, and the Western Chinese cuisines of Sichuan and Xinjiang. Cumin can be found in some Dutch cheeses like Leyden cheese, and in some traditional breads from France. It is also commonly used in traditional Brazilian cuisine. Cumin can be an ingredient in (often Texan or Mexican-style) Chili powder, and is found in achiote blends, adobos, sofrito, garam masala, curry powder, and bahaarat. Cumin's distinctive flavour and strong, warm aroma is due to its essential oil content. Its main constituent and important aroma compound is cuminaldehyde (4-isopropylbenzaldehyde). Important aroma compounds of toasted cumin are the substituted pyrazines, 2-ethoxy-3-isopropylpyrazine, 2-methoxy-3-sec-butylpyrazine, and 2-methoxy-3-methylpyrazine. Cumin can be used to season many dishes, either ground or as whole seeds, as it draws out their natural sweetnesses. It is traditionally added to curries, enchiladas, tacos, and other Middle-Eastern, Indian, Cuban and Mexican-style foods. Cumin has also been used on meat in addition to other common seasonings. The spice is a familiar taste in Tex-Mex dishes and is extensively used in the cuisines of the Indian subcontinent. Cumin was also used heavily in ancient Roman cuisine. Cultivation of cumin requires a long, hot summer of 3–4 months, with daytime temperatures around 30°C (86°F); it is drought tolerant, and is mostly grown in mediterranean climates. It is grown from seed, sown in spring, and needs fertile, well-drained soil. Medicinal use Cumin is considered to be an herb in traditional Chinese medicine, where it is commonly referred to as xiao hui xiang (小茴香). In herbal medicine, cumin is classified as stimulant, carminative, and antimicrobial. Nutritional value Cumin seeds contain a relatively large percentage amount of iron. However, unless one would eat about 15 grams (1/2 oz) per day, cumin is not likely to be a significant dietary source of iron. Confusion with other spices Black Cumin seeds Cumin is hotter to the taste, lighter in colour, and larger than caraway (Carum carvi), another umbelliferous spice that is sometimes confused with it. Many European languages do not distinguish clearly between the two. For example, in Czech caraway is called 'kmín' while cumin is called 'římský kmín' or "Roman caraway." The distinction is practically the same in Hungarian ("kömény" for caraway and "római kömény" [Roman caraway] for cumin). In Swedish, caraway is called "kummin" while cumin is "spiskummin", spis meaning "stove", while in German "Kümmel" stands for caraway and "Kreuzkümmel" denotes cumin. Some older cookbooks erroneously name ground coriander as the same spice as a ground cumin. Growingtaste.com The distantly related Bunium persicum and the unrelated Nigella sativa are both sometimes called black cumin (q.v.). Not related to curcumin, a spice used in chili powder. Images References Name in other Languages Jeelakarra జీలకర్ర (Telugu) Jeera (Hindi) External links Antifungal Properties of Cumin Essential oil | Cumin |@lemmatized cumin:51 cuminum:4 cyminum:3 sometimes:3 spelled:1 cummin:1 flowering:1 plant:4 family:3 apiaceae:1 native:2 east:2 mediterranean:3 india:4 etymology:2 english:3 derive:2 french:1 borrow:2 indirectly:1 arabic:5 كمون:1 kammūn:1 via:2 spanish:2 comino:1 arab:1 rule:1 spain:4 century:1 spice:9 speaking:1 syria:3 thrive:1 hot:4 arid:1 land:1 seed:17 find:5 ancient:7 syrian:2 archeological:1 site:3 word:6 way:2 neighbour:1 turkey:3 nearby:1 greece:2 likely:2 like:4 many:3 language:6 acquire:1 western:2 europe:3 rather:1 grecian:1 route:1 suggest:1 latin:1 greek:3 κύμινον:1 term:1 form:1 attest:1 several:2 semitic:1 include:1 kamūnu:2 akkadian:1 premiumwanadoo:1 com:3 ultimate:1 source:2 believe:2 sumerian:1 gamun:1 kmn:1 american:1 heritage:1 dictionary:1 fourth:1 edition:2 folk:1 connect:1 persian:3 city:1 kerman:3 story:1 go:1 persia:1 produce:1 expression:1 carry:3 meaning:1 phrase:1 coal:1 newcastle:1 locally:1 call:7 kermun:1 would:2 become:1 kumun:1 finally:1 european:2 northern:2 nepal:1 know:8 jeera:2 devanagari:1 ज:1 र:1 jira:1 iran:4 pakistan:2 zeera:1 زيره:1 southern:1 jeerige:1 ಜ:1 ರ:1 ಗ:1 ಕನ:1 ನಡ:1 kannada:1 jeeragam:1 seeragam:1 tamil:1 ஜ:1 ரகம:2 ச:1 jilakarra:1 telugu:2 sri:3 lanka:2 duru:1 white:2 variety:2 suduru:1 large:3 maduru:1 central:1 asia:2 zireh:1 kimyon:1 northwestern:1 china:1 ziran:1 孜然:1 al:1 kamuwn:1 الكمون:1 kemun:1 ethiopian:1 one:2 ingredient:2 mix:1 berbere:1 description:1 dried:1 herb:2 member:2 parsley:2 grow:4 cm:3 ft:1 tall:2 harvest:1 hand:1 resemble:1 caraway:9 oblong:1 shape:1 longitudinally:1 ridge:1 yellow:1 brown:1 colour:3 umbelliferae:1 dill:1 history:1 use:12 since:2 time:1 excavate:1 tell:1 ed:1 der:1 date:1 second:2 millennium:1 bc:1 also:7 report:1 new:2 kingdom:1 level:1 egyptian:1 archaeological:1 daniel:1 zohary:1 maria:1 hopf:1 domestication:1 old:3 world:2 third:1 oxford:1 university:1 press:1 p:1 originally:1 cultivate:1 region:1 mention:1 bible:1 testament:2 isaiah:1 matthew:1 rome:1 keep:3 din:1 table:1 container:1 much:1 pepper:2 frequently:1 today:3 practice:1 continue:1 morocco:2 fell:1 favour:2 except:1 malta:1 middle:4 age:2 introduce:1 america:1 colonist:1 return:1 part:1 mostly:2 uzbekistan:1 tajikistan:1 egypt:1 mexico:1 chile:1 folklore:1 superstition:1 cite:1 chicken:1 lover:1 wander:1 happy:1 life:1 await:1 bride:1 groom:1 throughout:1 wedding:1 ceremony:1 say:1 help:1 treatment:1 common:2 cold:1 add:2 milk:1 consume:1 south:1 tea:2 dry:1 boil:2 water:2 distinguish:2 false:1 labour:1 due:2 gas:1 real:1 labor:1 toast:1 make:1 soothe:1 acute:1 stomach:1 problem:1 cultivation:2 linn:1 herbaceous:1 annual:1 slender:1 branch:1 stem:1 leaf:1 long:3 pinnate:1 bipinnate:1 thread:1 leaflet:1 flower:1 small:2 pink:1 borne:1 umbel:1 fruit:1 lateral:1 fusiform:1 ovoid:1 achene:1 mm:1 contain:2 single:1 similar:1 fennel:1 anise:1 appearance:1 darker:1 popular:2 black:3 http:1 www:1 foodreference:1 html:2 fcumin:1 distinctive:2 aroma:4 indian:3 north:1 african:1 eastern:2 lankan:1 cuban:2 mexican:3 cuisine:5 chinese:2 sichuan:1 xinjiang:1 dutch:1 cheese:2 leyden:1 traditional:3 bread:1 france:1 commonly:2 brazilian:1 often:1 texan:1 style:2 chili:2 powder:3 achiote:1 blend:1 adobo:1 sofrito:1 garam:1 masala:1 curry:2 bahaarat:1 flavour:1 strong:1 warm:1 essential:2 oil:2 content:1 main:1 constituent:1 important:2 compound:2 cuminaldehyde:1 isopropylbenzaldehyde:1 toasted:1 substituted:1 pyrazines:1 ethoxy:1 isopropylpyrazine:1 methoxy:2 sec:1 butylpyrazine:1 methylpyrazine:1 season:1 dish:2 either:1 ground:3 whole:1 draw:1 natural:1 sweetness:1 traditionally:1 enchilada:1 taco:1 food:1 meat:1 addition:1 seasoning:1 familiar:1 taste:2 tex:1 mex:1 extensively:1 subcontinent:1 heavily:1 roman:3 require:1 summer:1 month:1 daytime:1 temperature:1 around:1 c:1 f:1 drought:1 tolerant:1 climate:1 sow:1 spring:1 need:1 fertile:1 well:1 drain:1 soil:1 medicinal:1 consider:1 medicine:2 refer:1 xiao:1 hui:1 xiang:1 小茴香:1 herbal:1 classify:1 stimulant:1 carminative:1 antimicrobial:1 nutritional:1 value:1 relatively:1 percentage:1 amount:1 iron:2 however:1 unless:1 eat:1 gram:1 oz:1 per:1 day:1 significant:1 dietary:1 confusion:1 hotter:1 lighter:1 carum:1 carvi:1 another:1 umbelliferous:1 confused:1 clearly:1 two:1 example:1 czech:1 kmín:2 římský:1 distinction:1 practically:1 hungarian:1 kömény:2 római:1 swedish:1 kummin:1 spiskummin:1 spis:1 mean:1 stave:1 german:1 kümmel:1 stand:1 kreuzkümmel:1 denote:1 cookbook:1 erroneously:1 name:2 coriander:1 growingtaste:1 distantly:1 related:1 bunium:1 persicum:1 unrelated:1 nigella:1 sativa:1 q:1 v:1 relate:1 curcumin:1 image:1 reference:1 jeelakarra:1 జ:1 లకర:1 ర:1 hindi:1 external:1 link:1 antifungal:1 property:1 |@bigram sometimes_spelled:1 flowering_plant:1 cumin_seed:9 folk_etymology:1 sri_lanka:2 millennium_bc:1 uzbekistan_tajikistan:1 bride_groom:1 cm_tall:1 http_www:1 sri_lankan:1 tex_mex:1 indian_subcontinent:1 daytime_temperature:1 seed_sow:1 herbal_medicine:1 gram_oz:1 external_link:1 |
1,640 | Drum | The drum is a member of the percussion group of music instruments, technically classified as a membranophone. . Drums consist of at least one membrane, called a drumhead or drum skin, that is stretched over a shell and struck, either directly with parts of a player's body, or with some sort of implement such as a drumstick, to produce sound. Other techniques have been used to cause drums to make sound, such as the "Thumb roll". Drums are the world's oldest and most ubiquitous musical instruments, and the basic design has remained virtually unchanged for thousands of years. Most drums are considered "untuned instruments", however many modern musicians are beginning to tune drums to songs; Terry Bozzio has constructed a kit using diatonic and chromatically tuned drums. A few such as timpani are always tuned to a certain pitch. Often, several drums are arranged together to create a drum kit that can be played by one musician with all four limbs . Construction The shell almost invariably has a circular opening over which the drumhead is stretched, but the shape of the remainder of the shell varies widely. In the western musical tradition, the most usual shape is a cylinder, although timpani, for example, use bowl-shaped shells. Other shapes include a frame design (tar, Bodhrán), truncated cones (bongo drums, Ashiko), goblet shaped (djembe), and joined truncated cones (talking drum).Drum carried by John Unger, Company B, 40th Regiment New York Veteran Volunteer Infantry Mozart Regiment, December 20, 1863 Drums with cylindrical shells can be open at one end (as is the case with timbales), or can have two drum heads. Single-headed drums normally consist of a skin which is stretched over an enclosed space, or over one of the ends of a hollow vessel. Drums with two heads covering both ends of a cylindrical shell often have a small hole somewhat halfway between the two heads; the shell forms a resonating chamber for the resulting sound. Exceptions include the African slit drum, made from a hollowed-out tree trunk, and the Caribbean steel drum, made from a metal barrel. Drums with two heads can also have a set of wires, called snares, held across the bottom head, top head, or both heads, hence the name snare drum. On modern band and orchestral drums, the drumhead is placed over the opening of the drum, which in turn is held onto the shell by a "counterhoop" (or "rim), which is then held by means of a number of tuning keyscrews called "tension rods" (also known as lugs) placed regularly around the circumference. The head's tension can be adjusted by loosening or tightening the rods. Many such drums have six to ten tension rods. The sound of a drum depends on several variables, including shape, size and thickness of its shell, materials from which the shell was made, counterhoop material, type of drumhead used and tension applied to it, position of the drum, location, and the velocity and angle in which it is struck. Prior to the invention of tension rods drum skins were attached and tuned by rope systems such as that used on the Djembe or pegs and ropes such as that used on Ewe Drums, a system rarely used today, although sometimes seen on regimental marching band snare drums. Sound of a drum Several factors determine the sound a drum produces, including the type, shape and construction of the drum shell, the type of drum heads it has, and the tension of these drumheads. Different drum sounds have different uses in music. Take, for example, the modern Tom-tom drum. A jazz drummer may want drums that sound crisp, clean, and a little on the soft side, whereas a rock and roll drummer may prefer drums that sound loud and deep. Since these drummers want different sounds, their drums will be constructed a little differently. The drum head has the most effect on how a drum sounds. Each type of drum head serves its own musical purpose and has its own unique sound. Thicker drum heads are lower-pitched and can be very loud. Drum heads with a white plastic coating on them muffle the overtones of the drum head slightly, producing a less diverse pitch. Drum heads with central silver or black dots tend to muffle the overtones even more. And drum heads with perimeter sound rings mostly eliminate overtones (Howie 2005). Some jazz drummers avoid using thick drum heads, preferring single ply drum heads or drum heads with no muffling. Rock drummers often prefer the thicker or coated drum heads. The second biggest factor affecting the sound produced by a drum is the tension at which the drum head is held against the shell of the drum. When the hoop is placed around the drum head and shell and tightened down with tension rods, the tension of the head can be adjusted. When the tension is increased, the amplitude of the sound is reduced and the frequency is increased, making the pitch higher and the volume lower. The type of shell also affects the sound of a drum. Because the vibrations resonate in the shell of the drum, the shell can be used to increase the volume and to manipulate the type of sound produced. The larger the diameter of the shell, the lower the pitch wholesome sound while mahogany raises the frequency of low pitches and keeps higher frequencies at about the same speed. When choosing a set of shells, a jazz drummer may want smaller maple shells, while a rock drummer may want larger birch shells. For more information about tuning drums or the physics of a drum, visit the external links listed below. Uses Drums are usually played by the hands, or by one or two sticks. In many traditional cultures drums have a symbolic function and are often used in religious ceremonies. Drums are often used in music therapy, especially hand drums, because of their tactile nature and easy use by a wide variety of people. Within the realm of popular music and jazz, "drums" usually refers to a drum kit or a set of drums (with some cymbals) and "drummer" to the actual band member or person who plays them. History Moche ceramic vessel depicting a drummer. Larco Museum Collection. Lima-Peru In the past drums have been used not only for their musical qualities, but also as a means of communication, especially through signals. The talking drums of Africa can imitate the inflections and pitch variations of a spoken language and are used for communicating over great distances. Throughout Sri Lankan history drums have been used for communication between the state and the community, and Sri Lankan drums have a history stretching back over 2500 years. Chinese troops used tàigǔ drums to motivate troops, to help set a marching pace, and to call out orders or announcements. Fife-and-drum corps of Swiss mercenary foot soldiers also used drums. They used an early version of the snare drum carried over the player's right shoulder, suspended by a strap (typically played with one hand using traditional grip). It is to this instrument that the English word "drum" was first used. Similarly, during the English civil war rope-tension drums would be carried by junior officers as a means to relay commands from senior officers over the noise of battle. These were also hung over the shoulder of the drummer and typically played with two drum sticks. Different regiments and companies would have distinctive and unique drum beats which only they would recognize. Types of drum Handscroll detail of a Chinese percussionist playing a drum for a dancing woman, from a 12th century remake of Gu Hongzhong's 10th century originals, Song Dynasty. Aburukuwa Ashiko bass drums Batá Bodhrán bongo drums Bougarabou Five gallon buckets Cajón Cocktail drum Chenda Conga Darbuka Davul Damphu Dhak Dhimay Dhol Dholak Djembe Dong Son drum Drum kit Ewe Drums Goblet drum Hand drum Kpanlogo Log drum Madal Mridangam side drum (Marching snare drum) Slit drum Snare drum Steelpan (steel drum) Tabor Tambourine Taiko Tabla Talking drum Tapan Tar Tavil Tenor drums Timbales Timpani Tom-tom drum </div> See also Blast beat Double drumming Drum beat Drum circle Drum kit Drumline Drum machine Drum replacement Drummer Vibrations of a circular drum Hearing the shape of a drum Gallop List of drummers Musical instrument Practice pad Percussive Arts Society Drumsticks Electronic drum Several American Indian-style drums for sale at the National Museum of the American Indian. References Howie. 2005. Tuning. Retrieved on: April 22, 2005. Johnson. 1999. Drum Woods. Retrieved on: April 22, 2005. External links WikiRecording's Guide to Recording Drums Here is a small selection of drums from around the world which are a part of the collections of The Metropolitan Museum of Art Drum, Asmat people, New Guinea Frame Drum, Dakota people, Great Plains, 19th century Thod-Rnga (skull drum), 19th century, Tibet Side drum, Dresden, early 18th century Side drum by Ernest Vogt, Philadelphia, ca. 1860 O-daiko drum, Japan, 1873 Tombak, Persia, 19th century Drum, Ashanti people, 19th century Drum, Kuba people, Democratic Republic of the Congo, late 19th century Agean Cymbals http://www.ageanbrasil.com.br/] | Drum |@lemmatized drum:116 member:2 percussion:1 group:1 music:4 instrument:5 technically:1 classify:1 membranophone:1 drums:1 consist:2 least:1 one:6 membrane:1 call:4 drumhead:5 skin:3 stretch:4 shell:20 struck:1 either:1 directly:1 part:2 player:2 body:1 sort:1 implement:1 drumstick:1 produce:5 sound:18 technique:1 use:20 cause:1 make:5 thumb:1 roll:2 world:2 old:1 ubiquitous:1 musical:5 basic:1 design:2 remain:1 virtually:1 unchanged:1 thousand:1 year:2 consider:1 untuned:1 however:1 many:3 modern:3 musician:2 begin:1 tune:7 song:2 terry:1 bozzio:1 construct:2 kit:5 diatonic:1 chromatically:1 timpani:3 always:1 certain:1 pitch:7 often:5 several:4 arrange:1 together:1 create:1 play:6 four:1 limb:1 construction:2 almost:1 invariably:1 circular:2 opening:2 shape:7 remainder:1 vary:1 widely:1 western:1 tradition:1 usual:1 cylinder:1 although:2 example:2 bowl:1 shaped:1 include:4 frame:2 tar:2 bodhrán:2 truncate:2 cone:2 bongo:2 ashiko:2 goblet:2 djembe:3 join:1 talk:3 carry:3 john:1 unger:1 company:2 b:1 regiment:3 new:2 york:1 veteran:1 volunteer:1 infantry:1 mozart:1 december:1 cylindrical:2 open:1 end:3 case:1 timbale:1 two:6 head:24 single:2 normally:1 enclosed:1 space:1 hollow:2 vessel:2 cover:1 small:3 hole:1 somewhat:1 halfway:1 form:1 resonating:1 chamber:1 result:1 exception:1 african:1 slit:2 tree:1 trunk:1 caribbean:1 steel:2 metal:1 barrel:1 also:7 set:4 wire:1 snare:6 hold:4 across:1 bottom:1 top:1 hence:1 name:1 band:3 orchestral:1 place:3 turn:1 onto:1 counterhoop:2 rim:1 mean:3 number:1 keyscrews:1 tension:11 rod:5 know:1 lug:1 regularly:1 around:3 circumference:1 adjust:2 loosen:1 tighten:2 six:1 ten:1 depend:1 variable:1 size:1 thickness:1 material:2 type:7 apply:1 position:1 location:1 velocity:1 angle:1 strike:1 prior:1 invention:1 attach:1 rope:3 system:2 peg:1 ewe:2 rarely:1 today:1 sometimes:1 see:2 regimental:1 march:2 factor:2 determine:1 different:4 us:2 take:1 tom:4 jazz:4 drummer:12 may:4 want:4 crisp:1 clean:1 little:2 soft:1 side:4 whereas:1 rock:3 prefer:3 loud:2 deep:1 since:1 differently:1 effect:1 serve:1 purpose:1 unique:2 thicker:2 low:3 white:1 plastic:1 coating:1 muffle:2 overtone:3 slightly:1 less:1 diverse:1 central:1 silver:1 black:1 dot:1 tend:1 even:1 perimeter:1 ring:1 mostly:1 eliminate:1 howie:2 avoid:1 thick:1 ply:1 muffling:1 coat:1 second:1 big:1 affect:2 hoop:1 increase:3 amplitude:1 reduce:1 frequency:3 high:2 volume:2 lower:1 vibration:2 resonate:1 manipulate:1 large:2 diameter:1 wholesome:1 mahogany:1 raise:1 keep:1 speed:1 choose:1 maple:1 birch:1 information:1 physic:1 visit:1 external:2 link:2 list:2 usually:2 hand:4 stick:2 traditional:2 culture:1 symbolic:1 function:1 religious:1 ceremony:1 therapy:1 especially:2 tactile:1 nature:1 easy:1 wide:1 variety:1 people:5 within:1 realm:1 popular:1 refer:1 cymbal:2 actual:1 person:1 history:3 moche:1 ceramic:1 depict:1 larco:1 museum:3 collection:2 lima:1 peru:1 past:1 quality:1 communication:2 signal:1 africa:1 imitate:1 inflection:1 variation:1 spoken:1 language:1 communicate:1 great:2 distance:1 throughout:1 sri:2 lankan:2 state:1 community:1 back:1 chinese:2 troop:2 tàigǔ:1 motivate:1 help:1 marching:1 pace:1 order:1 announcement:1 fife:1 corp:1 swiss:1 mercenary:1 foot:1 soldier:1 early:2 version:1 right:1 shoulder:2 suspend:1 strap:1 typically:2 grip:1 english:2 word:1 first:1 similarly:1 civil:1 war:1 would:3 junior:1 officer:2 relay:1 command:1 senior:1 noise:1 battle:1 hang:1 distinctive:1 beat:3 recognize:1 handscroll:1 detail:1 percussionist:1 dance:1 woman:1 century:8 remake:1 gu:1 hongzhong:1 original:1 dynasty:1 aburukuwa:1 bass:1 batá:1 bougarabou:1 five:1 gallon:1 bucket:1 cajón:1 cocktail:1 chenda:1 conga:1 darbuka:1 davul:1 damphu:1 dhak:1 dhimay:1 dhol:1 dholak:1 dong:1 son:1 kpanlogo:1 log:1 madal:1 mridangam:1 steelpan:1 tabor:1 tambourine:1 taiko:1 tabla:1 tapan:1 tavil:1 tenor:1 timbales:1 div:1 blast:1 double:1 circle:1 drumline:1 machine:1 replacement:1 hear:1 gallop:1 practice:1 pad:1 percussive:1 art:2 society:1 drumsticks:1 electronic:1 american:2 indian:2 style:1 sale:1 national:1 reference:1 retrieve:2 april:2 johnson:1 wood:1 wikirecording:1 guide:1 record:1 selection:1 metropolitan:1 asmat:1 guinea:1 dakota:1 plain:1 thod:1 rnga:1 skull:1 tibet:1 dresden:1 ernest:1 vogt:1 philadelphia:1 ca:1 daiko:1 japan:1 tombak:1 persia:1 ashanti:1 kuba:1 democratic:1 republic:1 congo:1 late:1 agean:1 http:1 www:1 ageanbrasil:1 com:1 br:1 |@bigram virtually_unchanged:1 drum_kit:4 almost_invariably:1 slit_drum:2 snare_drum:5 plastic_coating:1 external_link:2 drum_cymbal:1 larco_museum:1 lima_peru:1 sri_lankan:2 drum_snare:1 republic_congo:1 http_www:1 |
1,641 | Do_Not_Adjust_Your_Set | Do Not Adjust Your Set (DNAYS) was a children's television series produced originally by Rediffusion, London, then by the fledgling Thames Television for British commercial television channel ITV from 26 December 1967 to 14 May 1969. The show took its name from the message (frequently seen on the TV screen in those days) which was displayed when there was a problem with transmission. Although originally conceived as a children's programme, it quickly acquired a cult crossover following amongst many adults. In appealing to a family audience it is similar to The Goodies (although that was made primarily for adults). This was an early appearance of many actors and comedians who later became famous, such as Denise Coffey and David Jason; Michael Palin, Terry Jones, and Eric Idle later became members of the hugely successful Monty Python's Flying Circus. The Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band performed a song in each programme and Bob Kerr's Whoopee Band also appeared. The musicians frequently appeared as extras in sketches. The programme comprised a series of sketches, often bizarre and surreal, frequently satirical with a disjointed style which was to become more famous in the more daring Monty Python's Flying Circus, which followed five months later. At least one DNAYS sketch was re-used in Monty Python. Strange animations between sketches were crafted in the final episodes by the then-unknown Terry Gilliam, who also graduated to Python — part of his "Christmas cards" animation reappeared there in the "Joy to the World" segment. One long-running feature of the show was Captain Fantastic, featuring a parody superhero (Jason) in improbable, even macabre adventures against villain Mrs. Black (Coffey). The rather eerie foes bear comparison with those in The Avengers. These segments were shot entirely on film, on location in London. In 1968 it won an international award, the Prix Jeunesse, in Munich. Episodes Series Series one: 14 episodes of 30 minutes broadcast between 26 December 1967 to 28 March 1968, Thursdays at 5.25pm. Series two: 13 episodes of 30 minutes broadcast between 19 February 1969 to 14 May 1969, Wednesdays at 5.20pm. Specials Untitled special of 30 minutes broadcast 29 July 1968, Monday at 7pm. "Do Not Adjust Your Stocking", 50 minutes broadcast 25 December 1968, Wednesday 4.10pm. In common with another important Monty Python predecessor, At Last the 1948 Show, many episodes were wiped by thrifty television executives who did not anticipate their future importance as a document of the evolution of British comedy. The surviving episodes are seldom repeated. DVD release Nine of the fourteen episodes from the first (Rediffusion) series (presumably all that survive) were released on DVD in the UK and USA in August 2005. Both releases use the same NTSC Region 0 discs made from telerecordings of the original videotapes. The packaging implies that Gilliam's animations appear in these episodes, but they do not. Gilliam does appear as one of the additional writers in the credits for episode number three. The Bonzo Dog Doo Dah Band is seen playing its song "Death Cab for Cutie" (also performed in The Beatles' film Magical Mystery Tour) in the DVD, Episode 7. iTunes Music Store Release In March 2008 9 episodes of Do Not Adjust Your Set were made available for purchase in the United States via the iTunes Music Store. Each episode is of varying length from 25 minutes for Episode 1 to 11 minutes for Episode 7. Average length is around 13 minutes. iTunes labels these episodes as "Season 2" although no Season 1 is available and the episodes appear to be the same as on the DVD. External links British Film Institute Screen Online A Review of DNAYS | Do_Not_Adjust_Your_Set |@lemmatized adjust:3 set:2 dnays:3 child:2 television:4 series:6 produce:1 originally:2 rediffusion:2 london:2 fledgling:1 thames:1 british:3 commercial:1 channel:1 itv:1 december:3 may:2 show:3 take:1 name:1 message:1 frequently:3 see:2 tv:1 screen:2 day:1 display:1 problem:1 transmission:1 although:3 conceive:1 programme:3 quickly:1 acquire:1 cult:1 crossover:1 follow:2 amongst:1 many:3 adult:2 appeal:1 family:1 audience:1 similar:1 goody:1 make:3 primarily:1 early:1 appearance:1 actor:1 comedian:1 later:3 become:3 famous:2 denise:1 coffey:2 david:1 jason:2 michael:1 palin:1 terry:2 jones:1 eric:1 idle:1 member:1 hugely:1 successful:1 monty:4 python:5 fly:2 circus:2 bonzo:2 dog:2 doo:2 dah:2 band:3 perform:2 song:2 bob:1 kerr:1 whoopee:1 also:3 appear:5 musician:1 extra:1 sketch:4 comprise:1 often:1 bizarre:1 surreal:1 satirical:1 disjointed:1 style:1 daring:1 five:1 month:1 least:1 one:4 use:2 strange:1 animation:3 craft:1 final:1 episode:16 unknown:1 gilliam:3 graduate:1 part:1 christmas:1 card:1 reappear:1 joy:1 world:1 segment:2 long:1 run:1 feature:2 captain:1 fantastic:1 parody:1 superhero:1 improbable:1 even:1 macabre:1 adventure:1 villain:1 mr:1 black:1 rather:1 eerie:1 foe:1 bear:1 comparison:1 avenger:1 shoot:1 entirely:1 film:3 location:1 win:1 international:1 award:1 prix:1 jeunesse:1 munich:1 minute:7 broadcast:4 march:2 thursdays:1 two:1 february:1 wednesdays:1 special:2 untitled:1 july:1 monday:1 stock:1 wednesday:1 common:1 another:1 important:1 predecessor:1 last:1 wipe:1 thrifty:1 executive:1 anticipate:1 future:1 importance:1 document:1 evolution:1 comedy:1 survive:2 seldom:1 repeat:1 dvd:4 release:4 nine:1 fourteen:1 first:1 presumably:1 uk:1 usa:1 august:1 ntsc:1 region:1 disc:1 telerecordings:1 original:1 videotape:1 packaging:1 implies:1 additional:1 writer:1 credit:1 number:1 three:1 play:1 death:1 cab:1 cutie:1 beatles:1 magical:1 mystery:1 tour:1 itunes:3 music:2 store:2 available:2 purchase:1 united:1 state:1 via:1 vary:1 length:2 average:1 around:1 label:1 season:2 external:1 link:1 institute:1 online:1 review:1 |@bigram actor_comedian:1 michael_palin:1 terry_jones:1 eric_idle:1 hugely_successful:1 monty_python:4 fly_circus:2 bonzo_dog:2 doo_dah:2 terry_gilliam:1 external_link:1 |
1,642 | Livy | Titus Livius (traditionally 59 BC – AD 17 Ronald Syme, following G. M. Hirst, has argued for 64 BC–AD 12 ), known as Livy in English, was a Roman historian who wrote a monumental history of Rome, Ab Urbe Condita, from its founding (traditionally dated to 753 BC) through the reign of Augustus in Livy's own time. Life and works Livy was a native of Patavium, the modern Padua. The title of his most famous work, Ab Urbe condita ("From the City having been founded"), expresses the scope and magnitude of Livy's undertaking. He wrote in a mixture of annual chronology and narrative—often having to interrupt a story to announce the elections of new consuls as this was the way that the Romans kept track of the years. Early scholars have claimed that Livy's lack of historical data should be attributed to the sacking of Rome in 387 BC by the Gauls. However, it is now thought that the Gauls' interest in movable plunder, rather than destruction, kept damage to a minimum. This idea is supported, in part, by the lack of archaeological evidence to prove that the Gallic sack ever happened: for example, the burnt layer under the comitium, once attributed to Brennus, is now dated to the 6th century BC. Livy wrote the majority of his works during the reign of Augustus. However, he is often identified with an attachment to the Roman Republic and a desire for its restoration. Since the later books discussing the end of the Republic and the rise of Augustus did not survive, this is a moot point. Certainly Livy questioned some of the values of the new regime but it is likely that his position was more complex than a simple "republic/empire" preference. Augustus does not seem to have held these views against Livy, and entrusted his great-nephew, the future emperor Claudius, to his tutelage. His effect on Claudius was apparent during the latter's reign, as the emperor's oratory closely adheres to Livy's account of Roman history. Livy's writing style was poetic and archaic in contrast to Julius Caesar's and Cicero's styles. Also, he often wrote from the Romans' opponent's point of view in order to accent the Romans' virtues in their conquest of Italy and the Mediterranean. In keeping with his poetic tendencies, he did little to distinguish between fact and fiction. Although he frequently plagiarized previous authors, he hoped that moral lessons from the past would serve to advance the Roman society of his day. Livy's work was originally composed of 142 books, of which only 35 are extant; these are Books 1–10 and 21–45 (with major lacunae in 41 and 43–45). A fragmentary palimpsest of the 91st book was discovered in the Vatican Library in 1772, containing about a thousand words, and several papyrus fragments of previously unknown material, much smaller, have been found in Egypt since 1900, most recently about forty words from Book 11, unearthed in the 1980s. Livy was abridged, in antiquity, to an epitome, which survives for Book 1, but was itself abridged into the so-called Periochae, which is simply a list of contents, but which survives. An epitome of Books 37–40 and 48–55 was also uncovered at Oxyrhynchus. So we have some idea of the topics Livy covered in the lost books, if often not what he said about them. His sources include the annalists, including Quintus Fabius Pictor, Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius, Sempronius Asellio and Valerius Antias, but also the Greek historian Polybius, especially for events in the Eastern Mediterranean. In turn, a number of Roman authors used Livy, including Aurelius Victor, Cassiodorus, Eutropius, Festus, Florus, Granius Licinianus and Orosius. Julius Obsequens used Livy, or a source with access to Livy, to compose his De Prodigiis, an account of supernatural events in Rome, from the consulship of Scipio and Laelius to that of Paulus Fabius and Quintus Aelius. A digression in Book 9, Sections 17–19, suggests that the Romans would have beaten Alexander the Great if he lived longer and turned west to attack the Romans, making this the oldest known alternate history. Reception Livy's work met with instant acclaim. His books were published in sets of ten, although when entirely completed, his whole work was available for sale in its entirety. His highly literary approach to his historical writing renders his works very entertaining, and they remained constantly popular from his own day, through the Middle Ages, and into the modern world. Dante speaks highly of him in his poetry, and Francis I of France commissioned extensive artwork treating Livian themes; Niccolò Machiavelli's work on republics, the Discourses on Livy is presented as a commentary on the History of Rome. That he was chosen by Rome's first emperor to be the private tutor to his eventual successor indicates Livy's renown as a great writer and sage. As topics from his history appear to have been used for writing topics in Roman schools, it is more than likely that his works, or sections, were used as textbooks. The two ten-book sets that remained popular throughout the millennia are the first ten books, describing the founding of Rome and its conquest of Italy, and the third set of ten books (XXI to XXX) recounting the war with Hannibal, which he himself indicates is his greatest theme. He can be looked upon as the prose counterpart of Vergil in Golden Age Latin literature. Politics Many of Livy's comments on Roman politics seem surprisingly modern today. For example, he wrote (of the year 445 BC): References and further reading Notes External links Primary sources Ab Urbe condita (Latin) The History of Rome Roman History, Books I-III The History of Rome, Books 09 to 26 The History of Rome, Books 27 to 36 Secondary sources Livius.org: Livy | Livy |@lemmatized titus:1 livius:2 traditionally:2 bc:6 ad:2 ronald:1 syme:1 follow:1 g:1 hirst:1 argue:1 know:1 livy:21 english:1 roman:13 historian:2 write:7 monumental:1 history:9 rome:9 ab:3 urbe:3 condita:3 founding:2 date:2 reign:3 augustus:4 time:1 life:1 work:9 native:1 patavium:1 modern:3 padua:1 title:1 famous:1 city:1 found:1 express:1 scope:1 magnitude:1 undertaking:1 mixture:1 annual:1 chronology:1 narrative:1 often:4 interrupt:1 story:1 announce:1 election:1 new:2 consul:1 way:1 keep:3 track:1 year:2 early:1 scholar:1 claim:1 lack:2 historical:2 data:1 attribute:2 sacking:1 gaul:2 however:2 think:1 interest:1 movable:1 plunder:1 rather:1 destruction:1 damage:1 minimum:1 idea:2 support:1 part:1 archaeological:1 evidence:1 prove:1 gallic:1 sack:1 ever:1 happen:1 example:2 burnt:1 layer:1 comitium:1 brennus:1 century:1 majority:1 identify:1 attachment:1 republic:4 desire:1 restoration:1 since:2 late:1 book:16 discuss:1 end:1 rise:1 survive:3 moot:1 point:2 certainly:1 question:1 value:1 regime:1 likely:2 position:1 complex:1 simple:1 empire:1 preference:1 seem:2 hold:1 view:2 entrust:1 great:4 nephew:1 future:1 emperor:3 claudius:3 tutelage:1 effect:1 apparent:1 latter:1 oratory:1 closely:1 adhere:1 account:2 style:2 poetic:2 archaic:1 contrast:1 julius:2 caesar:1 cicero:1 also:3 opponent:1 order:1 accent:1 virtue:1 conquest:2 italy:2 mediterranean:2 tendency:1 little:1 distinguish:1 fact:1 fiction:1 although:2 frequently:1 plagiarize:1 previous:1 author:2 hop:1 moral:1 lesson:1 past:1 would:2 serve:1 advance:1 society:1 day:2 originally:1 compose:2 extant:1 major:1 lacuna:1 fragmentary:1 palimpsest:1 discover:1 vatican:1 library:1 contain:1 thousand:1 word:2 several:1 papyrus:1 fragment:1 previously:1 unknown:1 material:1 much:1 small:1 find:1 egypt:1 recently:1 forty:1 unearth:1 abridge:2 antiquity:1 epitome:2 call:1 periochae:1 simply:1 list:1 content:1 uncover:1 oxyrhynchus:1 topic:3 cover:1 lost:1 say:1 source:4 include:3 annalist:1 quintus:3 fabius:2 pictor:1 quadrigarius:1 sempronius:1 asellio:1 valerius:1 antias:1 greek:1 polybius:1 especially:1 event:2 eastern:1 turn:2 number:1 use:4 aurelius:1 victor:1 cassiodorus:1 eutropius:1 festus:1 florus:1 granius:1 licinianus:1 orosius:1 obsequens:1 access:1 de:1 prodigiis:1 supernatural:1 consulship:1 scipio:1 laelius:1 paulus:1 aelius:1 digression:1 section:2 suggest:1 beat:1 alexander:1 live:1 longer:1 west:1 attack:1 make:1 old:1 known:1 alternate:1 reception:1 meet:1 instant:1 acclaim:1 publish:1 set:3 ten:4 entirely:1 complete:1 whole:1 available:1 sale:1 entirety:1 highly:2 literary:1 approach:1 writing:1 render:1 entertaining:1 remain:2 constantly:1 popular:2 middle:1 age:2 world:1 dante:1 speaks:1 poetry:1 francis:1 france:1 commission:1 extensive:1 artwork:1 treat:1 livian:1 theme:2 niccolò:1 machiavelli:1 discourse:1 present:1 commentary:1 choose:1 first:2 private:1 tutor:1 eventual:1 successor:1 indicate:2 renown:1 writer:1 sage:1 appear:1 school:1 textbook:1 two:1 throughout:1 millennium:1 describe:1 third:1 xxi:1 xxx:1 recount:1 war:1 hannibal:1 look:1 upon:1 prose:1 counterpart:1 vergil:1 golden:1 latin:2 literature:1 politics:2 many:1 comment:1 surprisingly:1 today:1 reference:1 reading:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 primary:1 iii:1 secondary:1 org:1 |@bigram ronald_syme:1 ab_urbe:3 urbe_condita:3 archaeological_evidence:1 julius_caesar:1 papyrus_fragment:1 quintus_fabius:1 aurelius_victor:1 niccolò_machiavelli:1 external_link:1 livius_org:1 |
1,643 | Apoptosis | A section of mouse liver showing an apoptotic cell indicated by an arrow Apoptosis (, Webster.com dictionary entry ăpˈəp-tō'sĭs, ăpˈə-tō'sĭs American Heritage Dictionary Entry ) is the process of programmed cell death (PCD) that may occur in multicellular organisms. Programmed cell death involves a series of biochemical events leading to a characteristic cell morphology and death, in more specific terms, a series of biochemical events that lead to a variety of morphological changes, including blebbing, changes to the cell membrane such as loss of membrane asymmetry and attachment, cell shrinkage, nuclear fragmentation, chromatin condensation, and chromosomal DNA fragmentation (1-4). (See also Apoptosis DNA fragmentation.) Processes of disposal of cellular debris whose results do not damage the organism differentiate apoptosis from necrosis. Histologic cross section of embryonic foot of mouse (Mus musculus) in 15.5 day of its development. There are still cells between fingers. (Full development of mouse lasts 27 days.) (Compare this image with image of leg of mouse.) Fully developed foot of mouse has separate fingers. In contrast to necrosis, which is a form of traumatic cell death that results from acute cellular injury, apoptosis, in general, confers advantages during an organism's life cycle. For example, the differentiation of fingers and toes in a developing human embryo occurs because cells between the fingers apoptose; the result is that the digits are separate. Between 50 billion and 70 billion cells die each day due to apoptosis in the average human adult. For an average child between the ages of 8 and 14, approximately 20 billion to 30 billion cells die a day. In a year, this amounts to the proliferation and subsequent destruction of a mass of cells equal to an individual's body weight. Research on apoptosis has increased substantially since the early 1990s. In addition to its importance as a biological phenomenon, defective apoptotic processes have been implicated in an extensive variety of diseases. Excessive apoptosis causes hypotrophy, such as in ischemic damage, whereas an insufficient amount results in uncontrolled cell proliferation, such as cancer. Discovery and etymology Cell death is a completely normal process in living organisms and was first discovered by scientists over 100 years ago. A German scientist Carl Vogt was first to describe the principle of apoptosis in 1842. In 1885, anatomist Walther Flemming delivered a more precise description of the process of programmed cell death. However, it was not until 1965 that the topic was resurrected. While studying tissues using electron microscopy, John Foxton Ross Kerr at University of Queensland was able to distinguish apoptosis (Greek: apo - from, ptosis - falling) from traumatic cell death. Following the publication of a paper describing the phenomenon, Kerr was invited to join Alastair R Currie, as well as Andrew Wyllie, who was Currie's graduate student, at University of Aberdeen. In 1972, the trio published a seminal article in the British Journal of Cancer. Kerr had initially used the term programmed cell necrosis, but in the article, the process of natural cell death was called apoptosis. Kerr, Wyllie and Currie credited James Cormack, a professor of Greek language at University of Aberdeen, with suggesting the term apoptosis. Kerr received the Paul Ehrlich and Ludwig Darmstaedter Prize on March 14, 2000, for his description of apoptosis. He shared the prize with Boston biologist Robert Horvitz. In Greek, apoptosis translates to "dropping off" of petals or leaves from plants or trees. Cormack, professor of Greek language, reintroduced the term for medical use as it had a medical meaning for the Greeks over two thousand years before. Hippocrates used the term to mean "the falling off of the bones". Galen extended its meaning to "the dropping of the scabs". Cormack was no doubt aware of this usage when he suggested the name. Debate continues over the correct pronunciation, with opinion divided between a pronunciation with the second p silent ( "ap-a-tow'-sis" ) and the second p pronounced (), as in the original Greek. In English, the p of the Greek -pt- consonant cluster is typically silent at the beginning of a word (e.g. pterodactyl, Ptolemy), but articulated when used in combining forms preceded by a vowel, as in helicopter or the orders of insects: diptera, lepidoptera, etc. It should be noted that in the original Kerr Wyllie and Currie paper, British Journal of Cancer, 1972 Aug;26(4):239-57, there is a footnote regarding the pronunciation. "We are most grateful to Professor James Cormack of the Department of Greek, University of Aberdeen, for suggesting this term. The word "apoptosis" (Greek spelling of apoptosis) is used in Greek to describe the "dropping off" or "falling off" of petals from flowers, or leaves from trees. To show the derivation clearly, we propose that the stress should be on the penultimate syllable, the second half of the word being pronounced like "ptosis" (with the "p" silent), which comes from the same root "to fall", and is already used to describe the drooping of the upper eyelid." Functions Cell termination Apoptosis occurs when a cell is damaged beyond repair, infected with a virus, or undergoing stressful conditions such as starvation. Damage to DNA from ionizing radiation or toxic chemicals can also induce apoptosis via the actions of the tumour-suppressing gene p53. The "decision" for apoptosis can come from the cell itself, from the surrounding tissue, or from a cell that is part of the immune system. In these cases apoptosis functions to remove the damaged cell, preventing it from sapping further nutrients from the organism, or halting further spread of viral infection. Apoptosis also plays a role in preventing cancer. If a cell is unable to undergo apoptosis because of mutation or biochemical inhibition, it continues to divide and develop into a tumour. For example, infection by papillomaviruses causes a viral gene to interfere with the cell's p53 protein, an important member of the apoptotic pathway. This interference in the apoptotic capability of the cell plays a role in the development of cervical cancer. Homeostasis In the adult organism, the number of cells is kept relatively constant through cell death and division. Cells must be replaced when they malfunction or become diseased, but proliferation must be offset by cell death. This control mechanism is part of the homeostasis required by living organisms to maintain their internal states within certain limits. Some scientists have suggested homeodynamics as a more accurate term. The related term allostasis reflects a balance of a more complex nature by the body. Homeostasis is achieved when the rate of mitosis (cell division) in the tissue is balanced by cell death. If this equilibrium is disturbed, one of two potentially fatal disorders occurs: the cells are dividing faster than they die, effectively developing a tumor. the cells are dividing slower than they die, causing cell loss. Homeostasis involves a complex series of reactions, an ongoing process inside an organism that calls for different types of cell signaling. Any impairment can cause a disease. For example, dysregulation of signaling pathway has been implicated in several forms of cancer. The pathway, which conveys an anti-apoptotic signal, has been found to be activated in pancreatic adenocarcinoma tissues. Development Incomplete differentiation in two toes (syndactyly) due to lack of apoptosis Programmed cell death is an integral part of both plant and animal tissue development. Development of an organ or tissue is often preceded by the extensive division and differentiation of a particular cell, the resultant mass is then "pruned" into the correct form by apoptosis. Unlike necrosis, cellular death caused by injury, apoptosis results in cell shrinkage and fragmentation. Such shrinkage and fragmentation allow the cells to be phagocytosed and their components reused without releasing potentially harmful intracellular substances such as hydrolytic enzymes into the surrounding tissue. Research on chick embryos has suggested how selective cell proliferation, combined with selective apoptosis, sculpts developing tissues in vertebrates. During vertebrate embryo development, structures called the notochord and the floor plate secrete a gradient of the signaling molecule (Shh), and it is this gradient that directs cells to form patterns in the embryonic neural tube. Cells that receive Shh in a receptor in their membranes called patched1 (Ptc1) survive and proliferate. In the absence of Shh, one of the ends of this same Ptc1 receptor (the carboxyl-terminal, inside the membrane) is cleaved by caspase-3, an action that exposes an apoptosis-producing domain. During development, apoptosis is tightly regulated and different tissues use different signals for inducing apoptosis. In birds, bone morphogenetic proteins (BMP) signaling is used to induce apoptosis in the interdigital tissue. In Drosophila flies, steroid hormones regulate cell death. Developmental cues can also induce apoptosis, such as the sex-specific cell death of hermaphrodite specific neurons in C. elegans males through low TRA-1 transcription factor activity (TRA-1 helps prevent cell death). Lymphocyte interactions The development of B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes in a human body is a complex process that creates a large pool of diverse cells and subsequently eliminates those potentially damaging to the body. Apoptosis is the mechanism by which the body removes both the ineffective and the potentially damaging immature cells. In T cells, apoptosis is initiated by the withdrawal of survival signals. Cytotoxic T cells are able to directly induce apoptosis by opening up pores in the target's membrane and releasing chemicals that bypass the normal apoptotic pathway. The pores are created by the action of secreted perforin, and the granules contain granzyme B, a serine protease that activates a variety of caspases by cleaving aspartate residues. Process The process of apoptosis is controlled by a diverse range of cell signals, which may originate either extracellularly (extrinsic inducers) or intracellularly (intrinsic inducers). Extracellular signals may include toxins , hormones, growth factors, nitric oxide or cytokines, and therefore must either cross the plasma membrane or transduce to effect a response. These signals may positively or negatively induce apoptosis. The binding and subsequent initiation of apoptosis by a molecule is termed positive, whereas the active repression of apoptosis by a molecule is termed negative. A cell initiates intracellular apoptotic signalling in response to a stress, which may bring about cell suicide. The binding of nuclear receptors by glucocorticoids, heat, radiation, nutrient deprivation, viral infection, hypoxia and increased intracellular calcium concentration Calcium orchestrates apoptosis. Mark P. Mattson & Sic L. Chan. Nature Cell Biology 5, 1041 - 1043 (2003). doi:10.1038/ncb1203-1041 , for example, by damage to the membrane can all trigger the release of intracellular apoptotic signals by a damaged cell. A number of cellular components, such as poly ADP ribose polymerase, may also help regulate apoptosis. Before the actual process of cell death is carried out by enzymes, apoptotic signals must cause regulatory proteins to start off the death pathway. This step allows apoptotic signals to cause cell death, or the process to be stopped, should the cell no longer need to die. Several proteins are involved, but two main methods of regulation have been identified: targeting mitochondria functionality, or directly transducing the signal via adapter proteins to the apoptotic mechanisms. There is another extrinsic pathway that has been noticed in several toxical studies that have shown that an increase in calcium concentration with in a cell caused by drug activity; also has the ablity to cause apoptosis via a calcium binding protease calpain. Mitochondrial regulation The mitochondria are essential to multicellular life. Without them, a cell ceases to respire aerobically and quickly dies, a fact exploited by some apoptotic pathways. Apoptotic proteins that target mitochondria affect them in different ways. They may cause mitochondrial swelling through the formation of membrane pores, or they may increase the permeability of the mitochondrial membrane and cause apoptotic effectors to leak out. There is also a growing body of evidence that indicates that nitric oxide is able to induce apoptosis by helping to dissipate the membrane potential of mitochondria and therefore make it more permeable. Mitochondrial proteins known as SMACs (second mitochondria-derived activator of caspases) are released into the cytosol following an increase in permeability. SMAC binds to inhibitor of apoptosis proteins (IAPs) and deactivates them, preventing the IAPs from arresting the apoptotic process and therefore allowing apoptosis to proceed. IAP also normally suppresses the activity of a group of cysteine proteases called caspases, which carry out the degradation of the cell, therefore the actual degradation enzymes can be seen to be indirectly regulated by mitochondrial permeability. Cytochrome c is also released from mitochondria due to formation of a channel, MAC, in the outer mitochondrial membrane , and serves a regulatory function as it precedes morphological change associated with apoptosis. Once cytochrome c is released it binds with Apaf-1 and ATP, which then bind to pro-caspase-9 to create a protein complex known as an apoptosome. The apoptosome cleaves the pro-caspase to its active form of caspase-9, which in turn activates the effector caspase-3. MAC is itself subject to regulation by various proteins, such as those encoded by the mammalian Bcl-2 family of anti-apoptopic genes, the homologs of the ced-9 gene found in C. elegans. Bcl-2 proteins are able to promote or inhibit apoptosis either by direct action on MAC or indirectly through other proteins. It is important to note that the actions of some Bcl-2 proteins are able to halt apoptosis even if cytochrome c has been released by the mitochondria. Direct signal transduction Overview of signal transduction pathways. Overview of TNF signalling in apoptosis, an example of direct signal transduction Overview of Fas signalling in apoptosis, an example of direct signal transduction Two theories of the direct initiation of apoptotic mechanisms in mammals have been suggested: the TNF-induced (tumour necrosis factor) model and the Fas-Fas ligand-mediated model, both involving receptors of the TNF receptor (TNFR) family coupled to extrinsic signals. TNF is a cytokine produced mainly by activated macrophages, and is the major extrinsic mediator of apoptosis. Most cells in the human body have two receptors for TNF: TNF-R1 and TNF-R2. The binding of TNF to TNF-R1 has been shown to initiate the pathway that leads to caspase activation via the intermediate membrane proteins TNF receptor-associated death domain (TRADD) and Fas-associated death domain protein (FADD). Binding of this receptor can also indirectly lead to the activation of transcription factors involved in cell survival and inflammatory responses. The link between TNF and apoptosis shows why an abnormal production of TNF plays a fundamental role in several human diseases, especially in autoimmune diseases. The Fas receptor (also known as Apo-1 or CD95) binds the Fas ligand (FasL), a transmembrane protein part of the TNF family. The interaction between Fas and FasL results in the formation of the death-inducing signaling complex (DISC), which contains the FADD, caspase-8 and caspase-10. In some types of cells (type I), processed caspase-8 directly activates other members of the caspase family, and triggers the execution of apoptosis. In other types of cells (type II), the Fas-DISC starts a feedback loop that spirals into increasing release of pro-apoptotic factors from mitochondria and the amplified activation of caspase-8. Following TNF-R1 and Fas activation in mammalian cells a balance between pro-apoptotic (BAX, BID, BAK, or BAD) and anti-apoptotic (Bcl-Xl and Bcl-2) members of the Bcl-2 family is established. This balance is the proportion of pro-apoptotic homodimers that form in the outer-membrane of the mitochondrion. The pro-apoptotic homodimers are required to make the mitochondrial membrane permeable for the release of caspase activators such as cytochrome c and SMAC. Control of pro-apoptotic proteins under normal cell conditions of non-apoptotic cells is incompletely understood, but it has been found that a mitochondrial outer-membrane protein, VDAC2, interacts with BAK to keep this potentially-lethal apoptotic effector under control. When the death signal is received, products of the activation cascade displace VDAC2 and BAK is able to be activated. There also exists a caspase-independent apoptotic pathway that is mediated by AIF (apoptosis-inducing factor). Execution Many pathways and signals lead to apoptosis, but there is only one mechanism that actually causes the death of a cell. After a cell receives stimulus, it undergoes organized degradation of cellular organelles by activated proteolytic caspases. A cell undergoing apoptosis shows a characteristic morphology: Cell shrinkage and rounding are shown because of the breakdown of the proteinaceous cytoskeleton by caspases. The cytoplasm appears dense, and the organelles appear tightly packed. Chromatin undergoes condensation into compact patches against the nuclear envelope in a process known as pyknosis, a hallmark of apoptosis. The nuclear envelope becomes discontinuous and the DNA inside it is fragmented in a process referred to as karyorrhexis. The nucleus breaks into several discrete chromatin bodies or nucleosomal units due to the degradation of DNA. The cell membrane shows irregular buds known as blebs. The cell breaks apart into several vesicles called apoptotic bodies, which are then phagocytosed. Apoptosis progresses quickly and its products are quickly removed, making it difficult to detect or visualize. During karyorrhexis, endonuclease activation leaves short DNA fragments, regularly spaced in size. These give a characteristic "laddered" appearance on agar gel after electrophoresis. Tests for DNA laddering differentiate apoptosis from ischemic or toxic cell death. Removal of dead cells The removal of dead cells by neighboring phagocytic cells has been termed efferocytosis. Dying cells that undergo the final stages of apoptosis display phagocytotic molecules, such as phosphatidylserine, on their cell surface.<ref name="Phosphatidylserine">{{cite journal | author=Li MO, et al.'''| title=Phosphatidylserine receptor is required for clearance of apoptotic cells| journal=Science| year=2003| volume=302| issue=5650| pages=1560–3| doi=10.1126/science.1087621| pmid=14645847}}</ref> Phosphatidylserine is normally found on the cytosolic surface of the plasma membrane, but is redistributed during apoptosis to the extracellular surface by a hypothetical protein known as scramblase. These molecules mark the cell for phagocytosis by cells possessing the appropriate receptors, such as macrophages. Upon recognition, the phagocyte reorganizes its cytoskeleton for engulfment of the cell. The removal of dying cells by phagocytes occurs in an orderly manner without eliciting an inflammatory response. Implication in disease A section of mouse liver showing several apoptotic cells, indicated by arrows A section of mouse liver stained to show cells undergoing apoptosis (orange) Defective apoptotic pathways The many different types of apoptotic pathways contain a multitude of different biochemical components, many of them not yet understood. As a pathway is more or less sequential in nature, it is a victim of causality; removing or modifying one component leads to an effect in another. In a living organism this can have disastrous effects, often in the form of disease or disorder. A discussion of every disease caused by modification of the various apoptotic pathways would be impractical, but the concept overlying each one is the same: the normal functioning of the pathway has been disrupted in such a way as to impair the ability of the cell to undergo normal apoptosis. This results in a cell that lives past its "use-by-date" and is able to replicate and pass on any faulty machinery to its progeny, increasing the likelihood of the cell becoming cancerous or diseased. A recently-described example of this concept in action can be seen in the development of a lung cancer called NCI-H460. The X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein (XIAP) is overexpressed in cells of the H460 cell line. XIAPs bind to the processed form of caspase-9, and suppress the activity of apoptotic activator cytochrome c, therefore overexpression leads to a decrease in the amount of pro-apoptotic agonists. As a consequence, the balance of anti-apoptotic and pro-apoptotic effectors is upset in favour of the former, and the damaged cells continue to replicate despite being directed to die. Dysregulation of p53 The tumor-suppressor protein p53 accumulates when DNA is damaged due to a chain of biochemical reactions. Part of this pathway includes alpha-interferon and beta-interferon, which induce transcription of the p53 gene and result in the increase of p53 protein level and enhancement of cancer cell-apoptosis. p53 prevents the cell from replicating by stopping the cell cycle at G1, or interphase, to give the cell time to repair, however it will induce apoptosis if damage is extensive and repair efforts fail. Any disruption to the regulation of the p53 or interferon genes will result in impaired apoptosis and the possible formation of tumors. HIV progression The progression of the human immunodeficiency virus infection to AIDS is primarily due to the depletion of CD4+ T-helper lymphocytes, which leads to a compromised immune system. One of the mechanisms by which T-helper cells are depleted is apoptosis, which results from a series of biochemical pathways: HIV enzymes deactivate anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 This does not directly cause cell death, but primes the cell for apoptosis should the appropriate signal be received.In parallel these enzymes activate pro-apoptotic procaspase-8, which does directly activate the mitochondrial events of apoptosis. HIV may increase the level of cellular proteins which prompt Fas-mediated apoptosis. HIV proteins decrease the amount of CD4 glycoprotein marker present on the cell membrane. Released viral particles and proteins present in extracellular fluid are able to induce apoptosis in nearby "bystander" T helper cells. HIV decreases the production of molecules involved in marking the cell for apoptosis, giving the virus time to replicate and continue releasing apoptotic agents and virions into the surrounding tissue. The infected CD4+ cell may also receive the death signal from a cytotoxic T cell. Cells may also die as a direct consequence of viral infection. Viral infection Viruses can trigger apoptosis of infected cells via a range of mechanisms including: Receptor binding. Activation of protein kinase R (PKR). Interaction with p53. Expression of viral proteins coupled to MHC proteins on the surface of the infected cell, allowing recognition by cells of the immune system (such as Natural Killer and cytotoxic T cells) that then induce the infected cell to undergo apoptosis. Most viruses encode proteins that can inhibit apoptosis. Several viruses encode viral homologs of Bcl-2. These homologs can inhibit pro-apoptotic proteins such as BAX and BAK, which are essential for the activation of apoptosis. Examples of viral Bcl-2 proteins include the Epstein-Barr virus BHRF1 protein and the adenovirus E1B 19K protein. Some viruses express caspase inhibitors that inhibit caspase activity and an example is the CrmA protein of cowpox viruses. Whilst a number of viruses can block the effects of TNF and Fas. For example the M-T2 protein of myxoma viruses can bind TNF preventing it from binding the TNF receptor and inducing a response. Furthermore, many viruses express p53 inhibitors that can bind p53 and inhibit its transcriptional transactivation activity. Consequently p53 cannot induce apoptosis since it cannot induce the expression of pro-apoptotic proteins. The adenovirus E1B-55K protein and the hepatitis B virus HBx protein are examples of viral proteins that can perform such a function. Interestingly, viruses can remain intact from apoptosis particularly in the latter stages of infection. They can be exported in the apoptotic bodies that pinch off from the surface of the dying cell and the fact that they are engulfed by phagocytes prevents the initiation of a host response. This favours the spread of the virus. Apoptosis in plants Programmed cell death in plants has a number of molecular similarities to animal apoptosis, but it also has differences, notably the presence of a cell wall and the lack of an immune system which removes the pieces of the dead cell. Instead of an immune response, the dying cell synthesizes substances to break itself down and places them in a vacuole which ruptures as the cell dies. Whether this whole process resembles animal apoptosis closely enough to warrant using the name apoptosis (as opposed to the more general programmed cell death'') is unclear. Caspase Independent Apoptosis There is an extrinsic pathway that has been noticed in several toxical studies that have shown that an increase in calcium concentration with in a cell caused by drug activity; also has the ablity to cause apoptosis via a calcium binding protease calpain. Anoikis Apaf-1 Apo2.7 Apoptosis DNA Fragmentation Autolysis Autophagy Autophagy network Cisplatin Entosis Immunology Necrosis References External links Apoptosis & Caspase 3, The Proteolysis Map-animation Apoptosis & Caspase 8, The Proteolysis Map-animation Apoptosis & Caspase 7, The Proteolysis Map-animation Apoptosis (Programmed Cell Death) - The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology Apoptosis Research Portal Apoptosis Info Apoptosis protocols, articles, news, and recent publications. Database of proteins involved in apoptosis Apoptosis Video The Mechanisms of Apoptosis Kimball's Biology Pages. Simple explanation of the mechanisms of apoptosis triggered by internal signals (bcl-2), along the caspase-9, caspase-3 and caspase-7 pathway; and by external signals (FAS and TNF), along the caspase 8 pathway. Accessed 25 March 2007. WikiPathways - Apoptosis pathway Finding Cancer’s Self-Destruct Button CR magazine (Spring 2007). Article on apoptosis and cancer. Apoptosis on-line lecture by Wang Xiaodong | Apoptosis |@lemmatized section:4 mouse:7 liver:3 show:11 apoptotic:41 cell:121 indicate:3 arrow:2 apoptosis:98 webster:1 com:1 dictionary:2 entry:2 ăpˈəp:1 tō:2 sĭs:2 ăpˈə:1 american:1 heritage:1 process:17 programmed:2 death:30 pcd:1 may:11 occur:3 multicellular:2 organism:9 program:6 involve:7 series:4 biochemical:6 event:3 lead:8 characteristic:3 morphology:2 specific:3 term:11 variety:3 morphological:2 change:3 include:5 blebbing:1 membrane:18 loss:2 asymmetry:1 attachment:1 shrinkage:4 nuclear:4 fragmentation:6 chromatin:3 condensation:2 chromosomal:1 dna:9 see:3 also:16 disposal:1 cellular:6 debris:1 whose:1 result:10 damage:10 differentiate:2 necrosis:6 histologic:1 cross:2 embryonic:2 foot:2 mus:1 musculus:1 day:4 development:10 still:1 finger:4 full:1 last:1 compare:1 image:2 leg:1 fully:1 develop:4 separate:2 contrast:1 form:9 traumatic:2 acute:1 injury:2 general:2 confers:1 advantage:1 life:2 cycle:2 example:11 differentiation:3 toe:2 developing:1 human:6 embryo:3 apoptose:1 digit:1 billion:4 die:12 due:6 average:2 adult:2 child:1 age:1 approximately:1 year:4 amount:4 proliferation:4 subsequent:2 destruction:1 mass:2 equal:1 individual:1 body:10 weight:1 research:3 increase:10 substantially:1 since:2 early:1 addition:1 importance:1 biological:1 phenomenon:2 defective:2 implicate:2 extensive:3 disease:7 excessive:1 cause:16 hypotrophy:1 ischemic:2 whereas:2 insufficient:1 uncontrolled:1 cancer:10 discovery:1 etymology:1 completely:1 normal:5 living:2 first:2 discover:1 scientist:3 ago:1 german:1 carl:1 vogt:1 describe:4 principle:1 anatomist:1 walther:1 flemming:1 deliver:1 precise:1 description:2 however:2 topic:1 resurrect:1 study:3 tissue:11 use:11 electron:1 microscopy:1 john:1 foxton:1 ross:1 kerr:6 university:4 queensland:1 able:8 distinguish:1 greek:10 apo:2 ptosis:2 fall:4 follow:3 publication:2 paper:2 invite:1 join:1 alastair:1 r:2 currie:4 well:1 andrew:1 wyllie:3 graduate:1 student:1 aberdeen:3 trio:1 publish:1 seminal:1 article:4 british:2 journal:4 initially:1 natural:2 call:7 credit:1 james:2 cormack:4 professor:3 language:2 suggest:6 receive:6 paul:1 ehrlich:1 ludwig:1 darmstaedter:1 prize:2 march:2 share:1 boston:1 biologist:1 robert:1 horvitz:1 translates:1 drop:2 petal:2 leaf:1 plant:4 tree:2 reintroduce:1 medical:2 meaning:2 two:6 thousand:1 hippocrates:1 mean:1 bone:2 galen:1 extend:1 dropping:1 scabs:1 doubt:1 aware:1 usage:1 name:3 debate:1 continue:4 correct:2 pronunciation:3 opinion:1 divide:4 second:4 p:5 silent:3 ap:1 tow:1 si:1 pronounce:2 original:2 english:1 pt:1 consonant:1 cluster:1 typically:1 beginning:1 word:3 e:1 g:1 pterodactyl:1 ptolemy:1 articulate:1 combine:2 precede:3 vowel:1 helicopter:1 order:1 insect:1 diptera:1 lepidoptera:1 etc:1 note:2 aug:1 footnote:1 regard:1 grateful:1 department:1 spelling:1 flower:1 leave:2 derivation:1 clearly:1 propose:1 stress:2 penultimate:1 syllable:1 half:1 like:1 come:2 root:1 already:1 drooping:1 upper:1 eyelid:1 function:4 termination:1 beyond:1 repair:3 infect:1 virus:15 undergo:7 stressful:1 condition:2 starvation:1 ionize:1 radiation:2 toxic:2 chemical:2 induce:17 via:6 action:6 tumour:3 suppress:3 gene:6 decision:1 surround:3 part:5 immune:5 system:4 case:1 remove:5 prevent:6 sap:1 nutrient:2 halt:2 spread:2 viral:10 infection:7 play:3 role:3 unable:1 mutation:1 inhibition:1 papillomaviruses:1 interfere:1 protein:39 important:2 member:3 pathway:22 interference:1 capability:1 cervical:1 homeostasis:4 number:4 kept:1 relatively:1 constant:1 division:3 must:4 replace:1 malfunction:1 become:3 diseased:2 offset:1 control:4 mechanism:9 require:3 live:2 maintain:1 internal:2 state:1 within:1 certain:1 limit:1 homeodynamics:1 accurate:1 related:1 allostasis:1 reflect:1 balance:5 complex:5 nature:3 achieve:1 rate:1 mitosis:1 equilibrium:1 disturb:1 one:6 potentially:5 fatal:1 disorder:2 occurs:2 faster:1 effectively:1 tumor:3 slow:1 reaction:2 ongoing:1 inside:3 different:6 type:6 signal:24 impairment:1 dysregulation:2 several:9 convey:1 anti:5 find:5 activate:7 pancreatic:1 adenocarcinoma:1 incomplete:1 syndactyly:1 lack:2 integral:1 animal:3 organ:1 often:2 particular:1 resultant:1 prune:1 unlike:1 allow:4 phagocytosed:2 component:4 reuse:1 without:3 release:10 harmful:1 intracellular:4 substance:2 hydrolytic:1 enzyme:5 chick:1 selective:2 sculpts:1 vertebrate:2 structure:1 notochord:1 floor:1 plate:1 secrete:1 gradient:2 signaling:2 molecule:6 shh:3 direct:8 pattern:1 neural:1 tube:1 receptor:13 survive:1 proliferate:1 absence:1 end:1 carboxyl:1 terminal:1 cleave:3 caspase:29 expose:1 produce:2 domain:3 tightly:2 regulate:4 bird:1 morphogenetic:1 bmp:1 interdigital:1 drosophila:1 fly:1 steroid:1 hormone:2 developmental:1 cue:1 sex:1 hermaphrodite:1 neuron:1 c:7 elegans:2 male:1 low:1 tra:2 transcription:3 factor:6 activity:7 help:3 lymphocyte:4 interaction:3 b:3 create:3 large:1 pool:1 diverse:2 subsequently:1 eliminate:1 damaging:2 ineffective:1 immature:1 initiate:3 withdrawal:1 survival:2 cytotoxic:3 directly:5 open:1 pore:3 target:3 releasing:1 bypass:1 secreted:1 perforin:1 granule:1 contain:3 granzyme:1 serine:1 protease:4 aspartate:1 residue:1 range:2 originate:1 either:3 extracellularly:1 extrinsic:5 inducer:2 intracellularly:1 intrinsic:1 extracellular:3 toxin:1 growth:1 nitric:2 oxide:2 cytokine:2 therefore:5 plasma:2 transduce:2 effect:4 response:7 positively:1 negatively:1 binding:5 initiation:3 positive:1 active:2 repression:1 negative:1 signalling:3 bring:1 suicide:1 glucocorticoid:1 heat:1 deprivation:1 hypoxia:1 calcium:6 concentration:3 orchestrate:1 mark:3 mattson:1 sic:1 l:1 chan:1 biology:3 doi:2 trigger:4 poly:1 adp:1 ribose:1 polymerase:1 actual:2 carry:2 regulatory:2 start:2 step:1 stop:2 longer:1 need:1 main:1 method:1 regulation:4 identify:1 mitochondrion:9 functionality:1 adapter:1 another:2 notice:2 toxical:2 drug:2 ablity:2 bind:10 calpain:2 mitochondrial:9 essential:2 cease:1 respire:1 aerobically:1 quickly:3 dy:1 fact:2 exploit:1 affect:1 way:2 swell:1 formation:4 permeability:3 effector:4 leak:1 grow:1 evidence:1 dissipate:1 potential:1 make:3 permeable:2 know:6 smacs:1 derive:1 activator:3 cytosol:1 smac:2 inhibitor:4 iaps:2 deactivate:2 arrest:1 proceed:1 iap:1 normally:2 group:1 cysteine:1 degradation:4 indirectly:3 cytochrome:5 channel:1 mac:3 outer:3 serve:1 associate:3 apaf:2 atp:1 pro:12 apoptosome:2 turn:1 subject:1 various:2 encode:3 mammalian:2 bcl:10 family:5 apoptopic:1 homologs:3 ced:1 promote:1 inhibit:5 even:1 transduction:4 overview:3 tnf:18 fas:5 theory:1 mammal:1 model:2 fa:7 ligand:2 mediate:3 tnfr:1 couple:2 mainly:1 activated:2 macrophage:2 major:1 mediator:1 activation:8 intermediate:1 tradd:1 fadd:2 inflammatory:2 link:3 abnormal:1 production:2 fundamental:1 especially:1 autoimmune:1 fasl:2 transmembrane:1 disc:2 execution:2 ii:1 feedback:1 loop:1 spiral:1 amplified:1 bax:2 bid:1 bak:4 bad:1 xl:1 establish:1 proportion:1 homodimers:2 non:1 incompletely:1 understood:2 interact:1 keep:1 lethal:1 product:2 cascade:1 displace:1 exist:1 independent:2 aif:1 many:4 actually:1 stimulus:1 organize:1 organelle:2 proteolytic:1 rounding:1 breakdown:1 proteinaceous:1 cytoskeleton:2 cytoplasm:1 appear:2 dense:1 pack:1 undergoes:1 compact:1 patch:1 envelope:2 pyknosis:1 hallmark:1 discontinuous:1 fragment:2 refer:1 karyorrhexis:2 nucleus:1 break:3 discrete:1 nucleosomal:1 unit:1 irregular:1 bud:1 bleb:1 apart:1 vesicle:1 progress:1 difficult:1 detect:1 visualize:1 endonuclease:1 short:1 regularly:1 space:1 size:1 give:3 ladder:2 appearance:1 agar:1 gel:1 electrophoresis:1 test:1 removal:3 dead:3 neighbor:1 phagocytic:1 efferocytosis:1 final:1 stage:2 display:1 phagocytotic:1 phosphatidylserine:4 surface:5 ref:2 cite:1 author:1 li:1 mo:1 et:1 al:1 title:1 clearance:1 science:2 volume:1 issue:1 page:2 pmid:1 cytosolic:1 redistribute:1 hypothetical:1 scramblase:1 phagocytosis:1 possess:1 appropriate:2 upon:1 recognition:2 phagocyte:3 reorganize:1 engulfment:1 orderly:1 manner:1 elicit:1 implication:1 stain:1 undergoing:1 orange:1 multitude:1 yet:1 less:1 sequential:1 victim:1 causality:1 modify:1 disastrous:1 discussion:1 every:1 modification:1 would:1 impractical:1 concept:2 overlie:1 functioning:1 disrupt:1 impair:1 ability:1 past:1 date:1 replicate:4 pass:1 faulty:1 machinery:1 progeny:1 likelihood:1 cancerous:1 recently:1 described:1 lung:1 nci:1 x:1 xiap:1 overexpressed:1 line:2 xiaps:1 processed:1 overexpression:1 decrease:3 agonist:1 consequence:2 upset:1 favour:2 former:1 despite:1 suppressor:1 accumulates:1 chain:1 alpha:1 interferon:3 beta:1 level:2 enhancement:1 interphase:1 time:2 effort:1 fail:1 disruption:1 impaired:1 possible:1 hiv:5 progression:2 immunodeficiency:1 aid:1 primarily:1 depletion:1 helper:3 compromise:1 deplete:1 prim:1 parallel:1 procaspase:1 prompt:1 proteins:1 glycoprotein:1 marker:1 present:2 particle:1 fluid:1 nearby:1 bystander:1 agent:1 virion:1 infected:4 kinase:1 pkr:1 expression:2 mhc:1 killer:1 epstein:1 barr:1 adenovirus:2 express:2 crma:1 cowpox:1 whilst:1 block:1 myxoma:1 furthermore:1 transcriptional:1 transactivation:1 consequently:1 cannot:2 hepatitis:1 hbx:1 perform:1 interestingly:1 remain:1 intact:1 particularly:1 latter:1 export:1 pinch:1 engulf:1 prevents:1 host:1 molecular:1 similarity:1 difference:1 notably:1 presence:1 wall:1 piece:1 instead:1 synthesizes:1 place:1 vacuole:1 rupture:1 whether:1 whole:1 resembles:1 closely:1 enough:1 warrant:1 oppose:1 unclear:1 anoikis:1 autolysis:1 autophagy:2 network:1 cisplatin:1 entosis:1 immunology:1 reference:1 external:2 proteolysis:3 map:3 animation:3 virtual:1 library:1 biochemistry:1 portal:1 info:1 protocol:1 news:1 recent:1 database:1 video:1 kimball:1 simple:1 explanation:1 along:2 access:1 wikipathways:1 self:1 destruct:1 button:1 cr:1 magazine:1 spring:1 lecture:1 wang:1 xiaodong:1 |@bigram multicellular_organism:1 finger_toe:1 electron_microscopy:1 paul_ehrlich:1 consonant_cluster:1 penultimate_syllable:1 ionize_radiation:1 induce_apoptosis:10 viral_infection:4 undergo_apoptosis:3 apoptotic_pathway:7 cervical_cancer:1 potentially_fatal:1 potentially_harmful:1 tightly_regulate:1 steroid_hormone:1 potentially_damaging:2 cytotoxic_cell:3 nitric_oxide:2 plasma_membrane:2 positively_negatively:1 mitochondrial_membrane:3 signal_transduction:4 transduction_pathway:1 necrosis_factor:1 autoimmune_disease:1 transmembrane_protein:1 feedback_loop:1 pro_apoptotic:10 outer_membrane:2 potentially_lethal:1 tightly_pack:1 nuclear_envelope:2 gel_electrophoresis:1 et_al:1 lung_cancer:1 tumor_suppressor:1 interferon_beta:1 beta_interferon:1 immunodeficiency_virus:1 helper_cell:2 extracellular_fluid:1 protein_kinase:1 epstein_barr:1 barr_virus:1 immune_response:1 external_link:1 proteolysis_map:3 kimball_biology:1 self_destruct:1 |
1,644 | Erwin_Schrödinger | Bust of Schrödinger, in the courtyard arcade of the main building, University of Vienna, Austria. Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrödinger (; 12 August 1887 – 4 January 1961) was an Austrian theoretical physicist who achieved fame for his contributions to quantum mechanics, especially the Schrödinger equation, for which he received the Nobel Prize in 1933. In 1935, after extensive correspondence with personal friend Albert Einstein, he proposed the Schrödinger's cat thought experiment. Biography Early years In 1887 Schrödinger was born in Vienna, Austria to Rudolf Schrödinger (cerecloth producer, botanist) and Georgine Emilia Brenda (daughter of Alexander Bauer, Professor of Chemistry, k.u.k. Technische Hochschule Vienna). His mother was half Austrian and half English; the English side of her family came from Leamington Spa. Schrödinger learned English and German almost at the same time due to the fact that both were spoken in the family household. His father was a Catholic and his mother was a Lutheran. In 1898 he attended the Akademisches Gymnasium. Between 1906 and 1910 Schrödinger studied in Vienna under Franz Serafin Exner (1849 - 1926) and Friedrich Hasenöhrl (1874 - 1915). He also conducted experimental work with K.W.F. Kohlrausch. In 1911, Schrödinger became an assistant to Exner. At an early age, Schrödinger was strongly influenced by Schopenhauer A Life of Erwin Schrödinger, Chapter 4 . As a result of his extensive reading of Schopenhauer's works, he became deeply interested throughout his life in color theory, philosophy In his lecture "Mind and Matter," Chapter 4, he said that a phrase "that has become familiar to us" is "The world extended in space and time is but our representation (Vorstellung)." This is a repetition of the first words of Schopenhauer's main work. , perception, and eastern religion, especially Vedanta. Middle years In 1914 Erwin Schrödinger achieved Habilitation (venia legendi). Between 1914 and 1918 he participated in war work as a commissioned officer in the Austrian fortress artillery (Gorizia, Duino, Sistiana, Prosecco, Vienna). On 6 April 1920, Schrödinger married Annemarie Bertel. The same year, he became the assistant to Max Wien, in Jena, and in September 1920 he attained the position of ao. Prof. (Ausserordentlicher Professor), roughly equivalent to Reader (UK) or associate professor (US), in Stuttgart. In 1921, he became o. Prof. (Ordentlicher Professor, i.e. full professor), in Breslau (now Wrocław, Poland). In 1921, he moved to the University of Zürich. In January 1926, Schrödinger published in the Annalen der Physik the paper "Quantisierung als Eigenwertproblem" [tr. Quantization as an Eigenvalue Problem] on wave mechanics and what is now known as the Schrödinger equation. In this paper he gave a "derivation" of the wave equation for time independent systems, and showed that it gave the correct energy eigenvalues for the hydrogen-like atom. This paper has been universally celebrated as one of the most important achievements of the twentieth century, and created a revolution in quantum mechanics, and indeed of all physics and chemistry. A second paper was submitted just four weeks later that solved the quantum harmonic oscillator, the rigid rotor and the diatomic molecule, and gives a new derivation of the Schrödinger equation. A third paper in May showed the equivalence of his approach to that of Heisenberg and gave the treatment of the Stark effect. A fourth paper in this most remarkable series showed how to treat problems in which the system changes with time, as in scattering problems. These papers were the central achievement of his career and were at once recognized as having great significance by the physics community. In 1927, he succeeded Max Planck at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin. In 1933, however, Schrödinger decided to leave Germany; he disliked the Nazis' anti-semitism. He became a Fellow of Magdalen College at the University of Oxford. Soon after he arrived, he received the Nobel Prize together with Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac. His position at Oxford did not work out; his unconventional personal life (Schrödinger lived with two women) was not met with acceptance. In 1934, Schrödinger lectured at Princeton University; he was offered a permanent position there, but did not accept it. Again, his wish to set up house with his wife and his mistress may have posed a problem. He had the prospect of a position at the University of Edinburgh but visa delays occurred, and in the end he took up a position at the University of Graz in Austria in 1936. In the midst of these tenure issues in 1935, after extensive correspondence with personal friend Albert Einstein, he proposed the Schrödinger's cat thought experiment. Erwin Schrödinger in 1933 Later years In 1939, after the Anschluss, Schrödinger had problems because of his flight from Germany in 1933 and his known opposition to Nazism. He issued a statement recanting this opposition (he later regretted doing so, and he personally apologized to Einstein). However, this did not fully appease the new dispensation and the university dismissed him from his job for political unreliability. He suffered harassment and received instructions not to leave the country, but he and his wife fled to Italy. From there he went to visiting positions in Oxford and Ghent Universities. In 1940 he received an invitation to help establish an Institute for Advanced Studies in Dublin, Ireland. He moved to Clontarf, Dublin and became the Director of the School for Theoretical Physics and remained there for 17 years, during which time he became a naturalized Irish citizen. He wrote about 50 further publications on various topics, including his explorations of unified field theory. In 1944, he wrote What is Life?, which contains a discussion of Negentropy and the concept of a complex molecule with the genetic code for living organisms. According to James D. Watson's memoir, DNA, The Secret of Life, Schrödinger's book gave Watson the inspiration to research the gene, which led to the discovery of the DNA double helix structure. Similarly, Francis Crick, in his autobiographical book What Mad Pursuit, described how he was influenced by Schrödinger's speculations about how genetic information might be stored in molecules. Schrödinger stayed in Dublin until retiring in 1955. During this time he remained committed to his particular passion; scandalous involvements with students occurred and he fathered two children by two different Irish women. He had a life-long interest in the Vedanta philosophy of Hinduism, which influenced his speculations at the close of What is Life? about the possibility that individual consciousness is only a manifestation of a unitary consciousness pervading the universe. My View of the World - By Erwin Schroedinger chapter iv. What is life? the physical aspect of the living cell & Mind and matter - By Erwin Schrodinger In 1956, he returned to Vienna (chair ad personam). At an important lecture during the World Energy Conference he refused to speak on nuclear energy because of his skepticism about it and gave a philosophical lecture instead. During this period Schrödinger turned from mainstream quantum mechanics' definition of wave-particle duality and promoted the wave idea alone causing much controversy. Personal life Schrödinger decided in 1933 that he could not live in a country in which persecution of Jews had become a national policy. Alexander Frederick Lindemann, the head of physics at Oxford University, visited Germany in the spring of 1933 to try to arrange positions in England for some young Jewish scientists from Germany. He spoke to Schrödinger about posts for one of his assistants and was surprised to discover that Schrödinger himself was interested in leaving Germany. Schrödinger asked for a colleague, Arthur March, to be offered a post as his assistant. The request for March stemmed from Schrödinger's unconventional relationships with women: although his relations with his wife Anny were good, he had had many lovers with his wife's full knowledge (and in fact, Anny had her own lover, Hermann Weyl). Schrödinger asked for March to be his assistant because, at that time, he was in love with March's wife Hilde. Many of the scientists who had left Germany spent the summer of 1933 in the Italian province of Bolzano. Here Hilde became pregnant with Schrödinger's child. On 4 November 1933 Schrödinger, his wife and Hilde March arrived in Oxford. Schrödinger had been elected a fellow of Magdalen College. Soon after they arrived in Oxford, Schrödinger heard that, for his work on wave mechanics, he had been awarded the Nobel prize. In early 1934 Schrödinger was invited to lecture at Princeton University and while there he was made an offer of a permanent position. On his return to Oxford he negotiated about salary and pension conditions at Princeton but in the end he did not accept. It is thought that the fact that he wished to live at Princeton with Anny and Hilde both sharing the upbringing of his child was not found acceptable. The fact that Schrödinger openly had two wives, even if one of them was married to another man, was not well received in Oxford either. Nevertheless, his daughter Ruth Georgie Erica was born there on 30 May 1934. Schrödinger: Life and Thought by Walter John Moore, Cambridge University Press 1992 ISBN 0-521-43767-9, discusses Schrödinger's unconventional relationships, including his affair with Hildegunde March, in chapters seven and eight, "Berlin" and "Exile in Oxford". Erwin Schrödinger's gravesite On 4 January 1961, Schrödinger died in Vienna of tuberculosis at the age of 73. He left a widow, Anny (born Annemarie Bertel on 3 December 1896, died 3 October 1965), and was buried in Alpbach, Austria. Legacy The philosophical issues raised by Schrödinger's cat are still debated today and remains his most enduring legacy in popular science, while Schrödinger's equation is his most enduring legacy at a more technical level. The huge crater Schrödinger on the far side of the Moon is named after him. The Erwin Schrödinger International Institute for Mathematical Physics was established in Vienna in 1993. Color One of Schrödinger's lesser-known areas of scientific contribution was his work on color, color perception, and colorimetry (Farbenmetrik). In 1920, he published three papers in this area: "Theorie der Pigmente von größter Leuchtkraft," Annalen der Physik, (4), 62, (1920), 603-622 "Grundlinien einer Theorie der Farbenmetrik im Tagessehen," Annalen der Physik, (4), 63, (1920), 397-426; 427-456; 481-520 (Outline of a theory of color measurement for daylight vision) "Farbenmetrik," Zeitschrift für Physik, 1, (1920), 459-466 (Color measurement) The second of these is available in English as "Outline of a Theory of Color Measurement for Daylight Vision" in Sources of Color Science, Ed. David L. MacAdam, The MIT Press (1970), 134-182. Bibliography Nature and the Greeks and Science and Humanism Cambridge University Press (1996) ISBN 0521575508. The interpretation of Quantum Mechanics Ox Bow Press (1995) ISBN 1881987094. Statistical Thermodynamics Dover Publications (1989) ISBN 0486661016. Collected papers Friedr. Vieweg & Sohn (1984) ISBN 3700105738. My View of the World Ox Bow Press (1983) ISBN 0918024307. Expanding Universes Cambridge University Press (1956). Space-Time Structure Cambridge University Press (1950) ISBN 0521315204. What is Life? Macmillan (1946). What is Life? & Mind and Matter Cambridge University Press (1974) ISBN 052109397X. A Life of Erwin Schrödinger, Walter J. Moore, Cambridge University Press, Canto Edition (2003) ISBN 0521469341. See also Entropy and life Schrödinger method Schrödinger functional List of Austrian scientists List of Austrians Quantum Aspects of Life What is Life? Subject-object problem Schrödinger's cat References External links Erwin Schrödinger on an Austrian banknote. 1927 Solvay video with opening shot of Schrödinger "biographie" (in German) or "Biography from the Austrian Central Library for Physics" (in English) Encyclopaedia Britannica article on Erwin Schrodinger Nobel Lectures, Physics 1922-1941, "Erwin Schrödinger Biography" from NobelPrize.org Vallabhan, C. P. Girija, "Indian influences on Quantum Dynamics" [ed. Schrödinger's interest in Vedanta] Schrödinger Medal of the World Association of Theoretically Oriented Chemists (WATOC) The Discovery of New Productive Forms of Atomic Theory Nobel Banquet speech (in German) Quantum Mechanics and Schrodinger's Cat Annotated bibliography for Erwin Schrodinger from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues Schrödinger and his interest for Hinduism Critical interdisciplinary review of Schrödinger's "What is life?" be-x-old:Эрвін Шродынгер | Erwin_Schrödinger |@lemmatized bust:1 schrödinger:58 courtyard:1 arcade:1 main:2 building:1 university:17 vienna:8 austria:4 erwin:13 rudolf:2 josef:1 alexander:3 august:1 january:3 austrian:7 theoretical:2 physicist:1 achieve:2 fame:1 contribution:2 quantum:8 mechanic:7 especially:2 equation:5 receive:5 nobel:5 prize:3 extensive:3 correspondence:2 personal:4 friend:2 albert:2 einstein:3 propose:2 cat:5 think:4 experiment:2 biography:3 early:3 year:5 bear:2 cerecloth:1 producer:1 botanist:1 georgine:1 emilia:1 brenda:1 daughter:2 bauer:1 professor:5 chemistry:2 k:3 u:3 technische:1 hochschule:1 mother:2 half:2 english:5 side:2 family:2 come:1 leamington:1 spa:1 learn:1 german:3 almost:1 time:8 due:1 fact:4 speak:3 household:1 father:2 catholic:1 lutheran:1 attend:1 akademisches:1 gymnasium:1 study:2 franz:1 serafin:1 exner:2 friedrich:2 hasenöhrl:1 also:2 conduct:1 experimental:1 work:7 w:1 f:1 kohlrausch:1 become:10 assistant:5 age:2 strongly:1 influence:4 schopenhauer:3 life:17 chapter:4 result:1 reading:1 deeply:1 interested:2 throughout:1 color:8 theory:5 philosophy:2 lecture:6 mind:3 matter:3 say:1 phrase:1 familiar:1 world:5 extend:1 space:2 representation:1 vorstellung:1 repetition:1 first:1 word:1 perception:2 eastern:1 religion:1 vedanta:3 middle:1 habilitation:1 venia:1 legendi:1 participate:1 war:1 commissioned:1 officer:1 fortress:1 artillery:1 gorizia:1 duino:1 sistiana:1 prosecco:1 april:1 marry:2 annemarie:2 bertel:2 max:2 wien:1 jena:1 september:1 attain:1 position:8 ao:1 prof:2 ausserordentlicher:1 roughly:1 equivalent:1 reader:1 uk:1 associate:1 stuttgart:1 ordentlicher:1 e:1 full:2 breslau:1 wrocław:1 poland:1 move:2 zürich:1 publish:2 annalen:3 der:5 physik:4 paper:9 quantisierung:1 al:1 eigenwertproblem:1 tr:1 quantization:1 eigenvalue:2 problem:6 wave:5 know:2 give:6 derivation:2 independent:1 system:2 show:3 correct:1 energy:3 hydrogen:1 like:1 atom:1 universally:1 celebrate:1 one:4 important:2 achievement:2 twentieth:1 century:1 create:1 revolution:1 indeed:1 physic:7 second:2 submit:1 four:1 week:1 later:2 solve:1 harmonic:1 oscillator:1 rigid:1 rotor:1 diatomic:1 molecule:3 new:3 third:1 may:3 equivalence:1 approach:1 heisenberg:1 treatment:1 stark:1 effect:1 fourth:1 remarkable:1 series:1 treat:1 change:1 scatter:1 central:2 career:1 recognize:1 great:1 significance:1 community:1 succeed:1 planck:1 wilhelm:1 berlin:2 however:2 decide:2 leave:5 germany:6 dislike:1 nazi:1 anti:1 semitism:1 fellow:2 magdalen:2 college:2 oxford:9 soon:2 arrive:3 together:1 paul:1 adrien:1 maurice:1 dirac:1 unconventional:3 live:3 two:4 woman:3 meet:1 acceptance:1 princeton:4 offer:3 permanent:2 accept:2 wish:2 set:1 house:1 wife:7 mistress:1 pose:1 prospect:1 edinburgh:1 visa:1 delay:1 occur:2 end:2 take:1 graz:1 midst:1 tenure:1 issue:4 late:1 anschluss:1 flight:1 known:1 opposition:2 nazism:1 statement:1 recant:1 regret:1 personally:1 apologize:1 fully:1 appease:1 dispensation:1 dismiss:1 job:1 political:1 unreliability:1 suffer:1 harassment:1 instruction:1 country:2 flee:1 italy:1 go:1 visit:2 ghent:1 invitation:1 help:1 establish:2 institute:2 advanced:1 dublin:3 ireland:1 clontarf:1 director:1 school:1 remain:3 naturalized:1 irish:2 citizen:1 write:2 publication:2 various:1 topic:1 include:2 exploration:1 unified:1 field:1 contain:1 discussion:1 negentropy:1 concept:1 complex:1 genetic:2 code:1 living:2 organism:1 accord:1 james:1 watson:2 memoir:1 dna:2 secret:1 book:2 inspiration:1 research:1 gene:1 lead:1 discovery:2 double:1 helix:1 structure:2 similarly:1 francis:1 crick:1 autobiographical:1 mad:1 pursuit:1 describe:1 speculation:2 information:1 might:1 store:1 stay:1 retire:1 committed:1 particular:1 passion:1 scandalous:1 involvement:1 student:1 child:3 different:1 long:1 interest:3 hinduism:2 close:1 possibility:1 individual:1 consciousness:2 manifestation:1 unitary:1 pervade:1 universe:2 view:2 schroedinger:1 iv:1 physical:1 aspect:2 cell:1 schrodinger:4 return:2 chair:1 ad:1 personam:1 conference:1 refuse:1 nuclear:2 skepticism:1 philosophical:2 instead:1 period:1 turn:1 mainstream:1 definition:1 particle:1 duality:1 promote:1 idea:1 alone:1 cause:1 much:1 controversy:1 could:1 persecution:1 jew:1 national:1 policy:1 frederick:1 lindemann:1 head:1 spring:1 try:1 arrange:1 england:1 young:1 jewish:1 scientist:3 post:2 surprise:1 discover:1 ask:2 colleague:1 arthur:1 march:6 request:1 stem:1 relationship:2 although:1 relation:1 anny:4 good:1 many:2 lover:2 knowledge:1 hermann:1 weyl:1 love:1 hilde:4 spend:1 summer:1 italian:1 province:1 bolzano:1 pregnant:1 november:1 elect:1 heard:1 award:1 invite:1 make:1 negotiate:1 salary:1 pension:1 condition:1 share:1 upbringing:1 find:1 acceptable:1 openly:1 even:1 another:1 man:1 well:1 either:1 nevertheless:1 ruth:1 georgie:1 erica:1 walter:2 john:1 moore:2 cambridge:6 press:9 isbn:9 discuss:1 affair:1 hildegunde:1 seven:1 eight:1 exile:1 gravesite:1 die:2 tuberculosis:1 widow:1 born:1 december:1 october:1 bury:1 alpbach:1 legacy:3 raise:1 still:1 debate:1 today:1 enduring:2 popular:1 science:3 technical:1 level:1 huge:1 crater:1 far:1 moon:1 name:1 international:1 mathematical:1 lesser:1 area:2 scientific:1 colorimetry:1 farbenmetrik:3 three:1 theorie:2 pigmente:1 von:1 größter:1 leuchtkraft:1 grundlinien:1 einer:1 im:1 tagessehen:1 outline:2 measurement:3 daylight:2 vision:2 zeitschrift:1 für:1 available:1 source:1 ed:2 david:1 l:1 macadam:1 mit:1 bibliography:2 nature:1 greek:1 humanism:1 interpretation:1 ox:2 bow:2 statistical:1 thermodynamics:1 dover:1 collect:1 friedr:1 vieweg:1 sohn:1 expand:1 macmillan:1 j:1 canto:1 edition:1 see:1 entropy:1 method:1 functional:1 list:2 subject:1 object:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 banknote:1 solvay:1 video:1 open:1 shot:1 biographie:1 library:2 encyclopaedia:1 britannica:1 article:1 nobelprize:1 org:1 vallabhan:1 c:1 p:1 girija:1 indian:1 dynamic:1 medal:1 association:1 theoretically:1 orient:1 chemist:1 watoc:1 productive:1 form:1 atomic:1 banquet:1 speech:1 annotate:1 alsos:1 digital:1 critical:1 interdisciplinary:1 review:1 x:1 old:1 эрвін:1 шродынгер:1 |@bigram quantum_mechanic:5 schrödinger_equation:4 nobel_prize:3 albert_einstein:2 technische_hochschule:1 leamington_spa:1 erwin_schrödinger:8 commissioned_officer:1 annalen_der:3 der_physik:3 twentieth_century:1 harmonic_oscillator:1 diatomic_molecule:1 max_planck:1 friedrich_wilhelm:1 anti_semitism:1 fellow_magdalen:2 magdalen_college:2 graz_austria:1 double_helix:1 francis_crick:1 mad_pursuit:1 ad_personam:1 particle_duality:1 hermann_weyl:1 province_bolzano:1 enduring_legacy:2 theorie_der:2 zeitschrift_für:1 für_physik:1 ox_bow:2 dover_publication:1 external_link:1 encyclopaedia_britannica:1 nobelprize_org:1 annotate_bibliography:1 alsos_digital:1 |
1,645 | DiGeorge_syndrome | REDIRECT 22q11.2 deletion syndrome | DiGeorge_syndrome |@lemmatized redirect:1 deletion:1 syndrome:1 |@bigram |
1,646 | Maharashtra | Maharashtra (Marathi: , IPA ) is a state located on the western coast of India. Maharashtra is a part of Western India. It is India's third largest state by area and second largest by population. Maharashtra is bordered by the Arabian Sea to the west, Gujarat and the Union territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli to the northwest, Madhya Pradesh to the northeast, Chhattisgarh to the east, Karnataka to the south, Andhra Pradesh to the southeast, and Goa to the southwest. The state covers an area of or 9.84% of the total geographical area of India. Mumbai, the capital city of the state, is India's largest city and the financial capital of the nation. Marathi is the official and most widely spoken language. In the 17th Century, the Marathas rose under the leadership of Chhatrapati Shivaji against the Mughals who were ruling a large part of India. After the third Anglo-Maratha war, the empire ended and most of Maharashtra became part of Bombay state under a British Raj. After Indian independence, Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti demanded unification of all Marathi speaking regions under one state. The first state reorganization committee created the current Maharashtra state on May 1, 1960 (known as Maharashtra Day). The Marathi-speaking areas of Bombay state, Deccan states and Vidarbha (which was part of Central Provinces and Berar) united to form the current state. Maharashtra is the richest state in India, contributing to 15% of the country's industrial output and 13.2% of its GDP in year 2005-06. GDP of Indian states History Painting from the Ajanta Caves in Aurangabad, Maharashtra, sixth century. The Nāsik Gazetteer states that in 246 B.C. Maharashtra is mentioned as one of the places to which Asoka sent an embassy, and Mahārashtraka is recorded in a Chālukyan inscription of A.D. 580 as including three provinces and 99,000 villages. The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India - Volume IV of IV Sir H. Risley’s India Census Report (1901), Ethnographic Appendices, p. 93. The name Maharashtra also appeared in a 7th century inscription and in the account of a Chinese traveler, Hiuen-Tsang. In 90 A.D. Vedishri, An inscription at Naneghat describes Vedishri as a very brave king and the lord of Dakshinapatha (Deccan). Mirashi, Studies in Indology, vol. I, p. 76 f.] son of the Satavahana king Satakarni, the "Lord of Dakshinapatha, wielder of the unchecked wheel of Sovereignty", made Junnar, thirty miles north of Pune, the capital of his kingdom. In the early fourteenth century the Devgiri Yadavs were overthrown by the northern Muslim powers. Then on, the region was administered by various kingdoms called Deccan Sultanates. Pre Medieval history Satavahana Empire Not much is known about Maharashtra's early history, and its recorded history dates back to the 3rd century B.C.E., with the use of Maharashtri Prakrit, one of the Prakrits derived from Sanskrit. Later, Maharashtra became a part of the Magadha empire, ruled by emperor Ashoka. The port town of Sopara, north of present day Mumbai, was the centre of ancient India's commerce, with links to Eastern Africa, Mesopotamia, Aden and Cochin. {| class="wikitable" align="right" border="1" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="3" style="width:235px; margin:0 0 1em 1em; border:1px #C6C7C8 solid; border-collapse:collapse; background:#F4F5F6; font-size:90%;" !colspan="2" style="background:#C2D6E5;"| Maharashtra state symbols |- | Animal || Shekru (a large squirrel) |- | Bird || Green neck pigeons |- | Dance || Lavani |- | Flower || |- | Language || Marathi |- | Song || Jai Jai Maharashtra Majha |- | Sport || Hututu (Kabaddi) |- | Tree || Taman |- } With the disintegration of the Mauryan Empire, a local dynasty called Satavahanas came into prominence in Maharashtra between 230 B.C.E. and 225 C.E. The period saw the biggest cultural development of Maharashtra. The Satavahana's official language was Maharashtri, which later developed into Marathi. The great ruler Gautamiputra Satkarni (also known as "Shalivahan") ruled around 78 C.E. He started the Shalivahana era, a new calendar, still used by Maharashtrian populace and as the Indian national calendar. The empire gradually disintegrated in the third century. During (250 C.E. – 525 C.E.), Vidarbha, the eastern region of Maharashtra, came under the rule of Vakatakas. During this period, development of arts, religion and technology flourished. Later, in 753 C.E., the region was governed by the Rashtrakutas, an empire that spread over most of India. In 973 C.E., the Chalukyas of Badami expelled the Rashtrakutas, when the region came under the Yadavas of Deogiri. Islamic Rule Maharashtra came under Islamic influence for the first time after the Delhi Sultanate rulers Ala-ud-din Khalji, and later Muhammad bin Tughluq conquered parts of the Deccan in the 13th century. After the collapse of the Tughlaqs in 1347, the Bahmani Sultanate of Gulbarga took over, governing the region for the next 150 years. After the breakup of the Bahamani sultanate, in 1518, Maharashtra was ruled by the breakaway in to 5 Shah's, namely Nizamshah of Ahmednagar, Adilshah of Bijapur, Kutubshah of Govalkonda, Bidarshah of Bidar and Imadshah of Berar. Rise of the Marathas The Maratha Empire in 1760. The last Hindu empire of India. Chhattrapati Shivaji Raje Bhosale, founder of the Maratha Empire. By the early seventeenth century, the Maratha Empire began to take root. Shahaji Bhosale, an ambitious local general in the employ of the Mughals and Adil Shah of Bijapur, at various times attempted to establish his independent rule. The attempts succeeded through his son Shivaji Bhosale. Marathas were led by Chhattrapati Shivaji Raje Bhonsle, who was crowned king in 1664. Shivaji constantly battled with the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb and Adil Shah of Bijapur. By the time of his death in 1680, Shivaji had created a kingdom covering most of Maharashtra today (except the Aurangabad district which was part of the Nizam's territory) and Gujarat. Shivaji's son and successor Chhatrapatti Sambhaji Bhosale became the ruler of the Maratha kingdom in 1680. He was captured, tortured and brutally put to death by Aurangzeb. Rajaram's nephew & Sambhaji's son, Shahu Bhosale declared himself to be the legitimate heir to the Bhosale throne. In 1714, Shahu's Peshwa (chief minister) Balaji Vishwanath, helped him seize the Maratha throne in 1708, with some acrimony from Rajaram's widow, Tara Bai. Peshwas The Peshwas (prime ministers) played an important role in expanding the Maratha Empire in Northern and Central India. They were also decisive in many battles, like Moropant Pingale in 1670’s Dindori battle against the Mughals, Ramchandra Amatya in 1690’s Satara Battle against the Mughals and, the Pant Pratinidhi Peshwa. By 1760, the Maratha Empire spread across parts of Punjab (in today's Pakistan), Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh and Karnataka. Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath, of the Bhat family, and his son, Baji Rao I, bureaucratised the Maratha state. They systematised the practice of tribute gathering from Mughal territories, under the heads of sardesmukhi and chauth (the two terms corresponding to the proportion of revenue collected). They also consolidated Mughal-derived methods of assessment and collection of land revenue and other taxes. Much of the revenue terminology used in Peshwa documents derives from Persian, suggesting a far greater continuity between Mughal and Maratha revenue practice than may be politically palatable in the present day. At the same time,the maritime Angre clan controlled a fleet of vessels based in Kolaba and other centres of the west coast. These ships posed a threat not only to the new English settlement of Mumbai, but to the Portuguese at Goa, Bassein, and Daman. On the other hand, there emerged a far larger domain of activity away from the original heartland of the Marathas, which was given over to subordinate chiefs as fiefs. Gwalior was given to Scindia/Shinde, Indore to Holkar, Baroda to Gaekwad and Dhar to Pawar. Bhonsles remained in power in Nagpur under Peshwas. After suffering a stinging defeat at the hands of Afghan chieftain Ahmad Shah Abdali, in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761, the Maratha Confederacy broke into regional kingdoms. Post-Panipat, the Peshwa's ex-generals looked after the regional kingdoms they had earned and carved out for themselves in the service of Peshwas covering north-central and Deccan regions of India. Pune continued to be ruled by what was left of the Peshwa family. British Rule and Post-Independence With the arrival and subsequent involvement of the British East India Company in Indian politics, the Marathas and the British fought the three Anglo-Maratha wars between 1777 and 1818, culminating in the annexation of Peshwa-ruled territory in Maharashtra in 1819, which heralded the end of the Maratha empire. The British governed the region as part of the Bombay Presidency, which spanned an area from Karachi in Pakistan to most of the northern Deccan. A number of the Maratha states persisted as princely states, retaining local autonomy in return for acknowledging British sovereignty. The largest princely states in the territory of present-day Maharashtra were Nagpur, Satara and Kolhapur; Satara was annexed to Bombay Presidency in 1848, and Nagpur was annexed in 1853 to become Nagpur Province, later part of the Central Provinces. Berar, which had been part of the Nizam of Hyderabad's kingdom, was occupied by the British in 1853 and annexed to the Central Provinces in 1903. A large part of present day Maharashtra called Marathwada remained part of the Nizam's Hyderabad state during British rule. The British rule was marked by social reforms and an improvement in infrastructure as well as revolts due to their discriminatory policies. At the beginning of the 20th century, the struggle for independence took shape led by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and the moderates like Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, Pherozeshah Mehta and Dadabhai Naoroji. In 1942, the Quit India Movement was called by Mahatma Gandhi which was marked by a non-violent civil disobedience movement and strikes. After India's independence in 1947, the princely states were integrated into the Indian Union, and the Deccan States including Kolhapur were integrated into Bombay State, which was created from the former Bombay Presidency in 1950. In 1956, the States Reorganisation Act reorganized the Indian states along linguistic lines, and Bombay Presidency State was enlarged by the addition of the predominantly Marathi-speaking regions of Marathwada (Aurangabad Division) from erstwhile Hyderabad state and Vidarbha region (Amravati and Nagpur divisions) from Madhya Pradesh (formerly the Central Provinces and Berar). On May 1, 1960, Maharashtra came into existence when Bombay Presidency State was split into the new linguistic states of Maharashtra and Gujarat. Geography Pune is located at the confluence of the Mula and Mutha rivers. The Arabian Sea in Mahad Maharashtra encompasses an area of 308,000 km² (119,000 mi²), and is the third largest state in India. It is bordered by the states of Madhya Pradesh to the north, Chhattisgarh to the east, Andhra Pradesh to the southeast, Karnataka to the south, and Goa to the southwest. The state of Gujarat lies to the northwest, with the Union territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli sandwiched in between. The Arabian Sea makes up Maharashtra's west coast. The Western Ghats better known as Sahyadri, are a hilly range running parallel to the coast, at an average elevation of 1,200 metres (4,000 ft). Kalsubai, a peak in the Sahyadris is the highest elevated point in Maharashtra. To the west of these hills lie the Konkan coastal plains, 50–80 kilometres in width. To the east of the Ghats lies the flat Deccan Plateau. The Western Ghats form one of the three watersheds of India, from which many South Indian rivers originate, notable among them being Godavari River, and Krishna, which flow eastward into the Bay of Bengal, forming one of the greatest river basins in India. The Ghats are also the source of numerous small rivers which flow westwards, emptying into the Arabian Sea. To the east are major rivers like Vainganga, which flow to the south and eventually into the Bay of Bengal. There are many multi-state irrigation projects in development, including Godavari River Basin Irrigation Projects. The plateau is composed of black basalt soil, rich in humus. This soil is well suited for cultivating cotton, and hence is often called black cotton soil. Western Maharashtra, which includes the districts of Nashik, Ahmadnagar, Pune, Satara, Solapur, Sangli and Kolhapur, is a prosperous belt famous for its sugar factories. Farmers in the region are economically well off due to fertile land and good irrigation. Protected areas of Maharashtra Several wildlife sanctuaries, national parks and Project Tiger reserves have been created in Maharashtra, with the aim of conserving the rich bio-diversity of the region. As of May 2004, India has 92 national parks, of which 5 are located in Maharashtra. A large percentage of Maharashtra's forests and wildlife lie in the Vidarbha region. Lions at the Sanjay Gandhi National Park, the world's largest national park within city limits. Chandoli National Park, located in Sangli district has a vast variety of flora and fauna. The famous Prachitgad Fort and Chandoli dam and scenic water falls can be found around Chandoli National Park. Gugamal National Park, also known as Melghat Tiger Reserve is located in Amravati district. It is 80 km away from Amravati. Navegaon National Park, located near Gondia in the eastern region of Vidarbha is home to many species of birds, deer, bears and leopards. Pench National Park, in Nagpur district, extends into Madhya Pradesh as well. It has now been upgraded into a Tiger project. Sanjay Gandhi National Park, also known as Borivali National Park is located in Mumbai and is the world's largest national park within city limits. Sagareshwar Wildlife Sanctuary, a man made wildlife sanctuary situated 30 km from Sangli. Ancient temples of Lord Shiva and Jain Temple of Parshwanath located in Sagareshwar are a major attraction. Tadoba Andhari Tiger Project, a prominent tiger reserve near Chandrapur in Vidarbha. It is 40 km away from Chandrapur. Apart from these, Maharashtra has 35 wildlife sanctuaries spread all over the state, listed here. New Page 1 The Nagzira (Bhandara district), Phansad Wildlife Sanctuary, and the Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary are the important ones. Apart from the above, Matheran, a Hill station near Mumbai has been declared an eco-sensitive zone (Protected area) by the Government of India. Economy Year Gross Domestic Product (millions of INR) 1980 166,310 1985 296,160 1990 644,330 1995 1,578,180 2000 2,386,720 2005 3,759,150 Maharashtra economy soars to $85b by 2005 Nariman Point, in Mumbai, is a prime financial district in Maharashtra. Favourable economic policies in the 1970s led to Maharashtra becoming India's leading industrial state in the last quarter of 20th century. Over 41% of the S&P CNX 500 conglomerates have corporate offices in Maharashtra. However, regions within Maharashtra show wide disparity in development. Mumbai, Pune and western Maharashtra are the most advanced. These areas also dominate the politics and bureaucracy of the state. This has led to resentment among backward regions like Vidarbha, Marathwada, and Konkan. Maharashtra's gross state domestic product for 2008 is forecast to be at $150 billion at current market prices. The state's debt was estimated at 36 per cent of GDP in 2005. Maharashtra debt climbs to 36 per cent of GDP In 2007 Maharashtra reported a revenue surplus of INR 810 crore. Maharashtra is the second most urbanised state with urban population of 42% of whole population. Maharashtra's is India's leading industrial state contributing 15% of national industrial output. 64.14% of the people are employed in agriculture and allied activities. Almost 46% of the GSDP is contributed by industry. Major industries in Maharashtra include chemical and allied products, electrical and non-electrical machinery, textiles, petroleum and allied products. Other important industries include metal products, wine, jewellery, pharmaceuticals, engineering goods, machine tools, steel and iron castings and plastic wares. Food crops include mangoes, grapes, bananas, oranges, wheat, rice, jowar, bajra, and pulses. Cash crops include groundnut, cotton, sugarcane, turmeric, and tobacco. The net irrigated area totals 33,500 square kilometres. Mumbai, the capital of Maharashtra and the business capital of India, houses the headquarters of almost all major banks, financial institutions, insurance companies and mutual funds in India. India's largest stock exchange Bombay Stock Exchange, the oldest in Asia, is also located in the city. After successes in the information technology in the neighboring states, Maharashtra has set up software parks in Pune, Mumbai, Navi Mumbai, Aurangabad, Nagpur and Nasik, Now Maharashtra is the second largest exporter of software with annual exports of Rs 18 000cr (20% of India's software exports). The coast of Maharashtra has been a ship-building center for many centuries. The expertise and the manpower available in the local area make this business more attractive.This is reflected by the number of companies operating shipyards in the state such as Bharati Shipyard at Ratnagiri and the upcoming Rajapur Shipyards at Rajapur, apart from the state owned Mazagon Dock Limited at Mumbai. Cuffe Parade houses important financial institutions such as the World Trade Centre. Mumbai is also the centre of India's Hindi film and television industry (Bollywood). Maharashtra ranks first nationwide in coal-based thermal electricity as well as nuclear electricity generation with national market shares of over 13% and 17% respectively. Maharashtra is also introducing Jatropha cultivation and has started a project for the identification of suitable sites for Jatropha plantations. Ralegaon Siddhi is a village in Ahmednagar District that is considered a model of environmental conservation. The Bombay Stock Exchange, Asia's oldest and India's largest stock exchange Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust in Navi Mumbai is the busiest port in India. Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport in Mumbai is the busiest airport in India as per passenger volume. Government Maharashtra Vidhan Sabha election results since 1990 Like all states in India, the nominal head of state is the governor, appointed by the Union Government. The Governor's post is largely ceremonial. The Chief Minister is the head of government and is vested with most of the executive powers. Maharashtra's legislature is bicameral, one of the few states in India to have a bicameral type. The Vidhan Sabha (Legislative Assembly) is the lower house consisting of directly elected members. The Chief Minister is chosen by the members of the Vidhan Sabha. The Vidhan Parishad (Legislative Council) is the upper house, whose members are indirectly voted through an electoral college. Maharashtra is allocated nineteen seats in the Rajya Sabha and forty-eight in the Lok Sabha, India's national parliament. The Bombay High Court The capital city Mumbai is home to the Vidhan Sabha – the state assembly and Mantralaya, the administrative offices of the government. It is also home to the Bombay High Court which has jurisdiction over Maharashtra, Goa, and the Union Territory of Daman and Diu. The legislature convenes its budget and monsoon sessions in Mumbai, and the winter session in Nagpur, which was designated as the state's auxiliary capital. After India's independence, most of Maharashtra's political history was dominated by the Congress party. Maharashtra became a bastion of the Congress party producing stalwarts such as Y.B. Chavan, one of its most prominent Chief Ministers. The party enjoyed near unchallenged dominance of the political landscape until 1995 when the right wing Shiv Sena and BJP secured an overwhelming majority in the state to form a coalition. After a split in the Congress party, former chief minister Sharad Pawar formed the Nationalist Congress Party (NCP), but formed a coalition with the Congress to keep out the BJP-SS combine. The 2004 elections saw the NCP gaining the largest number of seats to become the state's largest party, eroding much of the Shiv Sena's base. Under a pre-poll power sharing agreement, the Chief Minister would be from the Congress while the deputy Chief Minister would be from the NCP. Ashok Chavan is the current Chief Minister and Chhagan Bhujbal is the Deputy Chief Minister. Revenues of Government This is a chart of trend of own tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) of the Government of Maharashtra assessed by the Finance Commissions from time to time with figures in millions of Indian Rupees. Year Own Tax Revenues 2000 198,821 2005 332,476 This is a chart of trend of own non-tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) of the Government of Maharashtra assessed by the Finance Commissions from time to time with figures in millions of Indian Rupees. Year Own Non-tax Revenues 2000 26,030 2005 30,536 Demographics As per the 2001 census, Maharashtra has a population of 96,752,247 inhabitants making it the second most populous state in India, and the second most populous country subdivision in existence, and third ever after the Russian SFSR of the former Soviet Union. The Marathi-speaking population of Maharashtra numbers 62,481,681 according to the 2001 census. This is a reflection of the cosmopolitan nature of the state. Only eleven countries of the world have a population greater than Maharashtra. Its density is 322.5 inhabitants per square kilometre. Males constitute 50.3 million and females, 46.4 million. Maharashtra's urban population stands at 42.4%. Its sex ratio is 922 females to 1000 males. 77.27% of its population is literate, broken into 86.2% males and 67.5% females. Its growth rate between 1991–2001 was pegged at 22.57%. Marathi is the official state language. In Mumbai and suburban areas, apart from the native Marathi, English, Hindi and other languages are also spoken. In the northwest portion of Maharashtra, a dialect Ahirani is spoken by a minority. In south Konkan, a dialect known as Malvani is spoken by most of the people. In the Desh (inland) region of the Deccan, a dialect called Deshi is spoken, while in Vidarbha, a dialect known as Varhadi is spoken by most of the people. The state has a Hindu majority of 80.2% with minorities of Muslims 10.6%, Buddhists 6%, Jains 1.3% and Christians 1%. Maharashtra has the biggest Jain, Zoroastrian and Jewish populations in India. The Total Fertility Rate in 2001 was 2.23. Caste Hindus - 2.09, Muslims - 2.49, Christians - 1.41, Jains - 1.41, Sikh - 1.57, Buddhist - 2.24, Others -2.25, Tribals - 3.14 and Dalits of all religions - 2.42 (Hindu Dalits had higher TFR compared to Buddhist Dalits). http://www.maharashtra.gov.in/english/ecoSurvey/ecoSurvey2005-06/eng/cha_3e.p Religion Sant Tukaram praying to Vithoba (Krishna) Marathi Hindus revere Bhakti saints of all castes, such as Dnyaneshwar(Brahmin-kulkarni's) Tukaram (Moray Maratha-Kunbi), Namdev (Shimpi), and Chokhamela (Mahar), and Savata Mali (Mali) . Ganesh Chaturthi, a popular festival in the state. There were several other Harijan saints of Maharastra. They are Sant Banka Mahar, Sant Bhagu, Sant Damaji panth, Sant Kanhopatra, Sant Karmamelam, Sant Nirmala, Sant Sadna, Sant Sakhubai, Sant Satyakam Jabali, Sant Soyarabai. Other important devotees are Namdev Mahar, devotee of Shirdi Sai Baba, lived in Kharagpur Shepherd, P. 111 Gurus Rediscovered: and Bhagubai, the wife of Namdev Mahar, devotee of Sai. In modern times Nisargadatta Maharaj, a Shudra and bidi-seller, became a Hindu saint of major influence in India. Popular forms of God are Shiva, Krishna and Ganesha. Lord Shiva's devotion is celebrated by taking part in Maha Shivaratri (Night of Shiva) festival. In modern times, the Elephanta island in Mumbai, Lord's Shiva island in local mythology, originated the Elephant Festival. Lord Krishna's devotion are celebrated in the state-wide Gokul Ashtami (or Krishna Janmashtami, Krishna's birthday) whereby many devotees fast on the entire day until midnight. Lord Ganesh's devotion is celebrated by Ganesh Chaturthi (Ganesh's birthday) in August. Ethnic groups The Marathi people are the majority throughout most of the state. Languages Marathi is the official state language. As per 2001 census Marathi is spoken by 68.89 % of people. Other languages which are spoken by more than one percent of the people are as follows Language Percentage in state Marathi 68.89 Hindi 11.04 Urdu 7.13 Gujarati 2.39 Non- Scheduled Languages 4.60 Telugu 1.45 Kannada 1.30 Sindhi 0.73 Divisions Divisions of Maharashtra Maharashtra is divided into thirty-five districts, which are grouped into seven divisions: Aurangabad Division, Amravati Division, Konkan Division, Nagpur Division, Nashik Division, Pune Division, and Nanded Division. These are official revenue divisions of government of Maharashtra. Geographically, historically and according to political sentiments Maharashtra has five main regions: Vidarbha or Berar (Nagpur and Amravati divisions), Marathwada (Aurangabad Division), Khandesh and Northern Maharashtra (Nashik Division), Desh or Western Maharashtra (Pune Division), and Konkan (Konkan Division). Principal cities Maharashtra has of the highest level of urbanisation of all Indian states. Level of Urbanisation The mountainous topography and soil are not as suitable for intensive agriculture as the plains of North India; therefore, the proportion of the urban population (42.4 per cent) contrasts starkly with the national averageveloping metro and many large towns. Mumbai is the state capital with a population of approximately 15.2 million people. The other large cities are Pune, Nasik, Navi Mumbai, Thane, Amravati, Aurangabad and Nagpur. Mumbai, the administrative capital of Maharashtra, is also the largest city in India. Mumbai: Mumbai is the financial and commercial capital of India and is the megapolis capital of Maharashtra. It has the largest proportion of taxpayers in India and its share markets transact almost 70 per cent of the country’s stocks. It offers a lifestyle that is rich, cosmopolitan and diverse, with a variety of food, entertainment and nightlife. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport (CSIA) in Mumbai is the biggest and the busiest airport in India. The city is India's link to the world of telecommunications and the Internet. VSNL (Now Tata Communications Limited) is the terminal point in India for all telephone and internet traffic. Mumbai is India's flagship port destination. It is also home to the Indian Navy's Western Command (INS). Pune is the second largest city in the state. Pune: Pune, the second largest city in Maharashtra and the eighth largest in India, is the state's cultural and heritage capital with a population of 4.5 million people. About 170 km from Mumbai by road, Pune was the bastion of the Maratha empire. Under the reign of the Peshwas, Pune blossomed into a centre of art and learning. Several far reaching revenue and judicial reforms were also initiated in the city. Shaniwarwada, Saras baug, Aga Khan Palace, Parvati Temple, Khadakwasla Dam, Sinhgad are the most visited places by tourists in Pune. 'Ganeshotsav', a festival of Lord Ganesh is celebrated in Pune with lot of enthusiasm and worship. Pune is connected to Mumbai by the Mumbai-Pune Expressway. Pune also has very important military cantonments as well as the HQ of the Southern Command, the National Defence Academy, the AFMC, CME, and the IAF base at Lohegaon too. Pune is a major Information Technology hub of India as well as a foremost destination for Automobile manufacturing and component industryCity. Nashik is known for it's pleasant climate co-existing with fast development. Nashik: One of the holy cities of the Hindu tradition, Nashik lies on the banks of the sacred river Godavari and has a population of about 1.6 million people. It is believed that Lord Rama, hero of the great Indian epic, the Ramayana, spent a major part of his exile here. Nashik is also a temple town, with over 200 temples.Nashik today is rapidly developing in ITs, industries, Pharmaceuticals and westernisation. It is also famous for its pleasant and cool climate. Nashik is also an educational hub. It is well connected to all cities of Maharashtra by road,rail and air. The artillery centre at Devlali in Nashik is well famous. Nashik also holds the Kumbhmela in 12 years once. Someshwar, Bhandardara, Shirdi, Kalaram Temple, Ramkund, Sita Gufa, Sapthsringi Gad and Ganagapur Dam are the tourist places near Nashik. Trimbakeshwar or Tryambakeshwar or Trambakeshwar is an ancient Hindu temple in the town of Trimbak, in the Nashik District of Maharashtra, India, 28 km from the city of Nashik GPS Reference 20.021944 N, 73.729935 E . It is dedicated to Lord Shiva and is one of the twelve Jyotirlingaas. Nashik is the cleanest city in Maharashtra. Navi Mumbai Navi Mumbai: It is a modern planned city with many Industries around, a new railway terminus, an international airport being constructed here. It was initially developed in the 1970s as a counter magnet to reduce urban congestion on Mumbai island. Navi Mumbai is connected to Mumbai at Vashi and Airoli nodes by rail and road by two massive bridges on the Thane creek. It has a good Highway network. Town planning is done by the Government of Maharashtra agency named CIDCO. With so many industries in Navi Mumbai today Navi Mumbai acts as a back bone in the Mumbai metropolitan area. Thane: Thane is a city adjoining Mumbai on the Salsette Island, packed with Mulund in Mumbai on the north east and Thane creek and the Ulhas river on the south. Its a city with a population of 1.5 million people and is one of the most developed as well as most urbanized cities in Maharashtra and India. It is the administrative headquarters of the Thane district. Thane is a major industrial and commercial city with the first industrial estate in Maharashtra the TTC area being established here in the 1960s. Thane is a predominantly Middle class, Marathi speaking and a culturally rich city. The first railway in India ran between Mumbai and Thane in 1853. Thane is also known as the city of Lakes as well as one of the cleanest cities in India. Nagpur: The erstwhile capital of the CP & Berar and after independence the capital of Madhya Pradesh till 1956. Nagpur is the nerve centre of Vidarbha (eastern Maharashtra), Nagpur - the 'orange city' as it is known - is located in the heart of India, with a population of about 2.4 million people (2.1 Million as per census 2001). It is also second administrative capital of Maharashtra. Nagpur is a growing industrial centre and the home of several industries, ranging from food products and chemicals to electrical and transports equipment. An international cargo airport is coming up in Nagpur. The Maintenance Command of Indian Air Force is located in Nagpur. The " Zero Mile Stone" or the geographical centre of India is located in Nagpur. Deekshabhoomi, Sitabardi Fort, Ambazari, Seminary Hills, Dragon Palace Temple, Pench National Park are some of the tourist attractions in and around Nagpur. Aurangabad is a popular tourist destination. Aurangabad: The tourist capital of Maharashtra of more than 1.1 million, it is an up-and-coming industrial hub of Maharashtra after Pune and Mumbai. Aurangabad is the capital of Marathwada. It is growing rapidly as many projects are coming to Aurangabad. It is also known as the Beer Capital of India and ranked in fastest growing cities in the World as many Industrial, IT-Software, Pharmaceutical, Hospitality, Entertainment, Educational projects are being initiated in the city. Ahmednagar: Historic city of Maharashtra. 110 km from Pune & Aurangabad & Located Centrally in Maharashtra. Also Located within the productive, irrigated agricultural region of Sugarcane Belt. Asia's first co-operative sugar Factory was started at Pravaranagar by Padmashri Dr. Vitthalrao Vikhe Patil (Founder Of Co-operative Movement). First Prime minister Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru was jailed by the British in Ahmednagar fort for three years (1942-1945), where he wrote "Discovery Of India". The land is mainly blessed by Holy Temples of Shri Shirdi Sai Baba & Lord Shani Dev of Shani Shingnapur. Amravati: Amravati (also known as Amrawati or Amraoti) is a city of the population nearly 9,00,000 in the state of Maharashtra in India. It is believed to be the city of lord Indra, the king of all gods. It has historical temples of Goddess Ambadevi,Goddess Ekviradevi and Mahanubhava's Lord ShriKrishna Temple. Jalgaon: Jalgaon (जळगाव) is a city in western India, to the north of the Maharashtra state in Jalgaon District, which itself is located on the northern Deccan Plateau. Located within the productive, irrigated agricultural region of Khandesh, Jalgaon is a municipal corporation. Formerly part of territory controlled by the Holkar family of Maratha rulers, Jalgaon became part of British India's Bombay Presidency in 1818 and part of independent India in 1947. Jalgaon is also the hometown of the Smt. Pratibha Patil, President of India. Solapur: A workers place of Maharshtra of more than 1.6 million,It is growing rapidly as many projects are coming to Solapur. Sangli: The 'Turmeric city of India' is the largest trade centre for turmeric in the country. Situated on the banks of river [Krishna], Sangli-Miraj twin cities form the largest urban agglomeration in South Maharashtra. Sangli is famous for its grapes and wine park. Miraj is known for Indian classical musical instruments exported all over the world. Ganapati Temple of Sangli and its Ganesh Festival attract tourists from all over India. Sangli houses some renowned engineering and medical institutions. Sangli is now coming up as a major wind power generation hub. Sangli is well known for its sugar factories and dairy farms. Kolhapur: Kolhapur city situated in the south west corner of Maharashtra, India. It is situated on the banks of river Panchganga and provides the location for the Mahalakshmi Temple. The city has strong cultural identity and lends its name to many common terms like Kolhapuri Chappal , Kolhapuri lavangi mirchi, Kolhapuri gur and Kolhapuri cuisine.Kolhapur is also known as Kalapur for being home for artists (painters, singers, Marathi cinema etc). also kolhapur is known as kusthigiranchi pandehri (Motherland of wrestlers) () Transport Mumbai Airport is South Asia's largest aviation hub. The Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, is a key railway station and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Indian Railways covers most of the Maharashtra and is the preferred mode of transport over long distances. Almost the entire state comes under the Central Railways branch which is headquartered in Mumbai. Most of the coast south of Mumbai comes under the Konkan Railway. Maharashtra State Road Transport Corporation buses, popularly called ST or MSRTC, link most of the towns and villages and have a large network of operation. These buses, run by the state government are the preferred mode of transport for much of its populace. In addition to the government run buses, private run luxury buses are also a popular mode of transport between major towns. Mumbai has the biggest international airport in India with another coming up at Navi Mumbai. Pune has a civilian enclave international airport with flights to Dubai and Singapore, with plans on for a brand new greenfield International Airport. Aurangabad airport has recently been upgraded to an international airport with flights connecting to Jeddah. Other large cities such as Nagpur and Nashik are served by domestic airlines. Ferry services also operate near Mumbai, linking the city to neighbouring coastal towns. Other modes of public transport, such as a seven-seater tempo have gained popularity in semi-urban areas. Maharashtra has a large highway network and built the Mumbai-Pune Expressway, the first controlled-access toll road project in India. Maharashtra has three major ports at Mumbai (operated by the Mumbai Port Trust), the JNPT lying across the Mumbai harbour in Nhava Sheva, and in Ratnagiri, which handles the export of ores mined in the Maharastra hinterland. Culture Kailash Temple in Ellora Caves. Ajanta Caves Elephanta Caves Marathi is the language of Maharashtrians. Maharashtrians take great pride in their language and history, particularly the Maratha Empire, its founder Shivaji is considered a folk hero across India. About 80% of Maharashtrians are Hindu, and there are significant Muslim, Christian and Buddhist minorities. There are many temples in Maharashtra some of them being hundreds of years old. These temples are constructed in a fusion of architectural styles borrowed from North and South India. The temples also blend themes from Hindu, Buddhist and Jain cultures. A National Geographic January 2008, VOL. 213, #1 edition reads, "The flow between faiths was such that for hundreds of years, almost all Buddhist temples, including the ones at Ajanta, were built under the rule and patronage of Hindu kings." The temple of Vitthal at Pandharpur is the most important temple for the Varkari sect. Other important religious places are the Ashtavinayaka temples of Lord Ganesha, Bhimashankar which is one of the Jyotirling (12 important shiva temples). Ajanta and Ellora caves near Aurangabad as well as Elephanta Caves near Mumbai are UNESCO World Heritage Sites and famous tourist attractions. Mughal architecture can be seen is the tomb of the wife of Aurangzeb called Bibi Ka Maqbara located at Aurangabad. In 1708, the year following the death of Aurangzeb, Guru Gobind Singh the tenth spiritual leader of the Sikhs came over to Nanded, his permanent abode. He proclaimed himself the last living Guru and established the Guru Granth Sahib as the eternal Guru of the Sikhs. This elevates the reverence of Granth to that of a living Guru. A monument has been constructed at place where he breathed his last. Maharaja Ranjit Singh's endowment saw the construction of a beautiful Gurudwara at Nanded around 1835 AD. The Gurudwara features an imposing golden dome with intricate carvings and a breathtakingly beautiful artwork. It is known as Shri Huzur Abchalnagar Sachkhand Gurudwara Maharashtra has a large number of hill, land and sea forts. Forts have played an important role in the history of Maharashtra since the time of the Peshwas. Some of the important forts in Maharashtra are Raigad, Vijaydurg, Pratapgad, Sinhagad. Majority of the forts in Maharashtra are found along the coastal region of Konkan. Bollywood is based in Mumbai Maharashtra, like other states of India, has its own folk music. The folk music viz. Gondhal Lavani, Bharud and Powada are popular especially in rural areas, while the common forms of music from the Hindi and Marathi film industry are favoured in urban areas. The earliest instances of Marathi literature is by Sant Jnyaneshwar with his Bhawarthadeepika (popularly known as Jnyaneshwari). The compositions written during this period are spiritually inclined. The other compositions are by Sant Tukaram, Sant Namdev, and Sant Gora Kumbhar. The compositions are mostly in poetic form, which are called bhajans. These bhajans by saints are popular and part of day to day life. The modern Marathi literature has been enriched by famous poets and authors like P. L. Deshpande, Kusumagraj, Prahlad Keshav Atre and Vyankatesh Madgulkar. This literature has been passed on to the next generations through the medium of large numbers of books that are published every year in Marathi. The world famous film industry Bollywood is in Maharashtra, located in the economic capital of India, Mumbai. The Marathi film industry was once placed in Kolhapur but now is spread out through Mumbai too. The pioneer of Indian movie industry, Bharat Ratna Shri Dadasaheb Phalke, producer & director V. Shantaram, B.R. Chopra, Shakti Samanta, Raj Kapoor, form a few names of the Hindi film fraternity, while writer, director, and actor P. L. Deshpande, actor Ashok Saraf, actor Laxmikant Berde, actor & producer, Sachin Pilgaonkar, Mahesh Kothare belong to the Marathi film industry. The early period of Marathi theatre was dominated by playwrights like Kolhatkar, Khadilkar, Deval, Gadkari and Kirloskar who enriched the Marathi theatre for about half a century with excellent musical plays known as Sangeet Naatak. The genre of music used in such plays is known as Natyasangeet. It is during this era of the Marathi theatre that great singer-actors like Bal Gandharva, Keshavrao Bhosle, Bhaurao Kolhatkar and Deenanath Mangeshkar thrived. Some of the popular Marathi television channels are Star Majha, Zee Talkies, Zee Chovis Taas, Mi Marathi, DD Sahyadri, Zee Marathi, ETV Marathi, and Saam Marathi which host shows ranging from soap operas, cooking and travel to political satire and game shows. The cuisine of Maharashtra varies according to the region of Maharashtra. The people of the Konkan region have a chiefly rice based diet with fish being a major component, due the close proximity to the sea. In eastern Maharashtra, the diet is based more on wheat, Jowar and Bajra. Puran Poli (पुरण पोळी), Bakarwadi, plain simple Varan Bhat (a dish cooked with plain rice and curry), and Modak are a few dishes to name. Chicken and mutton are also widely used for a variety of cuisines. Kolhapuri Mutton is a dish famous for its peculiar spicy nature. DY Patil Stadium in Navi Mumbai Women traditionally wear a nine yard or five yard sari and men a dhoti or pajama with a shirt. This, however, is changing with women in urban Maharashtra wearing Punjabi dresses, consisting of a Salwar and a Kurta while men wear trousers and a shirt. The cricket craze can be seen throughout Maharashtra, as it is the most widely followed and played sport. Kabaddi and hockey are also played with fervor. Children’s games include Viti-Dandu (Gilli-danda in Hindi) and Pakada-pakadi (tag). Hindus in Maharashtra follow the Shalivahana Saka era calendar. Gudi Padwa, Diwali, Rangapanchami, Gokulashtami and Ganeshotsav are some of the festivals that are celebrated in Maharashtra. Ganeshotsav is the biggest festival of Maharashtra which is celebrated with much reverence and festivity throughout the state and has since some time become popular all over the country. The festival which continues over ten days is in honour of Ganesha, the god of learning and knowledge. A large number of people walk hundreds of kilometers to Pandharpur for the annual pilgrimage in the month of Ashadh. See also Districts of Maharashtra Geography of Maharashtra Western Ghats of Maharashtra History of Maharashtra Timeline of Maharashtra history Marathas Maratha Empire Dhangar Marathi Marathi people Marathi cinema Maharashtrian cuisine Tourism in Maharashtra Social Reform Movement in Maharashtra List of conglomerates in Maharashtra Freshwater ecology of Maharashtra References External links Wikipedia in Marathi language Government of Maharashtra Maharashtra State Travel,Culture & Art Public Works Department Maharashtra State Official Website Maharashtra Saint Poet- Shree Namdeo Maharaj | Maharashtra |@lemmatized maharashtra:126 marathi:36 ipa:1 state:72 locate:18 western:10 coast:6 india:71 part:19 third:6 large:33 area:17 second:8 population:16 border:5 arabian:4 sea:6 west:5 gujarat:4 union:8 territory:8 dadra:2 nagar:2 haveli:2 northwest:3 madhya:6 pradesh:11 northeast:1 chhattisgarh:2 east:6 karnataka:3 south:11 andhra:3 southeast:2 goa:4 southwest:2 cover:4 total:3 geographical:2 mumbai:55 capital:19 city:38 financial:5 nation:1 official:6 widely:3 spoken:1 language:12 century:12 maratha:25 rise:2 leadership:1 chhatrapati:4 shivaji:11 mughals:4 rule:12 anglo:2 war:2 empire:16 end:2 become:10 bombay:13 british:11 raj:2 indian:16 independence:6 samyukta:1 samiti:1 demand:1 unification:1 speak:10 region:23 one:15 first:8 reorganization:1 committee:1 create:4 current:4 may:4 know:21 day:9 deccan:10 vidarbha:10 central:8 province:7 berar:6 unite:1 form:11 rich:5 contribute:3 country:6 industrial:9 output:2 gdp:4 year:11 history:9 paint:1 ajanta:4 cave:6 aurangabad:15 sixth:1 nāsik:1 gazetteer:1 b:5 c:9 mention:1 place:7 asoka:1 send:1 embassy:1 mahārashtraka:1 record:1 chālukyan:1 inscription:3 include:10 three:5 village:3 tribe:1 caste:3 volume:2 iv:2 sir:1 h:1 risley:1 census:5 report:2 ethnographic:1 appendix:1 p:7 name:5 also:35 appear:1 account:1 chinese:1 traveler:1 hiuen:1 tsang:1 vedishri:2 naneghat:1 describes:1 brave:1 king:5 lord:14 dakshinapatha:2 mirashi:1 study:1 indology:1 vol:2 f:1 son:5 satavahana:3 satakarni:1 wielder:1 unchecked:1 wheel:1 sovereignty:2 make:5 junnar:1 thirty:2 mile:2 north:8 pune:24 kingdom:7 early:5 fourteenth:1 devgiri:1 yadavs:1 overthrow:1 northern:5 muslim:3 power:5 administer:1 various:2 call:9 sultanate:4 pre:2 medieval:1 much:5 recorded:1 date:1 back:2 e:9 use:5 maharashtri:2 prakrit:2 derive:3 sanskrit:1 later:4 magadha:1 emperor:2 ashoka:1 port:6 town:8 sopara:1 present:4 centre:10 ancient:3 commerce:1 link:5 eastern:5 africa:1 mesopotamia:1 aden:1 cochin:1 class:2 wikitable:1 align:1 right:2 cellspacing:1 cellpadding:1 style:3 width:2 margin:1 solid:1 collapse:3 background:2 font:1 size:1 colspan:1 symbol:1 animal:1 shekru:1 squirrel:1 bird:2 green:1 neck:1 pigeon:1 dance:1 lavani:2 flower:1 song:1 jai:2 majha:2 sport:2 hututu:1 kabaddi:2 tree:1 taman:1 disintegration:1 mauryan:1 local:5 dynasty:1 satavahanas:1 come:14 prominence:1 period:4 saw:3 big:5 cultural:3 development:5 develop:3 great:7 ruler:4 gautamiputra:1 satkarni:1 shalivahan:1 around:5 start:3 shalivahana:2 era:3 new:6 calendar:3 still:1 maharashtrian:2 populace:2 national:20 gradually:1 disintegrate:1 vakatakas:1 art:3 religion:3 technology:3 flourish:1 govern:3 rashtrakutas:2 spread:4 chalukyas:1 badami:1 expel:1 yadavas:1 deogiri:1 islamic:2 influence:2 time:12 delhi:1 ala:1 ud:1 din:1 khalji:1 muhammad:1 bin:1 tughluq:1 conquer:1 tughlaqs:1 bahmani:1 gulbarga:1 take:5 next:2 breakup:1 bahamani:1 breakaway:1 shah:4 namely:1 nizamshah:1 ahmednagar:4 adilshah:1 bijapur:3 kutubshah:1 govalkonda:1 bidarshah:1 bidar:1 imadshah:1 last:4 hindu:11 chhattrapati:2 raje:2 bhosale:6 founder:3 seventeenth:1 begin:1 root:1 shahaji:1 ambitious:1 general:2 employ:2 adil:2 attempt:2 establish:3 independent:2 succeed:1 lead:6 bhonsle:1 crown:1 constantly:1 battle:5 mughal:5 aurangzeb:4 death:3 today:4 except:1 district:13 nizam:3 successor:1 chhatrapatti:1 sambhaji:2 capture:1 torture:1 brutally:1 put:1 rajaram:2 nephew:1 shahu:2 declare:2 legitimate:1 heir:1 throne:2 peshwa:7 chief:10 minister:11 balaji:2 vishwanath:2 help:1 seize:1 acrimony:1 widow:1 tara:1 bai:1 peshwas:6 prime:3 play:6 important:11 role:2 expand:1 decisive:1 many:14 like:10 moropant:1 pingale:1 dindori:1 ramchandra:1 amatya:1 satara:4 pant:1 pratinidhi:1 across:3 punjab:1 pakistan:2 haryana:1 himachal:1 uttaranchal:1 uttar:1 orissa:1 chattisgarh:1 bhat:2 family:3 baji:1 rao:1 bureaucratised:1 systematise:1 practice:2 tribute:1 gathering:1 head:3 sardesmukhi:1 chauth:1 two:2 term:2 correspond:1 proportion:3 revenue:12 collect:1 consolidate:1 method:1 assessment:1 collection:1 land:4 tax:7 terminology:1 document:1 persian:1 suggest:1 far:3 continuity:1 politically:1 palatable:1 maritime:1 angre:1 clan:1 control:3 fleet:1 vessel:1 base:7 kolaba:1 ship:2 pose:1 threat:1 english:3 settlement:1 portuguese:1 bassein:1 daman:2 hand:2 emerge:1 domain:1 activity:2 away:3 original:1 heartland:1 give:2 subordinate:1 fief:1 gwalior:1 scindia:1 shinde:1 indore:1 holkar:2 baroda:1 gaekwad:1 dhar:1 pawar:2 bhonsles:1 remain:2 nagpur:20 suffer:1 stinging:1 defeat:1 afghan:1 chieftain:1 ahmad:1 abdali:1 panipat:2 confederacy:1 break:2 regional:2 post:3 ex:1 look:1 earn:1 carve:1 service:2 continue:2 leave:1 arrival:1 subsequent:1 involvement:1 company:3 politics:2 fight:1 culminate:1 annexation:1 ruled:1 herald:1 presidency:6 span:1 karachi:1 number:7 persist:1 princely:3 retain:1 autonomy:1 return:1 acknowledge:1 kolhapur:8 annex:3 late:1 hyderabad:3 occupy:1 marathwada:5 mark:2 social:2 reform:3 improvement:1 infrastructure:1 well:14 revolt:1 due:3 discriminatory:1 policy:2 beginning:1 struggle:1 shape:1 bal:2 gangadhar:1 tilak:1 moderate:1 justice:1 mahadev:1 govind:1 ranade:1 gopal:1 krishna:8 gokhale:1 vinayak:1 damodar:1 savarkar:1 pherozeshah:1 mehta:1 dadabhai:1 naoroji:1 quit:1 movement:4 mahatma:1 gandhi:3 non:5 violent:1 civil:1 disobedience:1 strike:1 integrate:2 former:3 reorganisation:1 act:2 reorganize:1 along:2 linguistic:2 line:1 enlarge:1 addition:2 predominantly:2 speaking:2 division:18 erstwhile:2 amravati:8 formerly:2 existence:2 split:2 geography:2 confluence:1 mula:1 mutha:1 river:11 mahad:1 encompass:1 lie:6 sandwich:1 ghat:5 sahyadri:2 hilly:1 range:3 run:4 parallel:1 average:1 elevation:1 metre:1 ft:1 kalsubai:1 peak:1 sahyadris:1 high:5 elevated:1 point:3 hill:4 konkan:9 coastal:3 plain:4 kilometre:3 flat:1 plateau:3 watershed:1 originate:2 notable:1 among:2 godavari:3 flow:4 eastward:1 bay:2 bengal:2 basin:2 source:1 numerous:1 small:1 westward:1 empty:1 major:12 vainganga:1 eventually:1 multi:1 irrigation:3 project:10 compose:1 black:2 basalt:1 soil:4 humus:1 suit:1 cultivate:1 cotton:3 hence:1 often:1 nashik:16 ahmadnagar:1 solapur:3 sangli:10 prosperous:1 belt:2 famous:9 sugar:3 factory:3 farmer:1 economically:1 fertile:1 good:3 protect:1 several:4 wildlife:7 sanctuary:6 park:15 tiger:5 reserve:3 aim:1 conserve:1 bio:1 diversity:1 percentage:2 forest:1 lion:1 sanjay:2 world:10 within:5 limit:4 chandoli:3 vast:1 variety:3 flora:1 fauna:1 prachitgad:1 fort:7 dam:3 scenic:1 water:1 fall:1 find:2 gugamal:1 melghat:1 km:6 navegaon:1 near:8 gondia:1 home:6 specie:1 deer:1 bear:1 leopard:1 pench:2 extend:1 upgrade:2 borivali:1 sagareshwar:2 man:1 situate:4 temple:22 shiva:7 jain:3 parshwanath:1 attraction:3 tadoba:1 andhari:1 prominent:2 chandrapur:2 apart:4 list:2 page:1 nagzira:1 bhandara:1 phansad:1 koyna:1 matheran:1 station:2 eco:1 sensitive:1 zone:1 protected:1 government:13 economy:2 gross:2 domestic:3 product:6 million:13 inr:2 soar:1 nariman:1 favourable:1 economic:2 quarter:1 cnx:1 conglomerate:2 corporate:1 office:2 however:2 show:3 wide:2 disparity:1 advanced:1 dominate:3 bureaucracy:1 resentment:1 backward:1 forecast:1 billion:1 market:3 price:1 debt:2 estimate:1 per:9 cent:4 climb:1 surplus:1 crore:1 urbanised:1 urban:8 whole:1 people:14 agriculture:2 allied:3 almost:5 gsdp:1 industry:13 chemical:2 electrical:3 machinery:1 textile:1 petroleum:1 metal:1 wine:2 jewellery:1 pharmaceutical:3 engineering:2 machine:1 tool:1 steel:1 iron:1 casting:1 plastic:1 ware:1 food:3 crop:2 mango:1 grape:2 banana:1 orange:2 wheat:2 rice:3 jowar:2 bajra:2 pulse:1 cash:1 groundnut:1 sugarcane:2 turmeric:3 tobacco:1 net:1 irrigated:3 square:2 business:2 house:5 headquarters:2 bank:4 institution:3 insurance:1 mutual:1 fund:1 stock:5 exchange:4 old:3 asia:4 success:1 information:2 neighboring:1 set:1 software:4 navi:10 nasik:2 exporter:1 annual:2 export:4 r:2 building:1 center:1 expertise:1 manpower:1 available:1 attractive:1 reflect:1 operate:3 shipyard:3 bharati:1 ratnagiri:2 upcoming:1 rajapur:2 mazagon:1 dock:1 cuffe:1 parade:1 trade:2 hindi:6 film:6 television:2 bollywood:3 rank:2 nationwide:1 coal:1 thermal:1 electricity:2 nuclear:1 generation:3 share:5 respectively:1 introduce:1 jatropha:2 cultivation:1 identification:1 suitable:2 site:3 plantation:1 ralegaon:1 siddhi:1 consider:2 model:1 environmental:1 conservation:1 jawaharlal:2 nehru:2 trust:2 busy:3 international:8 airport:12 passenger:1 vidhan:5 sabha:6 election:2 result:1 since:3 nominal:1 governor:2 appoint:1 largely:1 ceremonial:1 vest:1 executive:1 legislature:2 bicameral:2 type:1 legislative:2 assembly:2 low:1 consisting:1 directly:1 elect:1 member:3 choose:1 parishad:1 council:1 upper:1 whose:1 indirectly:1 vote:1 electoral:1 college:1 allocate:1 nineteen:1 seat:2 rajya:1 forty:1 eight:1 lok:1 parliament:1 court:2 mantralaya:1 administrative:4 jurisdiction:1 diu:1 convene:1 budget:1 monsoon:1 session:2 winter:1 designate:1 auxiliary:1 political:4 congress:6 party:6 bastion:2 produce:1 stalwart:1 chavan:2 enjoy:1 unchallenged:1 dominance:1 landscape:1 wing:1 shiv:2 sena:2 bjp:2 secure:1 overwhelming:1 majority:4 coalition:2 sharad:1 nationalist:1 ncp:3 keep:1 combine:1 gain:2 erode:1 poll:1 agreement:1 would:2 deputy:2 ashok:2 chhagan:1 bhujbal:1 chart:2 trend:2 exclude:2 pool:2 assess:2 finance:2 commission:2 figure:2 rupee:2 demographic:1 inhabitant:2 populous:2 subdivision:1 ever:1 russian:1 sfsr:1 soviet:1 accord:3 reflection:1 cosmopolitan:2 nature:2 eleven:1 density:1 male:3 constitute:1 female:3 stand:1 sex:1 ratio:1 literate:1 growth:1 rate:2 peg:1 suburban:1 native:1 portion:1 dialect:4 ahirani:1 minority:3 malvani:1 desh:2 inland:1 deshi:1 varhadi:1 buddhist:6 jains:2 christians:1 zoroastrian:1 jewish:1 fertility:1 hindus:1 muslims:1 christian:2 sikh:3 others:1 tribals:1 dalits:3 tfr:1 compare:1 http:1 www:1 gov:1 ecosurvey:1 eng:1 sant:15 tukaram:3 pray:1 vithoba:1 revere:1 bhakti:1 saint:5 dnyaneshwar:1 brahmin:1 kulkarni:1 moray:1 kunbi:1 namdev:4 shimpi:1 chokhamela:1 mahar:4 savata:1 mali:2 ganesh:6 chaturthi:2 popular:8 festival:8 harijan:1 maharastra:2 banka:1 bhagu:1 damaji:1 panth:1 kanhopatra:1 karmamelam:1 nirmala:1 sadna:1 sakhubai:1 satyakam:1 jabali:1 soyarabai:1 devotee:4 shirdi:3 sai:3 baba:2 live:1 kharagpur:1 shepherd:1 guru:6 rediscover:1 bhagubai:1 wife:2 modern:4 nisargadatta:1 maharaj:3 shudra:1 bidi:1 seller:1 god:3 ganesha:3 devotion:3 celebrate:6 maha:1 shivaratri:1 night:1 elephanta:3 island:4 mythology:1 elephant:1 gokul:1 ashtami:1 janmashtami:1 birthday:2 whereby:1 fast:3 entire:2 midnight:1 august:1 ethnic:1 group:2 throughout:3 percent:1 follow:4 urdu:1 gujarati:1 schedule:1 languages:1 telugu:1 kannada:1 sindhi:1 divide:1 five:3 seven:2 nanded:3 geographically:1 historically:1 sentiment:1 main:1 khandesh:2 principal:1 level:2 urbanisation:2 mountainous:1 topography:1 intensive:1 therefore:1 contrast:1 starkly:1 averageveloping:1 metro:1 approximately:1 thane:10 commercial:2 megapolis:1 taxpayer:1 transact:1 offer:1 lifestyle:1 diverse:1 entertainment:2 nightlife:1 csia:1 telecommunication:1 internet:2 vsnl:1 tata:1 communication:1 terminal:1 telephone:1 traffic:1 flagship:1 destination:3 navy:1 command:3 ins:1 eighth:1 heritage:3 road:5 reign:1 blossom:1 learning:1 reach:1 judicial:1 initiate:2 shaniwarwada:1 saras:1 baug:1 aga:1 khan:1 palace:2 parvati:1 khadakwasla:1 sinhgad:1 visited:1 tourist:7 ganeshotsav:3 lot:1 enthusiasm:1 worship:1 connect:4 expressway:2 military:1 cantonment:1 hq:1 southern:1 defence:1 academy:1 afmc:1 cme:1 iaf:1 lohegaon:1 hub:5 foremost:1 automobile:1 manufacturing:1 component:2 industrycity:1 pleasant:2 climate:2 co:3 exist:1 holy:2 tradition:1 sacred:1 believe:2 rama:1 hero:2 epic:1 ramayana:1 spend:1 exile:1 rapidly:3 westernisation:1 cool:1 educational:2 rail:2 air:2 artillery:1 devlali:1 hold:1 kumbhmela:1 someshwar:1 bhandardara:1 kalaram:1 ramkund:1 sita:1 gufa:1 sapthsringi:1 gad:1 ganagapur:1 trimbakeshwar:1 tryambakeshwar:1 trambakeshwar:1 trimbak:1 gps:1 reference:2 n:1 dedicate:1 twelve:1 jyotirlingaas:1 clean:2 plan:2 railway:5 terminus:2 construct:3 initially:1 counter:1 magnet:1 reduce:1 congestion:1 vashi:1 airoli:1 node:1 massive:1 bridge:1 creek:2 highway:2 network:3 planning:1 agency:1 cidco:1 bone:1 metropolitan:1 adjoin:1 salsette:1 pack:1 mulund:1 ulhas:1 developed:1 urbanized:1 estate:1 ttc:1 middle:1 culturally:1 ran:1 lake:1 cp:1 till:1 nerve:1 heart:1 grow:4 transports:1 equipment:1 cargo:1 maintenance:1 force:1 zero:1 stone:1 deekshabhoomi:1 sitabardi:1 ambazari:1 seminary:1 dragon:1 beer:1 hospitality:1 historic:1 centrally:1 productive:2 agricultural:2 operative:2 pravaranagar:1 padmashri:1 dr:1 vitthalrao:1 vikhe:1 patil:3 pandit:1 jail:1 write:2 discovery:1 mainly:1 bless:1 shri:3 shani:2 dev:1 shingnapur:1 amrawati:1 amraoti:1 nearly:1 indra:1 historical:1 goddess:2 ambadevi:1 ekviradevi:1 mahanubhava:1 shrikrishna:1 jalgaon:6 जळग:1 व:1 municipal:1 corporation:2 hometown:1 smt:1 pratibha:1 president:1 worker:1 maharshtra:1 miraj:2 twin:1 agglomeration:1 classical:1 musical:2 instrument:1 ganapati:1 attract:1 renowned:1 medical:1 wind:1 dairy:1 farm:1 corner:1 panchganga:1 provide:1 location:1 mahalakshmi:1 strong:1 identity:1 lend:1 common:2 kolhapuri:5 chappal:1 lavangi:1 mirchi:1 gur:1 cuisine:4 kalapur:1 artist:1 painter:1 singer:2 cinema:2 etc:1 kusthigiranchi:1 pandehri:1 motherland:1 wrestler:1 transport:6 aviation:1 key:1 unesco:2 railways:1 preferred:2 mode:4 long:1 distance:1 branch:1 headquarter:1 bus:4 popularly:2 st:1 msrtc:1 operation:1 private:1 luxury:1 another:1 civilian:1 enclave:1 flight:2 dubai:1 singapore:1 brand:1 greenfield:1 recently:1 jeddah:1 serve:1 airline:1 ferry:1 neighbour:1 public:2 seater:1 tempo:1 popularity:1 semi:1 build:2 access:1 toll:1 jnpt:1 harbour:1 nhava:1 sheva:1 handle:1 ore:1 mine:1 hinterland:1 culture:3 kailash:1 ellora:2 maharashtrians:3 pride:1 particularly:1 folk:3 significant:1 hundred:3 fusion:1 architectural:1 borrow:1 blend:1 theme:1 geographic:1 january:1 edition:1 read:1 faith:1 patronage:1 vitthal:1 pandharpur:2 varkari:1 sect:1 religious:1 ashtavinayaka:1 bhimashankar:1 jyotirling:1 architecture:1 see:3 tomb:1 bibi:1 ka:1 maqbara:1 gobind:1 singh:2 tenth:1 spiritual:1 leader:1 permanent:1 abode:1 proclaim:1 living:2 granth:2 sahib:1 eternal:1 elevate:1 reverence:2 monument:1 breathe:1 maharaja:1 ranjit:1 endowment:1 construction:1 beautiful:2 gurudwara:3 ad:1 feature:1 impose:1 golden:1 dome:1 intricate:1 carving:1 breathtakingly:1 artwork:1 huzur:1 abchalnagar:1 sachkhand:1 raigad:1 vijaydurg:1 pratapgad:1 sinhagad:1 music:4 viz:1 gondhal:1 bharud:1 powada:1 especially:1 rural:1 favour:1 instance:1 literature:3 jnyaneshwar:1 bhawarthadeepika:1 jnyaneshwari:1 composition:3 spiritually:1 inclined:1 gora:1 kumbhar:1 mostly:1 poetic:1 bhajans:2 life:1 enrich:2 poet:2 author:1 l:2 deshpande:2 kusumagraj:1 prahlad:1 keshav:1 atre:1 vyankatesh:1 madgulkar:1 pass:1 medium:1 book:1 publish:1 every:1 pioneer:1 movie:1 bharat:1 ratna:1 dadasaheb:1 phalke:1 producer:2 director:2 v:1 shantaram:1 chopra:1 shakti:1 samanta:1 kapoor:1 fraternity:1 writer:1 actor:5 saraf:1 laxmikant:1 berde:1 sachin:1 pilgaonkar:1 mahesh:1 kothare:1 belong:1 theatre:3 playwright:1 kolhatkar:2 khadilkar:1 deval:1 gadkari:1 kirloskar:1 half:1 excellent:1 sangeet:1 naatak:1 genre:1 natyasangeet:1 gandharva:1 keshavrao:1 bhosle:1 bhaurao:1 deenanath:1 mangeshkar:1 thrive:1 channel:1 star:1 zee:3 talkie:1 chovis:1 taas:1 mi:1 dd:1 etv:1 saam:1 host:1 soap:1 opera:1 cook:2 travel:2 satire:1 game:2 varies:1 chiefly:1 diet:2 fish:1 close:1 proximity:1 puran:1 poli:1 प:2 रण:1 ळ:1 bakarwadi:1 simple:1 varan:1 dish:3 curry:1 modak:1 chicken:1 mutton:2 peculiar:1 spicy:1 dy:1 stadium:1 woman:2 traditionally:1 wear:3 nine:1 yard:2 sari:1 men:2 dhoti:1 pajama:1 shirt:2 change:1 punjabi:1 dress:1 consist:1 salwar:1 kurta:1 trouser:1 cricket:1 craze:1 hockey:1 fervor:1 child:1 viti:1 dandu:1 gilli:1 danda:1 pakada:1 pakadi:1 tag:1 saka:1 gudi:1 padwa:1 diwali:1 rangapanchami:1 gokulashtami:1 festivity:1 ten:1 honour:1 learn:1 knowledge:1 walk:1 kilometer:1 pilgrimage:1 month:1 ashadh:1 timeline:1 dhangar:1 tourism:1 freshwater:1 ecology:1 external:1 wikipedia:1 work:1 department:1 website:1 shree:1 namdeo:1 |@bigram dadra_nagar:2 nagar_haveli:2 madhya_pradesh:6 andhra_pradesh:3 chhatrapati_shivaji:4 anglo_maratha:2 samyukta_maharashtra:1 ajanta_cave:2 maharashtri_prakrit:1 class_wikitable:1 wikitable_align:1 border_cellspacing:1 cellspacing_cellpadding:1 mauryan_empire:1 delhi_sultanate:1 ud_din:1 legitimate_heir:1 prime_minister:2 himachal_pradesh:1 uttar_pradesh:1 ahmad_shah:1 shah_abdali:1 battle_panipat:1 bombay_presidency:6 karachi_pakistan:1 nizam_hyderabad:2 mahatma_gandhi:1 civil_disobedience:1 western_ghat:3 metre_ft:1 coastal_plain:1 deccan_plateau:2 bay_bengal:2 wildlife_sanctuary:6 sanjay_gandhi:2 flora_fauna:1 gross_domestic:1 per_cent:4 cash_crop:1 cotton_sugarcane:1 square_kilometre:2 stock_exchange:4 navi_mumbai:10 jawaharlal_nehru:2 busy_airport:2 legislature_bicameral:1 legislative_assembly:1 rajya_sabha:1 lok_sabha:1 maharashtra_goa:1 daman_diu:1 shiv_sena:2 overwhelming_majority:1 indian_rupee:2 russian_sfsr:1 soviet_union:1 male_female:1 mumbai_suburban:1 buddhist_jains:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 http_www:1 mali_mali:1 ganesh_chaturthi:2 sai_baba:2 hindi_urdu:1 mumbai_thane:2 mumbai_mumbai:2 aga_khan:1 epic_ramayana:1 salsette_island:1 thane_district:1 tourist_attraction:2 tourist_destination:1 co_operative:2 urban_agglomeration:1 shivaji_terminus:1 toll_road:1 cave_ajanta:1 guru_gobind:1 gobind_singh:1 guru_granth:1 granth_sahib:1 maharaja_ranjit:1 ranjit_singh:1 hindi_marathi:1 raj_kapoor:1 soap_opera:1 wear_trouser:1 external_link:1 |
1,647 | Amber_Diceless_Roleplaying_Game | The Amber Diceless Roleplaying Game is a role-playing game created and written by Erick Wujcik, set in the fictional universe created by author Roger Zelazny for his Chronicles of Amber. The game is unusual in that no dice are used in resolving conflicts or player actions; instead a simple diceless system of comparative ability, and narrative description of the action by the players and gamemaster, is used to determine how situations are resolved. Amber DRPG was created in the 1980s, and is much more focused on relationships and roleplaying than most of the roleplaying games of that era. Most Amber characters are members of the two ruling classes in the Amber multiverse, and are much more advanced in matters of strength, endurance, psyche, warfare and sorcery than ordinary beings. This means that the only individuals who are capable of opposing a character are from his or her family, a fact that leads to much suspicion and intrigue. History The original 256-page game book Erick Wujcik Amber Diceless Roleplaying Game (Phage Press, 1991) ISBN 1-880494-00-0 was published in 1991 by Phage Press, covering material from the first five novels (the "Corwin Cycle") and some details - sorcery and the Logrus - from the remaining five novels (the "Merlin Cycle"), in order to allow players to roleplay characters from the Courts of Chaos. Some details were changed slightly to allow more player choice - for example, players can be full Trump Artists without having walked the Pattern or the Logrus, which Merlin says is impossible; and players' psychic abilities are far greater than those shown in the books. Cover of Shadow Knight A 256-page companion volume, Shadow Knight, Erick Wujcik Shadow Knight (Phage Press, 1993) ISBN 1-880494-01-9 was published in 1993. This supplemental rule book includes the remaining elements from the Merlin novels, such as Broken Patterns, and allows players to create Constructs such as Merlin's Ghostwheel. The book presents the second series of novels not as additions to the series' continuity but as an example of a roleplaying campaign with Merlin, Luke, Julia, Jurt and Coral as the PCs. The remainder of the book is a collection of essays on the game, statistics for the new characters and an update of the older ones in light of their appearance in the second series, and (perhaps most usefully for GMs) plot summaries of each of the ten books. The book includes some material from the short story The Salesman's Tale, and some unpublished material cut from Prince of Chaos, notably Coral's pregnancy by Merlin. Both books were translated and released by French publisher Jeux Descartes in 1994 and 1995. A third book, Rebma, was promised and pre-orders were taken, but it never arrived, leading to accusations that it was vaporware. Wujcik also expressed a desire to create a book giving greater detail to the Courts of Chaos. However, the publishing rights to the Amber DRPG games were acquired in 2004 by Guardians of Order, who took over sales of the game and announced their intention to release a new edition of the game. However, no new edition was released before Guardians of Order went out of business in 2006. The two existing books are now out-of-print, but they have been made available as PDF downloads. Amber DRPG books at DriveThruRPG In June 2007 a new publishing company, headed by Edwin Voskamp and Eric Todd, was formed with the express purpose of bringing Amber DRPG back into print. The new company is named, Diceless by Design. More details are forthcoming. Diceless By Design: Official Site Setting The game is set in the multiverse described in Zelazny's Chronicles of Amber. The first book assumes that gamemasters will set their campaigns after the Patternfall war; that is, after the end of the fifth book in the series, The Courts of Chaos, but uses material from the following books to describe those parts of Zelazny's cosmology that were featured there in more detail. The Amber multiverse consists of Amber, a city at one pole of the universe wherein is found the Pattern, the symbol of Order; The Courts of Chaos, an assembly of worlds at the other pole where can be found the Logrus, the manifestation of Chaos, and the Abyss, the source or end of all reality; and Shadow, the collection of all possible universes (shadows) between and around them. Inhabitants of either pole can use one or both of the Pattern and the Logrus to travel through Shadow. It is assumed that players will portray the children of the main characters from the books - the ruling family of Amber, known as the Elder Amberites - or a resident of the Courts. However, since some feel that being the children of the main characters is too limiting, it is fairly common to either start with King Oberon's death before the book begins and roleplay the Elder Amberites as they vie for the throne; or to populate Amber from scratch with a different set of Elder Amberites. The former option is one presented in the book; the latter is known in the Amber community as an "Amethyst" game. A third option is to have the players portray Corwin's children, in an amber-like city built around Corwin's pattern; this is sometimes called an "Argent" game, since one of Corwin's heraldic colours is Silver. System Attributes Characters in Amber DRPG are represented by four attributes: Psyche, Strength, Endurance and Warfare. Psyche is used for feats of willpower or magic. Strength is used for feats of strength or unarmed combat. Endurance is used for feats of endurance. Warfare is used for armed combat, from duelling to commanding armies The attributes run from -25 (normal human level), through -10 (normal level for a denizen of the Courts of Chaos) and 0 (normal level for an inhabitant of Amber), upwards without limit. Scores above 0 are "ranked", with the highest score being ranked 1st, the next-highest 2nd, and so on. The character with 1st rank in each attribute is considered "superior" in that attribute, being considered to be substantially better than the character with 2nd rank even if the difference in scores is small. The Attribute Auction A character's ability scores are purchased during character creation in an auction; players get 100 character points, and bid on each attribute in turn. The character who bids the most for an attribute is "ranked" first and is considered superior to all other characters in that attribute. Unlike conventional auctions, bids are non-refundable; if one player bids 65 for psyche and another wins with a bid of 66, then the character with 66 is "superior" to the character with 65 even though there is only one bid difference. Instead, lower bidding characters are ranked in ascending order according to how much they have bid, the characters becoming progressively weaker in that attribute as they pay less for it. After the auction, players can secretly pay extra points to raise their ranks, but they can only pay to raise their scores to an existing rank. Further, a character with a bid-for rank is considered to have a slight advantage over character with a bought-up rank. The Auction simulates a 'history' of competition between the descendants of Oberon for player characters who have not had dozens of decades to get to know each other. Through the competitive Auction, characters may begin the game vying for standings. The auction serves to introduce some unpredictability into character creation without the need to resort to dice, cards, or other randomizing devices. A player may intend, for example, to create a character who is a strong mighty warrior, but being "outplayed" in the auction may result in lower attribute scores than anticipated, therefore necessitating a change of character concept. Since a player cannot control another players bids, and since all bids are non-refundable, the auction involves a considerable amount of strategizing and prioritization by players. A willingness to spend as many points as possible on an attribute may improve your chances of a high ranking, but too reckless a spending strategy could leave a player with few points to spend on powers, and objects. In a hotly contested auction, such as for the important attribute of warfare, the most valuable skill is the ability to force ones opponents to back down. With two, or more, equally determined players this can result in a "bidding war" where the attribute is driven up by increments to large sums. An alternative strategy is to try and cow other players into submission with a high opening bid. Most players bid low amounts between one and ten points in an initial bid in order to feel out the competition and to save points for other uses. A high enough opening bid could signal a players determination to be first ranked in that attribute, thereby dissuading others from competing. Psyche in Amber DRPG compared to the Chronicles Characters with high psyche are presented as having strong telepathic abilities, being able to hypnotise and even mentally dominate any character with lesser psyche with whom they can make eye-contact. This is likely due to three scenes in the Chronicles: first, when Eric paralyzes Corwin with an attack across the Trump and refuses to desist because one or the other would be dominated; second, when Corwin faces the demon Strygwalldir, it is able to wrestle mentally with him when their gazes meet; and third, when Fiona is able to keep Brand immobile in the final battle at the Courts of Chaos. Roger Zelazny The Great Book of Amber (Eos Press, 1999) ISBN 0-380-80906-0 However, in general, the books only feature mental battles when there is some reason for mind-to-mind contact (for example, Trump contact) and magic or Trump is involved in all three of the above conflicts, so it is not clear whether Zelazny intended his characters to have such a power; the combination of Brand's "living trump" powers and his high Psyche (as presented in the roleplaying game) would have guaranteed him victory over Corwin. Shadow Knight does address this inconsistency somewhat, by presenting the "living trump" abilities as somewhat limited. Powers Characters in Amber DRPG have access to the powers seen in the Chronicles of Amber: Pattern, Logrus, Shape-shifting, Trump, and magic. Pattern: A character who has walked the pattern can walk in shadow to any possible universe, and while there can manipulate probability. Logrus: A character who has mastered the Logrus can send out Logrus tendrils and pull themselves or objects through shadow. Shape-shifting: Shape-shifters can alter their physical form and abilities. Trump: Trump Artists can create Trumps, a sort of tarot card which allows mental communication and travel. The book features Trump portraits of each of the elder Amberites. The trump picture of Corwin is executed in a subtly different style - and has features very similar to Roger Zelazny's. Magic: Three types of magic are detailed: Power Words, with a quick, small effect; Sorcery, with pre-prepared spells as in many other game systems; and Conjuration, the creation of small objects. Each of the first three powers is available in an advanced form. Artifacts, Personal shadows and Constructs While a character with Pattern, Logrus or Conjuration can acquire virtually any object, players can choose to spend character points to obtain objects with particular virtues - unbreakability, or a mind of their own. Since they have paid points for the items, they are a part of the character's legend, and cannot lightly be destroyed. Similarly, a character can find any possible universe, but they can spend character points to know of or inhabit shadows which are (in some sense) "real" and therefore useful. The expansion, Shadow Knight, adds Constructs - artifacts with connections to shadows. Stuff Unspent character points become good stuff - a good luck for the character. Players are also allowed to overspend (in moderation), with the points becoming bad stuff - bad luck which the Gamemaster should inflict on the character. Stuff governs how non-player characters perceive and respond to the character: characters with good stuff will often receive friendly or helpful reactions, while characters with bad stuff are often treated with suspicion or hostility. As well as representing luck, stuff can be seen as representing a character's outlook on the universe: characters with good stuff seeing the multiverse as a cheerful place, while characters with bad stuff see it as hostile. Conflict resolution In any given fair conflict between two characters, the character with the higher score in the relevant attribute will eventually win. The key words here are fair and eventually - if characters' ranks are close, and the weaker character has obtained some advantage, then the weaker character can escape defeat or perhaps prevail. Close ranks result in longer contests while greater difference between ranks result in fast resolution. This concept has been developed further in John Wick's Advantage system. Alternatively, if characters' attribute ranks are close, the weaker character can try to change the relevant attribute by changing the nature of the conflict. For example, if two characters are wrestling the relevant attribute is Strength; a character could reveal a weapon, changing it to Warfare; they could try to overcome the other character's mind using a power, changing it to Psyche; or they could concentrate their strength on defense, changing it to Endurance. This concept is similar to the concept of escalation in Dogs in the Vineyard. If there is a substantial difference between characters' ranks, the conflict is generally over before the weaker character can react. The 'Golden Rule' Amber DRPG advises gamemasters to change rules as they see fit - even to the point of adding or removing powers or attributes. Community Despite the game's out-of-print status, a thriving convention scene exists supporting the game. Amber conventions, known as Ambercons, are held yearly in Massachusetts, Michigan, Portland (United States), Reading, Berkshire (England) and Modena, Italy. Additionally, Phage Press published 12 volumes of a dedicated Amber DRPG magazine called Amberzine. Some Amberzine issues are still available from Phage Press. References Review External links The Official Amber DRPG and Erick Wujcik Forum The Official Amber DRPG and Erick Wujcik Forum Phage Press was the original publisher for the Amber RPG. Westray, an Amber DRPG fansite The Golden Circle, an Amber webring with many Amber DRPG sites. MaBarry's Amber links, a wiki-based catalog of Amber sites on the net. It has a strong focus on RPG related sites. AmberCons, information regarding international Amber DRPG conventions Epoch's Amber Tips, information and advice for setup and running a game, pitfalls of the rules, canon tone translated to actual play compared: Amber DRPG Attributes & Zelazny’s Chronicles, essay on comparison/analysis of canon text and game attributes Diceless by Design Site for the future Amber DRPG development and publishing | Amber_Diceless_Roleplaying_Game |@lemmatized amber:37 diceless:6 roleplay:7 game:20 role:1 playing:1 create:7 write:1 erick:5 wujcik:6 set:5 fictional:1 universe:6 author:1 roger:3 zelazny:7 chronicle:6 unusual:1 dice:2 use:9 resolve:2 conflict:6 player:25 action:2 instead:2 simple:1 system:4 comparative:1 ability:7 narrative:1 description:1 gamemaster:2 determine:2 situation:1 drpg:16 much:4 focused:1 relationship:1 era:1 character:58 member:1 two:5 ruling:1 class:1 multiverse:4 advanced:2 matter:1 strength:6 endurance:5 psyche:9 warfare:5 sorcery:3 ordinary:1 mean:1 individual:1 capable:1 oppose:1 family:2 fact:1 lead:2 suspicion:2 intrigue:1 history:2 original:2 page:2 book:21 phage:6 press:7 isbn:3 publish:3 cover:2 material:4 first:6 five:2 novel:4 corwin:8 cycle:2 detail:6 logrus:9 remain:2 merlin:6 order:7 allow:5 court:7 chaos:8 change:8 slightly:1 choice:1 example:5 full:1 trump:12 artist:2 without:3 walk:3 pattern:9 say:1 impossible:1 psychic:1 far:3 great:4 show:1 shadow:13 knight:5 companion:1 volume:2 supplemental:1 rule:5 include:2 element:1 broken:1 construct:3 ghostwheel:1 present:5 second:3 series:4 addition:1 continuity:1 campaign:2 luke:1 julia:1 jurt:1 coral:2 pc:1 remainder:1 collection:2 essay:2 statistic:1 new:5 update:1 old:1 one:10 light:1 appearance:1 perhaps:2 usefully:1 gm:1 plot:1 summary:1 ten:2 short:1 story:1 salesman:1 tale:1 unpublished:1 cut:1 prince:1 notably:1 pregnancy:1 translate:2 release:3 french:1 publisher:2 jeux:1 descartes:1 third:3 rebma:1 promise:1 pre:2 take:2 never:1 arrive:1 accusation:1 vaporware:1 also:2 express:2 desire:1 give:2 however:4 publishing:3 right:1 acquire:2 guardian:2 sale:1 announce:1 intention:1 edition:2 go:1 business:1 exist:3 print:3 make:2 available:3 pdf:1 downloads:1 drivethrurpg:1 june:1 company:2 head:1 edwin:1 voskamp:1 eric:2 todd:1 form:3 purpose:1 bring:1 back:2 name:1 design:3 forthcoming:1 official:3 site:5 describe:2 assume:2 gamemasters:2 patternfall:1 war:2 end:2 fifth:1 follow:1 part:2 cosmology:1 feature:4 consist:1 city:2 pole:3 wherein:1 find:3 symbol:1 assembly:1 world:1 manifestation:1 abyss:1 source:1 reality:1 possible:4 around:2 inhabitant:2 either:2 travel:2 portray:2 child:3 main:2 know:5 elder:4 amberites:4 resident:1 since:5 feel:2 limiting:1 fairly:1 common:1 start:1 king:1 oberon:2 death:1 begin:2 vie:2 throne:1 populate:1 scratch:1 different:2 former:1 option:2 latter:1 community:2 amethyst:1 like:1 build:1 sometimes:1 call:2 argent:1 heraldic:1 colour:1 silver:1 attribute:22 represent:3 four:1 feat:3 willpower:1 magic:5 unarmed:1 combat:2 armed:1 duel:1 command:1 army:1 run:2 normal:3 human:1 level:3 denizen:1 upwards:1 limit:1 score:7 ranked:2 high:8 rank:14 next:1 consider:4 superior:3 substantially:1 good:5 even:4 difference:4 small:3 auction:10 purchase:1 creation:3 get:2 point:12 bid:14 turn:1 unlike:1 conventional:1 non:3 refundable:2 another:2 win:2 though:1 low:3 bidding:2 ascend:1 accord:1 become:3 progressively:1 weaker:2 pay:4 less:2 secretly:1 extra:1 raise:2 slight:1 advantage:3 bought:1 simulate:1 competition:2 descendant:1 dozen:1 decade:1 competitive:1 may:4 standing:1 serve:1 introduce:1 unpredictability:1 need:1 resort:1 card:2 randomize:1 device:1 intend:2 strong:3 mighty:1 warrior:1 outplay:1 result:4 anticipate:1 therefore:2 necessitate:1 concept:4 cannot:2 control:1 involve:2 considerable:1 amount:2 strategizing:1 prioritization:1 willingness:1 spend:4 many:3 improve:1 chance:1 ranking:1 reckless:1 spending:1 strategy:2 could:5 leave:1 power:9 object:5 hotly:1 contest:2 important:1 valuable:1 skill:1 force:1 opponent:1 equally:1 drive:1 increment:1 large:1 sum:1 alternative:1 try:3 cow:1 submission:1 opening:1 initial:1 save:1 us:1 enough:1 open:1 signal:1 determination:1 thereby:1 dissuade:1 others:1 compete:1 compare:2 telepathic:1 able:3 hypnotise:1 mentally:2 dominate:2 eye:1 contact:3 likely:1 due:1 three:4 scene:2 paralyzes:1 attack:1 across:1 refuse:1 desist:1 would:2 face:1 demon:1 strygwalldir:1 wrestle:2 gaze:1 meet:1 fiona:1 keep:1 brand:2 immobile:1 final:1 battle:2 eos:1 general:1 mental:2 reason:1 mind:4 clear:1 whether:1 combination:1 live:2 roleplaying:1 guarantee:1 victory:1 address:1 inconsistency:1 somewhat:2 limited:1 access:1 see:5 shape:3 shifting:2 manipulate:1 probability:1 master:1 send:1 tendril:1 pull:1 shifter:1 alter:1 physical:1 sort:1 tarot:1 communication:1 portrait:1 picture:1 execute:1 subtly:1 style:1 similar:2 type:1 word:2 quick:1 effect:1 prepared:1 spell:1 conjuration:2 artifact:2 personal:1 virtually:1 choose:1 obtain:2 particular:1 virtue:1 unbreakability:1 item:1 legend:1 lightly:1 destroy:1 similarly:1 inhabit:1 sense:1 real:1 useful:1 expansion:1 add:2 connection:1 stuff:9 unspent:1 luck:3 overspend:1 moderation:1 bad:4 inflict:1 govern:1 perceive:1 respond:1 often:2 receive:1 friendly:1 helpful:1 reaction:1 treat:1 hostility:1 well:1 outlook:1 cheerful:1 place:1 hostile:1 resolution:2 fair:2 relevant:3 eventually:2 key:1 close:3 weak:3 escape:1 defeat:1 prevail:1 long:1 fast:1 develop:1 john:1 wick:1 alternatively:1 nature:1 reveal:1 weapon:1 overcome:1 concentrate:1 defense:1 escalation:1 dog:1 vineyard:1 substantial:1 generally:1 react:1 golden:2 advise:1 fit:1 remove:1 despite:1 status:1 thriving:1 convention:3 support:1 ambercons:2 hold:1 yearly:1 massachusetts:1 michigan:1 portland:1 united:1 state:1 reading:1 berkshire:1 england:1 modena:1 italy:1 additionally:1 dedicated:1 magazine:1 amberzine:2 issue:1 still:1 reference:1 review:1 external:1 link:2 forum:2 rpg:2 westray:1 fansite:1 circle:1 webring:1 mabarry:1 wiki:1 base:1 catalog:1 net:1 focus:1 relate:1 information:2 regard:1 international:1 epoch:1 tip:1 advice:1 setup:1 pitfall:1 canon:2 tone:1 actual:1 play:1 comparison:1 analysis:1 text:1 future:1 development:1 |@bigram erick_wujcik:5 roger_zelazny:3 amber_drpg:16 strength_endurance:2 unarmed_combat:1 hotly_contest:1 telepathic_ability:1 bad_luck:1 reading_berkshire:1 external_link:1 |
1,648 | Liqueur | Bottles of homemade strawberry liqueur. A liqueur is an alcoholic beverage that has been flavored with fruit, herbs, nuts, spices, flowers, or cream and bottled with added sugar. Liqueurs are typically quite sweet; they are usually not aged for long but may have resting periods during their production to allow flavors to marry. In some parts of the world people use the words cordial and liqueur interchangeably. Though in these places the two expressions both describe liqueurs made by redistilling spirits with aromatic flavorings and are usually highly sweetened, there are some differences. While liqueurs are usually flavored with herbs, cordials are generally prepared with fruit pulp or juices. Liqueurs date back centuries and are historical descendants of herbal medicines, often those prepared by monks, as Chartreuse or Bénédictine. Liqueurs were made in Italy as early as the 13th century and their consumption was later required at all treaty signings during the Middle Ages. Nowadays, liqueurs are made worldwide and are served in many ways: by themselves, poured over ice, with coffee, mixed with cream or other mixers to create cocktails, etc. They are often served with or after a dessert. Liqueurs are also used in cooking. Some liqueurs are prepared by infusing certain woods, fruits, or flowers, in either water or alcohol, and adding sugar or other items. Others are distilled from aromatic or flavoring agents. The distinction between liqueur and spirits (sometimes liquors) is not simple, especially since many spirits are available in a flavored form today. Flavored spirits, however, are not prepared by infusion. Alcohol content is not a distinctive feature. At 15-30%, most liqueurs have a lower alcohol content than spirits, but some liqueurs have an alcohol content as high as 55%. Dessert wine, on the other hand, may taste like a liqueur, but contains no additional flavoring. Anise liqueurs have the interesting property of turning from transparent to cloudy when added to water: the oil of anise remains in solution in the presence of a high concentration of alcohol, but crystallizes out when the alcohol concentration is reduced. Layered drinks made by floating different-coloured liqueurs in separate layers are attractive. Each liqueur is poured slowly into a glass over the back of a spoon or down a glass rod, so that the liquids of different densities remain unmixed, creating a striped effect. The word liqueur comes from the Latin liquifacere (“to liquefy”). See also List of liqueurs Cream liqueur Crème liqueur Dessert wine Nalewka Sloe gin Cordial Notes External links Comprehensive coverage of most liqueurs | Liqueur |@lemmatized bottle:2 homemade:1 strawberry:1 liqueur:22 alcoholic:1 beverage:1 flavor:3 fruit:3 herb:2 nut:1 spice:1 flower:2 cream:3 added:1 sugar:2 typically:1 quite:1 sweet:1 usually:3 age:2 long:1 may:2 rest:1 period:1 production:1 allow:1 marry:1 part:1 world:1 people:1 use:2 word:2 cordial:3 interchangeably:1 though:1 place:1 two:1 expression:1 describe:1 make:4 redistilling:1 spirit:5 aromatic:2 flavoring:3 highly:1 sweeten:1 difference:1 generally:1 prepare:4 pulp:1 juice:1 date:1 back:2 century:2 historical:1 descendant:1 herbal:1 medicine:1 often:2 monk:1 chartreuse:1 bénédictine:1 italy:1 early:1 consumption:1 later:1 require:1 treaty:1 signing:1 middle:1 nowadays:1 worldwide:1 serve:2 many:2 way:1 pour:2 ice:1 coffee:1 mixed:1 mixer:1 create:2 cocktail:1 etc:1 dessert:3 also:2 cooking:1 infuse:1 certain:1 wood:1 either:1 water:2 alcohol:6 add:2 item:1 others:1 distil:1 agent:1 distinction:1 sometimes:1 liquor:1 simple:1 especially:1 since:1 available:1 flavored:2 form:1 today:1 however:1 infusion:1 content:3 distinctive:1 feature:1 low:1 high:2 wine:2 hand:1 taste:1 like:1 contain:1 additional:1 anise:2 interesting:1 property:1 turn:1 transparent:1 cloudy:1 oil:1 remain:2 solution:1 presence:1 concentration:2 crystallize:1 reduce:1 layered:1 drink:1 float:1 different:2 coloured:1 separate:1 layer:1 attractive:1 slowly:1 glass:2 spoon:1 rod:1 liquid:1 density:1 unmixed:1 striped:1 effect:1 come:1 latin:1 liquifacere:1 liquefy:1 see:1 list:1 liqueurs:1 crème:1 nalewka:1 sloe:1 gin:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 comprehensive:1 coverage:1 |@bigram alcoholic_beverage:1 herbal_medicine:1 dessert_wine:2 external_link:1 |
1,649 | Barney_Bubbles | The original UK 45rpm single picture sleeve of Ian Dury and the Blockheads — Hit Me With Your Rhythm Stick designed by Barney Bubbles Colin Fulcher aka Barney Bubbles (July 1942 - Nov 1983) was a radical English graphic artist, whose work primarily encompassed the disciplines of graphic design, painting and music video direction. He is most renowned for his distinctive contribution to the graphic design associated with the British independent music scene during the 1970s and early 1980s. His symbol-laden and riddle-laden record sleeves were his most visible output. He suffered from bipolar disorder Carol Clerk. Saga of Hawkwind, p.94. Omnibus Press, 2004, ISBN 1844491013. Ian Abrahams. Hawkwind: Sonic Assassins, p. 150. SAF Publishing Ltd, 2004, ISBN 0946719691 Born in Tranmere Road, Whitton, Middlesex in July 1942, he committed suicide in London in November 1983. Early life Colin Fulcher attended Isleworth Grammar and from 1958 undertook a senior display course in a National Diploma in Design at Twickenham College of Art Reasons To Be Cheerful: The Life & Work Of Barney Bubbles, Paul Gorman (Adelita 2008) ISBN 978-0955201738 . During his five years at the educational institution Fulcher worked across all media, including cardboard design, display and packaging; this was exploited in his future record sleeve work. Music, short films and performances were regular events at the art college. Upon leaving college in 1963, Colin Fulcher worked for a 'typographically Swiss' typographer, a period in his life which he said 'taught me everything about typography'. In 1965 he joined The Conran Group as senior graphic designer. He worked on a variety of projects at the company, including the Norman archer logo for Strongbow cider. The Underground Colin Fulcher was also involved in the counter-cultural underground scene in London and in 1967 renamed himself Barney Bubbles, operating a light show for bands such as The Gun and Quintessence at various underground events at venues such as The Roundhouse in Chalk Farm, the Arts Lab, The Electric Cinema and Middle Earth. He also organised happenings and private events under the name A1 Good Guyz with fellow Twickenham art college students Roy Burge and David Wills between 1965-67. With the latter he undertook design work for "Motor Racing" magazine and the English Egg Marketing Board, and with an extended group of contributors they created Oz magazine issue 12 The Tax Dodge Special in 1968. Barney Bubbles later worked on Oz 38. In the summer of 1968 Barney Bubbles visited the United States and experienced the hippie counter-culture on the West Coast. Here he met legendary poster artists Stanley Mouse and Alton Kelly, and worked his light show at San Francisco's Avalon Ballroom. Teenburger Designs The original UK LP sleeve of Brinsley Schwarz — Brinsley Schwarz designed by Barney Bubbles In the spring of 1969 Barney Bubbles moved base to 307 Portobello Road, London, and working in association with Edward Moulton, set up the studio Teenburger Designs. Assisted by John Muggeridge whom he had met at Conran, they created designs for a variety of projects, including albums, the first of which was Quintessence's 1969 LP In Blissful Company. This gatefold LP contains Barney Bubbles' multi-page die-cut book with geometrical arrangements typical of the forms with which he would later be associated. More music industry work followed for Teenburger, notably for bands such as Brinsley Schwarz and Red Dirt, and Vertigo label artists Cressida, Gracious! and Dr Z. Barney Bubbles also worked as the designer of underground newspaper Friends (later re-named Frendz) In Their Own Write: Adventures In The Music Press, Paul Gorman, p.84. (Sanctuary 2001) ISBN 978-1860743412 . Hawkwind (and other 1970s Rock) The original UK LP sleeve of Hawkwind — In Search of Space designed by Barney Bubbles Many of the area's bands called in at the Friends office, the most prominent of which was Hawkwind, with whom Barney Bubbles formed a close connection. Leaving behind the name Teenburger, he became Hawkwind's artistic collaborator. Responsible for their LP sleeves (including In Search of Space, Doremi Fasol Latido and Space Ritual) he also titled albums, created posters, adverts, stage decoration and performance plans, all of which were adorned with mystical and mock teutonic insignia. During this period, he also created LP designs and additional material for The Sutherland Brothers, Edgar Broughton Band, Chilli Willi and the Red Hot Peppers, Quiver, the Kursaal Flyers and Michael Moorcock and the Deep Fix. In 1972 he produced the triple LP package Glastonbury Fayre based around a six panel fold-out sleeve, two poster inserts, a booklet, and a pyramid sheet; all housed in a clear plastic bag (complete with two sleeve variations and three label variations). In the mid-70s Barney Bubbles' relationship with Hawkwind came to an end. It was rekindled briefly for the Hawklords project in 1978, though he continued working with Hawkwind's saxophonist Nik Turner. From this point on he worked anonymously, or by use of pseudonym. Stiff, Radar and F Beat (and other Punk and New Wave) The original UK LP sleeve of Carlene Carter — C'est C Bon designed by Barney Bubbles In 1976 Stiff Records was set up, and employed Barney Bubbles' talents from the beginning of 1977. With co-founder Jake Riviera, he generated a body of creative design work which helped secure Stiff's reputation as the ground-breaking enfant-terrible of the music industry. Barney Bubbles created sleeves for artists such as Damned, Elvis Costello, Ian Dury and Wreckless Eric, and often these were accompanied with quirky logos (like the Blockhead's 'face' logo), adverts and promotional items. The marketing activity for Elvis Costello's My Aim Is True is one such example; it included a collectible six-part poster delivered in three UK music papers and the Help Us Hype Elvis insert in the first 1000 copies of the album's first pressing. When Jake Riviera subsequently left Stiff and went on to form Radar Records (and then F-Beat Records and then Demon Records) Barney went with him, continuing to work for some Stiff artists but more regularly for Radar Records and F-Beat artists such as Elvis Costello, Nick Lowe, Carlene Carter, Howard Werth and Clive Langer & The Boxes. There were also commissions from other labels, including Aura, Chiswick, Utility, Go! Discs, Epic, Charisma, CBS, Line Records, United Artists and Riddle Records. This resulted in work for Johnny Moped, Billy Bragg, Clover, The Sinceros, Roger Chapman, Phillip Goodhand-Tait, Dr Feelgood, Inner City Unit and the Psychedelic Furs. Barney Bubbles' signature style was colourful, playful, loaded with geometry, shape, art-history and music-history reference, jokes, cryptograms and symbolism. The over-riding appetite was for going against the grain of accepted design standards. His work has duality in that it is simultaneously complex (loaded with meaning) but is simple and direct. Examples include: Elvis Costello - This Year's Model; which was designed to have a deliberate mis-cropping so the entire design was off-register. Elvis Costello - Armed Forces; with a back panel conisting of folding flaps, this included postcards which carried the instruction DON'T JOIN (advice against joining the armed forces) Ian Dury and the Blockheads - Do It Yourself; which came in 28 different wallpaper sleeves. No Sleep Till Canvey Island: The Great Pub Rock Revolution, Will Birch (Virgin Books 2000, 2003) ISBN 0-7535-0740-4 Music promo videos As a video director, Barney Bubbles directed several videos. These included The Specials' Ghost Town, Squeeze's Is That Love and Tempted, Elvis Costello's Clubland and New Lace Sleeves and Fun Boy Three's The Lunatics (Have Taken Over the Asylum). Two promos for obscure punk act Johnny Moped - Incendiary Device and Darling Let's Have Another Baby - were never commercially released to broadcasters. Other work In 1978 Barney Bubbles was responsible for the redesign of weekly music paper the NME, including a new logo design. A contemporary re-worked version of the logo is still in use. In 1979, Derek Boshier curated an exhibition entitled Lives at the Hayward Gallery, London. He commissioned Barney Bubbles to design the catalogue and poster. Together with photographer Chris Gabrin, Barney Bubbles exhibited a video and mixed-media installation in the exhibition. In the early 1980s Barney Bubbles created furniture designs, some of which were featured in The Face, November 1981, and in 1982 he recorded the album Ersatz with Nik Turner and other members of Inner City Unit, under the name The Imperial Pompadours. Barney Bubbles also painted privately in the early 1980s. Notes and references External links Brian Griffin on Barney Bubbles. Tribute by friend and photographer Brian Griffin. Barney Bubbles: Artist and Designer. Career overview by graphic designer John Coulthart. Barney Bubbles: What A Laugh. Blog by old friend, fellow student and designer, David Wills. Philm Freax: Barney Bubbles: In Memoriam. A memorial page by friend and photographer Phil Franks. Philm Freax: Friends: Barney Bubbles Includes Phil Franks' photos and text extracts from "Days In The Life: Voices from the English Underground 1961-–71" by Jonathon Green. Philm Freax: Hawkwind X-In Search of Space. The Barney Bubbles Blog Blog of the book Reasons To Be Cheerful: The Life & Work Of Barney Bubbles by Paul Gorman. | Barney_Bubbles |@lemmatized original:4 uk:5 single:1 picture:1 sleeve:12 ian:4 dury:3 blockhead:3 hit:1 rhythm:1 stick:1 design:20 barney:31 bubble:30 colin:4 fulcher:5 aka:1 july:2 nov:1 radical:1 english:3 graphic:5 artist:8 whose:1 work:20 primarily:1 encompass:1 discipline:1 painting:1 music:10 video:5 direction:1 renowned:1 distinctive:1 contribution:1 associate:2 british:1 independent:1 scene:2 early:4 symbol:1 laden:2 riddle:2 record:10 visible:1 output:1 suffer:1 bipolar:1 disorder:1 carol:1 clerk:1 saga:1 hawkwind:9 p:3 omnibus:1 press:3 isbn:5 abraham:1 sonic:1 assassin:1 saf:1 publishing:1 ltd:1 born:1 tranmere:1 road:2 whitton:1 middlesex:1 commit:1 suicide:1 london:4 november:2 life:6 attend:1 isleworth:1 grammar:1 undertook:1 senior:2 display:2 course:1 national:1 diploma:1 twickenham:2 college:4 art:5 reason:2 cheerful:2 paul:3 gorman:3 adelita:1 five:1 year:2 educational:1 institution:1 across:1 medium:2 include:11 cardboard:1 packaging:1 exploit:1 future:1 short:1 film:1 performance:2 regular:1 event:3 upon:1 leave:3 typographically:1 swiss:1 typographer:1 period:2 say:1 teach:1 everything:1 typography:1 join:3 conran:2 group:2 designer:5 variety:2 project:3 company:2 norman:1 archer:1 logo:5 strongbow:1 cider:1 underground:5 also:7 involve:1 counter:2 cultural:1 rename:1 operate:1 light:2 show:2 band:4 gun:1 quintessence:2 various:1 venue:1 roundhouse:1 chalk:1 farm:1 lab:1 electric:1 cinema:1 middle:1 earth:1 organise:1 happening:1 private:1 name:4 good:1 guyz:1 fellow:2 student:2 roy:1 burge:1 david:2 latter:1 undertake:1 motor:1 race:1 magazine:2 egg:1 market:1 board:1 extended:1 contributor:1 create:6 oz:2 issue:1 tax:1 dodge:1 special:2 later:3 summer:1 visit:1 united:2 state:1 experience:1 hippie:1 culture:1 west:1 coast:1 meet:2 legendary:1 poster:5 stanley:1 mouse:1 alton:1 kelly:1 san:1 francisco:1 avalon:1 ballroom:1 teenburger:4 lp:8 brinsley:3 schwarz:3 spring:1 move:1 base:2 portobello:1 association:1 edward:1 moulton:1 set:2 studio:1 assist:1 john:2 muggeridge:1 album:4 first:3 blissful:1 gatefold:1 contain:1 multi:1 page:2 die:1 cut:1 book:3 geometrical:1 arrangement:1 typical:1 form:3 would:1 industry:2 follow:1 notably:1 red:2 dirt:1 vertigo:1 label:3 cressida:1 gracious:1 dr:2 z:1 newspaper:1 friend:6 frendz:1 write:1 adventure:1 sanctuary:1 rock:2 search:3 space:4 many:1 area:1 call:1 office:1 prominent:1 close:1 connection:1 behind:1 become:1 artistic:1 collaborator:1 responsible:2 doremi:1 fasol:1 latido:1 ritual:1 title:1 advert:2 stage:1 decoration:1 plan:1 adorn:1 mystical:1 mock:1 teutonic:1 insignia:1 additional:1 material:1 sutherland:1 brother:1 edgar:1 broughton:1 chilli:1 willi:1 hot:1 pepper:1 quiver:1 kursaal:1 flyer:1 michael:1 moorcock:1 deep:1 fix:1 produce:1 triple:1 package:1 glastonbury:1 fayre:1 around:1 six:2 panel:2 fold:2 two:3 insert:2 booklet:1 pyramid:1 sheet:1 house:1 clear:1 plastic:1 bag:1 complete:1 variation:2 three:3 mid:1 relationship:1 come:2 end:1 rekindle:1 briefly:1 hawklords:1 though:1 continue:2 saxophonist:1 nik:2 turner:2 point:1 anonymously:1 use:2 pseudonym:1 stiff:5 radar:3 f:3 beat:3 punk:2 new:3 wave:1 carlene:2 carter:2 c:2 est:1 bon:1 employ:1 talent:1 beginning:1 co:1 founder:1 jake:2 riviera:2 generate:1 body:1 creative:1 help:2 secure:1 reputation:1 ground:1 breaking:1 enfant:1 terrible:1 damned:1 elvis:7 costello:6 wreckless:1 eric:1 often:1 accompany:1 quirky:1 like:1 face:2 promotional:1 item:1 marketing:1 activity:1 aim:1 true:1 one:1 example:2 collectible:1 part:1 deliver:1 paper:2 u:1 hype:1 copy:1 subsequently:1 go:4 demon:1 regularly:1 nick:1 lowe:1 howard:1 werth:1 clive:1 langer:1 box:1 commission:2 aura:1 chiswick:1 utility:1 disc:1 epic:1 charisma:1 cbs:1 line:1 result:1 johnny:2 mop:2 billy:1 bragg:1 clover:1 sinceros:1 roger:1 chapman:1 phillip:1 goodhand:1 tait:1 feelgood:1 inner:2 city:2 unit:2 psychedelic:1 fur:1 signature:1 style:1 colourful:1 playful:1 load:2 geometry:1 shape:1 history:2 reference:2 joke:1 cryptogram:1 symbolism:1 rid:1 appetite:1 grain:1 accepted:1 standard:1 duality:1 simultaneously:1 complex:1 meaning:1 simple:1 direct:2 model:1 deliberate:1 mi:1 crop:1 entire:1 register:1 armed:2 force:2 back:1 conisting:1 flap:1 postcard:1 carry:1 instruction:1 advice:1 different:1 wallpaper:1 sleep:1 till:1 canvey:1 island:1 great:1 pub:1 revolution:1 birch:1 virgin:1 promo:1 director:1 several:1 ghost:1 town:1 squeeze:1 love:1 tempt:1 clubland:1 lace:1 fun:1 boy:1 lunatic:1 take:1 asylum:1 promos:1 obscure:1 act:1 incendiary:1 device:1 darling:1 let:1 another:1 baby:1 never:1 commercially:1 release:1 broadcaster:1 redesign:1 weekly:1 nme:1 contemporary:1 worked:1 version:1 still:1 derek:1 boshier:1 curated:1 exhibition:2 entitle:1 hayward:1 gallery:1 catalogue:1 together:1 photographer:3 chris:1 gabrin:1 exhibit:1 mixed:1 installation:1 furniture:1 feature:1 ersatz:1 member:1 imperial:1 pompadour:1 paint:1 privately:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 brian:2 griffin:2 tribute:1 career:1 overview:1 coulthart:1 laugh:1 blog:3 old:1 philm:3 freax:3 memoriam:1 memorial:1 phil:2 frank:2 photo:1 text:1 extract:1 day:1 voice:1 jonathon:1 green:1 x:1 |@bigram ian_dury:3 barney_bubble:30 bipolar_disorder:1 carol_clerk:1 saga_hawkwind:1 saf_publishing:1 commit_suicide:1 san_francisco:1 michael_moorcock:1 plastic_bag:1 nik_turner:2 enfant_terrible:1 elvis_costello:6 nick_lowe:1 billy_bragg:1 dr_feelgood:1 external_link:1 |
1,650 | Mercantilism | A painting of a French seaport from 1638, at the height of mercantilism Mercantilism is an economic theory that holds that the prosperity of a nation is dependent upon its supply of capital, and that the global volume of international trade is "unchangeable." Economic assets or capital, are represented by bullion (gold, silver, and trade value) held by the state, which is best increased through a positive balance of trade with other nations (exports minus imports). Mercantilism suggests that the ruling government should advance these goals by playing a protectionist role in the economy; by encouraging exports and discouraging imports, notably through the use of tariffs and subsidies. Mercantilism was the dominant school of thought throughout the early modern period (from the 16th to the 18th century). Domestically, this led to some of the first instances of significant government intervention and control over the economy, and it was during this period that much of the modern capitalist system was established. Internationally, mercantilism encouraged the many European s of the period and fueled European imperialism. Belief in mercantilism began to fade in the late 18th century, as the arguments of Adam Smith and the other classical economists won out. Today, mercantilism (as a whole) is rejected by economists, though some elements are looked upon favorably by non-economists. Theory Most of the European economists who wrote between 1500 and 1750 are today generally considered mercantilists; however, this term was initially used solely by critics, such as Mirabeau and Smith, but was quickly adopted by historians. Originally the standard English term was "mercantile system". The word "mercantilism" was introduced into English from German in the early 20th century. The bulk of what is commonly called "mercantilist literature" appeared in the 1620s in Great Britain. Magnusson (2003), p. 46. Smith saw English merchant Thomas Mun (1571-1641) as a major creator of the mercantile system, especially in his posthumously published Treasure by Foreign Trade (1664), which Smith considered the archetype of manifesto of the movement. Magnusson (2003), p. 47. Perhaps the last major mercantilist work was James Steuart’s Principles of Political Economy published in 1767. Beyond England, Italy, France, and Spain had noted writers who had mercantilist themes in their work, indeed the earliest examples of mercantilism are from outside of England: in Italy, Giovanni Botero (1544–1617) and Antonio Serra (1580–?), in France, Colbert and some other precursors to the physiocrats, in Spain, the School of Salamanca writers Francisco de Vitoria (1480 or 1483–1546), Domingo de Soto (1494–1560), Martin de Azpilcueta (1491–1586), and Luis de Molina (1535–1600). Themes also existed in writers from the German historical school from List, as well as followers of the "American system" and British "free-trade imperialism," thus stretching the system into the nineteenth century. However, many British writers, including Mun and Misselden, were merchants, while many of the writers from other countries were public officials. Beyond mercantilism as a way of understanding the wealth and power of nations, Mun and Misselden are noted for their viewpoints on a wide range of economic matters. Magnusson (2003), p. 50. Merchants in Venice The Austrian lawyer and scholar Philipp Wilhelm von Hornick, in his Austria Over All, If She Only Will of 1684, detailed a nine-point program of what he deemed effective national economy, which sums up the tenets of mercantilism comprehensively: That every inch of a country's soil be utilized for agriculture, mining or manufacturing. That all raw materials found in a country be used in domestic manufacture, since finished goods have a higher value than raw materials. That a large, working population be encouraged. That all export of gold and silver be prohibited and all domestic money be kept in circulation. That all imports of foreign goods be discouraged as much as possible. That where certain imports are indispensable they be obtained at first hand, in exchange for other domestic goods instead of gold and silver. That as much as possible, imports be confined to raw materials that can be finished [in the home country]. That opportunities be constantly sought for selling a country's surplus manufactures to foreigners, so far as necessary, for gold and silver. That no importation be allowed if such foods are sufficiently and suitably supplied at home. Other than Von Hornick, there were no mercantilist writers presenting an overarching scheme for the ideal economy, as Adam Smith would later do for classical (laissez-faire) economics. Rather, each mercantilist writer tended to focus on a single area of the economy. Landreth & Colander (2002), p. 44. Only later did non-mercantilist scholars integrate these "diverse" ideas into what they called mercantilism. Some scholars thus reject the idea of mercantilism completely, arguing that it gives "a false unity to disparate events". Smith saw the mercantile system as an enormous conspiracy by manufacturers and merchants against consumers, a view that has led some authors, especially Robert E. Ekelund and Robert D. Tollison to call mercantilism "a rent-seeking society". To a certain extent, mercantilist doctrine itself made a general theory of economics impossible. Mercantilists viewed the economic system as a zero-sum game, in which any gain by one party required a loss by another. Ekelund & Tollison (1981), p. 9. Thus, any system of policies that benefited one group would by definition harm the other, and there was no possibility of economics being used to maximize the "commonwealth", or common good. Landreth & Colander (2002), p. 48. Mercantilists' writings were also generally created to rationalize particular practices rather than as investigations into the best policies. Mercantilist domestic policy was more fragmented than its trade policy. While Adam Smith portrayed mercantilism as supportive of strict controls over the economy, many mercantilists disagreed. The early modern era was one of letters patent and government-imposed monopolies; some mercantilists supported these, but others acknowledged the corruption and inefficiency of such systems. Many mercantilists also realized that the inevitable results of quotas and price ceilings were black markets. One notion mercantilists widely agreed upon was the need for economic oppression of the working population; laborers and farmers were to live at the "margins of subsistence". The goal was to maximize production, with no concern for consumption. Extra money, free time, or education for the "lower classes" was seen to inevitably lead to vice and laziness, and would result in harm to the economy. Ekelund & Hébert (1975), p. 46. Causes Scholars are divided on why mercantilism was the dominant economic ideology for two and a half centuries. Ekelund & Hébert (1975), p. 61. One group, represented by Jacob Viner, argues that mercantilism was simply a straightforward, common-sense system whose logical fallacies could not be discovered by the people of the time, as they simply lacked the required analytical tools. The second school, supported by scholars such as Robert B. Ekelund, contends that mercantilism was not a mistake, but rather the best possible system for those who developed it. This school argues that mercantilist policies were developed and enforced by rent-seeking merchants and governments. Merchants benefited greatly from the enforced monopolies, bans on foreign competition, and poverty of the workers. Governments benefited from the high tariffs and payments from the merchants. Whereas later economic ideas were often developed by academics and philosophers, almost all mercantilist writers were merchants or government officials. Niehans (1990), p. 19. A third explanation for mercantilism is monetary. European trade exported bullion to pay for goods from Asia, thus reducing the money supply and putting downward pressure on prices and economic activity. The evidence for this hypothesis is the lack of inflation in the English economy until the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars when paper money was extensively used. Mercantilism developed at a time when the European economy was in transition. Isolated feudal estates were being replaced by centralized nation-states as the focus of power. Technological changes in shipping and the growth of urban centers led to a rapid increase in international trade. Landreth & Colander (1981), p. 43. Mercantilism focused on how this trade could best aid the states. Another important change was the introduction of double-entry bookkeeping and modern accounting. This accounting made extremely clear the inflow and outflow of trade, contributing to the close scrutiny given to the balance of trade. Wilson (1963), p. 10. Of course, the impact of the discovery of America cannot be ignored. New markets and new mines propelled foreign trade to previously inconceivable heights. The latter led to “the great upward movement in prices” and an increase in “the volume of merchant activity itself.” Prior to mercantilism, the most important economic work done in Europe was by the medieval scholastic theorists. The goal of these thinkers was to find an economic system that was compatible with Christian doctrines of piety and justice. They focused mainly on microeconomics and local exchanges between individuals. Mercantilism was closely aligned with the other theories and ideas that were replacing the medieval worldview. This period saw the adoption of the very Machiavellian realpolitik and the primacy of the raison d'état in international relations. The mercantilist idea that all trade was a zero sum game, in which each side was trying to best the other in a ruthless competition, was integrated into the works of Thomas Hobbes. The dark view of human nature also fit well with the Puritan view of the world, and some of the most stridently mercantilist legislation, such as the Navigation Acts, were enacted by the government of Oliver Cromwell. Landreth & Colander (2002), p. 53. Policies French finance minister and mercantilist Jean-Baptiste Colbert served for over 20 years. Mercantilist ideas were the dominant economic ideology of all of Europe in the early modern period, and most states embraced it to a certain degree. Mercantilism was centered in England and France, and it was in these states that mercantilist polices were most often enacted. Mercantilism arose in France in the early 16th century, soon after the monarchy had become the dominant force in French politics. In 1539, an important decree banned the importation of woolen goods from Spain and some parts of Flanders. The next year, a number of restrictions were imposed on the export of bullion. Hermann Kellenbenz. The Rise of the European Economy. pg. 29 Over the rest of the sixteenth century further protectionist measures were introduced. The height of French mercantilism is closely associated with Jean-Baptiste Colbert, finance minister for 22 years in the 17th century, to the extent that French mercantilism is sometimes called "Colbertism". Under Colbert, the French government became deeply involved in the economy in order to increase exports. Protectionist policies were enacted that limited imports and favored exports. Industries were organized into guilds and monopolies, and production was regulated by the state through a series of over a thousands directives outlining how different products should be produced. To encourage industry, foreign artisans and craftsmen were imported. Colbert also worked to decrease internal barriers to trade, reducing internal tariffs and building an extensive network of roads and canals. Colbert's policies were quite successful, and France's industrial output and economy grew considerably during this period, as France became the dominant European power. He was less successful in turning France into a major trading power, and Britain and the Netherlands remained supreme in this field. E.N. Williams. The Ancien Regime in Europe. pg. 177-83 In England, mercantilism reached its peak during the Long Parliament government (1640-1660). Mercantilist policies were also embraced throughout much of the Tudor and Stuart periods, with Robert Walpole being another major proponent. In Britain, government control over the domestic economy was far less extensive than on the Continent, limited by common law and the steadily increasing power of Parliament. E. Damsgaard Hansen. European Economic History. pg. 65 Government-controlled monopolies were common, especially before the English Civil War, but were often controversial. Christopher Hill. The Century of Revolution. pg. 32 British mercantilist writers were themselves divided on whether domestic controls were necessary. British mercantilism thus mainly took the form of efforts to control trade. A wide array of regulations was put in place to encourage exports and discourage imports. Tariffs were placed on imports and bounties given for exports, and the export of some raw materials was banned completely. The Navigation Acts expelled foreign merchants from England's domestic trade. The nation aggressively sought colonies and once under British control, regulations were imposed that allowed the colony to only produce raw materials and to only trade with Britain. This led to friction with the inhabitants of these colonies, and mercantilist policies were one of the major causes of the American Revolution. Over all, however, mercantilist policies had an important effect on Britain helping turn it into the world's dominant trader, and an international superpower. One domestic policy that had a lasting impact was the conversion of "waste lands" to agricultural use. Mercantilists felt that to maximize a nation's power all land and resources had to be used to their utmost, and this era thus saw projects like the draining of The Fens. Wilson pg. 15 Mercantilism helped create trade patterns such as the triangular trade in the North Atlantic, in which raw materials were imported to the metropolis and then processed and redistributed to other colonies. The other nations of Europe also embraced mercantilism to varying degrees. The Netherlands, which had become the financial center of Europe by being its most efficient trader, had little interest in seeing trade restricted and adopted few mercantilist policies. Mercantilism became prominent in Central Europe and Scandinavia after the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), with Christina of Sweden and Christian IV of Denmark being notable proponents. The Habsburg Holy Roman Emperors had long been interested in mercantilist policies, but the vast and decentralized nature of their empire made implementing such notions difficult. Some constituent states of the empire did embrace Mercantilism, most notably Prussia, which under Frederick the Great had perhaps the most rigidly controlled economy in Europe. During the economic collapse of the seventeenth century Spain had little coherent economic policy, but French mercantilist policies were imported by Philip V with some success. Russia under Peter I (Peter the Great) attempted to pursue mercantilism, but had little success because of Russia's lack of a large merchant class or an industrial base. Mercantilism also fueled the intense violence of the 17th and 18th centuries in Europe. Since the level of world trade was viewed as fixed, it followed that the only way to increase a nation's trade was to take it from another. A number of wars, most notably the Anglo-Dutch Wars and the Franco-Dutch Wars, can be linked directly to mercantilist theories. The unending warfare of this period also reinforced mercantilism as it was seen as an essential component to military success. It also fueled the imperialism of this era, as each nation that was able attempted to seize colonies that would be sources of raw materials and exclusive markets. During the mercantilist period, European power spread around the globe. As with the domestic economy this expansion was often conducted under the aegis of companies with government-guaranteed monopolies in a certain part of the world, such as the Dutch East India Company or the Hudson's Bay Company (operating in present-day Canada). Criticisms Much of Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations is an attack on mercantilism Adam Smith and David Hume are considered to be the founding fathers of anti-mercantilist thought. A number of scholars found important flaws with mercantilism long before Adam Smith developed an ideology that could fully replace it. Critics like Hume, Dudley North, and John Locke undermined much of mercantilism, and it steadily lost favor during the 18th century. In 1690, John Locke made perfectly clear that prices vary in proportion to the quantity of money, but in general, the mercantilists did not put this together. Mercantilists failed to understand the notions of absolute advantage and comparative advantage (although this idea was only fully fleshed out in 1817 by David Ricardo) and the benefits of trade. For instance, suppose Portugal was a more efficient producer of both wine and cloth than England, yet in England it was relatively cheaper to produce cloth compared to wine. Thus if Portugal specialized in wine and England in cloth, both states would end up better off if they traded. This is an example of the reciprocal benefits of trade due to a comparative advantage. In modern economic theory, trade is not a zero-sum game of cutthroat competition, because both sides can benefit (rather, it is an iterated prisoner's dilemma). By imposing mercantilist import restrictions and tariffs instead, both nations ended up poorer. Hume famously noted the impossibility of the mercantilists' goal of a constant positive balance of trade. As bullion flowed into one country, the supply would increase and the value of bullion in that state would steadily decline relative to other goods. Conversely, in the state exporting bullion, its value would slowly rise. Eventually it would no longer be cost-effective to export goods from the high-price country to the low-price country, and the balance of trade would reverse itself. Mercantilists fundamentally misunderstood this, long arguing that an increase in the money supply simply meant that everyone gets richer. Ekelund & Hébert (1975), p. 43. The importance placed on bullion was also a central target, even if many mercantilists had themselves begun to de-emphasize the importance of gold and silver. Adam Smith noted at the core of the mercantile system was the "popular folly of confusing wealth with money," bullion was just the same as any other commodity, and there was no reason to give it special treatment. Magnussen (2003), p.46. More recently, scholars have discounted the accuracy of this critique. They believe Mun and Misselden were not making this mistake in the 1620s, and point to their followers Child and Davenant, who, in 1699, wrote: "Gold and Silver are indeed the Measure of Trade, but that the Spring and Original of it, in all nations is the Natural or Artificial Product of the Country; that is to say, what this Land or what this Labour and Industry Produces." Referenced to Davenant, 1771 [1699], p. 171 in Magnussen (2003), p. 53. The critique that mercantilism was a form of rent-seeking has also seen criticism, as scholars such Jacob Viner in the 1930s point out that merchant mercantilists such as Mun understood that they would not gain by higher prices for English wares abroad. Magnussen (2003), p. 54. The first school to completely reject mercantilism was the physiocrats, who developed their theories in France. Their theories also had several important problems, and the replacement of mercantilism did not come until Adam Smith published The Wealth of Nations in 1776. This book outlines the basics of what is today known as classical economics. Smith spends a considerable portion of the book rebutting the arguments of the mercantilists, though often these are simplified or exaggerated versions of mercantilist thought. Niehans (1990), p. 19. Scholars are also divided over the cause of mercantilism's end. Those who believe the theory was simply an error hold that its replacement was inevitable as soon as Smith's more accurate ideas were unveiled. Those who feel that mercantilism was rent seeking hold that it ended only when major power shifts occurred. In Britain, mercantilism faded as the Parliament gained the monarch's power to grant monopolies. While the wealthy capitalists who controlled the House of Commons benefited from these monopolies, Parliament found it difficult to implement them because of the high cost of group decision making. Ekelund & Tollison (1981). Mercantilist regulations were steadily removed over the course of the Eighteenth Century in Britain, and during the 19th century the British government fully embraced free trade and Smith's laissez-faire economics. On the continent, the process was somewhat different. In France economic control remained in the hands of the royal family and mercantilism continued until the French Revolution. In Germany mercantilism remained an important ideology in the 19th and early 20th centuries, when the historical school of economics was paramount. Wilson (1963), p. 6. Legacy In spite of Adam Smith's repudiation of mercantilism, it was favored in the United States by such prominent figures as Alexander Hamilton , Henry Clay, Henry Charles Carey, and Abraham Lincoln and in Britain by such figures as Thomas Malthus. When Britain passed its Corn Laws in 1815, Malthus thought such restrictions were a good idea, but Ricardo disagreed. Eventually Smith's view was accepted in the English-speaking world, and in 1849 the corn laws were repealed largely on "Free Market" arguments given by Sir Robert Peel. Adam Smith rejected the mercantilist focus on production, arguing that consumption was the only way to grow an economy. Keynes argued that encouraging production was just as important as consumption. Keynes also noted that in the early modern period the focus on the bullion supplies was reasonable. In an era before paper money, an increase for bullion was one of the few ways to increase the money supply. Keynes and other economists of the period also realized the balance of payments is an important concern. Since the 1930s, all nations have closely monitored the inflow and outflow of capital, and most economists agree that a favorable balance of trade is desirable. Keynes also adopted the essential idea of mercantilism that government intervention in the economy is a necessity. See Donald Markwell (2006), John Maynard Keynes and International Relations: Economic Paths to War and Peace, Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press. While Keynes' economic theories have had a major impact, few have accepted his effort to rehabilitate the word mercantilism. Today the word remains a pejorative term, often used to attack various forms of protectionism. Wilson (1963), p. 3. The similarities between Keynesianism, and its successor ideas, with mercantilism have sometimes led critics to call them neo-mercantilism. Some other systems that do copy several mercantilist policies, such as Japan's economic system, are also sometimes called neo-mercantilist. In an essay appearing in the 14 May 2007 issue of Newsweek, economist Robert J. Samuelson argued that China was pursuing an essentially mercantilist trade policy that threatened to undermine the post-World War II international economic structure. The Austrian School of economics, always an opponent of mercantilism, describes it this way: One area Smith was reversed on well before Keynes was in the use of data. Mercantilists, who were generally merchants or government officials, gathered vast amounts of trade data and used it considerably in their research and writing. William Petty, a strong mercantilist, is generally credited with being the first to use empirical analysis to study the economy. Smith rejected this, arguing that deductive reasoning from base principles was the proper method to discover economic truths. Today, many schools of economics accept that both methods are important, the Austrian School being a notable exception. In specific instances, protectionist mercantilist policies also had an important and positive impact on the state that enacted them. Adam Smith himself, for instance, praised the Navigation Acts as they greatly expanded the British merchant fleet, and played a central role in turning Britain into the naval and economic superpower that it was for several centuries. Hansen, p. 64. Some economists thus feel that protecting infant industries, while causing short term harm, can be beneficial in the long term. Nonetheless, The Wealth of Nations had a profound impact on the end of the mercantilist era and the later adoption of free market policy. By 1860, England removed the last vestiges of the mercantile era. Industrial regulations, monopolies and tariffs were withdrawn. Mercantilism today Despite common assertions that the world system is neo liberal, some have challenged this, arguing that the current system does not represent a 'positive sum' game in which all benefit. In fact, disparities of wealth and power have been exacerbated rather than allieviated by current financial practices and institutions. In response to this situation, the term 'Structural Mercantilism' Gee, T, The World System is not Neo Liberal: The Emergence of Structural Mercantilism, Critique, Volume 37, Issue 2 May 2009 , pages 253 - 259 has been developed to describe the institutional and ideational structures percieved to have been built by, and in the interests of, rich countries and corporations. References Bibliography Further reading Rothbard, Murray N. Economic Thought Before Adam Smith. An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought. Volume I Rothbard, Murray N. Classical Economics. An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought. Volume II External links Thomas Mun's Englands Treasure by Forraign Trade Book IV of The Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith's attack on the Mercantile System Mercantilism List of references be-x-old:Мэркантылізм | Mercantilism |@lemmatized painting:1 french:8 seaport:1 height:3 mercantilism:57 economic:25 theory:10 hold:4 prosperity:1 nation:16 dependent:1 upon:3 supply:7 capital:3 global:1 volume:5 international:6 trade:34 unchangeable:1 asset:1 represent:3 bullion:10 gold:6 silver:6 value:4 state:12 best:5 increase:10 positive:4 balance:6 export:12 minus:1 import:12 suggest:1 ruling:1 government:15 advance:1 goal:4 play:2 protectionist:4 role:2 economy:19 encourage:6 discourage:3 notably:3 use:11 tariff:6 subsidy:1 dominant:6 school:10 thought:6 throughout:2 early:8 modern:7 period:11 century:16 domestically:1 lead:7 first:4 instance:4 significant:1 intervention:2 control:9 much:6 capitalist:2 system:19 establish:1 internationally:1 many:7 european:9 fuel:3 imperialism:3 belief:1 begin:2 fade:2 late:2 argument:3 adam:13 smith:23 classical:4 economist:8 win:1 today:6 whole:1 reject:5 though:2 element:1 look:1 favorably:1 non:2 write:2 generally:4 consider:3 mercantilists:16 however:3 term:6 initially:1 solely:1 critic:3 mirabeau:1 quickly:1 adopt:3 historian:1 originally:1 standard:1 english:7 mercantile:6 word:3 introduce:2 german:2 bulk:1 commonly:1 call:6 mercantilist:35 literature:1 appear:2 great:4 britain:10 magnusson:3 p:21 saw:4 merchant:14 thomas:4 mun:6 major:7 creator:1 especially:3 posthumously:1 publish:3 treasure:2 foreign:6 archetype:1 manifesto:1 movement:2 perhaps:2 last:2 work:6 james:1 steuart:1 principle:2 political:1 beyond:2 england:10 italy:2 france:9 spain:4 note:5 writer:9 theme:2 indeed:2 example:2 outside:1 giovanni:1 botero:1 antonio:1 serra:1 colbert:6 precursor:1 physiocrats:2 salamanca:1 francisco:1 de:5 vitoria:1 domingo:1 soto:1 martin:1 azpilcueta:1 luis:1 molina:1 also:19 exist:1 historical:2 list:2 well:3 follower:2 american:2 british:7 free:5 thus:8 stretch:1 nineteenth:1 include:1 misselden:3 country:10 public:1 official:3 way:5 understand:3 wealth:7 power:10 viewpoint:1 wide:2 range:1 matter:1 venice:1 austrian:5 lawyer:1 scholar:9 philipp:1 wilhelm:1 von:2 hornick:2 austria:1 detail:1 nine:1 point:3 program:1 deem:1 effective:2 national:1 sum:5 tenet:1 comprehensively:1 every:1 inch:1 soil:1 utilize:1 agriculture:1 mining:1 manufacturing:1 raw:7 material:7 find:4 domestic:9 manufacture:2 since:3 finish:2 good:10 high:5 large:2 population:2 prohibit:1 money:9 keep:1 circulation:1 possible:3 certain:4 indispensable:1 obtain:1 hand:2 exchange:2 instead:2 confine:1 home:2 opportunity:1 constantly:1 seek:5 sell:1 surplus:1 foreigner:1 far:3 necessary:2 importation:2 allow:2 food:1 sufficiently:1 suitably:1 present:2 overarching:1 scheme:1 ideal:1 would:11 later:3 laissez:2 faire:2 economics:9 rather:5 tend:1 focus:6 single:1 area:2 landreth:4 colander:4 integrate:2 diverse:1 idea:11 completely:3 argue:9 give:5 false:1 unity:1 disparate:1 event:1 enormous:1 conspiracy:1 manufacturer:1 consumer:1 view:6 author:1 robert:6 e:3 ekelund:7 tollison:3 rent:4 society:1 extent:2 doctrine:2 make:5 general:2 impossible:1 zero:3 game:4 gain:3 one:10 party:1 require:1 loss:1 another:4 policy:20 benefit:8 group:3 definition:1 harm:3 possibility:1 maximize:3 commonwealth:1 common:6 writing:2 create:2 rationalize:1 particular:1 practice:2 investigation:1 fragmented:1 portrayed:1 supportive:1 strict:1 disagree:1 era:6 letter:1 patent:1 imposed:1 monopoly:8 support:2 others:1 acknowledge:1 corruption:1 inefficiency:1 realize:2 inevitable:2 result:2 quota:1 price:7 ceiling:1 black:1 market:5 notion:3 widely:1 agree:2 need:1 oppression:1 working:1 laborer:1 farmer:1 live:1 margin:1 subsistence:1 production:4 concern:2 consumption:3 extra:1 time:3 education:1 low:2 class:2 see:5 inevitably:1 vice:1 laziness:1 hébert:3 cause:4 divide:3 ideology:4 two:1 half:1 jacob:2 viner:2 simply:4 straightforward:1 sense:1 whose:1 logical:1 fallacy:1 could:3 discover:2 people:1 lack:3 required:1 analytical:1 tool:1 second:1 b:1 contend:1 mistake:2 develop:7 enforce:1 greatly:2 enforced:1 ban:3 competition:3 poverty:1 worker:1 payment:2 whereas:1 often:6 academic:1 philosopher:1 almost:1 niehans:2 third:1 explanation:1 monetary:1 pay:1 asia:1 reduce:2 put:3 downward:1 pressure:1 activity:2 evidence:1 hypothesis:1 inflation:1 revolutionary:1 napoleonic:1 war:8 paper:2 extensively:1 transition:1 isolated:1 feudal:1 estate:1 replace:3 centralized:1 technological:1 change:2 shipping:1 growth:1 urban:1 center:3 rapid:1 aid:1 important:11 introduction:1 double:1 entry:1 bookkeeping:1 accounting:2 extremely:1 clear:2 inflow:2 outflow:2 contribute:1 close:1 scrutiny:1 wilson:4 course:2 impact:5 discovery:1 america:1 cannot:1 ignore:1 new:3 mine:1 propel:1 previously:1 inconceivable:1 latter:1 upward:1 prior:1 europe:8 medieval:2 scholastic:1 theorist:1 thinker:1 compatible:1 christian:2 piety:1 justice:1 mainly:2 microeconomics:1 local:1 individual:1 closely:3 align:1 worldview:1 adoption:2 machiavellian:1 realpolitik:1 primacy:1 raison:1 état:1 relation:2 side:2 try:1 ruthless:1 hobbes:1 dark:1 human:1 nature:2 fit:1 puritan:1 world:8 stridently:1 legislation:1 navigation:3 act:3 enact:4 oliver:1 cromwell:1 finance:2 minister:2 jean:2 baptiste:2 serve:1 year:4 embrace:5 degree:2 police:1 arise:1 soon:2 monarchy:1 become:5 force:1 politics:1 decree:1 woolen:1 part:2 flanders:1 next:1 number:3 restriction:3 impose:3 hermann:1 kellenbenz:1 rise:2 pg:5 rest:1 sixteenth:1 measure:2 associate:1 sometimes:3 colbertism:1 deeply:1 involve:1 order:1 limited:1 favored:1 industry:4 organize:1 guild:1 regulate:1 series:1 thousand:1 directives:1 outline:2 different:2 product:2 produce:4 artisan:1 craftsman:1 decrease:1 internal:2 barrier:1 build:2 extensive:2 network:1 road:1 canal:1 quite:1 successful:2 industrial:3 output:1 grow:2 considerably:2 less:2 turn:3 trading:1 netherlands:2 remain:4 supreme:1 field:1 n:3 williams:1 ancien:1 regime:1 reach:1 peak:1 long:5 parliament:4 tudor:1 stuart:1 walpole:1 proponent:2 continent:2 limit:1 law:3 steadily:4 damsgaard:1 hansen:2 history:3 civil:1 controversial:1 christopher:1 hill:1 revolution:3 whether:1 take:2 form:3 effort:2 array:1 regulation:4 place:3 bounty:1 expel:1 aggressively:1 sought:1 colony:5 friction:1 inhabitant:1 effect:1 help:2 trader:2 superpower:2 lasting:1 conversion:1 waste:1 land:3 agricultural:1 felt:1 resource:1 utmost:1 project:1 like:2 draining:1 fen:1 pattern:1 triangular:1 north:2 atlantic:1 metropolis:1 process:2 redistribute:1 vary:2 financial:2 efficient:2 little:3 interest:2 restrict:1 prominent:2 central:3 scandinavia:1 thirty:1 christina:1 sweden:1 iv:2 denmark:1 notable:2 habsburg:1 holy:1 roman:1 emperor:1 interested:1 vast:2 decentralized:1 empire:2 implement:2 difficult:2 constituent:1 prussia:1 frederick:1 rigidly:1 controlled:1 collapse:1 seventeenth:1 coherent:1 philip:1 v:1 success:3 russia:2 peter:2 attempt:1 pursue:2 base:2 intense:1 violence:1 level:1 fixed:1 follow:1 anglo:1 dutch:3 franco:1 link:2 directly:1 unending:1 warfare:1 reinforce:1 essential:2 component:1 military:1 able:1 attempted:1 seize:1 source:1 exclusive:1 spread:1 around:1 globe:1 expansion:1 conduct:1 aegis:1 company:3 guaranteed:1 east:1 india:1 hudson:1 bay:1 operate:1 day:1 canada:1 criticism:2 attack:3 david:2 hume:3 founding:1 father:1 anti:1 flaw:1 fully:3 dudley:1 john:3 locke:2 undermine:2 lose:1 favor:2 perfectly:1 proportion:1 quantity:1 together:1 fail:1 absolute:1 advantage:3 comparative:2 although:1 flesh:1 ricardo:2 suppose:1 portugal:2 producer:1 wine:3 cloth:3 yet:1 relatively:1 cheap:1 compare:1 specialize:1 end:5 reciprocal:1 due:1 cutthroat:1 iterated:1 prisoner:1 dilemma:1 poorer:1 famously:1 impossibility:1 constant:1 flow:1 decline:1 relative:1 conversely:1 slowly:1 eventually:2 longer:1 cost:2 reverse:2 fundamentally:1 misunderstand:1 mean:1 everyone:1 get:1 rich:2 importance:2 target:1 even:1 emphasize:1 core:1 popular:1 folly:1 confuse:1 commodity:1 reason:1 special:1 treatment:1 magnussen:3 recently:1 discount:1 accuracy:1 critique:3 believe:2 child:1 davenant:2 spring:1 original:1 natural:1 artificial:1 say:1 labour:1 reference:3 ware:1 abroad:1 several:3 problem:1 replacement:2 come:1 book:3 basic:1 know:1 spend:1 considerable:1 portion:1 rebut:1 simplify:1 exaggerated:1 version:1 error:1 accurate:1 unveiled:1 feel:2 shift:1 occur:1 monarch:1 grant:1 wealthy:1 house:1 decision:1 making:1 remove:2 eighteenth:1 somewhat:1 royal:1 family:1 continue:1 germany:1 paramount:1 legacy:1 spite:1 repudiation:1 united:1 figure:2 alexander:1 hamilton:1 henry:2 clay:1 charles:1 carey:1 abraham:1 lincoln:1 malthus:2 pass:1 corn:2 think:1 disagreed:1 accept:3 speaking:1 repeal:1 largely:1 sir:1 peel:1 keynes:7 reasonable:1 monitor:1 favorable:1 desirable:1 necessity:1 donald:1 markwell:1 maynard:1 path:1 peace:1 oxford:2 york:1 university:1 press:1 rehabilitate:1 pejorative:1 various:1 protectionism:1 similarity:1 keynesianism:1 successor:1 neo:4 copy:1 japan:1 essay:1 may:2 issue:2 newsweek:1 j:1 samuelson:1 china:1 essentially:1 threaten:1 post:1 ii:2 structure:2 always:1 opponent:1 describe:2 data:2 gather:1 amount:1 research:1 william:1 petty:1 strong:1 credit:1 empirical:1 analysis:1 study:1 deductive:1 reasoning:1 proper:1 method:2 truth:1 exception:1 specific:1 praise:1 expand:1 fleet:1 naval:1 protect:1 infant:1 short:1 beneficial:1 nonetheless:1 profound:1 vestige:1 withdraw:1 despite:1 assertion:1 liberal:2 challenge:1 current:2 fact:1 disparity:1 exacerbate:1 allieviated:1 institution:1 response:1 situation:1 structural:2 gee:1 emergence:1 page:1 institutional:1 ideational:1 percieved:1 corporation:1 bibliography:1 reading:1 rothbard:2 murray:2 perspective:2 external:1 forraign:1 x:1 old:1 мэркантылізм:1 |@bigram gold_silver:6 de_soto:1 nineteenth_century:1 raw_material:7 laissez_faire:2 jacob_viner:2 logical_fallacy:1 mercantilist_policy:9 entry_bookkeeping:1 raison_état:1 thomas_hobbes:1 oliver_cromwell:1 jean_baptiste:2 baptiste_colbert:2 ancien_regime:1 hudson_bay:1 david_hume:1 iterated_prisoner:1 prisoner_dilemma:1 decision_making:1 abraham_lincoln:1 thomas_malthus:1 balance_payment:1 maynard_keynes:1 deductive_reasoning:1 rothbard_murray:2 external_link:1 |
1,651 | Infrared | Image of two human bodies in mid-infrared ("thermal") light (false-color) Infrared (IR) radiation is electromagnetic radiation whose wavelength is longer than that of visible light (400-700 nm), but shorter than that of terahertz radiation (100 µm - 1 mm) and microwaves (~30,000 µm). Infrared radiation spans roughly three orders of magnitude (750 nm and 100 µm). Direct sunlight has a luminous efficacy of about 93 lumens per watt of radiant flux, which includes infrared (47% share of the spectrum), visible (46%), and ultra-violet (only 6%) light. Bright sunlight provides luminance of approximately 100,000 candela per square meter at the Earth's surface. Overview Infrared imaging is used extensively for both military and civilian purposes. Military applications include target acquisition, surveillance, night vision, homing and tracking. Non-military uses include thermal efficiency analysis, remote temperature sensing, short-ranged wireless communication, spectroscopy, and weather forecasting.. Infrared astronomy uses sensor-equipped telescopes to penetrate dusty regions of space, such as molecular clouds; detect cool objects such as planets, and to view highly red-shifted objects from the early days of the universe. Humans at normal body temperature radiate chiefly at wavelengths around 10μm (micrometers). At the atomic level, infrared energy elicits vibrational modes in a molecule through a change in the dipole moment, making it a useful frequency range for study of these energy states. Infrared spectroscopy examines absorption and transmission of photons in the infrared energy range, based on their frequency and intensity. Origins of the term The name means below red (from the Latin infra, "below"), red being the color of the longest wavelengths of visible light. IR light has a longer wavelength (a lower frequency) than that of red light, hence below. Different regions in the infrared Objects generally emit infrared radiation across a spectrum of wavelengths, but only a specific region of the spectrum is of interest because sensors are usually designed only to collect radiation within a specific bandwidth. As a result, the infrared band is often subdivided into smaller sections. CIE division scheme The International Commission on Illumination (CIE) recommended the division of optical radiation into the following three bands: IR-A: 700 nm–1400 nm IR-B: 1400 nm–3000 nm IR-C: 3000 nm–1 mm A commonly used sub-division scheme is: Near-infrared (NIR, IR-A ): 0.75-1.4 µm in wavelength, defined by the water absorption, and commonly used in fiber optic telecommunication because of low attenuation losses in the SiO2 glass (silica) medium. Image intensifiers are sensitive to this area of the spectrum. Examples include night vision devices such as night vision goggles. Short-wavelength infrared (SWIR, IR-B DIN): 1.4-3 µm, water absorption increases significantly at 1,450 nm. The 1,530 to 1,560 nm range is the dominant spectral region for long-distance telecommunications. Mid-wavelength infrared (MWIR, IR-C DIN) also called intermediate infrared (IIR): 3-8 µm. In guided missile technology the 3-5 µm portion of this band is the atmospheric window in which the homing heads of passive IR 'heat seeking' missiles are designed to work, homing on to the IR signature of the target aircraft, typically the jet engine exhaust plume. Long-wavelength infrared (LWIR, IR-C DIN): 8–15 µm. This is the "thermal imaging" region, in which sensors can obtain a completely passive picture of the outside world based on thermal emissions only and requiring no external light or thermal source such as the sun, moon or infrared illuminator. Forward-looking infrared (FLIR) systems use this area of the spectrum. Sometimes also called the "far infrared." Far infrared (FIR): 15-1,000 µm (see also far infrared laser). NIR and SWIR is sometimes called "reflected infrared" while MWIR and LWIR is sometimes referred to as "thermal infrared." Due to the nature of the blackbody radiation curves, typical 'hot' objects, such as exhaust pipes, often appear brighter in the MW compared to the same object viewed in the LW. Astronomy division scheme Astronomers typically divide the infrared spectrum as follows: Near: (0.7-1) to 5 µm Mid: 5 to (25-40) µm Long: (25-40) to (200-350) µm These divisions are not precise and can vary depending on the publication. The three regions are used for observation of different temperature ranges, and hence different environments in space. Sensor response division scheme Plot of atmospheric transmittance in part of the infrared region. A third scheme divides up the band based on the response of various detectors: Miller, Principles of Infrared Technology (Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1992), and Miller and Friedman, Photonic Rules of Thumb, 2004. ISBN 9780442012106 Near infrared: from 0.7 to 1.0 micrometers (from the approximate end of the response of the human eye to that of silicon). Short-wave infrared: 1.0 to 3 micrometers (from the cut off of silicon to that of the MWIR atmospheric window. InGaAs covers to about 1.8 micrometers; the less sensitive lead salts cover this region. Mid-wave infrared: 3 to 5 micrometers (defined by the atmospheric window and covered by Indium antimonide [InSb] and HgCdTe and partially by lead selenide [PbSe]). Long-wave infrared: 8 to 12, or 7 to 14 micrometers: the atmospheric window (Covered by HgCdTe and microbolometers). Very-long wave infrared (VLWIR): 12 to about 30 micrometers, covered by doped silicon. These divisions are justified by the different human response to this radiation: near infrared is the region closest in wavelength to the radiation detectable by the human eye, mid and far infrared are progressively further from the visible regime. Other definitions follow different physical mechanisms (emission peaks, vs. bands, water absorption) and the newest follow technical reasons (The common silicon detectors are sensitive to about 1,050 nm, while InGaAs' sensitivity starts around 950 nm and ends between 1,700 and 2,600 nm, depending on the specific configuration). Unfortunately, international standards for these specifications are not currently available. The boundary between visible and infrared light is not precisely defined. The human eye is markedly less sensitive to light above 700 nm wavelength, so shorter frequencies make insignificant contributions to scenes illuminated by common light sources. But particularly intense light (e.g., from lasers, or from bright daylight with the visible light removed by colored gels) can be detected up to approximately 780 nm, and will be perceived as red light. The onset of infrared is defined (according to different standards) at various values typically between 700 nm and 800 nm. Telecommunication bands in the infrared In optical communications, the part of the infrared spectrum that is used is divided into several bands based on availability of light sources, transmitting/absorbing materials (fibers) and detectors: BandDescriptorWavelength rangeO bandOriginal1260–1360 nmE bandExtended1360–1460 nmS bandShort wavelength1460–1530 nmC bandConventional1530–1565 nmL bandLong wavelength1565–1625 nmU bandUltralong wavelength1625–1675 nm The C-band is the dominant band for long-distance telecommunication networks. The S and L bands are based on less well established technology, and are not as widely deployed. Heat Infrared radiation is popularly known as "heat" or sometimes "heat radiation", since many people attribute all radiant heating to infrared light and/or to all infrared radiation to being a result of heating. This is a widespread misconception, since light and electromagnetic waves of any frequency will heat surfaces that absorb them. Infrared light from the Sun only accounts for 49% of the heating of the Earth, with the rest being caused by visible light that is absorbed then re-radiated at longer wavelengths. Visible light or ultraviolet-emitting lasers can char paper and incandescently hot objects emit visible radiation. It is true that objects at room temperature will emit radiation mostly concentrated in the 8 to 25 micrometer band, but this is not distinct from the emission of visible light by incandescent objects and ultraviolet by even hotter objects (see black body and Wien's displacement law). Heat is energy in transient form that flows due to temperature difference. Unlike heat transmitted by thermal conduction or thermal convection, radiation can propagate through a vacuum. The concept of emissivity is important in understanding the infrared emissions of objects. This is a property of a surface which describes how its thermal emissions deviate from the ideal of a black body. To further explain, two objects at the same physical temperature will not 'appear' the same temperature in an infrared image if they have differing emissivities. Applications Infrared filters Infrared (IR) filters can be made from many different materials. One type is made of polysulphone plastic that blocks over 99% of the visible light spectrum from “white” light sources such as incandescent filament bulbs. Infrared filters allow a maximum of infrared output while maintaining extreme covertness. Currently in use around the world, infrared filters are used in Military, Law Enforcement, Industrial and Commercial applications. The unique makeup of the plastic allows for maximum durability and heat resistance. IR filters provide a more cost effective and time efficient solution over the standard bulb replacement alternative. All generations of night vision devices are greatly enhanced with the use of IR filters. Night vision Active-infrared night vision. Despite a dark back-lit scene, active-infrared night vision delivers identifying details, as seen on the display monitor. Infrared is used in night vision equipment when there is insufficient visible light to see. Night vision devices operate through a process involving the conversion of ambient light photons into electrons which are then amplified by a chemical and electrical process and then converted back into visible light. Infrared light sources can be used to augment the available ambient light for conversion by night vision devices, increasing in-the-dark visibility without actually using a visible light source. The use of infrared light and night vision devices should not be confused with thermal imaging which creates images based on differences in surface temperature by detecting infrared radiation (heat) that emanates from objects and their surrounding environment Thermography A thermographic image of a dog Infrared radiation can be used to remotely determine the temperature of objects (if the emissivity is known). This is termed thermography, or in the case of very hot objects in the NIR or visible it is termed pyrometry. Thermography (thermal imaging) is mainly used in military and industrial applications but the technology is reaching the public market in the form of infrared cameras on cars due to the massively reduced production costs. Thermographic cameras detect radiation in the infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum (roughly 900–14,000 nanometers or 0.9–14 µm) and produce images of that radiation. Since infrared radiation is emitted by all objects based on their temperatures, according to the black body radiation law, thermography makes it possible to "see" one's environment with or without visible illumination. The amount of radiation emitted by an object increases with temperature, therefore thermography allows one to see variations in temperature (hence the name). Other imaging Infrared light from the LED of an XBox 360 remote control as seen by a digital camera. In infrared photography, infrared filters are used to capture the near-infrared spectrum. Digital cameras often use infrared blockers. Cheaper digital cameras and camera phones have less effective filters and can "see" intense near-infrared, appearing as a bright purple-white color. This is especially pronounced when taking pictures of subjects near IR-bright areas (such as near a lamp), where the resulting infrared interference can wash out the image. There is also a technique called 'T-ray' imaging, which is imaging using far infrared or terahertz radiation. Lack of bright sources makes terahertz photography technically more challenging than most other infrared imaging techniques. Recently T-ray imaging has been of considerable interest due to a number of new developments such as terahertz time-domain spectroscopy. Tracking Infrared tracking, also known as infrared homing, refers to a passive missile guidance system which uses the emission from a target of electromagnetic radiation in the infrared part of the spectrum to track it. Missiles which use infrared seeking are often referred to as "heat-seekers", since infrared (IR) is just below the visible spectrum of light in frequency and is radiated strongly by hot bodies. Many objects such as people, vehicle engines and aircraft generate and retain heat,and as such, are especially visible in the infra-red wavelengths of light compared to objects in the background. Heating Infrared radiation can be used as a deliberate heating source. For example it is used in infrared saunas to heat the occupants, and also to remove ice from the wings of aircraft (de-icing). FIR is also gaining popularity as a safe method of natural health care & physiotherapy. Far infrared thermomedic therapy garments use thermal technology to provide compressive support and healing warmth to assist symptom control for arthritis, injury & pain. Infrared can be used in cooking and heating food as it predominantly heats the opaque, absorbent objects, rather than the air around them. Infrared heating is also becoming more popular in industrial manufacturing processes, e.g. curing of coatings, forming of plastics, annealing, plastic welding, print drying. In these applications, infrared heaters replace convection ovens and contact heating. Efficiency is achieved by matching the wavelength of the infrared heater to the absorption characteristics of the material. Communications IR data transmission is also employed in short-range communication among computer peripherals and personal digital assistants. These devices usually conform to standards published by IrDA, the Infrared Data Association. Remote controls and IrDA devices use infrared light-emitting diodes (LEDs) to emit infrared radiation which is focused by a plastic lens into a narrow beam. The beam is modulated, i.e. switched on and off, to encode the data. The receiver uses a silicon photodiode to convert the infrared radiation to an electric current. It responds only to the rapidly pulsing signal created by the transmitter, and filters out slowly changing infrared radiation from ambient light. Infrared communications are useful for indoor use in areas of high population density. IR does not penetrate walls and so does not interfere with other devices in adjoining rooms. Infrared is the most common way for remote controls to command appliances. Free space optical communication using infrared lasers can be a relatively inexpensive way to install a communications link in an urban area operating at up to 4 gigabit/s, compared to the cost of burying fiber optic cable. Infrared lasers are used to provide the light for optical fiber communications systems. Infrared light with a wavelength around 1,330 nm (least dispersion) or 1,550 nm (best transmission) are the best choices for standard silica fibers. IR data transmission of encoded audio versions of printed signs is being researched as an aid for visually impaired people through the RIAS (Remote Infrared Audible Signage) project. Spectroscopy Infrared vibrational spectroscopy (see also near infrared spectroscopy) is a technique which can be used to identify molecules by analysis of their constituent bonds. Each chemical bond in a molecule vibrates at a frequency which is characteristic of that bond. A group of atoms in a molecule (e.g. CH2) may have multiple modes of oscillation caused by the stretching and bending motions of the group as a whole. If an oscillation leads to a change in dipole in the molecule, then it will absorb a photon which has the same frequency. The vibrational frequencies of most molecules correspond to the frequencies of infrared light. Typically, the technique is used to study organic compounds using light radiation from 4000-400 cm-1, the mid-infrared. A spectrum of all the frequencies of absorption in a sample is recorded. This can be used to gain information about the sample composition in terms of chemical groups present and also its purity (for example a wet sample will show a broad O-H absorption around 3200 cm-1). Meteorology IR Satellite picture taken 1315 Z on 15th October 2006. A frontal system can be seen in the Gulf of Mexico with embedded Cumulonimbus cloud. Shallower Cumulus and Stratocumulus can be seen off the Eastern Seaboard. Weather satellites equipped with scanning radiometers produce thermal or infrared images which can then enable a trained analyst to determine cloud heights and types, to calculate land and surface water temperatures, and to locate ocean surface features. The scanning is typically in the range 10.3-12.5 µm (IR4 and IR5 channels). High, cold ice cloud such as Cirrus or Cumulonimbus show up bright white, lower warmer cloud such as Stratus or Stratocumulus show up as grey with intermediate clouds shaded accordingly. Hot land surfaces will show up as dark grey or black. One disadvantage of infrared imagery is that low cloud such as stratus or fog can be a similar temperature to the surrounding land or sea surface and does not show up. However, using the difference in brightness of the IR4 channel (10.3-11.5 µm) and the near-infrared channel (1.58-1.64 µm), low cloud can be distinguished, producing a fog satellite picture. The main advantage of infrared is that images can be produced at night, allowing a continuous sequence of weather to be studied. These infrared pictures can depict ocean eddies or vortices and map currents such as the Gulf Stream which are valuable to the shipping industry. Fishermen and farmers are interested in knowing land and water temperatures to protect their crops against frost or increase their catch from the sea. Even El Niño phenomena can be spotted. Using color-digitized techniques, the gray shaded thermal images can be converted to color for easier identification of desired information. Climatology In the field of climatology, atmospheric infrared radiation is monitored to detect trends in the energy exchange between the earth and the atmosphere. These trends provide information on long term changes in the earth's climate. It is one of the primary parameters studied in research into global warming together with solar radiation. A pyrgeometer is utilized in this field of research to perform continuous outdoor measurements. This is a broadband infrared radiometer with sensitivity for infrared radiation between approximately 4.5 µm and 50 µm. Astronomy The Spitzer Space Telescope is a dedicated infrared space observatory currently in orbit around the Sun. (Note the black side to the telescope, to maximize infrared radiation.) NASA image. Astronomers observe objects in the infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum using optical components, including mirrors, lenses and solid state digital detectors. For this reason it is classified as part of optical astronomy. To form an image, the components of an infrared telescope need to be carefully shielded from heat sources, and the detectors are chilled using liquid helium. The sensitivity of Earth-based infrared telescopes is significantly limited by water vapor in the atmosphere, which absorbs a portion of the infrared radiation arriving from space outside of selected atmospheric windows. This limitation can be partially alleviated by placing the telescope observatory at a high altitude, or by carrying the telescope aloft with a balloon or an aircraft. Space telescopes do not suffer from this handicap, and so outer space is considered the ideal location for infrared astronomy. The infrared portion of the spectrum has several useful benefits for astronomers. Cold, dark molecular clouds of gas and dust in our galaxy will glow with radiated heat as they are irradiated by imbedded stars. Infrared can also be used to detect protostars before they begin to emit visible light. Stars emit a smaller portion of their energy in the infrared spectrum, so nearby cool objects such as planets can be more readily detected. (In the visible light spectrum, the glare from the star will drown out the reflected light from a planet.) Infrared light is also useful for observing the cores of active galaxies which are often cloaked in gas and dust. Distant galaxies with a high redshift will have the peak portion of their spectrum shifted toward longer wavelengths, so they are more readily observed in the infrared. Art history The Arnolfini Portrait by Jan van Eyck, National Gallery, London Infra-red reflectography, as called by art historians, are taken of paintings to reveal underlying layers, in particular the underdrawing or outline drawn by the artist as a guide. This often uses carbon black which shows up well in reflectograms, so long as it has not also been used in the ground underlying the whole painting. Art historians are looking to see if the visible layers of paint differ from the under-drawing or layers in between - such alterations are called pentimenti when made by the original artist. This is very useful information in deciding whether a painting is the prime version by the original artist or a copy, and whether it has been altered by over-enthusiastic restoration work. Generally the more pentimenti, the more likely a painting is to be the prime version. It also gives useful insights into working practices. Among many other changes in the Arnolfini Portrait of 1434 (right), his face was higher by about the height of his eye, hers was higher, and her eyes looked more to the front. Each of his feet was underdrawn in one position, painted in another, and then overpainted in a third. These alterations are seen in infra-red reflectograms. National Gallery Catalogues: The Fifteenth Century Netherlandish Paintings by Lorne Campbell, 1998, ISBN 185709171 Similar uses of infrared are made by historians on various types of objects, especially very old written documents such as the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Roman works in the Villa of the Papyri, and the Silk Road texts found in the Dunhuang Caves. International Dunhuang Project An Introduction to digital infrared photography and its application within IDP -paper pdf 6.4 MB Carbon black used in ink can show up extremely well. Biological systems Thermographic image of a snake eating a mouse Thermographic image of a fruit bat. The pitviper has a pair of infrared sensory pits on its head. There is uncertainty regarding the exact thermal sensitivity of this biological infrared detection system. Other organisms that have thermoreceptive organs are pythons (family Pythonidae), some boas (family Boidae), the Common Vampire Bat (Desmodus rotundus), a variety of jewel beetles (Melanophila acuminata), darkly pigmented butterflies (Pachliopta aristolochiae and Troides rhadamantus plateni), and possibly blood-sucking bugs (Triatoma infestans). Photobiomodulation Near infrared light, or photobiomodulation, is used for treatment of chemotherapy induced oral ulceration as well as wound healing. There is some work relating to anti herpes virus treatment. Hargate G. A randomised double-blind study comparing the effect of 1072-nm light against placebo for the treatment of herpes labialis. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2006 Sep;31(5):638-41.PMID 16780494 Research projects include work on central nervous system healing effects via cytochrome c oxidase upregulation and other possible mechanisms. Desmet KD, Paz DA, Corry JJ, Eells JT, Wong-Riley MT, Henry MM, Buchmann EV, Connelly MP, Dovi JV, Liang HL, Henshel DS, Yeager RL, Millsap DS, Lim J, Gould LJ, Das R, Jett M, Hodgson BD, Margolis D, Whelan HT. Clinical and experimental applications of NIR-LED photobiomodulation. Photomed Laser Surg. 2006 Apr;24(2):121-8. PMID 16706690 Health hazard Strong infrared radiation in certain industry high heat settings may constitute a health hazard to the eyes and the vision. More so, since the radiation is invisible. Therefore special IR proof protective eyeglasses must be worn in such places. The Earth as an infrared emitter The Earth's surface and the clouds absorb visible and invisible radiation from the sun and re-emit much of the energy as infrared back to the atmosphere. Certain substances in the atmosphere, chiefly cloud droplets and water vapor, but also carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulfur hexafluoride, and chlorofluorocarbons, absorb this infrared, and re-radiate it in all directions including back to Earth. Thus the greenhouse effect keeps the atmosphere and surface much warmer than if the infrared absorbers were absent from the atmosphere. History of infrared science The discovery of infrared radiation is ascribed to William Herschel, the astronomer, in the early 19th century. Herschel published his results in 1800 before the Royal Society of London. Herschel used a prism to refract light from the sun and detected the infrared, beyond the red part of the spectrum, through an increase in the temperature recorded on a thermometer. He was surprised at the result and called them "Calorific Rays". The term 'Infrared' did not appear until late in the 19th century. Herschel Discovers Infrared Light Other important dates include: 1835: Macedonio Melloni makes the first thermopile IR detector; 1860: Gustav Kirchhoff formulates the blackbody theorem ; 1873: Willoughby Smith discovers the photoconductivity of selenium; 1879: Stefan-Boltzmann law formulated empirically 1880s & 1890s: Lord Rayleigh and Wilhelm Wien both solve part of the blackbody equation, but both solutions are approximations that "blow up" out of their useful ranges. This problem was called the "UV Catastrophe and Infrared Catastrophe". 1901: Max Planck published the blackbody equation and theorem. He solved the problem by quantizing the allowable energy transitions. 1905: Albert Einstein develops the theory of the photoelectric effect, determining the photon. Also William Coblentz in spectroscopy and radiometry. 1917: Theodore Case develops thallous sulfide detector; British develop the first infra-red search and track (IRST) in World War I and detect aircraft at a range of one mile (1.6 km); 1935: Lead salts-early missile guidance in World War II; 1938: Teau Ta-predicted that the pyroelectric effect could be used to detect infrared radiation. 1952: H. Welker discovers InSb; 1950s: Paul Kruse (at Honeywell) and Texas Instruments form infrared images before 1955; 1950s and 1960s: Nomenclature and radiometric units defined by Fred Nicodemenus, G.J. Zissis and R. Clark, Jones defines D*; 1958: W.D. Lawson (Royal Radar Establishment in Malvern) discovers IR detection properties of HgCdTe; 1958: Falcon & Sidewinder missiles developed using infrared and the first textbook on infrared sensors appears by Paul Kruse, et al. 1961: J. Cooper demonstrated pyroelectric detection; 1962: Kruse and ? Rodat advance HgCdTe; Signal Element and Linear Arrays available; 1965: First IR Handbook; first commercial imagers (Barnes, Agema {now part of FLIR Systems Inc.}; Richard Hudson's landmark text; F4 TRAM FLIR by Hughes; phenomenology pioneered by Fred Simmons and A.T. Stair; U.S. Army's night vision lab formed (now Night Vision and Electronic Sensors Directorate (NVESD), and Rachets develops detection, recognition and identification modeling there; 1970: Willard Boyle & George E. Smith propose CCD at Bell Labs for picture phone; 1972: Common module program started by NVESD; 1978: Infrared imaging astronomy comes of age, observatories planned, IRTF on Mauna Kea opened; 32 by 32 and 64 by 64 arrays are produced in InSb, HgCdTe and other materials. See also References External links Infrared Physics & Technology Journal via ScienceDirect.com Infrared Spectroscopy NASA Open Spectrum wiki site Infrared Waves Detailed explanation of infrared light. Infrared a Historical Perspective | Infrared |@lemmatized image:20 two:2 human:6 body:6 mid:6 infrared:141 thermal:15 light:47 false:1 color:5 ir:24 radiation:40 electromagnetic:5 whose:1 wavelength:16 long:12 visible:22 nm:21 short:6 terahertz:4 µm:18 mm:3 microwave:1 span:1 roughly:2 three:3 order:1 magnitude:1 direct:1 sunlight:2 luminous:1 efficacy:1 lumen:1 per:2 watt:1 radiant:2 flux:1 include:8 share:1 spectrum:20 ultra:1 violet:1 bright:6 provide:5 luminance:1 approximately:3 candela:1 square:1 meter:1 earth:8 surface:10 overview:1 imaging:5 use:45 extensively:1 military:5 civilian:1 purpose:1 application:7 target:3 acquisition:1 surveillance:1 night:14 vision:14 home:3 track:4 non:1 us:3 efficiency:2 analysis:2 remote:5 temperature:16 sensing:1 range:10 wireless:1 communication:8 spectroscopy:8 weather:3 forecast:1 astronomy:6 sensor:6 equip:2 telescope:8 penetrate:2 dusty:1 region:9 space:8 molecular:2 cloud:11 detect:10 cool:2 object:22 planet:3 view:2 highly:1 red:10 shift:2 early:3 day:1 universe:1 normal:1 radiate:4 chiefly:2 around:7 micrometer:8 atomic:1 level:1 energy:8 elicits:1 vibrational:3 mode:2 molecule:6 change:5 dipole:2 moment:1 make:9 useful:7 frequency:11 study:5 state:2 examines:1 absorption:7 transmission:4 photon:4 base:8 intensity:1 origin:1 term:5 name:2 mean:1 latin:1 infra:5 longer:1 low:5 hence:3 different:7 generally:2 emit:11 across:1 specific:3 interest:2 usually:2 design:2 collect:1 within:2 bandwidth:1 result:4 band:11 often:6 subdivide:1 small:2 section:1 cie:2 division:7 scheme:5 international:3 commission:1 illumination:2 recommend:1 optical:6 following:1 b:2 c:5 commonly:2 sub:1 near:11 nir:4 define:5 water:7 fiber:5 optic:2 telecommunication:4 attenuation:1 loss:1 glass:1 silica:2 medium:1 intensifier:1 sensitive:4 area:5 example:3 device:8 goggles:1 swir:2 din:3 increase:5 significantly:2 dominant:2 spectral:1 distance:2 mwir:3 also:18 call:8 intermediate:2 iir:1 guided:1 missile:6 technology:6 portion:6 atmospheric:7 window:5 head:2 passive:3 heat:17 seek:2 work:6 signature:1 aircraft:5 typically:5 jet:1 engine:2 exhaust:2 plume:1 lwir:2 obtain:1 completely:1 picture:6 outside:2 world:4 emission:6 require:1 external:2 source:9 sun:5 moon:1 illuminator:1 forward:1 look:3 flir:3 system:8 sometimes:4 far:7 fir:2 see:14 laser:6 reflect:1 refer:2 due:4 nature:1 blackbody:4 curve:1 typical:1 hot:6 pipe:1 appear:5 brighter:1 mw:1 compare:4 lw:1 astronomer:4 divide:3 follow:3 precise:1 vary:1 depend:2 publication:1 observation:1 environment:3 response:4 plot:1 transmittance:1 part:7 third:2 various:3 detector:7 miller:2 principle:1 van:2 nostrand:1 reinhold:1 friedman:1 photonic:1 rule:1 thumb:1 isbn:2 approximate:1 end:2 eye:6 silicon:5 wave:6 cut:1 ingaas:2 cover:5 less:4 lead:6 salt:2 indium:1 antimonide:1 insb:3 hgcdte:5 partially:2 selenide:1 pbse:1 microbolometers:1 vlwir:1 doped:1 justify:1 closest:1 detectable:1 progressively:1 regime:1 definition:1 physical:2 mechanism:2 peak:2 v:1 new:2 technical:1 reason:2 common:5 sensitivity:4 start:2 configuration:1 unfortunately:1 standard:5 specification:1 currently:3 available:3 boundary:1 precisely:1 markedly:1 insignificant:1 contribution:1 scene:2 illuminate:1 particularly:1 intense:2 e:5 g:5 daylight:1 remove:2 colored:1 gel:1 perceive:1 onset:1 accord:2 value:1 several:2 availability:1 transmit:2 absorb:7 material:4 banddescriptorwavelength:1 rangeo:1 nme:1 bandshort:1 nmc:1 nml:1 bandlong:1 nmu:1 bandultralong:1 network:1 l:1 well:4 establish:1 widely:1 deploy:1 popularly:1 know:4 since:5 many:4 people:3 attribute:1 heating:7 widespread:1 misconception:1 account:1 rest:1 cause:2 ultraviolet:2 char:1 paper:2 incandescently:1 true:1 room:2 mostly:1 concentrate:1 distinct:1 incandescent:2 even:2 black:7 wien:2 displacement:1 law:4 transient:1 form:5 flow:1 difference:3 unlike:1 conduction:1 convection:2 propagate:1 vacuum:1 concept:1 emissivity:2 important:2 understand:1 property:2 describe:1 deviate:1 ideal:2 explain:1 differ:2 emissivities:1 filter:9 one:7 type:3 polysulphone:1 plastic:5 block:1 white:3 filament:1 bulb:2 allow:4 maximum:2 output:1 maintain:1 extreme:1 covertness:1 enforcement:1 industrial:3 commercial:2 unique:1 makeup:1 durability:1 resistance:1 cost:3 effective:2 time:2 efficient:1 solution:2 replacement:1 alternative:1 generation:1 greatly:1 enhance:1 active:3 despite:1 dark:4 back:4 lit:1 delivers:1 identify:2 detail:1 display:1 monitor:2 equipment:1 insufficient:1 operate:1 process:3 involve:1 conversion:2 ambient:3 electron:1 amplify:1 chemical:3 electrical:1 convert:3 augment:1 visibility:1 without:2 actually:1 confuse:1 create:2 emanate:1 surrounding:1 thermography:5 thermographic:4 dog:1 remotely:1 determine:3 case:2 termed:1 pyrometry:1 mainly:1 reach:1 public:1 market:1 camera:6 car:1 massively:1 reduced:1 production:1 nanometer:1 produce:5 possible:2 amount:1 therefore:2 variation:1 xbox:1 control:4 digital:6 photography:3 capture:1 blocker:1 cheap:1 phone:2 purple:1 especially:3 pronounce:1 take:3 subject:1 lamp:1 resulting:1 interference:1 wash:1 technique:5 ray:3 lack:1 technically:1 challenging:1 recently:1 considerable:1 number:1 development:1 domain:1 tracking:1 homing:1 refers:1 guidance:2 seeker:1 strongly:1 vehicle:1 generate:1 retain:1 background:1 deliberate:1 sauna:1 occupant:1 ice:3 wing:1 de:1 gain:2 popularity:1 safe:1 method:1 natural:1 health:3 care:1 physiotherapy:1 thermomedic:1 therapy:1 garment:1 compressive:1 support:1 heal:2 warmth:1 assist:1 symptom:1 arthritis:1 injury:1 pain:1 cooking:1 food:1 predominantly:1 opaque:1 absorbent:1 rather:1 air:1 become:1 popular:1 manufacturing:1 curing:1 coating:1 forming:1 anneal:1 welding:1 print:1 drying:1 heater:2 replace:1 oven:1 contact:1 achieve:1 match:1 characteristic:2 data:4 employ:1 among:2 computer:1 peripheral:1 personal:1 assistant:1 conform:1 publish:3 irda:2 association:1 diode:1 led:1 focus:1 lens:2 narrow:1 beam:2 modulate:1 switch:1 encode:1 receiver:1 photodiode:1 electric:1 current:2 respond:1 rapidly:1 pulsing:1 signal:2 transmitter:1 slowly:1 indoor:1 high:7 population:1 density:1 wall:1 interfere:1 adjoin:1 way:2 command:1 appliance:1 free:1 relatively:1 inexpensive:1 install:1 link:2 urban:1 operating:1 gigabit:1 bury:1 cable:1 least:1 dispersion:1 best:2 choice:1 encoded:1 audio:1 version:3 printed:1 sign:1 research:4 aid:1 visually:1 impaired:1 rias:1 audible:1 signage:1 project:3 constituent:1 bond:3 vibrate:1 group:3 atom:1 may:2 multiple:1 oscillation:2 stretching:1 bend:1 motion:1 whole:2 correspond:1 organic:1 compound:1 cm:2 sample:3 record:2 information:4 composition:1 present:1 purity:1 wet:1 show:7 broad:1 h:2 meteorology:1 satellite:3 z:1 october:1 frontal:1 gulf:2 mexico:1 embedded:1 cumulonimbus:2 shallow:1 cumulus:1 stratocumulus:2 eastern:1 seaboard:1 scan:1 radiometer:2 enable:1 trained:1 analyst:1 height:2 calculate:1 land:4 locate:1 ocean:2 feature:1 scanning:1 channel:3 cold:2 cirrus:1 warmer:1 stratus:2 grey:2 shade:2 accordingly:1 disadvantage:1 imagery:1 fog:2 similar:2 surround:1 sea:3 however:1 brightness:1 distinguish:1 main:1 advantage:1 continuous:2 sequence:1 depict:1 eddy:1 vortex:1 map:1 stream:1 valuable:1 shipping:1 industry:2 fisherman:1 farmer:1 interested:1 protect:1 crop:1 frost:1 catch:1 el:1 niño:1 phenomenon:1 spot:1 digitize:1 gray:1 easy:1 identification:2 desired:1 climatology:2 field:2 trend:2 exchange:1 atmosphere:6 climate:1 primary:1 parameter:1 global:1 warm:2 together:1 solar:1 pyrgeometer:1 utilize:1 perform:1 outdoor:1 measurement:1 broadband:1 spitzer:1 dedicated:1 observatory:3 orbit:1 note:1 side:1 maximize:1 nasa:2 observe:3 component:2 mirror:1 solid:1 classify:1 need:1 carefully:1 shield:1 chill:1 liquid:1 helium:1 limit:1 vapor:2 arrive:1 selected:1 limitation:1 alleviate:1 place:2 altitude:1 carry:1 aloft:1 balloon:1 suffer:1 handicap:1 consider:1 location:1 benefit:1 gas:2 dust:2 galaxy:3 glow:1 radiated:1 irradiate:1 imbedded:1 star:3 protostars:1 begin:1 nearby:1 readily:2 glare:1 drown:1 reflected:1 core:1 cloak:1 distant:1 redshift:1 toward:1 art:3 history:2 arnolfini:2 portrait:2 jan:1 eyck:1 national:2 gallery:2 london:2 reflectography:1 historian:3 painting:5 reveal:1 underlying:1 layer:3 particular:1 underdrawing:1 outline:1 draw:1 artist:3 guide:1 carbon:3 reflectograms:2 ground:1 underlie:1 paint:2 drawing:1 alteration:2 pentimento:2 original:2 decide:1 whether:2 prime:2 copy:1 alter:1 enthusiastic:1 restoration:1 likely:1 give:1 insight:1 practice:1 right:1 face:1 front:1 foot:1 underdrawn:1 position:1 another:1 overpainted:1 catalogue:1 fifteenth:1 century:3 netherlandish:1 lorne:1 campbell:1 old:1 write:1 document:1 dead:1 scroll:1 roman:1 villa:1 papyrus:1 silk:1 road:1 text:2 find:1 dunhuang:2 cave:1 introduction:1 idp:1 pdf:1 mb:1 ink:1 extremely:1 biological:2 snake:1 eat:1 mouse:1 fruit:1 bat:2 pitviper:1 pair:1 sensory:1 pit:1 uncertainty:1 regard:1 exact:1 detection:4 organism:1 thermoreceptive:1 organ:1 python:1 family:2 pythonidae:1 boa:1 boidae:1 vampire:1 desmodus:1 rotundus:1 variety:1 jewel:1 beetle:1 melanophila:1 acuminata:1 darkly:1 pigment:1 butterfly:1 pachliopta:1 aristolochiae:1 troides:1 rhadamantus:1 plateni:1 possibly:1 blood:1 sucking:1 bug:1 triatoma:1 infestans:1 photobiomodulation:3 treatment:3 chemotherapy:1 induced:1 oral:1 ulceration:1 wound:1 healing:1 relate:1 anti:1 herpes:2 virus:1 hargate:1 randomised:1 double:1 blind:1 effect:5 placebo:1 labialis:1 clin:1 exp:1 dermatol:1 sep:1 pmid:2 central:1 nervous:1 via:2 cytochrome:1 oxidase:1 upregulation:1 desmet:1 kd:1 paz:1 da:1 corry:1 jj:1 eells:1 jt:1 wong:1 riley:1 mt:1 henry:1 buchmann:1 ev:1 connelly:1 mp:1 dovi:1 jv:1 liang:1 hl:1 henshel:1 yeager:1 rl:1 millsap:1 lim:1 j:3 gould:1 lj:1 das:1 r:2 jett:1 hodgson:1 bd:1 margolis:1 whelan:1 ht:1 clinical:1 experimental:1 photomed:1 surg:1 apr:1 hazard:2 strong:1 certain:2 setting:1 constitute:1 invisible:2 special:1 proof:1 protective:1 eyeglass:1 must:1 wear:1 emitter:1 much:2 substance:1 droplet:1 dioxide:1 methane:1 nitrous:1 oxide:1 sulfur:1 hexafluoride:1 chlorofluorocarbon:1 direction:1 thus:1 greenhouse:1 keep:1 absorber:1 absent:1 science:1 discovery:1 ascribe:1 william:2 herschel:4 royal:2 society:1 prism:1 refract:1 beyond:1 thermometer:1 surprise:1 calorific:1 late:1 discovers:1 date:1 macedonio:1 melloni:1 first:5 thermopile:1 gustav:1 kirchhoff:1 formulate:2 theorem:2 willoughby:1 smith:2 discover:3 photoconductivity:1 selenium:1 stefan:1 boltzmann:1 empirically:1 lord:1 rayleigh:1 wilhelm:1 solve:2 equation:2 approximation:1 blow:1 problem:2 uv:1 catastrophe:2 max:1 planck:1 quantize:1 allowable:1 transition:1 albert:1 einstein:1 develop:5 theory:1 photoelectric:1 coblentz:1 radiometry:1 theodore:1 thallous:1 sulfide:1 british:1 search:1 irst:1 war:2 mile:1 km:1 ii:1 teau:1 ta:1 predict:1 pyroelectric:2 could:1 welker:1 paul:2 kruse:3 honeywell:1 texas:1 instrument:1 nomenclature:1 radiometric:1 unit:1 fred:2 nicodemenus:1 zissis:1 clark:1 jones:1 defines:1 w:1 lawson:1 radar:1 establishment:1 malvern:1 falcon:1 sidewinder:1 textbook:1 et:1 al:1 cooper:1 demonstrate:1 rodat:1 advance:1 element:1 linear:1 array:2 handbook:1 imagers:1 barnes:1 agema:1 inc:1 richard:1 hudson:1 landmark:1 tram:1 hughes:1 phenomenology:1 pioneer:1 simmons:1 stair:1 u:1 army:1 lab:2 electronic:1 directorate:1 nvesd:2 rachet:1 recognition:1 modeling:1 willard:1 boyle:1 george:1 propose:1 ccd:1 bell:1 module:1 program:1 come:1 age:1 plan:1 irtf:1 mauna:1 kea:1 open:2 reference:1 physic:1 journal:1 sciencedirect:1 com:1 wiki:1 site:1 detailed:1 explanation:1 historical:1 perspective:1 |@bigram infrared_ir:3 electromagnetic_radiation:2 terahertz_radiation:2 infrared_radiation:18 luminous_efficacy:1 ultra_violet:1 candela_per:1 weather_forecast:1 molecular_cloud:2 dipole_moment:1 infrared_spectroscopy:3 infra_red:5 nm_nm:4 fiber_optic:2 guided_missile:1 infrared_flir:1 blackbody_radiation:1 van_nostrand:1 nostrand_reinhold:1 electromagnetic_wave:1 thermographic_image:3 electromagnetic_spectrum:2 health_care:1 emit_diode:1 diode_led:1 optical_fiber:1 visually_impaired:1 organic_compound:1 gulf_mexico:1 eastern_seaboard:1 el_niño:1 liquid_helium:1 van_eyck:1 netherlandish_painting:1 villa_papyrus:1 silk_road:1 herpes_virus:1 apr_pmid:1 visible_invisible:1 carbon_dioxide:1 dioxide_methane:1 nitrous_oxide:1 sulfur_hexafluoride:1 william_herschel:1 gustav_kirchhoff:1 lord_rayleigh:1 max_planck:1 albert_einstein:1 photoelectric_effect:1 mile_km:1 sidewinder_missile:1 infrared_sensor:1 et_al:1 bell_lab:1 mauna_kea:1 external_link:1 sciencedirect_com:1 |
1,652 | Demographics_of_Ivory_Coast | Demographics of Côte d'Ivoire, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. This article is about the demographic features of the population of Côte d'Ivoire, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 17,654,843 (Population growth rate:2.03%) Note: estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2006 est.) Age Structure 0-14 years: 40.6% (male 3,603,386/female 3,711,211) 15-64 years: 56.6% (male 5,128,824/female 5,060,027) 65 years and over: 2.8% (male 246,130/female 263,831) (2007 est.) Median age Total: 19.2 years Male: 19.4 years Female: 18.9 years (2006 est.) Birth rate 35.11 births/1,000 population (2006 est.) Death rate 14.84 deaths/1,000 population (2006 est.) Sex ratio At birth: 1.03 male(s)/female Under 15 years: 0.97 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.95 male(s)/female Infant mortality rate Total: 89.11 deaths/1,000 live births Male: 105.73 deaths/1,000 live births Female: 71.99 deaths/1,000 live births (2006 est.) Life expectancy at birth Total population: 48.82 years Male: 46.24 years Female: 51.48 years (2006 est.) Total fertility rate 4.58 children born/woman (2005 est.) HIV/AIDS Adult prevalence rate: 7.2% (2005 est.) People living with HIV/AIDS: 750,000 (2005 est.) Deaths: 65,000 (2005 est.) Major infectious diseases Degree of risk: high Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever Vectorborne diseases: malaria, yellow fever, and others are high risks in some locations Water contact: schistosomiasis (2005) Nationality Noun: Ivoirian(s) Adjective: Ivoirian Ethnic groups Ethnic groups Akan 42.1%, Voltaiques or Gur 17.6%, Northern Mandes 16.5%, Krous 11%, Southern Mandes 10%, other 2.8% (includes 30,000 Lebanese and 45,000 French) (2004) Côte d'Ivoire has more than 60 ethnic groups, usually classified into five principal divisions: Akan (east and center, including Lagoon peoples of the southeast), Krou (southwest), Southern Mandé (west), Northern Mandé (northwest), Sénoufo/Lobi (north center and northeast). The Baoulés, in the Akan division, probably comprise the largest single subgroup with 15%-20% of the population. They are based in the central region around Bouaké and Yamoussoukro. The Bétés in the Krou division, the Sénoufos in the north, and the Malinkés in the northwest and the cities are the next largest groups, with 10%-15% of the national population. Most of the principal divisions have a significant presence in neighboring countries. Of the more than 5 million non-Ivorian Africans living in Côte d'Ivoire, one-third to one-half are from Burkina Faso; the rest are from Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Nigeria, Benin, Sénégal, Liberia, and Mauritania. The non-African expatriate community includes roughly 50,000 French (this number may be inaccurate due to the evacuation of roughly 8,000 Frenchmen in November 2004) and possibly 30,000 Lebanese. The number of elementary school-aged children attending classes increased from 22% in 1960 to 67% in 1995. Religions Muslim 35-40%, indigenous 25-40%, Christian 20-30% (2001) note: the majority of foreigners (migratory workers) are Muslim (70%) and Christian (20%) Field Listing - Religions, CIA World Factbook. www.cia.gov last updated on 19 June 2008. Languages French (official), 60 indigenous languages, of which the Dioula dialect of Bambara is the most widely spoken. Other languages include: the Gur languages, the Senufo languages, the Kru languages (including the Bété languages, Dida, Nyabwa, Wè, and Western Krahn), and the Kwa languages from which Baoulé and Anyin are notably used. Literacy Definition: age 15 and over can read and write Total population: 50.9% Male: 57.9% Female: 43.6% (2003 est.) References | Demographics_of_Ivory_Coast |@lemmatized demographic:4 côte:4 ivoire:4 data:1 fao:1 year:13 number:3 inhabitant:1 thousand:1 article:1 feature:1 population:13 include:6 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 cia:4 world:3 factbook:3 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:2 indicate:1 growth:2 rate:8 note:2 estimate:1 country:2 explicitly:1 take:1 account:1 effect:1 excess:1 mortality:3 due:2 aid:3 result:1 low:2 life:2 expectancy:2 high:3 infant:2 death:7 change:1 distribution:1 age:5 sex:2 would:1 expect:1 july:1 est:12 structure:1 male:11 female:11 median:1 total:5 birth:7 ratio:1 live:5 fertility:1 child:2 bear:1 woman:1 hiv:2 adult:1 prevalence:1 people:2 major:1 infectious:1 disease:3 degree:1 risk:2 food:1 waterborne:1 bacterial:1 diarrhea:1 hepatitis:1 typhoid:1 fever:2 vectorborne:1 malaria:1 yellow:1 others:1 location:1 water:1 contact:1 schistosomiasis:1 nationality:1 noun:1 ivoirian:2 adjective:1 ethnic:3 group:4 akan:3 voltaiques:1 gur:2 northern:2 mande:2 krous:1 southern:2 lebanese:2 french:3 usually:1 classify:1 five:1 principal:2 division:4 east:1 center:2 lagoon:1 southeast:1 krou:2 southwest:1 mandé:2 west:1 northwest:2 sénoufo:1 lobi:1 north:2 northeast:1 baoulés:1 probably:1 comprise:1 large:2 single:1 subgroup:1 base:1 central:1 region:1 around:1 bouaké:1 yamoussoukro:1 bétés:1 sénoufos:1 malinkés:1 city:1 next:1 national:1 significant:1 presence:1 neighbor:1 million:1 non:2 ivorian:1 african:2 one:2 third:1 half:1 burkina:1 faso:1 rest:1 ghana:1 guinea:1 mali:1 nigeria:1 benin:1 sénégal:1 liberia:1 mauritania:1 expatriate:1 community:1 roughly:2 may:1 inaccurate:1 evacuation:1 frenchman:1 november:1 possibly:1 elementary:1 school:1 attend:1 class:1 increase:1 religion:2 muslim:2 indigenous:2 christian:2 majority:1 foreigner:1 migratory:1 worker:1 field:1 list:1 www:1 gov:1 last:1 update:1 june:1 language:5 official:1 dioula:1 dialect:1 bambara:1 widely:1 speak:1 languages:3 senufo:1 kru:1 bété:1 dida:1 nyabwa:1 wè:1 western:1 krahn:1 kwa:1 baoulé:1 anyin:1 notably:1 use:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 reference:1 |@bigram côte_ivoire:4 density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 excess_mortality:1 life_expectancy:2 infant_mortality:2 male_female:8 mortality_rate:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 hiv_aid:2 adult_prevalence:1 infectious_disease:1 food_waterborne:1 waterborne_disease:1 bacterial_diarrhea:1 diarrhea_hepatitis:1 hepatitis_typhoid:1 typhoid_fever:1 fever_vectorborne:1 vectorborne_disease:1 yellow_fever:1 nationality_noun:1 burkina_faso:1 nigeria_benin:1 cia_gov:1 literacy_definition:1 |
1,653 | Ammeter | Ammeter Wire carrying current to be measured.Spring providing restoring force Ammeter from the old Penn Station Terminal Service Plant at 250 West Thirty-first Street Zero-center ammeter An ammeter is a measuring instrument used to measure the electric current in a circuit. Electric currents are measured in amperes (A), hence the name. Smaller values of current can be measured using a milliameter or a microammeter. The earliest design is the D'Arsonval galvanometer or moving coil ammeter. It uses magnetic deflection, where current passing through a coil causes the coil to move in a magnetic field. The voltage drop across the coil is kept to a minimum to minimize resistance across the ammeter in any circuit into which it is inserted. Moving iron ammeters use a piece of iron which moves when acted upon by the electromagnetic force of a fixed coil of wire. This type of meter responds to both direct and alternating currents (as opposed to the moving coil ammeter, which works on direct current only). To measure larger currents, a resistor called a shunt is placed in parallel with the meter. Most of the current flows through the shunt, and only a small fraction flows through the meter. This allows the meter to measure large currents. Traditionally, the meter used with a shunt has a full-scale deflection (FSD) of , so shunts are typically designed to produce a voltage drop of when carrying their full rated current. Zero-center ammeters are used for applications requiring current to be measured with both polarities, common in scientific and industrial equipment. Zero-center ammeters are also commonly placed in series with a battery. In this application, the charging of the battery deflects the needle to one side of the scale (commonly, the right side) and the discharging of the battery deflects the needle to the other side. Digital ammeter designs use an analog to digital converter (ADC) to measure the voltage across the shunt resistor; the digital display is calibrated to read the current through the shunt. Since the ammeter shunt has a very low resistance, mistakenly wiring the ammeter in parallel with a voltage source will cause a short circuit, at best blowing a fuse, possibly damaging the instrument and wiring, and exposing an observer to injury. In AC circuits, a current transformer converts the magnetic field around a conductor into a small AC current, typically either 1 or 5 Amps at full rated current, that can be easily read by a meter. In a similar way, accurate AC/DC non-contact ammeters have been constructed using Hall effect magnetic field sensors. A portable hand-held clamp-on ammeter is a common tool for maintenance of industrial and commercial electrical equipment, which is temporarily clipped over a wire to measure current. Ammeter Schematic Symbol The ammeter symbol (A) is shown in the diagram.Image:VoltmeterSymbol.jpg See also Clamp meter Circuit diagram Electric circuit Electro test equipment Electronics Galvanometer List of electronics topics Multimeter Ohmmeter Voltmeter The Energy Detective | Ammeter |@lemmatized ammeter:17 wire:4 carry:2 current:17 measure:9 spring:1 provide:1 restore:1 force:2 old:1 penn:1 station:1 terminal:1 service:1 plant:1 west:1 thirty:1 first:1 street:1 zero:3 center:3 measuring:1 instrument:2 use:8 electric:3 circuit:6 ampere:1 hence:1 name:1 small:3 value:1 milliameter:1 microammeter:1 early:1 design:3 arsonval:1 galvanometer:2 move:5 coil:6 magnetic:4 deflection:2 passing:1 cause:2 field:3 voltage:4 drop:2 across:3 keep:1 minimum:1 minimize:1 resistance:2 insert:1 iron:2 piece:1 act:1 upon:1 electromagnetic:1 fixed:1 type:1 meter:7 responds:1 direct:2 alternate:1 oppose:1 work:1 large:2 resistor:2 call:1 shunt:7 place:2 parallel:2 flow:2 fraction:1 allow:1 traditionally:1 full:3 scale:2 fsd:1 typically:2 produce:1 rat:2 application:2 require:1 polarity:1 common:2 scientific:1 industrial:2 equipment:3 also:2 commonly:2 series:1 battery:3 charging:1 deflect:2 needle:2 one:1 side:3 right:1 discharging:1 digital:3 analog:1 converter:1 adc:1 display:1 calibrate:1 read:2 since:1 low:1 mistakenly:1 source:1 short:1 best:1 blow:1 fuse:1 possibly:1 damage:1 wiring:1 expose:1 observer:1 injury:1 ac:3 transformer:1 convert:1 around:1 conductor:1 either:1 amp:1 easily:1 similar:1 way:1 accurate:1 dc:1 non:1 contact:1 construct:1 hall:1 effect:1 sensor:1 portable:1 hand:1 held:1 clamp:2 tool:1 maintenance:1 commercial:1 electrical:1 temporarily:1 clip:1 schematic:1 symbol:2 show:1 diagram:2 image:1 voltmetersymbol:1 jpg:1 see:1 electro:1 test:1 electronics:2 list:1 topic:1 multimeter:1 ohmmeter:1 voltmeter:1 energy:1 detective:1 |@bigram magnetic_field:3 digital_converter:1 converter_adc:1 ac_dc:1 |
1,654 | Dark_matter | In astronomy and cosmology, dark matter is hypothetical matter that is undetectable by its emitted radiation, but whose presence can be inferred from gravitational effects on visible matter. Mark J Hadley(2007)"Classical Dark Matter" Dark matter is postulated to explain the flat rotation curves of spiral galaxies and other evidence of "missing mass" in the universe. According to present observations of structures larger than galaxies, as well as Big Bang cosmology, dark matter and dark energy account for the vast majority of the mass in the observable universe. The observed phenomena which imply the presence of dark matter include the rotational speeds of galaxies, orbital velocities of galaxies in clusters, gravitational lensing of background objects by galaxy clusters such as the Bullet Cluster, and the temperature distribution of hot gas in galaxies and clusters of galaxies. Dark matter also plays a central role in structure formation and galaxy evolution, and has measurable effects on the anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background. All these lines of evidence suggest that galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and the universe as a whole contain far more matter than that which interacts with electromagnetic radiation: the remainder is frequently called the "dark matter component," even though there is a small amount of baryonic dark matter. The dark matter component has much more mass than the "visible" component of the universe. , using the WMAP dataset At present, the density of ordinary baryons and radiation in the universe is estimated to be equivalent to about one hydrogen atom per cubic meter of space. Only about 4% of the total energy density in the universe (as inferred from gravitational effects) can be seen directly. About 22% is thought to be composed of dark matter. The remaining 74% is thought to consist of dark energy, an even stranger component, distributed diffusely in space. Some hard-to-detect baryonic matter is believed to make a contribution to dark matter but would constitute only a small portion. Determining the nature of this missing mass is one of the most important problems in modern cosmology and particle physics. It has been noted that the names "dark matter" and "dark energy" serve mainly as expressions of human ignorance, much like the marking of early maps with "terra incognita." The vast majority of the dark matter in the universe is believed to be nonbaryonic, which means that it contains no atoms and that it does not interact with ordinary matter via electromagnetic forces. The nonbaryonic dark matter includes neutrinos, which were discovered to have mass in recent years, and may also include hypothetical entities such as axions, or supersymmetric particles. Unlike baryonic dark matter, nonbaryonic dark matter does not contribute to the formation of the elements in the early universe ("big bang nucleosynthesis") and so its presence is revealed only via its gravitational attraction. In addition, if the particles of which it is composed are supersymmetric, they can undergo annihilation interactions with themselves resulting in observable by-products such as photons and neutrinos ("indirect detection"). Fornasa, Mattia and Bertone, Gianfranco (2008), Black Holes as Dark Matter Annihilation Boosters, International Journal of Modern Physics D, 17, 1125-1157. Nonbaryonic dark matter is classified in terms of the mass of the particle(s) that is assumed to make it up, and/or the typical velocity dispersion of those particles (since more massive particles move more slowly). There are three prominent hypotheses on nonbaryonic dark matter, called Hot Dark Matter (HDM), Warm Dark Matter (WDM), and Cold Dark Matter (CDM); some combination of these is also possible. The most widely discussed models for nonbaryonic dark matter are based on the Cold Dark Matter hypothesis, and the corresponding particle is most commonly assumed to be a neutralino. Hot dark matter might consist of (massive) neutrinos. Cold dark matter leads to a "bottom-up" formation of structure in the universe while hot dark matter results in a "top-down" formation scenario. Bertone, Gianfranco, Hooper, Dan and Silk, Joseph (2005), Particle dark matter: evidence, candidates and constraints, Physics Reports, 405, 279-390. Observational evidence The first person to provide evidence and infer the existence of a phenomenon that has come to be called "dark matter" was Swiss astrophysicist Fritz Zwicky, of the California Institute of Technology in 1933. \ See also He applied the virial theorem to the Coma cluster of galaxies and obtained evidence of unseen mass. Zwicky estimated the cluster's total mass based on the motions of galaxies near its edge and compared that estimate to one based on the number of galaxies and total brightness of the cluster. He found that there was about 400 times more estimated mass than was visually observable. The gravity of the visible galaxies in the cluster would be far too small for such fast orbits, so something extra was required. This is known as the "missing mass problem". Based on these conclusions, Zwicky inferred that there must be some non-visible form of matter which would provide enough of the mass and gravity to hold the cluster together. Much of the evidence for dark matter comes from the study of the motions of galaxies. Many of these appear to be fairly uniform, so by the virial theorem the total kinetic energy should be half the total gravitational binding energy of the galaxies. Experimentally, however, the total kinetic energy is found to be much greater: in particular, assuming the gravitational mass is due to only the visible matter of the galaxy, stars far from the center of galaxies have much higher velocities than predicted by the virial theorem. Galactic rotation curves, which illustrate the velocity of rotation versus the distance from the galactic center, cannot be explained by only the visible matter. Assuming that the visible material makes up only a small part of the cluster is the most straightforward way of accounting for this. Galaxies show signs of being composed largely of a roughly spherically symmetric, centrally concentrated halo of dark matter with the visible matter concentrated in a disc at the center. Low surface brightness dwarf galaxies are important sources of information for studying dark matter, as they have an uncommonly low ratio of visible matter to dark matter, and have few bright stars at the center which would otherwise impair observations of the rotation curve of outlying stars. Gravitational lensing observations of galaxy clusters allow direct estimates of the gravitational mass based on its effect on light from background galaxies. In clusters such as Abell 1689, lensing observations confirm the presence of considerably more mass than is indicated by the clusters' light alone. In the Bullet Cluster, lensing observations show that much of the lensing mass is separated from the X-ray-emitting baryonic mass. Galactic rotation curves For 40 years after Zwicky's initial observations, no other corroborating observations indicated that the mass to light ratio was anything other than unity (a high mass-to-light ratio indicates the presence of dark matter). Then, in the late 1960s and early 1970s, Vera Rubin, a young astronomer at the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the Carnegie Institution of Washington presented findings based on a new sensitive spectrograph that could measure the velocity curve of edge-on spiral galaxies to a greater degree of accuracy than had ever before been achieved. Together with fellow staff-member Kent Ford, Rubin announced at a 1975 meeting of the American Astronomical Society the astonishing discovery that most stars in spiral galaxies orbit at roughly the same speed, which implied that their mass densities were uniform well beyond the locations with most of the stars (the galactic bulge). This result suggests that either Newtonian gravity does not apply universally or that, conservatively, upwards of 50% of the mass of galaxies was contained in the relatively dark galactic halo. Met with skepticism, Rubin insisted that the observations were correct. Eventually other astronomers began to corroborate her work and it soon became well-established that most galaxies were in fact dominated by "dark matter"; exceptions appeared to be galaxies with mass-to-light ratios close to that of stars. Subsequent to this, numerous observations have been made that do indicate the presence of dark matter in various parts of the cosmos. Together with Rubin's findings for spiral galaxies and Zwicky's work on galaxy clusters, the observational evidence for dark matter has been collecting over the decades to the point that today most astrophysicists accept its existence. As a unifying concept, dark matter is one of the dominant features considered in the analysis of structures on the order of galactic scale and larger. Velocity dispersions of galaxies Rubin's pioneering work has stood the test of time. Measurements of velocity curves in spiral galaxies were soon followed up with velocity dispersions of elliptical galaxies. While sometimes appearing with lower mass-to-light ratios, measurements of ellipticals still indicate a relatively high dark matter content. Likewise, measurements of the diffuse interstellar gas found at the edge of galaxies indicate not only dark matter distributions that extend beyond the visible limit of the galaxies, but also that the galaxies are virialized up to ten times their visible radii. This has the effect of pushing up the dark matter as a fraction of the total amount of gravitating matter from 50% measured by Rubin to the now accepted value of nearly 95%. There are places where dark matter seems to be a small component or totally absent. Globular clusters show no evidence that they contain dark matter, though their orbital interactions with galaxies do show evidence for galactic dark matter. For some time, measurements of the velocity profile of stars seemed to indicate concentration of dark matter in the disk of the Milky Way galaxy, however, now it seems that the high concentration of baryonic matter in the disk of the galaxy (especially in the interstellar medium) can account for this motion. Galaxy mass profiles are thought to look very different from the light profiles. The typical model for dark matter galaxies is a smooth, spherical distribution in virialized halos. Such would have to be the case to avoid small-scale (stellar) dynamical effects. Recent research reported in January 2006 from the University of Massachusetts, Amherst would explain the previously mysterious warp in the disk of the Milky Way by the interaction of the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds and the predicted 20 fold increase in mass of the Milky Way taking into account dark matter. In 2005, astronomers from Cardiff University claimed to discover a galaxy made almost entirely of dark matter, 50 million light years away in the Virgo Cluster, which was named VIRGOHI21. See also: Wikinews:Dark matter galaxy discovered Unusually, VIRGOHI21 does not appear to contain any visible stars: it was seen with radio frequency observations of hydrogen. Based on rotation profiles, the scientists estimate that this object contains approximately 1000 times more dark matter than hydrogen and has a total mass of about 1/10th that of the Milky Way Galaxy we live in. For comparison, the Milky Way is believed to have roughly 10 times as much dark matter as ordinary matter. Models of the Big Bang and structure formation have suggested that such dark galaxies should be very common in the universe, but none had previously been detected. If the existence of this dark galaxy is confirmed, it provides strong evidence for the theory of galaxy formation and poses problems for alternative explanations of dark matter. Recently too there is evidence that there are 10 to 100 times fewer small galaxies than permitted by what the dark matter theory of galaxy formation predicts. There are also a small number of galaxies, like NGC 3379 whose measured orbital velocity of its gas clouds, show that it contains almost no dark matter at all. New Scientist (2008), "Cosmic Enlightenment" (March 8, 2008) No.2646) p.29 Galaxy clusters and gravitational lensing Dark matter affects galaxy clusters as well. X-ray measurements of hot intracluster gas correspond closely to Zwicky's observations of mass-to-light ratios for large clusters of nearly 10 to 1. Many of the experiments of the Chandra X-ray Observatory use this technique to independently determine the mass of clusters. The galaxy cluster Abell 2029 is composed of thousands of galaxies enveloped in a cloud of hot gas, and an amount of dark matter equivalent to more than 1014 Suns. At the center of this cluster is an enormous, elliptically shaped galaxy that is thought to have been formed from the mergers of many smaller galaxies. The measured orbital velocities of galaxies within galactic clusters have been found to be consistent with dark matter observations. Another important tool for future dark matter observations is gravitational lensing. Lensing relies on the effects of general relativity to predict masses without relying on dynamics, and so is a completely independent means of measuring the dark matter. Strong lensing, the observed distortion of background galaxies into arcs when the light passes through a gravitational lens, has been observed around a few distant clusters including Abell 1689 (pictured right). By measuring the distortion geometry, the mass of the cluster causing the phenomena can be obtained. In the dozens of cases where this has been done, the mass-to-light ratios obtained correspond to the dynamical dark matter measurements of clusters. A technique has been developed over the last 10 years called weak gravitational lensing, which looks at minute distortions of galaxies observed in vast galaxy surveys due to foreground objects through statistical analyses. By examining the apparent shear deformation of the adjacent background galaxies, astrophysicists can characterize the mean distribution of dark matter by statistical means and have found mass-to-light ratios that correspond to dark matter densities predicted by other large-scale structure measurements. The correspondence of the two gravitational lens techniques to other dark matter measurements has convinced almost all astrophysicists that dark matter actually exists as a major component of the universe's composition. The most direct observational evidence to date for dark matter is in a system known as the Bullet Cluster. In most regions of the universe, dark matter and visible material are found together, as expected because of their mutual gravitational attraction. In the Bullet Cluster, a collision between two galaxy clusters appears to have caused a separation of dark matter and baryonic matter. X-ray observations show that much of the baryonic matter (in the form of 107–108 Kelvin gas, or plasma) in the system is concentrated in the center of the system. Electromagnetic interactions between passing gas particles caused them to slow down and settle near the point of impact. However, weak gravitational lensing observations of the same system show that much of the mass resides outside of the central region of baryonic gas. Because dark matter does not interact by electromagnetic forces, it would not have been slowed in the same way as the X-ray visible gas, so the dark matter components of the two clusters passed through each other without slowing down substantially. This accounts for the separation. Unlike the galactic rotation curves, this evidence for dark matter is independent of the details of Newtonian gravity, so it is held as direct evidence of the existence of dark matter. Structure formation Dark matter is crucial to the Big Bang model of cosmology as a component which corresponds directly to measurements of the parameters associated with Friedmann cosmology solutions to general relativity. In particular, measurements of the cosmic microwave background anisotropies correspond to a cosmology where much of the matter interacts with photons more weakly than the known forces that couple light interactions to baryonic matter. Likewise, a significant amount of non-baryonic, cold matter is necessary to explain the large-scale structure of the universe. Observations suggest that structure formation in the universe proceeds hierarchically, with the smallest structures collapsing first and followed by galaxies and then clusters of galaxies. As the structures collapse in the evolving universe, they begin to "light up" as the baryonic matter heats up through gravitational contraction and the object approaches hydrostatic pressure balance. Ordinary baryonic matter had too high a temperature, and too much pressure left over from the Big Bang to collapse and form smaller structures, such as stars, via the Jeans instability. Dark matter acts as a compactor of structure. This model not only corresponds with statistical surveying of the visible structure in the universe but also corresponds precisely to the dark matter predictions of the cosmic microwave background. This bottom up model of structure formation requires something like cold dark matter to succeed. Large computer simulations of billions of dark matter particles have been used to confirm that the cold dark matter model of structure formation is consistent with the structures observed in the universe through galaxy surveys, such as the Sloan Digital Sky Survey and 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey, as well as observations of the Lyman-alpha forest. These studies have been crucial in constructing the Lambda-CDM model which measures the cosmological parameters, including the fraction of the universe made up of baryons and dark matter. Dark matter composition Although dark matter was detected by its gravitational lensing in August 2006, many aspects of dark matter remain speculative. The DAMA/NaI experiment and its successor DAMA/LIBRA have claimed to directly detect dark matter passing through the Earth, though most scientists remain skeptical since negative results of other experiments are (almost) incompatible with the DAMA results if dark matter consists of neutralinos. Data from a number of lines of evidence, including galaxy rotation curves, gravitational lensing, structure formation, and the fraction of baryons in clusters and the cluster abundance combined with independent evidence for the baryon density, indicate that 85-90% of the mass in the universe does not interact with the electromagnetic force. This "nonbaryonic dark matter" is evident through its gravitational effect. Historically, three categories of nonbaryonic dark matter have been postulated : Hot dark matter - nonbaryonic particles that move ultrarelativistically Warm dark matter - nonbaryonic particles that move relativistically Cold dark matter - nonbaryonic particles that move non-relativistically Davis et al. wrote in 1985: Candidate particles can be grouped into three categories on the basis of their effect on the fluctuation spectrum (Bond et al. 1983). If the dark matter is composed of abundant light particles which remain relativistic until shortly before recombination, then it may be termed "hot". The best candidate for hot dark matter is a neutrino [..] A second possibility is for the dark matter particles to interact more weakly than neutrinos, to be less abundant, and to have a mass of order 1eV. Such particles are termed "warm dark matter", because they have lower thermal velocities than massive neutrinos [..] there are at present few candidate particles which fit this description. Gravitinos and photinos have been suggested (Pagels and Primack 1982; Bond, Szalay and Turner 1982) [..] Any particles which became nonrelativistic very early, and so were able to diffuse a negligible distance, are termed "cold" dark matter (CDM). There are many candidates for CDM including supersymmetric particles Hot dark matter consists of particles that travel with relativistic velocities. One kind of hot dark matter is known, the neutrino. Neutrinos have a very small mass, do not interact via either the electromagnetic or the strong nuclear force and are therefore very difficult to detect. This is what makes them appealing as dark matter. However, bounds on neutrinos indicate that ordinary neutrinos make only a small contribution to the density of dark matter. Hot dark matter cannot explain how individual galaxies formed from the Big Bang. The microwave background radiation as measured by the COBE and WMAP satellites, while incredibly smooth, indicates that matter has clumped on very small scales. Fast moving particles, however, cannot clump together on such small scales and, in fact, suppress the clumping of other matter. Hot dark matter, while it certainly exists in our universe in the form of neutrinos, is therefore only part of the story. The Concordance Model requires that, to explain structure in the universe, it is necessary to invoke cold (non-relativistic) dark matter. Large masses, like galaxy-sized black holes can be ruled out on the basis of gravitational lensing data. However, tiny black holes are a possibility. Other possibilities involving normal baryonic matter include brown dwarfs or perhaps small, dense chunks of heavy elements; such objects are known as massive compact halo objects, or "MACHOs". However, studies of big bang nucleosynthesis have convinced most scientists that baryonic matter such as MACHOs cannot be more than a small fraction of the total dark matter. At present, the most common view is that dark matter is primarily non-baryonic, made of one or more elementary particles other than the usual electrons, protons, neutrons, and known neutrinos. The most commonly proposed particles are axions, sterile neutrinos, and WIMPs (Weakly Interacting Massive Particles, including neutralinos). None of these are part of the standard model of particle physics, but they can arise in extensions to the standard model. Many supersymmetric models naturally give rise to stable dark matter candidates in the form of the Lightest Supersymmetric Particle (LSP). Heavy, sterile neutrinos exist in extensions to the standard model that explain the small neutrino mass through the seesaw mechanism. Detection of dark matter These cosmological models predict that if WIMPs are what make up dark matter, trillions must pass through the Earth each second. Despite a number of attempts to find these WIMPs, none have yet been found. Experimental searches for these dark matter candidates have been conducted and are ongoing. These efforts can be divided into two broad classes: direct detection, in which the dark matter particles are observed in a detector; and indirect detection, Merritt, David and Bertone, Gianfranco (2005), Dark Matter Dynamics and Indirect Detection which looks for the products of dark matter annihilations. Dark matter detection experiments have ruled out some WIMP and axion models. There are also several experiments claiming positive evidence for dark matter detection, such as DAMA/NaI, DAMA/LIBRA In April 2008, researchers announced at a physics conference in Venice that dark matter had been detected in the DAMA/LIBRA experiment. and EGRET, but these are so far unconfirmed and difficult to reconcile with the negative results of other experiments. Several searches for dark matter are currently underway, including the Cryogenic Dark Matter Search in the Soudan mine, the PICASSO experiment in the SNOLAB underground laboratory at Sudbury, Ontario (Canada), XENON, DAMA/LIBRA and CRESST experiments at Gran Sasso (Italy) and the ZEPLIN and DRIFT projects at the Boulby Underground Laboratory (UK), and many new technologies are under development, such as the ArDM or MIMAC experiments. One possible alternative approach to the detection of WIMPs in nature is to produce them in the laboratory. Experiments with the Large Hadron Collider near Geneva may be able to detect the WIMPs. Because a WIMP only has negligible interactions with matter, it can be detected as missing energy and momentum. It is also possible that dark matter consists of very heavy hidden sector particles which only interact with ordinary matter via gravity. The Cryogenic Dark Matter Search, in the Soudan Mine in Minnesota aims to detect the heat generated when ultracold germanium and silicon crystals are struck by a WIMP. The Gran Sasso National Laboratory at L'Aquila, in Italy, use xenon to measure the flash of light that occurs on those rare occasions when a WIMP strikes a xenon nucleus. The results from April 2007, using 15 kg of liquid and gaseous xenon, detected several events consistent with backgrounds, setting a new exclusion limit. The larger XENON100 detector, with 150 kg of liquid xenon, began taking calibration data in March 2008. The PAMELA payload (launched 2006) may find evidence of dark matter annihilation. The Fermi space telescope, launched June 11, 2008, searching gammawave events, may also detect WIMPs. WIMP supersymmetric particle and antiparticle collisions should release a pair of detectable gamma waves. The number of events detected will show to what extent WIMPs comprise dark matter. With all these experiments together, scientists are becoming confident that WIMPs will be discovered in the near future. But some scientists are beginning to think that dark matter is composed of many different candidates. J. L. Rosner, Dark Matter in Many Forms, Presented at 2005 ALCPG & ILC Workshops, Snowmass, CO, 14-27 August 2005. preprint WIMPs may thus only be a part of the solution. In 2014 the LSST will be operational, one of the main goals of the telescope is to discover and learn more about dark matter. Alternative explanations Modifications of gravity A proposed alternative to physical dark matter particles has been to suppose that the observed inconsistencies are due to an incomplete understanding of gravitation. To explain the observations, the gravitational force has to become stronger than the Newtonian approximation at great distances or in weak fields. One of the proposed models is Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND), which adjusts Newton's laws at small acceleration. However, constructing a relativistic MOND theory has been troublesome, and it is not clear how the theory can be reconciled with gravitational lensing measurements of the deflection of light around galaxies. The leading relativistic MOND theory, proposed by Jacob Bekenstein in 2004 is called TeVeS for Tensor-Vector-Scalar and solves many of the problems of earlier attempts. However, a study in August 2006 reported an observation of a pair of colliding galaxy clusters whose behavior, it was claimed, was not compatible with any current modified gravity theories. In 2007, John W. Moffatt proposed a theory of modified gravity (MOG) based on the Nonsymmetric Gravitational Theory (NGT) that claims to account for the behavior of colliding galaxies. Quantum mechanical explanations In another class of theories one attempts to reconcile gravitation with quantum mechanics and obtains corrections to the conventional gravitational interaction. In scalar-tensor theories, scalar fields like the Higgs field couple to the curvature given through the Riemann tensor or its traces. In many of such theories, the scalar field equals the inflaton field, which is needed to explain the inflation of the universe after the Big Bang, as the dominating factor of the quintessence or Dark Energy. Using an approach based on the exact renormalization group, M. Reuter and H. Weyer have shown that Newton's constant and the cosmological constant can be scalar functions on spacetime if one associates renormalization scales to the points of spacetime. Some M-Theory cosmologists also propose that multi-dimensional forces from outside the visible universe have gravitational effects on the visible universe meaning that dark matter is not necessary for a unified theory of cosmology. Dark matter in popular culture Mentions of dark matter occur in some video games and other works of fiction. In such cases, it is usually attributed extraordinary physical or magical properties. Such descriptions are often inconsistent with the properties of dark matter proposed in physics and cosmology. See also Lambda-CDM model WIMPs MACHOs Scalar field dark matter SIMP Galaxy formation and evolution Light Dark Matter Self-interacting dark matter Mirror matter Dark matter halo Galaxy rotation curve Conformal gravity Modified Newtonian dynamics Robust Associations of Massive Baryonic Objects (RAMBOs) Dark Energy Dark flow Daemons References Further reading Invited talk at the 36th COSPAR Scientific Assembly, Beijing, China, 16-23 July 2006 REPORT OF THE DARK ENERGY TASK FORCE (DETF) 2005. Andreas Albrecht, University of California, Davis and 12 other authors, 145 pages. |url=http://jdem.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/Decadal_Survey-Dark_Energy_Task_Force_report.pdf External links | Dark_matter |@lemmatized astronomy:1 cosmology:8 dark:140 matter:157 hypothetical:2 undetectable:1 emitted:1 radiation:4 whose:3 presence:6 infer:4 gravitational:25 effect:10 visible:17 mark:1 j:2 hadley:1 classical:1 postulate:2 explain:9 flat:1 rotation:9 curve:9 spiral:5 galaxy:73 evidence:19 miss:4 mass:37 universe:24 accord:1 present:6 observation:19 structure:19 large:10 well:5 big:8 bang:8 energy:11 account:5 vast:3 majority:2 observable:3 observed:3 phenomenon:3 imply:2 include:10 rotational:1 speed:2 orbital:4 velocity:13 cluster:36 lensing:15 background:9 object:7 bullet:4 temperature:2 distribution:4 hot:13 gas:9 also:13 play:1 central:2 role:1 formation:13 evolution:2 measurable:1 anisotropy:1 cosmic:4 microwave:4 line:2 suggest:5 whole:1 contain:7 far:4 interact:10 electromagnetic:6 remainder:1 frequently:1 call:5 component:8 even:2 though:3 small:20 amount:4 baryonic:16 much:11 use:6 wmap:2 dataset:1 density:6 ordinary:6 baryon:4 estimate:5 equivalent:2 one:11 hydrogen:3 atom:2 per:1 cubic:1 meter:1 space:3 total:9 see:5 directly:3 think:5 compose:6 remain:4 consist:5 stranger:1 distribute:1 diffusely:1 hard:1 detect:12 believe:3 make:10 contribution:2 would:7 constitute:1 portion:1 determine:2 nature:2 important:3 problem:4 modern:2 particle:31 physic:6 note:1 name:2 serve:1 mainly:1 expression:1 human:1 ignorance:1 like:5 marking:1 early:5 map:1 terra:1 incognita:1 nonbaryonic:11 mean:4 via:5 force:8 neutrino:12 discover:5 recent:2 year:4 may:6 entity:1 axions:2 supersymmetric:6 unlike:2 contribute:1 element:2 nucleosynthesis:2 reveal:1 attraction:2 addition:1 undergo:1 annihilation:4 interaction:7 result:7 product:2 photon:2 neutrinos:3 indirect:3 detection:8 fornasa:1 mattia:1 bertone:3 gianfranco:3 black:3 hole:3 booster:1 international:1 journal:1 classify:1 term:4 assume:4 typical:2 dispersion:3 since:2 massive:6 move:5 slowly:1 three:3 prominent:1 hypothesis:2 hdm:1 warm:3 wdm:1 cold:9 cdm:5 combination:1 possible:3 widely:1 discussed:1 model:17 base:9 corresponding:1 commonly:2 neutralino:1 might:1 lead:2 bottom:2 top:1 scenario:1 hooper:1 dan:1 silk:1 joseph:1 candidate:8 constraint:1 report:4 observational:3 first:2 person:1 provide:3 existence:4 come:2 swiss:1 astrophysicist:4 fritz:1 zwicky:6 california:2 institute:1 technology:2 apply:2 virial:3 theorem:3 coma:1 obtain:3 unseen:1 motion:3 near:4 edge:3 compare:1 number:5 brightness:2 find:9 time:7 estimated:1 visually:1 gravity:9 fast:2 orbit:2 something:2 extra:1 require:3 know:5 conclusion:1 must:2 non:5 form:8 enough:1 hold:2 together:6 study:5 many:11 appear:5 fairly:1 uniform:2 kinetic:2 half:1 binding:1 experimentally:1 however:9 great:3 particular:2 due:3 star:9 center:6 high:5 predict:4 galactic:9 illustrate:1 versus:1 distance:3 cannot:4 material:2 part:5 straightforward:1 way:7 accounting:1 show:9 sign:1 largely:1 roughly:3 spherically:1 symmetric:1 centrally:1 concentrated:1 halo:5 concentrate:2 disc:1 low:4 surface:1 dwarf:2 source:1 information:1 uncommonly:1 ratio:8 bright:1 otherwise:1 impair:1 outlying:1 allow:1 direct:4 light:19 abell:3 confirm:3 considerably:1 indicate:10 alone:1 separate:1 x:5 ray:5 emit:1 initial:1 corroborate:2 anything:1 unity:1 late:1 vera:1 rubin:6 young:1 astronomer:3 department:1 terrestrial:1 magnetism:1 carnegie:1 institution:1 washington:1 finding:2 new:4 sensitive:1 spectrograph:1 could:1 measure:8 degree:1 accuracy:1 ever:1 achieve:1 fellow:1 staff:1 member:1 kent:1 ford:1 announce:2 meeting:1 american:1 astronomical:1 society:1 astonishing:1 discovery:1 beyond:2 location:1 bulge:1 either:2 newtonian:5 universally:1 conservatively:1 upwards:1 relatively:2 meet:1 skepticism:1 insist:1 correct:1 eventually:1 begin:4 work:4 soon:2 become:4 establish:1 fact:2 dominate:2 exception:1 close:1 subsequent:1 numerous:1 various:1 cosmos:1 collect:1 decade:1 point:3 today:1 accept:1 unifying:1 concept:1 dominant:1 feature:1 consider:1 analysis:2 order:2 scale:7 pioneering:1 stand:1 test:1 measurement:11 follow:2 elliptical:1 sometimes:1 ellipticals:1 still:1 content:1 likewise:2 diffuse:2 interstellar:2 extend:1 limit:2 virialized:2 ten:1 radius:1 push:1 fraction:4 gravitate:1 accepted:1 value:1 nearly:2 place:1 seem:3 totally:1 absent:1 globular:1 profile:4 concentration:2 disk:3 milky:5 especially:1 medium:1 look:3 different:2 smooth:2 spherical:1 case:3 avoid:1 stellar:1 dynamical:2 research:1 january:1 university:3 massachusetts:1 amherst:1 previously:2 mysterious:1 warp:1 magellanic:1 cloud:3 predicted:1 fold:1 increase:1 take:2 cardiff:1 claim:5 almost:4 entirely:1 million:1 away:1 virgo:1 wikinews:1 unusually:1 radio:1 frequency:1 scientist:6 approximately:1 live:1 comparison:1 common:2 none:3 strong:4 theory:13 pose:1 alternative:4 explanation:3 recently:1 permit:1 predicts:1 ngc:1 enlightenment:1 march:2 p:1 affect:1 intracluster:1 correspond:7 closely:1 experiment:12 chandra:1 observatory:1 technique:3 independently:1 thousand:1 envelop:1 sun:1 enormous:1 elliptically:1 shape:1 merger:1 measured:1 within:1 consistent:3 another:2 tool:1 future:2 relies:1 general:2 relativity:2 without:2 rely:1 dynamic:4 completely:1 independent:3 distortion:3 arc:1 pass:5 lens:2 observe:4 around:2 distant:1 picture:1 right:1 geometry:1 cause:3 dozen:1 develop:1 last:1 weak:3 minute:1 survey:4 foreground:1 statistical:3 examine:1 apparent:1 shear:1 deformation:1 adjacent:1 characterize:1 correspondence:1 two:4 convince:2 actually:1 exist:3 major:1 composition:2 date:1 system:4 region:2 expect:1 mutual:1 collision:2 separation:2 kelvin:1 plasma:1 slow:3 settle:1 impact:1 reside:1 outside:2 substantially:1 detail:1 crucial:2 parameter:2 associate:2 friedmann:1 solution:2 anisotropies:1 weakly:3 known:1 couple:2 significant:1 necessary:3 proceeds:1 hierarchically:1 collapse:3 evolving:1 heat:2 contraction:1 approach:3 hydrostatic:1 pressure:2 balance:1 leave:1 jean:1 instability:1 act:1 compactor:1 surveying:1 precisely:1 prediction:1 succeed:1 computer:1 simulation:1 billion:1 sloan:1 digital:1 sky:1 redshift:1 lyman:1 alpha:1 forest:1 construct:2 lambda:2 cosmological:3 although:1 august:3 aspect:1 speculative:1 dama:7 nai:2 successor:1 libra:4 earth:2 skeptical:1 negative:2 incompatible:1 neutralinos:2 data:3 abundance:1 combine:1 evident:1 historically:1 category:2 ultrarelativistically:1 relativistically:2 davis:2 et:2 al:2 write:1 group:2 basis:2 fluctuation:1 spectrum:1 bond:2 abundant:2 relativistic:5 shortly:1 recombination:1 best:1 second:2 possibility:3 less:1 thermal:1 fit:1 description:2 gravitinos:1 photinos:1 pagels:1 primack:1 szalay:1 turner:1 nonrelativistic:1 able:2 negligible:2 travel:1 kind:1 nuclear:1 therefore:2 difficult:2 appeal:1 bound:1 individual:1 cobe:1 satellite:1 incredibly:1 clump:2 suppress:1 clumping:1 certainly:1 story:1 concordance:1 invoke:1 size:1 rule:2 tiny:1 involve:1 normal:1 brown:1 perhaps:1 dense:1 chunk:1 heavy:3 compact:1 macho:2 view:1 primarily:1 elementary:1 usual:1 electron:1 proton:1 neutron:1 propose:7 sterile:2 wimp:15 standard:3 arise:1 extension:2 naturally:1 give:2 rise:1 stable:1 lsp:1 seesaw:1 mechanism:1 trillion:1 despite:1 attempt:3 yet:1 experimental:1 search:5 conduct:1 ongoing:1 effort:1 divide:1 broad:1 class:2 detector:2 merritt:1 david:1 axion:1 several:3 positive:1 april:2 researcher:1 conference:1 venice:1 egret:1 unconfirmed:1 reconcile:3 currently:1 underway:1 cryogenic:2 soudan:2 mine:2 picasso:1 snolab:1 underground:2 laboratory:4 sudbury:1 ontario:1 canada:1 xenon:5 cresst:1 gran:2 sasso:2 italy:2 zeplin:1 drift:1 project:1 boulby:1 uk:1 development:1 ardm:1 mimac:1 produce:1 hadron:1 collider:1 geneva:1 momentum:1 hidden:1 sector:1 minnesota:1 aim:1 generate:1 ultracold:1 germanium:1 silicon:1 crystal:1 strike:2 national:1 l:2 aquila:1 flash:1 occur:2 rare:1 occasion:1 nucleus:1 kg:2 liquid:2 gaseous:1 event:3 set:1 exclusion:1 calibration:1 pamela:1 payload:1 launched:1 fermi:1 telescope:2 launch:1 june:1 gammawave:1 antiparticle:1 release:1 pair:2 detectable:1 gamma:1 wave:1 extent:1 comprise:1 confident:1 rosner:1 alcpg:1 ilc:1 workshop:1 snowmass:1 co:1 preprint:1 thus:1 lsst:1 operational:1 main:1 goal:1 learn:1 modification:1 physical:2 suppose:1 inconsistency:1 incomplete:1 understanding:1 gravitation:2 approximation:1 field:6 modified:2 mond:3 adjust:1 newton:2 law:1 acceleration:1 troublesome:1 clear:1 deflection:1 jacob:1 bekenstein:1 teves:1 tensor:3 vector:1 scalar:6 solve:1 collide:2 behavior:2 compatible:1 current:1 john:1 w:1 moffatt:1 modify:2 mog:1 nonsymmetric:1 ngt:1 quantum:2 mechanical:1 mechanic:1 obtains:1 correction:1 conventional:1 higgs:1 curvature:1 riemann:1 trace:1 equal:1 inflaton:1 need:1 inflation:1 factor:1 quintessence:1 exact:1 renormalization:2 reuter:1 h:1 weyer:1 constant:2 function:1 spacetime:2 cosmologist:1 multi:1 dimensional:1 meaning:1 unified:1 popular:1 culture:1 mention:1 video:1 game:1 fiction:1 usually:1 attribute:1 extraordinary:1 magical:1 property:2 often:1 inconsistent:1 machos:1 simp:1 self:1 mirror:1 conformal:1 robust:1 association:1 rambos:1 flow:1 daemon:1 reference:1 reading:1 invite:1 talk:1 cospar:1 scientific:1 assembly:1 beijing:1 china:1 july:1 task:1 detf:1 andreas:1 albrecht:1 author:1 page:1 url:1 http:1 jdem:1 gsfc:1 nasa:1 gov:1 doc:1 pdf:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram spiral_galaxy:5 big_bang:8 bang_cosmology:1 vast_majority:2 observable_universe:1 gravitational_lensing:10 anisotropy_cosmic:1 cosmic_microwave:3 microwave_background:4 electromagnetic_radiation:1 hydrogen_atom:1 cubic_meter:1 baryonic_matter:9 terra_incognita:1 nonbaryonic_dark:7 supersymmetric_particle:4 bang_nucleosynthesis:2 gravitational_attraction:2 black_hole:3 velocity_dispersion:3 fritz_zwicky:1 virial_theorem:3 kinetic_energy:2 spherically_symmetric:1 newtonian_gravity:2 elliptical_galaxy:1 globular_cluster:1 milky_way:5 magellanic_cloud:1 galactic_cluster:1 lambda_cdm:2 cdm_model:2 cosmological_parameter:1 et_al:2 wmap_satellite:1 elementary_particle:1 proton_neutron:1 sterile_neutrino:2 sudbury_ontario:1 hadron_collider:1 liquid_gaseous:1 particle_antiparticle:1 newtonian_dynamic:2 jacob_bekenstein:1 quantum_mechanical:1 quantum_mechanic:1 cosmological_constant:1 modify_newtonian:1 nasa_gov:1 external_link:1 |
1,655 | Eth | Eth (Ð, ð; also spelled edh or eð) is a letter used in Old English, Icelandic, Faroese (in which it is called edd), and Elfdalian. It was also used in Scandinavia during the Middle Ages, but was subsequently replaced with dh and later d. The capital eth resembles a D with a line partially through the vertical stroke. The lowercase resembles an insular d with a line through the top. The letter originated in Irish writing (Freeborn 1992, 24) as a d with a cross-stroke added. The lowercase version has retained the curved shape of a medieval scribe's d, which d itself in general has not (but see for instance the Audi logo). In Icelandic, ð represents a voiced dental fricative like th in English "them", but it never appears as the first letter of a word. The name of the letter is pronounced eθ, i.e., voiceless, unless followed by a vowel. It has also been labeled an "interdental fricative." American Heritage Dictionary In Faroese, ð isn't assigned to any particular phoneme and appears mostly for etymological reasons; however, it does show where most of the Faroese glides are, and when the ð is before r it is in a few words pronounced as . In the Icelandic and Faroese alphabets, ð follows d. In Olav Jakobsen Høyem's version of Nynorsk based on Trøndersk, the ð is always silent and is introduced for etymological reasons. In the orthography for Elfdalian, the ð represents a voiced dental fricative like th in English "them", and it follows d in the alphabet. In Old English, ð (referred to as ðæt by the Anglo-Saxons) was used interchangeably with þ (thorn) to represent either voiced or voiceless dental fricatives. The letter ð was used throughout the Anglo-Saxon era, but gradually fell out of use in Middle English, disappearing altogether by about 1300; þ survived longer, ultimately being replaced by the modern digraph th by about 1500. The ð is also used by some in written Welsh to represent the letter 'dd' (the voiced dental fricative). Lower-case eth is used as a symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), again for a voiced dental fricative, and in IPA usage, the name of the symbol is pronounced with the same voiced sound, as . (The IPA symbol for the voiceless dental fricative is θ.) An example of handwritten ð is visible. Computer encoding In the Unicode universal character encoding standard, upper and lower case eth are represented by U+00D0 and U+00F0, respectively. These code points are inherited from the older ISO 8859-1 standard. In HTML, eth is represented by the Latin character entities Ð and ð. On UNIX-like systems such as Linux it can be entered with the Compose key plus d and - or D and - for the uppercase version when using ISO8859-based locales or Compose key plus d and h or D and h for uppercase version when using UTF-8-based locales. In Microsoft Windows, to produce the uppercase letter, hold down the Alt and type 0208 on the numeric keypad or type Alt 0240 for lowercase. The US-International keyboard layout allows the letter to be entered by holding AltGr and pressing the letter "d." Miscellaneous The letter ð is sometimes used in mathematics and engineering textbooks as a symbol for a spin-weighted partial derivative. This operator gives rise to spin-weighted spherical harmonics. The modern Greek letter delta (Δ, δ) has, in general, the same phonetic value, and ð is the only Latin alphabet letter faithfully representing delta's phonetic value. (In Ancient Greek delta represented a d sound). The symbol is mentioned in the Rush song By-Tor and the Snow Dog in the first verse: Prince By-Tor takes the cavern to the North light,The sign of Eth is rising in the air. See also D with stroke African D Insular script Notes and references Freeborn, Dennis (1992). From Old English to Standard English. London: MacMillan. External links How to make the Eth Förslag till en enhetlig stavning för älvdalska (March, 2005) | Eth |@lemmatized eth:7 ð:16 also:5 spell:1 edh:1 eð:1 letter:12 use:10 old:4 english:7 icelandic:3 faroese:4 call:1 edd:1 elfdalian:2 scandinavia:1 middle:2 age:1 subsequently:1 replace:2 dh:1 later:1 capital:1 resemble:2 line:2 partially:1 vertical:1 stroke:3 lowercase:3 insular:2 top:1 originate:1 irish:1 writing:1 freeborn:2 cross:1 add:1 version:4 retain:1 curved:1 shape:1 medieval:1 scribe:1 general:2 see:2 instance:1 audi:1 logo:1 represent:8 voiced:4 dental:6 fricative:7 like:3 th:3 never:1 appear:2 first:2 word:2 name:2 pronounce:3 eθ:1 e:1 voiceless:3 unless:1 follow:3 vowel:1 label:1 interdental:1 american:1 heritage:1 dictionary:1 assign:1 particular:1 phoneme:1 mostly:1 etymological:2 reason:2 however:1 show:1 glide:1 r:1 alphabet:4 olav:1 jakobsen:1 høyem:1 nynorsk:1 base:3 trøndersk:1 always:1 silent:1 introduce:1 orthography:1 refer:1 ðæt:1 anglo:2 saxon:2 interchangeably:1 þ:2 thorn:1 either:1 voice:2 throughout:1 era:1 gradually:1 fell:1 disappear:1 altogether:1 survive:1 long:1 ultimately:1 modern:2 digraph:1 write:1 welsh:1 dd:1 lower:1 case:2 symbol:5 international:2 phonetic:3 ipa:3 usage:1 sound:2 θ:1 example:1 handwritten:1 visible:1 computer:1 encode:2 unicode:1 universal:1 character:2 standard:3 upper:1 low:1 u:3 respectively:1 code:1 point:1 inherit:1 iso:1 html:1 latin:2 entity:1 unix:1 system:1 linux:1 enter:2 compose:2 key:2 plus:2 uppercase:3 locale:2 h:2 utf:1 microsoft:1 window:1 produce:1 hold:2 alt:2 type:2 numeric:1 keypad:1 keyboard:1 layout:1 allow:1 altgr:1 press:1 miscellaneous:1 sometimes:1 mathematics:1 engineering:1 textbook:1 spin:2 weight:1 partial:1 derivative:1 operator:1 give:1 rise:2 weighted:1 spherical:1 harmonic:1 greek:2 delta:3 δ:2 value:2 faithfully:1 ancient:1 mention:1 rush:1 song:1 tor:2 snow:1 dog:1 verse:1 prince:1 take:1 cavern:1 north:1 light:1 sign:1 air:1 african:1 script:1 note:1 reference:1 dennis:1 london:1 macmillan:1 external:1 link:1 make:1 förslag:1 till:1 en:1 enhetlig:1 stavning:1 för:1 älvdalska:1 march:1 |@bigram icelandic_faroese:2 dental_fricative:6 interdental_fricative:1 anglo_saxon:2 voiceless_dental:2 phonetic_alphabet:1 microsoft_window:1 uppercase_letter:1 numeric_keypad:1 keyboard_layout:1 spherical_harmonic:1 external_link:1 |
1,656 | Economy_of_Jersey | Modern Economy The modern economy of Jersey is largely driven by international financial services & legal services, which which accounted for 53% of total GVA in 2007 Jersey Business & Economy . Other sectors include construction, retail, agriculture, tourism and order fulfillment, such as internet based selling [http://www.gov.je/NR/rdonlyres/D9B4136B-D779-452D-B7BF-90D226F9CA18/0/GVAandGNI2007.pdf Jersey Gross Value Added (GVA) and Gross National Income (GNI) 2007] . In recent years (2008) Jersey’s Gross National Income per capita has been amongst the highest in the world JED 2008 . Financial & Legal Services Royal Bank of Scotland building. Jersey based financial organisations provide services to customers world-wide. In June 2008, it was reported that 12,070 people were employed full-time, within this sector Manpower by Sector . The Royal Bank of Scotland International (RBSI) is a major employer with some 900 staff employed in Jersey, as of March 2009 RBSI in Jersey . The finance sector profits rose to about £1.5 billion in 2007, representing a real-term increase of 12% on 2006. JED 2008 Jersey is a tax haven Jersey is a tax haven , and so attracts deposits from customers outside of the island, seeking to reduce their tax burdens. Its taxation laws have been widely criticised by various people and groups Tax Research , however the Chief Minister of Jersey, Terry Le Sueur, has countered these criticisms, saying that "Jersey among cooperative finance centres" Jersey among cooperative finance centres . Jersey's finance industry featured in a BBC Panorama documentary, titled "Tax me if you can" "Tax me if you can" , broadcast of the 2nd of February 2009 "Tax me if you can" . On 4th of February 2009, Jersey Finance officially announced its intention to open a new representative office in London Jersey Finance London Office . At the end of 2008, deposits in Jersey banks totalled £206 billion, down £6.2 billion from £212.3 billion at the start of the year Quarterly Report for Q4 2008 . Construction Construction represented 5.2% of GVA during 2007. In June 2008, it was reported that 4,980 people were employed full-time in the construction and quarrying sector Manpower by Sector . St. Helier, and the Waterfront area in particular, has seen much redevelopment during the early 21st century, with several projects in planning or under-construction during 2009. Developments include a leisure complex Leisure complex , the Radisson hotel Radisson Hotel , and a new central bus station - Liberty Station. As of 2009, there are plans to sink the A1 road, to provide building sites above it for offices Esplanade Quarter , possibly for financial companies. Construction grew by 8% over the period 2006 to 2007 JED 2008 . Retail & Wholesale As of June 2008, there were 6,610 persons in full-time employment within Jersey's wholesale & retail trades http://www.gov.je/NR/rdonlyres/6E822EC5-5C29-4637-BAE0-C581443C6EAC/0/LabourMarketPrivateManpowerBySector.xls Manpower by Sector] . Retail and wholesale grew by around 5% during 2007 JED 2008 . Sandpiper C.I. Limited operate a chain of stores in Jersey, their franchises include well-known names, such as Marks & Spencer, Iceland, and Costa Coffee Sandpiper CI Ltd. . Jersey is the head quarters of play.com, Flying Brands, and other online retailers which offer free delivery on goods such as books, music, movies, gadgets. Agriculture Potatoes, cauliflower, tomatoes, and flowers are important export crops, shipped mostly to the United Kingdom. The Jersey breed of dairy cattle is known worldwide and represents an important export income earner. Milk products go to the UK and other EU countries. As of 2009, the Jersey Royal potato is the biggest crop export. Tourism Hotel de France Jersey saw a boom in tourism during the post World War 2 years. This boom has been winding down since the late-1980s. Many of the larger hotels, which were constructed during the boom, have now been demolished. Notable hotels include: the Pomme d'Or overlooking Liberation Square in St. Helier, which during the occupation served as the German Navy Headquarters and from whose balcony the Liberation force raised the Union Flag on Liberation Day, 9 May 1945; the Hotel de France, formerly the Imperial and the Jesuit college, in St. Saviour overlooking the town of St. Helier; the Hotel L'Horizon in St. Brelade's Bay. La Grande Vere, in St. Helier overlooking St. Aubins Bay, with views of Elizabeth Castle and the Waterfront. The Royal Yacht is a refrubished, modern, luxury hotel situated in St Helier. Visitors to the island arrive either by sea at Saint Helier, or by air at Jersey Airport. These routes are subsidised by the States of Jersey Airline subsidies . Exact figures for subsidies are not in the public domain. Transport, Storage & Communication This sector accounted for 4% of GVA during 2007 http://www.gov.je/NR/rdonlyres/8A7191DC-9CF9-4330-9D7B-78E473A2A248/0/JED2008.pdf JED 2008] . Most of the telecoms infrastructure is owned by Jersey Telecom. In 2008, most goods imported and exported were transported by Huelin-Renouf Huelin-Renouf Shipping , Ferryspeed http://www.ferryspeed.com/ Ferryspeed] , and other smaller operators, via either Saint Helier harbour, or Jersey Airport. During the period 1984 to 1994, British Channel Island Ferries were responsible for much shipping to and from the United Kingdom. Stock Exchange Jersey shares the Channel Islands Stock Exchange (CISX/Exchange) with Guernsey, where it is based. Channel Islands Stock Exchange Seasonal Workers The workforce in Jersey tends to increase during the summer months, with around 3,500 more people employed in the summer of 2008 than in the winter of 2007 JED 2008 . These seasonal workers are mostly employed in agriculture, hotels, restaurants and bars. Traditional & Historical Economy Agriculture Until the 19th century, cider was the largest agricultural export with up to a quarter of the agricultural land given over to orchards. In 1839, for example, 268,199 gallons of cider were exported from Jersey to England alone, Balleine's History of Jersey, ISBN 1-86077-065-7 but by 1870 exports from Jersey had slumped to 4,632 gallons The Triumph of the Country, Kelleher, Jersey 1994, ISBN 0-9518162-4-1 . Beer had replaced cider as a fashionable drink in the main export markets, and even the home market had switched to beer as the population became more urban. Potatoes overtook cider as the most important crop in Jersey in the 1840's. Small-scale cider production on farms for domestic consumption, particularly by seasonal workers from Brittany and mainland Normandy, was maintained, but by the mid-20th century production dwindled until only 8 farms were producing cider for their own consumption in 1983 Jersey Society in London, Bulletin, 1983 . The number of orchards had been reduced to such a level that the destruction of trees in the Great Storm of 1987 demonstrated how close the Islands had come to losing many of its traditional cider apple varieties. A concerted effort was made to identify and preserve surviving varieties and new orchards were planted. As part of diversification, farmers have moved into commercial cider production, and the cider tradition is celebrated and marketed as a heritage experience. Textiles The knitting of woollen garments was a thriving industry for Jersey during the 17th and 18th centuries. Regional Knitting in the British Isles & Ireland Ship Building Jersey was the 4th largest ship building area in the 19th century British Isles. History of Jersey See History of Jersey. Historical Exchange Rates Jersey pounds per US dollar - 0.55 (2005), 0.6981 (January 2002), 0.6944 (2001), 0.6596 (2000), 0.6180 (1999), 0.6037 (1998), 0.6106 (1997); the Jersey pound is at par with the British pound. Taxation Until the twentieth century, the States relied on indirect taxation to finance the administration of Jersey. The levying of impôts (duties) was in the hands of the Assembly of Governor, Bailiff and Jurats until 1921 when that body's tax raising powers were transferred to the Assembly of the States, leaving the Assembly of Governor, Bailiff and Jurats to serve simply as licensing bench for the sale of alcohol. The Income Tax Law of 1928 introducing income tax was the first law drafted entirely in English. Income tax has been levied at a flat rate of 20% for decades. As VAT has not been levied in the Island, luxury goods have often been cheaper than in the UK or in France, providing an incentive for tourism from neighbouring countries. The absence of VAT has also led to the growth of the fulfilment industry, whereby low-value luxury items, such as videos, lingerie and contact lenses are exported, avoiding VAT on arrival and thus undercutting local prices on the same products. In 2005, the States of Jersey announced limits on licences granted to non-resident companies trading in this way. Although Jersey does not have VAT, the States of Jersey introduced a goods and services tax (GST) in 2008. The strategy for introducing the new GST tax was to fill a 'black hole' in the budget that was created by the introduction of a new 0/10 tax that replaced the old tax system that previously exempted foreign investors from corporation tax and levied a 20% rate on Jersey residents. The new 0/10 tax exempts all businesses except those in financial services from having to pay any corporation tax (0%), while leaving the financial services to pay a low tax rate (10%). The income generated from the new 0/10 tax proposal will not be equal to the revenue of the original tax system and this leaves Jersey with a deficit in their budget of several million pounds. To fill the deficit created by the changes made to Jersey's tax structure, the States of Jersey introduced GST. GST is added to most goods and services, which has raised the cost of living. The people hit the hardest by the new GST will be the people on the lowest incomes, however, to try to prevent islanders living below the poverty line, the States of Jersey introduced an Income Support service in January 2008. It is arguable that the people who benefit from Jersey's new tax structure are the owners of the large businesses that are separate or support the financial service based businesses. This is because they do have to pay any corporation tax but will still benefit from the island's business. March 8 2005 Proposition P44/2005: Fiscal Strategy May 12 2005 Amendment — paragraphs (a), (b) and (d) Amendment — paragraph (c) May 13 2005 States votes Paragraphs (a)(i) and (ii) Paragraph (a)(iii) Paragraph (c) Paragraph (d), as amended Finance Magazines 2020 Magazine is published each November and is the Island's annual personal finance magazine devoted entirely to personal finance and related subjects. It is circulated to every home in Jersey as well as to every business in Jersey, Guernsey & the Isle of Man. Global Assets is an International finance magazine. It is the amalgamation of International Finance Jersey, International Finance Guernsey & International Finance Isle of Man. It is now an online subscription magazine only, circulated worldwide. External links Jersey Treasury & Resources Jersey Finance Waterfront Enterprise Board Limited See also Jersey Jersey pound References Jersey in Figures, 2005, States of Jersey | Economy_of_Jersey |@lemmatized modern:3 economy:4 jersey:59 largely:1 drive:1 international:6 financial:7 service:10 legal:2 account:2 total:2 gva:4 business:6 sector:8 include:4 construction:6 retail:4 agriculture:4 tourism:4 order:1 fulfillment:1 internet:1 base:4 sell:1 http:4 www:4 gov:3 je:3 nr:3 rdonlyres:3 pdf:2 gross:3 value:2 add:2 national:2 income:9 gni:1 recent:1 year:3 per:2 caput:1 amongst:1 high:1 world:3 jed:6 royal:4 bank:3 scotland:2 building:3 organisation:1 provide:3 customer:2 wide:1 june:3 report:3 people:7 employ:5 full:3 time:3 within:2 manpower:3 rbsi:2 major:1 employer:1 staff:1 march:2 finance:15 profit:1 rise:1 billion:4 represent:3 real:1 term:1 increase:2 tax:24 attract:1 deposit:2 outside:1 island:7 seek:1 reduce:2 burden:1 taxation:3 law:3 widely:1 criticise:1 various:1 group:1 research:1 however:2 chief:1 minister:1 terry:1 le:1 sueur:1 counter:1 criticism:1 say:1 among:2 cooperative:2 centre:2 industry:3 feature:1 bbc:1 panorama:1 documentary:1 title:1 broadcast:1 february:2 officially:1 announce:2 intention:1 open:1 new:9 representative:1 office:3 london:3 end:1 start:1 quarterly:1 quarry:1 st:8 helier:7 waterfront:3 area:2 particular:1 see:3 much:2 redevelopment:1 early:1 century:6 several:2 project:1 planning:1 development:1 leisure:2 complex:2 radisson:2 hotel:9 central:1 bus:1 station:2 liberty:1 plan:1 sink:1 road:1 site:1 esplanade:1 quarter:3 possibly:1 company:2 grow:2 period:2 wholesale:3 person:1 employment:1 trade:2 labourmarketprivatemanpowerbysector:1 xl:1 around:2 sandpiper:2 c:3 limited:1 operate:1 chain:1 store:1 franchise:1 well:2 know:2 name:1 mark:1 spencer:1 iceland:1 costa:1 coffee:1 ci:1 ltd:1 head:1 play:1 com:2 fly:1 brand:1 online:2 retailer:1 offer:1 free:1 delivery:1 good:5 book:1 music:1 movie:1 gadget:1 potato:3 cauliflower:1 tomato:1 flower:1 important:3 export:9 crop:3 ship:3 mostly:2 united:2 kingdom:2 breed:1 dairy:1 cattle:1 worldwide:2 earner:1 milk:1 product:2 go:1 uk:2 eu:1 country:3 big:1 de:2 france:3 saw:1 boom:3 post:1 war:1 wind:1 since:1 late:1 many:2 large:4 construct:1 demolish:1 notable:1 pomme:1 overlook:3 liberation:3 square:1 occupation:1 serve:2 german:1 navy:1 headquarters:1 whose:1 balcony:1 force:1 raise:3 union:1 flag:1 day:1 may:3 formerly:1 imperial:1 jesuit:1 college:1 saviour:1 town:1 l:1 horizon:1 brelade:1 bay:2 la:1 grande:1 vere:1 aubins:1 view:1 elizabeth:1 castle:1 yacht:1 refrubished:1 luxury:3 situate:1 visitor:1 arrive:1 either:2 sea:1 saint:2 air:1 airport:2 route:1 subsidise:1 state:9 airline:1 subsidy:2 exact:1 figure:2 public:1 domain:1 transport:2 storage:1 communication:1 telecom:2 infrastructure:1 import:1 huelin:2 renouf:2 shipping:2 ferryspeed:3 small:2 operator:1 via:1 harbour:1 british:4 channel:3 ferry:1 responsible:1 stock:3 exchange:5 share:1 islands:2 cisx:1 guernsey:3 seasonal:3 worker:3 workforce:1 tends:1 summer:2 month:1 winter:1 restaurant:1 bar:1 traditional:2 historical:2 cider:9 agricultural:2 land:1 give:1 orchard:3 example:1 gallon:2 england:1 alone:1 balleine:1 history:3 isbn:2 slump:1 triumph:1 kelleher:1 beer:2 replace:2 fashionable:1 drink:1 main:1 market:3 even:1 home:2 switch:1 population:1 become:1 urban:1 overtook:1 scale:1 production:3 farm:2 domestic:1 consumption:2 particularly:1 brittany:1 mainland:1 normandy:1 maintain:1 mid:1 dwindle:1 produce:1 society:1 bulletin:1 number:1 level:1 destruction:1 tree:1 great:1 storm:1 demonstrate:1 close:1 come:1 lose:1 apple:1 variety:2 concerted:1 effort:1 make:2 identify:1 preserve:1 survive:1 plant:1 part:1 diversification:1 farmer:1 move:1 commercial:1 tradition:1 celebrate:1 heritage:1 experience:1 textiles:1 knitting:2 woollen:1 garment:1 thriving:1 regional:1 isle:4 ireland:1 build:1 rate:4 pound:5 u:1 dollar:1 january:2 par:1 twentieth:1 rely:1 indirect:1 administration:1 levying:1 impôts:1 duty:1 hand:1 assembly:3 governor:2 bailiff:2 jurats:2 body:1 power:1 transfer:1 leave:3 simply:1 licensing:1 bench:1 sale:1 alcohol:1 introduce:5 first:1 draft:1 entirely:2 english:1 levy:3 flat:1 decade:1 vat:4 often:1 cheap:1 incentive:1 neighbour:1 absence:1 also:2 lead:1 growth:1 fulfilment:1 whereby:1 low:3 item:1 video:1 lingerie:1 contact:1 lens:1 avoid:1 arrival:1 thus:1 undercutting:1 local:1 price:1 limit:2 licence:1 grant:1 non:1 resident:2 way:1 although:1 gst:5 strategy:2 fill:2 black:1 hole:1 budget:2 create:2 introduction:1 old:1 system:2 previously:1 exempt:1 foreign:1 investor:1 corporation:3 exempts:1 except:1 pay:3 generate:1 proposal:1 equal:1 revenue:1 original:1 deficit:2 million:1 change:1 structure:2 cost:1 living:1 hit:1 hardest:1 try:1 prevent:1 islander:1 live:1 poverty:1 line:1 support:2 arguable:1 benefit:2 owner:1 separate:1 still:1 proposition:1 fiscal:1 amendment:2 paragraph:6 b:1 vote:1 ii:1 iii:1 amended:1 magazine:5 publish:1 november:1 annual:1 personal:2 devote:1 related:1 subject:1 circulate:2 every:2 man:2 global:1 asset:1 amalgamation:1 subscription:1 external:1 link:1 treasury:1 resource:1 enterprise:1 board:1 reference:1 |@bigram http_www:4 gov_je:3 je_nr:3 nr_rdonlyres:3 rdonlyres_pdf:2 per_caput:1 tax_burden:1 st_helier:5 retail_wholesale:2 wholesale_retail:1 income_earner:1 st_brelade:1 luxury_hotel:1 saint_helier:2 stock_exchange:3 mainland_normandy:1 concerted_effort:1 twentieth_century:1 indirect_taxation:1 governor_bailiff:2 bailiff_jurats:2 income_tax:3 black_hole:1 jersey_guernsey:1 external_link:1 |
1,657 | Harold_Eugene_Edgerton | For the police officer see Harry Edgerton Harold Eugene "Doc" Edgerton (April 6, 1903 – January 4, 1990) was a professor of electrical engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He is largely credited with transforming the stroboscope from an obscure laboratory instrument into a common device. For example; today, the electronic flash is completely associated with the field of photography. Early years He was born in Fremont, Nebraska on April 6th, 1903, the son of Mary Nettie Coe and Frank Eugene Edgerton, http://www.usgennet.org/usa/ne/topic/resources/OLLibrary/Nebraskana/pages/nbka0099.htm a direct descendant of Richard Edgerton, one of the founders of Norwich, Connecticut and a descendent of Governor William Bradford (1590-1657) of the Plymouth Colony and a passenger on the Mayflower. His father was a lawyer, journalist, author and orator and served as the assistant attorney general of Nebraska from 1911 to 1915. Harold grew up in Aurora, Nebraska. He also spent some of his childhood years in Washington, D.C., and Lincoln, Nebraska. Education In 1925 he received a bachelor's degree in electrical engineering from the University of Nebraska at Lincoln where he became a member of Acacia Fraternity. . He earned an S.M. in electrical engineering from MIT in 1927. Edgerton used stroboscopes to study synchronous motors for his Sc.D. thesis in electrical engineering at MIT, awarded in 1931. He credited Charles Stark Draper with inspiring him to point stroboscopes at everyday objects: the first was a stream of water coming out of a faucet. In 1937 he began a lifelong association with photographer Gjon Mili, who used stroboscopic equipment, particularly a "multiflash" strobe light, to produce strikingly beautiful photographs, many of which appeared in Life Magazine. This strobe light could flash up to 1 million times a second. Edgerton was a pioneer in strobe photography, subsequently using the technique to capture images of balloons during their bursting, or a bullet during its impact with an apple, for example. He was awarded a bronze medal by the Royal Photographic Society in 1934, and the National Medal of Science in 1973. He was a cofounder of the company EG&G, with Kenneth Germeshausen and Herbert Grier, in 1947. EG&G became a prime contractor for the Atomic Energy Commission and had a major role in photographing and recording nuclear tests for the United States through the fifties and sixties. For this role he developed the Rapatronic camera, which was supplied by EG&G. His work was instrumental in the development of side-scan sonar technology, used to scan the sea floor for wrecks. Edgerton worked with the undersea explorer Jacques Cousteau, by first providing him with underwater stroboscopes, and then by using sonar to discover the Britannic. Edgerton participated in the discovery of the American Civil War battleship USS Monitor. While working with Cousteau, he acquired the nickname he is still known by in photographic circles, "Papa Flash". In addition to having the scientific and engineering acumen to perfect strobe lighting commercially, Edgerton is equally recognized for his visual aesthetic: many of the striking images he created in illuminating phenomena that occurred too fast for the naked eye adorn art museums worldwide. He was especially loved by MIT students for his willingness to teach and his kindness: "The trick to education," he said, "is to teach people in such a way that they don't realize they're learning until it's too late." His last undergraduate class, taught during fall semester 1977, was a freshman seminar titled "Bird and Insect Photography." One of the graduate student dormitories at MIT carries his name. Edgerton's work was featured in an October 1987 National Geographic Magazine article entitled, "Doc Edgerton: the man who made time stand still." Family After graduating from the University of Nebraska at Lincoln, he married Esther May Garrett http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2002/edgerton-0313.html in 1928. She was was born in Hamilton County, Nebraska on Sept. 8, 1903 and died on March 9, 2002 in Charlestown, South Carolina. She received a bachelor's degree in mathematics, music and education from the University of Nebraska at Lincoln. A skilled pianist and singer, she attended the New England Conservatory of Music and taught in public schools in Aurora, Nebraska and Boston. During their marriage they had three children: William, Robert, and Mary Lou. His sister, Mary Ellen Edgerton, was the wife of L. Welch Pogue (1899 – 2003) a pioneering aviation attorney and Chairman of the old Civil Aeronautics Board. David Pogue, a technology writer, journalist and commentator, is his great nephew. Death He died on January 4, 1990 at Cambridge, Massachusetts at the age of 86 and is buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Works Flash! Seeing the Unseen by Ultra High-Speed Photography (1939, with James R. Killian Jr.) Electronic Flash, Strobe (1970), Moments of Vision (1979, with Mr. Killian) Sonar Images (1986, with Mr. Killian) A collection of his photographs, Stopping Time,'' was published in 1987 by Harry N. Abrams. Legacy On July 3, 1990, in an effort to memorialize his accomplishments, several Aurora community members decided to construct a "Hands-On" science center. It was designated as a "teaching museum," that would preserve Doc's work and artifacts, as well as feature the "Explorit Zone" where people of all ages could participate in hands-on exhibits and interact with live science demonstrations. After five years of private and community-wide funding, as well as individual investments by Doc's surviving family members, the Edgerton Explorit Center was officially dedicated on September 9, 1995. External links Early photographs from Edgerton's laboratory, including water from the tap mentioned above Biographical timeline The Edgerton Center at MIT The Edgerton Explorit Center in Aurora, NE References | Harold_Eugene_Edgerton |@lemmatized police:1 officer:1 see:2 harry:2 edgerton:17 harold:2 eugene:2 doc:4 april:2 january:2 professor:1 electrical:4 engineering:5 massachusetts:3 institute:1 technology:3 largely:1 credit:2 transform:1 stroboscope:4 obscure:1 laboratory:2 instrument:1 common:1 device:1 example:2 today:1 electronic:2 flash:5 completely:1 associate:1 field:1 photography:4 early:2 year:3 bear:2 fremont:1 nebraska:9 son:1 mary:3 nettie:1 coe:1 frank:1 http:2 www:1 usgennet:1 org:1 usa:1 ne:2 topic:1 resource:1 ollibrary:1 nebraskana:1 page:1 htm:1 direct:1 descendant:1 richard:1 one:2 founder:1 norwich:1 connecticut:1 descendent:1 governor:1 william:2 bradford:1 plymouth:1 colony:1 passenger:1 mayflower:1 father:1 lawyer:1 journalist:2 author:1 orator:1 serve:1 assistant:1 attorney:2 general:1 grow:1 aurora:4 also:1 spend:1 childhood:1 washington:1 c:1 lincoln:4 education:3 receive:2 bachelor:2 degree:2 university:3 become:2 member:3 acacia:1 fraternity:1 earn:1 mit:6 use:5 study:1 synchronous:1 motor:1 sc:1 thesis:1 award:2 charles:1 stark:1 draper:1 inspire:1 point:1 everyday:1 object:1 first:2 stream:1 water:2 come:1 faucet:1 begin:1 lifelong:1 association:1 photographer:1 gjon:1 mili:1 stroboscopic:1 equipment:1 particularly:1 multiflash:1 strobe:5 light:3 produce:1 strikingly:1 beautiful:1 photograph:4 many:2 appear:1 life:1 magazine:2 could:2 million:1 time:3 second:1 pioneer:1 subsequently:1 technique:1 capture:1 image:3 balloon:1 bursting:1 bullet:1 impact:1 apple:1 bronze:1 medal:2 royal:1 photographic:2 society:1 national:2 science:3 cofounder:1 company:1 eg:3 g:3 kenneth:1 germeshausen:1 herbert:1 grier:1 prime:1 contractor:1 atomic:1 energy:1 commission:1 major:1 role:2 record:1 nuclear:1 test:1 united:1 state:1 fifty:1 sixty:1 develop:1 rapatronic:1 camera:1 supply:1 work:6 instrumental:1 development:1 side:1 scan:2 sonar:3 sea:1 floor:1 wreck:1 undersea:1 explorer:1 jacques:1 cousteau:2 provide:1 underwater:1 discover:1 britannic:1 participate:2 discovery:1 american:1 civil:2 war:1 battleship:1 uss:1 monitor:1 acquire:1 nickname:1 still:2 know:1 circle:1 papa:1 addition:1 scientific:1 acumen:1 perfect:1 commercially:1 equally:1 recognize:1 visual:1 aesthetic:1 striking:1 create:1 illuminate:1 phenomenon:1 occur:1 fast:1 naked:1 eye:1 adorn:1 art:1 museum:2 worldwide:1 especially:1 love:1 student:2 willingness:1 teach:4 kindness:1 trick:1 say:1 people:2 way:1 realize:1 learn:1 late:1 last:1 undergraduate:1 class:1 fall:1 semester:1 freshman:1 seminar:1 title:1 bird:1 insect:1 graduate:2 dormitory:1 carry:1 name:1 feature:2 october:1 geographic:1 article:1 entitle:1 man:1 make:1 stand:1 family:2 marry:1 esther:1 may:1 garrett:1 web:1 edu:1 newsoffice:1 html:1 hamilton:1 county:1 sept:1 die:2 march:1 charlestown:1 south:1 carolina:1 mathematics:1 music:2 skilled:1 pianist:1 singer:1 attend:1 new:1 england:1 conservatory:1 taught:1 public:1 school:1 boston:1 marriage:1 three:1 child:1 robert:1 lou:1 sister:1 ellen:1 wife:1 l:1 welch:1 pogue:2 pioneering:1 aviation:1 chairman:1 old:1 aeronautics:1 board:1 david:1 writer:1 commentator:1 great:1 nephew:1 death:1 cambridge:2 age:2 bury:1 mount:1 auburn:1 cemetery:1 unseen:1 ultra:1 high:1 speed:1 james:1 r:1 killian:3 jr:1 moment:1 vision:1 mr:2 collection:1 stop:1 publish:1 n:1 abrams:1 legacy:1 july:1 effort:1 memorialize:1 accomplishment:1 several:1 community:2 decide:1 construct:1 hand:2 center:4 designate:1 would:1 preserve:1 artifact:1 well:2 explorit:3 zone:1 exhibit:1 interact:1 live:1 demonstration:1 five:1 private:1 wide:1 funding:1 individual:1 investment:1 survive:1 officially:1 dedicate:1 september:1 external:1 link:1 include:1 tap:1 mention:1 biographical:1 timeline:1 reference:1 |@bigram http_www:1 bachelor_degree:2 strobe_light:3 bronze_medal:1 jacques_cousteau:1 uss_monitor:1 naked_eye:1 n_abrams:1 external_link:1 |
1,658 | Native_Esperanto_speakers | Native Esperanto speakers (in Esperanto denaskuloj) are born into families in which Esperanto (and usually other languages) is spoken. This usually occurs when the parents meet each other at an Esperanto gathering but do not know each other’s native language. Often one or both parents choose to use Esperanto as the main language in communicating with the children, who thus acquire the language in the way that other children acquire their native languages; those children then become natively multilingual. It also happens that the parents use Esperanto between themselves, but use another language when speaking with the children. Then the children, who wish to understand what the parents are saying between themselves, learn (or at least comprehend) spoken Esperanto. Esperanto is not the primary language of any geographic region, outside of temporary gatherings (such as conventions like the World Congress of Esperanto) and isolated offices (such as the World Esperanto Association's central office in Rotterdam). Consequently, native speakers have limited opportunity to meet one another except where meetings are specially arranged. For this reason, some parents consider it important to regularly bring their children to Esperanto conventions. Similarly, the annual Children's Congress of Esperanto (Infana Kongreseto) happens alongside the largest Esperanto convention, the World Congress of Esperanto (Universala Kongreso). According to Ethnologue, there are "200–2000 who speak Esperanto as a first language." Ethnologue report for language code:epo The most famous native speaker of Esperanto is businessman George Soros, son of Tivadar Soros, publisher and writer in Esperanto. An Update on Esperanto, Universala Esperanto-Asocio (World Esperanto Association) Also notable are young Holocaust victim Petr Ginz, whose drawing of the planet Earth as viewed from the moon was carried aboard the Space Shuttle Columbia, and Daniel Bovet, 1957 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. See also List of Esperanto native speakers Constructed language Natural language References External links DENASK-L — Internet discussion group for Esperanto families About native Esperanto speakers | Native_Esperanto_speakers |@lemmatized native:7 esperanto:23 speaker:5 denaskuloj:1 bear:1 family:2 usually:2 language:11 speak:4 occur:1 parent:5 meet:2 gathering:2 know:1 often:1 one:2 choose:1 use:3 main:1 communicate:1 child:7 thus:1 acquire:2 way:1 become:1 natively:1 multilingual:1 also:3 happen:2 another:2 wish:1 understand:1 say:1 learn:1 least:1 comprehend:1 primary:1 geographic:1 region:1 outside:1 temporary:1 convention:3 like:1 world:4 congress:3 isolated:1 office:2 association:2 central:1 rotterdam:1 consequently:1 limit:1 opportunity:1 except:1 meeting:1 specially:1 arrange:1 reason:1 consider:1 important:1 regularly:1 bring:1 similarly:1 annual:1 infana:1 kongreseto:1 alongside:1 large:1 universala:2 kongreso:1 accord:1 ethnologue:2 first:1 report:1 code:1 epo:1 famous:1 businessman:1 george:1 soros:2 son:1 tivadar:1 publisher:1 writer:1 update:1 asocio:1 notable:1 young:1 holocaust:1 victim:1 petr:1 ginz:1 whose:1 drawing:1 planet:1 earth:1 view:1 moon:1 carry:1 aboard:1 space:1 shuttle:1 columbia:1 daniel:1 bovet:1 nobel:1 prize:1 physiology:1 medicine:1 see:1 list:1 construct:1 natural:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 denask:1 l:1 internet:1 discussion:1 group:1 |@bigram esperanto_universala:2 universala_kongreso:1 george_soros:1 universala_esperanto:1 esperanto_asocio:1 space_shuttle:1 nobel_prize:1 prize_physiology:1 physiology_medicine:1 external_link:1 |
1,659 | Draught_beer | Draught beer keg fonts at the Delirium Café in BrusselsDraught beer (also known as draft beer or tap beer) has several related though slightly different understandings. The majority of references to draught beer are of filtered beer that has been served from a pressurised container, such as a keg or a widget can. A narrower meaning, beer that is served from a keg (or tap), but not from a can, bottle or cask, is also used. A more traditional definition is beer that is served from a large container, which could be either a keg or a cask. The different understandings may at times overlap and cause confusion. Some traditionalists object to the more modern use of the word when applied to canned beer. The slight usage differences of the term are due to the history and development of beer dispensing. History of draught Until Joseph Bramah patented the beer engine in 1785, beer was served directly from the cask and carried to the customer. The old English word for carry was dragen, from the German tragen, which developed into a series of related words, including drag, draw, and draught. By extension, the word for carrying or drawing a beer came to mean the serving of the beer and, in some senses, the act of drinking, or a drink of beer itself, regardless of serving method. By the time Bramah's beer pumps became popular, the use of the word draught to mean the act of serving beer was well established and transferred easily to beer served via the hand pumps. In 1691, an article in the London Gazette mentioned John Lofting, who held a patent for a fire engine: "The said patentee has also projected a very useful engine for starting of beer, and other liquors which will draw from 20 to 30 barrels an hour, which are completely fixed with brass joints and screws at reasonable rates". In the early 20th century, serving draught beer from pressurised containers began. Artificial carbonation was introduced in the United Kingdom in 1936, with Watney’s experimental pasteurised beer Red Barrel. Though this method of serving beer did not take hold in the U.K. until the late 1950s, it did become the favoured method in the rest of Europe, where it is known by such terms as en pression. The method of serving beer under pressure then spread to the rest of the world; by the early 1970s, draught beer was almost exclusively beer served under pressure. Shortly after a British consumer organisation called the Campaign for Real Ale (CAMRA) was founded, in 1971, to protect unpressurised beer, the group devised the term real ale to differentiate between beer served from the cask and beer served under pressure. By 2004, the term real ale had been expanded to include bottle-conditioned beer, while the term cask ale had become the accepted global term to indicate a beer not served under pressure. Keg beer A typical 11 Gallon keg with single opening in the centre of the top end Keg beer is a term for beer which is served from a pressurized keg. While often considered synonymous to draught beer, keg beer refers specifically to beer served under pressure, while draught beer may refer to any beer served from a larger container, including both keg beer and cask ale. Keg beer is often filtered and/or pasteurized, both of which are processes that render the yeast inactive, increasing the shelf life of the product at the expense of flavor. In brewing parlance, a keg is different from a cask. A cask has a tap hole near the edge of the top, and a spile hole on the side used for conditioning the unfiltered and unpasteurised beer. A keg has a single opening in the centre of the top to which a flow pipe is attached. Kegs are artificially pressurised after fermentation with carbon dioxide or a mixture of carbon dioxide and nitrogen gas. Keg has become a term of contempt used by some since the 1960s as pasteurised draught beers were replacing traditional cask beers. The quality of the kegging process was not as good then as it is today, and sometimes the keg beers are referred to as Plastic Beer. Some people believed that chemicals (adjuncts) were used to create a foam head. These perceptions exist to this day. Despite this consumer concern, keg beer was replacing traditional cask ale in all parts of the UK, primarily because it requires less care to handle. Since 1971, the Campaign for Real Ale (CAMRA) has been conducting a successful consumer campaign which focused attention on those consumers who preferred traditional cask beer. As well as this CAMRA has lobbied the British Parliament successfully to ensure support for cask ale. New, small microbreweries have sprung up to serve those consumers who prefer traditional cask beer. Today many pubs in the UK will serve both keg and cask beer. In modern beer dispensing, a metal keg is pressurised with carbon dioxide (CO2) gas or nitrogen (N2) gas or a combination of both. Pressure in the keg drives the beer to the dispensing tap, or faucet. Pressurised CO2 in the keg's headspace maintains carbonation in the beer. The CO2 pressure varies depending on the amount of CO2 already in the beer and the keg storage temperature. Occasionally the CO2 gas is blended with Nitrogen gas. CO2 / Nitrogen blends are used to allow a higher operating pressure in complex dispense systems. Nitrogen is used under high pressure when dispensing dry stouts (such as Guinness) and other creamy beers because it displaces CO2 to (artificially) form a rich tight head and a less carbonated taste. This makes the beer feel smooth on the palate and gives a foamy appearance. Premixed bottled gas for creamy beers is usually 75% Nitrogen and 25% CO2. This premixed gas which only works well with creamy beers is often referred to as Guinness Gas, Beer Gas, or Aligal. Using "Beer Gas" with more common ale and lager styles can cause the last 5% to 10% of the beer in each keg to taste very flat and lifeless. Country differences Draught beer is usually unpasteurised in America. It is intended to be kept refrigerated between 2°C (35°F) and 4°C (40°F), and consumed quickly after being "tapped". Above 6°C (44°F), a beer may within two days turn sour and cloudy. Below 6°C (44°F), a keg of draft beer should last 20-30 days before it loses its fresh taste and aroma. In the UK, the term keg beer would imply the beer is pasteurised, in contrast to unpasturised cask beer. Some of the newer microbreweries may offer a nitro keg stout which is filtered but not pasteurised, but the older established breweries do pasteurise. One of Australia's most popular beers is Carlton Draught, which is available on tap as well as in both cans and bottles without widgets. Different beers also require different equipment for dispensing. For a detailed listing of brands and their respective keg taps and couplers, please see the Beer Brand / Keg Taps Couplers Listing Smooth flow Smooth flow (also known as cream flow or just smooth) is the name brewers give to beers pressurised with nitrogen; either from a can or bottle with a widget, or from a pressurised keg. Canned and bottled "draught" Recently the words "draft" and "draught" have been used as marketing terms to describe canned or bottled beers, implying that they taste and appear as beers from a keg. Two examples are Miller Genuine Draft, an American lager which is produced using a patented cold filtering system, and Guinness stout in patented "Draught-flow" cans and bottles. Guinness is an example of beers that use nitrogen widgets to create a smooth beer with a large foamy head. In some countries such as Japan, the term "draft" applied to canned or bottled beer indicates that the beer is not pasteurised (though it may be filtered), giving it a fresher taste but shorter shelf life than conventional packaged beers. See also Cask ale Beer tap References External links Draught Beer System Design & Installation Draught Beer Equipment & Maintenance Draught Beer Information: Lots of information regarding draught beer storage and equipment. Compactdraught: How draught taps work | Draught_beer |@lemmatized draught:20 beer:82 keg:30 font:1 delirium:1 café:1 brusselsdraught:1 also:6 know:3 draft:5 tap:10 several:1 relate:1 though:3 slightly:1 different:5 understanding:2 majority:1 reference:2 filtered:1 serve:19 pressurised:2 container:4 widget:4 narrow:1 meaning:1 bottle:8 cask:16 use:12 traditional:5 definition:1 large:3 could:1 either:2 may:5 time:2 overlap:1 cause:2 confusion:1 traditionalist:1 object:1 modern:2 word:6 apply:2 slight:1 usage:1 difference:2 term:11 due:1 history:2 development:1 dispensing:3 joseph:1 bramah:2 patent:2 engine:3 directly:1 carry:3 customer:1 old:2 english:1 dragen:1 german:1 tragen:1 develop:1 series:1 related:1 include:3 drag:1 draw:3 extension:1 come:1 mean:2 serving:1 sens:1 act:2 drinking:1 drink:1 regardless:1 method:4 pump:2 become:4 popular:2 well:4 establish:2 transfer:1 easily:1 via:1 hand:1 article:1 london:1 gazette:1 mention:1 john:1 lofting:1 hold:2 fire:1 say:1 patentee:1 project:1 useful:1 start:1 liquor:1 barrel:2 hour:1 completely:1 fix:1 brass:1 joint:1 screw:1 reasonable:1 rate:1 early:2 century:1 pressurise:5 begin:1 artificial:1 carbonation:2 introduce:1 united:1 kingdom:1 watney:1 experimental:1 pasteurise:4 red:1 take:1 u:1 k:1 late:1 favoured:1 rest:2 europe:1 en:1 pression:1 pressure:9 spread:1 world:1 almost:1 exclusively:1 shortly:1 british:2 consumer:5 organisation:1 call:1 campaign:3 real:4 ale:10 camra:3 found:1 protect:1 unpressurised:1 group:1 devise:1 differentiate:1 expand:1 condition:2 accepted:1 global:1 indicate:2 typical:1 gallon:1 single:2 opening:2 centre:2 top:3 end:1 pressurized:1 often:3 consider:1 synonymous:1 refers:1 specifically:1 refer:3 filter:3 pasteurize:1 process:2 render:1 yeast:1 inactive:1 increase:1 shelf:2 life:2 product:1 expense:1 flavor:1 brew:1 parlance:1 hole:2 near:1 edge:1 spile:1 side:1 unfiltered:1 unpasteurised:2 flow:5 pipe:1 attach:1 artificially:2 fermentation:1 carbon:3 dioxide:3 mixture:1 nitrogen:8 gas:10 contempt:1 since:2 pasteurised:2 replace:2 quality:1 kegging:1 good:1 today:2 sometimes:1 plastic:1 people:1 believe:1 chemical:1 adjunct:1 create:2 foam:1 head:3 perception:1 exist:1 day:3 despite:1 concern:1 part:1 uk:3 primarily:1 require:2 less:2 care:1 handle:1 conduct:1 successful:1 focus:1 attention:1 prefer:2 lobby:1 parliament:1 successfully:1 ensure:1 support:1 new:2 small:1 microbrewery:2 spring:1 many:1 pub:1 metal:1 combination:1 drive:1 faucet:1 headspace:1 maintain:1 varies:1 depend:1 amount:1 already:1 storage:2 temperature:1 occasionally:1 blend:2 allow:1 high:2 operating:1 complex:1 dispense:3 system:3 dry:1 stout:3 guinness:4 creamy:3 displace:1 form:1 rich:1 tight:1 carbonated:1 taste:5 make:1 feel:1 smooth:5 palate:1 give:3 foamy:2 appearance:1 premixed:2 usually:2 work:2 aligal:1 common:1 lager:2 style:1 last:2 flat:1 lifeless:1 country:2 america:1 intend:1 keep:1 refrigerate:1 c:4 f:4 consume:1 quickly:1 within:1 two:2 turn:1 sour:1 cloudy:1 lose:1 fresh:2 aroma:1 would:1 imply:2 contrast:1 unpasturised:1 offer:1 nitro:1 brewery:1 one:1 australia:1 carlton:1 available:1 without:1 equipment:3 detailed:1 listing:1 brand:2 respective:1 coupler:2 please:1 see:2 list:1 cream:1 name:1 brewer:1 recently:1 marketing:1 describe:1 canned:1 bottled:1 appear:1 example:2 miller:1 genuine:1 american:1 produce:1 patented:2 cold:1 filtering:1 japan:1 short:1 conventional:1 packaged:1 external:1 link:1 design:1 installation:1 maintenance:1 information:2 lot:1 regard:1 compactdraught:1 |@bigram draught_beer:12 beer_keg:6 almost_exclusively:1 ale_camra:2 cask_beer:6 cask_ale:5 keg_beer:8 carbon_dioxide:3 ale_lager:1 ale_beer:1 external_link:1 |
1,660 | Cuisine_of_the_United_States | The cuisine of the United States is a style of food preparation derived from the United States. The cuisine has a history dating back before the colonial period when the Native Americans had a rich and diverse cooking style for an equally diverse amount of ingredients. With European colonization, the style of cookery changed vastly, with numerous ingredients introduced from Europe, as well as cooking styles and modern cookbooks. The style of cookery continued to expand into the 19th and 20th centuries with the influx of immigrants from various nations across the world. This influx has created a rich diversity and a unique regional character throughout the country. History Pre-1492 Main Article Native American cuisine Before the European colonists came to America, the Native Americans had an established cookery style that varied greatly from group to group. The vast variety of ingredients and cookery styles were never found in the same locality; any one group had a much more limited diet. Nutrition was an issue for most hunting and gathering societies that wandered widely in search of game and who might encounter serious shortages in wintertime. . Common ingredients Plant foods Sweet potato, an indigenous tuber found in Native American cookery Maize, a grain indigenous to America found in Native American cookery The Native Americans had at least 2,000 separate plant foods which contributed to their cooking. Indigenous root vegetables that were part of the diet included camas bulb, arrowhead, blue lapine, bitterroot, biscuit root, breadroot, prairie turnip, sedge tubers, and whitestar potatoes (Ipomoea lacunosa) along with the sweet potato and white potato. Greens included salmonberry shoots and stalks, coltsfoot, fiddlehead fern, milkweed, wild celery, wood sorrel, purslane, and wild nasturtium. Other vegetables included century plant crowns and flower shoots, yucca blossoms, tule rootstocks, amole stalks, bear grass stalks, cattail rootstocks, narrowleaf yucca stalks, and sotol crowns. , , ; ; ; ; , and . Fruits included strawberries which Europeans named the Virginia strawberry due to being larger than the European dwarf mountain strawberry, as well as huckleberries, blueberries, cherries, currants, gooseberries, plums, crab apples, raspberries, sumac berries, juniper berries, hackberries, elderberries, hawthorne fruit, pitaya, white evening primrose fruit, and yucca fruit (of various species, such as Spanish bayonet, banana yucca). Some fruits were unique to North America at the time, including the fruit of various species of cactus (e.g., cholla, saguaro, nipple cactus, prickly pear, etc.), agarita berries, chokecherries, American persimmons, and the wild beach plum. . . . ; ; ; ; Nuts proliferated in the diet as well, including pecans, hickory nuts, beechnuts, hazelnuts, chestnuts, chinquapins, black walnuts, and butternuts. Acorns were also popularly used to produce oil for seasoning, and pounded into a flour to mix with cornmeal to thicken soups and fried into cakes and breads. Legumes included peanuts, screwbeans, honey locust beans, and mesquite beans. The grain used in most of Native American cooking was maize, while wild rice (not a true grain) was found in certain southern regions. . The seeds from various plants were also commonly utilized: pine nuts (western white pine, western yellow pine, pinyon pine), anglepod, dropseed, pigweed, spurge, sunflower seeds, tumbleweed, unicorn plant. ; ; ; ; . Land animal foods The largest amount of animal protein came from game meats. Large game included bison, deer, elk, moose, bighorn sheep, and bear, mountain lion, along with goat and pronghorn found in the Rocky Mountains. The small game cooked included rabbit, raccoon, opossum, squirrel, wood rat, chipmunk, ground hog, peccary, prairie dog, skunk, badger, beaver, and porcupine. Game birds included turkey, partridge, quail, pigeon, plover, lark and osprey. Water fowl was quite abundant and varied, particularly on the coasts such as ducks, geese, swan, crane and sea crane. Other amphibious proteins included alligators and frogs, which the legs were enjoyed from, especially bullfrogs. Snail meat was also enjoyed, along with various turtles such as the painted turtle, wood turtle, and snapping turtle along with their eggs. In addition the sea turtle and green turtle, endangered today were considered an important spiritual protein by the Native Americans. . Seafood Blue crab was cooked by Native Americans on the east coast of America. Saltwater fish eaten by the Native Americans were cod, lemon sole, flounder, herring, halibut, sturgeon, smelt, drum on the East Coast, and olachen on the West Coast. Whale was hunted by Native Americans off the Northwest coast, especially by the Makah, and used for their meat and oil. A Fact Sheet Issued by the Makah Whaling Commission Seal and walrus were also utilized. Eel from New York's Finger Lakes region were eaten. Catfish seemed to be favored by tribes, including the Modocs. Crustacean included shrimp, lobster, crayfish, and giant crabs in the Northwest and blue crabs in the East. Other shellfish include abalone and geoduck on the California coast, while on the East Coast the surf clam, quahog, and the soft-shell clam. Oysters were eaten on both shores, as were mussels and periwinkles. . Cooking methods Native Americans utilized a number of cooking methods. Grilling meats was common. Spit roasting over a pit fire was common as well. Vegetables, especially root vegetables were often cooked directly in the ashes of the fire. As early Native Americans lacked the proper pottery that could be used directly over a fire, they developed a technique which has caused many anthropologists to call them "Stone Boilers." The Native Americans would heat rocks directly in a fire and then add the bricks to a pot filled with water until it came to a boil so that it would cook the meat or vegetables in the boiling water. Another method was to use an empty bison stomach filled with desired ingredients and suspended over a low fire. The fire would have been insufficient to completely cook the food contained in the stomach however, as the flesh would burn so heated rocks would be added to the food as well. Some Native Americans would also use the leather of a bison hide in the same manner. . The Native Americans are credited as the first in America to create fire-proof pottery to place in direct flame. In what is now the Southwestern United States, Native Americans also created ovens made of adobe called hornos in which to bake items such as breads made from cornmeal. Native Americans in other parts of America made ovens out of dug pits. These pits were also used to steam foods by adding heated rocks or embers and then seaweed or corn husks (or other coverings) placed on top to steam fish and shellfish as well as vegetables; potatoes would be added while still in-skin and corn while in-husk, this would later be referred to as a clambake by the colonists. The hole was also a location for producing what has become Boston baked beans made from beans, maple sugar and a piece of bear fat. . Colonial period Map of the 13 American Colonies in 1775. When the colonists came to America, their initial attempts at survival included planting crops familiar to them from back home in England. In the same way, they farmed animals for clothing and meat in a similar fashion. Through hardships and eventual establishment of trade with Britain, the West Indies and other regions, the colonists were able to establish themselves in the American colonies with a cuisine similar to their previous British cuisine. There were some exceptions to the diet, such as local vegetation and animals, but the colonists attempted to use these items in the same fashion as they had their equivalents or ignore them if they could. The manner of cooking for the American colonists followed along the line of British cookery up until the Revolution. The British sentiment followed in the cookbooks brought to the New World as well. . There was a general disdain for French cookery, even with the French Huguenots in South Carolina and French-Canadians. One of the cookbooks that proliferated in the colonies was The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy written by Hannah Glasse, wrote of disdain for the French style of cookery, stating “the blind folly of this age that would rather be imposed on by a French booby, than give encouragement to a good English cook!” Of the French recipes, she does add to the text she speaks out flagrantly against the dishes as she “… think it an odd jumble of trash.” . Reinforcing the anti-French sentiment was the French and Indian War from 1754-1764. This created a large anxiety against the French, which influenced the English to either deport many of the French, or as in the case of the Acadians, they migrated to Louisiana. The Acadian French did create a large French influence in the diet of those settled in Louisiana, but had little or no influence outside of Louisiana. . Common ingredients The American colonial diet varied depending on where the settled region. Local cuisine patterns had established by the mid 18th century. The New England colonies were extremely similar in their dietary habits to those that many of them had brought from England. A striking difference for the colonists in New England compared to other regions was seasonality. . While in the southern colonies, they could farm almost year round, in the northern colonies, the growing seasons were very restricted. In addition, colonists’ close proximity to the ocean gave them a bounty of fresh fish to add to their diet, especially in the northern colonies. Wheat, however, the grain used to bake bread back in England was almost impossible to grow, and imports of wheat were far from cost productive. . Substitutes in cases such as this included cornmeal. The Johnnycake was a poor substitute to some for wheaten bread, but acceptance by both the northern and southern colonies seems evident. . As many of the New Englanders were originally from England, game hunting was often a pastime from back home that paid off when they immigrated to the New World. Much of the northern colonists depended upon the ability either of themselves to hunt, or for others from which they could purchase game. This was the preferred method for protein consumption over animal husbandry, as it required much less work to defend the kept animals against Native Americans or the French. Livestock and game The more commonly hunted and eaten game included deer, bear, buffalo and wild turkey. The larger muscles of the animals were roasted and served with currant sauce, while the other smaller portions went into soups, stews, sausages, pies and pasties. . In addition to game, mutton was a meat that colonists would enjoy from time to time. The Spanish in Florida originally introduced sheep to the New World, in the north however, the Dutch and English introduced sheep. The keeping of sheep was a result of the English non-practice of animal husbandry. . The keeping of sheep was of importance as it not only provided wool, but also after the sheep had reached an age that it was unmanageable for wool production; it became mutton for the English diet. . The forage–based diet for sheep that prevailed in the Colonies produce a characteristically strong, gamy flavor and a tougher consistency, which required aging and slow cooking to tenderize. Fats and oils A number of fats and oils made from animals served to cook much of the colonial foods. Many homes had a sack made of deerskin filled with bear oil for cooking, while solidified bear fat resembled shortening. Rendered pork fat made the most popular cooking medium, especially from the cooking of bacon. Pork fat was used more often in the southern colonies than the northern colonies as the Spanish introduced pigs earlier to the south. The colonists enjoyed butter in cooking as well, but it was rare prior to the American Revolution, as cattle were not yet plentiful. . Seafood The American lobster was a staple of the colonial diet Those living near the New England shore often dined on fish, crustaceans, and other animals that originated in the waters. Colonists ate large quantities of turtle, and it was an exportable delicacy for Europe. Cod, in both fresh and salted form was enjoyed, with the salted variation created for long storage. The highest quality cod was usually dried, however, and exported to the Mediterranean in exchange for fruits not available in the American colonies. . Lobsters proliferated in the waters as well, and were extremely common in the New England diet. Vegetables A number of vegetables grew in the northern colonies, which included turnips, onions, cabbage, carrots, and parsnips, along with a number of beans, pulses and legumes. These vegetables kept well through the colder months in storage. Other vegetables grew which were salted or pickled for preservation, such as cucumbers. As control over the northern colonies’ farming practices came from the seasons, fresh greens consumption occurred only during the summer months. Pumpkins and gourds were other vegetables that grew well in the northern colonies; often used for fodder for animals in addition to human consumption. In addition to the vegetables, a large number of fruits were grown seasonally. Fruits not eaten in season often saw their way into preservation methods like jam, wet sweetmeats, dried or cooked into pies that could freeze during the winter months. . Alcoholic drinks Prior to the revolution New Englanders consumed large quantities of rum and beer as they had relatively easy access of the goods needed to produce these items from maritime imports. Rum was the distilled spirit of choice as the main ingredient, molasses, was readily available from trade with the West Indies. Further into the interior, one would often find colonists consuming whiskey, as they did not have similar access to the sugar cane. They did have ready access to corn and rye, which they used to produce their whiskey. . However, up until the Revolution many considered whiskey to be a coarse alcohol unfit for human consumption, as many believed that it caused the poor to become raucous and unkempt drunkards. . One item that was important to the production of beer that did not grow well in the colonies however was hops. Hops only grew wild in the New World, and as such, importation from England and elsewhere became essential to beer production. In addition to these alcohol-based products produced in America, imports were seen on merchant shelves, including wine and brandy. . Southern variations In comparison to the northern colonies, the southern colonies were quite diverse in their agricultural diet. Unlike the colonies to the north, the southern colonies did not have a central region of culture. The uplands and the lowlands made up the two main parts of the southern colonies. The slaves and poor of the south often ate a similar diet, which consisted of many of the indigenous New World crops. Salted or smoked pork often supplement the vegetable diet. Rural poor often ate squirrel, possum, rabbit and other woodland animals. Those on the “rice coast” often ate ample amounts of rice, while the grain for the rest of the southern poor and slaves was cornmeal used in breads and porridges. Wheat was not an option for most of those that lived in the southern colonies. . The diet of the uplands often included cabbage, string beans, white potatoes, while most avoided sweet potatoes and peanuts. Non-poor whites in the uplands avoided crops imported from Africa because of the inferred inferiority of crops of the African slaves. Those who could grow or afford wheat often had biscuits on their table for breakfast, along with healthy portions of pork. Salted pork was a staple of any meal, as it used in the preparations of vegetables for flavor, in addition to its direct consumption as a protein. . The lowlands, which included much of the Acadian French regions of Louisiana and the surrounding area, included a varied diet heavily influenced by Africans and Caribbeans, rather than just the French. As such, rice played a large part of the diet as it played a large part of the diets of the Africans and Caribbean. In addition, unlike the uplands, the lowlands subsistence of protein came mostly from coastal seafood and game meats. Much of the diet involved the use of peppers, as it still does today. . Interestingly, although the English had an inherent disdain for French foodways, as well as many of the native foodstuff of the colonies, the French had no such disdain for the indigenous foodstuffs. In fact, they had a vast appreciation for the native ingredients and dishes. . 20th century–21st century One characteristic of American cooking is the fusion of multiple ethnic or regional approaches into completely new cooking styles. The cuisine of the South, for example, has been heavily influenced by immigrants from Africa, France, and Mexico, among others. Asian cooking has played a particularly large role in American fusion cuisine. Asian Cuisine & Foods Similarly, while some dishes considered typically American many have their origins in other countries, American cooks and chefs have substantially altered them over the years, to the degree that the dish as now enjoyed the world over are considered to be American. Hot dogs and hamburgers are both based on traditional German dishes, brought over to America by German immigrants to the United States, but in their modern popular form they can be reasonably considered American dishes, even "All-American", along with the Italian influence of pizza. Hamburgers & Hot Dogs - All-American Food Many companies in the American food industry develop new products requiring minimal preparation, such as frozen entrees. ConAgra’s Chief Is Moving to Revitalize Some Venerable Brands Some corporate kitchens (e.g. General Mills, Campbell's, Kraft Foods) develop consumer recipes featuring their company's products. Many of these recipes have become very popular. For example, the General Mills Betty Crocker's Cookbook, first published in 1950 and currently in its 10th edition, . is commonly found in American homes. Face value: Fictional Betty Crocker gives big business a human touch Common national dishes found on a national level Common dishes found on a national level Regional cuisine Given the United States' large size it has numerous regional variations. The United States' regional cuisine is characterized by its extreme diversity and style with each region having its own distinctive cuisine. New England Main article Cuisine of New England New England clam chowder New England is the most northeastern region of the United States, including the six states of Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. The region consists of a heritage linking it to Britain. The Native American cuisine became part of the cookery style that the early colonists brought with them. The style of New England cookery originated from its colonial roots, that is to say practical, frugal and willing to eat anything other than what they were used to from their British roots. . Much of the cuisine started with one-pot cookery, which resulted in such dishes as succotash, chowder, baked beans, and others. . Lobster is an integral ingredient to the cuisine, indigenous to the shores of the region. Other shellfish of the coastal regions include little neck clams, sea scallops, blue mussels, oysters, soft shell clams and razor shell clams. Much of this shellfish contributes to New England tradition, the clambake. The clambake as known today is a colonial interpretation of a Native American tradition. . The fruits of the region include the Vitis labrusca grapes used in grape juice made by companies such as Welch's, along with jelly, Kosher wine by companies like Mogen David and Manischewitz along with other wineries that make higher quality wines. Apples from New England include the original varieties, Baldwin, Lady, Mother, Pomme Grise, Porter, Roxbury Russet, Wright, Sops of Wine, Peck's Pleasant, Titus Pippin, Westfield-Seek-No-Further, and Duchess of Oldenburg. Cranberries are another fruit indigenous to the region. . Common dishes found on a regional level Ethnic and immigrant influence Contemporary trends and the reclaiming of roots The demand for ethnic foods in the United States reflects the nation's changing diversity as well as its development over time. According to the National Restaurant Association, Restaurant industry sales are expected to reach a record high of $476 billion in 2005, an increase of 4.9 percent over 2004... Driven by consumer demand, the ethnic food market reached record sales in 2002, and has emerged as the fastest growing category in the food and beverage product sector, according to USBX Advisory Services. Minorities in the U.S. spend a combined $142 billion on food and by 2010, America's ethnic population is expected to grow by 40 percent. (par. 6). A movement began during the 1980s among popular leading chefs to reclaim America's ethnic foods within its regional traditions, where these trends originated. One of the earliest was Paul Prudhomme, who in 1984 began the introduction of his influential cookbook, Paul Prodhomme's Louisiana Kitchen, by describing the over 200 year history of Creole and Cajun cooking; he aims to "preserve and expand the Louisiana tradition." n.p. Prodhomme's success quickly inspired other chefs. Norman Van Aken embraced a Floridean type cuisine fused with many ethnic and globalized elements in his Feast of Sunlight cookbook in 1988. The movement finally gained fame around the world when California became swept up in the movement, then seemingly started to lead the trend itself, in, for example, the popular restaurant Chez Panisse in Berkeley. Examples of the Chez Panisse phenomenon, chefs who embraced a new globalized cuisine, were celebrity chefs like Jeremiah Tower and Wolfgang Puck, both former colleagues at the restaurant. Puck went on to describe his belief in contemporary, new style American cuisine in the introduction to The Wolfgang Puck Cookbook: Another major breakthrough, whose originators were once thought to be crazy, is the mixing of ethnic cuisines. It is not at all uncommon to find raw fish listed next to tortillas on the same menu. Ethnic crossovers also occur when distinct elements meet in a single recipe. This country is, after all, a huge melting pot. Why should its cooking not illustrate the American transformation of diversity into unity? n.p. Puck's former colleague, Jeremiah Tower became synonymous with California Cuisine and the overall American culinary revolution. Meanwhile, the restaurant that inspired both Puck and Tower became a distinguished establishment, popularizing its so called "mantra" in its book by Paul Bertolli and owner Alice Waters, Chez Panisse Cooking, in 1988. Published well after the restaurants' founding in 1971, this new cookbook from the restaurant seemed to perfect the idea and philosophy that had developed over the years. The book embraced America's natural bounty, specifically that of California, while containing recipes that reflected Bertoli and Waters' appreciation of both northern Italian and French style foods. Early ethnic influences While the earliest cuisine of the United States was primarily influenced by indigenous Native Americans, the cuisine of the thirteen colonies or the culture of the antebellum American South; the overall culture of the nation, its gastronomy and the growing culinary arts became ever more influenced by its changing ethnic mix and immigrant patterns over the 20th century unto the present. Some of the ethnic groups that continued to influence the cuisine were here in prior years; while others arrived more numerously during “The Great Transatlantic Migration (of 1870–1914) or other mass migrations. Some of the ethnic influences could be found in the nation from after the Civil War and into the History of United States continental expansion during most of the 19th century. Ethnic influences already in the nation at that time would include the following groups and their respective cuisines: Indigenous Native Americans in the United States (Indians) and Native American cuisine Select nationalities of Europe and the respective developments from early modern European cuisine of the colonial age: British-Americans and on-going developments in New England cuisine, the national traditions founded in cuisine of the thirteen colonies and some aspects of other regional cuisine. Spanish Americans (Hispano Americano) and early modern Spanish cuisine, as well as Basque-Americans and Basque cuisine. Early German-American or Pennsylvania Dutch and Pennsylvania Dutch cuisine French Americans and their "New World" regional identities such as: Acadian Cajun and Cajun cuisine The various ethnicities originating from early social factors of Race in the United States and the gastronomy and cuisines of the “New World,” Latin American cuisine and North American cuisine: African-Americans and “Soul Food.” Louisiana Creole and Louisiana Creole cuisine. Louisiana Creole (also called French Créole) refers to native born people of various racial descent who are descended from the Colonial French and/or Spanish settlers of Colonial French Louisiana, before it became part of the United States in 1803 with the Louisiana Purchase. Cuisine of Puerto Rico Mexican-Americans and Mexican-American cuisine; as well as related regional cuisines: Tex-Mex (regional Texas and Mexican fusion) Cal-Mex (regional California and Mexican fusion) Some aspects of “Southwestern cuisine.” Cuisine of New Mexico Later ethnic and immigrant influence Other ethnic groups may have arrived in the United States prior to 20th Century, but they were either not part of the main colonial settlers, indigenous Native Americans, Latin American experience, African-American slave class or Creole people; as likewise, their population numbers were probably not as numerous as the other existing ethnic groups or the subsequent populations of their own respective ethnicities forthcoming during the years unto “The Great Transatlantic Migration” and other mass migrations of the 19th Century. This would also include what is current day United States of America, as every year the population census and U.S. immigration populations change, thus changing the cultural influences of the nation. . The later arrival of many immigrants into the United States seemingly does not discount their profound impact on the national or regional cuisine. Many other ethnic groups have additionally contributed to Cuisine of the United States, some with greater impact and productive success than others; as indeed, some of these more prominent groups include the following (listed alphabetically): Polynesian-Americans, and Polynesian cuisine, Hawaiian cuisine, Cuisine of Philippines Caribbean-Americans and Caribbean cuisine, Cuban Cuisine, Cuisine of Jamaica Chinese-Americans and American Chinese cuisine Irish-Americans and Irish cuisine and Irish pub traditions in America Italian-Americans and Italian-American cuisine German-Americans and German Texans (namely, post-civil war), exemplified in German cuisine other than Pennsylvania Dutch. Greek-Americans and Greek cuisine or Cuisine of the Mediterranean Japanese-Americans and Japanese cuisine, Asian cuisine, Fusion cuisine, and related influences on the Cuisine of Hawaii Jewish-Americans and Jewish Cuisine and Cuisine of the Mediterranean Portuguese-Americans, also known as Luso American and Portuguese cuisine Polish-Americans and Polish cuisine and Cuisine of the Midwestern United States Russian-Americans and Russian cuisine and Cuisine of the Midwestern United States Lithuanian-Americans and Lithuanian cuisine and Cuisine of the Midwestern United States "Italian, Mexican and Chinese (Cantonese) cuisines have indeed joined the mainstream. These three cuisines have become so ingrained in the American culture that they are no longer foreign to the American palate. According to the study, more than nine out of 10 consumers are familiar with and have tried these foods, and about half report eating them frequently. The research also indicates that Italian, Mexican and Chinese (Cantonese) have become so adapted to such an extent that "authenticity" is no longer a concern to customers." Hensley, Sue, National Restaurant Association. Article/ News Release, "International Cuisine Reaches America's Main Street," 10 August 2000. Contributions from these ethnic foods have become just as common as traditional “American’ fares like hotdogs, hamburgers, beef steaks, cherry pie, Coca-Cola, milkshakes, fried chicken and so on. Nowadays, Americans also have a ubiquitous consumption of foods like pizza and pasta, tacos and burritos to “General Tso's Chicken” and Fortune Cookies. Fascination with these and other ethnic foods may also vary with region. Notable American chefs American chefs have been influential both in the food industry and in popular culture. An important 19th Century American chef was Charles Ranhofer of Delmonico's Restaurant in New York City. American cooking has been exported around the world, both through the global expansion of restaurant chains such as T.G.I. Friday's and McDonald's and the efforts of individual restaurateurs such as Bob Payton, credited with bringing American-style pizza to the UK. Bob Payton, 50, Restaurateur, Dies. New York Times July 16, 1994, Obituary, p 28. The first generation of television chefs such as Robert Carrier and Julia Child tended to concentrate on cooking based primarily on European, especially French and Italian, cuisines. Only during the 1970s and 80s did television chefs such as James Beard and Jeff Smith shift the focus towards home-grown cooking styles, particularly those of the different ethnic groups within the nation. Notable American restaurant chefs include Thomas Keller, Charlie Trotter, Grant Achatz, Alfred Portale, Paul Prudhomme, Paul Bertolli, Mario Batali, Alice Waters, Emeril Lagasse, Cat Cora, and celebrity chefs like Bobby Flay, Ina Garten, and Todd English. See also Cuisine of the Southern United States Cuisine of the Southwestern United States Christmas food in the United States Cuisine of the Midwestern United States Cuisine of the Northeastern United States Americanized cuisine North American cuisine Western pattern diet Locavores Cuisine of California and California Cuisine Culinary revolution New American cuisine Notes Works cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . External links Key Ingredients: America by Food -Educational companion to Smithsonian Institution's exhibit on American food ways. The State of American Cuisine - A report issued by the James Beard Foundation in July, 2008. | Cuisine_of_the_United_States |@lemmatized cuisine:84 united:24 state:28 style:16 food:27 preparation:3 derive:1 history:4 date:1 back:4 colonial:11 period:2 native:28 american:89 rich:2 diverse:3 cooking:16 equally:1 amount:3 ingredient:9 european:5 colonization:1 cookery:13 change:5 vastly:1 numerous:3 introduce:4 europe:3 well:17 modern:4 cookbook:8 continue:2 expand:2 century:10 influx:2 immigrant:7 various:7 nation:7 across:1 world:11 create:6 diversity:4 unique:2 regional:13 character:1 throughout:1 country:3 pre:1 main:6 article:3 colonist:12 come:6 america:16 establish:3 vary:3 greatly:1 group:10 vast:2 variety:2 never:1 find:12 locality:1 one:7 much:8 limited:1 diet:20 nutrition:1 issue:3 hunting:2 gathering:1 society:1 wander:1 widely:1 search:1 game:11 might:1 encounter:1 serious:1 shortage:1 wintertime:1 common:9 plant:6 sweet:3 potato:7 indigenous:10 tuber:2 maize:2 grain:5 least:1 separate:1 contribute:2 root:6 vegetable:13 part:8 include:27 camas:1 bulb:1 arrowhead:1 blue:4 lapine:1 bitterroot:1 biscuit:2 breadroot:1 prairie:2 turnip:2 sedge:1 whitestar:1 ipomoea:1 lacunosa:1 along:10 white:5 green:3 salmonberry:1 shoot:2 stalk:4 coltsfoot:1 fiddlehead:1 fern:1 milkweed:1 wild:6 celery:1 wood:3 sorrel:1 purslane:1 nasturtium:1 included:3 crown:2 flower:1 yucca:4 blossom:1 tule:1 rootstock:2 amole:1 bear:6 grass:1 cattail:1 narrowleaf:1 sotol:1 fruit:11 strawberry:3 europeans:1 name:1 virginia:1 due:1 large:13 dwarf:1 mountain:3 huckleberry:1 blueberry:1 cherry:2 currant:2 gooseberry:1 plum:2 crab:4 apple:2 raspberry:1 sumac:1 berry:3 juniper:1 hackberry:1 elderberry:1 hawthorne:1 pitaya:1 even:3 primrose:1 specie:2 spanish:6 bayonet:1 banana:1 north:5 time:6 cactus:2 e:2 g:3 cholla:1 saguaro:1 nipple:1 prickly:1 pear:1 etc:1 agarita:1 chokecherry:1 persimmon:1 beach:1 nut:3 proliferate:3 pecan:1 hickory:1 beechnut:1 hazelnut:1 chestnut:1 chinquapin:1 black:1 walnut:1 butternut:1 acorn:1 also:17 popularly:1 use:17 produce:6 oil:5 seasoning:1 pound:1 flour:1 mix:2 cornmeal:4 thicken:1 soup:2 fry:2 cake:1 bread:5 legume:2 peanut:2 screwbean:1 honey:1 locust:1 bean:7 mesquite:1 rice:4 true:1 certain:1 southern:11 region:15 seed:2 commonly:3 utilized:2 pine:4 western:3 yellow:1 pinyon:1 anglepod:1 dropseed:1 pigweed:1 spurge:1 sunflower:1 tumbleweed:1 unicorn:1 land:1 animal:12 protein:6 meat:8 bison:3 deer:2 elk:1 moose:1 bighorn:1 sheep:7 lion:1 goat:1 pronghorn:1 rocky:1 small:2 cook:14 rabbit:2 raccoon:1 opossum:1 squirrel:2 rat:1 chipmunk:1 ground:1 hog:1 peccary:1 dog:3 skunk:1 badger:1 beaver:1 porcupine:1 bird:1 turkey:2 partridge:1 quail:1 pigeon:1 plover:1 lark:1 osprey:1 water:8 fowl:1 quite:2 abundant:1 varied:2 particularly:3 coast:8 duck:1 geese:1 swan:1 crane:2 sea:3 amphibious:1 alligator:1 frog:1 leg:1 enjoy:6 especially:6 bullfrog:1 snail:1 turtle:7 painted:1 snap:1 egg:1 addition:8 endanger:1 today:3 consider:5 important:3 spiritual:1 seafood:3 east:4 saltwater:1 fish:5 eat:9 cod:3 lemon:1 sole:1 flounder:1 herring:1 halibut:1 sturgeon:1 smelt:1 drum:1 olachen:1 west:3 whale:2 hunt:3 northwest:2 makah:2 fact:2 sheet:1 commission:1 seal:1 walrus:1 eel:1 new:32 york:3 finger:1 lake:1 catfish:1 seem:3 favor:1 tribe:1 modocs:1 crustacean:2 shrimp:1 lobster:4 crayfish:1 giant:1 shellfish:4 abalone:1 geoduck:1 california:7 surf:1 clam:6 quahog:1 soft:2 shell:3 oyster:2 shore:3 mussel:2 periwinkle:1 method:5 utilize:1 number:6 grill:1 spit:1 roast:2 pit:3 fire:7 often:13 directly:3 ash:1 early:9 lack:1 proper:1 pottery:2 could:7 develop:4 technique:1 cause:2 many:15 anthropologist:1 call:4 stone:1 boiler:1 would:13 heat:1 rock:3 add:6 brick:1 pot:3 fill:3 boil:1 boiling:1 another:3 empty:1 stomach:2 desired:1 suspend:1 low:1 insufficient:1 completely:2 contain:2 however:6 flesh:1 burn:1 heated:2 leather:1 hide:1 manner:2 credit:2 first:3 proof:1 place:2 direct:2 flame:1 southwestern:3 oven:1 make:10 adobe:1 hornos:1 bake:2 item:4 ovens:1 dug:1 steam:2 ember:1 seaweed:1 corn:3 husk:2 covering:1 top:1 still:2 skin:1 later:2 refer:1 clambake:3 hole:1 location:1 become:14 boston:1 baked:2 maple:1 sugar:2 piece:1 fat:6 map:1 colony:25 initial:1 attempt:2 survival:1 crop:4 familiar:2 home:5 england:17 way:3 farm:3 clothing:1 similar:5 fashion:2 hardship:1 eventual:1 establishment:2 trade:2 britain:2 indie:2 able:1 previous:1 british:5 exception:1 local:2 vegetation:1 equivalent:1 ignore:1 follow:2 line:1 revolution:6 sentiment:2 bring:5 general:4 disdain:4 french:23 huguenot:1 south:5 carolina:1 canadian:1 art:2 plain:1 easy:2 write:2 hannah:1 glasse:1 blind:1 folly:1 age:4 rather:2 impose:1 booby:1 give:4 encouragement:1 good:2 english:7 recipe:5 text:1 speak:1 flagrantly:1 dish:10 think:2 odd:1 jumble:1 trash:1 reinforce:1 anti:1 indian:2 war:3 anxiety:1 influence:15 either:3 deport:1 case:2 acadian:4 migrate:1 louisiana:11 settle:1 little:2 outside:1 ingredients:1 depend:2 settled:1 pattern:3 mid:1 extremely:2 dietary:1 habit:1 striking:1 difference:1 compare:1 seasonality:1 almost:2 year:7 round:1 northern:10 grow:12 season:3 restrict:1 colonists:2 close:1 proximity:1 ocean:1 bounty:2 fresh:3 wheat:4 impossible:1 import:4 far:3 cost:1 productive:2 substitute:2 johnnycake:1 poor:6 wheaten:1 acceptance:1 evident:1 englanders:2 originally:2 pastime:1 pay:1 immigrate:1 upon:1 ability:1 others:5 purchase:2 preferred:1 consumption:6 husbandry:2 require:3 less:1 work:2 defend:1 kept:1 livestock:1 eaten:1 buffalo:1 muscle:1 serve:2 sauce:1 portion:2 go:3 stew:1 sausage:1 pie:3 pasty:1 mutton:2 florida:1 dutch:4 keep:3 result:2 non:2 practice:2 importance:1 provided:1 wool:2 reach:4 unmanageable:1 production:3 forage:1 base:4 prevail:1 characteristically:1 strong:1 gamy:1 flavor:2 tougher:1 consistency:1 slow:1 tenderize:1 sack:1 made:1 deerskin:1 solidify:1 resemble:1 shortening:1 render:1 pork:5 popular:6 medium:1 bacon:1 pig:1 earlier:1 butter:1 rare:1 prior:4 cattle:1 yet:1 plentiful:1 staple:2 live:2 near:1 din:1 originate:4 quantity:2 exportable:1 delicacy:1 salted:2 form:2 variation:3 long:1 storage:2 high:3 quality:2 usually:1 dry:2 export:2 mediterranean:3 exchange:1 available:2 vegetables:1 onion:1 cabbage:2 carrot:1 parsnip:1 pulse:1 cold:1 month:3 salt:3 pickle:1 preservation:2 cucumber:1 control:1 occur:2 summer:1 pumpkin:1 gourd:1 fodder:1 human:3 seasonally:1 saw:1 like:6 jam:1 wet:1 sweetmeat:1 freeze:1 winter:1 alcoholic:1 drink:1 consume:2 rum:2 beer:3 relatively:1 access:3 need:1 maritime:1 distilled:1 spirit:1 choice:1 molasses:1 readily:1 interior:1 whiskey:3 cane:1 ready:1 rye:1 coarse:1 alcohol:2 unfit:1 believe:1 raucous:1 unkempt:1 drunkard:1 hop:2 importation:1 elsewhere:1 essential:1 product:4 see:2 merchant:1 shelf:1 wine:4 brandy:1 comparison:1 agricultural:1 unlike:2 central:1 culture:5 upland:4 lowland:3 two:1 slave:4 consist:2 smoke:1 supplement:1 rural:1 ate:1 possum:1 woodland:1 ample:1 rest:1 porridge:1 option:1 string:1 avoided:1 avoid:1 africa:2 inferred:1 inferiority:1 african:5 afford:1 table:1 breakfast:1 healthy:1 meal:1 surround:1 area:1 heavily:2 caribbean:4 play:3 subsistence:1 mostly:1 coastal:2 involve:1 pepper:1 interestingly:1 although:1 inherent:1 foodways:1 foodstuff:2 appreciation:2 characteristic:1 fusion:5 multiple:1 ethnic:21 approach:1 example:4 france:1 mexico:2 among:2 asian:3 role:1 similarly:1 typically:1 origin:1 chef:12 substantially:1 alter:1 degree:1 hot:2 hamburger:3 traditional:2 german:6 reasonably:1 italian:7 pizza:3 company:4 industry:3 minimal:1 frozen:1 entree:1 conagra:1 chief:1 move:1 revitalize:1 venerable:1 brand:1 corporate:1 kitchen:2 mill:2 campbell:1 kraft:1 consumer:3 feature:1 betty:2 crocker:2 publish:2 currently:1 edition:1 face:1 value:1 fictional:1 big:1 business:1 touch:1 national:7 level:3 size:1 characterize:1 extreme:1 distinctive:1 chowder:2 northeastern:2 six:1 connecticut:1 maine:1 massachusetts:1 hampshire:1 rhode:1 island:1 vermont:1 heritage:1 link:2 say:1 practical:1 frugal:1 willing:1 anything:1 start:2 succotash:1 integral:1 neck:1 scallop:1 razor:1 contributes:1 tradition:6 know:2 interpretation:1 vitis:1 labrusca:1 grape:2 juice:1 welch:1 jelly:1 kosher:1 mogen:1 david:1 manischewitz:1 winery:1 original:1 baldwin:1 lady:1 mother:1 pomme:1 grise:1 porter:1 roxbury:1 russet:1 wright:1 sop:1 peck:1 pleasant:1 titus:1 pippin:1 westfield:1 seek:1 duchess:1 oldenburg:1 cranberry:1 contemporary:2 trend:3 reclaiming:1 demand:2 reflect:2 development:3 accord:3 restaurant:11 association:2 sale:2 expect:2 record:2 billion:2 increase:1 percent:2 drive:1 market:1 emerge:1 fast:1 category:1 beverage:1 sector:1 usbx:1 advisory:1 service:1 minority:1 u:2 spend:1 combined:1 population:5 par:1 movement:3 begin:2 lead:2 reclaim:1 within:2 paul:5 prudhomme:2 introduction:2 influential:2 prodhomme:2 describe:2 creole:5 cajun:3 aim:1 preserve:1 n:2 p:3 success:2 quickly:1 inspire:2 norman:1 van:1 aken:1 embrace:3 floridean:1 type:1 fuse:1 globalized:2 element:2 feast:1 sunlight:1 finally:1 gain:1 fame:1 around:2 sweep:1 seemingly:2 chez:3 panisse:3 berkeley:1 phenomenon:1 celebrity:2 jeremiah:2 tower:3 wolfgang:2 puck:5 former:2 colleague:2 belief:1 major:1 breakthrough:1 whose:1 originator:1 crazy:1 mixing:1 uncommon:1 raw:1 list:2 next:1 tortillas:1 menu:1 crossover:1 distinct:1 meet:1 single:1 huge:1 melting:1 illustrate:1 transformation:1 unity:1 synonymous:1 overall:2 culinary:3 meanwhile:1 distinguish:1 popularize:1 mantra:1 book:2 bertolli:2 owner:1 alice:2 founding:1 perfect:1 idea:1 philosophy:1 natural:1 specifically:1 bertoli:1 primarily:2 thirteen:2 antebellum:1 gastronomy:2 ever:1 influenced:1 unto:2 present:1 arrive:2 numerously:1 great:3 transatlantic:2 migration:4 mass:2 civil:2 continental:1 expansion:2 already:1 following:2 respective:3 select:1 nationality:1 found:1 aspect:2 hispano:1 americano:1 basque:2 pennsylvania:3 identity:1 ethnicity:2 social:1 factor:1 race:1 latin:2 soul:1 créole:1 refers:1 born:1 people:2 racial:1 descent:1 descend:1 settler:2 puerto:1 rico:1 mexican:6 related:2 tex:1 mex:2 texas:1 cal:1 may:2 experience:1 class:1 likewise:1 probably:1 exist:1 subsequent:1 forthcoming:1 current:1 day:1 unite:1 every:1 census:1 immigration:1 thus:1 cultural:1 late:1 arrival:1 discount:1 profound:1 impact:2 additionally:1 indeed:2 prominent:1 alphabetically:1 polynesian:2 hawaiian:1 philippine:1 cuban:1 jamaica:1 chinese:4 irish:3 pub:1 texan:1 namely:1 post:1 exemplify:1 greek:2 japanese:2 hawaii:1 jewish:2 portuguese:2 luso:1 polish:2 midwestern:4 russian:2 lithuanian:2 cantonese:2 join:1 mainstream:1 three:1 ingrained:1 longer:2 foreign:1 palate:1 study:1 nine:1 try:1 half:1 report:2 frequently:1 research:1 indicate:1 adapted:1 extent:1 authenticity:1 concern:1 customer:1 hensley:1 sue:1 news:1 release:1 international:1 street:1 august:1 contribution:1 fare:1 hotdog:1 beef:1 steak:1 coca:1 cola:1 milkshake:1 chicken:2 nowadays:1 ubiquitous:1 pasta:1 taco:1 burrito:1 tso:1 fortune:1 cooky:1 fascination:1 notable:2 charles:1 ranhofer:1 delmonico:1 city:1 global:1 chain:1 friday:1 mcdonald:1 effort:1 individual:1 restaurateur:2 bob:2 payton:2 uk:1 dy:1 july:2 obituary:1 generation:1 television:2 robert:1 carrier:1 julia:1 child:1 tend:1 concentrate:1 james:2 beard:2 jeff:1 smith:1 shift:1 focus:1 towards:1 grown:1 different:1 thomas:1 keller:1 charlie:1 trotter:1 grant:1 achatz:1 alfred:1 portale:1 mario:1 batali:1 emeril:1 lagasse:1 cat:1 cora:1 bobby:1 flay:1 ina:1 garten:1 todd:1 christmas:1 americanize:1 locavores:1 note:1 cite:1 external:1 key:1 educational:1 companion:1 smithsonian:1 institution:1 exhibit:1 foundation:1 |@bigram influx_immigrant:1 hunting_gathering:1 sweet_potato:3 juniper_berry:1 prickly_pear:1 fry_cake:1 pine_nut:1 sunflower_seed:1 deer_elk:1 rocky_mountain:1 duck_geese:1 seal_walrus:1 shrimp_lobster:1 corn_husk:2 fish_shellfish:1 baked_bean:2 west_indie:2 dietary_habit:1 bake_bread:1 animal_husbandry:2 soup_stew:1 alcoholic_drink:1 distilled_spirit:1 sugar_cane:1 clam_chowder:1 rhode_island:1 grape_juice:1 paul_prudhomme:2 cajun_cuisine:1 louisiana_creole:3 creole_cuisine:1 puerto_rico:1 tex_mex:1 cuisine_midwestern:4 cantonese_cuisine:1 coca_cola:1 fry_chicken:1 emeril_lagasse:1 external_link:1 smithsonian_institution:1 |
1,661 | Median | In probability theory and statistics, a median is described as the number separating the higher half of a sample, a population, or a probability distribution, from the lower half. The median of a finite list of numbers can be found by arranging all the observations from lowest value to highest value and picking the middle one. If there is an even number of observations, the median is not unique, so one often takes the mean of the two middle values. At most half the population have values less than the median and at most half have values greater than the median. If both groups contain less than half the population, then some of the population is exactly equal to the median. For example, if , then the median of the list {a, b, c} is b, and if , then the median of the list {a, b, c, d} is the mean of b and c, i.e. it is . The median can be used when a distribution is skewed, when end values are not known, or when less importance is attached to outliers, e.g. because they may be measurement errors. A disadvantage is the difficulty of handling it theoretically. Notation The median of some variable is denoted either as or as http://mathworld.wolfram.com/StatisticalMedian.html Measures of statistical dispersion When the median is used as a location parameter in descriptive statistics, there are several choices for a measure of variability: the range, the interquartile range, the mean absolute deviation, and the median absolute deviation. Since the median is the same as the second quartile, its calculation is illustrated in the article on quartiles. Working with computers, a population of integers should have an integer median. Thus, for an integer population with an even number of elements, there are two medians known as lower median and upper median. For floating point population, the median lies somewhere between the two middle elements, depending on the distribution. Median is the middle value after arranging data by any order. Medians of probability distributions For any probability distribution on the real line with cumulative distribution function F, regardless of whether it is any kind of continuous probability distribution, in particular an absolutely continuous distribution (and therefore has a probability density function), or a discrete probability distribution, a median m satisfies the inequalities or in which a Riemann-Stieltjes integral is used. For an absolutely continuous probability distribution with probability density function ƒ, we have Medians of particular distributions: The medians of certain types of distributions can be easily calculated from their parameters: The median of a normal distribution with mean μ and variance σ2 is μ. In fact, for a normal distribution, mean = median = mode. The median of a uniform distribution in the interval [a, b] is (a + b) / 2, which is also the mean. The median of a Cauchy distribution with location parameter x0 and scale parameter y is x0, the location parameter. The median of an exponential distribution with rate parameter λ is the natural logarithm of 2 divided by the rate parameter: ln 2/λ. The median of a Weibull distribution with shape parameter k and scale parameter λ is λ(ln 2)1/k. Medians in descriptive statistics The median is primarily used for skewed distributions, which it summarizes differently than the arithmetic mean. Consider the multiset { 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 9 }. The median is 2 in this case, as is the mode, and it might be seen as a better indication of central tendency than the arithmetic mean of 3.166. Calculation of medians is a popular technique in summary statistics and summarizing statistical data, since it is simple to understand and easy to calculate, while also giving a measure that is more robust in the presence of outlier values than is the mean. Theoretical properties An optimality property The median is also the central point which minimizes the average of the absolute deviations; in the example above this would be (1 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 1 + 7) / 6 = 1.5 using the median, while it would be 1.944 using the mean. In the language of probability theory, the value of c that minimizes is the median of the probability distribution of the random variable X. Note, however, that c is not always unique, and therefore not well defined in general. An inequality relating means and medians For continuous probability distributions, the difference between the median and the mean is less than or equal to one standard deviation. See an inequality on location and scale parameters. The sample median Efficient computation of the sample median Even though sorting n items takes in general O(n log n) operations, by using a "divide and conquer" algorithm the median of n items can be computed with only O(n) operations (in fact, you can always find the k-th element of a list of values with this method; this is called the selection problem). Easy explanation of the sample median For an odd number of values As an example, we will calculate the median of the following population of numbers: 1, 5, 2, 8, 7. Start by sorting the numbers: 1, 2, 5, 7, 8. In this case, 5 is the median, because when the numbers are sorted, it is the middle number. For an even number of values As an example of this scenario, we will calculate the median of the following population of numbers: 1, 5, 2, 10, 8, 7. Again, start by sorting the numbers: 1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 10. In this case, both 5 and 7, and all numbers between 5 and 7 are medians of the data points. Sometimes one takes the average of the two median numbers to get a unique value ((5 + 7)/2 = 12/2 = 6). Other estimates of the median If data are represented by a statistical model specifying a particular family of probability distributions, then estimates of the median can be obtained by fitting that family of probability distributions to the data and calculating the theoretical median of the fitted distribution. See, for example Pareto interpolation. History Gustav Fechner introduced the median into the formal analysis of data. Keynes, John Maynard; A Treatise on Probability (1921), Pt II Ch XVII §5 (p 201). See also Order statistic An inequality on location and scale parameters The median is the 2nd quartile, 5th decile, and 50th percentile. Median voter theory The median in general is a biased estimator. Median graph The centerpoint is a generalization of the median for data in higher dimensions. References External links A Guide to Understanding & Calculating the Median Median as a weighted arithmetic mean of all Sample Observations On-line calculator Calculating the median A problem involving the mean, the median, and the mode. mathworld: Statistical Median Python script for Median computations and income inequality metrics | Median |@lemmatized probability:15 theory:3 statistic:5 median:62 describe:1 number:14 separate:1 high:3 half:5 sample:5 population:9 distribution:24 low:3 finite:1 list:4 find:2 arrange:2 observation:3 value:13 pick:1 middle:5 one:4 even:4 unique:3 often:1 take:3 mean:14 two:4 less:4 great:1 group:1 contain:1 exactly:1 equal:2 example:5 b:6 c:5 e:2 use:7 skew:1 end:1 know:2 importance:1 attach:1 outlier:2 g:1 may:1 measurement:1 error:1 disadvantage:1 difficulty:1 handle:1 theoretically:1 notation:1 variable:2 denote:1 either:1 http:1 mathworld:2 wolfram:1 com:1 statisticalmedian:1 html:1 measure:3 statistical:4 dispersion:1 location:5 parameter:11 descriptive:2 several:1 choice:1 variability:1 range:2 interquartile:1 absolute:3 deviation:4 since:2 second:1 quartile:3 calculation:2 illustrate:1 article:1 work:1 computer:1 integer:3 thus:1 element:3 upper:1 float:1 point:3 lie:1 somewhere:1 depend:1 data:7 order:2 real:1 line:2 cumulative:1 function:3 f:1 regardless:1 whether:1 kind:1 continuous:4 particular:3 absolutely:2 therefore:2 density:2 discrete:1 satisfy:1 inequality:5 riemann:1 stieltjes:1 integral:1 ƒ:1 certain:1 type:1 easily:1 calculate:7 normal:2 μ:2 variance:1 fact:2 mode:3 uniform:1 interval:1 also:4 cauchy:1 scale:4 exponential:1 rate:2 λ:4 natural:1 logarithm:1 divide:2 ln:2 weibull:1 shape:1 k:3 primarily:1 skewed:1 summarize:2 differently:1 arithmetic:3 consider:1 multiset:1 case:3 might:1 see:4 good:1 indication:1 central:2 tendency:1 popular:1 technique:1 summary:1 simple:1 understand:2 easy:2 give:1 robust:1 presence:1 theoretical:2 property:2 optimality:1 minimize:2 average:2 would:2 language:1 random:1 x:1 note:1 however:1 always:2 well:1 define:1 general:3 relating:1 difference:1 standard:1 efficient:1 computation:2 though:1 sort:4 n:5 item:2 log:1 operation:2 conquer:1 algorithm:1 compute:1 th:1 method:1 call:1 selection:1 problem:2 explanation:1 odd:1 following:2 start:2 scenario:1 sometimes:1 get:1 estimate:2 represent:1 model:1 specify:1 family:2 obtain:1 fit:1 fitted:1 pareto:1 interpolation:1 history:1 gustav:1 fechner:1 introduce:1 formal:1 analysis:1 keynes:1 john:1 maynard:1 treatise:1 pt:1 ii:1 ch:1 xvii:1 p:1 decile:1 percentile:1 voter:1 biased:1 estimator:1 graph:1 centerpoint:1 generalization:1 dimension:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 guide:1 weighted:1 calculator:1 involve:1 python:1 script:1 income:1 metric:1 |@bigram probability_distribution:10 mathworld_wolfram:1 cumulative_distribution:1 riemann_stieltjes:1 stieltjes_integral:1 μ_variance:1 λ_λ:1 random_variable:1 biased_estimator:1 external_link:1 |
1,662 | New_Age | New Age Spirituality often incorporates aspects of the Earth, Moon, and outer space; the term New Age refers to the coming Astrological Age of Aquarius. The New Age (also known as the New Age Movement, New Age Spirituality, and Cosmic Humanism) is a decentralized Western social and spiritual movement that seeks "Universal Truth" and the attainment of the highest individual human potential. It combines aspects of cosmology, astrology, esotericism, alternative medicine, music, collectivism, sustainability, and nature. New Age Spirituality is characterized by an individual approach to spiritual practices and philosophies, while rejecting religious doctrine and dogma. The New Age Movement includes elements of older spiritual and religious traditions ranging from atheism and monotheism through classical pantheism, naturalistic pantheism, and panentheism to polytheism combined with science and Gaia philosophy: particularly archaeoastronomy, astronomy, ecology, environmentalism, the Gaia hypothesis, psychology, and physics. New Age practices and philosophies sometimes draw inspiration from major world religions: Buddhism, Chinese folk religion, Christianity, Hinduism, Judaism, and Sufism; with particularly strong influences from East Asian religions, Gnosticism, Neopaganism, New Thought, Spiritualism, Theosophy, Universalism, and Western esotericism. Additional phrases which refer to the New Age Movement include All is One What Is “New Age? Michael D. Langone, Ph.D. Cult Observer, 1993, Volume 10, No. 1. Accessed July 2006. and Mind-Body-Spirit. New Age Transformed J Gordon Melton, Director Institute for the Study of American Religion. Accessed June 2006. The modern New Age Movement began in the late 1960s and early 1970s, although elements can be traced back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It gained momentum in the 1980s and strengthened with the Harmonic Convergence event in 1987. Diverse individuals from around the world practice New Age Spirituality. Movement Origins The term New Age was used as early as 1809 by William Blake who described a belief in a spiritual and artistic "New Age" in his preface to Milton: a Poem; it was a concept originally formed by another Christian mystic Emanuel Swedenborg in the 18th century. Some of the New Age Movement's constituent elements appeared initially in 19th century metaphysical movements: Spiritualism, Theosophy, and New Thought; also, alternative medicine movements chiropractic and naturopathy. These movements in turn have roots in Transcendentalism, Mesmerism, Swedenborgianism, and various earlier Western esoteric or occult traditions, such as the hermetic arts of astrology, magic, alchemy, and kabbalah. The term New Age was used in this context was in Madame Blavatsky's book The Secret Doctrine, published in 1888. Neil Spencer, "True as the Stars Above", Victor Gollancz, 2000, Pg 115, ISBN 0575 06769 1 A weekly journal of Christian liberalism and socialism titled The New Age was published as early as 1894; History of the New Age periodical, Brown University, Modernist Journals Project it was sold to a group of socialist writers headed by Alfred Richard Orage and Holbrook Jackson in 1907. Other historical personalities were involved: H. G. Wells, George Bernard Shaw, and William Butler Yeats; the magazine became a forum for politics, literature, and the arts. Modernism In and Beyond the “Little Magazines”, Winter 2007, Professor Ann Ardis, Brown University The New Age in Encyclopedia Britannica article on Orage Between 1908 and 1914, it was instrumental in pioneering the British avant-garde from vorticism to imagism. After 1914, publisher Orage met P. D. Ouspensky, a follower of G. I. Gurdjieff, and began correspondence with Harry Houdini, becoming less interested in literature and art, with an increased focus on mysticism and other spiritual topics; the magazine was sold in 1921. According to Brown University, The New Age "helped to shape modernism in literature and the arts from 1907 to 1922." Development Popularisation behind these ideas has roots in the work of early 20th century writers such as D. H. Lawrence and William Butler Yeats. In the early to middle 1900s, American mystic, theologian, and founder of the Association for Research and Enlightenment Edgar Cayce was a seminal influence on what later would be termed the New Age Movement; he was known in particular for the practice some refer to as channeling. The early New Age Movement in Russia during the 1910s was influenced by Nicholas Roerich and Helena Roerich, who taught in the Theosophical tradition and founded the Agni Yoga Society. Former Theosophist Rudolf Steiner and his Anthroposophical Movement are a major influence. Neo-Theosophist Alice Bailey published the book Discipleship in the New Age (1944), which used the term New Age in reference to the transition from the Astrological Age of Pisces to Aquarius. While claims of racial bias in the writings of Rudolf Steiner and Alice Bailey were made, Shnirelman, Victor A. Russian Neo-pagan Myths and Antisemitism in Acta no. 13, Analysis of Current Trends in Antisemitism. The Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. 1998. Retrieved 2007-08-22 Steiner emphasized racial equality as a principle central to anthroposophical thought and humanity's progress. Anthroposophie und die Rassismus-Vorwürfe, ISBN 978-3-924391-24-9, p. 309ff Any racial elements from these influences have not remained part of the Anthroposophical Society as contemporary adherents of the society have either not adopted or repudiated these beliefs. Another early usage of the term, was by the American artist, mystic, and philosopher Walter Russell, who spoke in an essay of "...this New Age philosophy of the spiritual re-awakening of man...", also published in 1944. Postmodern A barrel house—the first dwelling constructed at the Findhorn Ecovillage The subculture that would later take on the descriptive term New Age already existed in the early 1970s, based on and continuing themes originally present in 1960s counterculture. The Findhorn Foundation – an intentional community near Findhorn, Moray, Scotland founded in 1962 – played an instrumental role during the early growth period of the New Age Movement; it continues to operate the Findhorn Ecovillage. Widespread use of the term New Age began in the mid 1970s (reflected in the title of monthly periodical New Age Journal) and probably influenced several thousand small metaphysical book and gift stores that increasingly defined themselves as "New Age bookstores". As a result of the large scale activities surrounding the Harmonic Convergence in the mid 1980s – the term was further popularised by the American mass media to describe the alternative spiritual subculture – including practices such as meditation, channeling, crystal healing, astral projection, psychic experience, holistic health, simple living, and environmentalism; or belief in phenomena such as Earth mysteries, ancient astronauts, extraterrestrial life, unidentified flying objects, crop circles, and reincarnation. A range of New Age publications appeared by the late 1980s such as Psychic Guide (later renamed Body, Mind & Spirit), Yoga Journal, New Age Voice, New Age Retailer, and NaPRA ReView ("New Age Publishing and Retailers Association"). There were several key moments in raising public awareness of this subculture: the publication of Linda Goodman's best selling astrology books Sun Signs (1968) and Love Signs (1978); Hair: The American Tribal Love-Rock Musical (1967) with the opening song "Aquarius" and its memorable line "This is the dawning of the Age of Aquarius" [emphasis added]; the broadcast of Shirley MacLaine's television mini-series Out on a Limb (1987); and the Harmonic Convergence (1987) organized by José Argüelles in Sedona, Arizona. Also influential were the claims of channelers Jane Roberts (the Seth Material) and J. Z. Knight (Ramtha), as well as revealed writings A Course in Miracles (1976) by Helen Schucman, The Celestine Prophecy (1993) by James Redfield, and Conversations with God (1995) by Neale Donald Walsch. Relevant works also include the writings of Eckhart Tolle, Barbara Marx Hubbard, Marianne Williamson, Deepak Chopra, John Holland, Gary Zukav, and Wayne Dyer; also, The Secret by Rhonda Byrne, which was based on the writings of Esther Hicks and Jerry Hicks. While authors J. Gordon Melton, Wouter Hanegraaff, and Paul Heelas have emphasised the mentioned personal aspects; Mark Satin, Mark Satin, New Age Politics (orig. 1976) Theodore Roszak, Theodore Roszak, Person/Planet (1978), Marilyn Ferguson, Marilyn Ferguson, Aquarian Conspiracy, (1980) and Corinne McLaughlin Gordon Davidson and Corinne McLaughlin, Spiritual Politics (1994) have described New Age as a values-based sociopolitical movement. Spirituality There is no unified belief system, though many practices and philosophies are common: Terminology Forces It is commonly held that there exist certain forces, which are independent of spiritual beings or agencies and distinct from forces defined by science, such as gravitation and electromagnetism. These forces are elemental in nature and operate in an automatic manner as part of the natural order; they cause seeds to sprout, grow, and bloom, etc. Power The forces, and everything else, are energized by a mystical power that exists in varying degrees in all things. Power is transferable, through physical contact, sensory perception, or mere proximity. Power may be accumulated or depleted in a person or object through a variety of mechanisms, including fate and esoteric practices. This power is held to be physically observable as an aura or subtle body and psi energy; and when encountered in great concentration, may even be dangerous. Energy In some belief systems, forces and power may seem to merge, e.g., in the concept of vital force that exists in many traditional belief systems, and finds its expression in New Age concepts such as the energies in Therapeutic Touch or Reiki and ideas of flowing streams of power in the Earth, like ley lines in Britain and Europe and Earth energies addressed in the Chinese geomantic system of feng shui. Spirit All beings (particularly sentient beings) are accompanied by a specific, intentional energy which corresponds to their consciousness, but is in some way independent of their corporeal existence. This energy typically is more primary than the physical entity, in the sense that it remains in some form after the physical death. Philosophy and cosmology Theism There is a general and abstract idea of God, which can be understood in many ways; seen as a superseding of the need to anthropomorphize deity. Not to be confused with pantheism. Spiritual beings Gods, angels, Ascended Masters, elementals, ghosts, faeries, Spirit guides and extraterrestrials can spiritually guide us, if we open ourselves to their guidance. Afterlife Consciousness persists after death as life in different forms; the afterlife exists for further learning through the form of a spirit, reincarnation and/or near-death experiences. There may be a belief in hell, but typically not in the traditional Christian sense or Islamic sense of eternal damnation. Universalist views of the afterlife are common. Age of Aquarius The current time period is claimed by some astrologers to be the dawning of the Age of Aquarius correlated to various changes in the world and some claim that the early 1960s was the actual beginning of the Age of Aquarius, though this claim is highly contentious. Common claims about the developments associated with the Age of Aquarius include, but are not limited to, human rights, democracy, innovative technology, electricity, computers, and aviation. Esoteric claims are that the Age of Aquarius will see a rise in consciousness. Neil Spencer, "true as the stars above",2000, Victor Gollancz, Pgs 115–127 Astrology Horoscopes and the Zodiac are used in understanding, interpreting, and organizing information about personality, human affairs, and other terrestrial matters. Teleology Life has a purpose; this includes a belief in synchronicity—that coincidences have spiritual meaning and lessons to teach those whom are open to them. Everything is universally connected through God and participates in the same energy. There is a cosmic goal and a belief that all entities are (knowingly or unknowingly) cooperating towards this goal. Indigo children Children are being born with a more highly developed spiritual power than earlier generations. Interpersonal relationships There are opportunities to learn about one's self and relationships are destined to be repeated until they are healthy. Dane Rudhyar Chapter 6: The Time For Mutation is Now of Directives for New Life. Intuition An important aspect of perception, which has been offset by a somewhat strict rationalism, noted specially in the works of proeminent psychologist Jung. Optimism Positive thinking supported by affirmations will achieve success in anything Supercharged Affirmations The Salem New Age Center, Salem Massachusetts USA . Accessed August 2007. This is based on the concept that Thought Creates. Therefore, as one begins focusing attention and consciousness on the positive, on the "half-filled" glass of water, reality starts shifting and materializing the positive intentions and aspects of life. A certain critical mass of people with a highly spiritual consciousness will bring about a sudden change in the whole population. Humans have a responsibility to take part in positive creative activity and to work to heal ourselves, each other and the planet. Accepting Total and Complete Responsibility: New Age NeoFeminist Violence against Sethna Feminism Psychology.1992; 2: pages 113-119 Human potential The human mind has much greater potential than that ascribed to it and is even capable of overriding physical reality. Spiritual Healing Humans have potential healing powers, such as therapeutic touch, which can be developed to heal others through touch or at a distance. Religion and science Eclectic spirituality New age writers argue people should follow their own individual path to spirituality instead of dogma. Some adherents of traditional disciplines such as the Lakota people, a tribe of the indigenous peoples of the Americas, reject the term New Age. They see the movement it represents as either not fully understanding, deliberately trivializing, or distorting their disciplines. James V. Fenelon, Culturicide, resistance, and survival of the Lakota ("Sioux Nation"), pp. 295-297. New York: Garland Pub., 1998. ISBN 0815331193. Accessed 2009-03-16. Anti-Patriarchy Feminine forms of spirituality, including feminine images of the divine, such as the female Aeon Sophia in Gnosticism, are deprecated by patriarchal religions. Stonehenge and other ancient sites are revered by many who practice New Age Spirituality. Ancient civilizations Atlantis, Lemuria, Mu, and other lost lands existed. Relics such as the crystal skulls and monuments such as Stonehenge and the Great Pyramid of Giza were left behind. Psychic perception Certain geographic locations emanate psychic energy (sometimes through ley lines) and were considered sacred in pagan religions throughout the world. Eastern world practices Meditation, Yoga, Tantra, Chinese medicine, Ayurveda, martial arts, Tai chi chuan, Falun Gong, Qigong, Reflexology, Reiki, and other Eastern practices can assist in realizing one’s potential. Diet Food influences both the mind and body; it is generally preferable to practice vegetarianism by eating fresh organic food, which is locally grown and in season. Fasting can help achieve higher levels of consciousness. Fast Fasting- New Age Spirituality Dictionary at The Global Oneness Commitment. Accessed April 2008 Mathematics An appeal to the language of nature and mathematics, as evidenced by numerology, Kabbala, Sacred geometry, and gnosticism to discern the nature of God. Science Quantum mechanics, parapsychology, and the Gaia hypothesis have been used in quantum mysticism to validate spiritual principles. Authors Deepak Chopra, Fritjof Capra, Fred Alan Wolf, and Gary Zukav have linked quantum mechanics to New Age Spirituality, which is presented in the film What the Bleep Do We Know!? (2004); also, in connection with the Law of Attraction, which is related to New Thought and presented in the film The Secret (2006). They have interpreted the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, quantum entanglement, wave function collapse, or the many-worlds interpretation to mean that all objects in the Universe are one (monism), that possibility and existence are endless, and that the physical world is only what one believes it to be. In medicine, such practices as therapeutic touch, homeopathy, chiropractic, and naturopathy involve hypotheses and treatments that have not been accepted by the conventional, science-based medical community through the normal course of empirical testing. Lifestyle New Age Spirituality has led to a wide array of literature on the subject and an active niche market: books, New Age music, crafts, and services in alternative medicine are available at New Age stores, fairs, and festivals. People who embrace New Age lifestyle or beliefs are included in the Lifestyle of Health and Sustainability (LOHAS) demographic market segment, currently in a growth phase, related to sustainable living, green ecological initiatives, and generally composed of a relatively affluent and well-educated segment. The LOHAS market segment in 2006 was estimated at $300 billion, approximately 30% of the United States consumer market. According to The New York Times, a study by the Natural Marketing Institute showed that in 2000, 68 million Americans were included within the LOHAS demographic. Author Paul H. Ray, who coined the term Cultural Creatives in his book The Cultural Creatives: How 50 Million People Are Changing the World (2000), states "What you're seeing is a demand for products of equal quality that are also virtuous." Holistic health Practitioners of New Age Spirituality may use alternative medicine in addition to or in place of conventional medicine; while some conventional physicians have adopted aspects or the complete approach of holistic health. Music New Age music is peaceful music of various styles, which is intended to create inspiration, relaxation, and positive feelings while listening. Studies have determined that New Age music is an effective component of stress management. Some New Age music albums come with notes to encourage use in meditation. This style began in the 1970s with the works of free-form jazz groups recording on the ECM label; such as Oregon, the Paul Winter Group, and other pre-ambient bands; as well as ambient music performer Brian Eno and classical avant-garde musician Daniel Kobialka. In the early 1970s, it was mostly instrumental with both acoustic and electronic styles. New Age music evolved to include a wide range of styles from electronic space music and acoustic instrumentals using Western instruments to spiritual chanting from other cultures – including Native American flutes and drums, synthesizers, and instrumental world music sounds. Sustainable living There is an emphasis on living in a simple sustainable way that attempts to reduce an individual's or society's use of the Earth's natural resources and shuns the consumer society. Reception The American author Ken Wilber posits that much New Age thought falls into what he termed the pre/trans fallacy. According to Wilber, human developmental psychology moves from the pre-personal, through the personal, then to the transpersonal (spiritually advanced or enlightened) level. He claims that 80% of New Age Spirituality is pre-rational (pre-conventional) and relies primarily on mythic-magical thinking—in contrast to post-rational which includes and transcends rational, and is a genuine world-centric consciousness. It is also claimed by Paul Heelas that the New Age may have grown too entrepeneurial, as is evident in the title of LeMusurier's book, "This New Age Business". Certainly some New Age practices have been used to encourage financial gain (see the article Transpersonal business studies. Constance Cumbey offered the first major criticism of the New Age Movement from a Christian perspective. Her book, THE HIDDEN DANGERS OF THE RAINBOW was released in 1983. See also Eco-communalism Higher consciousness New Age communities Paradigm shift Planet Earth Plastic shaman Social equality Spiritual evolution Notes and references Further reading Hammer, Olav Claiming Knowledge: Strategies of Epistemology from Theosophy to the New Age Brill Academic Publishers, 2003 ISBN 900413638X Hanegraaff, Wouter J. New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought Brill Academic Publishers, 1996 ISBN 9004106960 Heelas, Paul The New Age Movement: Religion, Culture and Society in the Age of Postmodernity Blackwell Publishing, 1996 ISBN 0631193324 Kemp, Daren. New Age, a Guide: Alternative Spiritualities from Aquarian Conspiracy to Next Age Edinburgh University Press, 2004 ISBN 0748615326 Kemp, Daren and James R. Lewis, eds. Handbook of New Age Brill Academic Publishers, 2007 ISBN 9004153551 External links | New_Age |@lemmatized new:72 age:76 spirituality:15 often:1 incorporate:1 aspect:6 earth:6 moon:1 outer:1 space:2 term:12 refers:1 come:2 astrological:2 aquarius:9 also:10 know:3 movement:18 cosmic:2 humanism:1 decentralized:1 western:5 social:2 spiritual:17 seek:1 universal:1 truth:1 attainment:1 high:3 individual:5 human:8 potential:5 combine:2 cosmology:2 astrology:4 esotericism:3 alternative:6 medicine:7 music:11 collectivism:1 sustainability:2 nature:4 characterize:1 approach:2 practice:13 philosophy:6 reject:2 religious:2 doctrine:2 dogma:2 include:13 element:4 old:1 tradition:3 range:3 atheism:1 monotheism:1 classical:2 pantheism:3 naturalistic:1 panentheism:1 polytheism:1 science:5 gaia:3 particularly:3 archaeoastronomy:1 astronomy:1 ecology:1 environmentalism:2 hypothesis:3 psychology:3 physic:1 sometimes:2 draw:1 inspiration:2 major:3 world:10 religion:9 buddhism:1 chinese:3 folk:1 christianity:1 hinduism:1 judaism:1 sufism:1 strong:1 influence:7 east:1 asian:1 gnosticism:3 neopaganism:1 thought:6 spiritualism:2 theosophy:3 universalism:1 additional:1 phrase:1 refer:2 one:6 michael:1 langone:1 ph:1 cult:1 observer:1 volume:1 access:4 july:1 mind:4 body:4 spirit:5 transform:1 j:4 gordon:3 melton:2 director:1 institute:2 study:5 american:8 june:1 modern:1 begin:5 late:3 early:14 although:1 trace:1 back:1 century:4 gain:2 momentum:1 strengthen:1 harmonic:3 convergence:3 event:1 diverse:1 around:1 origins:1 use:11 william:3 blake:1 describe:3 belief:10 artistic:1 preface:1 milton:1 poem:1 concept:4 originally:2 form:6 another:2 christian:4 mystic:3 emanuel:1 swedenborg:1 constituent:1 appear:2 initially:1 metaphysical:2 chiropractic:2 naturopathy:2 turn:1 root:2 transcendentalism:1 mesmerism:1 swedenborgianism:1 various:3 esoteric:3 occult:1 hermetic:1 art:5 magic:1 alchemy:1 kabbalah:1 context:1 madame:1 blavatsky:1 book:8 secret:3 publish:4 neil:2 spencer:2 true:2 star:2 victor:3 gollancz:2 pg:1 isbn:8 weekly:1 journal:4 liberalism:1 socialism:1 title:3 history:1 periodical:2 brown:3 university:5 modernist:1 project:1 sell:3 group:3 socialist:1 writer:3 head:1 alfred:1 richard:1 orage:3 holbrook:1 jackson:1 historical:1 personality:2 involve:2 h:3 g:3 well:4 george:1 bernard:1 shaw:1 butler:2 yeats:2 magazine:3 become:2 forum:1 politics:3 literature:4 modernism:2 beyond:1 little:1 winter:2 professor:1 ann:1 ardis:1 encyclopedia:1 britannica:1 article:2 instrumental:4 pioneer:1 british:1 avant:2 garde:2 vorticism:1 imagism:1 publisher:4 meet:1 p:2 ouspensky:1 follower:1 gurdjieff:1 correspondence:1 harry:1 houdini:1 less:1 interested:1 increased:1 focus:2 mysticism:2 topic:1 accord:3 help:2 shape:1 development:2 popularisation:1 behind:2 idea:3 work:5 lawrence:1 middle:1 theologian:1 founder:1 association:2 research:1 enlightenment:1 edgar:1 cayce:1 seminal:1 later:3 would:2 particular:1 channeling:1 russia:1 nicholas:1 roerich:2 helena:1 teach:2 theosophical:1 found:2 agni:1 yoga:3 society:6 former:1 theosophist:2 rudolf:2 steiner:3 anthroposophical:3 neo:2 alice:2 bailey:2 discipleship:1 reference:2 transition:1 pisces:1 claim:10 racial:3 bias:1 writing:4 make:1 shnirelman:1 russian:1 pagan:2 myth:1 antisemitism:3 acta:1 analysis:1 current:2 trend:1 vidal:1 sassoon:1 international:1 center:2 hebrew:1 jerusalem:1 retrieve:1 emphasize:1 equality:2 principle:3 central:1 humanity:1 progress:1 anthroposophie:1 und:1 die:1 rassismus:1 vorwürfe:1 remain:2 part:3 contemporary:1 adherent:2 either:2 adopt:2 repudiate:1 usage:1 artist:1 philosopher:1 walter:1 russell:1 speak:1 essay:1 awakening:1 man:1 postmodern:1 barrel:1 house:1 first:2 dwelling:1 construct:1 findhorn:4 ecovillage:2 subculture:3 take:2 descriptive:1 already:1 exist:6 base:5 continue:2 theme:1 present:3 counterculture:1 foundation:1 intentional:2 community:3 near:2 moray:1 scotland:1 play:1 role:1 growth:2 period:2 operate:2 widespread:1 mid:2 reflect:1 monthly:1 probably:1 several:2 thousand:1 small:1 gift:1 store:2 increasingly:1 define:2 bookstores:1 result:1 large:1 scale:1 activity:2 surround:1 far:2 popularise:1 mass:2 medium:1 meditation:3 channel:1 crystal:2 healing:3 astral:1 projection:1 psychic:4 experience:2 holistic:3 health:4 simple:2 living:4 phenomenon:1 mystery:1 ancient:3 astronaut:1 extraterrestrial:2 life:5 unidentified:1 fly:1 object:3 crop:1 circle:1 reincarnation:2 publication:2 guide:4 rename:1 voice:1 retailer:2 napra:1 review:1 publishing:2 key:1 moment:1 raise:1 public:1 awareness:1 linda:1 goodman:1 best:1 sun:1 sign:2 love:2 hair:1 tribal:1 rock:1 musical:1 opening:1 song:1 memorable:1 line:3 dawning:2 emphasis:2 add:1 broadcast:1 shirley:1 maclaine:1 television:1 mini:1 series:1 limb:1 organize:2 josé:1 argüelles:1 sedona:1 arizona:1 influential:1 channelers:1 jane:1 robert:1 seth:1 material:1 z:1 knight:1 ramtha:1 reveal:1 course:2 miracle:1 helen:1 schucman:1 celestine:1 prophecy:1 james:3 redfield:1 conversation:1 god:5 neale:1 donald:1 walsch:1 relevant:1 eckhart:1 tolle:1 barbara:1 marx:1 hubbard:1 marianne:1 williamson:1 deepak:2 chopra:2 john:1 holland:1 gary:2 zukav:2 wayne:1 dyer:1 rhonda:1 byrne:1 esther:1 hick:2 jerry:1 author:4 wouter:2 hanegraaff:2 paul:5 heelas:3 emphasise:1 mentioned:1 personal:3 mark:2 satin:2 orig:1 theodore:2 roszak:2 person:2 planet:3 marilyn:2 ferguson:2 aquarian:2 conspiracy:2 corinne:2 mclaughlin:2 davidson:1 value:1 sociopolitical:1 unified:1 system:4 though:2 many:5 common:3 terminology:1 force:7 commonly:1 hold:2 certain:3 independent:2 agency:1 distinct:1 gravitation:1 electromagnetism:1 elemental:1 automatic:1 manner:1 natural:3 order:1 cause:1 seed:1 sprout:1 grow:2 bloom:1 etc:1 power:9 everything:2 else:1 energize:1 mystical:1 vary:1 degree:1 thing:1 transferable:1 physical:5 contact:1 sensory:1 perception:3 mere:1 proximity:1 may:6 accumulate:1 deplete:1 variety:1 mechanism:1 fate:1 physically:1 observable:1 aura:1 subtle:1 psi:1 energy:8 encounter:1 great:3 concentration:1 even:2 dangerous:1 seem:1 merge:1 e:1 vital:1 traditional:3 find:1 expression:1 therapeutic:3 touch:4 reiki:2 flow:1 stream:1 like:1 ley:2 britain:1 europe:1 address:1 geomantic:1 feng:1 shui:1 sentient:1 accompany:1 specific:1 correspond:1 consciousness:8 way:3 corporeal:1 existence:2 typically:2 primary:1 entity:2 sense:3 death:3 theism:1 general:1 abstract:1 understand:1 see:5 superseding:1 need:1 anthropomorphize:1 deity:1 confuse:1 angel:1 ascend:1 master:1 elementals:1 ghost:1 faery:1 spiritually:2 u:1 open:2 guidance:1 afterlife:3 persists:1 different:1 learning:1 hell:1 islamic:1 eternal:1 damnation:1 universalist:1 view:1 time:3 astrologer:1 correlate:1 change:3 actual:1 beginning:1 highly:3 contentious:1 associate:1 limit:1 right:1 democracy:1 innovative:1 technology:1 electricity:1 computer:1 aviation:1 rise:1 pgs:1 horoscope:1 zodiac:1 understanding:2 interpreting:1 information:1 affair:1 terrestrial:1 matter:1 teleology:1 purpose:1 synchronicity:1 coincidence:1 meaning:1 lesson:1 universally:1 connect:1 participates:1 goal:2 knowingly:1 unknowingly:1 cooperate:1 towards:1 indigo:1 child:2 bear:1 developed:1 generation:1 interpersonal:1 relationship:2 opportunity:1 learn:1 self:1 destine:1 repeat:1 healthy:1 dane:1 rudhyar:1 chapter:1 mutation:1 directive:1 intuition:1 important:1 offset:1 somewhat:1 strict:1 rationalism:1 note:3 specially:1 proeminent:1 psychologist:1 jung:1 optimism:1 positive:5 thinking:2 support:1 affirmation:2 achieve:2 success:1 anything:1 supercharged:1 salem:2 massachusetts:1 usa:1 august:1 think:1 creates:1 therefore:1 attention:1 half:1 fill:1 glass:1 water:1 reality:2 start:1 shift:2 materialize:1 intention:1 critical:1 people:6 bring:1 sudden:1 whole:1 population:1 responsibility:2 creative:1 heal:2 accept:2 total:1 complete:2 neofeminist:1 violence:1 sethna:1 feminism:1 page:1 much:2 ascribe:1 capable:1 override:1 develop:1 others:1 distance:1 eclectic:1 argue:1 follow:1 path:1 instead:1 discipline:2 lakota:2 tribe:1 indigenous:1 america:1 represent:1 fully:1 deliberately:1 trivialize:1 distort:1 v:1 fenelon:1 culturicide:1 resistance:1 survival:1 sioux:1 nation:1 pp:1 york:2 garland:1 pub:1 accessed:1 anti:1 patriarchy:1 feminine:2 image:1 divine:1 female:1 aeon:1 sophia:1 deprecate:1 patriarchal:1 stonehenge:2 site:1 revere:1 civilization:1 atlantis:1 lemuria:1 mu:1 lose:1 land:1 relic:1 skull:1 monument:1 pyramid:1 giza:1 leave:1 geographic:1 location:1 emanate:1 consider:1 sacred:2 throughout:1 eastern:2 tantra:1 ayurveda:1 martial:1 tai:1 chi:1 chuan:1 falun:1 gong:1 qigong:1 reflexology:1 assist:1 realize:1 diet:1 food:2 generally:2 preferable:1 vegetarianism:1 eat:1 fresh:1 organic:1 locally:1 grown:1 season:1 fasting:1 level:2 fast:2 dictionary:1 global:1 oneness:1 commitment:1 april:1 mathematics:2 appeal:1 language:1 evidence:1 numerology:1 kabbala:1 geometry:1 discern:1 quantum:4 mechanic:2 parapsychology:1 validate:1 fritjof:1 capra:1 fred:1 alan:1 wolf:1 link:2 film:2 bleep:1 connection:1 law:1 attraction:1 relate:2 interpret:1 heisenberg:1 uncertainty:1 entanglement:1 wave:1 function:1 collapse:1 interpretation:1 mean:1 universe:1 monism:1 possibility:1 endless:1 believe:1 homeopathy:1 treatment:1 conventional:4 medical:1 normal:1 empirical:1 testing:1 lifestyle:3 lead:1 wide:2 array:1 subject:1 active:1 niche:1 market:4 craft:1 service:1 available:1 fair:1 festival:1 embrace:1 lohas:3 demographic:2 segment:3 currently:1 phase:1 sustainable:3 green:1 ecological:1 initiative:1 compose:1 relatively:1 affluent:1 educate:1 estimate:1 billion:1 approximately:1 united:1 state:2 consumer:2 marketing:1 show:1 million:2 within:1 ray:1 coin:1 cultural:2 creatives:2 seeing:1 demand:1 product:1 equal:1 quality:1 virtuous:1 practitioner:1 addition:1 place:1 physician:1 peaceful:1 style:4 intend:1 create:1 relaxation:1 feeling:1 listen:1 determine:1 effective:1 component:1 stress:1 management:1 albums:1 encourage:2 free:1 jazz:1 record:1 ecm:1 label:1 oregon:1 pre:5 ambient:2 band:1 performer:1 brian:1 eno:1 musician:1 daniel:1 kobialka:1 mostly:1 acoustic:2 electronic:2 evolve:1 instrumentals:1 instrument:1 chanting:1 culture:3 native:1 flute:1 drum:1 synthesizer:1 sound:1 attempt:1 reduce:1 resource:1 shun:1 reception:1 ken:1 wilber:2 posit:1 fall:1 trans:1 fallacy:1 developmental:1 move:1 transpersonal:2 advance:1 enlighten:1 rational:3 rely:1 primarily:1 mythic:1 magical:1 contrast:1 post:1 transcend:1 genuine:1 centric:1 entrepeneurial:1 evident:1 lemusurier:1 business:2 certainly:1 financial:1 constance:1 cumbey:1 offer:1 criticism:1 perspective:1 hidden:1 danger:1 rainbow:1 release:1 eco:1 communalism:1 paradigm:1 plastic:1 shaman:1 evolution:1 read:1 hammer:1 olav:1 knowledge:1 strategy:1 epistemology:1 brill:3 academic:3 mirror:1 secular:1 postmodernity:1 blackwell:1 kemp:2 daren:2 next:1 edinburgh:1 press:1 r:1 lewis:1 ed:1 handbook:1 external:1 |@bigram naturalistic_pantheism:1 pantheism_panentheism:1 gaia_hypothesis:2 western_esotericism:1 gordon_melton:2 emanuel_swedenborg:1 madame_blavatsky:1 victor_gollancz:2 bernard_shaw:1 butler_yeats:2 encyclopedia_britannica:1 avant_garde:2 edgar_cayce:1 rudolf_steiner:2 alice_bailey:2 racial_equality:1 anthroposophical_society:1 spiritual_awakening:1 astral_projection:1 shirley_maclaine:1 everything_else:1 sensory_perception:1 feng_shui:1 eternal_damnation:1 interpersonal_relationship:1 salem_massachusetts:1 spiritual_healing:1 lakota_sioux:1 garland_pub:1 crystal_skull:1 pyramid_giza:1 martial_art:1 tai_chi:1 falun_gong:1 quantum_mechanic:2 heisenberg_uncertainty:1 quantum_entanglement:1 brian_eno:1 developmental_psychology:1 brill_academic:3 wouter_j:1 blackwell_publishing:1 external_link:1 |
1,663 | AGM-65_Maverick | A-10 Thunderbolt II firing off an AGM-65. The AGM-65 Maverick is an air-to-ground tactical missile (AGM) designed for close air support. It is effective against a wide range of tactical targets, including armor, air defenses, ships, ground transportation, and fuel storage facilities. The AGM-65F (infrared targeting) used by the U.S. Navy has an infrared guidance system optimized for ship tracking and a larger penetrating warhead than the shaped charge warhead used by the U.S. Marine Corps and the U.S. Air Force ( vs. ). The infrared TV camera enables the pilot to lock-on to targets through light fog where the conventional TV seeker's view would be just as limited as the pilot's. The AGM-65 has two types of warheads; one has a contact fuze in the nose, and the other has a heavyweight warhead with a delayed fuze, which penetrates the target with its kinetic energy before detonating. The latter is most effective against large, hard targets. The propulsion system for both types is a solid-fuel rocket motor behind the warhead. The Maverick missile is unable to lock onto targets on its own; it has to be given input by the pilot or Weapon Systems Officer (WSO). In an A-10, for example, the video feed from the seeker head is relayed to a screen in the cockpit, where the pilot can check the locked target of the missile before launch. A crosshair on the head-up display (HUD) is shifted by the pilot to set the approximate target while the missile will then automatically recognize and lock on to the target. Once the missile is launched, it requires no further assistance from the launch vehicle and tracks its target automatically. This makes it a fire-and-forget weapon. Operators AGM-65 missiles were employed by F-16 Fighting Falcons and A-10 Thunderbolt IIs during Operation Desert Storm in 1991 to attack armored targets. Mavericks played an important part in the destruction of Iraq's military force. LAU-117 Maverick launchers have also been used on American Navy, Air Force, and Marine Corps aircraft: A-4 Skyhawk A-6 Intruder A-7 Corsair II A-10 Thunderbolt II AH-1W AV-8 Harrier II F-4 Phantom II Soko/Lola Utva G-4M Super Galeb Northrop F-5 F-15E Strike Eagle F-16 Fighting Falcon F/A-18 Hornet General Dynamics F-111 P-3 Orion SH-2G Soko J-22 Orao Other nations Canadian Forces Air Command: CF-18 Hornet (AGM-65G Maverick) Hellenic Air Force: F-16 Block 30, F-16 Block 50, F-16 Block 52+ and F-4 Phantom II Hungarian Air Force: JAS 39 Gripen Indonesian Air Force: F-16A/B Block 15 OCU Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force: F-4E Phantom II,SH-3D sea king Israel Air Force: F-16 Fighting Falcon Italian Navy: AV-8B Harrier Royal Malaysian Air Force: F/A-18D Hornet, BAE Hawk 208 and Mikoyan MIG-29N Fulcrum Royal Netherlands Air Force: F-16 MLU Royal New Zealand Navy: Kaman SH-2G Seasprite; and Royal New Zealand Air Force: A-4K Skyhawk (after being upgraded in the late 80's under Project Kahu, retired 2001) Pakistan Air Force: F-16 Fighting Falcon Polish Air Force: F-16 Block 50/52 Plus Portuguese Air Force: F-16A/B Block 15 OCU, F-16AM/BM MLU Republic of China Air Force (Taiwan): F-16A/B Block 20 Serbian Air Force: Soko J-22 Orao and Soko/Lola Utva G-4M Super Galeb Republic of Singapore Air Force: F-16C/D Block 52 Republic of Korea Air Force: A-50, F-16C/D Block 52D, F-15K, F-4D/E Spanish Air Force: EF-18; and Spanish Navy AV-8B Harrier Swedish Air Force: JAS 39 Gripen Royal Thai Air Force: F-16A/B Block 15 OCU and JAS-39 Gripen Turkish Air Force: F-16 Block 50/52 Plus, F-4E Royal Air Force: Harrier GR7 JMSDF See also Joint Air to Ground Missile AGM-114 Hellfire Kh-29—Russian counterpart References | AGM-65_Maverick |@lemmatized thunderbolt:3 ii:8 fire:2 agm:8 maverick:5 air:27 ground:3 tactical:2 missile:7 design:1 close:1 support:1 effective:2 wide:1 range:1 target:10 include:1 armor:1 defense:1 ship:2 transportation:1 fuel:2 storage:1 facility:1 infrared:3 targeting:1 use:3 u:3 navy:5 guidance:1 system:3 optimize:1 tracking:1 large:2 penetrate:2 warhead:5 shaped:1 charge:1 marine:2 corp:2 force:24 v:1 tv:2 camera:1 enable:1 pilot:5 lock:3 light:1 fog:1 conventional:1 seeker:2 view:1 would:1 limited:1 two:1 type:2 one:1 contact:1 fuze:2 nose:1 heavyweight:1 delayed:1 kinetic:1 energy:1 detonate:1 latter:1 hard:1 propulsion:1 solid:1 rocket:1 motor:1 behind:1 unable:1 onto:1 give:1 input:1 weapon:2 officer:1 wso:1 example:1 video:1 feed:1 head:2 relay:1 screen:1 cockpit:1 check:1 locked:1 launch:3 crosshair:1 display:1 hud:1 shift:1 set:1 approximate:1 automatically:2 recognize:1 require:1 assistance:1 vehicle:1 track:1 make:1 forget:1 operator:1 employ:1 f:28 fighting:1 falcon:4 operation:1 desert:1 storm:1 attack:1 armored:1 play:1 important:1 part:1 destruction:1 iraq:1 military:1 lau:1 launcher:1 also:2 american:1 aircraft:1 skyhawk:2 intruder:1 corsair:1 ah:1 av:3 harrier:4 phantom:3 soko:4 lola:2 utva:2 g:2 super:2 galeb:2 northrop:1 strike:1 eagle:1 fight:3 hornet:3 general:1 dynamic:1 p:1 orion:1 sh:3 j:2 orao:2 nation:1 canadian:1 command:1 cf:1 hellenic:1 block:11 hungarian:1 jas:3 gripen:3 indonesian:1 b:4 ocu:3 islamic:1 republic:4 iran:1 sea:1 king:1 israel:1 italian:1 royal:6 malaysian:1 bae:1 hawk:1 mikoyan:1 mig:1 fulcrum:1 netherlands:1 mlu:2 new:2 zealand:2 kaman:1 seasprite:1 upgrade:1 late:1 project:1 kahu:1 retired:1 pakistan:1 polish:1 plus:2 portuguese:1 bm:1 china:1 taiwan:1 serbian:1 singapore:1 korea:1 e:1 spanish:2 ef:1 swedish:1 thai:1 turkish:1 jmsdf:1 see:1 joint:1 hellfire:1 kh:1 russian:1 counterpart:1 reference:1 |@bigram agm_maverick:2 missile_agm:2 marine_corp:2 kinetic_energy:1 display_hud:1 av_harrier:3 fight_falcon:3 f_hornet:2 cf_hornet:1 jas_gripen:3 mikoyan_mig:1 mig_fulcrum:1 |
1,664 | Ares | In Greek mythology, Ares (Ancient Greek: [á.rὲεs], Μodern Greek: Άρης ['a.ris]) is the son of Zeus and Hera. Though often referred to as the Olympian god of warfare, he is more accurately the god of bloodlust, or slaughter personified: "Ares is apparently an ancient abstract noun meaning throng of battle, war." Walter Burkert, Greek Religion (Harvard) 1985:pt III.2.12 p 169 Etymology Ares was the God of War. The name Ares derives from the Greek word αρή (are), the Ionic form of the Doric αρά (ara), "bane, ruin, curse, imprecation". Ara in Greek mythology was the god of Destruction and Revenge. Online Etymology Dictionary Are, Georg Autenrieth, A Homeric Dictionary, at Perseus Are, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus There may also be a connection with the Roman war god Mars, via hypothetical Proto-Indo-European *M̥rēs; compare Ancient Greek μάρναμαι (marnamai), "to fight, to battle". Marnamai, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus Identity and character He is an important Olympian god in the epic tradition represented by the Iliad. The reading of his character remains ambiguous, in a late 6th-century funerary inscription from Attica: "Stay and mourn at the tomb of dead Kroisos/ Whom raging Ares destroyed one day, fighting in the foremost ranks". Athens, NM 3851) quoted in Andrew Stewart, One Hundred Greek Sculptors: Their Careers and Extant Works, Introduction: I. "The Sources" The Romans identified him as Mars, the god of war and agriculture, whom they had inherited from the Etruscans; but, among them, Mars stood in much higher esteem. (See also Athena.) Among the Hellenes, Ares was always distrusted. "You are the most hateful to me of the gods who hold Olympus," Zeus tells him in the Iliad (5.890); "forever strife is dear to you and wars and slaughter". Although Ares' half-sister Athena was also considered a war deity, her stance was that of strategic warfare, whereas Ares's tended to be one of unpredictable violence. Athena and Ares were enemies. His birthplace and true home was placed far off, among the barbarous and warlike Thracians, Iliad 13.301; Ovid, Ars Amatoria, II.10. to whom he withdrew after his affair with Aphrodite was revealed. Homer Odyssey viii. 361; for Ares/Mars and Thrace, see Ovid, Ars Amatoria, book ii.part xi.585, which tells the same tale: "Their captive bodies are, with difficulty, freed, at your plea, Neptune: Venus runs to Paphos: Mars heads for Thrace."; for Ares/Mars and Thrace, see also Statius, Thebaid vii. 42; Herodotus, iv. 59, 62. "Ares" remained an adjective and epithet in Classical times, which could be applied to the war-like aspects of other gods: Zeus Areios, Athena Areia, even Aphrodite Areia In Mycenaean times, inscriptions attest to Enyalios, a name that survived into Classical times as an epithet of Ares. Vultures and dogs, both of which prey upon carrion in the battlefield, are sacred to him. Symbols The Ares Borghese Ares had a quadriga – a chariot drawn by four gold-bridled (Iliad v.352) fire-emitting immortal stallions. Among the gods, Ares was recognized by his bronze armor; he brandished a spear in battle. His keen and sacred birds were the woodpecker, the eagle owl and, especially in the south, the vulture. According to Argonautica (ii.382ff and 1031ff; Hyginus, Fabulae 30) the birds of Ares (Ornithes Areioi) were a flock of feather-dart-dropping birds that guarded the Amazons' shrine of the god on a coastal island in the Black Sea. In Sparta, the chthonic night-time sacrifice of a dog to Enyalios became assimilated to the cult of Ares. Sacrifice might be made to Ares on the eve of battle to enlist his support. In the Iliad (v.890ff) Ares rode into battle and when he was wounded he went back to Olympus where Zeus healed him, but with angry words. Then Ares went straight back to battle with shield in hand. Though involved in the founding myth of Thebes, he appeared in few myths. Burkert 1985, p. 169. Ares in cult Although important in poetry, Ares was rarely included in cult in ancient Greece, save at Sparta, where he was propitiated before battle, and where youths each sacrificed a puppy to Enyalios before engaging in the all-out ritual fighting at the Phoebaeum. "Here each company of youths sacrifices a puppy to Enyalius, holding that the most valiant of tame animals is an acceptable victim to the most valiant of the gods. I know of no other Greeks who are accustomed to sacrifice puppies except the people of Colophon; these too sacrifice a puppy, a black bitch, to the Wayside Goddess." Pausanias, 3.14.9. Just east of Sparta there was an archaic statue of the god in chains, to show that the spirit of war and victory was never to leave the city. "Opposite this temple [the temple of Hipposthenes] is an old image of Enyalius in fetters. The idea the Lacedaemonians express by this image is the same as the Athenians express by their Wingless Victory; the former think that Enyalius will never run away from them, being bound in the fetters, while the Athenians think that Victory, having no wings, will always remain where she is." Pausanias, 3.15.7. The temple to Ares in the agora of Athens that Pausanias saw in the second century AD had only been moved and rededicated there during the time of Augustus; in essence it was a Roman temple to Mars. The Areopagus, the "mount of Ares" where Paul of Tarsus preached, is sited at some distance from the Acropolis; from archaic times it was a site of trials. Its connection with Ares, perhaps based on a false etymology, is purely etiological myth. A second temple has also been located at the archaeological site of Metropolis in Western Turkey. Ares was also the son of Zeus and Hera. Attendants Deimos, "terror", and Phobos "fear", were his companions in war<ref>Iliad 4.436f, and 13.299f' Hesiodic Shield of Heracles 191, 460; Quintus Smyrnaeus, 10.51, etc.</ref> children, born by Aphrodite according to Hesiod Hesiod, Theogony 934f. . The sister and companion of murderous Ares was Eris, goddess of discord or Enyo, goddess of war, bloodshed and violence. He was also attended by the minor war-god Enyalius, his son by Enyo Eustathius on Homer 944 , whose name ("warlike", the same meaning as the name Enyo) also served as a title for Ares himself. The presence of Ares was accompanied by Kydoimos, the demon of the din of battle, as well as the Makhai (Battles), the Hysminai (Manslaughters), Polemos (a minor spirit of war; probably an epithet of Ares, as he had no specific dominion), and Polemos' daughter, Alala, goddess/personification of the Greek war-cry, whose name Ares used as his own war-cry. His sister Hebe also drew baths for him. Founding of Thebes One of the roles of Ares that was sited in mainland Greece itself was in the founding myth of Thebes: Ares was the progenitor of the water-dragon slain by Cadmus, and hence the ancestor of the Spartans, for the dragon's teeth were sown into the ground as if a crop and sprung up as the fully armored autochthonic Spartans, a race of fighting men, the descendants of Ares. To propitiate Ares, Cadmus took as a bride Harmonia, daughter of Ares' union with Aphrodite, thus harmonizing all strife and founding the city of Thebes. Consorts and children There are accounts of a son of Ares, Cycnus (Κύκνος) of Macedonia, who was so murderous that he tried to build a temple with the skulls and the bones of travelers. Heracles slaughtered this abominable monstrosity, engendering the wrath of Ares, whom Heracles wounded. Ares also had a romance with the goddess Aphrodite. Their union created the minor gods Eros, Arethousa, Phobos, Deimos, Harmonia, and Adrestia. While Eros and Arethousa's godly stations favored their godly mother, Adrestia by far preferred to emulate her father, often accompanying him to war. Other accounts In the tale sung by the bard in the hall of Alcinous, Odyssey 8.300 the Sun-God Helios once spied Ares and Aphrodite enjoying each other secretly in the hall of Hephaestus, and he promptly reported the incident to Aphrodite's Olympian consort. Hephaestus contrived to catch the couple in the act, and so he fashioned a net with which to snare the illicit lovers. At the appropriate time, this net was sprung, and trapped Ares and Aphrodite in a private embrace. But Hephaestus was not yet satisfied with his revenge — he invited the Olympian gods and goddesses to view the unfortunate pair. For the sake of modesty, the goddesses demurred, but the male gods went to witness the sight. Some commented on the beauty of Aphrodite, others remarked that they would eagerly trade places with Ares, but all mocked the two. Once the couple were loosed, Ares, embarrassed, sped away to his homeland, Thrace. In a much later interpolated detail, Ares put the youth Alectryon by his door to warn them of Helios' arrival, as Helios would tell Hephaestus of Aphrodite's infidelity if the two were discovered, but Alectryon fell asleep. Helios discovered the two and alerted Hephaestus. Ares was furious and turned Alectryon into a rooster, which now never forgets to announce the arrival of the sun in the morning. Ares and the giants In one obscure archaic myth related in the Iliad by the goddess Dione to her daughter Aphrodite, two chthonic giants, the Aloadae, named Otus and Ephialtes, threw Ares into chains and put him in a bronze urn, where he remained for thirteen months, a lunar year. "And that would have been the end of Ares and his appetite for war, if the beautiful Eriboea, the young giants' stepmother, had not told Hermes what they had done," she related (Iliad 5.385–391). "In this one suspects a festival of licence which is unleashed in the thirteenth month." Ares remained screaming and howling in the urn until Hermes rescued him and Artemis tricked the Aloadae into slaying each other. In Nonnus' Dionysiaca Nonnus, Dionysiaca 18. 274 ff; Theoi.com, "Ekhidnades". Ares also killed Ekhidnades, the giant son of Echidna and a great enemy of the gods; it is not clear whether the nameless Ekhidnades ("of Echidna's lineage") was entirely Nonnus' invention or not. Zeus helped him heal after. The Iliad In the Iliad References to Ares' appearance in the Iliad are collected and quoted at www.theoi.com , Homer represented Ares as having no fixed allegiances nor respect for Orcan, the right ordering of things: he promised Athena and Hera that he would fight on the side of the Achaeans, but Aphrodite was able to persuade Ares to side with the Trojans (Iliad V.699). During the war, Diomedes fought with Hector and saw Ares fighting on the Trojans' side. Diomedes called for his soldiers to fall back slowly. Hera, Ares's mother, saw his interference and asked Zeus, his father, for permission to drive Ares away from the battlefield. Hera encouraged Diomedes to attack Ares, so he threw a spear at Ares and his cries made Achaeans and Trojans alike tremble. Athena then drove the spear into Ares's body, who bellowed in pain and fled to Mt. Olympus, forcing the Trojans to fall back (XXI.391). Later when Zeus allowed the gods to fight in the war again, Ares tried to fight Athena to avenge himself for his previous injury, Ares managed to overpower Athena by throwing a boulder at her. However, when Hera during a conversation with Zeus mentioned that Ares' son Ascalaphus was killed, Ares wanted to join the fight on the side of the Achaeans discarding Zeus' order that no Olympic god should enter the battle. Athena stopped Ares and helped him take his armor off (XV.110–128). Renaissance In Renaissance and Neoclassical works of art, Ares' symbols are a spear and helmet, his animal is a dog, and his bird is the vulture. In literary works of these eras, Ares is replaced by the Roman Mars, an emblem of manly valor rather than the cruel and blood-thirsty god of Greek myth. Popular culture As god of war in the most generally familiar classical mythology, Ares figures in war-themed video games and in popular fictions. Ares'' is also the name of NASA's transport ship replacing the Space Shuttle, an extension of NASA's uses of Saturn for manned rockets, Mercury for a satellite program, and the Apollo program, rather than as any reflection of the intrinsic nature of the war god. See also Alala Aphrodite Greek gods Nergal Tyr Mars (mythology) Notes External links Theoi Project, Ares information on Ares from classical literature, images from Greek and Roman art. Greek Mythology Link, Ares summary of Ares in myth be-x-old:Арэс | Ares |@lemmatized greek:16 mythology:5 ancient:4 á:1 rὲεs:1 μodern:1 άρης:1 ri:1 son:6 zeus:10 hera:6 though:2 often:2 refer:1 olympian:4 god:25 warfare:2 accurately:1 bloodlust:1 slaughter:3 personify:1 apparently:1 abstract:1 noun:1 meaning:2 throng:1 battle:10 war:21 walter:1 burkert:2 religion:1 harvard:1 pt:1 iii:1 p:2 etymology:3 name:7 ares:10 derives:1 word:2 αρή:1 ionic:1 form:1 doric:1 αρά:1 ara:2 bane:1 ruin:1 curse:1 imprecation:1 destruction:1 revenge:2 online:1 dictionary:2 georg:1 autenrieth:1 homeric:1 perseus:3 henry:2 george:2 liddell:2 robert:2 scott:2 english:2 lexicon:2 may:1 also:13 connection:2 roman:5 mar:9 via:1 hypothetical:1 proto:1 indo:1 european:1 rēs:1 compare:1 μάρναμαι:1 marnamai:2 fight:9 identity:1 character:2 important:2 epic:1 tradition:1 represent:2 iliad:12 reading:1 remain:5 ambiguous:1 late:1 century:2 funerary:1 inscription:2 attica:1 stay:1 mourn:1 tomb:1 dead:1 kroisos:1 rag:1 destroy:1 one:6 day:1 foremost:1 rank:1 athens:2 nm:1 quote:2 andrew:1 stewart:1 hundred:1 sculptor:1 career:1 extant:1 work:3 introduction:1 source:1 identify:1 agriculture:1 inherit:1 etruscan:1 among:4 stand:1 much:2 high:1 esteem:1 see:4 athena:9 hellene:1 always:2 distrust:1 hateful:1 hold:2 olympus:3 tell:4 forever:1 strife:2 dear:1 although:2 half:1 sister:3 consider:1 deity:1 stance:1 strategic:1 whereas:1 tend:1 unpredictable:1 violence:2 enemy:2 birthplace:1 true:1 home:1 place:2 far:2 barbarous:1 warlike:2 thracian:1 ovid:2 ars:1 amatoria:2 ii:3 withdraw:1 affair:1 aphrodite:13 reveal:1 homer:3 odyssey:2 viii:1 thrace:4 ar:1 book:1 part:1 xi:1 tale:2 captive:1 body:2 difficulty:1 free:1 plea:1 neptune:1 venus:1 run:2 paphos:1 head:1 statius:1 thebaid:1 vii:1 herodotus:1 iv:1 adjective:1 epithet:3 classical:4 time:7 could:1 apply:1 like:1 aspect:1 areios:1 areia:2 even:1 mycenaean:1 attest:1 enyalios:3 survive:1 vulture:3 dog:3 prey:1 upon:1 carrion:1 battlefield:2 sacred:2 symbols:1 borghese:1 quadriga:1 chariot:1 draw:2 four:1 gold:1 bridle:1 v:3 fire:1 emit:1 immortal:1 stallion:1 recognize:1 bronze:2 armor:2 brandish:1 spear:4 keen:1 bird:4 woodpecker:1 eagle:1 owl:1 especially:1 south:1 accord:2 argonautica:1 hyginus:1 fabulae:1 ornithes:1 areioi:1 flock:1 feather:1 dart:1 dropping:1 guard:1 amazon:1 shrine:1 coastal:1 island:1 black:2 sea:1 sparta:3 chthonic:2 night:1 sacrifice:6 become:1 assimilate:1 cult:3 might:1 make:2 eve:1 enlist:1 support:1 rode:1 wound:2 go:3 back:4 heal:2 angry:1 straight:1 shield:2 hand:1 involve:1 founding:3 myth:7 thebe:3 appear:1 poetry:1 rarely:1 include:1 greece:2 save:1 propitiate:2 youth:3 puppy:4 engage:1 ritual:1 fighting:1 phoebaeum:1 company:1 enyalius:4 valiant:2 tame:1 animal:2 acceptable:1 victim:1 know:1 accustom:1 except:1 people:1 colophon:1 bitch:1 wayside:1 goddess:8 pausanias:3 east:1 archaic:3 statue:1 chain:2 show:1 spirit:2 victory:3 never:3 leave:1 city:2 opposite:1 temple:6 hipposthenes:1 old:2 image:3 fetter:2 idea:1 lacedaemonians:1 express:2 athenian:2 wingless:1 former:1 think:2 away:3 bind:1 wing:1 agora:1 saw:3 second:2 ad:1 move:1 rededicate:1 augustus:1 essence:1 areopagus:1 mount:1 paul:1 tarsus:1 preach:1 sit:2 distance:1 acropolis:1 site:2 trial:1 perhaps:1 base:1 false:1 purely:1 etiological:1 locate:1 archaeological:1 metropolis:1 western:1 turkey:1 attendant:1 deimos:2 terror:1 phobos:2 fear:1 companion:2 ref:2 hesiodic:1 heracles:3 quintus:1 smyrnaeus:1 etc:1 child:2 bear:1 hesiod:2 theogony:1 murderous:2 eris:1 discord:1 enyo:3 bloodshed:1 attend:1 minor:3 eustathius:1 whose:2 serve:1 title:1 presence:1 accompany:2 kydoimos:1 demon:1 din:1 well:1 makhai:1 hysminai:1 manslaughter:1 polemos:2 probably:1 specific:1 dominion:1 daughter:3 alala:2 personification:1 cry:3 use:1 hebe:1 bath:1 thebes:1 role:1 mainland:1 progenitor:1 water:1 dragon:2 slain:1 cadmus:2 hence:1 ancestor:1 spartan:2 teeth:1 sow:1 ground:1 crop:1 spring:2 fully:1 armored:1 autochthonic:1 race:1 men:1 descendant:1 take:2 bride:1 harmonia:2 union:2 thus:1 harmonize:1 found:1 consort:2 account:2 cycnus:1 κύκνος:1 macedonia:1 try:2 build:1 skull:1 bone:1 traveler:1 abominable:1 monstrosity:1 engender:1 wrath:1 romance:1 create:1 eros:2 arethousa:2 adrestia:2 godly:2 station:1 favor:1 mother:2 prefer:1 emulate:1 father:2 sung:1 bard:1 hall:2 alcinous:1 sun:2 helios:4 spied:1 enjoy:1 secretly:1 hephaestus:5 promptly:1 report:1 incident:1 contrive:1 catch:1 couple:2 act:1 fashion:1 net:2 snare:1 illicit:1 lover:1 appropriate:1 trap:1 private:1 embrace:1 yet:1 satisfy:1 invite:1 view:1 unfortunate:1 pair:1 sake:1 modesty:1 demur:1 male:1 witness:1 sight:1 comment:1 beauty:1 others:1 remark:1 would:4 eagerly:1 trade:1 mock:1 two:4 loose:1 embarrass:1 speed:1 homeland:1 later:2 interpolated:1 detail:1 put:2 alectryon:3 door:1 warn:1 arrival:2 infidelity:1 discover:2 fell:1 asleep:1 alert:1 furious:1 turned:1 rooster:1 forget:1 announce:1 morning:1 giant:4 obscure:1 relate:2 dione:1 aloadae:2 otus:1 ephialtes:1 throw:3 urn:2 thirteen:1 month:2 lunar:1 year:1 end:1 appetite:1 beautiful:1 eriboea:1 young:1 stepmother:1 hermes:2 suspect:1 festival:1 licence:1 unleash:1 thirteenth:1 scream:1 howl:1 rescue:1 artemis:1 trick:1 slay:1 nonnus:3 dionysiaca:2 ff:1 theoi:3 com:2 ekhidnades:3 kill:2 echidna:2 great:1 clear:1 whether:1 nameless:1 lineage:1 entirely:1 invention:1 help:2 reference:1 appearance:1 collect:1 www:1 fixed:1 allegiance:1 respect:1 orcan:1 right:1 ordering:1 thing:1 promise:1 side:4 achaean:3 able:1 persuade:1 trojan:4 diomedes:3 hector:1 call:1 soldier:1 fall:2 slowly:1 interference:1 ask:1 permission:1 drive:2 encourage:1 attack:1 alike:1 tremble:1 bellow:1 pain:1 flee:1 mt:1 force:1 xxi:1 allow:1 avenge:1 previous:1 injury:1 manage:1 overpower:1 boulder:1 however:1 conversation:1 mention:1 ascalaphus:1 want:1 join:1 discard:1 order:1 olympic:1 enter:1 stop:1 xv:1 renaissance:2 neoclassical:1 art:2 symbol:1 helmet:1 literary:1 era:1 replace:2 emblem:1 manly:1 valor:1 rather:2 cruel:1 blood:1 thirsty:1 popular:2 culture:1 generally:1 familiar:1 figure:1 themed:1 video:1 game:1 fiction:1 nasa:2 transport:1 ship:1 space:1 shuttle:1 extension:1 us:1 saturn:1 manned:1 rocket:1 mercury:1 satellite:1 program:2 apollo:1 reflection:1 intrinsic:1 nature:1 nergal:1 tyr:1 note:1 external:1 link:2 project:1 information:1 literature:1 summary:1 x:1 арэс:1 |@bigram zeus_hera:2 walter_burkert:1 george_liddell:2 liddell_robert:2 lexicon_perseus:2 proto_indo:1 indo_european:1 homer_odyssey:1 hyginus_fabulae:1 paul_tarsus:1 etiological_myth:1 quintus_smyrnaeus:1 hesiod_theogony:1 skull_bone:1 phobos_deimos:1 fell_asleep:1 nonnus_dionysiaca:2 theoi_com:2 mt_olympus:1 space_shuttle:1 external_link:1 theoi_project:1 |
1,665 | Nervous_system | The nervous system is a network of specialized cells that communicate information about an organism's surroundings and itself. It processes this information and causes reactions in other parts of the body. It is composed of neurons and other specialized cells called glial cells,(plural form glia), that aid in the function of the neurons. The nervous system is divided broadly into two categories: the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system. Neurons generate and conduct impulses between and within the two systems. The peripheral nervous system is composed of sensory neurons and the neurons that connect them to the nerve cord, spinal cord and brain, which make up the central nervous system. In response to stimuli, sensory neurons generate and propagate signals to the central nervous system which then processes and conducts signals back to the muscles and glands. The neurons of the nervous systems of animals are interconnected in complex arrangements and use electrochemical signals and neurotransmitters to transmit impulses from one neuron to the next. The interaction of the different neurons form neural circuits regulate an organism's perception of the world and what is going on with its body, thus regulating its behavior. Nervous systems are found in many multicellular animals but differ greatly in complexity between species. The Human Nervous System. Red is CNS and blue is PNS. Nervous system in humans Para-sagittal MRI of the brain(central nervous system) The human nervous system can be described both by gross anatomy, (which describes the parts that are large enough to be seen with the naked eye,) and by microanatomy, (which describes the system at a cellular level.) In gross anatomy, the nervous system can be divided into two systems: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Central Nervous System The central nervous system (CNS) is the largest part of the nervous system, and includes the brain and spinal cord. The spinal cavity holds and protects the spinal cord, while the head contains and protects the brain. The CNS is covered by the meninges, a three layered protective coat. The brain is also protected by the skull, and the spinal cord is also protected by the vertebrae. <td rowspan="6"> Central nervous system Brain Prosencephalon Telencephalon Rhinencephalon, Amygdala, Hippocampus, Neocortex, Lateral ventricles Diencephalon Epithalamus, Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Subthalamus, Pituitary gland, Pineal gland, Third ventricle Brain stem Mesencephalon Tectum, Cerebral peduncle, Pretectum, Mesencephalic duct Rhombencephalon Metencephalon Pons, Cerebellum, Myelencephalon Medulla oblongata Spinal cord Peripheral nervous system The PNS is a regional term for the collective nervous structures that do not lie in the CNS. The bodies of the nerve cells lie in the CNS, either in the brain or the spinal cord, and the longer of the cellular processes of these cells, known as axons, extend through the limbs and the flesh of the torso. The large majority of the axons which are commonly called nerves, are considered to be PNS. The cell bodies of afferent PNS nerves lie in the dorsal root ganglia. Microanatomy The nervous system is, on a small scale, primarily made up of neurons. However, glial cells also play a major role. Neurons Neurons are electrically excitable cells in the nervous system that process and transmit information. Neurons are the core components of the brain, the vertebrate spinal cord, the invertebrate ventral nerve cord, and the peripheral nerves. A number of different types of neurons exist: sensory neurons respond to touch, sound, light and numerous other stimuli effecting sensory organs and send signals to the spinal cord and brain, motor neurons receive signals from the brain and spinal cord and cause muscle contractions and affect glands. Interneurons connect neurons to other neurons within the brain and spinal cord. Glial cells Glial cells are non-neuronal cells that provide support and nutrition, maintain homeostasis, form myelin, and participate in signal transmission in the nervous system. In the total human brain, the number of glia is estimated to be roughly the same as neurons. Azevedo FA, Carvalho LR, Grinberg LT, Farfel JM, Ferretti RE, Leite RE, Jacob Filho W, Lent R, Herculano-Houzel S. (2009). Equal numbers of neuronal and nonneuronal cells make the human brain an isometrically scaled-up primate brain. J Comp Neurol. 513(5):532-41. Glial cells provide support and protection for neurons. They are thus known as the "glue" of the nervous system. The four main functions of glial cells are to surround neurons and hold them in place, to supply nutrients and oxygen to neurons, to insulate one neuron from another, and to destroy pathogens and remove dead neurons. Physiological division Diagram showing the major divisions of the nervous system. A less anatomical but much more functional way of dividing the human nervous system is classification according to the role that the different neural pathways play, regardless of whether or not they cross through the CNS/PNS: The somatic nervous system is responsible for coordinating voluntary body movements (i.e. activities that are under conscious control). The autonomic nervous system is responsible for coordinating involuntary functions, such as breathing and digestion. In turn, these divisions of the nervous system can be further divided according to the direction in which they conduct nerve impulses: Afferent system by sensory neurons, which carries impulses from a somatic receptor to the CNS Efferent system by motor neurons, which carries impulses from the CNS to an effector Relay system by interneurons (also called "relay neurons"), which transmit impulses between the sensory and motor neurons (both in the CNS and PNS). The junction between two neurons is called a synapse. There is a very narrow gap (about 20nm in width) between the neurons called the synaptic cleft. This is where an action potential (the "message" being carried by the neurons, also known as the nerve impulse) is transmitted from one neuron to the next. This is achieved by relaying the message across the synaptic cleft using neurotransmitters, which diffuse across the gap. The neurotransmitters then bind to receptor sites on the neighboring (postsynaptic) neuron, which in turn produces its own electrical/nerve impulse. This impulse is sent to the next synapse, and the cycle repeats itself. Nerve impulses are a change in ion balance between the inside and outside of a neuron. Because the nervous system uses a combination of electrical and chemical signals, it is incredibly fast. Although the chemical aspect of signaling is much slower than the electrical aspect, a nerve impulse is still fast enough for the reaction time to be negligible in day to day situations. Speed is a necessary characteristic in order for an organism to quickly identify the presence of danger, and thus avoid injury/death. For example, a hand touching a hot stove. If the nervous system was only comprised of chemical signals, the nervous system would not be able to signal the arm to move fast enough to escape dangerous burns. Thus, the speed of the nervous system is evolutionarily valuable, and is in fact a necessity for life. Development Some landmarks of embryonic neural development include the birth and differentiation of neurons from stem cell precursors, the migration of immature neurons from their birthplaces in the embryo to their final positions, outgrowth of axons from neurons and guidance of the motile growth cone through the embryo towards postsynaptic partners, the generation of synapses between these axons and their postsynaptic partners, and finally the lifelong changes in synapses which are thought to underlie learning and memory. Importance The evolution of a complex nervous system makes it possible for various animal species to have advanced perception abilities like sight, complex social interactions, rapid coordination of other organ systems, and integrated processing of many concurrent signals. In humans, the advanced development of the nervous system makes it possible to have language, abstract representation of concepts, transmission of culture, and many other outcomes of human society that would not be possible without our brains. Many people have lost basic motor skills and other skills because of spinal cord injuries. If this portion is damaged, the biggest nerve and the most important one gets damaged. This leads to paralysis or other permanent damage. Physical lesions or genetic abnormalities of the brain can also lead to major harm. Abilities The nervous system enables basic motor skills and sensing. The five classical senses (touch, taste, sight, smell, and hearing) are powered by the nervous system as are others such as equilibrioception (the sensing of gravity), nociception (the sensing of pain), and proprioception (the sensing of relative limb location and motion, as when touching the nose with closed eyes). Inhibition of these senses would retard basic motor skills. Non-humans Vertebrates The nervous system of all vertebrate animals is often divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Worms Planaria, a type of flatworm, have dual nerve cords running along the length of the body and merging at the tail and the mouth. These nerve cords are connected by transverse nerves like the rungs of a ladder. These transverse nerves help coordinate the two sides of the animal. Two large ganglia at the head end function similar to a simple brain. Photoreceptors on the animal's eyespots provide sensory information on light and dark. The nervous system of the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans has been mapped out to the cellular level. Every neuron and its cellular lineage has been recorded and most, if not all, of the neural connections are known. In this species, the nervous system is sexually dimorphic; the nervous systems of the two sexes, males and hermaphrodites, have different numbers of neurons and groups of neurons that perform sex-specific functions. In C. elegans, males have exactly 383 neurons, while hermaphrodites have exactly 302 neurons Arthropoda Arthropods, such as insects and crustaceans, have a nervous system made up of a series of ganglia, connected by a ventral nerve cord made up of two parallel connectives running along the length of the belly . Typically, each body segment has one ganglion on each side, though some ganglia are fused to form the brain and other large ganglia . The head segment contains the brain, also known as the supraesophageal ganglion. In the insect nervous system, the brain is anatomically divided into the protocerebrum, deutocerebrum, and tritocerebrum. Immediately behind the brain is the subesophageal ganglion, which is composed of three pairs of fused ganglia. It controls the mouthparts, the salivary glands and certain muscles. Many arthropods have well-developed sensory organs, including compound eyes for vision and antennae for olfaction and pheromone sensation. The sensory information from these organs is processed by the brain. Development Neural development in most species has many similarities with neural development in humans. As shown in a 2008 study, one factor common to all bilateral organisms (including humans) is a familiy of secreted signaling molecules called neurotrophins which regulate the growth and survival of neurons . Zhu et al. identified DNT1, the first neurotrophin found in flies. DNT1 shares structural similarity with all known neurotrophins and is a key factor in the fate of neurons in Drosophila. Because neurotrophins have now been identified in both vertebrate and invertebrates, this evidence suggests that neurotrophins were present in an ancestor common to bilateral organisms and may represent a common mechanism for nervous system formation. References External links Neuroscience for Kids UC Berkeley anatomy lecture on the nervous system The Human Brain Project Homepage Kimball's Biology Pages, CNS Kimball's Biology Pages, PNS | Nervous_system |@lemmatized nervous:49 system:55 network:1 specialized:2 cell:15 communicate:1 information:5 organism:5 surroundings:1 process:5 cause:2 reaction:2 part:3 body:7 compose:3 neuron:44 call:6 glial:6 plural:1 form:4 glia:2 aid:1 function:5 divide:6 broadly:1 two:8 category:1 peripheral:6 central:9 generate:2 conduct:3 impulse:11 within:2 sensory:9 connect:4 nerve:17 cord:16 spinal:12 brain:24 make:7 response:1 stimuli:1 propagate:1 signal:12 back:1 muscle:3 gland:5 animal:6 interconnect:1 complex:3 arrangement:1 use:3 electrochemical:1 neurotransmitter:3 transmit:4 one:6 next:3 interaction:2 different:4 neural:6 circuit:1 regulate:3 perception:2 world:1 go:1 thus:4 behavior:1 find:2 many:6 multicellular:1 differ:1 greatly:1 complexity:1 specie:4 human:12 red:1 cns:12 blue:1 pns:9 para:1 sagittal:1 mri:1 describe:3 gross:2 anatomy:3 large:5 enough:3 see:1 naked:1 eye:3 microanatomy:2 cellular:4 level:2 include:4 cavity:1 hold:2 protect:4 head:3 contains:1 cover:1 meninges:1 three:2 layered:1 protective:1 coat:1 also:7 skull:1 vertebra:1 td:1 rowspan:1 prosencephalon:1 telencephalon:1 rhinencephalon:1 amygdala:1 hippocampus:1 neocortex:1 lateral:1 ventricle:2 diencephalon:1 epithalamus:1 thalamus:1 hypothalamus:1 subthalamus:1 pituitary:1 pineal:1 third:1 stem:2 mesencephalon:1 tectum:1 cerebral:1 peduncle:1 pretectum:1 mesencephalic:1 duct:1 rhombencephalon:1 metencephalon:1 pons:1 cerebellum:1 myelencephalon:1 medulla:1 oblongata:1 regional:1 term:1 collective:1 structure:1 lie:3 either:1 long:1 know:6 axon:4 extend:1 limb:2 flesh:1 torso:1 majority:1 commonly:1 consider:1 afferent:2 dorsal:1 root:1 ganglion:9 small:1 scale:2 primarily:1 however:1 play:2 major:3 role:2 electrically:1 excitable:1 core:1 component:1 vertebrate:3 invertebrate:2 ventral:2 number:4 type:2 exist:1 respond:1 touch:4 sound:1 light:2 numerous:1 stimulus:1 effect:1 organ:4 send:2 motor:6 receive:1 contraction:1 affect:1 interneurons:2 non:2 neuronal:2 provide:3 support:2 nutrition:1 maintain:1 homeostasis:1 myelin:1 participate:1 transmission:2 total:1 estimate:1 roughly:1 azevedo:1 fa:1 carvalho:1 lr:1 grinberg:1 lt:1 farfel:1 jm:1 ferretti:1 leite:1 jacob:1 filho:1 w:1 lent:1 r:1 herculano:1 houzel:1 equal:1 nonneuronal:1 isometrically:1 primate:1 j:1 comp:1 neurol:1 protection:1 glue:1 four:1 main:1 surround:1 place:1 supply:1 nutrient:1 oxygen:1 insulate:1 another:1 destroy:1 pathogen:1 remove:1 dead:1 physiological:1 division:3 diagram:1 show:2 less:1 anatomical:1 much:2 functional:1 way:1 classification:1 accord:2 pathway:1 regardless:1 whether:1 cross:1 somatic:2 responsible:2 coordinate:3 voluntary:1 movement:1 e:1 activity:1 conscious:1 control:2 autonomic:1 involuntary:1 breathing:1 digestion:1 turn:2 far:1 direction:1 carry:3 receptor:2 efferent:1 effector:1 relay:3 junction:1 synapse:2 narrow:1 gap:2 width:1 synaptic:2 cleft:2 action:1 potential:1 message:2 achieve:1 across:2 diffuse:1 bind:1 site:1 neighboring:1 postsynaptic:3 produce:1 electrical:3 cycle:1 repeat:1 change:2 ion:1 balance:1 inside:1 outside:1 combination:1 chemical:3 incredibly:1 fast:3 although:1 aspect:2 slow:1 still:1 time:1 negligible:1 day:2 situation:1 speed:2 necessary:1 characteristic:1 order:1 quickly:1 identify:3 presence:1 danger:1 avoid:1 injury:2 death:1 example:1 hand:1 hot:1 stove:1 comprise:1 would:3 able:1 arm:1 move:1 escape:1 dangerous:1 burn:1 evolutionarily:1 valuable:1 fact:1 necessity:1 life:1 development:6 landmark:1 embryonic:1 birth:1 differentiation:1 precursor:1 migration:1 immature:1 birthplace:1 embryo:2 final:1 position:1 outgrowth:1 guidance:1 motile:1 growth:2 cone:1 towards:1 partner:2 generation:1 synapsis:2 finally:1 lifelong:1 think:1 underlie:1 learning:1 memory:1 importance:1 evolution:1 possible:3 various:1 advance:1 ability:1 like:2 sight:2 social:1 rapid:1 coordination:1 integrate:1 processing:1 concurrent:1 advanced:1 language:1 abstract:1 representation:1 concept:1 culture:1 outcome:1 society:1 without:1 people:1 lose:1 basic:3 skill:4 portion:1 damage:3 big:1 important:1 get:1 lead:2 paralysis:1 permanent:1 physical:1 lesion:1 genetic:1 abnormality:1 harm:1 abilities:1 enable:1 sense:1 five:1 classical:1 sens:2 taste:1 smell:1 hearing:1 power:1 others:1 equilibrioception:1 sensing:3 gravity:1 nociception:1 pain:1 proprioception:1 relative:1 location:1 motion:1 nose:1 closed:1 inhibition:1 retard:1 vertebrates:1 often:1 worm:1 planaria:1 flatworm:1 dual:1 run:2 along:2 length:2 merging:1 tail:1 mouth:1 transverse:2 rung:1 ladder:1 help:1 side:2 end:1 similar:1 simple:1 photoreceptors:1 eyespot:1 dark:1 roundworm:1 caenorhabditis:1 elegans:2 map:1 every:1 lineage:1 record:1 connection:1 sexually:1 dimorphic:1 sex:2 male:2 hermaphrodite:2 group:1 perform:1 specific:1 c:1 exactly:2 arthropoda:1 arthropod:2 insect:2 crustacean:1 series:1 parallel:1 connective:1 belly:1 typically:1 segment:2 though:1 fuse:1 contain:1 supraesophageal:1 anatomically:1 protocerebrum:1 deutocerebrum:1 tritocerebrum:1 immediately:1 behind:1 subesophageal:1 pair:1 fused:1 mouthpart:1 salivary:1 certain:1 well:1 develop:1 compound:1 vision:1 antenna:1 olfaction:1 pheromone:1 sensation:1 similarity:2 study:1 factor:2 common:3 bilateral:2 familiy:1 secreted:1 molecule:1 neurotrophins:4 survival:1 zhu:1 et:1 al:1 first:1 neurotrophin:1 fly:1 share:1 structural:1 key:1 fate:1 drosophila:1 evidence:1 suggest:1 present:1 ancestor:1 may:1 represent:1 mechanism:1 formation:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 neuroscience:1 kid:1 uc:1 berkeley:1 lecture:1 project:1 homepage:1 kimball:2 biology:2 page:2 |@bigram glial_cell:6 peripheral_nervous:5 sensory_neuron:4 nerve_cord:5 spinal_cord:11 response_stimuli:1 naked_eye:1 brain_spinal:4 pituitary_gland:1 pineal_gland:1 cord_peripheral:2 ventral_nerve:2 peripheral_nerve:1 motor_neuron:3 muscle_contraction:1 autonomic_nervous:1 nerve_impulse:5 synaptic_cleft:2 postsynaptic_neuron:1 axon_neuron:1 caenorhabditis_elegans:1 sexually_dimorphic:1 salivary_gland:1 et_al:1 vertebrate_invertebrate:1 external_link:1 uc_berkeley:1 kimball_biology:2 |
1,666 | Organic_electronics | Melanin voltage-controlled switch, an "active" organic polymer electronic device from 1974. Organic electronics, plastic electronics or polymer electronics, is a branch of electronics that deals with conductive polymers, plastics, or small molecules. It is called 'organic' electronics because the polymers and small molecules are carbon-based, like the molecules of living things. This is as opposed to traditional electronics (or metal electronics) which relies on inorganic conductors such as copper or silicon. Polymer electronics are laminar electronics, that also includes transparent electronic package and paper based electronics http://www.trhubnet.com/packaging/exhibitions.nsf/index/FF176122FF9129BBC1256DA4004A831A!OpenDocument . In addition to organic Charge transfer complexes, technically, electrically conductive polymers are mainly derivatives of polyacetylene black (the "simplest melanin"). Examples include PA (more specificially iodine-doped trans-polyacetylene); polyaniline: PANI, when doped with a protonic acid; and poly(dioctyl-bithiophene): PDOT. History Alan J. Heeger, Alan G. MacDiarmid, and Hideki Shirakawa are credited for the discovery and development of highly-conductive polymers (at least of the rigid-backbone "polyacetylene" class) and were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2000 for the 1977 discovery and development of oxidized, iodine-doped polyacetylene. Interestingly, this prize passed over the much earlier discovery of highly-conductive organic Charge transfer complexes, some of which are even superconductive. Similarly, the first demonstration of high-conductivity in the linear backbone polymers was a series of papers by Weiss et al. in 1963. These workers reported a conductivity of 1 S/cm in a similarly iodine-"doped" and oxidized polypyrrole black. Conduction mechanisms in such materials involve resonance stabilization and delocalization of pi electrons along entire polymer backbones, as well as mobility gaps, tunneling, and phonon-assisted hopping. Technology for plastic electronics on thin and flexible plastic substrates was developed at Cambridge University’s Cavendish Laboratory in the 1990s. In 2000, Plastic Logic was spun out of Cavendish Laboratory to develop a broad range of products using the plastic electronics technology http://www.plasticlogic.com/company.html . Features Conductive polymers are lighter, more flexible, and less expensive than inorganic conductors. This makes them a desirable alternative in many applications. It also creates the possibility of new applications that would be impossible using copper or silicon. Organic electronics not only includes organic semiconductors, but also dielectrics, conductors and light emitters. New applications include smart windows and electronic paper. Conductive polymers are expected to play an important role in the emerging science of molecular computers. In general organic conductive polymers have a higher resistance and therefore conduct electricity poorly and inefficiently, as compared to inorganic conductors. Researchers currently are exploring ways of "doping" organic semiconductors, like melanin, with relatively small amounts of conductive metals to boost conductivity. However, for many applications, inorganic conductors will remain the only viable option. Organic electronics can be printed. Organic electronic devices A 1972 paper in the journal Science proposed a model for electronic conduction in the melanins. Historically, melanin is another name for the various oxidized polyacetylene, polyaniline, and Polypyrrole "blacks" and their mixed copolymers, all commonly-used in present day organic electronic devices. E.g., some fungal melanins are pure polyacetylene. This model drew upon the theories of Neville Mott and others on conduction in disordered materials. Subsequently, in 1974, the same workers at the Physics Department of The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center reported an organic electronic device, a voltage-controlled switch Their material also incidentally demonstrated "negative differential resistance", now a hall-mark of such materials. A contemporary news article in the journal Nature noted this materials "strikingly high conductivity'. These researchers further patented batteries, etc. using organic semiconductive materials. Their original "gadget" is now in the Smithsonian's collection of early electronic devices. This work, like that the decade-earlier report of high-conductivity in a polypyrrole http://www.drproctor.com/os/weisspaper.pdf , was "too early" and went unrecognized outside of pigment cell research until recently. At the time, few except cancer research institutes were interested in the electronic properties of such polymers, which are applicable to the treatment of melanoma. Plastic Solar Cells Organic solar cells could cut the cost of solar power by making use of inexpensive organic polymers rather than the expensive crystalline silicon used in most solar cells. What's more, the polymers can be processed using low-cost equipment such as ink-jet printers or coating equipment employed to make photographic film, which reduces both capital and manufacturing costs compared with conventional solar-cell manufacturing. http://www.technologyreview.com/energy/21574/page1/ . Silicon thin film solar cells on flexible substrates allow a significant cost reduction of large-area photovoltaics for several reasons http://www.ipe.uni-stuttgart.de/index.php?lang=eng&pulldownID=12&ebene2ID=18&ID=3394 : The so-called 'roll-to-roll'-deposition on flexible sheets is much easier to realize in terms of technological effort than deposition on fragile and heavy glass sheets. Transport and installation of lightweight flexible solar cells also saves cost as compared to cells on glass. Inexpensive polymeric substrates like polyethylene terephtalate (PET) or polycarbonate (PC) would be a way out towards further cost reduction in photovoltaics. Protomorphous solar cells prove to be a promising concept for efficient and low-cost photovoltaics on cheap and flexible substrates for large-area production as well as small and mobile applications . One beauty of printed electronics is that the different electrical and electronic components can be printed on top of each other, saving space and increasing reliability and sometimes they are all transparent. One ink must not damage another and low temperature annealing is vital if low-cost flexible materials such as paper and plastic film are to be used. There is much sophisticated engineering and chemistry involved here, with iTi, Pixdro, Asahi Kasei, Merck, BASF, HC Starck, Hitachi Chemical and Frontier Carbon Corporation among the leaders http://www.electronicsweekly.com/Articles/2008/09/25/44587/printed-electronics-is-it-a-niche.htm . G24 Innovations, Gifu University, National Chiao University are working in printed organic photovoltaics. Makers and research Printed organic transistors: University of Tokyo,Sony, EPrint, Cambridge University (zinc oxide) Printed ferroelectric memory: Thin Film Electronics (polymer nonvolatile memory applications). E-paper: Bridgestone (liquid powder display technology), E Ink Loudspeaker film: NXT plc Printed organic battery: Waseda University Biosensors: University of California at Berkeley Research Organic semiconductors: Palo Alto Research Center Center for Organic Photonics and Electronics= See also Annealing Bioplastic Carbon nanotube Circuit deposition Conductive ink Disposable electronics Flexible display FMCG Laminar Melanin Organic semiconductor Organic LED PETEC Photodetector Plastic Logic Printed electronics Radio frequency identification Radio tag Spin coating References Further reading An Overview of the First Half-Century of Molecular Electronics by Noel S. Hush, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1006: 1–20 (2003). Hari Singh Nalwa (2008), Handbook of Organic Electronics and Photonics (3-Volume Set), American Scientific Publishers. ISBN 1-58883-095-0 External links Organic Electronics Association Center for Organic Electronics International Plastics Electronics Conference BBC News - UK firm Plastic Logic has said it will build the world's first factory to produce plastic electronic chips | Organic_electronics |@lemmatized melanin:7 voltage:2 control:2 switch:2 active:1 organic:26 polymer:16 electronic:11 device:5 electronics:25 plastic:12 branch:1 deal:1 conductive:9 small:4 molecule:3 call:2 carbon:3 base:2 like:4 living:1 thing:1 oppose:1 traditional:1 metal:2 rely:1 inorganic:4 conductor:5 copper:2 silicon:4 laminar:2 also:6 include:4 transparent:2 package:1 paper:6 http:6 www:6 trhubnet:1 com:5 packaging:1 exhibition:1 nsf:1 index:2 opendocument:1 addition:1 charge:2 transfer:2 complex:2 technically:1 electrically:1 mainly:1 derivative:1 polyacetylene:6 black:3 simple:1 example:1 pa:1 specificially:1 iodine:3 doped:2 trans:1 polyaniline:2 pani:1 dope:3 protonic:1 acid:1 poly:1 dioctyl:1 bithiophene:1 pdot:1 history:1 alan:2 j:1 heeger:1 g:2 macdiarmid:1 hideki:1 shirakawa:1 credit:1 discovery:3 development:2 highly:2 least:1 rigid:1 backbone:3 class:1 jointly:1 award:1 nobel:1 prize:2 chemistry:2 oxidize:2 interestingly:1 pass:1 much:3 early:4 even:1 superconductive:1 similarly:2 first:3 demonstration:1 high:4 conductivity:5 linear:1 series:1 weiss:1 et:1 al:1 worker:2 report:3 cm:1 polypyrrole:3 conduction:3 mechanism:1 material:7 involve:2 resonance:1 stabilization:1 delocalization:1 pi:1 electron:1 along:1 entire:1 well:2 mobility:1 gap:1 tunneling:1 phonon:1 assist:1 hopping:1 technology:3 thin:3 flexible:8 substrate:4 develop:2 cambridge:2 university:8 cavendish:2 laboratory:2 logic:3 spin:2 broad:1 range:1 product:1 use:8 plasticlogic:1 company:1 html:1 feature:1 light:2 less:1 expensive:2 make:3 desirable:1 alternative:1 many:2 application:6 create:1 possibility:1 new:2 would:2 impossible:1 semiconductor:4 dielectric:1 emitter:1 smart:1 window:1 expect:1 play:1 important:1 role:1 emerge:1 science:2 molecular:2 computer:1 general:1 resistance:2 therefore:1 conduct:1 electricity:1 poorly:1 inefficiently:1 compare:3 researcher:2 currently:1 explore:1 way:2 relatively:1 amount:1 boost:1 however:1 remain:1 viable:1 option:1 print:7 journal:2 propose:1 model:2 historically:1 another:2 name:1 various:1 oxidized:1 mixed:1 copolymer:1 commonly:1 present:1 day:1 e:3 fungal:1 pure:1 draw:1 upon:1 theory:1 neville:1 mott:1 others:1 disordered:1 subsequently:1 physic:1 department:1 texas:1 anderson:1 cancer:2 center:4 incidentally:1 demonstrated:1 negative:1 differential:1 hall:1 mark:1 contemporary:1 news:2 article:2 nature:1 note:1 strikingly:1 far:3 patent:1 battery:2 etc:1 semiconductive:1 original:1 gadget:1 smithsonian:1 collection:1 work:2 decade:1 drproctor:1 weisspaper:1 pdf:1 go:1 unrecognized:1 outside:1 pigment:1 cell:9 research:5 recently:1 time:1 except:1 institute:1 interested:1 property:1 applicable:1 treatment:1 melanoma:1 solar:8 could:1 cut:1 cost:8 power:1 inexpensive:2 rather:1 crystalline:1 process:1 low:4 equipment:2 ink:4 jet:1 printer:1 coat:2 employ:1 photographic:1 film:5 reduce:1 capital:1 manufacturing:2 conventional:1 technologyreview:1 energy:1 allow:1 significant:1 reduction:2 large:2 area:2 photovoltaics:4 several:1 reason:1 ipe:1 uni:1 stuttgart:1 de:1 php:1 lang:1 eng:1 pulldownid:1 id:1 roll:2 deposition:3 sheet:2 easy:1 realize:1 term:1 technological:1 effort:1 fragile:1 heavy:1 glass:2 transport:1 installation:1 lightweight:1 save:2 polymeric:1 polyethylene:1 terephtalate:1 pet:1 polycarbonate:1 pc:1 towards:1 protomorphous:1 prove:1 promising:1 concept:1 efficient:1 cheap:1 production:1 mobile:1 one:2 beauty:1 printed:2 different:1 electrical:1 component:1 top:1 space:1 increase:1 reliability:1 sometimes:1 must:1 damage:1 temperature:1 annealing:1 vital:1 sophisticated:1 engineering:1 iti:1 pixdro:1 asahi:1 kasei:1 merck:1 basf:1 hc:1 starck:1 hitachi:1 chemical:1 frontier:1 corporation:1 among:1 leader:1 electronicsweekly:1 niche:1 htm:1 innovation:1 gifu:1 national:1 chiao:1 maker:1 transistor:1 tokyo:1 sony:1 eprint:1 zinc:1 oxide:1 ferroelectric:1 memory:2 nonvolatile:1 bridgestone:1 liquid:1 powder:1 display:2 loudspeaker:1 nxt:1 plc:1 waseda:1 biosensors:1 california:1 berkeley:1 palo:1 alto:1 photonics:2 see:1 anneal:1 bioplastic:1 nanotube:1 circuit:1 disposable:1 fmcg:1 lead:1 petec:1 photodetector:1 radio:2 frequency:1 identification:1 tag:1 reference:1 read:1 overview:1 half:1 century:1 noel:1 hush:1 ann:1 n:1 acad:1 sci:1 hari:1 singh:1 nalwa:1 handbook:1 volume:1 set:1 american:1 scientific:1 publisher:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 association:1 international:1 conference:1 bbc:1 uk:1 firm:1 say:1 build:1 world:1 factory:1 produce:1 chip:1 |@bigram conductive_polymer:6 http_www:6 electrically_conductive:1 nobel_prize:1 et_al:1 cavendish_laboratory:2 crystalline_silicon:1 index_php:1 zinc_oxide:1 waseda_university:1 palo_alto:1 carbon_nanotube:1 acad_sci:1 hari_singh:1 external_link:1 bbc_news:1 |
1,667 | Heraldry | The German Hyghalmen Roll was made in the late fifteenth century and illustrates the German practice of repeating themes from the arms in the crest Heraldry is the profession, study, or art of devising, granting, and blazoning arms and ruling on questions of rank or protocol, as exercised by an officer of arms. Heraldry comes from Anglo-Norman herald, from the Germanic compound *harja-waldaz, "army commander". Appendix I. koro-. The word, in its most general sense, encompasses all matters relating to the duties and responsibilities of officers of arms. Stephen Friar, Ed. A Dictionary of Heraldry. (Harmony Books, New York: 1987), 183. To most, though, heraldry is the practice of designing, displaying, describing, and recording coats of arms and badges. Historically, it has been variously described as "the shorthand of history" Fox-Davies, A Complete Guide to Heraldry, (Thomas Nelson, 1925). and "the floral border in the garden of history." Iain Moncreiffe of that Ilk & Pottinger, Simple Heraldry (Thomas Nelson, 1953). The origins of heraldry lie in the need to distinguish participants in combat when their faces were hidden by iron and steel helmets. John Brooke-Little. An Heraldic Alphabet. (Macdonald, London: 1973),2. Eventually a formal system of rules developed into ever more complex forms of heraldry. The system of blazoning arms that is used in English-speaking countries today was developed by the officers of arms in the Middle Ages. This includes a stylized description of the escutcheon (shield), the crest, and, if present, supporters, mottoes, and other insignia. Certain rules apply, such as the Rule of tincture, and a thorough understanding of these rules is a key to the art of heraldry. The rules and terminology do differ from country to country, indeed several national styles had developed by the end of the Middle Ages, but there are some aspects that carry over internationally. Though heraldry is nearly 900 years old, it is still very much in use. Many cities and towns in Europe and around the world still make use of arms. Personal heraldry, both legally protected and lawfully assumed, has continued to be used around the world. Heraldic societies exist to promote education and understanding about the subject. Origins and history serekh emblem of Pharaoh Raneb, whose name appears between the falcon and the palace symbols As early as predynastic Egypt, an emblem known as a serekh was used to indicate the extent of influence of a particular regime, sometimes carved on ivory labels attached to trade goods, but also used to identify military allegiances and in a variety of other ways, even leading to the development of the earliest hieroglyphs. This practice seems to have grown out of the former use of animal mascots literally affixed to staves or standards, as depicted on the earliest cosmetic palettes of the period. Some of the oldest serekhs consist of a striped or cross-hatched box, representing a palace or city, with a crane, scorpion, or other animal drawn standing on top. Before long, the Horus-falcon became the norm as the animal on top, with the individual Pharaoh's symbol usually appearing in the box beneath the falcon, and above the stripes representing the palace. Shields of Magister Militum Praesentalis II. Page from the Notitia Dignitatum, a medieval copy of a Late Roman register of military commands Ancient warriors often decorated their shields with patterns and mythological motifs. These symbols could be used to identify the warriors bearing them when their faces were obscured by helmets. Army units of the Roman Empire were identified by the distinctive markings on their shields, although these were not heraldic in the medieval and modern sense, as they were associated with units, not individuals or families. Notitia Dignitatum, Bodleian Library Three soldiers on the Bayeux Tapestry bearing pre-heraldic shields. At the time of the Norman conquest of England, heraldry in its essential sense of an inheritable emblem had not yet been developed. The knights in the Bayeux Tapestry carry shields, but there appears to have been no system of hereditary coats of arms. The seeds of heraldic structure in personal identification can be detected in the account in a contemporary chronicle of Henry I of England, on the occasion of his knighting his son-in-law Geoffrey V, Count of Anjou, in 1127, placing around his neck a shield painted with golden lions; the funerary enamel of Geoffrey (died 1151), dressed in blue and gold and bearing his blue shield emblazoned with gold lions is the first recorded depiction of a coat of arms. C. A. Stothard, Monumental Effigies of Great Britain (1817) pl. 2, illus. in Wagner, Anthony, Richmond Herald, Heraldry in England (Penguin, 1946), pl. I. By the middle of the 12th century, Beryl Platts. Origins of Heraldry. (Procter Press, London: 1980), 32. coats of arms were being inherited by the children of armigers (persons entitled to use a coat of arms) across Europe. Between 1135 and 1155, seals representing the generalized figure of the owner attest to the general adoption of heraldic devices in England, France, Germany, Spain, and Italy, Woodcock, Thomas & John Martin Robinson. The Oxford Guide to Heraldry. (Oxford University Press, New York: 1988), 1. and by the end of the century heraldry appears as the sole device on seals. Wagner 1946:8. In England, the practice of using marks of cadency arose to distinguish one son from another and was institutionalized and standardized by John Writhe in the early 15th century. The tomb of Geoffrey V, Count of Anjou (died 1151) is the first recorded example of hereditary armory in Europe. The same shield shown here is found on the tomb effigy of his grandson, William Longespée, 3rd Earl of Salisbury. In the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance, heraldry became a highly developed discipline, regulated by professional officers of arms. As its use in jousting became obsolete, coats of arms remained popular for visually identifying a person in other ways — impressed in sealing wax on documents, carved on family tombs, and flown as a banner on country homes. The first work of heraldic jurisprudence, De Insigniis et Armiis, was written in the 1350s by Bartolus de Saxoferrato, a professor of law at the University of Padua. Squibb, George. (Spring 1953). "The Law of Arms in England". The Coat of Arms II (15): 244. From the beginning of heraldry, coats of arms have been executed in a wide variety of media, including on paper, painted wood, embroidery, enamel, stonework and stained glass. For the purpose of quick identification in all of these, heraldry distinguishes only seven basic colors Jack Carlson. A Humorous Guide to Heraldry. (Black Knight Books, Boston: 2005), 22 and makes no fine distinctions in the precise size or placement of charges on the field. David Williamson. Debrett's Guide to Heraldry and Regalia. (Headline Books, London: 1992), 24. Coats of arms and their accessories are described in a concise jargon called blazon. Arthur Fox-Davies. A Complete Guide to Heraldry (Grammercy Books, New York: 1993), 99. This technical description of a coat of arms is the standard that is adhered to no matter what artistic interpretations may be made in a particular depiction of the arms. The specific meaning of each element of a coat of arms is subjective. Though the original armiger may have placed particular meaning on a charge, these meanings are not necessarily retained from generation to generation. Unless canting arms incorporate an obvious pun on the bearer's name, it may difficult to find meaning in them. Changes in military technology and tactics made plate armour obsolete, and heraldry became detached from its original function. This brought about the development of "paper heraldry" under the Tudors. Designs and shields became more elaborate at the expense of clarity. During the 19th century, especially in Germany, many coats of arms were designed to depict a natural landscape, including several charges tinctured "proper" (i.e. the way they appear in nature). Fox-Davies (1909). pp. 74-5, 88. This form has been termed "Landscape heraldry". The 20th century's taste for stark iconic emblems made the simple styles of early heraldry fashionable again. The rules of heraldry Shield and lozenge The focus of modern heraldry is the armorial achievement, or the coat of arms, the central element of which is the escutcheon William Whitmore. The Elements of Heraldry. (Weathervane Books, New York: 1968), p.9. or shield. In general, the shape of the shield employed in a coat of arms is irrelevant, because the fashion for the shield-shapes employed in heraldic art has evolved through the centuries, but of course there are occasions when a blazon specifies a particular shape of shield. These specifications mostly occur in non-European contexts, such as the coat of arms of Nunavut Government of Nunavut. n.d. About the Flag and Coat of Arms. Government of Nunavut, Iqaluit, NU, Canada. Accessed October 19, 2006. Available here and the former Republic of Bophuthatswana, Hartemink R. 1996. South African Civic Heraldry-Bophuthatswana. Ralf Hartemink, The Netherlands. Accessed October 19, 2006. Available here with North Dakota providing an even more unusual example, US Heraldic Registry while the State of Connecticut specifies a "rococo" shield. American Heraldry Society - Arms of Connecticut —mostly in a non-European context, but not completely, as the Scottish Public Register records an escutcheon of oval form for the Lanarkshire Master Plumbers' and Domestic Engineers' (Employers') Association, and a shield of square form for the Anglo Leasing organisation. Traditionally, as women did not go to war, they did not bear a shield, instead, women's coats of arms were shown on a lozenge—a rhombus standing on one of its acute corners. This continues true in much of the world, though some heraldic authorities, such as Scotland's, with its ovals for women's arms, make exceptions. Stephen Slater. The Complete Book of Heraldry. (Hermes House, New York: 2003), p.56. In Canada, the restriction against women bearing arms on a shield was eliminated. Non-combatant clergy also have used the lozenge and the cartouche – an oval – for their display. Tinctures Tinctures are the colors used in heraldry, though a number of patterns called "furs" and the depiction of charges in their natural colors or "proper" are also regarded as tinctures, the latter distinct from any color such a depiction might approximate. Since heraldry is essentially a system of identification, the most important convention of heraldry is the rule of tincture. To provide for contrast and visibility, metals (generally lighter tinctures) must never be placed on metals, and colors (generally darker tinctures) must never be placed on colors. Where a charge overlays a partition of the field, the rule does not apply. There are other exceptions - the most famous being the arms of the kingdom of Jerusalem, consisting of gold crosses on white. Bruno Heim. Or and Argent (Gerrards Cross, Buckingham: 1994). The names used in English blazon for the colors and metals come mainly from French and include Or (gold), Argent (white), Azure (blue), Gules (red), Sable (black), Vert (green), and Purpure (purple). A number of other colors are occasionally found, typically for special purposes. Michel Pastoureau. Heraldry: An Introduction to a Noble Tradition. (Henry N Abrams, London: 1997), 47. Certain patterns called "furs" can appear in a coat of arms, though they are (rather arbitrarily) defined as tinctures, not patterns. The two common furs are ermine and vair. Ermine represents the winter coat of the stoat, which is white with a black tail. Vair represents a kind of squirrel with a blue-gray back and white belly. Sewn together, it forms a pattern of alternating blue and white shapes. Thomas Innes of Learney. Scots Heraldry (Johnston & Bacon, London: 1978), 28. Heraldic charges can be displayed in their natural colors. Many natural items such as plants and animals are described as proper in this case. Proper charges are very frequent as crests and supporters. Overuse of the tincture "proper" is viewed as decadent or bad practice. Variations of the field The field of a shield, or less often a charge or crest, is sometimes made up of a pattern of colors, or variation. A pattern of horizontal (barwise) stripes, for example, is called barry, while a pattern of vertical (palewise) stripes is called paly. A pattern of diagonal stripes may be called bendy or bendy sinister, depending on the direction of the stripes. Other variations include chevrony, gyronny and chequy. For further variations, these are sometimes combined to produce patterns of barry-bendy, paly-bendy, lozengy and fusilly. Semés, or patterns of repeated charges, are also considered variations of the field. The Rule of tincture applies to all semés and variations of the field. Divisions of the field Divisions of the field. Ordinaries. The field of a shield in heraldry can be divided into more than one tincture, as can the various heraldic charges. Many coats of arms consist simply of a division of the field into two contrasting tinctures. Since these are considered divisions of a shield the rule of tincture can be ignored. For example, a shield divided azure and gules would be perfectly acceptable. A line of partition may be straight or it may be varied. The variations of partition lines can be wavy, indented, embattled, engrailed, nebuly, or made into myriad other forms; see Line (heraldry). Stephen Friar and John Ferguson. Basic Heraldry. (W.W. Norton & Company, New York: 1993), 148. Ordinaries In the early days of heraldry, very simple bold rectilinear shapes were painted on shields. These could be easily recognized at a long distance and could be easily remembered. They therefore served the main purpose of heraldry—identification. Carl-Alexander von Volborth. Heraldry: Customs, Rules, and Styles. (Blandford Press, Dorset: 1981), 18. As more complicated shields came into use, these bold shapes were set apart in a separate class as the "honorable ordinaries." They act as charges and are always written first in blazon. Unless otherwise specified they extend to the edges of the field. Though ordinaries are not easily defined, they are generally described as including the cross, the fess, the pale, the bend, the chevron, the saltire, and the pall. Stephen Friar, Ed. A Dictionary of Heraldry. (Harmony Books, New York: 1987), 259. There is a separate class of charges called sub-ordinaries which are of a geometrical shape subordinate to the ordinary. According to Friar, they are distinguished by their order in blazon. The sub-ordinaries include the inescutcheon, the orle, the tressure, the double tressure, the bordure, the chief, the canton, the label, and flaunches. Stephen Friar, Ed. A Dictionary of Heraldry. (Harmony Books, New York: 1987), 330. Ordinaries may appear in parallel series, in which case blazons in English give them different names such as pallets, bars, bendlets, and chevronels. French blazon makes no such distinction between these diminutives and the ordinaries when borne singly. Unless otherwise specified an ordinary is drawn with straight lines, but each may be indented, embattled, wavy, engrailed, or otherwise have their lines varied. Woodcock, Thomas & John Martin Robinson. The Oxford Guide to Heraldry. (Oxford University Press, New York: 1988), 60. Charges A charge is any object or figure placed on a heraldic shield or on any other object of an armorial composition. John Brooke-Little. Boutell's Heraldry. (Frederick Warne & Company, London: 1973), 311. Any object found in nature or technology may appear as a heraldic charge in armory. Charges can be animals, objects, or geometric shapes. Apart from the ordinaries, the most frequent charges are the cross—with its hundreds of variations—and the lion and eagle. Other common animals are stags, Wild Boars, martlets, and fish. Dragons, bats, unicorns, griffins, and more exotic monsters appear as charges and as supporters. Animals are found in various stereotyped positions or attitudes. Quadrupeds can often be found rampant—standing on the left hind foot. Another frequent position is passant, or walking, like the lions of the coat of arms of England. Eagles are almost always shown with their wings spread, or displayed. In English heraldry the crescent, mullet, martlet, annulet, fleur-de-lis, and rose may be added to a shield to distinguish cadet branches of a family from the senior line. These cadency marks are usually shown smaller than normal charges, but it still does not follow that a shield containing such a charge belongs to a cadet branch. All of these charges occur frequently in basic undifferenced coats of arms. Iain Moncreiffe of that Ilk and Don Pottinger. Simple Heraldry, Cheerfully Illustrated. (Thomas Nelson and Sons, London: 1953), 20. Marshalling An extravagant example of marshalling—the 719 quarterings of the Grenville Armorial at Stowe Marshalling is the art of correctly arranging armorial bearings. David Williamson. Debrett's Guide to Heraldry and Regalia. (Headline Books, London: 1992), 128. Two or more coats of arms are often combined in one shield to express inheritance, claims to property, or the occupation of an office. Marshalling can be done in a number of ways, but the principal mode is impalement, which replaced the earlier dimidiation which simply halves the shields of both and sticks them together. Impalement involves using one shield with the arms of two families or corporations on either half. Another method is called quartering, in which the shield is divided into quadrants. This practice originated in Spain after the 13th century. Thomas Woodcock & John Martin Robinson. The Oxford Guide to Heraldry. (Oxford University Press, New York: 1988), 14. One might also place a small inescutcheon of a coat of arms on the main shield. When more than four coats are to be marshaled, the principle of quartering may be extended to two rows of three (quarterly of six) and even further. A few lineages have accumulated hundreds of quarters, though such a number is usually displayed only in documentary contexts. Edmundas Rimša. Heraldry Past to Present. (Versus Aureus, Vilnius: 2005), 38. Some traditions, like the Scottish one, have a strong resistance to allowing more than four quarters, and use instead grand quartering and counter quartering (quarterly quarterly). Helm and crest In English the word "crest" is commonly used to refer to an entire heraldic achievement of armorial bearings. The technical use of the heraldic term crest refers to just one component of a complete achievement. The crest rests on top of a helmet which itself rests on the most important part of the achievement: the shield. The modern crest has evolved from the three-dimensional figure placed on the top of the mounted knights' helms as a further means of identification. In most heraldic traditions a woman does not display a crest, though this tradition is being relaxed in some heraldic jurisdictions, and the stall plate of Lady Marion Fraser in the Thistle Chapel in St Giles, Edinburgh, shows her coat on a lozenge but with helmet, crest and motto. German heraldry has examples of shields with numerous crests, as this arms of Saxe-Altenburg featuring a total of seven crests. Some thaler coins display as many as fifteen. The crest is usually found on a wreath of twisted cloth and sometimes within a coronet. Crest-coronets are generally simpler than coronets of rank, but several specialized forms exist; for example, in Canada, descendants of the United Empire Loyalists are entitled to use a Loyalist military coronet (for descendants of members of Loyalist regiments) or Loyalist civil coronet (for others). When the helm and crest are shown, they are usually accompanied by a mantling. This was originally a cloth worn over the back of the helmet as partial protection against heating by sunlight. Today it takes the form of a stylized cloak hanging from the helmet. Peter Gwynn-Jones. The Art of Heraldry. (Parkgate Books, London: 1998), 124. Typically in British heraldry, the outer surface of the mantling is of the principal color in the shield and the inner surface is of the principal metal, though peers in the United Kingdom use standard colourings regardless of rank or what the colourings of their arms. The mantling is sometimes conventionally depicted with a ragged edge, as if damaged in combat, though the edges of most are simply decorated at the emblazoner's discretion. Clergy often refrain from displaying a helm or crest in their heraldic achievements. Members of the clergy may display appropriate head wear. This often takes the form of a small crowned, wide brimmed hat, sometimes, outwith heraldry, called a galero with the colors and tassels denoting rank; or, in the case of Papal arms until the inauguration of Pope Benedict XVI in 2005, an elaborate triple crown known as a tiara. Benedict broke with tradition to substitute a mitre in his arms. Orthodox and Presbyterian clergy do sometimes adopt other forms of head gear to ensign their shields. In the Anglican tradition, clergy members may pass crests on to their offspring, but rarely display them on their own shields. Mottoes An armorial motto is a phrase or collection of words intended to describe the motivation or intention of the armigerous person or corporation. This can form a pun on the family name as in Thomas Nevile's motto "Ne vile velis." Mottoes are generally changed at will and do not make up an integral part of the armorial achievement. Mottoes can typically be found on a scroll under the shield. In Scottish heraldry where the motto is granted as part of the blazon, it is usually shown on a scroll above the crest, and may not be changed at will. A motto may be in any language. Supporters and other insignia The coat of arms of Ukraine uses a lion and a Cossack as supporters. Supporters are human or animal figures or, very rarely, inanimate objects, usually placed on either side of a coat of arms as though supporting it. In many traditions, these have acquired strict guidelines for use by certain social classes. On the European continent, there are often fewer restrictions on the use of supporters. Ottfried Neubecker. Heraldry: Sources, Symbols, and Meaning. (Tiger Books International, London: 1997), 186. In the United Kingdom only peers of the realm, a few baronets, senior members of orders of knighthood, and some corporate bodies are granted supporters. Often these can have local significance or a historical link to the armiger. If the armiger has the title of baron, hereditary knight, or higher, he or she may display a coronet of rank above the shield. In the United Kingdom this is shown between the shield and helmet, though it is often above the crest in Continental heraldry. Another addition that can be made to a coat of arms is the insignia of a baronet or of an order of knighthood. This is usually represented by a collar or similar band surrounding the shield. When the arms of a knight and his wife are shown in one achievement, the insignia of knighthood surround the husband's arms only, and the wife's arms are customarily surrounded by a meaningless ornamental garland of leaves for visual balance. Julian Franklyn. Shield and Crest. (MacGibbon & Kee, London: 1960), 358. Differencing and cadency Left: the armorial badge of the Australian School of Armour. Right: the armorial achievement of Wilkins of Blackwater, an example of modern computer-generated heraldic art. The design reflects the armiger's long association with the Royal Australian Armoured Corps and is an example of allusion with differencing. Since arms pass from parents to offspring, and there is frequently more than one child per couple, it is necessary to distinguish the arms of siblings and extended family members from the original arms as passed on from eldest son to eldest son. Over time several schemes have been used; see cadency. http://www.baronage.co.uk/jag-ht/jag008.html National styles An example of an attributed coat of arms. Medieval officers of arms attributed this coat to Jesus, though he lived a good millennium before the development of heraldry. The emergence of heraldry occurred across western Europe almost simultaneously in the various countries. Originally, heraldic style was very similar from country to country. Davies, T.R. (Spring 1976). "Did National Heraldry Exist?". The Coat of Arms NS II (97): 16. Over time, there developed distinct differences between the heraldic traditions of different countries. The four broad heraldic styles are German-Nordic, Gallo-British, Latin, and Eastern. von Warnstedt, Christopher. (October 1970). "The Heraldic Provinces of Europe". The Coat of Arms XI (84): 128. In addition it can be argued that later national heraldic traditions, such as South African and Canadian have emerged in the twentieth century. Alan Beddoe, revised by Strome Galloway. Beddoe's Canadian Heraldry. (Mika Publishing Company, Belleville: 1981). In general there are characteristics shared by each of the four main groups. German-Nordic heraldry Coats of arms in Germany, the Scandinavian countries, Estonia, Latvia, Czech lands and northern Switzerland generally change very little over time. Marks of difference are very rare in this tradition as are heraldic furs. von Warnstedt, Christopher. (October 1970). "The Heraldic Provinces of Europe". The Coat of Arms XI (84): 129. One of the most striking characteristics of German-Nordic heraldry is the treatment of the crest. Often, the same design is repeated in the shield and the crest. The use of multiple crests is also common. Thomas Woodcock & John Martin Robinson. The Oxford Guide to Heraldry. (Oxford University Press, New York: 1988), 15. The crest is rarely used separately as in British heraldry, but can sometimes serve as a mark of difference between different branches of a family. Neubecker, Ottfried. Heraldry. Sources, Symbols and Meaning (London 1976), p. 158 Torse is optional. Pinches, J.H: European Nobility and Heraldry . (Heraldry Today, 1994, ISBN 0-900455-45-4, p. 82 Heraldic courtoisie is observed. Carl-Alexander von Volborth. Heraldry: Customs, Rules, and Styles. (Blandford Press, Dorset: 1981), p. 88. A Danish coat of arms in the German-Nordic tradition Dutch heraldry The Low Countries were great centres of heraldry in medieval times. One of the famous armorials is the Gelre Armorial or Wapenboek, written between 1370 and 1414. Coats of arms in the Netherlands were not controlled by an official heraldic system like the two in the United Kingdom, nor were they used solely by noble families. Any person could develop and use a coat of arms if they wished to do so, provided they did not usurp someone else's arms, and historically, this right was enshrined in Roman Dutch law J.A. de Boo. Familiewapens, oud en nieuw. Een inleiding tot de Familieheraldiek. (Centraal Bureau voor Genealogie, The Hague: 1977) . As a result, many merchant families had coats of arms even though they were not members of the nobility. These are sometimes referred to as burgher arms, and it is thought that most arms of this type were adopted while the Netherlands was a republic (1581-1806). This heraldic tradition was also exported to the erstwhile Dutch colonies. Roosevelt Coats of Arms: Theodore and Franklin Delano at American Heraldry Society. Accessed January 20, 2007. Dutch heraldry is characterised by its simple and rather sober style, and in this sense, is closer to its medieval origins than the eloborate styles which developed in other heraldic traditions. Cornelius Pama Heraldiek in Suid-Afrika. (Balkema, Cape Town: 1956). Gallo-British heraldry The use of cadency marks to difference arms within the same family and the use of semy fields are distinctive features of Gallo-British heraldry (in Scotland the most significant mark of cadency being the bordure, the small brisures playing a very minor role). It is common to see heraldic furs used. von Warnstedt, Christopher. (October 1970). "The Heraldic Provinces of Europe". The Coat of Arms XI (84): 129. In the United Kingdom, the style is notably still controlled by royal officers of arms. Carl-Alexander von Volborth. Heraldry of the World. (Blandford Press, Dorset: 1979), 192. French heraldry experienced a period of strict rules of construction under the Emperor Napoleon. Thomas Woodcock & John Martin Robinson. The Oxford Guide to Heraldry. (Oxford University Press, New York: 1988), 21. English and Scots heraldries make greater use of supporters than other European countries. Latin heraldry Coats of arms of the European Union member States and EU flag. The heraldry of southern France, Portugal, Spain, and Italy is characterized by a lack of crests, and uniquely-shaped shields. von Warnstedt, Christopher. (October 1970). "The Heraldic Provinces of Europe". The Coat of Arms XI (84): p.129. Portuguese and Spanish heraldry occasionally introduce words to the shield of arms, a practice disallowed in British heraldry. Latin heraldry is known for extensive use of quartering, because of armorial inheritance via the male and the female lines. Moreover, Italian heraldry is dominated by the Roman Catholic Church, featuring many shields and achievements, most bearing some reference to the Church. Thomas Woodcock & John Martin Robinson. The Oxford Guide to Heraldry. (Oxford University Press, New York: 1988), pp.24-30. Central and Eastern European heraldry Austria-Hungary Coat of Arms (1850. - 1918.) Eastern European heraldry is in the traditions developed in Serbia, Croatia, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, Ukraine, and Russia. Eastern coats of arms are characterized by a pronounced, territorial, clan system — often, entire villages or military groups were granted the same coat of arms irrespective of family relationships. In Poland, nearly six hundred unrelated families are known to bear the same Jastrzębiec coat of arms. Marks of cadency are almost unknown, and shields are generally very simple, with only one charge. Many heraldic shields derive from ancient house marks. At the least, fifteen per cent of all Hungarian personal arms bear a decapitated Turk's head, referring to their wars against the Ottoman Empire. von Warnstedt, Christopher. (October 1970). "The Heraldic Provinces of Europe". The Coat of Arms XI (84): pp.129-30. Thomas Woodcock & John Martin Robinson. The Oxford Guide to Heraldry. (Oxford University Press, New York: 1988), 28-32. Modern heraldry Heraldry flourishes in the modern world; institutions, companies, and private persons continue using coats of arms as their pictorial identification. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the English Kings of Arms, Scotland's Lord Lyon King of Arms, and the Chief Herald of Ireland continue making grants of arms. See the College of Arms newsletter for quarterly samplings of English grants and the Chief Herald of Ireland's webpage for recent Irish grants. There are heraldic authorities in Canada, See the Public Register of Arms, Flags and Badges of Canada at this page South Africa, Spain, and Sweden that grant or register coats of arms. In South Africa, the right to armorial bearings is also determined by Roman Dutch law, inherited from the 17th century Netherlands. Cornelius Pama. Heraldry of South African families: coats of arms/crests/ancestry. (Balkema, Cape Town: 1972) Heraldic societies abound in Africa, Asia, Australasia, the Americas, and Europe. Heraldry aficionados participate in the Society for Creative Anachronism, medieval revivals, micronationalism, et cetera. People see heraldry as a part of their national and personal heritages, and as a manifestation of civic and national pride. Today, heraldry is not a worldly expression of aristocracy, merely a form of identification. Stephen Slater. The Complete Book of Heraldry. (Hermes House, New York: 2003), p.238. Military heraldry continues developing, incorporating blazons unknown in the medieval world. Nations and their subdivisions — provinces, states, counties, cities, etc. — continue building upon the traditions of civic heraldry. The Roman Catholic Church, the Church of England, and other Churches maintain the tradition of ecclesiastical heraldry for their high-rank prelates, religious orders, universities, and schools. Extended bibliography General heraldry Fox-Davies, A.C.. The Art of Heraldry: An Encyclopedia of Armory. Parker, James. A Glossary of Terms Used in Heraldry. Oxford: James Parker & Co., 1894 (Newton Abbot: David & Charles, 1970); see online version United Kingdom Burke, John Bernard. The General Armory of England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales; Comprising a Registry of Armorial Bearings from the Earliest to the Present Time. London: Burke's Peerage, 1884 (Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Co., 1967). as above, but the original title page offers slightly different information, viz: by Sir Bernard Burke, C.B., LL.D., Ulster King of Arms, London, Harrison, 59, Pall Mall, 1884. Dennys, Rodney. The Heraldic Imagination. New York: Clarkson N. Potter, 1975. Elvins, Mark Turnham. Cardinals and Heraldry (Illustrated by Anselm Baker, foreword by Maurice Noël Léon Couve de Murville, preface by John Brooke-Little). London: Buckland Publications, 1988. Fairbairn, James. Fairbairn's Crests of the Families of Great Britain & Ireland. 2v. Revised ed. New York: Heraldic Publishing Co., 1911 (New York: Bonanza Books, 1986 in 1 vol.). Originally published 1800. Humphery-Smith, Cecil. Ed and Augmented General Armory Two, London, Tabard Press, 1973. Mackenzie of Rosehaugh, G., Scotland's Herauldrie: the Science of Herauldrie treated as a part of the Civil law and Law of Nations Heir of Andrew Anderson, Edinburgh, 1680 Nisbet, Alexander A system of Heraldry T & A Constable, Edinburgh, 1984, first published 1722 Innes of Edingight, Malcolm,(Marchmont Herald) revisor, Scots Heraldry (third edition) Johnston & Bacon, London, 1978 Paul, James Balfour(Lord Lyon Kinbg of Arms). An Ordinary of Arms Contained in the Public Register of All Arms and Bearings in Scotland. Edinburgh: W. Green & Sons, 1903 Reid of Robertland, David and Wilson, Vivien, An Ordinary of Arms, volume 2 [1902-1973], Lyon Office, Edinburgh 1977 Moncreiffe of Easter Moncrieffe, Iain (Kintyre Pursuivant) & Pottinger, Don (Herald Painter) Simple Heraldry - Cheerfully Illustrated Thomas Nelson and Sons, Edinburgh and London, 1953 Wagner, Sir Anthony R. Heralds of England: A History of the Office and College of Arms. London: HMSO, 1967. Mainland Europe Le Févre, Jean. A European Armorial: An Armorial of Knights of the Golden Fleece and 15th Century Europe. (Edited by Rosemary Pinches & Anthony Wood) London: Heraldry Today, 1971. Louda, Jiří and Michael Maclagan. Heraldry of the Royal Families of Europe. New York: Clarkson Potter, 1981. Reprinted as Lines of Succession (London: Orbis, 1984). Rietstap, Johannes B. Armorial General. The Hague: M. Nijhoff, 1904-26 (Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Co., 1967). Siebmacher, Johann. J. Siebmacher's Grosses und Allgemeines Wappenbuch Vermehrten Auglage. Nürnberg: Von Bauer & Raspe, 1890-1901. See also Byzantine heraldry Ecclesiastical heraldry Heraldic badge Heraldic flag Law of Arms Mon Socialist heraldry Vexillology Notes External links Portal:Heraldry/Web resources Puncher Heraldry Program Coat of Arms Visual Designer web-based software Free access to Burke's General Armory (incomplete, 1,500 British surnames), Pimbley's Dictionary of Heraldry and Blason des familles d'Europe, Grand Armorial Universel (15,000 European surnames) be-x-old:Геральдыка | Heraldry |@lemmatized german:7 hyghalmen:1 roll:1 make:14 late:3 fifteenth:1 century:11 illustrate:4 practice:7 repeat:3 theme:1 arm:94 crest:28 heraldry:116 profession:1 study:1 art:7 devising:1 granting:1 blazon:11 rule:14 question:1 rank:6 protocol:1 exercise:1 officer:6 come:3 anglo:2 norman:2 herald:7 germanic:1 compound:1 harja:1 waldaz:1 army:2 commander:1 appendix:1 koro:1 word:4 general:9 sense:4 encompass:1 matter:2 relate:1 duty:1 responsibility:1 stephen:6 friar:5 ed:5 dictionary:4 harmony:3 book:13 new:19 york:19 though:15 design:5 display:11 describe:6 record:3 coat:52 badge:4 historically:2 variously:1 shorthand:1 history:4 fox:4 davy:5 complete:5 guide:12 thomas:13 nelson:4 floral:1 border:1 garden:1 iain:3 moncreiffe:3 ilk:2 pottinger:3 simple:8 origin:4 lie:1 need:1 distinguish:5 participant:1 combat:2 face:2 hide:1 iron:1 steel:1 helmet:7 john:13 brooke:3 little:4 heraldic:42 alphabet:1 macdonald:1 london:21 eventually:1 formal:1 system:7 develop:9 ever:1 complex:1 form:12 use:35 english:8 speaking:1 country:11 today:5 middle:4 age:3 include:7 stylized:2 description:2 escutcheon:3 shield:49 present:3 supporter:9 motto:9 insignia:4 certain:3 apply:2 tincture:14 thorough:1 understanding:1 key:1 terminology:1 differ:1 indeed:1 several:4 national:6 style:10 end:2 aspect:1 carry:2 internationally:1 nearly:2 year:1 old:3 still:4 much:2 many:9 city:3 town:3 europe:14 around:3 world:6 personal:4 legally:1 protect:1 lawfully:1 assume:1 continue:6 society:5 exist:3 promote:1 education:1 understand:1 subject:1 serekh:2 emblem:4 pharaoh:2 raneb:1 whose:1 name:5 appear:9 falcon:3 palace:3 symbols:1 early:8 predynastic:1 egypt:1 know:4 indicate:1 extent:1 influence:1 particular:4 regime:1 sometimes:9 carve:2 ivory:1 label:2 attach:1 trade:1 good:2 also:9 identify:4 military:6 allegiance:1 variety:2 way:4 even:4 lead:1 development:3 hieroglyph:1 seem:1 grow:1 former:2 animal:8 mascot:1 literally:1 affix:1 stave:1 standard:3 depict:3 cosmetic:1 palette:1 period:2 serekhs:1 consist:3 striped:1 cross:5 hatch:1 box:2 represent:6 crane:1 scorpion:1 drawn:1 stand:3 top:4 long:3 horus:1 become:5 norm:1 individual:2 symbol:4 usually:8 beneath:1 stripe:4 magister:1 militum:1 praesentalis:1 ii:3 page:3 notitia:2 dignitatum:2 medieval:7 copy:1 roman:6 register:5 command:1 ancient:2 warrior:2 often:11 decorate:2 pattern:11 mythological:1 motif:1 could:4 bear:8 obscure:1 unit:2 empire:3 distinctive:2 marking:1 although:1 modern:6 associate:1 family:15 bodleian:1 library:1 three:3 soldier:1 bayeux:2 tapestry:2 pre:1 time:6 conquest:1 england:10 essential:1 inheritable:1 yet:1 knight:7 hereditary:3 seed:1 structure:1 identification:7 detect:1 account:1 contemporary:1 chronicle:1 henry:2 occasion:2 son:7 law:8 geoffrey:3 v:2 count:2 anjou:2 place:8 neck:1 paint:3 golden:2 lion:5 funerary:1 enamel:2 died:2 dress:1 blue:5 gold:4 emblazon:1 first:5 depiction:4 c:3 stothard:1 monumental:1 effigy:2 great:4 britain:2 pl:2 illus:1 wagner:3 anthony:3 richmond:1 penguin:1 beryl:1 platts:1 procter:1 press:12 inherit:2 child:2 armiger:5 person:5 entitle:2 across:2 seal:3 generalized:1 figure:4 owner:1 attest:1 adoption:1 device:2 france:2 germany:3 spain:4 italy:2 woodcock:7 martin:7 robinson:7 oxford:15 university:9 sole:1 mark:9 cadency:7 arise:1 one:13 another:4 institutionalize:1 standardize:1 writhe:1 tomb:3 recorded:1 example:10 armory:6 show:9 find:8 grandson:1 william:2 longespée:1 earl:1 salisbury:1 renaissance:1 highly:1 developed:1 discipline:1 regulate:1 professional:1 jousting:1 obsolete:2 remain:1 popular:1 visually:1 impress:1 wax:1 document:1 flown:1 banner:1 home:1 work:1 jurisprudence:1 de:7 insigniis:1 et:2 armiis:1 write:3 bartolus:1 saxoferrato:1 professor:1 padua:1 squibb:1 george:1 spring:2 beginning:1 execute:1 wide:2 medium:1 paper:2 wood:2 embroidery:1 stonework:1 stain:1 glass:1 purpose:3 quick:1 distinguishes:1 seven:2 basic:3 color:12 jack:1 carlson:1 humorous:1 black:3 boston:1 fine:1 distinction:2 precise:1 size:1 placement:1 charge:22 field:12 david:4 williamson:2 debrett:2 regalia:2 headline:2 accessory:1 concise:1 jargon:1 call:9 arthur:1 grammercy:1 technical:2 adhere:1 artistic:1 interpretation:1 may:16 specific:1 meaning:6 element:3 subjective:1 original:4 necessarily:1 retain:1 generation:2 unless:3 cant:1 incorporate:2 obvious:1 pun:2 bearer:1 difficult:1 change:4 technology:2 tactic:1 plate:2 armour:3 detach:1 function:1 bring:1 tudor:1 elaborate:2 expense:1 clarity:1 especially:1 natural:4 landscape:2 proper:5 e:1 nature:2 pp:3 term:3 taste:1 stark:1 iconic:1 fashionable:1 lozenge:4 focus:1 armorial:17 achievement:9 central:2 whitmore:1 weathervane:1 p:7 shape:9 employ:2 irrelevant:1 fashion:1 evolve:2 course:1 specify:3 specification:1 mostly:2 occur:3 non:3 european:10 context:3 nunavut:3 government:2 n:3 flag:4 iqaluit:1 nu:1 canada:5 access:4 october:7 available:2 republic:2 bophuthatswana:2 hartemink:2 r:3 south:5 african:3 civic:3 ralf:1 netherlands:4 north:1 dakota:1 provide:3 unusual:1 u:1 registry:2 state:3 connecticut:2 specifies:1 rococo:1 american:2 completely:1 scottish:3 public:3 oval:3 lanarkshire:1 master:1 plumber:1 domestic:1 engineer:1 employer:1 association:2 square:1 lease:1 organisation:1 traditionally:1 woman:5 go:1 war:2 instead:2 rhombus:1 acute:1 corner:1 true:1 authority:2 scotland:6 exception:2 slater:2 hermes:2 house:3 restriction:2 eliminate:1 combatant:1 clergy:5 cartouche:1 number:4 fur:5 regard:1 latter:1 distinct:2 might:2 approximate:1 since:3 essentially:1 important:2 convention:1 contrast:2 visibility:1 metal:4 generally:7 light:1 must:2 never:2 darker:1 overlay:1 partition:3 famous:2 kingdom:8 jerusalem:1 white:5 bruno:1 heim:1 argent:2 gerrards:1 buckingham:1 mainly:1 french:3 azure:2 gules:2 red:1 sable:1 vert:1 green:2 purpure:1 purple:1 occasionally:2 typically:3 special:1 michel:1 pastoureau:1 introduction:1 noble:2 tradition:16 abrams:1 rather:2 arbitrarily:1 define:2 two:7 common:4 ermine:2 vair:2 winter:1 stoat:1 tail:1 kind:1 squirrel:1 gray:1 back:2 belly:1 sew:1 together:2 alternate:1 innes:2 learney:1 scot:2 johnston:2 bacon:2 item:1 plant:1 case:3 frequent:3 overuse:1 view:1 decadent:1 bad:1 variation:8 less:1 horizontal:1 barwise:1 barry:2 vertical:1 palewise:1 strip:1 paly:2 diagonal:1 bendy:4 sinister:1 depend:1 direction:1 chevrony:1 gyronny:1 chequy:1 combine:2 produce:1 lozengy:1 fusilly:1 semés:2 consider:2 applies:1 division:4 ordinary:13 divide:3 various:3 simply:3 ignore:1 would:1 perfectly:1 acceptable:1 line:8 straight:2 vary:2 wavy:2 indented:1 embattle:2 engrailed:2 nebuly:1 myriad:1 see:8 ferguson:1 w:3 norton:1 company:4 day:1 bold:2 rectilinear:1 easily:3 recognize:1 distance:1 remember:1 therefore:1 serve:2 main:3 carl:3 alexander:4 von:9 volborth:3 custom:2 blandford:3 dorset:3 complicated:1 set:1 apart:2 separate:2 class:3 honorable:1 act:1 always:2 otherwise:3 extend:4 edge:3 fes:1 pale:1 bend:1 chevron:1 saltire:1 pall:2 sub:2 geometrical:1 subordinate:1 accord:1 order:4 inescutcheon:2 orle:1 tressure:2 double:1 bordure:2 chief:3 canton:1 flaunches:1 parallel:1 series:1 give:1 different:4 pallet:1 bar:1 bendlets:1 chevronels:1 diminutive:1 borne:1 singly:1 draw:1 indent:1 object:5 composition:1 boutell:1 frederick:1 warne:1 geometric:1 hundred:3 eagle:2 stags:1 wild:1 boar:1 martlets:1 fish:1 dragon:1 bat:1 unicorn:1 griffin:1 exotic:1 monster:1 stereotyped:1 position:2 attitude:1 quadruped:1 rampant:1 left:1 hind:1 foot:1 passant:1 walk:1 like:3 almost:3 wing:1 spread:1 crescent:1 mullet:1 martlet:1 annulet:1 fleur:1 li:1 rise:1 add:1 cadet:2 branch:3 senior:2 small:4 normal:1 follow:1 contain:2 belong:1 frequently:2 undifferenced:1 cheerfully:2 marshal:3 extravagant:1 quartering:6 grenville:1 stowe:1 marshalling:2 correctly:1 arrange:1 bearing:5 express:1 inheritance:2 claim:1 property:1 occupation:1 office:3 principal:3 mode:1 impalement:2 replace:1 dimidiation:1 halve:1 stick:1 involve:1 corporation:2 either:2 half:1 method:1 quadrant:1 originate:1 four:4 principle:1 row:1 quarterly:4 six:2 far:1 lineage:1 accumulate:1 quarter:2 documentary:1 edmundas:1 rimša:1 past:1 versus:1 aureus:1 vilnius:1 strong:1 resistance:1 allow:1 grand:2 counter:1 helm:4 commonly:1 refer:3 entire:2 refers:1 component:1 rest:2 part:5 dimensional:1 mounted:1 mean:1 relax:1 jurisdiction:1 stall:1 lady:1 marion:1 fraser:1 thistle:1 chapel:1 st:1 giles:1 edinburgh:6 numerous:1 saxe:1 altenburg:1 feature:3 total:1 thaler:1 coin:1 fifteen:2 wreath:1 twisted:1 cloth:2 within:2 coronet:6 specialized:1 descendant:2 united:7 loyalist:4 member:7 regiment:1 civil:2 others:1 accompany:1 mantling:3 originally:3 worn:1 partial:1 protection:1 heating:1 sunlight:1 take:2 cloak:1 hang:1 peter:1 gwynn:1 jones:1 parkgate:1 british:7 surface:2 inner:1 peer:2 colouring:2 regardless:1 conventionally:1 ragged:1 damage:1 emblazoner:1 discretion:1 refrain:1 appropriate:1 head:3 wear:1 crown:2 brim:1 hat:1 outwith:1 galero:1 tassel:1 denote:1 papal:1 inauguration:1 pope:1 benedict:2 xvi:1 triple:1 tiara:1 break:1 substitute:1 mitre:1 orthodox:1 presbyterian:1 adopt:2 gear:1 ensign:1 anglican:1 pass:3 offspring:2 rarely:3 phrase:1 collection:1 intend:1 motivation:1 intention:1 armigerous:1 nevile:1 ne:1 vile:1 velis:1 integral:1 scroll:2 grant:6 language:1 ukraine:2 cossack:1 human:1 inanimate:1 side:1 support:1 acquire:1 strict:2 guideline:1 social:1 continent:1 ottfried:2 neubecker:2 source:2 tiger:1 international:1 realm:1 baronet:2 knighthood:3 corporate:1 body:1 granted:1 local:1 significance:1 historical:1 link:2 title:2 baron:1 high:2 continental:1 addition:2 collar:1 similar:2 band:1 surround:3 wife:2 husband:1 customarily:1 meaningless:1 ornamental:1 garland:1 leaf:1 visual:2 balance:1 julian:1 franklyn:1 macgibbon:1 kee:1 differencing:2 leave:1 australian:2 school:2 right:3 wilkins:1 blackwater:1 computer:1 generate:1 reflect:1 royal:3 corp:1 allusion:1 parent:1 per:2 couple:1 necessary:1 sibling:1 eldest:2 scheme:1 http:1 www:1 baronage:1 co:5 uk:1 jag:1 ht:1 html:1 attributed:1 attribute:1 jesus:1 live:1 millennium:1 emergence:1 western:1 simultaneously:1 ns:1 difference:4 broad:1 nordic:4 gallo:3 latin:3 eastern:4 warnstedt:5 christopher:5 province:6 xi:5 argue:1 later:1 canadian:2 emerge:1 twentieth:1 alan:1 beddoe:2 revise:2 strome:1 galloway:1 mika:1 publishing:4 belleville:1 characteristic:2 share:1 group:2 scandinavian:1 estonia:1 latvia:1 czech:1 land:1 northern:1 switzerland:1 rare:1 striking:1 treatment:1 multiple:1 used:1 separately:1 torse:1 optional:1 pinch:2 j:3 h:1 nobility:2 isbn:1 courtoisie:1 observe:1 danish:1 dutch:5 low:1 centre:1 armorials:1 gelre:1 wapenboek:1 control:2 official:1 solely:1 wish:1 usurp:1 someone:1 else:1 enshrine:1 boo:1 familiewapens:1 oud:1 en:1 nieuw:1 een:1 inleiding:1 tot:1 familieheraldiek:1 centraal:1 bureau:1 voor:1 genealogie:1 hague:2 result:1 merchant:1 burgher:1 think:1 type:1 export:1 erstwhile:1 colony:1 roosevelt:1 theodore:1 franklin:1 delano:1 january:1 characterise:1 sober:1 close:1 eloborate:1 cornelius:2 pama:2 heraldiek:1 suid:1 afrika:1 balkema:2 cape:2 semy:1 significant:1 brisures:1 play:1 minor:1 role:1 notably:1 experience:1 construction:1 emperor:1 napoleon:1 scots:1 union:1 eu:1 southern:1 portugal:1 characterize:2 lack:1 uniquely:1 portuguese:1 spanish:1 introduce:1 disallow:1 extensive:1 via:1 male:1 female:1 moreover:1 italian:1 dominate:1 catholic:2 church:5 reference:1 austria:1 hungary:2 serbia:1 croatia:1 lithuania:1 poland:2 russia:1 pronounced:1 territorial:1 clan:1 village:1 irrespective:1 relationship:1 unrelated:1 jastrzębiec:1 unknown:2 derive:1 least:1 cent:1 hungarian:1 decapitated:1 turk:1 ottoman:1 flourish:1 institution:1 private:1 pictorial:1 ireland:5 king:3 lord:2 lyon:3 college:2 newsletter:1 sampling:1 webpage:1 recent:1 irish:1 africa:3 sweden:1 determine:1 ancestry:1 abound:1 asia:1 australasia:1 america:1 aficionados:1 participate:1 creative:1 anachronism:1 revival:1 micronationalism:1 cetera:1 people:1 heritage:1 manifestation:1 pride:1 worldly:1 expression:1 aristocracy:1 merely:1 nation:2 subdivision:1 county:1 etc:1 build:1 upon:1 maintain:1 ecclesiastical:2 prelate:1 religious:1 bibliography:1 encyclopedia:1 parker:2 james:3 glossary:1 newton:1 abbot:1 charles:1 online:1 version:1 unite:1 burke:4 bernard:2 wale:1 comprise:1 peerage:1 baltimore:2 genealogical:2 offer:1 slightly:1 information:1 viz:1 sir:2 b:2 ulster:1 harrison:1 mall:1 dennys:1 rodney:1 imagination:1 clarkson:2 potter:2 elvins:1 turnham:1 cardinal:1 anselm:1 baker:1 foreword:1 maurice:1 noël:1 léon:1 couve:1 murville:1 preface:1 buckland:1 publication:1 fairbairn:2 bonanza:1 vol:1 publish:2 humphery:1 smith:1 cecil:1 augment:1 tabard:1 mackenzie:1 rosehaugh:1 g:1 herauldrie:2 science:1 treat:1 heir:1 andrew:1 anderson:1 nisbet:1 constable:1 edingight:1 malcolm:1 marchmont:1 revisor:1 third:1 edition:1 paul:1 jam:1 balfour:1 kinbg:1 reid:1 robertland:1 wilson:1 vivien:1 volume:1 easter:1 moncrieffe:1 kintyre:1 pursuivant:1 painter:1 hmso:1 mainland:1 le:1 févre:1 jean:1 fleece:1 edit:1 rosemary:1 louda:1 jiří:1 michael:1 maclagan:1 reprint:1 succession:1 orbis:1 rietstap:1 johannes:1 nijhoff:1 siebmacher:2 johann:1 gross:1 und:1 allgemeines:1 wappenbuch:1 vermehrten:1 auglage:1 nürnberg:1 bauer:1 raspe:1 byzantine:1 mon:1 socialist:1 vexillology:1 note:1 external:1 portal:1 web:2 resource:1 puncher:1 program:1 designer:1 base:1 software:1 free:1 incomplete:1 surname:2 pimbley:1 blason:1 familles:1 universel:1 x:1 геральдыка:1 |@bigram coat_arm:48 carve_ivory:1 magister_militum:1 bodleian_library:1 bayeux_tapestry:2 norman_conquest:1 earl_salisbury:1 plate_armour:1 civic_heraldry:2 north_dakota:1 n_abrams:1 perfectly_acceptable:1 w_norton:1 blandford_press:3 unless_otherwise:2 frederick_warne:1 wild_boar:1 fleur_de:1 armorial_bearing:4 thomas_woodcock:5 wide_brim:1 brim_hat:1 pope_benedict:1 benedict_xvi:1 inanimate_object:1 eldest_son:2 http_www:1 von_warnstedt:5 warnstedt_christopher:5 twentieth_century:1 estonia_latvia:1 rarely_used:1 someone_else:1 franklin_delano:1 male_female:1 austria_hungary:1 per_cent:1 ottoman_empire:1 asia_australasia:1 creative_anachronism:1 et_cetera:1 pall_mall:1 golden_fleece:1 external_link:1 de_familles:1 |
1,668 | European_Coal_and_Steel_Community | The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was a six-nation international organisation serving to unify Western Europe during the Cold War and creating the foundation for European democracy and the modern-day developments of the European Union. The ECSC was the first organisation to be based on the principles of supranationalism. The ECSC was first proposed by French foreign minister Robert Schuman on 9 May 1950 as a way to prevent further war between France and Germany. He declared his aim was to 'make war not only unthinkable but materially impossible.' The means to do so, Europe's first supranational Community, was formally established in 1951 by the Treaty of Paris, signed not only by France and West Germany, but also by Italy and the three Benelux states: Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. Between these states the ECSC would create a common market for coal and steel. The ECSC was governed by a 'High Authority', checked by bodies representing governments, MPs and an independent judiciary. The ECSC was joined by two other similar communities in 1957, with whom it shared its membership and some institutions. In 1967 all its institutions were merged with that of the European Economic Community (EEC, which later became part of the European Union), but it retained its own independent identity. However in 2002 the Treaty of Paris expired, and with no desire to renew the treaty, all the ECSC activities and resources were absorbed by the European Community. During its existence, the ECSC had succeeded in creating a common market but could not prevent the decline of the coal and steel industries. It did however set the ground for the future European Union. History As Prime Minister and Foreign Minister, Schuman was instrumental in turning French policy away from Gaullist policy of permanent occupation or control of parts of German territory such as the Ruhr or the Saar. Despite stiff ultra-nationalist, Gaullist and Communist opposition, the French Assembly voted a number of resolutions in favour of his new policy of integrating Germany into a Community. The International Authority for the Ruhr changed in consequence. Schuman's guiding principles were moral, based on the equality of States (international democracy) not power politics of domination. Robert Schuman delivering his speech on 9 May 1950 The Schuman Declaration of 9 May 1950 (later known as Europe Day) occurred after two Cabinet meetings, the proposal became French government policy. France was thus the first government to agree to share and grow sovereignty in a supranational Community. That decision was based on a text, written and edited by Schuman's friend and colleague, the Foreign Ministry lawyer, Paul Reuter and with the assistance of Jean Monnet and Schuman's Directeur de Cabinet, Bernard Clappier. It laid out a plan for a European Community to pool the coal and steel of its members in a common market. Schuman proposed that "Franco-German production of coal and steel as a whole be placed under a common High Authority, within the framework of an organisation open to the participation of the other countries of Europe." Such an act was intended to help economic growth and cement peace between France and Germany, who were historic enemies. Coal and steel were vital resources needed for a country to wage war, so pooling those resources between two such enemies was seen as more than symbolic. Schuman saw the decision of the French Government on his proposal as the first example of a democratic and supranational Community, a new development in world history. The plan was also seen by some, like Monnet, who crossed out Reuter's mention of 'supranational' in the draft and inserted 'federation' as a first step to a "European federation". Political pressures In West Germany, Schuman kept the closest contacts with the new generation of democratic politicians. Karl Arnold, the Minister President of North Rhine-Westphalia, the province that included the coal and steel producing Ruhr, was initially spokesman for German foreign affairs. He gave a number of speeches and broadcasts on a supranational coal and steel community at the same time as Robert Schuman began to propose this Community in 1948 and 1949. The Social Democratic Party of Germany, in spite of support from unions and other socialists in Europe, decided it would oppose the Schuman plan. Kurt Schumacher's personal distrust of France, capitalism, and Konrad Adenauer aside, he claimed that a focus on integrating with a "Little Europe of the Six" would override the SPD's prime objective of German re-unification and thus empower ultra-nationalist and Communist movements in the West. He also thought the ECSC would end any hopes of nationalising the steel industry and lock in a Europe of "cartels, clerics and conservatives." Younger members of the party like Carlo Schmid, were, however, in favor of the Community and pointed to the long socialist support for the supranational idea. In France, Schuman had gained strong political and intellectual support from all sections of the nation and many non-Communist parties. Notable amongst these were ministerial colleague Andre Philip and Edouard Bonnefous, president of the Foreign Relations Committee, and former prime minister, Paul Reynaud. Projects for a coal and steel authority and other supranational communities were formulated in specialist subcommittees of the Council of Europe in the period before it became French government policy. Charles de Gaulle, who was then out of power, had been an early supporter of "linkages" between economies - on French terms - and had spoken of a "European confederation" that would exploit the resources of the Ruhr in 1945. However, he opposed the ECSC as a faux pooling ("le pool, ce faux semblant") because he considered it an unsatisfactory "piecemeal approach" to European unity, and because he considered the French government "too weak" to dominate the ECSC as he thought proper. De Gaulle also felt that the ECSC had insufficient supra-national authority because the Assembly was not ratified by a European referendum, and he did not accept Raymond Aron's contention that the ECSC was intended as a movement away from United States domination. Consequently, de Gaulle and his followers in the RPF voted against ratification in the lower house of the French Parliament. Despite these attacks and those from the extreme Left, the ECSC found substantial public support and was established. It gained strong majority votes in all eleven chambers of the parliaments of the Six, as well as approval among associations and European public opinion. In 1950 many had thought another war was inevitable. The steel and coal interests, however, were quite vocal in their opposition. The Council of Europe, created by a proposal of Schuman's first government in May 1948, helped articulate European public opinion and gave the Community idea positive support. Treaties The 100 article long Treaty of Paris which established the ECSC was signed on 18 April 1951 by "the inner six": France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. The ECSC was the first international organisation to be based on supranational principles and was, through the establishment of a common market for coal and steel, intended to expand the economies, increase employment, and raise the standard of living within the Community. The market was also intended to progressively rationalise the distribution of high level production whilst ensuring stability and employment. The common market for coal was opened on 10 February 1953, and for steel on 1 May 1953. Upon taking effect the ECSC gradually replaced the International Authority for the Ruhr. Office of the US High Commissioner for Germany Office of Public Affairs, Public Relations Division, APO 757, US Army, January 1952 "Plans for terminating international authority for the Ruhr" , pp. 61-62 On 11 August 1952, the United States was the first country (aside from ECSC members) to recognise the Community and stated it would now deal with the ECSC on coal and steel matters, establishing its delegation in Brussels. President Monnet responded by choosing Washington D.C. as the site of the ECSC's first external presence. The headline of the delegation's first bulletin read "Towards a Federal Government of Europe". Washington Delegation History, Delegation of the European Commission to the United States Six years after the Treaty of Paris, the Treaties of Rome were signed by the six ECSC members, creating the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC or 'Euratom'). These Communities were based, with some adjustments, on the ECSC. The Treaties of Rome were to be in force indefinitely, unlike the Treaty of Paris which was to expire after fifty years. These two new Communities worked on the creation of a customs union and atomic energy community respectively. The Rome treaties were hurried through just before de Gaulle seized power and proclaimed the Fifth Republic. Despite his efforts to 'chloroform' the Communities, their fields rapidly expanded and the EEC became the most important tool for political unification, overshadowing the ECSC. Merger and expiration Despite being separate legal entities, the ECSC, EEC and Euratom initially shared the Common Assembly and the European Court of Justice, although the Councils and the High Authority/Commissions remained separate. To avoid duplication, the Merger Treaty merged these separate bodies of the ECSC and Euratom with the EEC. The EEC later became one of the three pillars of the present day European Union. The Treaty of Paris was frequently amended as the EC and EU evolved and expanded. With the treaty due to expire in 2002, debate began at the beginning of the 1990s on what to do with it. It was eventually decided that it should be left to expire. The areas covered by the ECSC's treaty were transferred to the Treaty of Rome and the financial loose ends and the ECSC research fund were dealt with via a protocol of the Treaty of Nice. The treaty finally expired on 23 July 2002. That day, the ECSC flag was lowered for the final time outside the European Commission in Brussels and replaced with the EU flag. Timeline of treaties Institutions The institutions of the ECSC were the High Authority, the Common Assembly, the Special Council of Ministers and the Court of Justice. A Consultative Committee was established alongside the High Authority, as a fifth institution representing civil society. This was the first international representation of consumers in history. These institutions were merged in 1967 with those of the European Community, which then governed the ECSC, except for the Committee which continued to be independent until the expiration of the Treaty of Paris in 2002. The Treaty stated that the location of the institutions would be decided by common accord of the members, yet the issue was hotly contested. As a temporary compromise, the institutions were provisionally located in the City of Luxembourg, despite the Assembly being based in Strasbourg. High Authority Headquarters of the High Authority in Luxembourg The High Authority (the predecessor to the European Commission) was a nine-member executive body which governed the community. France, Germany and Italy appointed two members each to the Authority and the three smaller members appointed one each. These eight members then themselves appointed a ninth person to be President of the High Authority. Despite being appointed by agreement of national governments acting together, the members were to pledge not to represent their national interest, but rather took a oath to defend the general interests of the Community as a whole. Their independence was aided by members being barred from having any occupation outside the Authority or having any business interests (paid or unpaid) and for three years after they left office. To further ensure impartiality, one third of the membership was to be renewed every two years, (article 10). The Authority's principle innovation was its supranational character. It had a broad area of competence to ensure the objectives of the treaty were met and that the common market functioned smoothly. The High Authority could issue three types of legal instruments: Decisions, which were entirely binding laws; Recommendations, which had binding aims but the methods were left to member states; and Opinions, which had no legal force. Up to the merger in 1967, the authority had five Presidents followed by an interim President serving for the final days. President State Took office Left office AuthorityJean MonnetFrance10 August 19523 June 1955Monnet AuthorityRené MayerFrance3 June 195513 January 1958Mayer AuthorityPaul FinetBelgium13 January 195815 September 1959Finet AuthorityPiero MalvestitiItaly15 September 195922 October 1963Malvestiti AuthorityRinaldo Del BoItaly22 October 19636 July 1967Del Bo AuthorityAlbert CoppéBelgiuminterimCoppé Authority Other institutions The Common Assembly (which later became the European Parliament) was composed of 78 representatives and exercised supervisory powers over the executive High Authority. The Common Assembly representatives were to be national MPs delegated each year by their Parliaments to the Assembly, or directly elected 'by universal suffrage' (article 21). Though in practice it was the former as there was no requirement for elections until the Treaties of Rome and no actual election until 1979 as Rome required agreement in the Council on the electoral system first. However, to emphasise that the chamber was not a traditional international organisation composed of representatives of national governments, the Treaty of Paris used the term "representatives of the peoples". The Assembly was not originally specified in the Schuman Plan because it was hoped the Community would use the institutions (Assembly, Court) of the Council of Europe. When this became impossible because of British objections, separate institutions had to be created. The Assembly was intended as a democratic counter-weight and check to the High Authority, to advise but also to have power to sack the Authority for incompetence, injustice, corruption or fraud. The first President (akin to a Speaker) was Paul-Henri Spaak. The Special Council of Ministers (equivalent to the current Council of the European Union) was composed of representatives of national governments. The Presidency was held by each state for a period of three months, rotating between them in alphabetical order. One of its key aspects was the harmonisation of the work of the High Authority and that of national governments, which were still responsible for the state's general economic policies. The Council was also required to issue opinions on certain areas of work of the High Authority. Issues relating only to coal and steel were in the exclusive domain of the High Authority and in these areas the Council (unlike the modern Council) could only act as a scrutiny on the Authority. However, areas outside coal and steel required the consent of the Council. The Court of Justice was to ensure the observation of ECSC law along with the interpretation and application of the Treaty. The Court was composed of seven judges, appointed by common accord of the national governments for six years. There were no requirements that the judges had to be of a certain nationality, simply that they be qualified and that their independence be beyond doubt. The Court was assisted by two Advocates General. The Consultative Committee (similar to the Economic and Social Committee) had between 30 and 50 members equally divided between producers, workers, consumers and dealers in the coal and steel sector. Again, there was no national quotas and the treaty requires representatives of European associations to organise their own democratic procedures. They were to establish rules to make their membership fully 'representative' for democratic organised civil society. Members were appointed for two years and were not bound by any mandate or instruction of the organisations which appointed them. The Committee had a plenary assembly, bureau and a president. Again, the required democratic procedures were not introduced and nomination of these members remained in the hands of national ministers. The High Authority was obliged to consult the Committee in certain cases where it was appropriate and to keep it informed. The Consultative Committee remained separate (despite the merger of the other institutions) until 2002, when the Treaty expired and its duties were taken over by the Economic and Social Committee (ESC). Despite its independence, the Committee did cooperate with the ESC when they were consulted on the same issue. Achievements and failures Its mission (article 2) was general: to 'contribute to the expansion of the economy, the development of employment and the improvement of the standard of living' of its citizens. In terms of coal and steel production, the Community had little effect with the sectors respectively decreased and increased relative to the world trends. Trade between members did increase (tenfold for coal) which saved members' money by not having to import resources from the United States, particularly where there were cutbacks in one state. The High Authority also issued 280 modernization loans to the industry which helped the industry to improve output and reduce costs. Costs were further reduced by the abolition of tariffs at borders. Among the ECSC's greatest achievements are those on welfare issues. Some mines, for example were clearly unsustainable without government subsidies. Some miners had extremely poor housing. Over 15 years it financed 112,500 flats for workers, paying US$1,770 per flat, enabling workers to buy a home they could not have otherwise afforded. The ECSC also paid half the occupational redeployment costs of those workers who have lost their jobs as coal and steel facilities began to close down. Combined with regional redevelopment aid the ECSC spent $150 million creating 100,000 jobs, a third of which were for unemployed coal and steel workers. The welfare guarantees invented by the ECSC were extended to workers outside the coal and steel sector by some of its members. Far more important than creating Europe's first social and regional policy, it is argued that the ECSC introduced European peace. It involved the continent's first European tax. This was a flat tax, a levy on production with a maximum rate of one percent. Given that the European Community countries are now experiencing the longest period of peace in more than two thousand years, this has been described as the cheapest tax for peace in history. Another world war, or 'world suicide' as Schuman called this threat in 1949, was avoided. In October 1953 Schuman said that the possibility of another European war had been eliminated. Reasoning had to prevail among member states. However the ECSC failed to achieve several fundamental aims of the Treaty of Paris. It was hoped the ECSC would prevent a resurgence of large coal and steel groups such as the Konzerne, which helped Adolf Hitler rise to power. In the Cold War trade-offs, the cartels and major companies re-emerged, leading to apparent price fixing (another element that was meant to be tackled). With a democratic supervisory system the worst aspects of past abuse were avoided with the anti-cartel powers of the Authority, the first international anti-cartel agency in the world. Efficient firms were allowed to expand into a European market without undue domination. Oil, gas, electricity became natural competitors to coal and also broke cartel powers. Furthermore, with the move to oil, the Community failed to define a proper energy policy. The Euratom treaty was largely stifled by de Gaulle and the European governments refused the suggestion of an Energy Community involving electricity and other vectors that was suggested at Messina in 1955. In a time of high inflation and monetary instability ECSC also fell short of ensuring an upward equalisation of pay of workers within the market. These failures could be put down to overambition in a short period of time, or that the goals were merely political posturing to be ignored. The greatest achievements of the European Coal and Steel Community lie in its revolutionary democratic concepts of a supranational Community. This is a potential that has yet to be fully explored and exploited. See also Flag of the European Coal and Steel Community Schuman Declaration Energy policy of the European Union Energy Community Industrial plans for Germany Monnet plan References Further reading External links rtsp://rtsppress.cec.eu.int/Archive/video/mpeg/i000679/i000679.rm (insert address into RealPlayer) Common Destiny, a period film explaining the Coal and Steel Community, Europa (web portal) Treaty constituting the European Coal and Steel Community, European NAvigator http://schuman.info The institutions of the European Coal and Steel Community, European NAvigator France, Germany and the Struggle for the War-making Natural Resources of the Rhineland, American University Ruhr Delegation of the United States of America, Council of Foreign Ministers American Embassy Moscow, March 24, 1947, Truman Library | European_Coal_and_Steel_Community |@lemmatized european:38 coal:28 steel:27 community:37 ecsc:39 six:7 nation:2 international:9 organisation:6 serve:2 unify:1 western:1 europe:12 cold:2 war:9 create:8 foundation:1 democracy:2 modern:2 day:5 development:3 union:8 first:17 base:6 principle:4 supranationalism:1 propose:3 french:9 foreign:6 minister:9 robert:3 schuman:19 may:5 way:1 prevent:3 france:9 germany:11 declare:1 aim:3 make:3 unthinkable:1 materially:1 impossible:2 mean:2 supranational:10 formally:1 establish:6 treaty:28 paris:9 sign:3 west:4 also:12 italy:3 three:6 benelux:1 state:16 belgium:2 luxembourg:4 netherlands:2 would:9 common:14 market:9 govern:3 high:20 authority:30 check:2 body:3 represent:3 government:15 mp:2 independent:3 judiciary:1 join:1 two:9 similar:2 share:3 membership:3 institution:13 merge:3 economic:6 eec:6 later:4 become:8 part:2 retain:1 identity:1 however:8 expire:6 desire:1 renew:2 activity:1 resource:6 absorb:1 existence:1 succeed:1 could:5 decline:1 industry:4 set:1 ground:1 future:1 history:5 prime:3 instrumental:1 turn:1 policy:9 away:2 gaullist:2 permanent:1 occupation:2 control:1 german:4 territory:1 ruhr:7 saar:1 despite:8 stiff:1 ultra:2 nationalist:2 communist:3 opposition:2 assembly:12 vote:3 number:2 resolution:1 favour:1 new:4 integrate:2 change:1 consequence:1 guide:1 moral:1 equality:1 power:8 politics:1 domination:3 deliver:1 speech:2 declaration:2 know:1 occur:1 cabinet:2 meeting:1 proposal:3 thus:2 agree:1 grow:1 sovereignty:1 decision:3 text:1 write:1 edit:1 friend:1 colleague:2 ministry:1 lawyer:1 paul:3 reuter:2 assistance:1 jean:1 monnet:4 directeur:1 de:6 bernard:1 clappier:1 lay:1 plan:7 pool:3 member:19 franco:1 production:4 whole:2 place:1 within:3 framework:1 open:2 participation:1 country:4 act:3 intend:5 help:4 growth:1 cement:1 peace:4 historic:1 enemy:2 vital:1 need:1 wage:1 see:3 symbolic:1 saw:1 example:2 democratic:9 world:5 like:2 cross:1 mention:1 draft:1 insert:2 federation:2 step:1 political:4 pressure:1 keep:2 close:2 contact:1 generation:1 politician:1 karl:1 arnold:1 president:9 north:1 rhine:1 westphalia:1 province:1 include:1 produce:1 initially:2 spokesman:1 affair:2 give:3 broadcast:1 time:4 begin:3 social:4 party:3 spite:1 support:5 socialist:2 decide:3 oppose:2 kurt:1 schumacher:1 personal:1 distrust:1 capitalism:1 konrad:1 adenauer:1 aside:2 claim:1 focus:1 little:2 override:1 spd:1 objective:2 unification:2 empower:1 movement:2 think:3 end:2 hope:1 nationalise:1 lock:1 cartel:5 cleric:1 conservative:1 young:1 carlo:1 schmid:1 favor:1 point:1 long:3 idea:2 gain:2 strong:2 intellectual:1 section:1 many:2 non:1 notable:1 amongst:1 ministerial:1 andre:1 philip:1 edouard:1 bonnefous:1 relation:2 committee:10 former:2 reynaud:1 project:1 formulate:1 specialist:1 subcommittee:1 council:13 period:5 charles:1 gaulle:5 early:1 supporter:1 linkages:1 economy:3 term:3 speak:1 confederation:1 exploit:2 faux:2 pooling:1 le:1 ce:1 semblant:1 consider:2 unsatisfactory:1 piecemeal:1 approach:1 unity:1 weak:1 dominate:1 proper:2 felt:1 insufficient:1 supra:1 national:10 ratify:1 referendum:1 accept:1 raymond:1 aron:1 contention:1 united:5 consequently:1 follower:1 rpf:1 ratification:1 low:1 house:1 parliament:4 attack:1 extreme:1 leave:4 find:1 substantial:1 public:5 majority:1 eleven:1 chamber:2 well:1 approval:1 among:3 association:2 opinion:4 another:4 inevitable:1 interest:4 quite:1 vocal:1 articulate:1 positive:1 treaties:1 article:4 april:1 inner:1 establishment:1 expand:4 increase:3 employment:3 raise:1 standard:2 living:1 progressively:1 rationalise:1 distribution:1 level:1 whilst:1 ensure:5 stability:1 february:1 upon:1 take:4 effect:2 gradually:1 replace:2 office:5 u:3 commissioner:1 division:1 apo:1 army:1 january:3 terminate:1 pp:1 august:2 recognise:1 deal:1 matter:1 delegation:5 brussels:2 respond:1 choose:1 washington:2 c:1 site:1 external:2 presence:1 headline:1 bulletin:1 read:2 towards:1 federal:1 commission:4 year:9 rome:6 atomic:2 energy:6 eaec:1 euratom:4 adjustment:1 force:2 indefinitely:1 unlike:2 fifty:1 work:3 creation:1 custom:1 respectively:2 hurry:1 seize:1 proclaim:1 fifth:2 republic:1 effort:1 chloroform:1 field:1 rapidly:1 important:2 tool:1 overshadow:1 merger:4 expiration:2 separate:5 legal:3 entity:1 court:6 justice:3 although:1 remain:3 avoid:3 duplication:1 one:6 pillar:1 present:1 frequently:1 amend:1 ec:1 eu:3 evolve:1 due:1 debate:1 beginning:1 eventually:1 area:5 cover:1 transfer:1 financial:1 loose:1 research:1 fund:1 dealt:1 via:1 protocol:1 nice:1 finally:1 july:2 flag:3 lower:1 final:2 outside:4 timeline:1 special:2 consultative:3 alongside:1 civil:2 society:2 representation:1 consumer:2 except:1 continue:1 location:1 accord:2 yet:2 issue:7 hotly:1 contest:1 temporary:1 compromise:1 provisionally:1 locate:1 city:1 strasbourg:1 headquarters:1 predecessor:1 nine:1 executive:2 appoint:7 small:1 eight:1 ninth:1 person:1 agreement:2 together:1 pledge:1 rather:1 oath:1 defend:1 general:4 independence:3 aid:2 bar:1 business:1 pay:4 unpaid:1 impartiality:1 third:2 every:1 innovation:1 character:1 broad:1 competence:1 meet:1 function:1 smoothly:1 type:1 instrument:1 entirely:1 bind:2 law:2 recommendation:1 binding:1 method:1 five:1 follow:1 interim:1 left:1 authorityjean:1 june:2 authorityrené:1 authoritypaul:1 september:2 authoritypiero:1 october:3 authorityrinaldo:1 del:1 bo:1 authorityalbert:1 coppébelgiuminterimcoppé:1 compose:4 representative:7 exercised:1 supervisory:2 delegate:1 directly:1 elect:1 universal:1 suffrage:1 though:1 practice:1 requirement:2 election:2 actual:1 require:4 electoral:1 system:2 emphasise:1 traditional:1 use:2 people:1 originally:1 specify:1 hop:2 british:1 objection:1 counter:1 weight:1 advise:1 sack:1 incompetence:1 injustice:1 corruption:1 fraud:1 akin:1 speaker:1 henri:1 spaak:1 equivalent:1 current:1 presidency:1 hold:1 month:1 rotate:1 alphabetical:1 order:1 key:1 aspect:2 harmonisation:1 still:1 responsible:1 certain:3 relate:1 exclusive:1 domain:1 scrutiny:1 consent:1 observation:1 along:1 interpretation:1 application:1 seven:1 judge:2 nationality:1 simply:1 qualify:1 beyond:1 doubt:1 assist:1 advocate:1 equally:1 divide:1 producer:1 worker:7 dealer:1 sector:3 quota:1 organise:2 procedure:2 rule:1 fully:2 mandate:1 instruction:1 plenary:1 bureau:1 required:1 introduce:2 nomination:1 hand:1 oblige:1 consult:2 case:1 appropriate:1 informed:1 duty:1 esc:2 cooperate:1 achievement:3 failures:1 mission:1 contribute:1 expansion:1 improvement:1 live:1 citizen:1 decreased:1 relative:1 trend:1 trade:2 tenfold:1 save:1 money:1 import:1 particularly:1 cutback:1 modernization:1 loan:1 improve:1 output:1 reduce:2 cost:3 far:2 abolition:1 tariff:1 border:1 great:2 welfare:2 mine:1 clearly:1 unsustainable:1 without:2 subsidy:1 miner:1 extremely:1 poor:1 housing:1 finance:1 flat:3 per:1 enable:1 buy:1 home:1 otherwise:1 afford:1 half:1 occupational:1 redeployment:1 lose:1 job:2 facility:1 combine:1 regional:2 redevelopment:1 spent:1 million:1 unemployed:1 guarantee:1 invent:1 extend:1 argue:1 involve:2 continent:1 tax:3 levy:1 maximum:1 rate:1 percent:1 experience:1 thousand:1 describe:1 cheap:1 suicide:1 call:1 threat:1 say:1 possibility:1 eliminate:1 reason:1 prevail:1 fail:2 achieve:1 several:1 fundamental:1 resurgence:1 large:1 group:1 konzerne:1 adolf:1 hitler:1 rise:1 offs:1 major:1 company:1 emerge:1 lead:1 apparent:1 price:1 fixing:1 element:1 tackle:1 bad:1 past:1 abuse:1 anti:2 agency:1 efficient:1 firm:1 allow:1 undue:1 oil:2 gas:1 electricity:2 natural:2 competitor:1 break:1 furthermore:1 move:1 define:1 largely:1 stifle:1 refuse:1 suggestion:1 vector:1 suggest:1 messina:1 inflation:1 monetary:1 instability:1 fell:1 short:2 upward:1 equalisation:1 failure:1 put:1 overambition:1 goal:1 merely:1 posturing:1 ignore:1 lie:1 revolutionary:1 concept:1 potential:1 explore:1 industrial:1 reference:1 link:1 rtsp:1 rtsppress:1 cec:1 int:1 archive:1 video:1 mpeg:1 rm:1 address:1 realplayer:1 destiny:1 film:1 explain:1 europa:1 web:1 portal:1 constitute:1 navigator:2 http:1 info:1 struggle:1 rhineland:1 american:2 university:1 america:1 embassy:1 moscow:1 march:1 truman:1 library:1 |@bigram robert_schuman:3 belgium_luxembourg:2 prime_minister:2 ultra_nationalist:2 jean_monnet:1 rhine_westphalia:1 foreign_affair:1 konrad_adenauer:1 de_gaulle:5 raymond_aron:1 consultative_committee:3 hotly_contest:1 universal_suffrage:1 henri_spaak:1 alphabetical_order:1 increase_tenfold:1 adolf_hitler:1 price_fixing:1 external_link:1 |
1,669 | Hash_function | A hash function that maps names to integers from 0 to 15. Note the collision between keys "John Smith" and "Sandra Dee". A hash function is any well-defined procedure or mathematical function which converts a large, possibly variable-sized amount of data into a small datum, usually a single integer that may serve as an index into an array. The values returned by a hash function are called hash values, hash codes, hash sums, or simply hashes. Hash functions are mostly used to speed up table lookup or data comparison tasks — such as finding items in a database, detecting duplicated or similar records in a large file, finding similar stretches in DNA sequences, and so on. A hash function may map two or more keys to the same hash value. In many applications, it is desirable to minimize the occurrence of such collisions; which means that the hash function must map the keys to the hash values as evenly as possible. Depending on the application, other properties may be required as well. Although the idea was conceived in the 1950s, the design of good hash functions is still a topic of active research. Hash functions are related to (and often confused with) checksums, check digits, fingerprints, randomization functions, error correcting codes, and cryptographic hash functions. Although these concepts overlap to some extent, each has its own uses and requirements and is designed and optimised differently. The HashKeeper database maintained by the National Drug Intelligence Center, for instance, is more aptly described as a catalog of file fingerprints than of hash values. Applications Hash tables Hash functions are primarily used in hash tables, to quickly locate a data record (for example, a dictionary definition) given its search key (the headword). Specifically, the hash function is used to map the search key to the hash. The index gives the place where the corresponding record should be stored. Hash tables, in turn, are used to implement associative arrays and dynamic sets. In general, a hashing function may map several different keys to the same index. Therefore, each slot of a hash table is associated with (implicitly or explicitly) a set of records, rather than a single record. For this reason, each slot of a hash table is often called a bucket, and hash values are also called bucket indices. Thus, the hash function only hints at the record's location — it tells where one should start looking for it. Still, in a half-full table, a good hash function will typically narrow the search down to only one or two entries. Caches Hash functions are also used to build caches for large data sets stored in slow media. A cache is generally simpler than a hashed search table, since any collision can be resolved by discarding or writing back the older of the two colliding items. Bloom filters Hash functions are an essential ingredient of the Bloom filter, a compact data structure that provides an enclosing approximation to a set of keys. Finding duplicate records To find duplicated records in a large unsorted file, one may use a hash function to map each file record to an index into a table T, and collect in each bucket T[i] a list of the numbers of all records with the same hash value i. Once the table is complete, any two duplicate records will end up in the same bucket. The duplicates can then be found by scanning every bucket T[i] which contains two or more members, fetching those records, and comparing them. With a table of appropriate size, this method is likely to be much faster than any alternative approach (such as sorting the file and comparing all consecutive pairs). Finding similar records Hash functions can also be used to locate table records whose key is similar, but not identical, to a given key; or pairs of records in a large file which have similar keys. For that purpose, one needs a hash function that maps similar keys to hash values that differ by at most m, where m is a small integer (say, 1 or 2). If one builds a table of T of all record numbers, using such a hash function, then similar records will end up in the same bucket, or in nearby buckets. Then one need only check the records in each bucket T[i] against those in buckets T[i+k] where k ranges between -m and m. This class includes the so-called acoustic fingerprint algorithms, that are used to locate similar-sounding entries in large collection of audio files (as in the MusicBrainz song labeling service). For this application, the hash function must be as insensitive as possible to data capture or transmission errors, and to "trivial" changes such as timing and volume changes, compression, etc. "Robust Audio Hashing for Content Identification by Jaap Haitsma, Ton Kalker and Job Oostveen" . Finding similar substrings The same techniques can be used to find equal or similar stretches in a large collection of strings, such as a document repository or a genomic database. In this case, the input strings are broken into many small pieces, and a hash function is used to detect potentially equal pieces, as above. The Rabin-Karp algorithm is a relatively fast string searching algorithm that works in O(n) time on average. It is based on the use of hashing to compare strings. Geometric hashing This principle is widely used in computer graphics, computational geometry and many other disciplines, to solve many proximity problems in the plane or in three-dimensional space, such as finding closest pairs in a set of points, similar shapes in a list of shapes, similar images in an image database, and so on. In these applications, the set of all inputs is some sort of metric space, and the hashing function can be interpreted as a partition of that space into a grid of cells. The table is often an array with two or more indices (called a grid file, grid index, bucket grid, and similar names), and the hash function returns an index tuple. This special case of hashing is known as geometric hashing or the grid method. Geometric hashing is also used in telecommunications (usually under the name vector quantization) to encode and compress multi-dimensional signals. Properties Good hash functions, in the original sense of the term, are usually required to satisfy certain properties listed below. Note that different requirements apply to the other related concepts (cryptographic hash functions, checksums, etc.). Low cost The cost of computing a hash function must be small enough to make a hashing-based solution more advantageous over other approaches. For instance, binary search can locate an item in a sorted table of n items with log2 n key comparisons. Therefore, a hash-table solution will be more efficient than binary search only if computing the hash function for one key costs less than performing log2 n key comparisons. Most cryptographic hash functions are too slow by this criterion. Determinism A hash procedure must be deterministic — meaning that for a given input value it must always generate the same hash value. In other words, it must be a function of the hashed data, in the mathematical sense of the term. This requirement excludes hash functions that depend on external variable parameters, such as pseudo-random number generators that depend on the time of day. It also excludes functions that depend on the memory address of the object being hashed, if that address may change during processing (as may happen in systems that use certain methods of garbage collection). Uniformity A good hash function should map the expected inputs as evenly as possible over its output range. That is, every hash value in the output range should be generated with roughly the same probability. The reason for this last requirement is that the cost of hashing-based methods goes up sharply as the number of collisions — pairs of inputs that are mapped to the same hash value — increases. Basically, if some hash values are more likely to occur than others, a larger fraction of the lookup operations will have to search through a larger set of colliding table entries. Note that this criterion only requires the value to be uniformly distributed, not random in any sense. A good randomizing function is usually good for hashing, but the converse need not be true. Hash tables often contain only a small subset of the valid inputs. For instance, a club membership list may contain only a hundred or so member names, out of the very large set of all possible names. In these cases, the uniformity criterion should hold for almost all typical subsets of entries that may be found in the table, not just for the global set of all possible entries. In other words, if a typical set of m records is hashed to n table slots, the probability of a bucket receiving many more than m/n records should be vanishingly small. In particular, if m is less than n, very few buckets should have more than one or two records. (In an ideal "perfect hash function", no bucket should have more than one record; but a small number of collisions is virtually inevitable, even if n is much larger than m -- see the birthday paradox). When testing a hash function, the uniformity of the distribution of hash values can be evaluated by the chi-square test. Bret Mulvey, Hash Functions. Accessed April 11, 2009 Variable range In many applications, the range of hash values may be different for each run of the program, or may change along the same run (for instance, when a hash table needs to be expanded). In those situations, one needs a hash function which takes two parameters — the input data z, and the number n of allowed hash values. A common solution is to compute a fixed hash function with a very large range (say, 0 to 232−1), divide the result by n, and use the division's remainder. If n is itself a power of 2, this can be done by bit masking and bit shifting. When this approach is used, the hash function must be chosen so that the result has fairly uniform distribution between 0 and n−1, for any n that may occur in the application. Depending on the function, the remainder may be uniform only for certain n, e.g. odd or prime numbers. Data normalization In some applications, the input data may contain features that are irrelevant for comparison purposes. When looking up a personal name, for instance, it may be desirable to ignore the distinction between upper and lower case letters. For such data, one must use a hash function that is compatible with the data equivalence criterion being used: that is, any two inputs that are considered equivalent must yield the same hash value. Continuity A hash function that is used to search for similar (as opposed to equivalent) data must be as continuous as possible; two inputs that differ by a little should be mapped to equal or nearly equal hash values. Note that continuity is usually considered a fatal flaw for checksums, cryptographic hash functions, and other related concepts. Continuity is desirable for hash functions only in some applications, such as hash tables that use linear search. Hash function algorithms The choice of a hashing function depends strongly on the nature of the input data, and their probability distribution in the intended application. Trivial hash function If the data to be hashed is small enough, one can use the data itself (reinterpreted as an integer in binary notation) as the hashed value. The cost of computing this "trivial" (identity) hash function is effectively zero. The meaning of 'small enough' depends on how much memory is available for the hash table. A typical PC (as of 2008) might have a gigabyte of available memory, meaning that hash values of up to 30 bits could be accommodated. However, there are many applications that can get by with much less. For example, when mapping character strings between upper and lower case, one can use the binary encoding of each character, interpreted as an integer, to index a table that gives the alternative form of that character ('A' for 'a', '8' for '8', etc.). If each character is stored in 8 bits (as in ASCII or ISO Latin 1), the table has only 28 = 256 entries; in the case of Unicode characters, the table would have 216 = 65536 entries. The same technique can be used to map two-letter country codes like 'us' or 'za' to country names (65536 table entries), 5-digit zip codes like 13083 to city names (100000 entries), etc. Invalid data values (such as the country code 'xx' or the zip code 00000) may be left undefined in the table, or mapped to some appropriate 'null' value. Perfect hashing A perfect hash function for the four names shown. A hash function that is injective — that is, maps each valid input to a different hash values — is said to be perfect. With such a function one can directly locate the desired entry in a hash table, without any additional searching. Unfortunately, perfect hash functions are effective only in situations where the inputs are fixed and entirely known in advance, such as mapping month names to the integers 0 to 11, or words to the entries of a dictionary. A perfect function for a given set of n keys, suitable for use in a hash table, can be found in time proportional to n, can be represented in less than 3n bits, and can be evaluated in a constant number of operations. There are generators that will emit optimized executable code to evaluate a perfect hash for a given input set. Minimal perfect hashing A minimal perfect hash function for the four names shown. A perfect hash function for n keys is said to be minimal if its range consists of n consecutive integers, usually from 0 to n−1. Besides providing single-step lookup, a minimal perfect hash function also yields a compact hash table, without any vacant slots. Minimal perfect hash functions are much harder to find than perfect ones with a wider range. Hashing uniformly distributed data If the inputs are bounded-length strings (such as telephone numbers, car license plates, invoice numbers, etc.), and each input may independently occur with uniform probability, then a hash function need only map roughly the same number of inputs to each hash value. For instance, suppose that each input is an integer z in the range 0 to N−1, and the output must be an integer h in the range 0 to n−1, where N is much larger than n. Then the hash function could be h = z mod n (the remainder of z divided by n), or h = (z × n) ÷ N (the value z scaled down by n/N and truncated to an integer), or many other formulas. Hashing data with other distributions These simple formulas will not do if the input values are not equally likely, or are not independent. For instance, most patrons of a supermarket will live in the same geographic area, so their telephone numbers are likely to begin with the same 3 to 4 digits. In that case, if n is 10000 or so, the division formula (z × n) ÷ N, which depends mainly on the leading digits, will generate a lot of collisions; whereas the remainder formula z mod n, which is quite sensitive to the trailing digits, may still yield a fairly even distribution of hash values. Hashing variable-length data When the data values are long (or variable-length) character strings — such as personal names, web page addresses, or mail messages — their distribution is usually very uneven, with complicated dependencies. For example, text in any natural language has highly non-uniform distributions of characters, and character pairs, very characteristic of the language. For such data, it is prudent to use a hash function that depends on all characters of the string — and depends on each character in a different way. A fairly common scheme for hashing such data is to break the input into a sequence of small units (bits, bytes, words, etc.) and combine all the units b[1], b[2], …, b[m] sequentially, as follows S ← S0; // Initialize the state. for k in 1, 2, …, m do // Scan the input data units: S ← F(S, b[k]); // Combine data unit k into the state. return G(S, n) // Extract the hash value from the state. This schema is also used in many text checksum and fingerprint algorithms. The state variable S may be a 32- or 64-bit unsigned integer; in that case, S0 can be 0, and G(S,n) can be just S mod n. The best choice of F is a complex issue and depends on the nature of the data. If the units b[k] are single bits, then F(S,b) could be, for instance if highbit(S) = 0 then return 2 * S + b else return (2 * S + b) ^ P Here highbit(S) denotes the most significant bit of S; the '*' operator denotes unsigned integer multiplication with lost overflow; '^' is the bitwise exclusive or operation applied to words; and P is a suitable fixed word A. Z. Broder. Some applications of Rabin's fingerprinting method. In Sequences II: Methods in Communications, Security, and Computer Science, pages 143--152. Springer-Verlag, 1993 . Special-purpose hash functions In many cases, one can design a special-purpose (heuristic) hash function that yields many fewer collisions than a good general-purpose hash function. For example, suppose that the input data are file names such as FILE0000.CHK, FILE0001.CHK, FILE0002.CHK, etc., with mostly sequential numbers. For such data, a function that extracts the numeric part k of the file name and returns k mod n would be nearly optimal. Needless to say, a function that is exceptionally good for a specific kind of data may have dismal performance on data with different distribution. Hashing with checksum functions One can adapt certain checksum or fingerprinting algorithms for use as hash functions. Some of those algorithms will map arbitrary long string data z, with any typical real-world distribution — no matter how non-uniform and dependent — to a 32-bit or 64-bit string, from which one can extract a hash value in 0 through n-1. This method may produce a sufficiently uniform distribution of hash values, as long as the hash range size n is small compared to the range of the checksum or fingerprint function. However, some checksums fare poorly in the avalanche test, which may be a concern in some applications. In particular, the popular CRC32 checksum provides only 16 bits (the higher half of the result) that are usable for hashing. Moreover, each bit of the input influences only one bit of the CRC32; so care must be taken to use all 32 bits when computing the hash from the checksum. Bret Mulvey, Evaluation of CRC32 for Hash Tables, in Hash Functions. Accessed April 10, 2009. Hashing with cryptographic hash functions Some cryptographic hash functions, such as SHA-1, have even stronger uniformity guarantees than checksums or fingerprints, and thus can provide very good general-purpose hashing functions. In ordinary applictions, this advantage may be too small to offset their much higher cost. Bret Mulvey, Evaluation of SHA-1 for Hash Tables, in Hash Functions. Accessed April 10, 2009. However, this method can provide uniformly distributed hashes even when the keys are chosen by a malicious agent. This feature may help protect services against denial of service attacks. Origins of the term The term "hash" comes by way of analogy with its non-technical meaning, to "chop and mix". Indeed, typical hash functions, like the mod operation, "chop" the input domain into many sub-domains that get "mixed" into the output range to improve the uniformity of the key distribution. Donald Knuth notes that Hans Peter Luhn of IBM appears to have been the first to use the concept, in a memo dated January 1953, and that Robert Morris used the term in a survey paper in CACM which elevated the term from technical jargon to formal terminology. List of hash functions Bernstein hash http://www.cse.yorku.ca/~oz/hash.html Fowler-Noll-Vo hash function (32, 64, 128, 256, 512, or 1024 bits) Jenkins hash function (32 bits) MurmurHash (32 or 64 bits) Pearson hashing (8 bits) Zobrist hashing See also Bloom filter Coalesced hashing Cryptographic hash function Distributed hash table Geometric hashing HMAC Linear hash Rabin-Karp string search algorithm Rolling hash Hash table List of hash functions Perfect hash function Transposition table Universal hashing References External links General purpose hash function algorithms (C/C++/Pascal/Java/Python/Ruby) Hash Functions and Block Ciphers by Bob Jenkins Integer Hash Function by Thomas Wang The Goulburn Hashing Function (PDF) by Mayur Patel Hash Functions by Paul Hsieh The Murmur Hash Function by Austin Appleby HSH 11/13 by Herbert Glarner Online Char (ASCII), HEX, Binary, Base64, etc... Encoder/Decoder with MD2, MD4, MD5, SHA1+2, etc. hashing algorithms FNV Fowler, Noll, Vo Hash Function Hash Generator Online Hash Generator (md2,md4,md5,sha1,tiger,snefru,ripemd,whirlpool,haval...) Ajax-based Hash Generator Online Hash Generator with instant hash computation while typing qDecoder's C/C++ hash functions — opensource library hashr A tool to create hashes in more than 40 hashing algorithms. Available trough website or Firefox extension MIT's Introduction to Algorithms: Hashing 1 MIT OCW lecture Video MIT's Introduction to Algorithms: Hashing 2 MIT OCW lecture Video | Hash_function |@lemmatized hash:164 function:91 map:17 name:14 integer:13 note:5 collision:7 key:18 john:1 smith:1 sandra:1 dee:1 well:2 define:1 procedure:2 mathematical:2 convert:1 large:13 possibly:1 variable:6 sized:1 amount:1 data:31 small:12 datum:1 usually:7 single:4 may:24 serve:1 index:9 array:3 value:32 return:6 call:5 code:7 sum:1 simply:1 mostly:2 use:31 speed:1 table:36 lookup:3 comparison:4 task:1 find:12 item:4 database:4 detect:2 duplicate:4 similar:14 record:22 file:10 stretch:2 dna:1 sequence:3 two:11 many:12 application:13 desirable:3 minimize:1 occurrence:1 mean:2 must:12 evenly:2 possible:6 depend:10 property:3 require:3 although:2 idea:1 conceive:1 design:3 good:9 still:3 topic:1 active:1 research:1 relate:1 often:4 confused:1 checksum:11 check:2 digit:5 fingerprint:7 randomization:1 error:2 correct:1 cryptographic:7 concept:4 overlap:1 extent:1 us:1 requirement:4 optimise:1 differently:1 hashkeeper:1 maintain:1 national:1 drug:1 intelligence:1 center:1 instance:8 aptly:1 describe:1 catalog:1 primarily:1 quickly:1 locate:5 example:4 dictionary:2 definition:1 give:7 search:11 headword:1 specifically:1 place:1 corresponding:1 store:3 turn:1 implement:1 associative:1 dynamic:1 set:12 general:4 several:1 different:6 therefore:2 slot:4 associate:1 implicitly:1 explicitly:1 rather:1 reason:2 bucket:13 also:8 thus:2 hint:1 location:1 tell:1 one:19 start:1 look:2 half:2 full:1 typically:1 narrow:1 entry:11 cache:3 build:2 slow:2 medium:1 generally:1 simple:2 hashed:2 since:1 resolve:1 discard:1 write:1 back:1 older:1 collide:2 bloom:3 filter:3 essential:1 ingredient:1 compact:2 structure:1 provide:5 enclose:1 approximation:1 duplicated:1 unsorted:1 collect:1 list:6 number:13 complete:1 end:2 scan:2 every:2 contain:4 member:2 fetch:1 compare:4 appropriate:2 size:2 method:8 likely:4 much:7 faster:1 alternative:2 approach:3 sort:2 consecutive:2 pair:5 whose:1 identical:1 purpose:7 need:6 differ:2 say:5 nearby:1 k:8 range:13 class:1 include:1 acoustic:1 algorithm:10 sound:1 collection:3 audio:2 musicbrainz:1 song:1 label:1 service:3 insensitive:1 capture:1 transmission:1 trivial:3 change:4 timing:1 volume:1 compression:1 etc:9 robust:1 hashing:6 content:1 identification:1 jaap:1 haitsma:1 ton:1 kalker:1 job:1 oostveen:1 substring:1 technique:2 equal:4 string:11 document:1 repository:1 genomic:1 case:9 input:24 break:2 piece:2 potentially:1 rabin:3 karp:2 relatively:1 fast:1 work:1 n:39 time:3 average:1 base:4 geometric:4 principle:1 widely:1 computer:2 graphic:1 computational:1 geometry:1 discipline:1 solve:1 proximity:1 problem:1 plane:1 three:1 dimensional:2 space:3 close:1 point:1 shape:2 image:2 metric:1 interpret:2 partition:1 grid:5 cell:1 tuple:1 special:3 know:2 telecommunication:1 vector:1 quantization:1 encode:1 compress:1 multi:1 signal:1 original:1 sense:3 term:6 satisfy:1 certain:4 apply:2 related:2 low:3 cost:6 compute:5 enough:3 make:1 solution:3 advantageous:1 binary:5 sorted:1 efficient:1 less:4 perform:1 criterion:4 determinism:1 deterministic:1 meaning:3 always:1 generate:3 word:6 exclude:2 external:2 parameter:2 pseudo:1 random:2 generator:6 day:1 memory:3 address:3 object:1 processing:1 happen:1 system:1 garbage:1 uniformity:5 expected:1 output:4 roughly:2 probability:4 last:1 go:1 sharply:1 increase:1 basically:1 occur:3 others:1 fraction:1 operation:4 uniformly:3 distribute:4 randomizing:1 converse:1 true:1 subset:2 valid:2 club:1 membership:1 hundred:1 hold:1 almost:1 typical:5 global:1 receive:1 vanishingly:1 particular:2 ideal:1 perfect:14 virtually:1 inevitable:1 even:4 see:2 birthday:1 paradox:1 test:3 distribution:11 evaluate:3 chi:1 square:1 bret:3 mulvey:3 access:3 april:3 run:2 program:1 along:1 expand:1 situation:2 take:2 z:10 allow:1 common:2 fixed:1 divide:2 result:3 division:2 remainder:4 power:1 bit:19 masking:1 shift:1 choose:2 fairly:3 uniform:6 e:1 g:3 odd:1 prime:1 normalization:1 feature:2 irrelevant:1 personal:2 ignore:1 distinction:1 upper:2 letter:2 compatible:1 equivalence:1 consider:2 equivalent:2 yield:4 continuity:3 oppose:1 continuous:1 little:1 nearly:2 fatal:1 flaw:1 linear:2 choice:2 strongly:1 nature:2 intended:1 reinterpret:1 notation:1 identity:1 effectively:1 zero:1 depends:1 available:3 pc:1 might:1 gigabyte:1 could:3 accommodate:1 however:3 get:2 character:10 encoding:1 form:1 ascii:2 iso:1 latin:1 unicode:1 would:2 country:3 like:3 u:1 za:1 zip:2 city:1 invalid:1 xx:1 leave:1 undefined:1 null:1 four:2 show:2 injective:1 directly:1 desired:1 without:2 additional:1 searching:1 unfortunately:1 effective:1 fix:2 entirely:1 advance:1 month:1 suitable:2 proportional:1 represent:1 constant:1 emit:1 optimized:1 executable:1 minimal:5 consist:1 besides:1 step:1 vacant:1 hard:1 wider:1 bound:1 length:3 telephone:2 car:1 license:1 plat:1 invoice:1 independently:1 suppose:2 h:3 mod:5 scale:1 truncate:1 formula:4 equally:1 independent:1 patron:1 supermarket:1 live:1 geographic:1 area:1 begin:1 mainly:1 lead:1 lot:1 whereas:1 quite:1 sensitive:1 trail:1 long:3 web:1 page:2 mail:1 message:1 uneven:1 complicated:1 dependency:1 text:2 natural:1 language:2 highly:1 non:3 characteristic:1 prudent:1 way:2 scheme:1 unit:5 byte:1 combine:2 b:8 sequentially:1 follow:1 initialize:1 state:4 f:3 extract:3 schema:1 unsigned:2 best:1 complex:1 issue:1 highbit:2 else:1 p:2 denote:1 significant:1 operator:1 denotes:1 multiplication:1 lose:1 overflow:1 bitwise:1 exclusive:1 broder:1 ii:1 communication:1 security:1 science:1 springer:1 verlag:1 heuristic:1 chk:3 sequential:1 numeric:1 part:1 optimal:1 needless:1 exceptionally:1 specific:1 kind:1 dismal:1 performance:1 adapt:1 fingerprinting:1 arbitrary:1 real:1 world:1 matter:1 dependent:1 produce:1 sufficiently:1 fare:1 poorly:1 avalanche:1 concern:1 popular:1 high:2 usable:1 moreover:1 influence:1 care:1 evaluation:2 sha:2 strong:1 guarantee:1 ordinary:1 applictions:1 advantage:1 offset:1 malicious:1 agent:1 help:1 protect:1 denial:1 attack:1 origin:1 come:1 analogy:1 technical:2 chop:2 mix:1 indeed:1 domain:2 sub:1 mixed:1 improve:1 donald:1 knuth:1 han:1 peter:1 luhn:1 ibm:1 appear:1 first:1 memo:1 date:1 january:1 robert:1 morris:1 survey:1 paper:1 cacm:1 elevate:1 jargon:1 formal:1 terminology:1 bernstein:1 http:1 www:1 cse:1 yorku:1 ca:1 oz:1 html:1 fowler:2 noll:2 vo:2 jenkins:2 murmurhash:1 pearson:1 zobrist:1 coalesce:1 hmac:1 roll:1 transposition:1 universal:1 reference:1 link:1 c:4 pascal:1 java:1 python:1 ruby:1 block:1 cipher:1 bob:1 thomas:1 wang:1 goulburn:1 pdf:1 mayur:1 patel:1 paul:1 hsieh:1 murmur:1 austin:1 appleby:1 hsh:1 herbert:1 glarner:1 online:3 char:1 hex:1 encoder:1 decoder:1 algorithms:3 fnv:1 tiger:1 snefru:1 ripemd:1 whirlpool:1 haval:1 ajax:1 instant:1 computation:1 type:1 qdecoder:1 opensource:1 library:1 hashr:1 tool:1 create:1 trough:1 website:1 firefox:1 extension:1 mit:4 introduction:2 ocw:2 lecture:2 video:2 |@bigram check_digit:1 cryptographic_hash:7 hash_table:17 associative_array:1 implicitly_explicitly:1 pseudo_random:1 garbage_collection:1 uniformly_distribute:3 vanishingly_small:1 fatal_flaw:1 probability_distribution:1 zip_code:2 license_plat:1 unsigned_integer:2 springer_verlag:1 fare_poorly:1 donald_knuth:1 http_www:1 yorku_ca:1 external_link:1 python_ruby:1 block_cipher:1 encoder_decoder:1 opensource_library:1 introduction_algorithms:2 mit_ocw:2 |
1,670 | Johann_Elert_Bode | Johann Elert Bode Johann Elert Bode (January 19, 1747 – November 23, 1826) was a German astronomer known for his reformulation and popularization of the Titius-Bode law. Bode determined the orbit of Uranus and suggested the planet's name. Biography Bode was born in Hamburg. As a youth, he suffered from an eye disease which particularly damaged his right eye; he continued to have trouble with his eyes throughout his life. Bode was the director of the Berlin Observatory, where he published the Uranographia in 1801, a celestial atlas that aimed both at scientific accuracy in showing the positions of stars and other astronomical objects, as well as the artistic interpretation of the stellar constellation figures. The Uranographia marks the climax of an epoch of artistic representation of the constellations. Later atlases showed fewer and fewer elaborate figures until they were no longer printed on such tables. Bode also published an astronomical yearbook, another small star atlas, intended for astronomical amateurs (Vorstellung der Gestirne), and an introductory book on the constellations and their tales, which was reprinted more than ten times. He is credited with the discovery of Bode's Galaxy (M81). Comet Bode (C/1779 A1) is named after him; its orbit was calculated by Erik Prosperin. From 1787 to 1825 Bode was director of the Astronomisches Rechen-Institut. Bode died in Berlin on November 23, 1826, aged 79. Selected writings Section of a plate from Uranographia showing the constellation Orion 1772 Anleitung zur Kentniss des Gestirnten Himmels (The most famous of Bode's writings. In this work, he first announced Bode's law.) 1774-1957 Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch für 1776-1959 (The astronomical yearbook published by Berlin Observatory.) 1782 Vorstellung der Gestirne ... des Flamsteadschen Himmelsatlas (Bode's revised and enlarged edition of Fortin's small star atlas of Flamsteed.) Verzeichniss (Containing the above star atlas, and including 5,058 stars observed by Flamsteed, Hevelius, T. Mayer, de la Caille, Messier, le Monnier, Darquier and Bode himself.) 1801 Uranographia sive Astrorum Descriptio (A large star atlas illustrated with twenty copper plates.) Allgemeine Beschreibung und Nachweisung der Gestirne (A star catalogue listing 17,240 stars.) Notes Further reading - Acta Historica Astronomiae, Vol. 30 - A new, comprehensive biography and the source for some of the material on this page. External links AtlasCoelestis.com: Vorstellung der Gestirne by J.E. Bode, 1782 - last retrieved in Sep 7, 2007, AtlasCoelestis.com: Uranographia, Berlino 1801 - last retrieved in Sep 7, 2007, Brief Biography of Bode Bode's 'Complete Catalog of hitherto observed Nebulous Stars and Star Clusters,' 1779, with links to his deep sky observations and discoveries. Vorstellung der Gestirne, Berlin und Stralsand : Bey Gottlieb August Lange. 1782. - Full digital facsimile, Linda Hall Library. Vorstellung der Gestirne, Berlin und Stralfund ; bey Gottlieb August Lange. 1805. - Full digital facsimile, Linda Hall Library. | Johann_Elert_Bode |@lemmatized johann:2 elert:2 bode:18 january:1 november:2 german:1 astronomer:1 know:1 reformulation:1 popularization:1 titius:1 law:2 determine:1 orbit:2 uranus:1 suggest:1 planet:1 name:2 biography:3 bear:1 hamburg:1 youth:1 suffer:1 eye:3 disease:1 particularly:1 damage:1 right:1 continue:1 trouble:1 throughout:1 life:1 director:2 berlin:5 observatory:2 publish:3 uranographia:5 celestial:1 atlas:6 aim:1 scientific:1 accuracy:1 show:3 position:1 star:10 astronomical:4 object:1 well:1 artistic:2 interpretation:1 stellar:1 constellation:4 figure:2 mark:1 climax:1 epoch:1 representation:1 later:1 elaborate:1 longer:1 print:1 table:1 also:1 yearbook:2 another:1 small:2 intend:1 amateur:1 vorstellung:5 der:6 gestirne:6 introductory:1 book:1 tale:1 reprint:1 ten:1 time:1 credit:1 discovery:2 galaxy:1 comet:1 c:1 calculate:1 erik:1 prosperin:1 astronomisches:2 rechen:1 institut:1 die:1 age:1 select:1 writings:1 section:1 plate:1 orion:1 anleitung:1 zur:1 kentniss:1 de:2 gestirnten:1 himmels:1 famous:1 writing:1 work:1 first:1 announce:1 berliner:1 jahrbuch:1 für:1 des:1 flamsteadschen:1 himmelsatlas:1 revise:1 enlarge:1 edition:1 fortin:1 flamsteed:2 verzeichniss:1 contain:1 include:1 observe:2 hevelius:1 mayer:1 la:1 caille:1 messy:1 le:1 monnier:1 darquier:1 sive:1 astrorum:1 descriptio:1 large:1 illustrate:1 twenty:1 copper:1 plat:1 allgemeine:1 beschreibung:1 und:3 nachweisung:1 catalogue:1 list:1 note:1 far:1 read:1 acta:1 historica:1 astronomiae:1 vol:1 new:1 comprehensive:1 source:1 material:1 page:1 external:1 link:2 atlascoelestis:2 com:2 j:1 e:1 last:2 retrieve:2 sep:2 berlino:1 brief:1 complete:1 catalog:1 hitherto:1 nebulous:1 cluster:1 deep:1 sky:1 observation:1 stralsand:1 bey:2 gottlieb:2 august:2 lange:2 full:2 digital:2 facsimile:2 linda:2 hall:2 library:2 stralfund:1 |@bigram vorstellung_der:5 der_gestirne:6 jahrbuch_für:1 revise_enlarge:1 copper_plat:1 external_link:1 facsimile_linda:2 |
1,671 | John_William_Strutt,_3rd_Baron_Rayleigh | John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh OM (12 November 1842 – 30 June 1919) was an English physicist who, with William Ramsay, discovered the element argon, an achievement for which he earned the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1904. He also discovered the phenomenon now called Rayleigh scattering, explaining why the sky is blue, and predicted the existence of the surface waves now known as Rayleigh waves. Biography Strutt was born in Langford Grove, Essex and in his early years suffered frailty and poor health. He attended Harrow School and began studying mathematics at Trinity College, University of Cambridge, in 1861. In 1865, he obtained his BA (Senior Wrangler and 1st Smith's prize) and MA in 1868. He was subsequently elected to a Fellowship of Trinity. He held the post until his marriage to Evelyn Balfour, daughter of James Maitland Balfour in 1871. He had three sons with her. In 1873 his father, John Strutt, 2nd Baron Rayleigh died, and he inherited the Barony of Rayleigh. He was the second Cavendish Professor of Physics at the University of Cambridge, following James Clerk Maxwell in this position from 1879 to 1884. He first described dynamic soaring by seabirds in 1883 in the British journal Nature. Approximately 1900 Lord Rayleigh developed the Duplex (combination of two) Theory (Human sound localization using two binaural cues). Interaural time delay (ITD) and interaural level difference (ILD) (assuming a spherical head with no external pinnae). Humans perceive sound objects spatially, using the difference in the phase (time delay) of the sound and the difference in amplitude (level) between the two ears, in a similar way that stereoscopic sight provides depth perception. Also called two primary cues for azimuth (horizontal location) but possibly its two primary cues for a 3 dimensional bearing. For example when you hear a seagull call out you can determine roughly x y and z location of the sound. Although Pinnae reflections are considered a main cue for vertical localisation. Lord Rayleigh was elected Fellow of the Royal Society on 12 June 1873 and served as president of the Royal Society from 1905 to 1908. He died on 30 June 1919 in Witham, Essex. Honours and awards Craters on Mars and the Moon are named in his honor as well as a type of surface wave known as a Rayleigh wave. The asteroid 22740 Rayleigh was named in his honour on 1 June 2007. Royal Medal (1882) Matteucci Medal (1894) Member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences (1897) Copley Medal (1899) Nobel Prize for Physics (1904) Rumford Medal (1920) Publications The Theory of Sound vol. I (London : Macmillan, 1877) PDF copy from Bibliothèque Nationale de France The Theory of Sound vol.II (London : Macmillan, 1877) PDF copy from Bibliothèque Nationale de France The Becquerel rays and the properties of radium (London, E. Arnold, 1904) Scientific papers (Vol. 1: 1869–1881) (Cambridge : University Press, 1899–1920) Scientific papers (Vol. 2: 1881–1887) (Cambridge : University Press, 1899–1920) Scientific papers (Vol. 3: 1887–1892) (Cambridge : University Press, 1899–1920) Scientific papers (Vol. 4: 1892–1901) (Cambridge : University Press, 1899–1920) Scientific papers (Vol. 5: 1902–1910) (Cambridge : University Press, 1899–1920) Scientific papers (Vol. 6: 1911–1919) (Cambridge : University Press, 1899–1920) See also Rayleigh criterion Rayleigh fading Rayleigh number Rayleigh quotient Rayleigh (unit) (named after his son) Rayleigh–Jeans law Rayleigh distribution Rayleigh–Taylor instability Plateau-Rayleigh instability Rayleigh Medal Rayleigh-Bénard convection References External links About John William Strutt | John_William_Strutt,_3rd_Baron_Rayleigh |@lemmatized john:3 william:3 strutt:4 baron:2 rayleigh:20 om:1 november:1 june:4 english:1 physicist:1 ramsay:1 discover:2 element:1 argon:1 achievement:1 earn:1 nobel:2 prize:3 physic:3 also:3 phenomenon:1 call:3 scattering:1 explain:1 sky:1 blue:1 predict:1 existence:1 surface:2 wave:4 know:2 biography:1 bear:1 langford:1 grove:1 essex:2 early:1 year:1 suffer:1 frailty:1 poor:1 health:1 attend:1 harrow:1 school:1 begin:1 study:1 mathematics:1 trinity:2 college:1 university:8 cambridge:8 obtain:1 ba:1 senior:1 wrangler:1 smith:1 subsequently:1 elect:2 fellowship:1 hold:1 post:1 marriage:1 evelyn:1 balfour:2 daughter:1 james:2 maitland:1 three:1 son:2 father:1 die:2 inherit:1 barony:1 second:1 cavendish:1 professor:1 follow:1 clerk:1 maxwell:1 position:1 first:1 describe:1 dynamic:1 soaring:1 seabird:1 british:1 journal:1 nature:1 approximately:1 lord:2 develop:1 duplex:1 combination:1 two:5 theory:3 human:2 sound:6 localization:1 use:2 binaural:1 cue:4 interaural:2 time:2 delay:2 itd:1 level:2 difference:3 ild:1 assume:1 spherical:1 head:1 external:2 pinna:1 perceive:1 object:1 spatially:1 phase:1 amplitude:1 ear:1 similar:1 way:1 stereoscopic:1 sight:1 provide:1 depth:1 perception:1 primary:2 azimuth:1 horizontal:1 location:2 possibly:1 dimensional:1 bearing:1 example:1 hear:1 seagull:1 determine:1 roughly:1 x:1 z:1 although:1 pinnae:1 reflection:1 consider:1 main:1 vertical:1 localisation:1 fellow:1 royal:4 society:2 serve:1 president:1 witham:1 honour:2 award:1 crater:1 mar:1 moon:1 name:3 honor:1 well:1 type:1 asteroid:1 medal:5 matteucci:1 member:1 swedish:1 academy:1 science:1 copley:1 rumford:1 publications:1 vol:8 london:3 macmillan:2 pdf:2 copy:2 bibliothèque:2 nationale:2 de:2 france:2 ii:1 becquerel:1 ray:1 property:1 radium:1 e:1 arnold:1 scientific:6 paper:6 press:6 see:1 criterion:1 fade:1 number:1 quotient:1 unit:1 jean:1 law:1 distribution:1 taylor:1 instability:2 plateau:1 bénard:1 convection:1 reference:1 link:1 |@bigram nobel_prize:2 clerk_maxwell:1 lord_rayleigh:2 copley_medal:1 rumford_medal:1 bibliothèque_nationale:2 rayleigh_criterion:1 external_link:1 |
1,672 | Condensation_polymer | Condensation polymers are any kind of polymers formed through a condensation reaction, releasing small molecules as by-products such as water or methanol, as opposed to addition polymers which involve the reaction of unsaturated monomers. Types of condensation polymers include polyamides, polyacetals and polyesters. Condensation polymerization, a form of step-growth polymerization, is a process by which two molecules join together, resulting loss of small molecules which is often water. The type of end product resulting from a condensation polymerization is dependent on the number of functional end groups of the monomer which can react. Monomers with only one reactive group terminate a growing chain, and thus give end products with a lower molecular weight. Linear polymers are created using monomers with two reactive end groups and monomers with more than two end groups give three dimensional polymers which are crosslinked. Dehydration synthesis often involves joining monomers with an -OH (hydroxyl) group and a freely ionized -H on either end (such as a hydrogen from the -NH2 in nylon or proteins). Normally, two or more different monomers are used in the reaction. The bonds between the hydroxyl group, the hydrogen atom and their respective atoms break forming water from the hydroxyl and hydrogen, and the polymer. Polyester is created through ester linkages between monomers, which involve the functional groups carboxyl and hydroxyl (an organic acid and an alcohol monomer). Nylon is another common condensation polymer. It can be manufactured by reacting di-amines with carboxyl derivatives. In this example the derivative is a di-carboxylic acid, but di-acyl chlorides are also used. Another approach used is the reaction of di-functional monomers, with one amine and one carboxylic acid group on the same molecule: General chemical structure of one type of condensation polymer The carboxylic acids and amines link to form peptide bonds, also known as amide groups. Proteins are condensation polymers made from amino acid monomers. Carbohydrates are also condensation polymers made from sugar monomers such as glucose and galactose. Condensation polymerization is occasionally used to form simple hydrocarbons. This method, however, is expensive and inefficient, so the addition polymer of ethene (polyethylene) is generally used. Condensation polymers, unlike addition polymers may be biodegradable. The peptide or ester bonds between monomers can be hydrolysed by acid catalysts or bacterial enzymes breaking the polymer chain into smaller pieces. The most commonly known condensation polymers are proteins, fabrics such as nylon, silk, or polyester. See also Biopolymer Polyester Polyamide | Condensation_polymer |@lemmatized condensation:12 polymer:16 kind:1 form:4 reaction:4 release:1 small:3 molecule:4 product:3 water:3 methanol:1 oppose:1 addition:3 involve:3 unsaturated:1 monomer:13 type:3 include:1 polyamide:2 polyacetals:1 polyester:4 polymerization:4 step:1 growth:1 process:1 two:4 join:2 together:1 result:2 loss:1 often:2 end:6 dependent:1 number:1 functional:3 group:9 react:2 one:4 reactive:2 terminate:1 grow:1 chain:2 thus:1 give:2 low:1 molecular:1 weight:1 linear:1 create:2 use:6 three:1 dimensional:1 crosslinked:1 dehydration:1 synthesis:1 oh:1 hydroxyl:4 freely:1 ionized:1 h:1 either:1 hydrogen:3 nylon:3 protein:3 normally:1 different:1 bond:3 atom:2 respective:1 break:2 forming:1 ester:2 linkage:1 carboxyl:2 organic:1 acid:6 alcohol:1 another:2 common:1 manufacture:1 di:4 amine:3 derivative:2 example:1 carboxylic:3 acyl:1 chloride:1 also:4 approach:1 general:1 chemical:1 structure:1 link:1 peptide:2 know:2 amide:1 make:2 amino:1 carbohydrate:1 sugar:1 glucose:1 galactose:1 occasionally:1 simple:1 hydrocarbon:1 method:1 however:1 expensive:1 inefficient:1 ethene:1 polyethylene:1 generally:1 unlike:1 may:1 biodegradable:1 hydrolyse:1 catalyst:1 bacterial:1 enzyme:1 piece:1 commonly:1 fabric:1 silk:1 see:1 biopolymer:1 |@bigram condensation_polymer:8 growth_polymerization:1 dehydration_synthesis:1 hydrogen_atom:1 carboxylic_acid:3 acyl_chloride:1 peptide_bond:1 amino_acid:1 glucose_galactose:1 |
1,673 | Gary_Lineker | Gary Winston Lineker OBE (born 30 November 1960) is a retired English international football striker and is currently a sports broadcaster for the BBC and Eredivisie Live. He remains England's top scorer in the World Cup finals, with 10 goals. Lineker began his football career at Leicester City and became known as a prolific goalscorer, finishing as the First Division's joint top goalscorer in 1984-85 and earning his first England cap. He moved to Everton where he remained a clinical finisher, scoring 38 goals in 52 games. His first team honours came at FC Barcelona where he won the Copa del Rey in 1988 and the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1989. He returned to England in 1989, joining Tottenham Hotspur, and over three seasons he scored 67 goals in 105 games and won the FA Cup. Lineker's final club was Nagoya Grampus Eight and he retired in 1994 after two seasons at the Japanese side. Lineker made his England debut in 1984 and over the following eight years earned 80 caps and scored 48 goals, finishing as England's all-time second highest scorer. His international goals-to-games ratio remains one of the best for the country and he is regarded as one of the all-time best English strikers. He was top scorer in the 1986 World Cup and received the Golden Shoe, the only time an Englishman has achieved this feat. During his professional career, Lineker is noted for never having been cautioned or sent off by a referee. After his retirement from football he was inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame. He moved in to broadcasting, working at the BBC, presenting Match of the Day among other programmes. He led a consortium that invested in his old club Leicester, saving it from bankruptcy, and was appointed honorary vice-president. Since 1994, Lineker has featured in several television commercials for Walkers Crisps. He has four sons with his ex-wife Michelle and is currently engaged to Danielle Bux. Early life Lineker's father was a market trader in Leicester and he grew up with his family in the city, playing football with his brother Wayne. Lineker first attended Linden Primary School in Evington, and then went to the City of Leicester Boys' School (later The City of Leicester School) on Downing Drive in Evington. He joined Leicester City FC in 1977. Club career Leicester City (1977-1985) Lineker began his career at his home town club of Leicester City when he left school in 1977. Lineker began scoring prolifically in the early 1980s, helping Leicester win promotion to the First Division in 1980 and again in 1983. During his time at Filbert Street he finished twice amongst the top flight's leading scorers and winning his first England call up. He helped Leicester win promotion to the top flight in 1983 and was the First Division's joint top goalscorer in 1984-85 (tied on 24 goals with Kerry Dixon). By this stage, however, he was attracting the attention of bigger clubs, and a move from Filbert Street was looking certain. Everton (1985-1986) In the 1985 close season, Lineker was sold to defending league champions Everton for £800,000, and scored 38 goals in 52 games for his new team. He was again the First Division's leading goal scorer, this time with 30 goals, and helped Everton finish second in the league. While he was at Everton, they reached the FA Cup final for the third year in a row but they lost 3-1 to Liverpool, despite Lineker giving them an early lead. Liverpool (double winners) had also pipped Everton to the title by just two points. Barcelona (1986-1989) After a strong showing at the 1986 World Cup in Mexico, Barcelona signed Lineker for £2,200,000. Barcelona were being managed by former QPR boss Terry Venables, who had also brought in Manchester United and Wales striker Mark Hughes. Lineker was one of a string of British footballers to move to the continent in the mid 1980s, prompted by the prospect of higher wages as well as the fact that all English clubs were banned from European competitions from 1985 to 1990 due to the Heysel disaster. His Golden Shoe-winning performance at the finals led to much anticipation of success at the Nou Camp, and he didn't disappoint, scoring 21 goals in 41 games during his first season, including a hat-trick in a 3-2 win over arch rivals Real Madrid. Barcelona went on to win the Copa del Rey in 1988 and the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1989. However, Barcelona coach Johan Cruyff decided to play Lineker on the right of the midfield and he eventually lost his place on the first team. Tottenham Hotspur (1989-1992) Alex Ferguson of Manchester United attempted to sign Lineker to partner his ex-Barcelona team-mate Mark Hughes in attack, but Lineker spurned the Manchester club. Instead, he signed with Tottenham Hotspur in July 1989. Over three seasons, he scored 67 goals in 105 games and winning the FA Cup at White Hart Lane. He finished as top scorer in the First Division in the 1989–90 season, scoring 24 goals. He was in the Tottenham side that won the FA Cup in 1991 and was the top-division's second-highest goalscorer in 1991-92 with 28 goals from 35 games, behind Ian Wright, who scored 29 times in 42 games. Despite Lineker's personal performance, Tottenham finished this final pre-Premier League season in 15th place. Nagoya Grampus Eight (1992-1994) Lineker ended his career with an injury-plagued spell in Japan's J. League with Nagoya Grampus Eight where he made 23 appearances over two seasons, scoring nine times, before announcing his retirement in the autumn of 1994. During an illustrious career, he had been PFA Players' Player of the Year in 1986 and placed third in voting for the inaugural FIFA World Player of the Year in 1990 - the award ultimately went to Germany's Lothar Matthäus. Despite his long career, Lineker was never cautioned by a referee for foul play (never once receiving a yellow or red card) as a result of this accomplishment he was honoured in 1990 with the FIFA Fair Play Award. Club career statistics |- |1978-79||rowspan="7"|Leicester City||rowspan="2"|Second Division||7||1||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||7||1 |- |1979-80||19||3||1||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||20||3 |- |1980-81||First Division||9||2||1||1||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||10||3 |- |1981-82||rowspan="2"|Second Division||39||17||5||2||3||0||colspan="2"|-||47||19 |- |1982-83||40||26||1||0||2||0||colspan="2"|-||43||26 |- |1983-84||rowspan="2"|First Division||39||22||1||0||1||0||colspan="2"|-||41||22 |- |1984-85||41||24||4||3||3||2||colspan="2"|-||48||29 |- |1985-86||Everton||First Division||41||30||6||5||5||3||colspan="2"|-||52||38 |- |1986-87||rowspan="3"|Barcelona||rowspan="3"|La Liga||41||21||1||1||colspan="2"|-||8||0||50||22 |- |1987-88||36||16||5||2||colspan="2"|-||9||2||50||20 |- |1988-89||26||6||4||1||colspan="2"|-||8||4||38||11 |- |1989-90||rowspan="3"|Tottenham Hotspur||rowspan="3"|First Division||38||24||1||0||6||2||colspan="2"|-||45||26 |- |1990-91||32||15||6||3||5||1||colspan="2"|-||43||19 |- |1991-92||35||28||2||0||5||5||8||2||50||35 |- |1993||rowspan="2"|Nagoya Grampus Eight||rowspan="2"|J. League||6||3||0||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||6||3 |- |1994||17||6||0||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||17||6 340||192||28||14||30||13||8||2||406||221 103||43||10||4||colspan="2"|-||25||6||138||53 23||9||0||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||23||9 466||244||38||18||30||13||33||8||567||283 |} International career He first played for the England national team against Scotland in 1984. He played five games in the 1986 World Cup, and was top scorer of the tournament with six goals, winning the Golden Boot, making him the first and to this day only English player to have done so. He played most of the tournament wearing a lightweight cast on his forearm. He did score for England in the World Cup quarter-final against Argentina, but the game ended in defeat as Diego Maradona scored twice for the opposition (the first goal being the infamous "Hand of God" handball) and England were out of the competition. In 1988, Lineker played in the European Football Championship, but failed to score as England lost all three Group games. It was later established that he had been suffering from hepatitis. C Malam, p100 The first was against Spain 18 February 1987 and the second time against Malaysia 12 June 1991 In the 1990 World Cup, he scored four goals to help England reach the semi-finals after a string of draws and narrow victories. After Andreas Brehme sent England 1-0 down, he scored an equaliser after receiving a pass from Paul Parker and faking two German defenders, but the West Germans triumphed in the penalty shoot-out and went on to win the trophy. He retired from international football with 80 caps and 48 goals, one fewer goal than Bobby Charlton's England record (although Charlton took 26 more caps to score his one extra goal). In what proved to be his last England match, against Sweden at Euro 92, he was controversially substituted by England coach Graham Taylor, in favour of Arsenal striker Alan Smith, ultimately denying Lineker the chance to equal - or even better - Charlton's record of 49 goals. He had earlier missed a penalty that would have brought him level, in a pre-tournament friendly against Brazil. He was visibly upset at the decision, not looking at Taylor as he took the bench. He scored four goals in an England match on two occasions. Malam, p140&141 International goals Scores and results list England's goal tally first. # Date Venue Opponent Result Competition Scored 1 1985-03-26 Wembley Stadium (1923) 2-1 Friendly match 1 2-3 1985-06-16 Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum 5-0 Friendly match 2 4-6 1985-10-16 Wembley Stadium (1923) 5-0 1986 FIFA World Cup qualification 3 7-9 1986-06-11 Estadio Tecnológico, Monterrey 3-0 1986 FIFA World Cup 3 10-11 1986-06-18 Estadio Azteca, Mexico City 3-0 1986 FIFA World Cup 2 12 1986-06-22 Estadio Azteca, Mexico City 1-2 1986 FIFA World Cup 1 13-14 1986-10-15 Wembley Stadium (1923) 3-0 1988 UEFA European Football Championship qualifying 2 15-18 1987-02-18 Santiago Bernabéu, Madrid 4-2 Friendly match 4 19 1987-05-19 Wembley Stadium (1923) 1-1 Friendly match (Rous Cup) 1 20 1987-09-09 Rheinstadion, Düsseldorf 1-3 Friendly match 1 21-23 1987-05-10 Wembley Stadium (1923) 8-0 1988 UEFA European Football Championship qualifying 3 24 1988-05-25 Wembley Stadium (1923) 1-1 Friendly match (Rous Cup) 1 25 1988-11-22 Wembley Stadium (1923) 2-2 Friendly match 1 26 1988-05-28 Stade Olympique de la Pontaise, Lausanne 1-0 Friendly match 1 27 1989-04-26 Wembley Stadium (1923) 5-0 1990 FIFA World Cup qualification 1 28 1989-06-03 Wembley Stadium (1923) 3-0 1990 FIFA World Cup qualification 1 29 1989-06-07 Parken Stadium, Copenhagen 1-1 Friendly match 1 30 1990-03-26 Wembley Stadium (1923) 1-0 Friendly match 1 31 1990-05-15 Wembley Stadium (1923) 1-0 Friendly match 1 32 1990-06-11 Stadio Sant'Elia, Cagliari 1-1 1990 FIFA World Cup 1 33-34 1990-07-01 Stadio San Paolo, Naples 3-2 1990 FIFA World Cup 2 35 1990-07-04 Stadio delle Alpi, Turin 1-1 (3-4 on pens) 1990 FIFA World Cup 1 36 1990-04-02 Wembley Stadium (1923) 1-0 Friendly match 1 37 1990-10-17 Wembley Stadium (1923) 2-0 1992 UEFA European Football Championship qualifying 1 38-39 1991-02-06 Wembley Stadium (1923) 2-0 Friendly match 2 40 1991-07-26 Wembley Stadium (1923) 2-2 Friendly match (England Challenge Cup) 1 41 1991-06-03 Mt Smart Stadium, Auckland 1-0 Friendly match 1 42-45 1991-06-12 Stadium Merdeka, Kuala Lumpur 4-2 Friendly match 4 46 1991-11-13 Stadion Miejski, Poznań 1-1 1992 UEFA European Football Championship qualifying 1 47 1992-02-19 Wembley Stadium (1923) 2-0 Friendly match 1 48 1992-04-29 Luzhniki Stadium, Moscow 2-2 Friendly match 1 Honours Everton FA Cup: Runners-up 1986 First Division (now Premier League): Runners-up 1986 FC Barcelona Copa del Rey: 1988 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup: 1989 Tottenham Hotspur FA Cup: 1991 Individual English league top scorer: 1985, 1986, 1990 FIFA World Cup - Golden Shoe: 1986 (Mexico) Media career Following retirement from professional football, he developed a career in the media, initially on BBC Radio 5 Live and as a football pundit before replacing Des Lynam as the BBC's anchorman for football coverage, including their flagship football television programme Match of the Day, and as a team captain on the acerbic sports game show, They Think It's All Over from 1995 to 2003, where he was heavily (though affectionately) ridiculed for being a "goal hanger", described as "lethal from twelve inches" – a parody of Lineker's short-range scoring prowess. Following the departure of Steve Rider from the BBC, Lineker, who is a keen recreational golfer with a handicap of four, became the new presenter for the BBC's golf coverage. Despite receiving some criticism from his peers, he continued to front the BBC's coverage of the Masters and The Open, where he put his language skills to good use by giving an impromptu interview in Spanish with Argentinian Andrés Romero. Church Times - Simon Parke: A sporting chance for unity He presented a six-part TV Series for the BBC in 1998 (directed by Lloyd Stanton) called "Golden Boots" "Golden Boots" (1998) , with other football celebrities. It was an extensive history of the World Cup focusing on the 'Golden Boots' (top scorers). In 2001, Lineker was approached by game makers Codemasters to front the LMA Manager series on PlayStation. Lineker would pair up with Alan Hansen, fellow MOTD pundit to voice the post match comments on the game, with Barry Davies voicing the commentary. Since then the game has sold millions of copies and in LMA 2006, Lineker voices news items and the cup draws on the game. In 2004 he was also chosen to front the Codemasters England International Football game, with him voicing the team selection and the pre- and post-match menus. In 2002, Lineker took on his first acting role, barring roles playing himself in films such as Bend It Like Beckham or in the adapted for television stage play An Evening with Gary Lineker, as the voice of Underground Ernie on the BBC's children's channel, CBeebies. Both Gary and Michelle Lineker make a 'blink-and-you'll-miss-them' appearance as diners leaving a restaurant in the 1993 Eric Idle film Splitting Heirs. In 2003 Lineker was inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame. In 2005, Lineker was sued for defamation by Australian footballer Harry Kewell over comments Lineker had made writing in his column in the Sunday Telegraph about Kewell's transfer from Leeds United to Liverpool. However the jury was unable to reach a verdict. It transpired in the case that the article had actually been ghost-written by a journalist at the Sunday Telegraph following a telephone interview with Lineker. In December 2008 Lineker appeared on the ITV1 television programme "Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? Christmas Special" where he and English rugby union player Austin Healey won £50,000 for the Nicholls Spinal Injury Foundation. Walkers advertisements His popularity has enabled him to appear in a light-hearted series of commercials for Walkers, playing a comical role as an arch-villain which sends up his reputation as a nice guy. He has been fronting these adverts since 1995, making this one of the longest running advertising campaigns ever. Walkers, a Leicester-based British producer of snack foods, temporarily named their salt & vinegar crisps after Lineker in the late 1990s - they were labelled 'Salt-n-Lineker. This was also due to the fact that his favourite flavour crisps are Salt and Vinegar. Lineker forced to take crisp break Daily Mail Video games Software house Gremlin released Gary Lineker's Superstar Soccer in 1987, Gary Lineker's Superskills in 1988, and Gary Lineker's Hot Shot in 1989 for 8-bit platforms. Personal life Lineker is a freeman of the City of Leicester (which entitles him to graze his sheep - should he have any - on Town Hall Square) and he is often referred to as "Leicester's favourite son". As a youngster, he famously worked on his family's stall in Leicester Market. Lineker still helped out on the stall at the height of his playing career during the late 1980s and early 1990s, though usually only in the closed season. His links with cricket were renewed when he was invited to become Honorary President of Kent-based wandering cricket club, Paraguayan Elbows CC. The club, which was founded in 1986, was named in his honour after an incident in that summer's World Cup match between England and Paraguay. Lineker married Michelle in 1986, but they divorced in August 2006. They announced their split in April 2006 but stated that the situation was amicable. They have four sons, George, Harry, Tobias, and Angus. His oldest son George survived a rare form of leukaemia as a baby in the early 1990s; Gary now supports children's cancer charity CLIC Sargent and has since appeared in adverts encouraging people to give blood as a result. Lineker has been actively involved with other cancer charities such as Fight for Life and Cancer Research UK. Fight for Life Appeal 2008 "Gary Lineker to face questioning for Cancer Research UK charity fundraiser", Charities Aid Foundation, 2008-03-03. Retrieved on 2008-03-04. In October 2002, Lineker announced a £5 million rescue plan for cash-strapped club Leicester City, describing his involvement as charity rather than an ego trip. He said that he would invest a six-figure sum and other members of his consortium would invest a similar amount. Lineker unveils Leicester rescue bid BBC Sport October 2002 Lineker met the fans' group to persuade them to try and raise money to rescue his former club. Another six-figure sum donor was Emile Heskey, who had not only followed in Lineker's footsteps by going to the same school as him, but also went on to play for Leicester City and England. Lineker is now honorary vice-president of Leicester City, along with Gordon Banks and Peter Shilton, and the north stand of the club's Walkers Stadium is named in his honour. He is currently the partner of Danielle Bux (born c. 1979), a mother of one. Gary Lineker | Host on beach stroll with curvy girlfriend Danielle Bux | The Sun |Showbiz|Bizarre He is fluent in both Spanish and Japanese languages, an ability which helped him settle when he was playing abroad. Footnotes References Gary Lineker: Strikingly Different, Colin Malam, Stanley Paul Publications, London, 1993 ISBN 0-09-175424-0 External links English Football Hall of Fame Profile Gary Lineker's Football Career Home and Abroad | Gary_Lineker |@lemmatized gary:11 winston:1 lineker:54 obe:1 born:2 november:1 retired:1 english:9 international:6 football:20 striker:4 currently:3 sport:4 broadcaster:1 bbc:10 eredivisie:1 live:2 remain:3 england:21 top:11 scorer:9 world:19 cup:34 final:7 goal:24 begin:3 career:13 leicester:19 city:14 become:3 know:1 prolific:1 goalscorer:4 finish:6 first:22 division:13 joint:2 earn:2 cap:4 move:4 everton:8 clinical:1 finisher:1 score:20 game:18 team:7 honour:5 come:1 fc:3 barcelona:9 win:12 copa:3 del:3 rey:3 european:8 winner:4 return:1 join:2 tottenham:7 hotspur:5 three:3 season:9 fa:6 club:13 nagoya:4 grampus:4 eight:5 retire:2 two:5 japanese:2 side:2 make:6 debut:1 following:1 year:4 time:9 second:6 high:3 ratio:1 one:7 best:2 country:1 regard:1 receive:4 golden:7 shoe:3 englishman:1 achieve:1 feat:1 professional:2 note:1 never:3 caution:2 send:3 referee:2 retirement:3 induct:2 hall:4 fame:3 broadcasting:1 work:2 present:2 match:25 day:3 among:1 programme:3 lead:5 consortium:2 invest:3 old:2 save:1 bankruptcy:1 appoint:1 honorary:3 vice:2 president:3 since:4 feature:1 several:1 television:4 commercial:2 walker:5 crisp:4 four:5 son:4 ex:2 wife:1 michelle:3 engage:1 danielle:3 bux:3 early:5 life:4 father:1 market:2 trader:1 grow:1 family:2 play:14 brother:1 wayne:1 attend:1 linden:1 primary:1 school:5 evington:2 go:6 boy:1 later:2 drive:1 home:2 town:2 leave:2 prolifically:1 help:6 promotion:2 filbert:2 street:2 twice:2 amongst:1 flight:2 call:2 tie:1 kerry:1 dixon:1 stage:2 however:3 attract:1 attention:1 big:1 look:2 certain:1 close:1 sell:2 defend:1 league:7 champion:1 new:2 reach:3 third:2 row:1 lose:3 liverpool:3 despite:4 give:3 double:1 also:5 pip:1 title:1 point:1 strong:1 showing:1 mexico:4 sign:3 manage:1 former:2 qpr:1 bos:1 terry:1 venables:1 bring:2 manchester:3 united:1 wales:1 mark:2 hughes:2 string:2 british:2 footballer:2 continent:1 mid:1 prompt:1 prospect:1 wage:1 well:1 fact:2 ban:1 competition:3 due:2 heysel:1 disaster:1 winning:1 performance:2 much:1 anticipation:1 success:1 nou:1 camp:1 disappoint:1 include:2 hat:1 trick:1 arch:2 rival:1 real:1 madrid:2 coach:2 johan:1 cruyff:1 decide:1 right:1 midfield:1 eventually:1 place:3 alex:1 ferguson:1 unite:2 attempt:1 partner:2 mate:1 attack:1 spurn:1 instead:1 july:1 white:1 hart:1 lane:1 behind:1 ian:1 wright:1 personal:2 pre:3 premier:2 end:2 injury:2 plague:1 spell:1 japan:1 j:2 appearance:2 nine:1 announce:3 autumn:1 illustrious:1 pfa:1 player:5 vote:1 inaugural:1 fifa:12 award:2 ultimately:2 germany:1 lothar:1 matthäus:1 long:2 foul:1 yellow:1 red:1 card:1 result:4 accomplishment:1 fair:1 statistic:1 rowspan:10 colspan:21 la:2 liga:1 national:1 scotland:1 five:1 tournament:3 six:4 boot:4 wear:1 lightweight:1 cast:1 forearm:1 quarter:1 argentina:1 defeat:1 diego:1 maradona:1 opposition:1 infamous:1 hand:1 god:1 handball:1 championship:5 fail:1 group:2 establish:1 suffer:1 hepatitis:1 c:2 malam:3 spain:1 february:1 malaysia:1 june:1 semi:1 draw:2 narrow:1 victory:1 andreas:1 brehme:1 equaliser:1 pas:1 paul:2 parker:1 fake:1 german:2 defender:1 west:1 triumph:1 penalty:2 shoot:1 trophy:1 bobby:1 charlton:3 record:2 although:1 take:4 extra:1 prove:1 last:1 sweden:1 euro:1 controversially:1 substitute:1 graham:1 taylor:2 favour:1 arsenal:1 alan:2 smith:1 deny:1 chance:2 equal:1 even:1 good:2 earlier:1 miss:2 would:4 level:1 friendly:19 brazil:1 visibly:1 upset:1 decision:1 bench:1 occasion:1 list:1 tally:1 date:1 venue:1 opponent:1 wembley:16 stadium:21 los:1 angeles:1 memorial:1 coliseum:1 qualification:3 estadio:3 tecnológico:1 monterrey:1 azteca:2 uefa:5 qualify:4 santiago:1 bernabéu:1 rous:2 rheinstadion:1 düsseldorf:1 stade:1 olympique:1 de:2 pontaise:1 lausanne:1 parken:1 copenhagen:1 stadio:3 sant:1 elia:1 cagliari:1 san:1 paolo:1 naples:1 delle:1 alpi:1 turin:1 pen:1 challenge:1 mt:1 smart:1 auckland:1 merdeka:1 kuala:1 lumpur:1 stadion:1 miejski:1 poznań:1 luzhniki:1 moscow:1 runner:2 individual:1 medium:2 follow:4 develop:1 initially:1 radio:1 pundit:2 replace:1 lynam:1 anchorman:1 coverage:3 flagship:1 captain:1 acerbic:1 show:1 think:1 heavily:1 though:2 affectionately:1 ridicule:1 hanger:1 describe:2 lethal:1 twelve:1 inch:1 parody:1 short:1 range:1 prowess:1 departure:1 steve:1 rider:1 keen:1 recreational:1 golfer:1 handicap:1 presenter:1 golf:1 criticism:1 peer:1 continue:1 front:4 master:1 open:1 put:1 language:2 skill:1 use:1 impromptu:1 interview:2 spanish:2 argentinian:1 andrés:1 romero:1 church:1 simon:1 parke:1 unity:1 part:1 tv:1 series:3 direct:1 lloyd:1 stanton:1 celebrity:1 extensive:1 history:1 focus:1 approach:1 maker:1 codemasters:2 lma:2 manager:1 playstation:1 pair:1 hansen:1 fellow:1 motd:1 voice:5 post:2 comment:2 barry:1 davy:1 commentary:1 million:2 copy:1 news:1 item:1 choose:1 selection:1 menu:1 acting:1 role:3 bar:1 film:2 bend:1 like:1 beckham:1 adapt:1 evening:1 underground:1 ernie:1 child:2 channel:1 cbeebies:1 blink:1 diner:1 restaurant:1 eric:1 idle:1 split:2 heir:1 sue:1 defamation:1 australian:1 harry:2 kewell:2 write:2 column:1 sunday:2 telegraph:2 transfer:1 leeds:1 jury:1 unable:1 verdict:1 transpire:1 case:1 article:1 actually:1 ghost:1 journalist:1 telephone:1 december:1 appear:3 want:1 millionaire:1 christmas:1 special:1 rugby:1 union:1 austin:1 healey:1 nicholls:1 spinal:1 foundation:2 advertisements:1 popularity:1 enable:1 light:1 hearted:1 comical:1 villain:1 reputation:1 nice:1 guy:1 advert:2 run:1 advertising:1 campaign:1 ever:1 base:2 producer:1 snack:1 food:1 temporarily:1 name:3 salt:3 vinegar:2 late:2 label:1 n:1 favourite:2 flavour:1 force:1 break:1 daily:1 mail:1 video:1 software:1 house:1 gremlin:1 release:1 superstar:1 soccer:1 superskills:1 hot:1 shot:1 bit:1 platform:1 freeman:1 entitle:1 graze:1 sheep:1 square:1 often:1 refer:1 youngster:1 famously:1 stall:2 still:1 height:1 usually:1 closed:1 link:2 cricket:2 renew:1 invite:1 kent:1 wander:1 paraguayan:1 elbow:1 cc:1 found:1 incident:1 summer:1 paraguay:1 marry:1 divorce:1 august:1 april:1 state:1 situation:1 amicable:1 george:2 tobias:1 angus:1 survive:1 rare:1 form:1 leukaemia:1 baby:1 support:1 cancer:4 charity:5 clic:1 sargent:1 encourage:1 people:1 blood:1 actively:1 involve:1 fight:2 research:2 uk:2 appeal:1 face:1 question:1 fundraiser:1 aid:1 retrieve:1 october:2 rescue:3 plan:1 cash:1 strap:1 involvement:1 rather:1 ego:1 trip:1 say:1 figure:2 sum:2 member:1 similar:1 amount:1 unveils:1 bid:1 meet:1 fan:1 persuade:1 try:1 raise:1 money:1 another:1 donor:1 emile:1 heskey:1 footstep:1 along:1 gordon:1 bank:1 peter:1 shilton:1 north:1 stand:1 mother:1 host:1 beach:1 stroll:1 curvy:1 girlfriend:1 sun:1 showbiz:1 bizarre:1 fluent:1 ability:1 settle:1 abroad:2 footnote:1 reference:1 strikingly:1 different:1 colin:1 stanley:1 publication:1 london:1 isbn:1 external:1 profile:1 |@bigram top_scorer:6 top_goalscorer:2 fc_barcelona:2 copa_del:3 del_rey:3 tottenham_hotspur:5 fa_cup:6 hall_fame:3 vice_president:2 hat_trick:1 arch_rival:1 madrid_barcelona:1 johan_cruyff:1 alex_ferguson:1 manchester_unite:1 lothar_matthäus:1 colspan_colspan:13 colspan_rowspan:5 la_liga:1 bobby_charlton:1 wembley_stadium:16 los_angeles:1 memorial_coliseum:1 rous_cup:2 stadio_delle:1 delle_alpi:1 kuala_lumpur:1 uefa_cup:1 gary_lineker:8 eric_idle:1 leeds_unite:1 rugby_union:1 light_hearted:1 salt_vinegar:2 charity_fundraiser:1 cash_strap:1 peter_shilton:1 external_link:1 |
1,674 | Antacid | A bottle of antacid tablets An antacid is any substance, generally a base or basic salt, which counteracts stomach acidity. In other words, antacids are stomach acid neutralizers. Action mechanism Antacids perform a neutralization reaction, i.e. they buffer gastric acid, raising the pH to reduce acidity in the stomach. When gastric hydrochloric acid reaches the nerves in the gastrointestinal mucosa, they signal pain to the central nervous system. This happens when these nerves are exposed, as in peptic ulcers. The gastric acid may also reach ulcers in the esophagus or the duodenum. Other mechanisms may contribute, such as the effect of aluminum ions inhibiting smooth muscle cell contraction and delaying gastric emptying. Indications Wyeth amphojel tablets of aluminum hydroxide. Antacids are taken by mouth to relieve heartburn, the major symptom of gastroesophageal reflux disease, or acid indigestion. Treatment with antacids alone is symptomatic and only justified for minor symptoms. Peptic ulcers may require H2-receptor antagonists or proton pump inhibitors. The utility of many combinations of antacids is not clear, although the combination of magnesium and aluminium salts may prevent alteration of bowel habits. Side effects Excess calcium from supplements, fortified food and high-calcium diets, can cause the milk-alkali syndrome, which has serious toxicity and can be fatal. In 1915, Bertram Sippy introduced the "Sippy regimen" of hourly ingestion of milk and cream, the gradual addition of eggs and cooked cereal, for 10 days, combined with alkaline powders, which provided symptomatic relief for peptic ulcer disease. Over the next several decades, the Sippy regimen resulted in renal failure, alkalosis, and hypercalemia, mostly in men with peptic ulcer disease. These adverse effects were reversed when the regimen stopped, but it was fatal in some patients with protracted vomiting. Milk alkali syndrome declined in men after effective treatments were developed for peptic ulcer disease. But during the past 15 years, it has been reported in women taking calcium supplements above the recommended range of 1200 to 1500 mg daily, for prevention and treatment of osteoporosis, and is exacerbated by dehydration. Calcium has been added to over-the-counter products, which contributes to inadvertent excessive intake. The New England Journal of Medicine reported a typical case of a woman who arrived in the emergency department vomiting and altered mental status, writhing in pain. She had consumed large quantities of chewable antacid tablets containing calcium carbonate (Tums). She gradually recovered. Compounds containing calcium may also increase calcium output in the urine, which might be associated with kidney stones. Calcium salts may cause constipation. Other adverse effects from antacids include: Carbonate: regular high doses may cause alkalosis, which in turn may result in altered excretion of other drugs, and kidney stones. A chemical reaction between the carbonate and hydrochloric acid may produce carbon dioxide gas. This causes gastric distension which may not be well tolerated. Carbon dioxide formation can also lead to headaches and decreased muscle flexibility. Aluminum hydroxide: may lead to the formation of insoluble aluminium-phosphate-complexes, with a risk for hypophosphatemia and osteomalacia. Although aluminium has a low gastrointestinal absorption, accumulation may occur in the presence of renal insufficiency. Aluminium-containing drugs may cause constipation. Magnesium hydroxide: has laxative properties. Magnesium may accumulate in patients with renal failure leading to hypermagnesemia, with cardiovascular and neurological complications. See Milk of magnesia. Sodium: increased intake of sodium may be deleterious for arterial hypertension, heart failure and many renal diseases. Interactions Altered pH or complex formation may alter the bioavailability of other drugs, such as tetracycline. Urinary excretion of certain drugs may also be affected. Problems with reduced stomach acidity Reduced stomach acidity may result in an impaired ability to digest and absorb certain nutrients, such as iron and the B vitamins. Since the low pH of the stomach normally kills ingested bacteria, antacids increase the vulnerability to infection. It could also result in reduced bioavailability of some drugs. For example, the bioavailability of ketoconazole (antifungal) is reduced at high intragastric pH (low acid content). Drug names Examples of antacids (brand names may vary in different countries). Aluminium hydroxide (Amphojel, AlternaGEL) Magnesium hydroxide (Phillips’ Milk of Magnesia) Aluminum hydroxide with magnesium hydroxide (Maalox, Mylanta, Diovol) Aluminum carbonate gel (Basaljel) Calcium carbonate (Alcalak, TUMS, Quick-Eze, Rennie, Titralac, Rolaids) Sodium bicarbonate (Bicarbonate of soda, Alka-Seltzer) Hydrotalcite (Mg6Al2(CO3)(OH)16 · 4(H2O); Talcid) Bismuth subsalicylate (Pepto-Bismol) Magaldrate with Simethicone (Pepsil) See also H2 antagonists Proton pump inhibitor References | Antacid |@lemmatized bottle:1 antacid:11 tablet:3 substance:1 generally:1 base:1 basic:1 salt:3 counteract:1 stomach:6 acidity:4 word:1 acid:7 neutralizers:1 action:1 mechanism:2 perform:1 neutralization:1 reaction:2 e:1 buffer:1 gastric:5 raise:1 ph:4 reduce:3 hydrochloric:2 reach:2 nerve:2 gastrointestinal:2 mucosa:1 signal:1 pain:2 central:1 nervous:1 system:1 happen:1 expose:1 peptic:5 ulcer:6 may:19 also:6 esophagus:1 duodenum:1 contribute:2 effect:4 aluminum:5 ion:1 inhibit:1 smooth:1 muscle:2 cell:1 contraction:1 delay:1 emptying:1 indication:1 wyeth:1 amphojel:2 hydroxide:7 take:2 mouth:1 relieve:1 heartburn:1 major:1 symptom:2 gastroesophageal:1 reflux:1 disease:5 indigestion:1 treatment:3 alone:1 symptomatic:2 justify:1 minor:1 require:1 receptor:1 antagonist:2 proton:2 pump:2 inhibitor:2 utility:1 many:2 combination:2 clear:1 although:2 magnesium:5 aluminium:5 prevent:1 alteration:1 bowel:1 habit:1 side:1 excess:1 calcium:9 supplement:2 fortify:1 food:1 high:3 diet:1 cause:5 milk:5 alkali:2 syndrome:2 serious:1 toxicity:1 fatal:2 bertram:1 sippy:3 introduce:1 regimen:3 hourly:1 ingestion:1 cream:1 gradual:1 addition:1 egg:1 cooked:1 cereal:1 day:1 combine:1 alkaline:1 powder:1 provide:1 relief:1 next:1 several:1 decade:1 result:4 renal:4 failure:3 alkalosis:2 hypercalemia:1 mostly:1 men:2 adverse:2 reverse:1 stop:1 patient:2 protracted:1 vomit:1 decline:1 effective:1 develop:1 past:1 year:1 report:2 woman:2 recommended:1 range:1 mg:1 daily:1 prevention:1 osteoporosis:1 exacerbate:1 dehydration:1 add:1 counter:1 product:1 inadvertent:1 excessive:1 intake:2 new:1 england:1 journal:1 medicine:1 typical:1 case:1 arrive:1 emergency:1 department:1 vomiting:1 alter:3 mental:1 status:1 writhe:1 consume:1 large:1 quantity:1 chewable:1 contain:3 carbonate:5 tums:1 gradually:1 recover:1 compound:1 increase:2 output:1 urine:1 might:1 associate:1 kidney:2 stone:2 constipation:2 include:1 regular:1 dos:1 turn:1 altered:1 excretion:2 drug:6 chemical:1 produce:1 carbon:2 dioxide:2 gas:1 distension:1 well:1 tolerate:1 formation:3 lead:3 headache:1 decreased:1 flexibility:1 insoluble:1 phosphate:1 complex:2 risk:1 hypophosphatemia:1 osteomalacia:1 low:3 absorption:1 accumulation:1 occur:1 presence:1 insufficiency:1 laxative:1 property:1 accumulate:1 hypermagnesemia:1 cardiovascular:1 neurological:1 complication:1 see:2 magnesia:2 sodium:3 increased:1 deleterious:1 arterial:1 hypertension:1 heart:1 interaction:1 bioavailability:3 tetracycline:1 urinary:1 certain:2 affect:1 problem:1 reduced:2 impaired:1 ability:1 digest:1 absorb:1 nutrient:1 iron:1 b:1 vitamin:1 since:1 normally:1 kill:1 ingested:1 bacteria:1 vulnerability:1 infection:1 could:1 example:2 ketoconazole:1 antifungal:1 intragastric:1 content:1 name:2 brand:1 vary:1 different:1 country:1 alternagel:1 phillips:1 maalox:1 mylanta:1 diovol:1 gel:1 basaljel:1 alcalak:1 tum:1 quick:1 eze:1 rennie:1 titralac:1 rolaids:1 bicarbonate:2 soda:1 alka:1 seltzer:1 hydrotalcite:1 oh:1 talcid:1 bismuth:1 subsalicylate:1 pepto:1 bismol:1 magaldrate:1 simethicone:1 pepsil:1 reference:1 |@bigram gastric_acid:2 hydrochloric_acid:2 peptic_ulcer:5 smooth_muscle:1 receptor_antagonist:1 renal_failure:2 adverse_effect:2 calcium_carbonate:2 carbon_dioxide:2 magnesium_hydroxide:3 milk_magnesia:2 aluminium_hydroxide:1 sodium_bicarbonate:1 |
1,675 | Field_ion_microscope | Field ion microscopy (FIM) is an analytical technique used in materials science. The field ion microscope is a type of microscope that can be used to image the arrangement of atoms at the surface of a sharp metal tip. It was the first technique by which individual atoms could be spatially resolved. The technique was pioneered by Erwin Wilhelm Müller. Images of atomic structures of tungsten were first published in 1951 in the journal Zeitschrift für Physik. Introduction In FIM, a sharp (<50 nm tip radius) metal tip is produced and placed in an ultra high vacuum chamber, which is backfilled with an imaging gas such as helium or neon. The tip is cooled to cryogenic temperatures (20–100 K). A positive voltage of 5000 to 10000 volts is applied to the tip. Gas atoms adsorbed on the tip are ionized by the strong electric field in the vicinity of the tip (thus, "field ionization"), becoming positively charged and being repelled from the tip. The curvature of the surface near the tip causes a natural magnification — ions are repelled in a direction roughly perpendicular to the surface (a "point projection" effect). A detector is placed so as to collect these repelled ions; the image formed from all the collected ions can be of sufficient resolution to image individual atoms on the tip surface. Unlike conventional microscopes, where the spatial resolution is limited by the wavelength of the particles which are used for imaging, the FIM is a projection type microscope with atomic resolution and an approximate magnification of a few million times. Design, limitations and applications FIM like FEM consists of a sharp sample tip and a fluorescent screen (now replaced by a multichannel plate) as the key elements. However, there are some essential differences as follows: The tip potential is positive. The chamber is filled with a imaging gas (typically, He or Ne at 10-5 to 10-3 Torr). The tip is cooled to low temperatures (~20-80K). Like FEM, the field strength at the tip apex is typically a few V/Å. The experimental set-up and image formation in FIM is illustrated in the accompanying figures. FIM experimental set-up. FIM image formation process. In FIM the presence of a strong field is critical. The imaging gas atoms (He, Ne) near the tip are polarized by the field and since the field is non-uniform the polarized atoms are attracted towards the tip surface. The imaging atoms then lose their kinetic energy performing a series of hops and accommodate to the tip temperature. Eventually, the imaging atoms are ionized by tunneling electrons into the surface and the resulting positive ions are accelerated along the field lines to the screen to form a highly magnified image of the sample tip. In FIM, the ionization takes place close to the tip, where the field is strongest. The electron that tunnels from the atom is picked up by the tip. If we look into the theory of the process in detail, there is a critical distance, xc, at which the tunneling probability is a maximum. This distance is typically about 0.4nm. The very high spatial resolution and high contrast for features on the atomic scale arises from the fact that the electric field is enhanced in the vicinity of the surface atoms because of the higher local curvature. The resolution of FIM is limited by the thermal velocity of the imaging ion. Resolution of the order of 1Å (atomic resolution) can be achieved by effective cooling of the tip. Application of FIM, like FEM, is limited by the materials which can be fabricated in the shape of a sharp tip, can be used in a ultra high vacuum (UHV) environment, and can tolerate the high electrostatic fields. For these reasons, refractory metals with high melting temperature (for e.g. W, Mo, Pt, Ir) are conventional objects for FIM experiments. Metal tips for FEM and FIM are prepared by electropolishing (electrochemical polishing) of thin wires. However, these tips usually contain many asperities. The final preparation procedure involves the in situ removal of these asperities by field evaporation just by raising the tip voltage. Field evaporation is a field induced process which involves the removal of atoms from the surface itself at very high field strengths and typically occurs in the range 2-5 V/Å. The effect of the field in this case is to reduce the effective binding energy of the atom to the surface and to give, in effect, a greatly increased evaporation rate relative to that expected at that temperature at zero fields. This process is self-regulating since the atoms that are at positions of high local curvature, such as adatoms or ledge atoms, are removed preferentially. The tips used in FIM is sharper (tip radius is 100~300 Å) compared to those used in FEM experiments (tip radius ~1000 Å). FIM has been used to study dynamical behavior of surfaces and the behavior of adatoms on surfaces. The problems studied include adsorption-desorption phenomena, surface diffusion of adatoms and clusters, adatom-adatom interactions, step motion, equilibrium crystal shape, etc. However there is the possibility of the results being affected by the limited surface area (i.e. edge effects) and by the presence of large electric field. See also Atom probe Electron microscope Field emission microscope List of surface analysis methods External links Northwestern University Center for Atom-Probe Tomography Photograph of tungsten needle tip imaged through FIM References K.Oura, V.G.Lifshits, A.ASaranin, A.V.Zotov and M.Katayama, Surface Science – An Introduction, (Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2003). John B. Hudson, Surface Science – An Introduction, (BUTTERWORTH-Heinemann 1992. | Field_ion_microscope |@lemmatized field:20 ion:7 microscopy:1 fim:16 analytical:1 technique:3 use:7 material:2 science:3 microscope:6 type:2 image:10 arrangement:1 atom:16 surface:16 sharp:5 metal:4 tip:29 first:2 individual:2 could:1 spatially:1 resolve:1 pioneer:1 erwin:1 wilhelm:1 müller:1 atomic:4 structure:1 tungsten:2 publish:1 journal:1 zeitschrift:1 für:1 physik:1 introduction:3 nm:1 radius:3 produce:1 place:3 ultra:2 high:9 vacuum:2 chamber:2 backfilled:1 gas:4 helium:1 neon:1 cool:2 cryogenic:1 temperature:5 k:2 positive:3 voltage:2 volt:1 apply:1 adsorb:1 ionize:2 strong:2 electric:3 vicinity:2 thus:1 ionization:2 become:1 positively:1 charge:1 repel:2 curvature:3 near:2 cause:1 natural:1 magnification:2 direction:1 roughly:1 perpendicular:1 point:1 projection:2 effect:4 detector:1 collect:1 repelled:1 form:2 collected:1 sufficient:1 resolution:7 unlike:1 conventional:2 spatial:2 limit:3 wavelength:1 particle:1 imaging:5 approximate:1 million:1 time:1 design:1 limitation:1 application:2 like:3 fem:5 consist:1 sample:2 fluorescent:1 screen:2 replace:1 multichannel:1 plate:1 key:1 element:1 however:3 essential:1 difference:1 follow:1 potential:1 fill:1 typically:4 ne:2 torr:1 low:1 strength:2 apex:1 v:4 å:4 experimental:2 set:2 formation:2 illustrate:1 accompanying:1 figure:1 process:4 presence:2 critical:2 polarize:1 since:2 non:1 uniform:1 polarized:1 attract:1 towards:1 lose:1 kinetic:1 energy:2 perform:1 series:1 hop:1 accommodate:1 eventually:1 tunnel:2 electron:3 result:2 accelerate:1 along:1 line:1 highly:1 magnified:1 take:1 close:1 strongest:1 pick:1 look:1 theory:1 detail:1 distance:2 xc:1 tunneling:1 probability:1 maximum:1 contrast:1 feature:1 scale:1 arises:1 fact:1 enhance:1 local:2 thermal:1 velocity:1 order:1 achieve:1 effective:2 cooling:1 fabricate:1 shape:2 uhv:1 environment:1 tolerate:1 electrostatic:1 reason:1 refractory:1 melt:1 e:2 g:2 w:1 mo:1 pt:1 ir:1 object:1 experiment:2 prepare:1 electropolishing:1 electrochemical:1 polishing:1 thin:1 wire:1 usually:1 contain:1 many:1 asperity:2 final:1 preparation:1 procedure:1 involve:2 situ:1 removal:2 evaporation:3 raise:1 induce:1 occur:1 range:1 case:1 reduce:1 binding:1 give:1 greatly:1 increased:1 rate:1 relative:1 expect:1 zero:1 self:1 regulating:1 position:1 adatoms:3 ledge:1 remove:1 preferentially:1 compare:1 study:2 dynamical:1 behavior:2 problem:1 include:1 adsorption:1 desorption:1 phenomenon:1 diffusion:1 cluster:1 adatom:2 interaction:1 step:1 motion:1 equilibrium:1 crystal:1 etc:1 possibility:1 affect:1 limited:1 area:1 edge:1 large:1 see:1 also:1 probe:2 emission:1 list:1 analysis:1 method:1 external:1 link:1 northwestern:1 university:1 center:1 tomography:1 photograph:1 needle:1 reference:1 oura:1 lifshits:1 asaranin:1 zotov:1 katayama:1 springer:1 verlag:1 berlin:1 heidelberg:1 john:1 b:1 hudson:1 butterworth:1 heinemann:1 |@bigram zeitschrift_für:1 für_physik:1 helium_neon:1 voltage_volt:1 positively_charge:1 kinetic_energy:1 self_regulating:1 electron_microscope:1 external_link:1 springer_verlag:1 berlin_heidelberg:1 butterworth_heinemann:1 |
1,676 | Blood_on_the_Tracks | Blood on the Tracks is singer-songwriter Bob Dylan's 15th studio album, released by Columbia Records in January 1975. The album marked Dylan's return to Columbia after a two-album stint with Asylum Records. The album, which followed several years of lukewarm reception for Dylan's work, was greeted enthusiatically by fans and critics. In the years following its release, it has come to be regarded as one of his very best albums — making it quite common for subsequent records to be labeled his "best since Blood on the Tracks." It is also commonly seen as a standard for confessional singer-songwriter albums; though Dylan has denied that the songs are autobiographical, his son Jakob Dylan has stated: "The songs are my parents talking." Sounes, Howard. Down the Higway The Life Of Bob Dylan Doubleday 2001. ISBN 0-552-99929-6 p333 Most of the lyrics on the album revolve around heartache, anger, and loneliness. In 2003, the album was ranked number 16 on Rolling Stone magazine's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time. The album reached #1 on the Billboard U.S. pop charts and #4 in the UK. The single "Tangled Up in Blue" peaked at #31 on the Pop singles chart. The album remains one of Dylan's all-time best-selling studio releases, with a double-platinum US certification to date. Notes The songs are largely seen as inspired by Dylan's personal turmoil at the time, particularly his separation from his then wife Sara Dylan. All ten songs on the album were originally recorded at New York City sessions produced by Phil Ramone. With Columbia set to release the LP, Dylan pulled back at the last minute, and at year's end re-recorded five of the ten songs in Minneapolis with a crew of area session musicians assembled by his brother, David Zimmerman. Dylan's fans theorize endlessly about his reasons for revamping the album, with one unconfirmed view being that the musical feel of the album had been monotonous, with too many songs in the same key and the same languid rhythm. It has also been said that, just two weeks before the release of Blood on the Tracks, Dylan played an acetate of the record for his brother, his ensuing comments leading Dylan to re-cut the album. Salon | Sharps and Flats Told of the album's lasting popularity, Dylan was later to say (in a radio interview by Mary Travers): "A lot of people tell me they enjoy that album. It's hard for me to relate to that. I mean, it, you know, people enjoying the type of pain, you know?" In Dylan's 2004 memoir, Chronicles, Vol. 1, he claims that although one album of his songs was entirely inspired by short stories by Anton Chekhov, many of his fans and critics treat it as autobiographical. This passage is often cited as a reference to Blood on the Tracks. The song "Up to Me", which plays like a companion of "Shelter from the Storm" (and perhaps a bookend to the record), was not released on this record but appeared on Biograph. In Shakey: Neil Young's Biography, Jimmy McDonough relates how, prior to releasing Blood on the Tracks, Dylan visited Young in his home in Florida to showcase the songs on the album and seek out Young's opinion of them. "Shakey: Neil Young's Biography" by Jimmy McDonough Track listing All songs written by Bob Dylan. Side one "Tangled Up in Blue" – 5:42 (Minneapolis) "Simple Twist of Fate" – 4:19 (NYC, Sept 1974) "You're a Big Girl Now" – 4:36 (Minneapolis) "Idiot Wind" – 7:48 (Minneapolis) "You're Gonna Make Me Lonesome When You Go" – 2:55 (NYC, Sept 1974) Side two "Meet Me in the Morning" – 4:22 (NYC, Sept 1974) "Lily, Rosemary and the Jack of Hearts" – 8:51 (Minneapolis) "If You See Her, Say Hello" – 4:49 (Minneapolis) "Shelter from the Storm" – 5:02 (NYC, Sept 1974) "Buckets of Rain" – 3:22 (NYC, Sept 1974) Chart positions YearChartPosition1975Billboard 2001 Personnel Bob Dylan – Vocals, Guitars, Harmonica, Organ, Mandolin Bill Peterson – Bass Eric Weissberg – Banjo, Guitar (NYC Sessions) Tony Brown – Bass (NYC Sessions) Charles Brown, III – Guitar (NYC Sessions) Bill Berg – Drums Buddy Cage – Steel guitar Barry Kornfeld – Guitar (NYC Sessions) Richard Crooks – Drums (NYC Sessions) Paul Griffin – Organ, Keyboards Gregg Inhofer – Keyboards Thomas McFaul – Keyboards (NYC Sessions) Chris Weber – Guitar, 12 String Guitar Kevin Odegard – Guitar Phil Ramone – Engineer Pete Hamill – Liner Notes Ron Coro – Art Direction See also The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time References | Blood_on_the_Tracks |@lemmatized blood:5 track:6 singer:2 songwriter:2 bob:4 dylan:18 studio:2 album:20 release:7 columbia:3 record:8 january:1 mark:1 return:1 two:3 stint:1 asylum:1 follow:2 several:1 year:3 lukewarm:1 reception:1 work:1 greet:1 enthusiatically:1 fan:3 critic:2 come:1 regard:1 one:5 best:3 make:2 quite:1 common:1 subsequent:1 label:1 since:1 also:3 commonly:1 see:4 standard:1 confessional:1 though:1 deny:1 song:10 autobiographical:2 son:1 jakob:1 state:1 parent:1 talk:1 sounes:1 howard:1 higway:1 life:1 doubleday:1 isbn:1 lyric:1 revolve:1 around:1 heartache:1 anger:1 loneliness:1 rank:1 number:1 roll:1 stone:1 magazine:1 list:2 great:2 time:4 reach:1 billboard:1 u:2 pop:2 chart:3 uk:1 single:2 tangle:2 blue:2 peak:1 remain:1 selling:1 double:1 platinum:1 certification:1 date:1 note:2 largely:1 inspire:2 personal:1 turmoil:1 particularly:1 separation:1 wife:1 sara:1 ten:2 originally:1 new:1 york:1 city:1 session:8 produce:1 phil:2 ramone:2 set:1 lp:1 pull:1 back:1 last:1 minute:1 end:1 five:1 minneapolis:6 crew:1 area:1 musician:1 assemble:1 brother:2 david:1 zimmerman:1 theorize:1 endlessly:1 reason:1 revamp:1 unconfirmed:1 view:1 musical:1 feel:1 monotonous:1 many:2 key:1 languid:1 rhythm:1 say:3 week:1 play:2 acetate:1 ensue:1 comment:1 lead:1 cut:1 salon:1 sharp:1 flat:1 tell:2 lasting:1 popularity:1 later:1 radio:1 interview:1 mary:1 travers:1 lot:1 people:2 enjoy:2 hard:1 relate:2 mean:1 know:2 type:1 pain:1 memoir:1 chronicle:1 vol:1 claim:1 although:1 entirely:1 short:1 story:1 anton:1 chekhov:1 treat:1 passage:1 often:1 cite:1 reference:2 like:1 companion:1 shelter:2 storm:2 perhaps:1 bookend:1 appear:1 biograph:1 shakey:2 neil:2 young:4 biography:2 jimmy:2 mcdonough:2 prior:1 visit:1 home:1 florida:1 showcase:1 seek:1 opinion:1 write:1 side:2 simple:1 twist:1 fate:1 nyc:11 sept:5 big:1 girl:1 idiot:1 wind:1 gonna:1 lonesome:1 go:1 meet:1 morning:1 lily:1 rosemary:1 jack:1 heart:1 hello:1 bucket:1 rain:1 position:1 personnel:1 vocal:1 guitar:8 harmonica:1 organ:2 mandolin:1 bill:2 peterson:1 bass:2 eric:1 weissberg:1 banjo:1 tony:1 brown:2 charles:1 iii:1 berg:1 drum:2 buddy:1 cage:1 steel:1 barry:1 kornfeld:1 richard:1 crook:1 paul:1 griffin:1 keyboard:3 gregg:1 inhofer:1 thomas:1 mcfaul:1 chris:1 weber:1 string:1 kevin:1 odegard:1 engineer:1 pete:1 hamill:1 liner:1 ron:1 coro:1 art:1 direction:1 |@bigram singer_songwriter:2 bob_dylan:4 lukewarm_reception:1 revolve_around:1 roll_stone:1 best_selling:1 anton_chekhov:1 twist_fate:1 nyc_sept:5 nyc_session:6 liner_note:1 |
1,677 | Human_evolution | Human evolution, or anthropogenesis, is the part of biological evolution concerning the emergence of Homo sapiens as a distinct species from other hominans, great apes and placental mammals. It is the subject of a broad scientific inquiry that seeks to understand and describe how this change occurred. The study of human evolution encompasses many scientific disciplines, most notably physical anthropology, primatology, archaeology, linguistics and genetics. The term "human", in the context of human evolution, refers to the genus Homo, but studies of human evolution usually include other hominins, such as the australopithecines. The Homo genus diverged from the australopithecines about 2 Ma in Africa. Scientists have estimated that humans branched off from their common ancestor with chimpanzees—the only other living hominins—about 5–7 Ma. Several typological species of Homo, now extinct, Mark Collard, Bernard Wood; How reliable are human phylogenetic hypotheses? quote: .. existing phylogenetic hypotheses about human evolution are unlikely to be reliable http://www.pnas.org/content/97/9/5003.abstract evolved. These include Homo erectus, which inhabited Asia, and Homo neanderthalensis, which inhabited Europe. Archaic Homo sapiens evolved between 400,000 and 250,000 years ago. The dominant view among scientists is the recent African origin of modern humans (RAO) that H. sapiens evolved in Africa and spread across the globe, replacing populations of H. erectus and H. neanderthalensis. Scientists supporting the alternative hypothesis on the multiregional origin of modern humans (MTO) view modern humans as having evolved as a single, widespread population from existing Homo species, particularly H. erectus. The fossil evidence is insufficient to resolve this vigorous debate, while studies of human population genetics have largely supported a recent African Origin explanation. Introduction The word homo, the name of the biological genus to which humans belong is Latin for "human". It was chosen originally by Carolus Linnaeus in his classification system. The word "human" is from the Latin humanus, the adjectival form of homo. (Latin for "man" in the gender-specific sense is vir, as in "virile".) The Latin "homo" derives from the Indo-European root, "dhghem," earth. Carolus Linnaeus and other scientists of his time also considered the great apes to be the closest biological relatives of human beings due to morphological and anatomical similarities. The possibility of biologically linking humans with earlier apes by descent only became clear after 1859 with the publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species. This argued for the idea of the biological evolution of new species from earlier ones. Darwin's book, however, did not address the question of human evolution, saying only that "Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history". The first debates about the nature of human evolution arose between Thomas Huxley and Richard Owen. Huxley argued for human evolution from apes by illustrating many of the similarities and differences between humans and apes and did so particularly in his 1863 book Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature. However, many of Darwin's early supporters (such as Alfred Russel Wallace and Charles Lyell) did not agree that the origin of the mental capacities and the moral sensibilities of humans could be explained by natural selection. A major problem was the lack of fossil intermediaries. It was only in the 1920s that such fossils were discovered in Africa. In 1925, Raymond Dart described Australopithecus africanus. The type specimen was the Taung Child, an australopithecine infant discovered in a cave. The child's remains were a remarkably well-preserved tiny skull and an endocranial cast of the individual's brain. Although the brain was small (410 cm³), its shape was rounded, unlike that of chimpanzees and gorillas, and more like a modern human brain. Also, the specimen showed short canine teeth, and the position of the foramen magnum was evidence of bipedal locomotion. All of these traits convinced Dart that the Taung baby was a bipedal human ancestor, a transitional form between apes and humans. The australopithecines are now thought to be ancestors of the genus Homo, the group to which modern humans belong. Both australopithecines and Homo sapiens are part of the tribe Hominini. Recent data suggests australopithecines were a diverse group and that A. africanus may not be a direct ancestor of modern humans. Reclassification of australopithecines that originally were split into either gracile or robust varities has put the latter into a family of its own Paranthropus. Taxonomists today place human beings as well as australopithecines and related species in the same family as other great apes, in the Hominidae. Before Homo The evolutionary history of the primates can be traced back for some 85 million years, as one of the oldest of all surviving placental mammal groups. The oldest known primates come from North America, but they were widespread in Eurasia and Africa as well, during the tropical conditions of the Paleocene and Eocene. With the beginning of modern climates, marked by the formation of the first Antarctic ice in the early Oligocene around 30 Ma, primates went extinct everywhere but Africa and southern Asia. One such primate from this time was Notharctus. Fossil evidence found in Germany in the 1980s was determined to be about 16.5 million years old, some 1.5 million years older than similar species from East Africa. It suggests that the primate lineage of the great apes first appeared in Eurasia and not Africa. The discoveries suggest that the early ancestors of the hominids (the family of great apes and humans) migrated to Eurasia from Africa about 17 Ma, just before these two continents were cut off from each other by an expansion of the Mediterranean Sea. Begun says that these primates flourished in Eurasia and that their lineage leading to the African apes and humans—Dryopithecus—migrated south from Europe or Western Asia into Africa. The surviving tropical population, which is seen most completely in the upper Eocene and lowermost Oligocene fossil beds of the Fayum depression southwest of Cairo, gave rise to all living primates—lemurs of Madagascar, lorises of Southeast Asia, galagos or "bush babies" of Africa, and the anthropoids; platyrrhines or New World monkeys, and catarrhines or Old World monkeys and the great apes and humans. The earliest known catarrhine is Kamoyapithecus from uppermost Oligocene at Eragaleit in the northern Kenya rift valley, dated to 24 Ma (million years ago). Its ancestry is generally thought to be close to such genera as Aegyptopithecus, Propliopithecus, and Parapithecus from the Fayum, at around 35 Ma. There are no fossils from the intervening 11 million years. No near ancestor to South American platyrrhines, whose fossil record begins at around 30 Ma, can be identified among the North African fossil species, and possibly lies in other forms that lived in West Africa that were caught up in the still-mysterious transatlantic sweepstakes that sent primates, rodents, boa constrictors, and cichlid fishes from Africa to South America sometime in the Oligocene. In the early Miocene, after 22 Ma, many kinds of arboreally adapted primitive catarrhines from East Africa suggest a long history of prior diversification. Because the fossils at 20 Ma include fragments attributed to Victoriapithecus, the earliest cercopithecoid; the other forms are (by default) grouped as hominoids, without clear evidence as to which are closest to living apes and humans. Among the presently recognized genera in this group, which ranges up to 13 Ma, we find Proconsul, Rangwapithecus, Dendropithecus, Limnopithecus, Nacholapithecus, Equatorius, Nyanzapithecus, Afropithecus, Heliopithecus, and Kenyapithecus, all from East Africa. The presence of other generalized non-cercopithecids of middle Miocene age from sites far distant—Otavipithecus from cave deposits in Namibia, and Pierolapithecus and Dryopithecus from France, Spain and Austria—is evidence of a wide diversity of forms across Africa and the Mediterranean basin during the relatively warm and equable climatic regimes of the early and middle Miocene. The youngest of the Miocene hominoids, Oreopithecus, is from 9 Ma coal beds in Italy. Molecular evidence indicates that the lineage of gibbons (family Hylobatidae) became distinct between 18 and 12 Ma, and that of orangutans (subfamily Ponginae) at about 12 Ma; we have no fossils that clearly document the ancestry of gibbons, which may have originated in a so far unknown South East Asian hominid population, but fossil proto-orangutans may be represented by Ramapithecus from India and Griphopithecus from Turkey, dated to around 10 Ma. It has been suggested that species close to last common ancestors of gorillas, chimpanzees and humans may be represented by Nakalipithecus fossils found in Kenya and Ouranopithecus found in Greece. Molecular evidence suggests that between 8 and 4 Ma, first the gorillas, and then the chimpanzee (genus Pan) split off from the line leading to the humans; human DNA (when comparing single nucleotide polymorphisms) is approximately 98.4 percent identical to the DNA of chimpanzees (see Human evolutionary genetics). The fossil record of gorillas and chimpanzees is quite limited. Both poor preservation (rain forest soils tend to be acidic and dissolve bone) and sampling bias probably contribute to this problem. Other Hominines, however, likely adapted (along with antelopes, hyenas, dogs, pigs, elephants, and horses) to the somewhat drier environments outside the equatorial belt (which contracted after about 8 Ma; reference needed) and their fossils are relatively well known. The earliest are Sahelanthropus tchadensis (7 Ma) and Orrorin tugenensis (6 Ma), followed by: Ardipithecus (5.5–4.4 Ma), with species Ar. kadabba and Ar. ramidus; Australopithecus (4–2 Ma), with species Au. anamensis, Au. afarensis, Au. africanus, Au. bahrelghazali, and Au. garhi; Kenyanthropus (3–2.7 Ma), with species Kenyanthropus platyops Paranthropus (3–1.2 Ma), with species P. aethiopicus, P. boisei, and P. robustus; Homo (2 Ma–present), with species Homo habilis, Homo rudolfensis, Homo ergaster, Homo georgicus, Homo antecessor, Homo cepranensis, Homo erectus, Homo heidelbergensis, Homo rhodesiensis, Homo neanderthalensis, Homo sapiens idaltu, Archaic Homo sapiens, Homo floresiensis Genus Homo In modern taxonomy, Homo sapiens is the only non-extinct species of its genus, Homo. Likewise, the ongoing study of the origins of Homo sapiens often demonstrates that there were other Homo species, all of which are now extinct. While some of these other species might have been ancestors of H. sapiens, many were likely our "cousins", having speciated away from our ancestral line. There is not yet a consensus as to which of these groups should count as separate species and which as subspecies of another species. In some cases this is due to the paucity of fossils, in other cases it is due to the slight differences used to classify species in the Homo genus. The Sahara pump theory provides an explanation of the early variation in the genus Homo. Based on archaeological and paleontological evidence, it has been possible to infer the ancient dietary practices of various Homo species and to study the role of diet in human (Homo) physical and behavioral evolution. Homo habilis H. habilis lived from about 2.4 to 1.4 Ma. H. habilis, the first species of the genus Homo, evolved in South and East Africa in the late Pliocene or early Pleistocene, 2.5–2 Ma, when it diverged from the Australopithecines. H. habilis had smaller molars and larger brains than the Australopithecines, and made tools from stone and perhaps animal bones. One of the first known hominids, it was nicknamed 'handy man' by its discoverer, Louis Leakey due to its association with stone tools (mode 1). Some scientists have proposed moving this species out of Homo and into Australopithecus due to the morphology of its skeleton being more adapted to living on trees rather than to moving on two legs like H. sapiens. Wood, B. & Collard, M. (1999) The changing face of Genus Homo. Evol. Anth. 8(6) 195-207 Homo rudolfensis and Homo georgicus These are proposed species names for fossils from about 1.9–1.6 Ma, the relation of which with H. habilis is not yet clear. H. rudolfensis refers to a single, incomplete skull from Kenya. Scientists have suggested that this was just another habilis, but this has not been confirmed. H. georgicus, from Georgia, may be an intermediate form between H. habilis and H. erectus, or a sub-species of H. erectus. Homo ergaster and Homo erectus One current view of the temporal and geographical distribution of hominid populations. Other interpretations differ mainly in the taxonomy and geographical distribution of hominid species. The first fossils of Homo erectus were discovered by Dutch physician Eugene Dubois in 1891 on the Indonesian island of Java. He originally gave the material the name Pithecanthropus erectus based on its morphology that he considered to be intermediate between that of humans and apes. H. erectus lived from about 1.8 Ma to 70,000 years ago. Often the early phase, from 1.8 to 1.25 Ma, is considered to be a separate species, H. ergaster, or it is seen as a subspecies of H. erectus, Homo erectus ergaster. In the Early Pleistocene, 1.5–1 Ma, in Africa, Asia, and Europe, presumably, some populations of Homo habilis evolved larger brains and made more elaborate stone tools; these differences and others are sufficient for anthropologists to classify them as a new species, H. erectus. In addition H. erectus was the first human ancestor to walk truly upright. This was made possible by the evolution of locking knees and a different location of the foramen magnum (the hole in the skull where the spine enters). They may have used fire to cook their meat. A famous example of Homo erectus is Peking Man; others were found in Asia (notably in Indonesia), Africa, and Europe. Many paleoanthropologists are now using the term Homo ergaster for the non-Asian forms of this group, and reserving H. erectus only for those fossils found in the Asian region and meeting certain skeletal and dental requirements which differ slightly from H. ergaster. However, this article does not follow that usage. Homo cepranensis and Homo antecessor These are proposed as species that may be intermediate between H. erectus and H. heidelbergensis. H. antecessor is known from fossils from Spain and England that are dated 1.2 Ma–500 ka. H. cepranensis refers to a single skull cap from Italy, estimated to be about 800,000 years old. Homo heidelbergensis H. heidelbergensis (Heidelberg Man) lived from about 800,000 to about 300,000 years ago. Also proposed as Homo sapiens heidelbergensis or Homo sapiens paleohungaricus. Homo rhodesiensis, and the Gawis cranium H. rhodesiensis, estimated to be 300,000–125,000 years old. Most current experts believe Rhodesian Man to be within the group of Homo heidelbergensis though other designations such as Archaic Homo sapiens and Homo sapiens rhodesiensis have also been proposed. In February 2006 a fossil, the Gawis cranium, was found which might possibly be a species intermediate between H. erectus and H. sapiens or one of many evolutionary dead ends. The skull from Gawis, Ethiopia, is believed to be 500,000–250,000 years old. Only summary details are known, and no peer reviewed studies have been released by the finding team. Gawis man's facial features suggest its being either an intermediate species or an example of a "Bodo man" female. Homo neanderthalensis H. neanderthalensis lived from about 250,000 to as recent as 30,000 years ago. Also proposed as Homo sapiens neanderthalensis: there is ongoing debate over whether the 'Neanderthal Man' was a separate species, Homo neanderthalensis, or a subspecies of H. sapiens While the debate remains unsettled, evidence from sequencing mitochondrial DNA indicates that no significant gene flow occurred between H. neanderthalensis and H. sapiens, and, therefore, the two were separate species that shared a common ancestor about 660,000 years ago. In 1997, Dr. Mark Stoneking, then an associate professor of anthropology at Pennsylvania State University, stated: "These results [based on mitochondrial DNA extracted from Neanderthal bone] indicate that Neanderthals did not contribute mitochondrial DNA to modern humans… Neanderthals are not our ancestors." Subsequent investigation of a second source of Neanderthal DNA supported these findings. However, supporters of the multiregional hypothesis point to recent studies indicating non-African nuclear DNA heritage dating to one Ma, although the reliability of these studies has been questioned. Competition from Homo sapiens probably contributed to Neanderthal extinction. How Neanderthals met a grisly fate: devoured by humans. The Observer. May 17, 2009. Homo sapiens H. sapiens ("sapiens" means wise or intelligent) has lived from about 250,000 years ago to the present. Between 400,000 years ago and the second interglacial period in the Middle Pleistocene, around 250,000 years ago, the trend in skull expansion and the elaboration of stone tool technologies developed, providing evidence for a transition from H. erectus to H. sapiens. The direct evidence suggests there was a migration of H. erectus out of Africa, then a further speciation of H. sapiens from H. erectus in Africa (there is little evidence that this speciation occurred elsewhere). Then a subsequent migration within and out of Africa eventually replaced the earlier dispersed H. erectus. This migration and origin theory is usually referred to as the single-origin theory. However, the current evidence does not preclude multiregional speciation, either. This is a hotly debated area in paleoanthropology. Current research has established that human beings are genetically highly homogenous; that is, the DNA of individuals is more alike than usual for most species, which may have resulted from their relatively recent evolution or the Toba catastrophe. Supervolcanoes, BBC2, 3 February 2000 Distinctive genetic characteristics have arisen, however, primarily as the result of small groups of people moving into new environmental circumstances. These adapted traits are a very small component of the Homo sapiens genome, but include various characteristics such as skin color and nose form, in addition to internal characteristics such as the ability to breathe more efficiently in high altitudes. H. sapiens idaltu, from Ethiopia, lived from about 160,000 years ago (proposed subspecies). It is the oldest known anatomically modern human. Homo floresiensis H. floresiensis, which lived from approximately 100,000 to 12,000 before present, has been nicknamed hobbit for its small size, possibly a result of insular dwarfism. H. floresiensis is intriguing both for its size and its age, being a concrete example of a recent species of the genus Homo that exhibits derived traits not shared with modern humans. In other words, H. floresiensis share a common ancestor with modern humans, but split from the modern human lineage and followed a distinct evolutionary path. The main find was a skeleton believed to be a woman of about 30 years of age. Found in 2003 it has been dated to approximately 18,000 years old. The living woman was estimated to be one meter in height, with a brain volume of just 380 cm3 (considered small for a chimpanzee and less than a third of the H. sapiens average of 1400 cm3). However, there is an ongoing debate over whether H. floresiensis is indeed a separate species. Some scientists presently believe that H. floresiensis was a modern H. sapiens suffering from pathological dwarfism. This hypothesis is supported in part, because some modern humans who live on Flores, the island where the skeleton was found, are pygmies. This coupled with pathological dwarfism could indeed create a hobbit-like human. The other major attack on H. floresiensis is that it was found with tools only associated with H. sapiens. Comparative table of Homo species Use of tools Using tools has been interpreted as a sign of intelligence, and it has been theorized that tool use may have stimulated certain aspects of human evolution—most notably the continued expansion of the human brain. Paleontology has yet to explain the expansion of this organ over millions of years despite being extremely demanding in terms of energy consumption. The brain of a modern human consumes about 20 watts (400 kilocalories per day), which is one fifth of the energy consumption of a human body. Increased tool use would allow hunting for energy-rich meat products, and would enable processing more energy-rich plant products. Researchers have suggested that early hominids were thus under evolutionary pressure to increase their capacity to create and use tools. Precisely when early humans started to use tools is difficult to determine, because the more primitive these tools are (for example, sharp-edged stones) the more difficult it is to decide whether they are natural objects or human artifacts. There is some evidence that the australopithecines (4 Ma) may have used broken bones as tools, but this is debated. It should be noted that many species make and use tools, but it is the human species that dominates the areas of making and using more complex tools. A good question is, what species made and used the first tools? The oldest known tools are the "Oldowan stone tools" from Ethiopia. It was discovered that these tools are from 2.5 to 2.6 million years old, which predates the earliest known "Homo" species. There is no known evidence that any "Homo" specimens appeared by 2.5 Ma. A Homo fossil was found near some Oldowan tools, and its age was noted at 2.3 million years old, suggesting that maybe the Homo species did indeed create and use these tools. It is surely possible, but not solid evidence. Bernard Wood noted that "Paranthropus" coexisted with the early Homo species in the area of the "Oldowan Industrial Complex" over roughly the same span of time. Although there is no direct evidence that points to Paranthropus as the tool makers, their anatomy lends to indirect evidence of their capabilities in this area. Most paleoanthropologists agree that the early "Homo" species were indeed responsible for most of the Oldowan tools found. They argue that when most of the Oldowan tools were found in association with human fossils, Homo was always present, but Paranthropus was not. Freeman, Scott; Jon C. Herron. Evolutionary Analysis (4th ed.)., Pearson Education, Inc. (2007). ISBN 0-13-227584-8 pages 786-788 In 1994, Randall Susman used the anatomy of opposable thumbs as the basis for his argument that both the Homo and Paranthropus species were toolmakers. He compared bones and muscles of human and chimpanzee thumbs, finding that humans have 3 muscles that chimps lack. Humans also have thicker metacarpals with broader heads, making the human hand more successful at precision grasping than the chimpanzee hand. Susman defended that modern anatomy of the human thumb is an evolutionary response to the requirements associated with making and handling tools and that both species were indeed toolmakers. Stone tools Stone tools are first attested around 2.6 Ma, when H. habilis in Eastern Africa used so-called pebble tools, choppers made out of round pebbles that had been split by simple strikes. This marks the beginning of the Paleolithic, or Old Stone Age; its end is taken to be the end of the last Ice Age, around 10,000 years ago. The Paleolithic is subdivided into the Lower Paleolithic (Early Stone Age, ending around 350,000–300,000 years ago), the Middle Paleolithic (Middle Stone Age, until 50,000–30,000 years ago), and the Upper Paleolithic. The period from 700,000–300,000 years ago is also known as the Acheulean, when H. ergaster (or erectus) made large stone hand-axes out of flint and quartzite, at first quite rough (Early Acheulian), later "retouched" by additional, more subtle strikes at the sides of the flakes. After 350,000 BP (Before Present) the more refined so-called Levallois technique was developed. It consisted of a series of consecutive strikes, by which scrapers, slicers ("racloirs"), needles, and flattened needles were made. Finally, after about 50,000 BP, ever more refined and specialized flint tools were made by the Neanderthals and the immigrant Cro-Magnons (knives, blades, skimmers). In this period they also started to make tools out of bone. Modern humans and the "Great Leap Forward" debate Until about 50,000–40,000 years ago the use of stone tools seems to have progressed stepwise. Each phase (habilis, ergaster, neanderthal) started at a higher level than the previous one; but once that phase started, further development was slow. In other words, these particular Homo species were culturally conservative. After 50,000 BP, however, human culture apparently started to change at a much greater speed. Jared Diamond, author of The Third Chimpanzee, and other anthropologists characterize this as a "Great Leap Forward." Modern humans started burying their dead carefully, making clothing out of hides, developing sophisticated hunting techniques (such as using trapping pits or driving animals off cliffs), and engaging in cave painting. This speed-up of cultural change seems connected with the arrival of behaviorally modern humans, Homo sapiens. As human culture advanced, different populations of humans introduced novelty to existing technologies: artifacts such as fish hooks, buttons and bone needles show signs of variation among different populations of humans, something that had not been seen in human cultures prior to 50,000 BP. Typically, neanderthalensis populations are found with technology similar to other contemporary neanderthalensis populations. Theoretically, modern human behavior is taken to include four ingredient capabilities: abstract thinking (concepts free from specific examples), planning (taking steps to achieve a further goal), innovation (finding new solutions), and symbolic behaviour (such as images and rituals). Among concrete examples of modern human behaviour, anthropologists include specialization of tools, use of jewelry and images (such as cave drawings), organization of living space, rituals (for example, burials with grave gifts), specialized hunting techniques, exploration of less hospitable geographical areas, and barter trade networks. Nevertheless, debate continues as to whether a "revolution" led to modern humans ("the big bang of human consciousness"), or whether the evolution was more gradual. Models of human evolution Today, all humans are classified as belonging to the species Homo sapiens sapiens. However, this is not the first species of hominids: the first species of genus Homo, Homo habilis, evolved in East Africa at least 2 Ma, and members of this species populated different parts of Africa in a relatively short time. Homo erectus evolved more than 1.8 Ma, and by 1.5 Ma had spread throughout the Old World. Virtually all physical anthropologists agree that Homo sapiens evolved out of Homo erectus. Anthropologists have been divided as to whether Homo sapiens evolved as one interconnected species from H. erectus (called the Multiregional Model, or the Regional Continuity Model), or evolved only in East Africa, and then migrated out of Africa and replaced H. erectus populations throughout the Old World (called the Out of Africa Model or the Complete Replacement Model). Anthropologists continue to debate both possibilities, but most anthropologists currently favor the Out of Africa model. Multiregional model Advocates of the Multiregional model, primarily Milford Wolpoff and his associates, have argued that the simultaneous evolution of H. sapiens in different parts of Europe and Asia would have been possible if there was a degree of gene flow between archaic populations. Thorne, Alan, and Milford Wolpoff (1992) "The Multiregional Evolution of humans" in Scientific American, April 76-93; Smith, Fred and Frank Spencer, eds (1984) The Origin of Modern Humans</ref> Similarities of morphological features between archaic European and Chinese populations and modern H. sapiens from the same regions, Wolpoff argues, support a regional continuity only possible within the Multiregional model. Robert H. Lavenda and Emily A. Shultz Anthropology, what does it mean to be human? Oxford (New York:2008) 132. Wolpoff and others further argue that this model is consistent with clinal patterns of phenotypic variation (Wolpoff 1993). Out of Africa model According to the Out of Africa Model, developed by Chris Stringer and Peter Andrews, modern H. sapiens evolved in Africa 200,000 years ago. Homo sapiens began migrating from Africa between 70,000 – 50,000 years ago and would eventually replace existing hominid species in Europe and Asia. Modern Humans Came Out of Africa, "Definitive" Study Says Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews (1988) "Genetic and Fossil Evidence for the Origin of Modern Humans" in Science 239: 1263-1268 The Out of Africa Model has gained support by recent research using mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). After analysing genealogy trees constructed using 133 types of mtDNA, they concluded that all were descended from a woman from Africa, dubbed Mitochondrial Eve. Rebecca L. Cann, Mark Stoneking, Allan C. Wilson (1987) Mitochondrial DNA and human evolution in Nature 325: 31-36 There are differing theories on whether there was a single exodus, or several (a Multiple Dispersal Model). A Multiple Dispersal Model involves the Southern Dispersal theory, Searching for traces of the Southern Dispersal, by Dr. Marta Mirazón Lahr, et al. which has gained support in recent years from genetic, linguistic and archaeological evidence. In this theory, there was a coastal dispersal of modern humans from the Horn of Africa around 70,000 years ago. This group helped to populate Southeast Asia and Oceania, explaining the discovery of early human sites in these areas much earlier than those in the Levant. A second wave of humans dispersed across the Sinai peninsula into Asia, resulting in the bulk of human population for Eurasia. This second group possessed a more sophisticated tool technology and was less dependent on coastal food sources than the original group. Much of the evidence for the first group's expansion would have been destroyed by the rising sea levels at the end of the Holocene era. The multiple dispersals models is contradicted by studies indicating that the populations of Eurasia and the populations of Southeast Asia and Oceania are all descended from the same mitochondrial DNA lineages. The study further indicates that there was most likely only one single migration out of Africa that gave rise to all Non-African populations. Comparison of the two models The two models differ widely. Richard Leakey summarizes the most obvious differences as follows: The Multiregional model suggests that the fossil record should show the same regional differences in anatomical characteristics that are currently visible today. Racial differences would be deep-rooted, going back as much as two million years. In the Out of Africa model, however, the fossil record would not be expected to show continuity of anatomical characteristics over time; on the contrary, the regional characteristics of older fossils would likely be replaced globally by more modern African ones. Racial differences would be shallow-rooted, having evolved over a relatively short period of time. Implications for the concept of race In a 1995 article, Leonard Lieberman and Fatimah Jackson point out that the concepts of cline, population, and ethnicity, as well as humanitarian and political concerns, have led many scientists away from the notion of race; nevertheless, a recent survey showed that physical anthropologists were evenly divided as to whether race is a valid biological concept. They note that among physical anthropologists the vast majority of opposition to the race concept comes from population geneticists, so any new support for a biological concept of race would likely come from another source, namely, the study of human evolution. They therefore ask what, if any, implications the current models of human evolution may have for any biological conception of race. Leonard Lieberman and Fatimah Linda C. Jackson (1995) "Race and Three Models of Human Origin" in American Anthropologist Vol. 97, No. 2, pp. 232-239 Lieberman and Jackson identified these implications of the Out of Africa model on the race concept: Lieberman and Jackson argued that while advocates of both the Multiregional model and the Out of Africa model use the word race and make racial assumptions, none define the term. They conclude, "Each model has implications that both magnify and minimize the differences between races. Yet each model seems to take race and races as a conceptual reality. The net result is that those anthropologists who prefer to view races as a reality are encouraged to do so." However, Lieberman and Jackson conclude that students of human evolution would be better off avoiding the word race, instead describing genetic differences in terms of populations and clinal gradations. Moving to the savanna and the aquatic ape hypothesis The majority of scientists believe in a model, first propounded by Raymond Dart, that the arboreal existence of early human was replaced by a move to the savannah for hunting animals, even though major adaptations occurred in human ancestors long before the savannahs existed. An alternative model of human evolution, strongly disputed by many researchers, is the aquatic ape hypothesis (AAH). This asserts that wading, swimming and diving for food exerted a strong evolutionary effect on the ancestors of the genus Homo and is in part responsible for the split between the common ancestors of humans and other great apes. Genetics Molecular biologists starting with Allan Wilson on mtDNA have produced observations relevant to human evolution. Age of the common ancestor By estimating the rate at which mutations occur in mtDNA, the age of the common ancestral mtDNA type can be estimated: "the common ancestral mtDNA (type a) links mtDNA types that have diverged by an average of nearly 0.57%. Assuming a rate of 2%-4% per million years, this implies that the common ancestor of all surviving mtDNA types existed 140,000-290,000 years ago." This observation is robust, and this common direct female line ancestor (or mitochondrial most recent common ancestor (mtMRCA)) of all extant humans has become known as mitochondrial eve. The observation that the mtMRCA is the direct matrilineal ancestor of all living humans does not mean either that she was the first anatomically modern human, nor that no other female humans lived concurrently with her. This is because other women might have lived at the same time and passed their genes down to living humans, but that their mitochondrial lineages was lost over time. This could be due to random events such as producing only male children. African origin for modern humans There is evidence that modern human mtDNA has an African origin: "We infer from the tree of minimum length... that Africa is a likely source of the human mitochondrial gene pool. This inference comes from the observation that one of the two primary branches leads exclusively to African mtDNAs... while the second primary branch also leads to African mtDNAs... By postulating that the common ancestral mtDNA... was African, we minimize the number of intercontinental migrations needed to account for the geographic distribution of mtDNA types." The broad study of African genetic diversity headed by Sarah Tishkoff found the San people to express the greatest genetic diversity among the 113 distinct populations sampled, making them one of 14 "ancestral population clusters".The research also located the origin of modern human migration in south-western Africa, near the coastal border of Namibia and Angola. BBC World News "Africa's genetic secrets unlocked", 1 May 2009; the results were published in the online edition of the journal Science. Lineage descent MtDNA types (haplogroups) do not cluster by geography, ethnicity or race, implying multiple female lineages were involved in founding modern human populations. Many closely related lineages spread geographically and many populations contain distantly related lineages. "The second implication of the tree (Fig. 3)—that each non-African population has multiple origins—can be illustrated most simply with the New Guineans. Take, as an example, mtDNA type 49, a lineage whose nearest relative is not in New Guinea, but in Asia (type 50). Asian lineage 50 is closer genealogically to this New Guinea lineage than to other Asian mtDNA lineages. Six other lineages lead exclusively to New Guinean mtDNAs, each originating at a different place in the tree (types 12, 13, 26-29, 65, 95 and 127-134 in Fig. 3). This small region of New Guinea (mainly the Eastern Highlands Province) thus seems to have been colonised by at least seven maternal lineages (Tables 2 and 3). In the same way, we calculate the minimum numbers of female lineages that colonised Australia, Asia and Europe (Tables 2 and 3). Each estimate is based on the number of region-specific clusters in the tree (Fig. 3, Tables 2 and 3). These numbers, ranging from 15 to 36 (Tables 2 and 3), will probably rise as more types of human mtDNA are discovered." Y chromosome findings The Y chromosome is much larger than mtDNA, and is relatively homogeneous; therefore it has taken much longer to find distinct lineages and to analyse them. Conversely, because the Y chromosome is so large by comparison, it holds more genetic information. Y chromosome studies show similar findings made with mtDNA. The estimate for the age of the ancestral Y chromosome for all extant Y chromosomes is given at about 70,000 years ago and is also placed in Africa, this individual is sometimes referred to as Y chromosome Adam. The difference in dates between Y chromosome Adam and mitochondrial Eve is usually attributed to a higher extinction rate for Y chromosomes due to greater differential reproductive success between individual men, which means that a small number of very successful men may produce a great many children, while a larger number of less successful men will produce far less children. Keita et al. (2004) say, with reference to Y chromosome and mtDNA and concepts of race: {{quotation|Y-chromosome and mitochondrial DNA genealogies are especially interesting because they demonstrate the lack of concordance of lineages with morphology and facilitate a phylogenetic analysis. Individuals with the same morphology do not necessarily cluster with each other by lineage, and a given lineage does not include only individuals with the same trait complex (or 'racial type'). Y-chromosome DNA from Africa alone suffices to make this point. Africa contains populations whose members have a range of external phenotypes. This variation has usually been described in terms of 'race' (Caucasoids, Pygmoids, Congoids, Khoisanoids). But the Y-chromosome clade defined by the PN2 transition (PN2/M35, PN2/M2) [see haplogroup E3b and Haplogroup E3a] shatters the boundaries of phenotypically defined races and true breeding populations across a great geographical expanse. African peoples with a range of skin colors, hair forms and physiognomies have substantial percentages of males whose Y chromosomes form closely related clades with each other, but not with others who are phenotypically similar. The individuals in the morphologically or geographically defined 'races' are not characterized by 'private' distinct lineages restricted to each of them.<ref>Conceptualizing human variation (2004) by S O Y Keita, R A Kittles1, C D M Royal, G E Bonney, P Furbert-Harris, G M Dunston & C N Rotimi in Nature Genetics 36, S17 - S20 }} Human accelerated regions Human accelerated regions are areas of the genome that differ between Humans and Chimpanzees to a greater extent than can be explained by genetic drift over the time since the two species shared a common ancestor. Thus these regions show signs of being subject to natural selection leading to the evolution of distinctly human traits. Two notable such regions are HAR1F which is believed to be related to brain development and HAR2 (a.k.a HACNS1) that may have played a role in the development of the opposable thumb. Notable human evolution researchers Robert Broom, a Scottish physician and palaeontologist whose work on South Africa led to the discovery and description of "Mrs. Ples" James Burnett, Lord Monboddo, a British judge most famous today as a founder of modern comparative historical linguistics Raymond Dart, an Australian anatomist and palaeoanthropologist, whose work at Taung, in South Africa, led to the discovery of Australopithecus africanus Charles Darwin, a British naturalist who documented considerable evidence that species originate through evolutionary change Richard Dawkins, a British ethologist, evolutionary biologist who has promoted a gene-centered view of evolution J. B. S. Haldane, a British geneticist and evolutionary biologist William D. Hamilton, a British Evolutionary Biologist who expounded a rigorous genetic basis for kin selection, and on the evolution of HIV and other human diseases. Sir Alister Hardy, a British zoologist, who first hypothesised the aquatic ape theory of human evolution Henry McHenry, an American anthropologist who specializes in studies of human evolution, the origins of bipedality, and paleoanthropology Louis Leakey, an African archaeologist and naturalist whose work was important in establishing human evolutionary development in Africa Mary Leakey, a British archaeologist and anthropologist whose discoveries in Africa include the Laetoli footprints Richard Leakey, an African paleontologist and archaeologist, son of Louis and Mary Leakey Svante Pääbo, a Swedish biologist specializing in evolutionary genetics Jeffrey H. Schwartz, an American physical anthropologist and professor of biological anthropology Chris Stringer, anthropologist, leading proponent of the recent single origin hypothesis Alan Templeton, geneticist and statistician, proponent of the multiregional hypothesis Philip V. Tobias, a South African palaeoanthropologist is one of the world's leading authorities on the evolution of humankind Erik Trinkaus, a prominent American paleoanthropologist and expert on Neanderthal biology and human evolution Milford H. Wolpoff, an American paleoanthropologist who is the leading proponent of the multiregional evolution hypothesis. Species list This list is in chronological order across the page by genus. Sahelanthropus Sahelanthropus tchadensis Orrorin Orrorin tugenensis Ardipithecus Ardipithecus kadabba Ardipithecus ramidus Australopithecus Australopithecus anamensis Australopithecus afarensis Australopithecus bahrelghazali Australopithecus africanus Australopithecus garhi Paranthropus Paranthropus aethiopicus Paranthropus boisei Paranthropus robustus Kenyanthropus Kenyanthropus platyops Homo Homo habilis Homo rudolfensis Homo ergaster Homo georgicus Homo erectus Homo cepranensis Homo antecessor Homo heidelbergensis Homo rhodesiensis Homo neanderthalensis Homo sapiens idaltu Homo sapiens (Cro-magnon) Homo sapiens sapiens Homo floresiensis Additional notes The validity of evolution and the origins of humanity have often been a subject of great political and religious controversy within the non-scientific community (see Creation-evolution controversy and Hybrid-origin). The classification of humans and their relatives has changed considerably over time (see History of hominoid taxonomy). Speculation about the future evolution of humans is often explored in science fiction as continued speciation of humans as they fill various ecological niches (see Adaptive radiation and Co-evolution), as well as deliberate self-modification (see Participant evolution). See also List of human evolution fossils Aquatic ape hypothesis Archaeogenetics Sociocultural evolution Dual inheritance theory Dysgenics Evolutionary anthropology Evolutionary medicine Evolutionary neuroscience Evolutionary psychology FOXP2 History of Earth Hominid intelligence Human behavioral ecology Human evolutionary genetics Human vestigiality Human skeletal changes due to bipedalism Hunting hypothesis Ida (fossil) Mitochondrial Eve ("African Eve" theory) Most recent common ancestor Physical anthropology Timeline of human evolution Y-chromosomal Adam References Further reading Flinn, M. V., Geary, D. C., & Ward, C. V. (2005). Ecological dominance, social competition, and coalitionary arms races: Why humans evolved extraordinary intelligence. Evolution and Human Behavior, 26, 10-46. Rozsa L 2008. The rise of non-adaptive intelligence in humans under pathogen pressure. Medical Hypotheses, 70, 685-690. DNA Shows Neandertals Were Not Our Ancestors —two ancestral ape chromosomes fused to give rise to human chromosome 2. BBC: Finds test human origins theory. 2007-08-08 Homo habilis and Homo erectus are sister species that overlapped in time. External links BBC: The Evolution of Man Illustrations from Evolution (textbook) Smithsonian – Homosapiens Smithsonian – The Human Origins Program Becoming Human: Paleoanthropology, Evolution and Human Origins, presented by Arizona State University's Institute of Human Origins | Human_evolution |@lemmatized human:134 evolution:45 anthropogenesis:1 part:6 biological:8 concern:2 emergence:1 homo:104 sapiens:42 distinct:6 specie:55 hominans:1 great:16 ape:19 placental:2 mammal:2 subject:3 broad:3 scientific:4 inquiry:1 seek:1 understand:1 describe:4 change:7 occur:5 study:15 encompass:1 many:13 discipline:1 notably:3 physical:7 anthropology:6 primatology:1 archaeology:1 linguistics:2 genetics:7 term:6 context:1 refers:3 genus:17 usually:4 include:8 hominins:2 australopithecine:11 diverge:3 africa:50 scientist:9 estimate:8 branch:3 common:14 ancestor:23 chimpanzee:11 living:3 several:2 typological:1 extinct:4 mark:5 collard:2 bernard:2 wood:3 reliable:2 phylogenetic:3 hypothesis:13 quote:1 exist:6 unlikely:1 http:1 www:1 pnas:1 org:1 content:1 abstract:2 evolve:14 erectus:29 inhabit:2 asia:13 neanderthalensis:11 europe:7 archaic:5 year:35 ago:20 dominant:1 view:5 among:7 recent:13 african:19 origin:22 modern:36 rao:1 h:61 spread:3 across:5 globe:1 replace:6 population:28 support:8 alternative:2 multiregional:12 mto:1 single:8 widespread:2 particularly:2 fossil:28 evidence:24 insufficient:1 resolve:1 vigorous:1 debate:10 largely:1 explanation:2 introduction:1 word:6 name:3 belong:2 latin:4 choose:1 originally:3 carolus:2 linnaeus:2 classification:2 system:1 humanus:1 adjectival:1 form:10 man:11 gender:1 specific:3 sense:1 vir:1 virile:1 derives:1 indo:1 european:2 root:3 dhghem:1 earth:2 time:11 also:12 consider:4 close:4 relative:3 due:8 morphological:2 anatomical:3 similarity:3 possibility:2 biologically:1 link:3 early:25 descent:2 become:4 clear:3 publication:1 charles:3 darwin:4 argue:6 idea:1 new:12 one:16 book:2 however:12 address:1 question:3 say:4 light:1 throw:1 history:5 first:17 nature:4 arise:2 thomas:1 huxley:2 richard:4 owen:1 illustrate:2 difference:10 place:4 supporter:2 alfred:1 russel:1 wallace:1 lyell:1 agree:3 mental:1 capacity:2 moral:1 sensibility:1 could:3 explain:4 natural:3 selection:3 major:3 problem:2 lack:3 intermediary:1 discover:5 raymond:3 dart:4 australopithecus:10 africanus:5 type:13 specimen:3 taung:3 child:5 infant:1 cave:4 remains:1 remarkably:1 well:6 preserve:1 tiny:1 skull:6 endocranial:1 cast:1 individual:7 brain:9 although:3 small:8 shape:1 round:2 unlike:1 gorilla:4 like:3 show:8 short:3 canine:1 teeth:1 position:1 foramen:2 magnum:2 bipedal:2 locomotion:1 trait:5 convince:1 baby:2 transitional:1 think:2 group:13 tribe:1 hominini:1 data:1 suggests:1 diverse:1 may:15 direct:5 reclassification:1 split:5 either:4 gracile:1 robust:2 varities:1 put:1 latter:1 family:4 paranthropus:10 taxonomist:1 today:4 related:3 hominidae:1 evolutionary:19 primate:7 trace:2 back:2 million:10 old:17 survive:3 know:8 come:5 north:2 america:2 eurasia:6 tropical:2 condition:1 paleocene:1 eocene:2 beginning:2 climate:1 formation:1 antarctic:1 ice:2 oligocene:4 around:9 primates:1 go:2 everywhere:1 southern:3 notharctus:1 find:20 germany:1 determine:2 similar:4 east:7 suggest:11 lineage:22 appear:2 discovery:5 hominid:9 migrate:4 two:10 continent:1 cut:1 expansion:5 mediterranean:2 sea:2 begin:3 flourish:1 lead:13 dryopithecus:2 south:9 western:2 see:10 completely:1 upper:2 lowermost:1 bed:2 fayum:2 depression:1 southwest:1 cairo:1 give:6 rise:6 lemur:1 madagascar:1 lorises:1 southeast:3 galago:1 bush:1 anthropoid:1 platyrrhine:2 world:6 monkey:2 catarrhine:3 known:4 kamoyapithecus:1 uppermost:1 eragaleit:1 northern:1 kenya:3 rift:1 valley:1 date:6 ancestry:2 generally:1 aegyptopithecus:1 propliopithecus:1 parapithecus:1 intervene:1 near:4 american:7 whose:8 record:4 identify:2 possibly:3 lie:1 live:16 west:1 catch:1 still:1 mysterious:1 transatlantic:1 sweepstakes:1 send:1 rodent:1 boa:1 constrictor:1 cichlid:1 fish:2 sometime:1 miocene:4 kind:1 arboreally:1 adapt:3 primitive:2 long:3 prior:2 diversification:1 fragment:1 attribute:2 victoriapithecus:1 cercopithecoid:1 default:1 hominoid:3 without:1 presently:2 recognize:1 range:4 proconsul:1 rangwapithecus:1 dendropithecus:1 limnopithecus:1 nacholapithecus:1 equatorius:1 nyanzapithecus:1 afropithecus:1 heliopithecus:1 kenyapithecus:1 presence:1 generalize:1 non:8 cercopithecids:1 middle:5 age:11 site:2 far:7 distant:1 otavipithecus:1 deposit:1 namibia:2 pierolapithecus:1 france:1 spain:2 austria:1 wide:1 diversity:3 basin:1 relatively:6 warm:1 equable:1 climatic:1 regime:1 young:1 oreopithecus:1 coal:1 italy:2 molecular:3 indicate:6 gibbon:2 hylobatidae:1 orangutan:2 subfamily:1 ponginae:1 clearly:1 document:2 originate:3 unknown:1 asian:5 proto:1 represent:2 ramapithecus:1 india:1 griphopithecus:1 turkey:1 last:2 nakalipithecus:1 ouranopithecus:1 greece:1 pan:1 line:3 dna:14 compare:2 nucleotide:1 polymorphism:1 approximately:3 percent:1 identical:1 quite:2 limited:1 poor:1 preservation:1 rain:1 forest:1 soil:1 tend:1 acidic:1 dissolve:1 bone:7 sample:2 bias:1 probably:3 contribute:3 hominines:1 likely:6 along:1 antelope:1 hyena:1 dog:1 pig:1 elephant:1 horse:1 somewhat:1 dry:1 environment:1 outside:1 equatorial:1 belt:1 contract:1 reference:3 need:2 sahelanthropus:3 tchadensis:2 orrorin:3 tugenensis:2 follow:4 ardipithecus:4 ar:2 kadabba:2 ramidus:2 au:5 anamensis:2 afarensis:2 bahrelghazali:2 garhi:2 kenyanthropus:4 platyops:2 p:4 aethiopicus:2 boisei:2 robustus:2 present:6 habilis:14 rudolfensis:4 ergaster:9 georgicus:4 antecessor:4 cepranensis:4 heidelbergensis:7 rhodesiensis:5 idaltu:3 floresiensis:9 taxonomy:3 likewise:1 ongoing:3 often:4 demonstrate:2 might:3 cousin:1 speciate:1 away:2 ancestral:7 yet:4 consensus:1 count:1 separate:5 subspecies:4 another:3 case:2 paucity:1 slight:1 use:22 classify:3 sahara:1 pump:1 theory:10 provide:2 variation:5 base:4 archaeological:2 paleontological:1 possible:5 infer:2 ancient:1 dietary:1 practice:1 various:3 role:2 diet:1 behavioral:2 late:1 pliocene:1 pleistocene:3 molar:1 large:6 make:18 tool:33 stone:13 perhaps:1 animal:3 nickname:2 handy:1 discoverer:1 louis:3 leakey:6 association:2 mode:1 propose:7 move:5 species:2 morphology:4 skeleton:3 adapted:1 tree:6 rather:1 leg:1 b:2 face:1 evol:1 anth:1 relation:1 incomplete:1 confirm:1 georgia:1 intermediate:5 sub:1 current:5 temporal:1 geographical:4 distribution:3 interpretation:1 differ:5 mainly:2 dutch:1 physician:2 eugene:1 dubois:1 indonesian:1 island:2 java:1 material:1 pithecanthropus:1 phase:3 presumably:1 elaborate:1 others:4 sufficient:1 anthropologist:15 addition:2 walk:1 truly:1 upright:1 lock:1 knee:1 different:6 location:1 hole:1 spine:1 enters:1 fire:1 cook:1 meat:2 famous:2 example:8 peking:1 indonesia:1 paleoanthropologists:2 reserve:1 region:8 meeting:1 certain:2 skeletal:2 dental:1 requirement:2 slightly:1 article:2 usage:1 england:1 ka:1 cap:1 heidelberg:1 paleohungaricus:1 gawis:4 cranium:2 expert:2 believe:6 rhodesian:1 within:4 though:2 designation:1 february:2 dead:2 end:5 ethiopia:3 summary:1 detail:1 peer:1 review:1 release:1 finding:4 team:1 facial:1 feature:2 bodo:1 female:5 whether:8 neanderthal:10 remain:1 unsettled:1 sequence:1 mitochondrial:14 significant:1 gene:5 flow:2 therefore:3 share:4 dr:2 stoneking:2 associate:4 professor:2 pennsylvania:1 state:3 university:2 result:7 extract:1 subsequent:2 investigation:1 second:6 source:4 point:4 nuclear:1 heritage:1 reliability:1 competition:2 extinction:2 meet:1 grisly:1 fate:1 devour:1 observer:1 mean:4 wise:1 intelligent:1 interglacial:1 period:4 trend:1 elaboration:1 technology:4 develop:4 transition:2 migration:6 speciation:4 little:1 elsewhere:1 eventually:2 dispersed:1 refer:2 preclude:1 hotly:1 area:7 paleoanthropology:3 research:3 establish:2 genetically:1 highly:1 homogenous:1 alike:1 usual:1 toba:1 catastrophe:1 supervolcanoes:1 distinctive:1 genetic:10 characteristic:6 primarily:2 people:3 environmental:1 circumstance:1 component:1 genome:2 skin:2 color:2 nose:1 internal:1 ability:1 breathe:1 efficiently:1 high:3 altitude:1 anatomically:2 hobbit:2 size:2 insular:1 dwarfism:3 intrigue:1 concrete:2 exhibit:1 derive:1 path:1 main:1 woman:4 meter:1 height:1 volume:1 less:5 third:2 average:2 indeed:5 suffer:1 pathological:2 flores:1 pygmy:1 couple:1 create:3 attack:1 comparative:2 table:5 interpret:1 sign:3 intelligence:4 theorize:1 stimulate:1 aspect:1 continued:2 paleontology:1 organ:1 despite:1 extremely:1 demand:1 energy:4 consumption:2 consumes:1 watt:1 kilocalorie:1 per:2 day:1 fifth:1 body:1 increased:1 would:11 allow:1 hunt:3 rich:2 product:2 enable:1 process:1 plant:1 researcher:3 thus:3 pressure:2 increase:1 precisely:1 start:7 difficult:2 sharp:1 edged:1 decide:1 object:1 artifact:2 broken:1 note:5 dominate:1 complex:3 good:2 oldowan:5 predate:1 maybe:1 surely:1 solid:1 coexist:1 industrial:1 roughly:1 span:1 maker:1 anatomy:3 lends:1 indirect:1 capability:2 responsible:2 always:1 freeman:1 scott:1 jon:1 c:7 herron:1 analysis:2 ed:2 pearson:1 education:1 inc:1 isbn:1 page:2 randall:1 susman:2 opposable:2 thumb:4 basis:2 argument:1 toolmaker:2 muscle:2 chimps:1 thicker:1 metacarpal:1 head:2 hand:3 successful:3 precision:1 grasp:1 defend:1 response:1 handling:1 attest:1 eastern:2 call:4 pebble:2 chopper:1 simple:1 strike:3 paleolithic:5 take:6 subdivide:1 low:1 acheulean:1 ax:1 flint:2 quartzite:1 rough:1 acheulian:1 later:1 retouch:1 additional:2 subtle:1 side:1 flake:1 bp:4 refined:2 levallois:1 technique:3 consist:1 series:1 consecutive:1 scraper:1 slicer:1 racloirs:1 needle:3 flatten:1 finally:1 ever:1 specialized:2 immigrant:1 cro:2 magnons:1 knife:1 blade:1 skimmer:1 leap:2 forward:2 seem:4 progress:1 stepwise:1 level:2 previous:1 development:4 slow:1 particular:1 culturally:1 conservative:1 culture:3 apparently:1 much:6 speed:2 jared:1 diamond:1 author:1 characterize:2 bury:1 carefully:1 clothe:1 hide:1 sophisticated:2 hunting:2 trap:1 pit:1 drive:1 cliff:1 engage:1 painting:1 cultural:1 connect:1 arrival:1 behaviorally:1 advance:1 introduce:1 novelty:1 hook:1 button:1 something:1 typically:1 contemporary:1 theoretically:1 behavior:2 four:1 ingredient:1 thinking:1 concept:8 free:1 planning:1 step:1 achieve:1 goal:1 innovation:1 solution:1 symbolic:1 behaviour:2 image:2 ritual:2 specialization:1 jewelry:1 drawing:1 organization:1 space:1 burial:1 grave:1 gift:1 exploration:1 hospitable:1 barter:1 trade:1 network:1 nevertheless:2 continue:2 revolution:1 big:1 bang:1 consciousness:1 gradual:1 model:29 belonging:1 least:2 member:2 populate:2 throughout:2 virtually:1 divide:2 interconnected:1 regional:4 continuity:3 complete:1 replacement:1 currently:2 favor:1 advocate:2 milford:3 wolpoff:6 simultaneous:1 degree:1 thorne:1 alan:2 april:1 smith:1 fred:1 frank:1 spencer:1 ref:2 chinese:1 argues:1 robert:2 lavenda:1 emily:1 shultz:1 oxford:1 york:1 consistent:1 clinal:2 pattern:1 phenotypic:1 accord:1 chris:2 stringer:3 peter:2 andrew:2 definitive:1 christopher:1 science:3 gain:2 mtdna:18 analyse:2 genealogy:2 construct:1 conclude:3 descend:2 dub:1 eve:5 rebecca:1 l:2 cann:1 allan:2 wilson:2 exodus:1 multiple:5 dispersal:6 involve:2 search:1 marta:1 mirazón:1 lahr:1 et:2 al:2 linguistic:1 coastal:3 horn:1 help:1 oceania:2 levant:1 wave:1 disperse:1 sinai:1 peninsula:1 bulk:1 possess:1 dependent:1 food:2 original:1 destroy:1 holocene:1 era:1 contradict:1 comparison:2 widely:1 summarize:1 obvious:1 visible:1 racial:4 deep:1 expect:1 contrary:1 globally:1 shallow:1 implication:5 race:20 leonard:2 lieberman:5 fatimah:2 jackson:5 cline:1 ethnicity:2 humanitarian:1 political:2 notion:1 survey:1 evenly:1 valid:1 vast:1 majority:2 opposition:1 geneticist:3 namely:1 ask:1 conception:1 linda:1 three:1 vol:1 pp:1 assumption:1 none:1 define:4 magnify:1 minimize:2 conceptual:1 reality:2 net:1 prefer:1 encourage:1 student:1 avoid:1 instead:1 gradation:1 savanna:1 aquatic:4 propound:1 arboreal:1 existence:1 savannah:2 even:1 adaptation:1 strongly:1 dispute:1 aah:1 assert:1 wad:1 swimming:1 diving:1 exert:1 strong:1 effect:1 biologist:5 produce:4 observation:4 relevant:1 rate:3 mutation:1 nearly:1 assume:1 imply:2 mtmrca:2 extant:2 matrilineal:1 concurrently:1 pass:1 lose:1 random:1 event:1 male:2 minimum:2 length:1 pool:1 inference:1 primary:2 exclusively:2 mtdnas:3 postulate:1 number:6 intercontinental:1 account:1 geographic:1 sarah:1 tishkoff:1 san:1 express:1 cluster:4 locate:1 border:1 angola:1 bbc:3 news:1 secret:1 unlock:1 publish:1 online:1 edition:1 journal:1 haplogroups:1 geography:1 found:1 closely:2 geographically:2 contain:2 distantly:1 relate:2 fig:3 simply:1 guinean:2 guinea:3 closer:1 genealogically:1 six:1 highland:1 province:1 colonise:2 seven:1 maternal:1 way:1 calculate:1 australia:1 chromosome:16 homogeneous:1 conversely:1 hold:1 information:1 sometimes:1 adam:3 differential:1 reproductive:1 success:1 men:3 keita:2 quotation:1 especially:1 interesting:1 concordance:1 facilitate:1 necessarily:1 alone:1 suffice:1 external:2 phenotype:1 caucasoids:1 pygmoids:1 congoids:1 khoisanoids:1 clade:2 haplogroup:2 shatters:1 boundary:1 phenotypically:2 true:1 breeding:1 expanse:1 hair:1 physiognomy:1 substantial:1 percentage:1 morphologically:1 private:1 restrict:1 conceptualize:1 r:1 royal:1 g:2 e:1 bonney:1 furbert:1 harris:1 dunston:1 n:1 rotimi:1 accelerate:2 extent:1 drift:1 since:1 distinctly:1 notable:2 k:1 play:1 broom:1 scottish:1 palaeontologist:1 work:3 description:1 mr:1 ples:1 james:1 burnett:1 lord:1 monboddo:1 british:7 judge:1 founder:1 historical:1 australian:1 anatomist:1 palaeoanthropologist:2 naturalist:2 considerable:1 dawkins:1 ethologist:1 promote:1 centered:1 j:1 haldane:1 william:1 hamilton:1 expound:1 rigorous:1 kin:1 hiv:1 disease:1 sir:1 alister:1 hardy:1 zoologist:1 hypothesise:1 henry:1 mchenry:1 specialize:2 bipedality:1 archaeologist:3 important:1 mary:2 laetoli:1 footprint:1 paleontologist:1 son:1 svante:1 pääbo:1 swedish:1 jeffrey:1 schwartz:1 proponent:3 templeton:1 statistician:1 philip:1 v:3 tobias:1 authority:1 humankind:1 erik:1 trinkaus:1 prominent:1 paleoanthropologist:2 biology:1 list:3 chronological:1 order:1 magnon:1 validity:1 humanity:1 religious:1 controversy:2 community:1 creation:1 hybrid:1 considerably:1 speculation:1 future:1 explore:1 fiction:1 fill:1 ecological:2 niche:1 adaptive:2 radiation:1 co:1 deliberate:1 self:1 modification:1 participant:1 archaeogenetics:1 sociocultural:1 dual:1 inheritance:1 dysgenics:1 medicine:1 neuroscience:1 psychology:1 ecology:1 vestigiality:1 bipedalism:1 ida:1 timeline:1 chromosomal:1 read:1 flinn:1 geary:1 ward:1 dominance:1 social:1 coalitionary:1 arm:1 extraordinary:1 rozsa:1 pathogen:1 medical:1 neandertal:1 fuse:1 test:1 origins:2 sister:1 overlap:1 illustration:1 textbook:1 smithsonian:2 homosapiens:1 program:1 arizona:1 institute:1 |@bigram homo_sapiens:23 placental_mammal:2 genus_homo:10 http_www:1 homo_erectus:10 homo_neanderthalensis:5 archaic_homo:3 h_erectus:17 carolus_linnaeus:2 indo_european:1 charles_darwin:2 alfred_russel:1 russel_wallace:1 charles_lyell:1 australopithecus_africanus:3 chimpanzee_gorilla:1 canine_teeth:1 foramen_magnum:2 paleocene_eocene:1 southeast_asia:3 rift_valley:1 subfamily_ponginae:1 gorilla_chimpanzee:3 nucleotide_polymorphism:1 rain_forest:1 sahelanthropus_tchadensis:2 orrorin_tugenensis:2 kenyanthropus_platyops:2 homo_habilis:6 habilis_homo:3 homo_rudolfensis:3 homo_ergaster:4 ergaster_homo:3 homo_georgicus:3 homo_antecessor:3 erectus_homo:4 homo_heidelbergensis:4 sapiens_homo:3 homo_floresiensis:3 paleontological_evidence:1 h_habilis:6 pithecanthropus_erectus:1 peer_review:1 mitochondrial_dna:7 sapiens_sapiens:3 interglacial_period:1 hotly_debate:1 h_floresiensis:6 opposable_thumb:2 upper_paleolithic:1 cro_magnons:1 jared_diamond:1 big_bang:1 multiregional_model:6 mitochondrial_eve:4 et_al:2 archaeological_evidence:1 asia_oceania:2 sinai_peninsula:1 vast_majority:1 aquatic_ape:4 swimming_diving:1 closely_related:2 distantly_relate:1 genetic_drift:1 lord_monboddo:1 richard_dawkins:1 evolutionary_biologist:3 gene_centered:1 b_haldane:1 kin_selection:1 australopithecus_afarensis:1 cro_magnon:1 science_fiction:1 ecological_niche:1 adaptive_radiation:1 evolutionary_psychology:1 behavioral_ecology:1 external_link:1 |
1,678 | Machine_pistol | A fully automatic Steyr M1912, which was used as a sidearm in the Austro-Hungarian Army. A machine pistol is a handgun-style, magazine-fed and self-loading firearm, capable of fully automatic or burst fire, and normally chambered for pistol cartridges. The term is a literal translation of Maschinenpistole, the German term for a hand-held automatic weapon. While the dividing line between machine pistols and compact submachine guns is hard to draw, the term "submachine gun" usually refers to larger automatic firearms scaled down from that of a full-sized machine gun, while the term "machine pistol" usually refers to a weapon built up from a semi-automatic pistol design. In a law enforcement context, machine pistols are used by tactical police units such as SWAT teams or hostage rescue teams which are operating inside buildings and other cramped spaces, who need a small, concealable weapon with a high rate of fire. As well, bodyguards from police or government agencies sometimes carry concealed machine pistols when they are protecting high-risk VIPs. Criminal gang members such as narcotics traffickers also use machine pistols, typically cheaper guns such as the MAC-10 or the Tec-9 which have been illegally converted to fire in a fully-automatic fashion. In a military setting, some countries issue machine pistols as personal defense sidearms to paratroopers, artillery crews, helicopter crews or tank crews. They have also been used in close quarters combat (CQC) settings where a small weapon is needed (e.g. by special forces attacking buildings or tunnels). In the 2000s, the machine pistol is being supplanted by the personal defense weapon: a compact, fully-automatic submachine gun-like firearm which fires armor-piercing rounds instead of pistol ammunition. History and variants 1918-1960s Long barrelled Luger P08, with 32-round drum magazine and detachable stock. In World War I, in the last year of the conflict, the Germans developed the Bergman MP 18, a small, hand-held automatic weapon with a 'rifle-like' form (including a wooden stock). Even though it looked like a small rifle, it used 9mm pistol ammunition, which introduced the idea of an automatic weapon that fired pistol rounds. Up until this point, machine guns were always heavy weapons mounted on tripods or wheeled artillery mounts. While heavy machine guns such as the Maxim gun and the Vickers gun were fearsome defensive weapons in a built-up emplacement, they were very hard to move to a new position if the army had advanced to a new area, or if it had to fall back. The German Army recognized that to break the stalemate of trench warfare, a light, hand-held automatic weapon was needed that would enable individual soldiers to move with the gun to new firing positions. The Germans also did experiments with converting various types of pistols to machine pistols (Reihenfeuerpistolen, literally "row-fire pistols"). The Luger P08 long barrel pistol was issued in World War I to German artillery crews. It was manufactured with a longer barrel as it was recognized that artillery crew needed a lighter weapon than a rifle but with similar accuracy to defend themselves. It had a newly developed pistol cartridge, the 9mm Parabellum, which was designed for low recoil without sacrificing penetration and stopping power. Although not armour piercing, the bullet more than sufficed for the time. A Chinese National Revolutionary Army soldier with a gas mask and a Mauser C96 fitted with a wooden stock. Unlike the Luger, the Mauser C96 pistol was modified to fire in a fully automatic mode. First produced in 1896 as one of the first commercially successful and practical semi-automatic pistols, Spanish gunmakers in the late 1920s introduced "select fire" copies of the C96 with detachable magazines, and in the early 1930s Mauser engineers introduced the model 711 and 712 Schnellfeuer variants, which included a fire selector mechanism allowing fully automatic fire at a rate of 1000 rounds/minute. Due to the weapon's light barrel, the fully automatic rate of fire could only be used for short bursts. Russian Stechkin APS machine pistolThe Stechkin APS is a Russian selective-fire machine pistol introduced into the Russian army in 1951. Like the other common Russian army pistol of this era, the Makarov, the Stechkin uses a simple unlocked blow-back mechanism and the double-action trigger. In addition, the Stechkin APS has an automatic fire mode, which is selected using the safety lever. In burst or automatic fire, the pistol should be fitted with the wooden shoulder stock; otherwise, the weapon quickly becomes uncontrollable. The Stechkin was intended as a sidearm for artillery soldiers and tank crews. In practice, it earned a strong following in the ranks of political and criminal police, special forces and the such. Many KGB and GRU operatives favored APS for its power and magazine capacity. Though somewhat heavy and cumbersome, it was the only "high-powered" alternative to the modest-performing PM. As a pistol, the Stechkin APS is being slowly replaced by the Yarygin PYa; as a PDW, it was replaced by the AKS-74U compact assault rifle, now widely used in law enforcement. 1970s-1980s Since it is difficult to control machine pistols when they are fired in full automatic mode, in the 1970s, some manufacturers developed an "intermittent-fire" setting that fires a burst of three shots instead of a full-automatic stream. In the 1970s, the Italian Beretta company developed the Beretta Model 93R, a selective-fire machine pistol meant for police and military use. It offered extra firepower in a small package and is suited for concealed carry purposes such as VIP protection, or for close quarters maneuvers such as room-to-room searches. A selector switch and the foldable foregrip allows the pistol to fire three round bursts with each pull of the trigger for a cyclic rate of 1100 rounds per minute. The designers limited it to fixed three-round bursts to allow it to be more easily controlled. A 1970 Beretta Model 93R, a selective-fire machine pistol designed for police and military use. Another machine pistol using the three shot burst system is the Heckler & Koch VP70. It will only fire three-round bursts with the stock attached. It is a 9 mm, 18-round, double action only, semi-automatic/three-round burst capable polymer frame pistol manufactured by German arms firm Heckler & Koch GmbH; the VP designation stands for Volkspistole ("The people's pistol" literally "Folk pistol"), and the designation 70 was for the year of the first edition: 1970. It was the first polymer-framed pistol, predating the Glock 17. The stock incorporates a selector switch that allows selective fire. Cyclic rounds per minute for the three-round bursts is 2200 rpm. The VP70 uses a spring loaded striker like a Glock, instead of a conventional firing pin. It is double action only, so the trigger pull is relatively heavy. Despite the VP70's potential, it was never adopted by the Bundeswehr. A 1970 HK VP70Z 18-round semi-automatic/three-round automatic burst-capable pistol manufactured by German arms firm Heckler & Koch. The MAC-10 (also known as the "Ingram Model 10") and MAC-11 (also called the "Ingram Model 11") were 1970s blowback designed weapons with the magazine in the pistol grip and a fire selector switch. The MAC-10 had a 1145 round-per-minute rate of fire (with.45 ACP) and a 1090 round-per-minute rate of fire with 9mm cartridges. The MAC-11 could fire 1200 rounds-per-minute with 9x17 its .380 ACP cartridges. The guns were designed by Gordon Ingram and Military Armament Corporation of in Georgia. The weapons used in special ops and clandestine applications in Vietnam and by Brazilian anti-terrorist units. It could be fitted with a silencer using its threaded barrel. While some sources call the MAC-10 and MAC-11 machine pistols, http://www.cheaperthandirt.com/MediaPages/ArticleDetail.aspx?mediaid=97 the guns are also referred to as compact submachine guns. The Stechkin APS made a comeback in the late 1970s, when Russian Spetsnaz special forces units in Afghanistan used suppressor-equipped machine pistols for clandestine missions in enemy territory, such as during the Soviet war in Afghanistan. In the 1980s, some machine pistols, such as the Glock 18 were made with vents or cuts that run across the top of the barrel. These vents act as a compensator, thus counteracting the tendency of machine pistols to rise when fired in automatic mode. The Glock 18 is a selective-fire variant of the Glock 17, developed in 1987 at the request of the Austrian counter-terrorist unit EKO Cobra. The Glock 18 is not available to the civilian market. This machine pistol-class firearm has a lever-type fire-control selector switch, installed on the left side of the slide, in the rear, serrated portion (selector lever in the bottom position for continuous fire, top setting for single fire). The firearm is typically used with an extended 33-round capacity magazine. The pistol's rate of fire in fully automatic mode is approximately 1100–1200 rounds/min. The Micro-Uzi is a scaled-down version of the Uzi, first introduced in 1983. It is 460 mm (18.11 inches) long with the stock extended, and just 250 mm (9.84 inches) long with the stock folded. Its barrel length is 117 mm and its muzzle velocity is 350 m/s. After its early 1980s introduction, it was used by the Israeli Isayeret and the US Secret Service. In the 1990s and 2000s, Israeli counter-terror units such as the YAMAM used the 33-round Glock 18 magazine with their Para Micro Uzi machine pistols. The UZI submachine gun upon which the Micro-Uzi is based was developed in Israel by Uziel Gal in the late 1940s. Micro-Uzis are available in open-bolt or closed-bolt versions. The weapon has an additional tungsten weight on the bolt to slow the rate of fire, which would otherwise make such a lightweight weapon uncontrollable. Modern Firearms - IMI UZI / Mini UZI / Micro UZI submachine gun There is also a rare version of the CZ75 that is fully automatic with a longer barrel and three vent ports on the elongated part. This machine pistol has a horizontal rail in front of the trigger guard through which a spare magazine can be attached and be used as a foregrip for better control during full automatic firing. This weapon is still produced by CZ but is only available to military and law enforcement personnel. A US marine fires a fully automatic 9mm Glock 18 machine pistol with a shoulder stock during a small arms weapons course. In 1988, an unusually designed US 9mm machine pistol named the Calico M950 was introduced. Unlike most machine pistols, which use magazines in the pistol grip or in a vertical box, the M950 uses a 50-round or 100-round helical magazine which is mounted parallel to the barrel. To get a sense of how the helical magazine appears, and how it is mounted, one can imagine a machine pistol with a bulky optical scope mounted on the picitainy rails of the top of the weapon. 1990s-2000s During the 1990s, the Russian Stechnin APS once again was put into service, as a weapon for VIP bodyguards and for anti-terrorist hostage rescue teams that needed the capability for full automatic fire in emergencies. In the 1990s and 2000s the personal defense weapon, a compact submachine gun-like firearm which can fire armor-piercing, higher-powered ammunition began to replace the machine pistol as a self-defence sidearm for artillery crews, tank crews, and helicopter pilots (for more details, see the section below on military tactics). Comparison with submachine gun The dividing line between machine pistols and compact submachine guns is difficult to draw. While the term submachine gun usually refers to an automatic firearm larger than a pistol, several weapons are classed in both categories. The 1960s CZ-Scorpion, a Czechoslovakian 7.65 mm weapon, for example, is often labeled a submachine gun. However, with its small magazine, it is small enough to be carried in a pistol holster, which suggests that it could be classified as a machine pistol. In the 1980s, weapons such as the MAC-10 and the compact versions of the Uzi series have been placed in both classes. The popularity of submachine guns in recent years has led many weapons previously described as machine pistols to be advertised to as submachine guns, such as the Brugger & Thomet MP9 (formerly known as the Steyr TMP). The Steyr TMP (Tactical Machine Pistol) is a 9 mm blowback-operated, rotating-barrel weapon that is 282 mm long and that can fire 800-900 rounds per minute; despite its small size and lack of a stock, and the fact that it is called a "Tactical Machine Pistol", it is often classed as a compact submachine gun. Hogg, Ian V., and John S. Weeks. Military Small Arms of the 20th Century, 7th Edition. Iola, WI: Krause, 2000, p. 99. Likewise, the German Heckler & Koch MP5K (a weapon small enough to be concealed on one's person or in a briefcase), is also classed as a compact submachine gun. Hogg and Weeks, op. cit., pp. 122–123. A machine pistol is typically based on a semi-automatic pistol design. While most machine pistols are designed to be fired with one hand, their light weight, small size, and extremely rapid rates of fire make them difficult to control. To improve accuracy, some machine pistols are fitted with a shoulder stock. Some, such as the Heckler & Koch VP70, will only fire single rounds unless the stock is attached, because there is a safety mechanism incorporated into the stock. The Beretta 93R offers an optional forward handgrip, which is another way of increasing weapon controllability in full automatic mode. In the US, adding a stock or forward handgrip to a pistol is illegal under the US National Firearms Act, as pistols must be designed to be fired with one hand. Tactics Military As an offensive weapon, the machine pistol has limited uses, because it fires pistol ammunition and has a short barrel, which means that it is both inaccurate and lacks power in open-country fighting at a several-hundred meter range. When the machine pistol was first introduced during the last year of World War I, it was used in trench warfare. In World War II, machine pistols were carried by platoon leaders, artillery crews, and tank crews. In the decades after World War II, machine pistols were used in close quarter combat where an assault rifle would be too unwieldy, such as in urban house-to-house fighting or in tunnels. While training doctrines for machine pistols vary between armies, in general, soldiers are instructed to use the weapon for short bursts, rather than for an uninterrupted period of automatic fire, because the weapon easily gets out of control in sustained firing, which means that many of the rounds may be off target. As well, given the high rate of fire of machine pistols, sustained firing wastes ammunition. In the 1990s and 2000s, as body armor became increasingly common on battlefields, the machine pistol became less useful in a military setting, because its low-powered pistol ammunition is not able to penetrate crematic-plated kevlar military vests. As a result, armies began to issue a new weapon to artillery crews and tank crews: the personal defense weapon, a compact submachine gun-like firearm which incorporates some of the advantages of a carbine, in that it can fire armor-piercing, higher-powered ammunition. Unlike the machine pistol, which is a relative of the semi-automatic pistol, the PDW is more like a scaled-down assault rifle. One of the advantages of using machine pistols is that they use the same ammunition that is used in standard-issue pistols. This means that a soldier who is equipped with a machine pistol as his or her primary weapon and a pistol as a backup defense weapon can use the same ammunition. This means that a soldier only has to carry one type of ammunition. In contrast, PDWs usually use specialized or proprietary ammunition in unusual calibres. Military machine pistols usually use parabellum cartridges are fully jacketed in accordance with the Hague convention. Fully jacketed cartridges are less likely to become deformed and flattened on impact, which means that the damage that they do to the body is moderated. Some special forces use specialty ammunition in machine pistols or PDWs, such as loading several tracer rounds per magazine to aid in night-time shooting. Law enforcement Government security service bodyguards for VIPs security are sometimes issued machine pistols rather than submachine guns for tactical and media considerations. Whereas a team of bodyguards carrying larger submachine guns may indicate to would-be aggressors that the VIP is an important politician, a machine pistol such as the Glock 18 can be concealed in a standard holster. Since even the unholstered weapon is indistinguishable to most observers from a standard pistol, this may lessen attention from media or potential attackers as to the security measures that are in place. When bodyguards are carrying a machine pistol in a concealed holster, they have to choose a weapon that does not have parts that might snag when the weapon is being withdrawn from the holster. For similar reasons, a bodyguard with a holster-carried, concealed weapon is typically not able to mount accessories onto the weapon, such as optical sights or forward handgrips. The exception is cases in which a bodyguard conceals the weapon in a briefcase. Law enforcement agencies use machine pistols for hostage rescues and for breaching gang compounds because the weapons offer a very high rate of fire in a small weapon, which can be maneuvered inside houses and stairwells, places where an assault carbine such as the M-16 would be unwieldy. Another reason that law enforcement agencies use machine pistols in hostage rescue situations is that the low-powered pistol ammunition rapidly loses its energy, which means that the bullets are less likely to go through walls and injure innocent parties. Air marshals who provide security on private jet airplanes who carry machine pistols may use speciality ammunition such as frangible bullets, which break apart when upon impact. Frangible bullets such as the Glaser Safety Slug are designed to ricochet less and be less likely to puncture the hull of an aircraft, which lessens the danger of decompression if the officer has to fire on an attacker. When law enforcement agencies are using machine pistols in non-concealed settings, this makes it feasible to add accessories such as optical sights, laser sights, flashlights, forward handgrips, rear stocks, or sound suppressors. Many 2000s-era machine pistols have mounting rails to facilitate the addition of accessories. Agencies sometimes use sound suppressors for maneuvers in which it is anticipated that shots may be fired indoors, because the sound pressure from indoor firing can be deafening. Some machine pistols offer the option of using translucent plastic magazines which allows the officer to quickly verify the level of ammunition left in the magazine. Another option that law enforcement officers may use on occasion is high-capacity magazines such as single or double drum magazines. Different law enforcement agencies in different countries have different regulations regarding how machine pistols are loaded and carried. Depending on the type of machine pistol, some agencies train their officers to carry the weapon with a round in the chamber, the weapon cocked and the safety on. Other agencies may prefer that officers carry the weapon without a round in the chamber. While this makes the weapon safer to carry and reduces the likelihood of an accidental discharge, it also means that there will be a longer delay before the officer can fire the weapon. Agencies also have different training doctrines regarding how the weapon is drawn and brought into position onto the target. Variants include withdrawing the weapon while pointing it downwards, then bringing it up towards the target; the same method but pointing the weapon upwards, and bringing it down towards the target; and the cross-body draw. The first method may be safer, in that if there are any unintended discharges, they will go into the ground. With a machine pistol that can empty its 20-round magazine in half a second, bringing the weapon into play by moving it down onto the target or using a cross body draw could result in unintended injuries if the weapon accidentally discharges. Criminal use As early as the 1930s, criminals have used machine pistols. The US bank robber John Dillinger had a custom-modified Colt M1911A1 that fired in a fully automatic fashion. The weapon had an extended barrel, a Thompson submachine gun-style foregrip, and an extended magazine. In the decades after the 1980s, criminals tended to use the cheaper types of machine pistols, such as the MAC-10 or the Tec-9. The Tec-9 (known as the AB-10 after 1994) is a cheaply-made, inaccurate weapon which "bears the dubious distinction of being one of the most widely used "criminal" guns in USA". The Tec-9 "was used in several mass murder cases...[,]street fights and other violent crimes." http://world.guns.ru/handguns/hg136-e.htm The MAC-10 is "...known on the streets as 'spray and pray' because of its popularity in drive by shootings and its ability to fire up to 1000 rounds of ammunition every minute"http://74.125.95.132/search?q=cache:FnlEjZYKd-kJ:www.southwarkweekender.co.uk/00,news,7289,440,00.htm; gun websites claim that the nickname is also a reference to the weapon's inaccuracy. Canada The Canadian Department of Justice states that "... many of the preferred dealer weapons (for example, the Mac 11 and Tech 9) are illegal in Canada, [so] the only way they can become available to dealers is through smuggling. http://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/pi/rs/rep-rap/1998/wd98_10-dt98_10/p2b.html In September 1997,The Gazette from Montreal reported that the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) had arrested a Canadian gang operating a gun-running ring in Ontario and Quebec. The ring sold high-calibre machine guns, machine pistols, handguns, explosives (500 pounds of C-4 plastic explosive) and thousands of rounds of ammunition to biker gangs and other criminals. http://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/pi/rs/rep-rap/1998/wd98_10-dt98_10/p2b.html A Canadian undercover officer interviewed on the issue of guns and the illegal drug trade "... noted that the weaponry in the trade is definitely more powerful than in previous years", with an increasing number of criminals using machine pistols and submachine guns. He stated that within the drug trade firearms are used as status symbols, a means of protection and ...for executions ...[and] to intimidate potential informants and to enforce debt repayment". http://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/pi/rs/rep-rap/1998/wd98_10-dt98_10/p2b.html Criticism Machine pistols have long been criticized for their inaccuracy. The inaccuracy of most machine pistols occurs because it is hard to control a fully automatic weapon that has such a low weight and in many cases, lacks a proper shoulder stock. As a result, in the hands of all but the most expert shooters, machine pistols being fired on full automatic tend to rise up during firing. As well, machine pistols often have very short barrels, which means that the bullets are not accurate beyond a hundred meters or so. One solution is to design the weapon so that it can fire three round bursts, rather than uninterrupted automatic fire. Another solution is to steady the weapon in some fashion, either by outfitting it with a shoulder stock, using a shoulder strap to pull down on the front of the barrel, or resting the weapon against a hard surface which can be used as a bracing point. Gunsite, a US firearms training facility, decided against teaching machine pistol firing when it was founded in 1976. Facility experts believed that it is "a slob's weapon, useful only by half-trained or poorly motivated troops"; they claimed that the machine pistol "hits no harder than a pistol and is no more portable than a rifle." Nevertheless, even the critics from Gunsite concede that the machine pistol is useful for a few situations, such as boarding an enemy boat in low light or when repelling boarders in a naval situation. Walt Rauch notes that "...despite the 50 to 70 years of bad press that has accrued to the concept of shooting a hand-held machine pistol", in which critics content that the weapon will "spray bullets indiscriminately all over the area", he believes that the 2000s-era models such as the Glock 18 are controllable and accurate in full-auto shooting. http://remtek.com/arms/glock/model/9/18/ Fictional usage Machine pistols of various types have appeared in movies in genres ranging from war movies and crime thrillers to science fiction films. The vintage Mauser C96 was depicted in historical dramas such as Lawrence of Arabia, about the enigmatic WW I-era British army lieutenant-colonel T.E. Lawrence and Michael Collins, about the WWI-era IRA leader of the same name. It was also depicted in action-adventure films such as The Mummy (set during the 1920s) and Raiders of the Lost Ark (set during the 1930s), and in several sci-fi movies, including the dystopian Mad Max and Luc Besson's The Fifth Element. The Stechkin APS machine pistol is depicted in Face/Off and in the James Bond action-spy film Die Another Day. The Beretta 93R machine pistol has been depicted in US films such as Ronin, RoboCop and the 2000s-era Sin City, and in French action films such as the 1980s-era Nikita and the 2000s-era District B13. In some films, the pistol is harder to recognize, because it is customized with compensators and additional accessories. The Glock 18 machine pistol has been depicted in sci-fi action films such as The Matrix Reloaded (with standard and high-capacity magazines) and Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines and in action thrillers such as Clear and Present Danger and Transporter 2 . The Glock 18 was also used by the Joker in The Dark Knight. In the action-horror film Underworld, a vampire played by Kate Beckinsale wielded two Beretta M93R machine pistols equipped with the large 25-round magazine. Underworld and Underworld: Evolution also depicted a variety of other machine pistols (or semi-automatic pistols modified to fire in fully automatic mode), including the Walther P99. List of models Beretta 93R Mauser C96 Glock 18 Heckler & Koch VP70 Heckler & Koch MP5K Lercker APS Stechkin OTs-33 Pernach Tuma MTE 224 VA MAC-10 MAC-11 ST Kinetics CPW Steyr TMP Skorpion vz. 61 Tec 9 Uzi See also List of submachine guns Firearm action Personal defense weapon References Further reading Timothy J. Mullin. The Fighting Submachine Gun, Machine Pistol, and Shotgun. Boulder: Paladin Press, 1999. External links Personal Defense Weapons: Machine Pistols Article on Glock 18, a fully automatic pistol | Machine_pistol |@lemmatized fully:16 automatic:39 steyr:4 use:50 sidearm:3 austro:1 hungarian:1 army:9 machine:84 pistol:116 handgun:3 style:2 magazine:21 fed:1 self:2 load:3 firearm:12 capable:3 burst:13 fire:59 normally:1 chamber:3 cartridge:6 term:5 literal:1 translation:1 maschinenpistole:1 german:8 hand:7 hold:3 weapon:66 divide:2 line:2 compact:10 submachine:22 gun:37 hard:6 draw:5 usually:5 refer:4 large:4 scale:1 full:8 size:3 build:2 semi:7 design:11 law:9 enforcement:9 context:1 tactical:4 police:6 unit:5 swat:1 team:4 hostage:4 rescue:4 operate:3 inside:2 building:2 cramp:1 space:1 need:5 small:13 concealable:1 high:10 rate:11 well:3 bodyguard:7 government:2 agency:9 sometimes:3 carry:13 concealed:4 protect:1 risk:1 vip:5 criminal:8 gang:4 member:1 narcotic:1 trafficker:1 also:15 typically:4 cheap:2 mac:13 tec:5 illegally:1 convert:2 fashion:3 military:11 setting:4 country:3 issue:6 personal:6 defense:7 sidearms:1 paratrooper:1 artillery:8 crew:12 helicopter:2 tank:5 close:4 quarter:3 combat:2 cqc:1 settings:1 e:3 g:1 special:5 force:4 attack:1 tunnel:2 supplant:1 like:8 armor:4 pierce:1 round:33 instead:3 ammunition:17 history:1 variant:4 long:7 barrelled:1 luger:3 drum:2 detachable:2 stock:17 world:6 war:7 last:2 year:6 conflict:1 develop:6 bergman:1 mp:1 rifle:7 form:1 include:5 wooden:3 even:3 though:2 look:1 introduce:7 idea:1 point:4 always:1 heavy:4 mount:8 tripod:1 wheel:1 maxim:1 vickers:1 fearsome:1 defensive:1 emplacement:1 move:3 new:4 position:4 advance:1 area:2 fall:1 back:2 recognize:3 break:2 stalemate:1 trench:2 warfare:2 light:5 would:5 enable:1 individual:1 soldier:6 experiment:1 various:2 type:6 reihenfeuerpistolen:1 literally:2 row:1 barrel:13 manufacture:3 similar:2 accuracy:2 defend:1 newly:1 parabellum:2 low:5 recoil:1 without:2 sacrifice:1 penetration:1 stop:1 power:8 although:1 armour:1 piercing:3 bullet:6 suffice:1 time:2 chinese:1 national:2 revolutionary:1 gas:1 mask:1 mauser:5 fit:4 unlike:3 modify:3 mode:7 first:7 produce:2 one:9 commercially:1 successful:1 practical:1 spanish:1 gunmakers:1 late:3 select:2 copy:1 early:3 engineer:1 model:8 schnellfeuer:1 selector:6 mechanism:3 allow:5 minute:8 due:1 could:5 short:4 russian:6 stechkin:9 aps:9 pistolthe:1 selective:5 common:2 era:8 makarov:1 simple:1 unlocked:1 blow:1 double:4 action:10 trigger:4 addition:2 safety:4 lever:3 shoulder:6 otherwise:2 quickly:2 become:5 uncontrollable:2 intend:1 practice:1 earn:1 strong:1 following:1 rank:1 political:1 many:6 kgb:1 gru:1 operative:1 favor:1 capacity:4 somewhat:1 cumbersome:1 alternative:1 modest:1 perform:1 pm:1 slowly:1 replace:3 yarygin:1 pya:1 pdw:2 ak:1 assault:4 widely:2 since:2 difficult:3 control:7 manufacturer:1 intermittent:1 set:3 three:10 shot:3 stream:1 italian:1 beretta:7 company:1 meant:1 offer:4 extra:1 firepower:1 package:1 suit:1 purpose:1 protection:2 maneuver:3 room:2 search:2 switch:4 foldable:1 foregrip:3 pull:3 cyclic:2 per:7 designer:1 limit:2 fix:1 easily:2 another:6 system:1 heckler:7 koch:7 attach:3 mm:7 polymer:2 frame:2 arm:5 firm:2 gmbh:1 vp:1 designation:2 stand:1 volkspistole:1 people:1 folk:1 edition:2 predate:1 glock:15 incorporate:3 rpm:1 spring:1 loaded:1 striker:1 conventional:1 firing:4 pin:1 relatively:1 despite:3 potential:3 never:1 adopt:1 bundeswehr:1 hk:1 know:4 ingram:3 call:3 blowback:2 grip:2 acp:2 gordon:1 armament:1 corporation:1 georgia:1 ops:1 clandestine:2 application:1 vietnam:1 brazilian:1 anti:2 terrorist:3 silencer:1 threaded:1 source:1 http:7 www:5 cheaperthandirt:1 com:2 mediapages:1 articledetail:1 aspx:1 mediaid:1 make:7 comeback:1 spetsnaz:1 afghanistan:2 suppressor:3 equipped:1 mission:1 enemy:2 territory:1 soviet:1 vent:3 cut:1 run:2 across:1 top:3 act:2 compensator:1 thus:1 counteract:1 tendency:1 rise:3 request:1 austrian:1 counter:2 eko:1 cobra:1 available:4 civilian:1 market:1 class:5 instal:1 left:1 side:1 slide:1 rear:2 serrate:1 portion:1 bottom:1 continuous:1 single:3 extended:3 approximately:1 min:1 micro:5 uzi:11 scaled:2 version:4 inch:2 extend:1 fold:1 length:1 muzzle:1 velocity:1 introduction:1 israeli:2 isayeret:1 u:8 secret:1 service:3 terror:1 yamam:1 para:1 upon:2 base:2 israel:1 uziel:1 gal:1 open:2 bolt:3 additional:2 tungsten:1 weight:3 slow:1 lightweight:1 modern:1 imi:1 mini:1 rare:1 longer:2 port:1 elongated:1 part:2 horizontal:1 rail:3 front:2 guard:1 spare:1 good:1 still:1 cz:2 personnel:1 marine:1 course:1 unusually:1 name:2 calico:1 vertical:1 box:1 helical:2 parallel:1 get:2 sense:1 appear:2 imagine:1 bulky:1 optical:3 scope:1 picitainy:1 stechnin:1 put:1 capability:1 emergency:1 begin:2 defence:1 pilot:1 detail:1 see:2 section:1 tactic:2 comparison:1 several:5 category:1 scorpion:1 czechoslovakian:1 example:2 often:3 label:1 however:1 enough:2 holster:5 suggest:1 classify:1 series:1 place:3 popularity:2 recent:1 lead:1 previously:1 describe:1 advertise:1 brugger:1 thomet:1 formerly:1 tmp:3 rotate:1 lack:3 fact:1 hogg:2 ian:1 v:1 john:2 week:2 century:1 iola:1 wi:1 krause:1 p:1 likewise:1 conceal:4 person:1 briefcase:2 op:1 cit:1 pp:1 extremely:1 rapid:1 improve:1 unless:1 optional:1 forward:4 handgrip:4 way:2 increase:2 controllability:1 add:2 illegal:3 must:1 offensive:1 us:1 mean:9 inaccurate:2 fight:3 hundred:2 meter:2 range:2 ii:2 platoon:1 leader:2 decade:2 unwieldy:2 urban:1 house:3 fighting:1 train:4 doctrine:2 vary:1 general:1 instruct:1 rather:3 uninterrupted:2 period:1 sustained:1 may:8 target:5 give:1 sustain:1 waste:1 body:4 increasingly:1 battlefield:1 less:5 useful:3 able:2 penetrate:1 crematic:1 plat:1 kevlar:1 vest:1 result:3 advantage:2 carbine:2 relative:1 standard:4 equip:2 primary:1 backup:1 contrast:1 pdws:2 specialized:1 proprietary:1 unusual:1 calibre:2 jacket:1 accordance:1 hague:1 convention:1 jacketed:1 likely:3 deformed:1 flatten:1 impact:2 damage:1 moderate:1 specialty:1 tracer:1 aid:1 night:1 shoot:2 security:4 pistols:1 medium:2 consideration:1 whereas:1 indicate:1 aggressor:1 important:1 politician:1 unholstered:1 indistinguishable:1 observer:1 lessen:2 attention:1 attacker:2 measure:1 choose:1 might:1 snag:1 withdraw:2 reason:2 accessory:4 onto:3 sight:3 exception:1 case:3 breach:1 compound:1 stairwell:1 situation:3 rapidly:1 lose:2 energy:1 go:2 wall:1 injure:1 innocent:1 party:1 air:1 marshal:1 provide:1 private:1 jet:1 airplane:1 speciality:1 frangible:2 apart:1 glaser:1 slug:1 ricochet:1 puncture:1 hull:1 aircraft:1 danger:2 decompression:1 officer:7 non:1 feasible:1 laser:1 flashlight:1 sound:3 facilitate:1 anticipate:1 indoors:1 pressure:1 indoor:1 deafen:1 option:2 translucent:1 plastic:2 verify:1 level:1 leave:1 occasion:1 different:4 regulation:1 regard:2 depend:1 cock:1 prefer:1 safer:1 reduce:1 likelihood:1 accidental:1 discharge:3 delay:1 training:1 bring:4 downwards:1 towards:2 method:2 upwards:1 cross:2 safe:1 unintended:2 ground:1 empty:1 half:2 second:1 play:2 injury:1 accidentally:1 bank:1 robber:1 dillinger:1 custom:1 colt:1 thompson:1 tend:2 ab:1 cheaply:1 bear:1 dubious:1 distinction:1 usa:1 mass:1 murder:1 street:2 violent:1 crime:2 ru:1 htm:2 spray:2 pray:1 drive:1 shooting:2 ability:1 every:1 q:1 cache:1 fnlejzykd:1 kj:1 southwarkweekender:1 co:1 uk:1 news:1 website:1 claim:2 nickname:1 reference:2 inaccuracy:3 canada:2 canadian:4 department:1 justice:4 state:2 preferred:1 dealer:2 tech:1 smuggle:1 gc:3 ca:3 eng:3 pi:3 r:3 rep:3 rap:3 html:3 september:1 gazette:1 montreal:1 report:1 royal:1 rcmp:1 arrest:1 ring:2 ontario:1 quebec:1 sell:1 explosive:2 pound:1 c:1 thousand:1 biker:1 undercover:1 interview:1 drug:2 trade:3 note:2 weaponry:1 definitely:1 powerful:1 previous:1 number:1 within:1 status:1 symbol:1 execution:1 intimidate:1 informant:1 enforce:1 debt:1 repayment:1 criticism:1 criticize:1 occur:1 proper:1 expert:2 shooter:1 accurate:2 beyond:1 solution:2 steady:1 either:1 outfit:1 strap:1 rest:1 surface:1 bracing:1 gunsite:2 firearms:1 facility:2 decide:1 teach:1 found:1 believe:2 slob:1 poorly:1 motivated:1 troop:1 hit:1 portable:1 nevertheless:1 critic:2 concede:1 board:1 boat:1 repel:1 boarder:1 naval:1 walt:1 rauch:1 bad:1 press:2 accrue:1 concept:1 held:1 content:1 indiscriminately:1 controllable:1 auto:1 remtek:1 fictional:1 usage:1 movie:3 genre:1 thriller:2 science:1 fiction:1 film:8 vintage:1 depict:6 historical:1 drama:1 lawrence:2 arabia:1 enigmatic:1 ww:1 british:1 lieutenant:1 colonel:1 michael:1 collins:1 wwi:1 ira:1 adventure:1 mummy:1 raider:1 ark:1 sci:2 fi:2 dystopian:1 mad:1 max:1 luc:1 besson:1 fifth:1 element:1 face:1 james:1 bond:1 spy:1 die:1 day:1 ronin:1 robocop:1 sin:1 city:1 french:1 nikita:1 district:1 customize:1 compensators:1 matrix:1 reload:1 terminator:1 clear:1 present:1 transporter:1 joker:1 dark:1 knight:1 horror:1 underworld:3 vampire:1 kate:1 beckinsale:1 wield:1 two:1 evolution:1 variety:1 walther:1 list:2 lercker:1 ots:1 pernach:1 tuma:1 mte:1 va:1 st:1 kinetics:1 cpw:1 skorpion:1 vz:1 far:1 read:1 timothy:1 j:1 mullin:1 shotgun:1 boulder:1 paladin:1 external:1 link:1 article:1 |@bigram austro_hungarian:1 machine_pistol:77 literal_translation:1 compact_submachine:7 submachine_gun:22 automatic_firearm:2 semi_automatic:7 automatic_pistol:6 carry_concealed:1 pistol_ammunition:5 trench_warfare:2 commercially_successful:1 stechkin_aps:6 assault_rifle:3 selector_switch:4 heckler_koch:7 spring_loaded:1 firing_pin:1 http_www:4 micro_uzi:5 muzzle_velocity:1 armor_piercing:2 op_cit:1 enforcement_agency:4 accidental_discharge:1 thompson_submachine:1 gc_ca:3 police_rcmp:1 ontario_quebec:1 debt_repayment:1 science_fiction:1 lieutenant_colonel:1 sci_fi:2 matrix_reload:1 external_link:1 |
1,679 | Knapsack_problem | Example of a one-dimensional (constraint) knapsack problem: which boxes should be chosen to maximize the amount of money while still keeping the overall weight under or equal to 15 kg? A multi dimensional problem could consider the density or dimensions of the boxes, the latter a typical packing problem. (Solution: if any number of each box is available, then three yellow boxes and three grey boxes; if only the shown boxes are available, then all but the green box.) The knapsack problem or rucksack problem is a problem in combinatorial optimization: Given a set of items, each with a weight and a value, determine the number of each item to include in a collection so that the total weight is less than a given limit and the total value is as large as possible. It derives its name from the problem faced by someone who is constrained by a fixed-size knapsack and must fill it with the most useful items. The problem often arises in resource allocation with financial constraints. A similar problem also appears in combinatorics, complexity theory, cryptography and applied mathematics. The decision problem form of the knapsack problem is the question "can a value of at least V be achieved without exceeding the weight W?" Definition In the following, we have n kinds of items, 1 through n. Each kind of item j has a value pj and a weight wj. We usually assume that all values and weights are nonnegative. The maximum weight that we can carry in the bag is W. The most common formulation of the problem is the 0-1 knapsack problem, which restricts the number xj of copies of each kind of item to zero or one. Mathematically the 0-1-knapsack problem can be formulated as: maximize subject to The bounded knapsack problem restricts the number xj of copies of each kind of item to a maximum integer value bj. Mathematically the bounded knapsack problem can be formulated as: maximize subject to The unbounded knapsack problem places no upper bound on the number of copies of each kind item. Of particular interest is the special case of the problem with these properties: it is a decision problem, it is a 0-1 problem, for each kind of item, the weight equals the value: wj = pj. Notice that in this special case, the problem is equivalent to this: given a set of nonnegative integers, does any subset of it add up to exactly W? Or, if negative weights are allowed and W is chosen to be zero, the problem is: given a set of integers, does any subset add up to exactly 0? This special case is called the subset sum problem. In the field of cryptography the term knapsack problem is often used to refer specifically to the subset sum problem. If multiple knapsacks are allowed, the problem is better thought of as the bin packing problem. Computational complexity The knapsack problems are often solved using dynamic programming, though no polynomial-time algorithm is known. Both the knapsack problem(s) and the subset sum problem are NP-hard, and this has led to attempts to use subset sum as the basis for public key cryptography systems, such as Merkle-Hellman. These attempts typically used some group other than the integers. Merkle-Hellman and several similar algorithms were later broken, because the particular subset sum problems they produced were in fact solvable by polynomial-time algorithms. The decision version of the knapsack problem described above ("can a value of at least V be achieved without exceeding the weight W?") is NP-complete. The subset sum version of the knapsack problem is commonly known as one of Karp's 21 NP-complete problems. The knapsack problem with each type of item j having a distinct value per unit of weight (vj = pj/wj) is considered one of the easiest NP-complete problems. Indeed empirical complexity is of the order of O((log n)2) and very large problems can be solved very quickly, e.g. in 2003 the average time required to solve instances with n = 10,000 was below 14 milliseconds using commodity personal computers Pisinger, D. 2003. Where are the hard knapsack problems? Technical Report 2003/08, Department of Computer Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark. . However in the degenerate case of multiple items sharing the same value vj it becomes much more difficult with the extreme case where vj = constant being the subset sum problem with a complexity of O(2N/2N). Dynamic programming solution Unbounded knapsack problem If all weights (w1, ..., wn and W) are nonnegative integers, the knapsack problem can be solved in pseudo-polynomial time using dynamic programming. The following describes a dynamic programming solution for the unbounded knapsack problem. To simplify things, assume all weights are strictly positive (wj > 0). We wish to maximize total value subject to the constraint that total weight is less than or equal to W. Then for each Y ≤ W, define A(Y) to be the maximum value that can be attained with total weight less than or equal to Y. A(W) then is the solution to the problem. Observe that A(Y) has the following properties: A(0) = 0 (the sum of zero items, i.e., the summation of the empty set) A(Y) = max { pj + A(Y − wj) | wj ≤ Y }. Here the maximum of the empty set is taken to be zero. Tabulating the results from A(0) up through A(W) gives the solution. Since the calculation of each A(Y) involves examining n items, and there are W values of A(Y) to calculate, the running time of the dynamic programming solution is O(nW). Dividing w1, ..., wn, W by their greatest common divisor is an obvious way to improve the running time. The O(nW) complexity does not contradict the fact that the knapsack problem is NP-complete, since W, unlike n, is not polynomial in the length of the input to the problem. The length of the input to the problem is proportional to the number, log W, of bits in W, not to W itself. An improved version of the dynamic programming algorithm named EDUK is presented in Andonov,R., Poirriez,V.,Rajopadhye, S. 2000 . Unbounded Knapsack Problem : dynamic programming revisited. European Journal of Operational Research Volume 123, Issue 2, 1 June 2000, Pages 394-407. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.disopt.2008.09.004 . It uses a sparse representation of the search space, introduces a new dominance relation between items and takes advantage of the periodicity property of the problem which states that beyond a certain capacity, the only item that contributes is the best one (the one with the best profit/weight ratio), that property was first described by Gilmore and Gomory Gilmore,P.C. and Gomory, R.E. The theory and computation of Knapsack Functions. Operations Research 14:1045-1075, 1966. 0-1 knapsack problem A similar dynamic programming solution for the 0-1 knapsack problem also runs in pseudo-polynomial time. As above, assume w1, ..., wn, W are strictly positive integers. Define A(j, Y) to be the maximum value that can be attained with weight less than or equal to Y using items up to j. We can define A(j,Y) recursively as follows: A(0, Y) = 0 A(j, 0) = 0 A(j, Y) = A(j − 1, Y) if wj > Y A(j, Y) = max { A(j − 1, Y), pj + A(j − 1, Y − wj) } if wj ≤ Y. The solution can then be found by calculating A(n, W). To do this efficiently we can use a table to store previous computations. This solution will therefore run in O(nW) time and O(nW) space, though with some slight modifications we can reduce the space complexity to O(W). Greedy approximation algorithm George Dantzig proposed (1957) a greedy approximation algorithm to solve the unbounded knapsack problem. His version sorts the items in decreasing order of value per unit of weight, pj/wj. It then proceeds to insert them into the sack, starting with as many copies as possible of the first kind of item until there is no longer space in the sack for more. Provided that there is an unlimited supply of each kind of item, if A is the maximum value of items that fit into the sack, then the greedy algorithm is guaranteed to achieve at least a value of A/2. However, for the bounded problem, where the supply of each kind of item is limited, the algorithm may be very much further from optimal. Hybrid algorithm for the Unbounded Knapsack Problem Poirriez et al. proposed (2008) Poirriez V., Yanev N., Andonov R. A Hybrid Algorithm for the Unbounded Knapsack Problem. Discrete Optimization Volume 6, Issue 1, February 2009, Pages 110-124 Elsevier an hybrid algorithm to solve the unbounded knapsack problem. Their algorithm takes advantage of all the known properties of the problem (at this date). Namely, it uses a sparse dynamic programming algorithm like EDUK with the known dominance relations between items, and hybrid it with bounds computation within a Branch and bound scheme. A new upper bound is brought to the fore and a sub-family of instances is distinguished. The so called SAW-UKP family includes the strong correlated instances. See also Branch and bound - a method applicable to n-dimensional knapsack problems List of knapsack problems Packing problem Cutting stock problem References Further reading A6: MP9, pg.247. External links Lecture slides on the knapsack problem PYAsUKP: Yet Another solver for the Unbounded Knapsack Problem, with code, benchmarks and downloadable copies of some papers. Home page of David Pisinger with downloadable copies of some papers on the publication list (including "Where are the hard knapsack problems?") Knapsack Problem solutions in many languages at Rosetta Code Dynamic Programming algorithm to 0/1 Knapsack problem 0-1 Knapsack Problem in Python | Knapsack_problem |@lemmatized example:1 one:6 dimensional:3 constraint:3 knapsack:37 problem:66 box:7 choose:2 maximize:4 amount:1 money:1 still:1 keep:1 overall:1 weight:18 equal:5 kg:1 multi:1 could:1 consider:2 density:1 dimension:1 latter:1 typical:1 packing:2 solution:10 number:6 available:2 three:2 yellow:1 grey:1 show:1 green:1 rucksack:1 combinatorial:1 optimization:2 give:5 set:5 item:22 value:17 determine:1 include:3 collection:1 total:5 less:4 limit:2 large:2 possible:2 derive:1 name:2 face:1 someone:1 constrain:1 fixed:1 size:1 must:1 fill:1 useful:1 often:3 arise:1 resource:1 allocation:1 financial:1 similar:3 also:3 appear:1 combinatorics:1 complexity:6 theory:2 cryptography:3 applied:1 mathematics:1 decision:3 form:1 question:1 least:3 v:4 achieve:3 without:2 exceed:2 w:19 definition:1 following:3 n:9 kind:9 j:12 pj:6 wj:10 usually:1 assume:3 nonnegative:3 maximum:6 carry:1 bag:1 common:2 formulation:1 restrict:2 xj:2 copy:6 zero:4 mathematically:2 formulate:2 subject:3 bound:6 integer:6 bj:1 bounded:2 unbounded:9 place:1 upper:2 particular:2 interest:1 special:3 case:5 property:5 notice:1 equivalent:1 subset:9 add:2 exactly:2 negative:1 allow:2 call:2 sum:8 field:1 term:1 use:10 refer:1 specifically:1 multiple:2 well:1 thought:1 bin:1 computational:1 solve:6 dynamic:10 programming:8 though:2 polynomial:5 time:8 algorithm:14 know:4 np:5 hard:3 lead:1 attempt:2 basis:1 public:1 key:1 system:1 merkle:2 hellman:2 typically:1 group:1 several:1 later:1 break:1 produce:1 fact:2 solvable:1 version:4 describe:3 complete:4 commonly:1 karp:1 type:1 distinct:1 per:2 unit:2 vj:3 easy:1 indeed:1 empirical:1 order:2 log:2 quickly:1 e:3 g:1 average:1 require:1 instance:3 millisecond:1 commodity:1 personal:1 computer:2 pisinger:2 technical:1 report:1 department:1 science:1 university:1 copenhagen:2 denmark:1 however:2 degenerate:1 share:1 become:1 much:2 difficult:1 extreme:1 constant:1 program:2 wn:3 pseudo:2 simplify:1 thing:1 strictly:2 positive:2 wish:1 define:3 attain:2 observe:1 summation:1 empty:2 max:2 take:3 tabulate:1 result:1 since:2 calculation:1 involve:1 examine:1 calculate:2 running:2 nw:4 divide:1 great:1 divisor:1 obvious:1 way:1 improve:1 contradict:1 unlike:1 length:2 input:2 proportional:1 bit:1 improved:1 eduk:2 present:1 andonov:2 r:3 poirriez:3 rajopadhye:1 revisit:1 european:1 journal:1 operational:1 research:2 volume:2 issue:2 june:1 page:3 http:1 dx:1 doi:1 org:1 disopt:1 sparse:2 representation:1 search:1 space:4 introduce:1 new:2 dominance:2 relation:2 advantage:2 periodicity:1 state:1 beyond:1 certain:1 capacity:1 contribute:1 best:2 profit:1 ratio:1 first:2 gilmore:2 gomory:2 p:1 c:1 computation:3 function:1 operation:1 run:2 recursively:1 follow:1 find:1 efficiently:1 table:1 store:1 previous:1 therefore:1 slight:1 modification:1 reduce:1 greedy:3 approximation:2 george:1 dantzig:1 propose:2 sort:1 decrease:1 proceed:1 insert:1 sack:3 start:1 many:2 longer:1 provide:1 unlimited:1 supply:2 fit:1 guarantee:1 may:1 far:2 optimal:1 hybrid:4 et:1 al:1 yanev:1 discrete:1 february:1 elsevier:1 date:1 namely:1 like:1 within:1 branch:2 scheme:1 bring:1 fore:1 sub:1 family:2 distinguish:1 saw:1 ukp:1 strong:1 correlated:1 see:1 method:1 applicable:1 list:2 pack:1 cut:1 stock:1 reference:1 read:1 pg:1 external:1 link:1 lecture:1 slide:1 pyasukp:1 yet:1 another:1 solver:1 code:2 benchmark:1 downloadable:2 paper:2 home:1 david:1 publication:1 language:1 rosetta:1 python:1 |@bigram knapsack_problem:34 combinatorial_optimization:1 applied_mathematics:1 unbounded_knapsack:9 nonnegative_integer:2 computational_complexity:1 solvable_polynomial:1 np_complete:4 copenhagen_copenhagen:1 copenhagen_denmark:1 common_divisor:1 dx_doi:1 george_dantzig:1 et_al:1 external_link:1 |
1,680 | Microvision | Microvision The Microvision was the very first hand-held game console using interchangeable cartridges. It was released by the Milton Bradley Company in November http://www.thepcmuseum.net/timeline.php . The Microvision was designed by Jay Smith, the engineer who would later design the Vectrex gaming console. The Microvision's combination of portability and a cartridge-based system led to moderate success, with Smith Engineering grossing $8 million in the first year of the system's release. The hand-held also appeared in the movie Friday the 13th Part 2. However, very few cartridges, a small screen, and a lack of support from established home video game companies led to its demise in . A Brief History of Handheld Video Games Production The first Microvision cartridges were made with both Intel 8021 and Texas Instruments TMS1100 processors. Due to purchasing issues, Milton Bradley switched to using TMS1100 processors exclusively. The TMS1100 was a more primitive device, but offered more memory and lower power consumption than the 8021. First-revision Microvisions needed two batteries due to the 8021's higher power consumption, but later units (designed for the TMS1100) only had one active battery holder. Even though the battery compartment was designed to allow the two 9-volt batteries to be inserted with proper polarity of positive and negative terminals, when a battery was forcefully improperly oriented, while the other battery was properly oriented, the two batteries would be shorted and they would overheat. The solution was to remove termials for one of the batteries to prevent this hazard. Due to the high cost of changing production molds, Milton Bradley did not eliminate the second battery compartment, but instead removed its terminals and called it the spare battery holder. Problems Microvision units and cartridges are now very rare. Those that are still in existence are susceptible to three main problems: "screen rot," ESD damage, and keypad destruction. Screen rot The manufacturing process used to create the Microvision's LCD was primitive by today's standards. Poor sealing and impurities introduced during manufacture has resulted in the condition known as screen rot. The liquid crystal spontaneously leaks and permanently darkens, resulting in a game unit that still plays but is unable to properly draw the screen. While extreme heat (such as resulting from leaving the unit in the sun) can instantly destroy the screen, there is nothing that can be done to prevent screen rot in most Microvisions. ESD damage A major design problem involves the fact that the microprocessor (which is inside the top of each cartridge) lacks ESD protection and is directly connected to the copper pins which normally connect the cartridge to the Microvision unit. If the user opens the protective sliding door that covers the pins, the processor can be exposed to any electric charge the user has built up. If the user has built up a substantial charge, the discharge can jump around the door's edge or pass through the door itself (dielectric breakdown). The low-voltage integrated circuit inside the cartridge is extremely ESD sensitive, and can be destroyed by an event of only a few dozen volts which cannot even be felt by the person, delivering a fatal shock to the game unit. This phenomenon was described in detail by John Elder Robison (a former Milton Bradley engineer) in his book Look Me in the Eye. Keypad destruction Instead of having buttons on a separate controller, the Microvision unit had a twelve-button keypad, with the switches buried under a thick layer of flexible plastic. To align the user's fingers with the hidden buttons, the cartridges had cutouts in their bottom (over the keypad). As different games required different button functions, the cutouts were covered with a thin printed piece of plastic, which identified the buttons' functions in that game. The problem with this design is that pressing on the buttons stretched the printed plastic, resulting in the thin material stretching and eventually tearing. Having fingernails exacerbated the condition. Technical specifications CPU: Intel 8021/TI TMS1100 (on cartridge) Screen type and resolution: 16 x 16 pixel LCD Register width: 4 bit (TMS1100), 8 bit (8021) Processor speed: 100 kHz RAM: 32 nybbles (16 8-bit bytes, integrated into CPU) ROM: 2K Cartridge ROM: 2K masked (integrated into CPU; each game's CPU was different) Video Display Processor: Custom (made by Hughes) Sound: Piezo beeper Input: Twelve button keypad, one paddle Power requirements: One 9 volt battery (TMS1100 processors), Two 9 volt batteries (Intel 8021 processors) Games Star Trek: Phaser Strike 1979 Block Buster Bowling Connect Four Mindbuster Pinball Star Trek: Phaser Strike (later just Phaser Strike) Vegas Slots 1980 Baseball Sea Duel 1981 Alien Raiders Cosmic Hunter 1982 Barrage (Not released - no known prototypes) Super Blockbuster (Released only in Europe) See also Mattel Auto Race - an early handheld developed prior to Microvision. External links Microvision Paper Model References A Brief History of Handheld Video Games by Donald Melanson, Engadget.com | Microvision |@lemmatized microvision:11 first:4 hand:2 held:2 game:11 console:2 use:3 interchangeable:1 cartridge:11 release:4 milton:4 bradley:4 company:2 november:1 http:1 www:1 thepcmuseum:1 net:1 timeline:1 php:1 design:6 jay:1 smith:2 engineer:2 would:3 later:3 vectrex:1 combination:1 portability:1 base:1 system:2 lead:2 moderate:1 success:1 engineering:1 gross:1 million:1 year:1 also:2 appear:1 movie:1 friday:1 part:1 however:1 small:1 screen:8 lack:2 support:1 establish:1 home:1 video:4 demise:1 brief:2 history:2 handheld:3 production:2 make:2 intel:3 texas:1 instrument:1 processor:7 due:3 purchase:1 issue:1 switch:2 exclusively:1 primitive:2 device:1 offer:1 memory:1 low:2 power:3 consumption:2 revision:1 microvisions:2 need:1 two:4 battery:12 high:2 unit:7 one:4 active:1 holder:2 even:2 though:1 compartment:2 allow:1 volt:4 insert:1 proper:1 polarity:1 positive:1 negative:1 terminal:2 forcefully:1 improperly:1 orient:2 properly:2 short:1 overheat:1 solution:1 remove:2 termials:1 prevent:2 hazard:1 cost:1 change:1 mold:1 eliminate:1 second:1 instead:2 call:1 spare:1 problem:4 rare:1 still:2 existence:1 susceptible:1 three:1 main:1 rot:4 esd:4 damage:2 keypad:5 destruction:2 manufacturing:1 process:1 create:1 lcd:2 today:1 standard:1 poor:1 sealing:1 impurity:1 introduce:1 manufacture:1 result:4 condition:2 know:1 liquid:1 crystal:1 spontaneously:1 leak:1 permanently:1 darkens:1 play:1 unable:1 draw:1 extreme:1 heat:1 leave:1 sun:1 instantly:1 destroy:2 nothing:1 major:1 involve:1 fact:1 microprocessor:1 inside:2 top:1 protection:1 directly:1 connect:3 copper:1 pin:2 normally:1 user:4 open:1 protective:1 sliding:1 door:3 cover:2 expose:1 electric:1 charge:2 build:2 substantial:1 discharge:1 jump:1 around:1 edge:1 pas:1 dielectric:1 breakdown:1 voltage:1 integrate:3 circuit:1 extremely:1 sensitive:1 event:1 dozen:1 cannot:1 felt:1 person:1 deliver:1 fatal:1 shock:1 phenomenon:1 describe:1 detail:1 john:1 elder:1 robison:1 former:1 book:1 look:1 eye:1 button:7 separate:1 controller:1 twelve:2 bury:1 thick:1 layer:1 flexible:1 plastic:3 align:1 finger:1 hidden:1 cutout:2 bottom:1 different:3 require:1 function:2 thin:2 printed:2 piece:1 identify:1 press:1 stretch:1 material:1 stretching:1 eventually:1 tear:1 fingernail:1 exacerbate:1 technical:1 specification:1 cpu:4 ti:1 type:1 resolution:1 x:1 pixel:1 register:1 width:1 bit:3 speed:1 khz:1 ram:1 nybble:1 byte:1 rom:2 masked:1 display:1 custom:1 hughes:1 sound:1 piezo:1 beeper:1 input:1 paddle:1 requirement:1 star:2 trek:2 phaser:3 strike:3 block:1 buster:1 bowl:1 four:1 mindbuster:1 pinball:1 vega:1 slots:1 baseball:1 sea:1 duel:1 alien:1 raider:1 cosmic:1 hunter:1 barrage:1 known:1 prototype:1 super:1 blockbuster:1 europe:1 see:1 mattel:1 auto:1 race:1 early:1 develop:1 prior:1 external:1 link:1 paper:1 model:1 reference:1 donald:1 melanson:1 engadget:1 com:1 |@bigram milton_bradley:4 http_www:1 integrate_circuit:1 rom_cartridge:1 star_trek:2 external_link:1 |
1,681 | David_D._Friedman | David Friedman discusses his recent book Future Imperfect at the Cato Institute, November 6, 2008. David Director Friedman (born February 12, 1945) is a writer who became a leading figure in the anarcho-capitalist community with the publication of his book The Machinery of Freedom (1973, revised 1989). He has also authored the books Price Theory: An Intermediate Text (1986), Law's Order (2000) and Hidden Order: The Economics of Everyday Life (1996). Life and work David Friedman is the son of economists Milton Friedman and Rose Friedman. His son, Patri Friedman, has also written on anarcho-capitalism topics, particularly seasteading. David Friedman holds a Ph.D. in Physics from the University of Chicago, although he is mostly known for his work in political theory and economics. He is currently a professor of law at Santa Clara University as well as a contributing editor for Liberty magazine. He is an atheist. Friedman, David D. "Atheism and Religion", Ideas. Anarcho-capitalism In his 1973 book The Machinery of Freedom, Friedman developed a form of anarcho-capitalism where all goods and services including law itself can be produced by the free market. This differs from the version proposed by Murray Rothbard, where a legal code would first be consented to by the parties involved in setting up the anarcho-capitalist society. Friedman advocates an incrementalist approach to achieve anarcho-capitalism by gradual privatization of areas that government is involved in, ultimately privatizing law and order itself. In the book, he states his opposition to violent anarcho-capitalist revolution. This consequentialist version of anarcho-capitalism has been called the "Chicago School" version. Tame, Chris R. October 1983. "The Chicago School: Lessons from the Thirties for the Eighties". Economic Affairs. p. 56 Friedman's version of individualist anarchism is not based on the assumption of inviolable natural rights but rather rests on a cost/benefit analysis of state versus no state. Morris, Christopher. 1992. An Essay on the Modern State. Cambridge University Press. p. 62. It is contrasted with the natural-rights approach as propounded most notably by Austrian School economist and libertarian theorist Murray Rothbard. Non-academic interests Friedman is a longtime member of the Society for Creative Anachronism, where he is known as Duke Cariadoc of the Bow. He is known throughout the worldwide society for his articles on the philosophy of recreationism and practical historical recreations, especially those relating to the medieval Middle East Friedman, David J. "On Restructuring the SCA" . His work is compiled in the popular Cariadoc's Miscellany. He also founded the largest and longest-running SCA event, the Pennsic War; as king of the Middle Kingdom he challenged the East Kingdom, and later as king of the East accepted the challenge…and lost. F.L. Watkins (Fólki Þorgilsson). 2005. HERSTAĐR-SAGA: An Incomplete History of Pennsic © Folump Enterprises He is a long-time science fiction fan, and has written a fantasy novel, Harald (Baen Books, 2006). He plays World of Warcraft. Ideas: Wanted: The Inn Between the Worlds Bibliography Nonfiction 1989 (1973). The Machinery of Freedom. 1990 (1986). Price Theory: An Intermediate Text Southwestern Publishing. 1996. Hidden Order: The Economics of Everyday Life. 2000. Law’s Order: What Economics Has to Do with Law and Why It Matters. Princeton Univ. Press. 2008. Future Imperfect: Technology and Freedom in an Uncertain World. Fiction Harald, 2006 Salamander, forthcoming References External links Homepage Ideas Friedman's blog David D. Friedman speech at Authors@Google An interview with David Friedman on The Marketplace of Ideas | David_D._Friedman |@lemmatized david:8 friedman:16 discuss:1 recent:1 book:6 future:2 imperfect:2 cato:1 institute:1 november:1 director:1 born:1 february:1 writer:1 become:1 leading:1 figure:1 anarcho:8 capitalist:3 community:1 publication:1 machinery:3 freedom:4 revise:1 also:3 author:2 price:2 theory:3 intermediate:2 text:2 law:6 order:5 hidden:2 economics:4 everyday:2 life:3 work:3 son:2 economist:2 milton:1 rise:1 patri:1 write:2 capitalism:5 topic:1 particularly:1 seasteading:1 hold:1 ph:1 physic:1 university:3 chicago:3 although:1 mostly:1 know:3 political:1 currently:1 professor:1 santa:1 clara:1 well:1 contributing:1 editor:1 liberty:1 magazine:1 atheist:1 atheism:1 religion:1 idea:4 develop:1 form:1 good:1 service:1 include:1 produce:1 free:1 market:1 differs:1 version:4 propose:1 murray:2 rothbard:2 legal:1 code:1 would:1 first:1 consent:1 party:1 involve:2 set:1 society:3 advocate:1 incrementalist:1 approach:2 achieve:1 gradual:1 privatization:1 area:1 government:1 ultimately:1 privatize:1 state:4 opposition:1 violent:1 revolution:1 consequentialist:1 call:1 school:3 tame:1 chris:1 r:1 october:1 lesson:1 thirty:1 eighty:1 economic:1 affair:1 p:2 individualist:1 anarchism:1 base:1 assumption:1 inviolable:1 natural:2 right:2 rather:1 rest:1 cost:1 benefit:1 analysis:1 versus:1 morris:1 christopher:1 essay:1 modern:1 cambridge:1 press:2 contrast:1 propound:1 notably:1 austrian:1 libertarian:1 theorist:1 non:1 academic:1 interest:1 longtime:1 member:1 creative:1 anachronism:1 duke:1 cariadoc:2 bow:1 throughout:1 worldwide:1 article:1 philosophy:1 recreationism:1 practical:1 historical:1 recreation:1 especially:1 relate:1 medieval:1 middle:2 east:3 j:1 restructure:1 sca:2 compile:1 popular:1 miscellany:1 found:1 large:1 long:2 run:1 event:1 pennsic:2 war:1 king:2 kingdom:2 challenge:2 later:1 accept:1 lose:1 f:1 l:1 watkins:1 fólki:1 þorgilsson:1 herstađr:1 saga:1 incomplete:1 history:1 folump:1 enterprise:1 time:1 science:1 fiction:2 fan:1 fantasy:1 novel:1 harald:2 baen:1 play:1 world:3 warcraft:1 want:1 inn:1 bibliography:1 nonfiction:1 southwestern:1 publishing:1 matter:1 princeton:1 univ:1 technology:1 uncertain:1 salamander:1 forthcoming:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 homepage:1 blog:1 speech:1 google:1 interview:1 marketplace:1 |@bigram cato_institute:1 anarcho_capitalist:3 milton_friedman:1 anarcho_capitalism:5 santa_clara:1 murray_rothbard:2 individualist_anarchism:1 creative_anachronism:1 science_fiction:1 princeton_univ:1 univ_press:1 external_link:1 |
1,682 | Politics_of_Kyrgyzstan | The Politics of Kyrgyzstan take place in a framework of a semi-presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President is head of state and the Prime Minister of Kyrgyzstan is head of government, and of multi-party system in development. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. Political history since independence In the first years of Kyrgyzstan's full independence, President Askar Akayev appeared wholeheartedly committed to the reform process. However, despite the backing of major Western donors, including the International Monetary Fund (IMF), Kyrgyzstan had consequential economic difficulties from the outset. These came mainly as a result of the breakup of the Soviet trading bloc, which impeded the Republic's smooth transfer to a free-market economy. In 1993, allegations of corruption against Akayev's closest political associates blossomed into a major scandal. One of those accused of improprieties was Vice President Feliks Kulov, who resigned for ethical reasons in December. Following Kulov's resignation, Akayev dismissed the government and called upon the last communist premier, Apas Djumagulov, to form a new one. In January 1994, Akayev initiated a referendum asking for a renewed mandate to complete his term of office. He received 96.2% of the vote. A new Constitution was passed by the Parliament in May 1993. In 1994, however, the Parliament failed to produce a quorum for its last scheduled session prior to the expiration of its term (February 1995). President Akayev was widely accused of having manipulated a boycott by a majority of the parliamentarians. Akayev, in turn, asserted that the communists had caused a political crisis by preventing the legislature from fulfilling its role. Akayev scheduled an October 1994 referendum, overwhelmingly approved by voters, that proposed two amendments to the Constitution, one that would allow the Constitution to be amended by means of a referendum, and the other creating a new bicameral parliament called the Jogorku Keņesh. The 'White House' in Bishkek is the presidential office building where the work of the executive branch of the Kyrgyz government is carried out. Elections for the two legislative chambers - a 35-seat full-time assembly and a 70-seat part-time assembly - were held in February 1995 after campaigns considered remarkably free and open by most international observers, although the election-day proceedings were marred by widespread irregularities. Independent candidates won most of the seats, suggesting that personalities prevailed over ideologies. The new Parliament convened its initial session in March 1995. One of its first orders of business was the approval of the precise constitutional language on the role of the legislature. Kyrgyzstan's independent political parties competed in the 1996 parliamentary elections. A February 1996 referendum - in violation of the Constitution and the law on referendums - amended the Constitution to give President Akayev more power. It also removed the clause that parliamentarians be directly elected by universal suffrage. Although the changes gave the President the power to dissolve Parliament, it also more clearly defined Parliament's powers. Since that time, Parliament has demonstrated real independence from the executive branch. An October 1998 referendum approved constitutional changes, including increasing the number of deputies in the upper house, reducing the number of deputies in the lower house, rolling back Parliamentary immunity, reforming land tender rules, and reforming the state budget. Two rounds of Parliamentary elections were held on February 20, 2000 and March 12, 2000. With the full backing of the United States, the OSCE reported that the elections failed to comply with commitments to free and fair elections and hence were invalid. Questionable judicial proceedings against opposition candidates and parties limited the choice of candidates available to Kyrgyz voters, while state-controlled media reported favorably on official candidates only and government officials put pressure on independent media outlets that favored the opposition. In 2002 Azimbek Beknazarov, a leading opposition figure, was imprisoned by the local authorities, in what many believe to be politically motivated circumstances. This led to protests resulting in clashes with police forces, culminating in the death of 5 people in Jalal-Abad. As May approached the authorities further extended their hold on power, imprisoning the vocal former Presidential ally, Feliks Kulov, to 10 years for alleged "abuses of office". During the same month the entire government resigned, accepting blame for the loss of life during the protests earlier in the year. A new government lead by Nikolay Tanayev was then formed and has remained ever since. In November the President faced yet more protests, as the opposition announced it would march on the capital and demand his resignation. The police reacted by arresting large amounts of demonstrators, further adding to international disapproval at the authoritarian nature of Akayev's government. Government office building in the village of Tamchy, Issyk Kul Province By June 2003, the lower house of Parliament announced that President Akayev and two other "puppet" leaders of Kyrgyzstan, from the Soviet era, would be given lifetime immunity from prosecution, raising the prospect of Akayev finally stepping down. The opposition parties have since announced they will form a coalition to fight those parties linked to the government in the 2005 elections. In 2005, following disputed results of the 2005 parliamentary elections, Kyrgyzstan was thrown into a state of political turmoil, with different parties claiming that they were the legitimate government. On 10 July 2005 interim President and opposition leader Kurmanbek Bakiyev won the presidential election in a landslide victory. (See: Tulip Revolution). In 2006, Bakiyev faced a political crisis as thousands of people demonstrated in a series of protests in Bishkek. They accused him of reneging on promised constitutional reforms limiting presidential power and giving more authority to the parliament and cabinet. They also accused him of failing to eradicate corruption, crime, and poverty. Bakiyev in turn accused the opposition of plotting a coup against him. Several parliamentarians had been killed during the political unrest. Presidential elections, originally expected in 2010, have been scheduled for July 23, 2009 http://www.rferl.org/content/Kyrgyz_Opposition_To_Name_Single_Presidential_Candidate_In_MidApril/1603675.html . President Bakiyev is expected to seek to continue his mandate, while the opposition United People's Movement (OND) announced on 20 April 2009 that it will field a single candidate - Social Democratic Party leader Almaz Atambayev Bruce Pannier"Kyrgyz opposition unites unveils presidential hopeful", RFE/RL, April 20, 2009. . Executive branch |President |Kurmanbek Bakiyev |Ak Zhol |15 August 2005 |- |Prime Minister |Igor Chudinov |Ak Zhol |24 December 2007 |} The president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term. The prime minister is nominated by the president and confirmed by the parliament. The Cabinet of Ministers is appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister. Legislative branch In the Soviet era, Kyrgyzstan had a unicameral legislature which was replaced in 1995 by the bicameral Supreme Council (Joghorku Keneš). The Supreme Council consisted of the Assembly of People's Representatives (45 seats; members were elected by popular vote from single member constituencies) and the Legislative Assembly (60 seats; 45 members of which were elected by popular vote from single member constituencies, and 15 of which were from national party lists on a proportional basis with a 5% threshold). Day, Alan John (2002) Political Parties of the World (5th ed.) John Harper, London, p. 289, ISBN 0-9536278-7-X All legislative terms were five years. In 2005, as part of the 2005 election process and in accordance with a 2003 referendum, the Parliament again became unicameral. The Legislative Assembly (Myizam Chygaruu Jyiyny) had 75 members, elected for five year terms from single-seat constituencies. Finn, Peter (28 February 2005) "Elections in Kyrgyzstan Inconclusive: Most Legislative Races Forced Into Runoffs: Monitors Fault Atmosphere" The Washington Post p. A-10 However, because of the political unrest, a new constitutional referendum was held on 21 October 2007 which approved a new electoral system, enlarged the parliament to 90 members and introducing party-list voting. Staff (23 October 2007) "'Many violations' in Kyrgyz vote" BBC News Party-list voting is a proportional representation system of voting, where candidates are selected from central party lists rather than locally elected. Early parliamentary elections were held on 16 December 2007. Kyrgyz News Agency (15 November 2007) "Three Kyrgyz parties withdraw bids to run for parliament" from BBC Monitoring: Central Asia Unit Kyrgyz AKIpress (25 December 2007) "OSCE envoy condemns Kyrgyz crackdown on opposition" from BBC Monitoring: Central Asia Unit Political parties and elections More info Kyrgyzstani presidential election, 2005 More info: Kyrgyz parliamentary elections, 2007 More info: Kyrgyz parliamentary elections, 2005 Political pressure groups and leaders Council of Free Trade Unions Kyrgyz Committee on Human Rights - Ramazan Dyryldayev National Unity Democratic Movement Union of Entrepreneurs Judicial branch Although the constitution provides for an independent judiciary, Kyrgyzstan’s court system is widely seen as under the influence of the prosecutor’s office. Low salaries make the bribery of judges commonplace. Most cases originate in local courts; they then can move via the appeals process to municipal or regional courts, with the Supreme Court the final court of appeals. Property and family law disputes and low-level criminal cases are heard by traditional elders’ courts, which are loosely supervised by the prosecutor’s office. Economic disputes and military cases are heard in specialized courts. The constitutional amendments of 2003 expanded the scope of the Supreme Court in civil, criminal, and administrative proceedings. Many protections of Western jurisprudence are not present in Kyrgyzstan’s system, which retains many features of the Soviet system. The right to counsel and the presumption of innocence of the accused are guaranteed by law but often not practiced. There is no trial by jury. Reform legislation under consideration in 2006 would establish a jury system and bolster the independence of the judicial branch.<ref name=cp>Kyrgyzstan country profile. Library of Congress Federal Research Division (January 2007). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.</ref> Administrative divisions Kyrgyzstan is divided into 7 provinces (oblastlar, singular - oblasty) and 1 city* (shaar): Batken Oblasty (Batken) Bishkek Shaary* Chuy Oblasty (Bishkek) Jalal-Abad Oblasty (Jalal-Abad) Naryn Oblasty (Naryn) Osh Oblasty (Osh) Talas Oblasty (Talas) Ysyk-Kol Oblasty (Karakol) note:'' administrative center names in parentheses International organization participation AsDB, CIS, EAPC, EBRD, ECO, FAO, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt (signatory), ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM (observer), OIC, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, PFP, SCO, UN, UNAMSIL, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMIK, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, WTrO Notes External links Erik Herron's Guide to Politics in East Central Europe and Eurasia Kyrgyz Report offers ongoing analysis, including an analysis of the clusters of political forces in the country and the roots of the country’s political problems | Politics_of_Kyrgyzstan |@lemmatized politics:2 kyrgyzstan:13 take:1 place:1 framework:1 semi:1 presidential:8 representative:2 democratic:3 republic:2 whereby:1 president:14 head:2 state:5 prime:4 minister:5 government:12 multi:1 party:14 system:7 development:1 executive:4 power:7 exercise:1 legislative:7 vest:1 parliament:14 political:13 history:1 since:4 independence:4 first:2 year:6 full:3 askar:1 akayev:11 appear:1 wholeheartedly:1 commit:1 reform:5 process:3 however:3 despite:1 backing:2 major:2 western:2 donor:1 include:3 international:4 monetary:1 fund:1 imf:2 consequential:1 economic:2 difficulty:1 outset:1 come:1 mainly:1 result:3 breakup:1 soviet:4 trading:1 bloc:1 impede:1 smooth:1 transfer:1 free:4 market:1 economy:1 allegation:1 corruption:2 close:1 associate:1 blossom:1 scandal:1 one:4 accuse:6 impropriety:1 vice:1 feliks:2 kulov:3 resign:2 ethical:1 reason:1 december:4 follow:2 resignation:2 dismiss:1 call:2 upon:1 last:2 communist:2 premier:1 apas:1 djumagulov:1 form:3 new:7 january:2 initiate:1 referendum:8 ask:1 renew:1 mandate:2 complete:1 term:5 office:6 receive:1 vote:5 constitution:6 pass:1 may:2 fail:3 produce:1 quorum:1 scheduled:1 session:2 prior:1 expiration:1 february:5 widely:2 manipulate:1 boycott:1 majority:1 parliamentarian:2 turn:2 assert:1 cause:1 crisis:2 prevent:1 legislature:3 fulfil:1 role:2 schedule:2 october:4 overwhelmingly:1 approve:3 voter:2 propose:1 two:4 amendment:2 would:4 allow:1 amend:2 mean:1 create:1 bicameral:2 jogorku:1 keņesh:1 white:1 house:4 bishkek:4 building:2 work:1 branch:6 kyrgyz:12 carry:1 election:17 chamber:1 seat:6 time:3 assembly:5 part:2 hold:5 campaign:1 consider:1 remarkably:1 open:1 observer:2 although:3 day:2 proceeding:3 mar:1 widespread:1 irregularity:1 independent:4 candidate:6 win:2 suggest:1 personality:1 prevail:1 ideology:1 convene:1 initial:1 march:3 order:1 business:1 approval:1 precise:1 constitutional:5 language:1 compete:1 parliamentary:7 violation:2 law:3 give:4 also:3 remove:1 clause:1 parliamentarians:1 directly:1 elect:6 universal:1 suffrage:1 change:2 dissolve:1 clearly:1 define:1 demonstrate:2 real:1 increase:1 number:2 deputy:2 upper:1 reduce:1 low:4 roll:1 back:1 immunity:2 land:1 tender:1 rule:1 budget:1 round:1 united:2 osce:3 report:3 comply:1 commitment:1 fair:1 hence:1 invalid:1 questionable:1 judicial:3 opposition:10 limit:2 choice:1 available:1 control:1 medium:2 favorably:1 official:2 put:1 pressure:2 outlet:1 favor:1 azimbek:1 beknazarov:1 leading:1 figure:1 imprison:2 local:2 authority:3 many:4 believe:1 politically:1 motivated:1 circumstance:1 lead:2 protest:4 clash:1 police:2 force:3 culminate:1 death:1 people:4 jalal:3 abad:3 approach:1 far:2 extend:1 vocal:1 former:1 ally:1 alleged:1 abuse:1 month:1 entire:1 accept:1 blame:1 loss:1 life:1 earlier:1 nikolay:1 tanayev:1 remain:1 ever:1 november:2 face:2 yet:1 announce:4 capital:1 demand:1 react:1 arrest:1 large:1 amount:1 demonstrator:1 add:1 disapproval:1 authoritarian:1 nature:1 village:1 tamchy:1 issyk:1 kul:1 province:2 june:1 puppet:1 leader:4 era:2 lifetime:1 prosecution:1 raise:1 prospect:1 finally:1 step:1 coalition:1 fight:1 link:2 disputed:1 throw:1 turmoil:1 different:1 claim:1 legitimate:1 july:2 interim:1 kurmanbek:2 bakiyev:5 landslide:1 victory:1 see:2 tulip:1 revolution:1 thousand:1 series:1 renege:1 promise:1 cabinet:2 eradicate:1 crime:1 poverty:1 plot:1 coup:1 several:1 kill:1 unrest:2 originally:1 expect:2 http:1 www:1 rferl:1 org:1 content:1 html:1 seek:1 continue:1 movement:2 ond:1 april:2 field:1 single:4 social:1 almaz:1 atambayev:1 bruce:1 pannier:1 unites:1 unveils:1 hopeful:1 rfe:1 rl:1 ak:2 zhol:2 august:1 igor:1 chudinov:1 popular:3 five:3 nominate:1 confirm:1 appoint:1 recommendation:1 unicameral:2 replace:1 supreme:4 council:3 joghorku:1 keneš:1 consist:1 member:6 constituency:3 national:2 list:4 proportional:2 basis:1 threshold:1 alan:1 john:2 world:1 ed:1 harper:1 london:1 p:2 isbn:1 x:1 accordance:1 become:1 myizam:1 chygaruu:1 jyiyny:1 finn:1 peter:1 inconclusive:1 race:1 runoff:1 monitor:1 fault:1 atmosphere:1 washington:1 post:1 electoral:1 enlarge:1 introduce:1 voting:3 staff:1 bbc:3 news:2 representation:1 select:1 central:4 rather:1 locally:1 early:1 agency:1 three:1 withdraw:1 bid:1 run:1 monitoring:2 asia:2 unit:2 akipress:1 envoy:1 condemns:1 crackdown:1 info:3 kyrgyzstani:1 group:1 trade:1 union:2 committee:1 human:1 right:2 ramazan:1 dyryldayev:1 unity:1 entrepreneur:1 provide:1 judiciary:1 court:8 influence:1 prosecutor:2 salary:1 make:1 bribery:1 judge:1 commonplace:1 case:3 originate:1 move:1 via:1 appeal:2 municipal:1 regional:1 final:1 property:1 family:1 dispute:2 level:1 criminal:2 hear:2 traditional:1 elder:1 loosely:1 supervise:1 military:1 specialized:1 expand:1 scope:1 civil:1 administrative:3 protection:1 jurisprudence:1 present:1 retain:1 feature:1 counsel:1 presumption:1 innocence:1 guarantee:1 often:1 practice:1 trial:1 jury:2 legislation:1 consideration:1 establish:1 bolster:1 ref:2 name:2 cp:1 country:3 profile:1 library:1 congress:1 federal:1 research:1 division:2 article:1 incorporate:1 text:1 source:1 public:1 domain:1 divide:1 oblastlar:1 singular:1 oblasty:8 city:1 shaar:1 batken:2 shaary:1 chuy:1 naryn:2 osh:2 tala:2 ysyk:1 kol:1 karakol:1 note:2 center:1 parenthesis:1 organization:1 participation:1 asdb:1 ci:1 eapc:1 ebrd:1 eco:1 fao:1 ibrd:1 icao:1 icct:1 signatory:1 icrm:1 ida:1 idb:1 ifad:1 ifc:1 ifrcs:1 ilo:1 interpol:1 ioc:1 iom:1 iso:1 correspondent:1 itu:1 nam:1 oic:1 opcw:1 pca:1 pfp:1 sco:1 un:1 unamsil:1 unctad:1 unesco:1 unido:1 unmik:1 upu:1 wco:1 wftu:1 wipo:1 wmo:1 wtoo:1 wtro:2 external:1 erik:1 herron:1 guide:1 east:1 europe:1 eurasia:1 offer:1 ongoing:1 analysis:2 cluster:1 root:1 problem:1 |@bigram prime_minister:4 president_askar:1 askar_akayev:1 monetary_fund:1 fund_imf:1 vice_president:1 overwhelmingly_approve:1 bicameral_parliament:1 universal_suffrage:1 medium_outlet:1 politically_motivated:1 jalal_abad:3 issyk_kul:1 immunity_prosecution:1 presidential_election:3 landslide_victory:1 renege_promise:1 http_www:1 rfe_rl:1 legislative_branch:1 unicameral_legislature:1 legislative_assembly:2 unicameral_legislative:1 seat_constituency:1 bbc_news:1 proportional_representation:1 judicial_branch:2 supreme_court:2 constitutional_amendment:1 presumption_innocence:1 participation_asdb:1 eapc_ebrd:1 ibrd_icao:1 icao_icct:1 icct_signatory:1 icrm_ida:1 ida_idb:1 idb_ifad:1 ifad_ifc:1 ifc_ifrcs:1 ifrcs_ilo:1 ilo_imf:1 interpol_ioc:1 ioc_iom:1 iom_iso:1 iso_correspondent:1 correspondent_itu:1 itu_nam:1 observer_oic:1 oic_opcw:1 opcw_osce:1 osce_pca:1 pca_pfp:1 unctad_unesco:1 unesco_unido:1 upu_wco:1 wco_wftu:1 wftu_wipo:1 wipo_wmo:1 wmo_wtoo:1 wtoo_wtro:1 external_link:1 |
1,683 | Brahui_language | The Brahui (بروہی) or Brahvi is a language spoken by Brahui people. It is the only Dravidian language exclusively spoken out of India. Brahui is spoken in the south west region of Pakistan and border regions of Afghanistan and Iran with Pakistan. The 2005 edition of Ethnologue reports that some 2.2 million orators are in the world and 90% of whom live in only Pakistan, where it is mainly spoken in the Kalat region of Balochistan. Brahui belongs with Kurukh (Oraon) and Malto to the northern subfamily of the Dravidan family of languages. It has been influenced by the Iranian languages spoken in the area, especially Balochi. Brahui is widely suggested to be a remnant of a formerly widespread Dravidian language family that is believed to have been reduced or replaced during the influx of Iranian/Indo-Aryan languages upon their arrival in South Asia. It has been suggested that Brahui might be a remnant of the language spoken in the Indus Valley Civilisation. Conversely, it has been indicated that the Brahuis could only have migrated to Baluchistan from central India after 1000 CE. The absence of any older Iranian (Avestan) loanwords in Brahui support this theory. The main Iranian contribtor to Brahui vocabulary, Balochi, is a western Iranian language like Kurdish, and has moved to the area from the west only about 1000 CE. J. H. Elfenbein, "A periplous of the 'Brahui problem'", Studia Iranica 16 (1987), 215-233, quoted after `The Languages of Harappa' by Michael Witzel Feb. 2000, p. 1 . One scholar places the migration only in the 13 or 14th century CE. Sergent, Genèse de l'Inde According to a recent UNESCO report, Brahvi is one of the 27 languages of Pakistan which are facing the danger of extinction. They classify it in "unsafe" status, the least endangered level out of the five levels of concern (Unsafe, Definitely Endangered, Severely Endangered, Critically Endangered, and Extinct). UNESCO Interactive Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger References External links English to Brahui word list Profile of the Brahui language Entry for Brahui at Rosetta Project Ethnologue report on the Brahui language Partial bibliography of scholarly works on Brahui | Brahui_language |@lemmatized brahui:15 بروہی:1 brahvi:2 language:12 speak:6 people:1 dravidian:2 exclusively:1 india:2 south:2 west:2 region:3 pakistan:4 border:1 afghanistan:1 iran:1 edition:1 ethnologue:2 report:3 million:1 orator:1 world:2 live:1 mainly:1 kalat:1 balochistan:1 belongs:1 kurukh:1 oraon:1 malto:1 northern:1 subfamily:1 dravidan:1 family:2 influence:1 iranian:5 area:2 especially:1 balochi:2 widely:1 suggest:2 remnant:2 formerly:1 widespread:1 believe:1 reduce:1 replace:1 influx:1 indo:1 aryan:1 languages:1 upon:1 arrival:1 asia:1 might:1 indus:1 valley:1 civilisation:1 conversely:1 indicate:1 could:1 migrate:1 baluchistan:1 central:1 ce:3 absence:1 old:1 avestan:1 loanword:1 support:1 theory:1 main:1 contribtor:1 vocabulary:1 western:1 like:1 kurdish:1 move:1 j:1 h:1 elfenbein:1 periplous:1 problem:1 studia:1 iranica:1 quote:1 harappa:1 michael:1 witzel:1 feb:1 p:1 one:2 scholar:1 place:1 migration:1 century:1 sergent:1 genèse:1 de:1 l:1 inde:1 accord:1 recent:1 unesco:2 face:1 danger:2 extinction:1 classify:1 unsafe:2 status:1 least:1 endangered:1 level:2 five:1 concern:1 definitely:1 endanger:3 severely:1 critically:1 extinct:1 interactive:1 atlas:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 english:1 word:1 list:1 profile:1 entry:1 rosetta:1 project:1 partial:1 bibliography:1 scholarly:1 work:1 |@bigram indo_aryan:1 indus_valley:1 valley_civilisation:1 critically_endanger:1 external_link:1 |
1,684 | Carme_(moon) | Carme ( , or as in Greek Κάρμη) is a retrograde irregular satellite of Jupiter. It was discovered by Seth Barnes Nicholson at Mount Wilson Observatory in California in July 1938. It is named after the mythological Carme, mother by Zeus of Britomartis, a Cretan goddess. Carme did not receive its present name until 1975; IAUC 2846: Satellites of Jupiter 1974 October 7 (naming the moon) before then, it was simply known as . It was sometimes called "Pan" between 1955 and 1975. Note that Pan is now the name of a satellite of Saturn. It gives its name to the Carme group, made up of irregular retrograde moons orbiting Jupiter at a distance ranging between 23 and 24 Gm and at an inclination of about 165°. Its orbital elements are as of January 2000. They are continuously changing due to Solar and planetary perturbations. See also Irregular satellites Jupiter's moons in fiction References External links Carme Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration David Jewitt pages Jupiter's Known Satellites (by Scott S. Sheppard) | Carme_(moon) |@lemmatized carme:5 greek:1 κάρμη:1 retrograde:2 irregular:3 satellite:5 jupiter:5 discover:1 seth:1 barnes:1 nicholson:1 mount:1 wilson:1 observatory:1 california:1 july:1 name:5 mythological:1 mother:1 zeus:1 britomartis:1 cretan:1 goddess:1 receive:1 present:1 iauc:1 october:1 moon:3 simply:1 know:2 sometimes:1 call:1 pan:2 note:1 saturn:1 give:1 group:1 make:1 orbit:1 distance:1 range:1 gm:1 inclination:1 orbital:1 element:1 january:1 continuously:1 change:1 due:1 solar:2 planetary:1 perturbation:1 see:1 also:1 fiction:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 profile:1 nasa:1 system:1 exploration:1 david:1 jewitt:1 page:1 scott:1 sheppard:1 |@bigram external_link:1 |
1,685 | Hertfordshire | Hertfordshire ( , abbreviated Herts) is a ceremonial and non-metropolitan county in the East region of England. The county town is Hertford. The county is one of the Home Counties and lies inland, bordered by Greater London, Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire (the unitary authorities of Luton and Central Bedfordshire), Cambridgeshire and Essex. History Hertfordshire was originally the area assigned to a fortress constructed at Hertford under the rule of Edward the Elder in 913. The name Hertford is derived from the Anglo-Saxon heort ford, meaning deer crossing (of a watercourse). The name Hertfordshire first appears in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 1011. Deer feature prominently in many county emblems. The area has a history dating back to the Middle Stone Age. It was first farmed during the Neolithic period and permanent habitation appeared at the beginning of the Bronze Age. This was followed by tribes settling in the area during the Iron Age. Following the Roman conquest of Britain in AD 43, Hertfordshire adapted quickly to the Roman way of life; one of the new towns, Verulamium, became the third largest town in Roman Britain. After the Romans left Britain, the Anglo-Saxons occupied the area, creating their own towns, including the county town of Hertford. The Norman conquest in 1066 reached its climax at Berkhamsted where William the Conqueror accepted the final Saxon surrender. After the Norman conquest, Hertfordshire was used for some of the new Norman castles at Bishop's Stortford and at the royal residence of Berkhamsted. The Domesday Book recorded the county as having nine hundreds. Tring and Danais became one, Dacorum, from (Danis Corum or Danish rule harking back to a Viking not Saxon past). The other seven were Braughing, Broadwater, Cashio, Edwinstree, Hertford, Hitchin and Odsey. As London grew, Hertfordshire became conveniently close to the English capital; much of the area was owned by the nobility and aristocracy, this patronage helped to boost the local economy. However, the greatest boost to Hertfordshire came during the Industrial Revolution, after which the population rose dramatically. In 1903, Letchworth became the world's first garden city and Stevenage became the first town to redevelop under the New Towns Act 1946. From the 1920s until the late 1980s, the town of Borehamwood was home to one of the major British film studio complexes, including the MGM-British Studios. Many well-known films were made here including the first three Star Wars movies (IV, V, & VI). The studios generally used the name of Elstree (the adjoining village). In early December 2005 the 2005 Hemel Hempstead fuel depot explosions occurred at the Hertfordshire Oil Storage Terminal. In 2012, the town of Waltham Cross, within the borough of Broxbourne, will host the canoe and kayak slalom events of the 2012 Summer Olympic Games. Following a proposal put forward by The Welwyn Garden Heritage Trust, town-planner Andrés Duany has suggested that designated "Garden Villages" could be built within Hertfordshire to relieve some of the pressure for new homes, with perhaps a third Garden City to follow. Geography Hertfordshire is located immediately to the north of Greater London and is part of the East of England Government Office Region. Much of the county is part of the London commuter belt. To the east of Hertfordshire is Essex, to the west is Buckinghamshire and to the north are Bedfordshire and Cambridgeshire. The county's boundaries were fixed by the Counties (Detached Parts) Act 1844 which eliminated exclaves. They were amended when, in 1965 under the London Government Act 1963, East Barnet Urban District and Barnet Urban District were abolished and their area was transferred to Greater London to form part of the present-day London Borough of Barnet. At the same time the Potters Bar Urban District of Middlesex was transferred to Hertfordshire. The highest point in the county is 803 feet (245 m) above sea level, a quarter mile (400 m) from the village of Hastoe near Tring. As part of a 2002 marketing campaign, the plant conservation charity Plantlife chose the Pasqueflower as Hertfordshire's county flower. Geology The rocks of Hertfordshire belong to the great shallow syncline known as the London Basin. The beds dip in a south-easterly direction towards the syncline's lowest point roughly under the River Thames. The most important formations are the Cretaceous Chalk, exposed as the high ground in the north and west of the county, forming the Chiltern Hills and the younger Palaeocene, Reading Beds and Eocene, London Clay which occupy the remaining southern part. The eastern half of the county was covered by glaciers during the Ice Age and has a superficial layer of glacial boulder clays. Natural resources Despite the spread of built areas, much of the county is given over to agriculture. One product, now largely defunct, was water-cress, based in Hemel Hempstead and Berkhamsted supported by reliable, clean rivers. Some quarrying of sand and gravel occurs in the St. Albans area. In the past, clay has supplied local brick-making and still does in Bovingdon, just south-west of Hemel Hempstead. The chalk that is the bedrock of much of the county provides an aquifer that feeds streams and is also exploited to provide water supplies for much of the county and beyond. Chalk has also been used as a building material and, once fired, the resultant lime was spread on agricultural land to improve fertility. The mining of chalk since the early 18th century has left unrecorded underground galleries that occasionally collapse unexpectedly and endanger buildings . Fresh water is supplied to London from Ware, using the New River built by Hugh Myddleton and opened in 1613. Local rivers, although small, supported developing industries such as paper production at Nash Mills. Urban areas Economy This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added of Hertfordshire at current basic prices published (pp.240-253) by Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling. Year Regional Gross Value Added Components may not sum to totals due to rounding Agriculture includes hunting and forestry Industry includes energy and construction Services includes financial intermediation services indirectly measured 1995 11,742 96 3,292 8,354 2000 18,370 77 4,138 14,155 2003 20,937 82 4,348 16,507 Hertfordshire has headquarters of many large well-known UK companies. Hemel Hempstead is home to DSG International. Tesco are based in Cheshunt. Pure Digital the DAB radio maker is based in Kings Langley. JD Wetherspoon is in Watford. Comet and Skanska are in Rickmansworth. Hatfield used to be connected with the aircraft industry, as it was where de Havilland developed the world's first commercial jet liner, the Comet. Now the site is a business park and new campus for the University of Hertfordshire. This major new employment site is home to, among others, T-Mobile, Computacenter and Ocado. A subsidiary of BAE Systems, EADS and Finmeccanica in Stevenage, MBDA, develops missiles. In the same town EADS Astrium produces satellites. The National Pharmacy Association (NPA), the trade association for all of the UK's community pharmacies, is based in St. Albans. The loss of aircraft manufacture at Hatfield is just one of a number of industrial losses as companies capitalise on land values and move to regions where land is cheaper and recruitment is easier. Examples include Scammell, (formerly of Watford), DRG (Hemel Hempstead) and Lucas (also Hemel). In general, the land thus freed has been used for housing or service industries. Landmarks Below is a list of places, large and small, to visit in Hertfordshire. Aldenham Country Park Ashridge estate and house. The Neo Gothic house by James Wyatt, is a Grade 1 listed building (and is not open to the public) but the estate is National Trust land. Bridgewater Monument built in 1832 in memory of Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater. tall and open to the public to ascend to the top. Berkhamsted Castle de Havilland Aircraft Heritage Centre, between London Colney and South Mimms Gardens of the Rose, Chiswell Green, near St Albans. Home of the Royal National Rose Society Hatfield Hatfield House – Jacobean house, gardens and park Mill Green Watermill in Hatfield Henry Moore Foundation, Much Hadham – sculpture park on the work of Henry Moore Knebworth House, of country park, venue of regular rock and pop festivals. Magic Roundabout (Hemel Hempstead) a complex road junction. Royston Cave in Royston town centre St Albans Beech Bottom Dyke – large scale iron age defensive or boundary ditch Sopwell Nunnery St Albans Cathedral Verulamium – Roman town remains, including museum of Roman life and the remains of a Roman amphitheatre. Ye Olde Fighting Cocks – a claimant to being the oldest pub in Britain Scott's Grotto, Ware on the outskirts of town Shaw's Corner, Ayot St Lawrence – home of George Bernard Shaw Stevenage – the first UK New Town Six Hills Roman barrows site Therfield Heath – a local nature reserve in the north of the county. Welwyn Viaduct to the north of Welwyn Garden City. Rye House Gatehouse in Hoddesdon (part of the Rye House Plot to assassinate King Charles II). Walter Rothschild Zoological Museum, Tring. One of the finest collections of stuffed mammals, birds, reptiles and insects in the UK. Transport Hertfordshire lies across routes between London and the North, the North-West and the Midlands and as a consequence it is well-served by road and rail routes and, in the past, by canals. The county has always been traversed by some of the principal roads in England, originally the A1 (Great North Road) to Yorkshire and Scotland, A5 (Watling Street) to North Wales, A6 to North West England and the A41 (Sparrows Herne turnpike) to the Midlands and now the M1, M11, A1(M) and the M25. Principal rail routes lie through Stevenage to Yorkshire and Scotland, and through Watford to the Midlands, Wales, the North West and Glasgow. Lesser routes serve St. Albans (and the East Midlands) and Royston (to Cambridge and Norwich). Commuter routes supplement the through routes and the London Underground extends to Watford. Two international airports lie just outside the county Stansted and Luton. At Elstree, there is a busy airfield for light aircraft. The Grand Union Canal passes west Hertfordshire, through Watford, Hemel Hempstead and Berkhamsted. Education See also: List of schools in Hertfordshire Hertfordshire has 26 independent schools and 73 state secondary schools. The state secondary schools are entirely comprehensive, although 7 schools in the south and southwest of the county are partially selective (see Education in Watford). All state schools have sixth forms, and there are no sixth form colleges. The tertiary colleges, each with multiple campuses, are Hertford Regional College, North Hertfordshire College, Oaklands College and West Herts College. The University of Hertfordshire is a modern university based largely in Hatfield. It has more than 23,000 students. Literature Hertfordshire is the location of Jack Worthing's country house in Oscar Wilde's play The Importance of Being Earnest. Jane Austen's novel Pride and Prejudice is primarily set in Hertfordshire. Topographical scholars place the town of Meriton either as Hertford or Hemel Hempstead, based on how far Mr Collins travels on the post from Watford, in either an easterly or westerly direction. The former location places the Bennet family home Longbourn as the town of Ware. The eponymous residence in E. M. Forster's novel, Howard's End was based on Rooks Nest House just outside Stevenage. In the novel, Forster describes Hertfordshire as "England at its quietest" http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext01/hoend10h.htm Gutenberg etext . Notes References External links Hertfordshire County Council website Hertfordshire Constabulary website Lord Lieutenant of Hertfordshire Website Population of Hertfordshire Settlements - from census 2001 Hertfordshire, by Herbert W Tompkins, 1922, from Project Gutenberg GENUKI Hertfordshire Genealogy Hertfordshire Genealogy | Hertfordshire |@lemmatized hertfordshire:34 abbreviate:1 herts:2 ceremonial:1 non:1 metropolitan:1 county:22 east:5 region:2 england:5 town:17 hertford:7 one:7 home:8 lie:4 inland:1 border:1 great:6 london:13 buckinghamshire:2 bedfordshire:3 unitary:1 authority:1 luton:2 central:1 cambridgeshire:2 essex:2 history:2 originally:2 area:9 assign:1 fortress:1 construct:1 rule:2 edward:1 elder:1 name:3 derive:1 anglo:3 saxon:5 heort:1 ford:1 mean:1 deer:2 crossing:1 watercourse:1 first:7 appear:2 chronicle:1 feature:1 prominently:1 many:3 emblem:1 date:1 back:2 middle:1 stone:1 age:5 farm:1 neolithic:1 period:1 permanent:1 habitation:1 beginning:1 bronze:1 follow:4 tribe:1 settle:1 iron:2 roman:8 conquest:3 britain:4 ad:1 adapt:1 quickly:1 way:1 life:2 new:8 verulamium:2 become:5 third:2 large:4 leave:2 occupy:2 create:1 include:8 norman:3 reach:1 climax:1 berkhamsted:5 william:1 conqueror:1 accept:1 final:1 surrender:1 use:6 castle:2 bishop:1 stortford:1 royal:2 residence:2 domesday:1 book:1 record:1 nine:1 hundred:1 tring:3 danais:1 dacorum:1 danis:1 corum:1 danish:1 hark:1 viking:1 past:3 seven:1 braughing:1 broadwater:1 cashio:1 edwinstree:1 hitchin:1 odsey:1 grow:1 conveniently:1 close:1 english:1 capital:1 much:6 nobility:1 aristocracy:1 patronage:1 help:1 boost:2 local:4 economy:2 however:1 come:1 industrial:2 revolution:1 population:2 rise:3 dramatically:1 letchworth:1 world:2 garden:7 city:3 stevenage:5 redevelop:1 act:3 late:1 borehamwood:1 major:2 british:3 film:2 studio:3 complex:2 mgm:1 well:3 know:3 make:1 three:1 star:1 war:1 movie:1 iv:1 v:1 vi:1 generally:1 elstree:2 adjoining:1 village:3 early:2 december:1 hemel:9 hempstead:8 fuel:1 depot:1 explosion:1 occur:1 oil:1 storage:1 terminal:1 waltham:1 cross:1 within:2 borough:2 broxbourne:1 host:1 canoe:1 kayak:1 slalom:1 event:1 summer:1 olympic:1 game:1 proposal:1 put:1 forward:1 welwyn:3 heritage:2 trust:2 planner:1 andrés:1 duany:1 suggest:1 designate:1 could:1 build:3 relieve:1 pressure:1 perhaps:1 geography:1 locate:1 immediately:1 north:12 part:7 government:2 office:2 commuter:2 belt:1 west:8 boundary:2 fix:1 detached:1 eliminate:1 exclaves:1 amend:1 barnet:3 urban:4 district:3 abolish:1 transfer:2 form:4 present:1 day:1 time:1 potter:1 bar:1 middlesex:1 high:2 point:2 foot:1 sea:1 level:1 quarter:1 mile:1 hastoe:1 near:2 marketing:1 campaign:1 plant:1 conservation:1 charity:1 plantlife:1 choose:1 pasqueflower:1 flower:1 geology:1 rock:2 belong:1 shallow:1 syncline:2 basin:1 bed:2 dip:1 south:4 easterly:2 direction:2 towards:1 low:1 roughly:1 river:4 thames:1 important:1 formation:1 cretaceous:1 chalk:4 expose:1 ground:1 chiltern:1 hill:2 young:1 palaeocene:1 read:1 eocene:1 clay:3 remain:2 southern:1 eastern:1 half:1 cover:1 glacier:1 ice:1 superficial:1 layer:1 glacial:1 boulder:1 natural:1 resource:1 despite:1 spread:2 built:1 give:1 agriculture:2 product:1 largely:2 defunct:1 water:3 cress:1 base:7 support:1 reliable:1 clean:1 quarrying:1 sand:1 gravel:1 occurs:1 st:7 albans:6 supply:3 brick:1 making:1 still:1 bovingdon:1 bedrock:1 provide:2 aquifer:1 feed:1 stream:1 also:4 exploit:1 beyond:1 building:3 material:1 fire:1 resultant:1 lime:1 agricultural:1 land:5 improve:1 fertility:1 mining:1 since:1 century:1 unrecorded:1 underground:2 gallery:1 occasionally:1 collapse:1 unexpectedly:1 endanger:1 fresh:1 ware:3 hugh:1 myddleton:1 open:3 although:2 small:2 supported:1 develop:3 industry:4 paper:1 production:1 nash:1 mill:2 chart:1 trend:1 regional:3 gross:2 value:3 add:2 current:1 basic:1 price:1 publish:1 pp:1 national:4 statistic:1 figure:1 million:1 pound:1 sterling:1 year:1 component:1 may:1 sum:1 total:1 due:1 round:1 hunting:1 forestry:1 energy:1 construction:1 service:3 financial:1 intermediation:1 indirectly:1 measure:1 headquarters:1 uk:4 company:2 dsg:1 international:2 tesco:1 cheshunt:1 pure:1 digital:1 dab:1 radio:1 maker:1 king:2 langley:1 jd:1 wetherspoon:1 watford:7 comet:2 skanska:1 rickmansworth:1 hatfield:6 connect:1 aircraft:4 de:2 havilland:2 commercial:1 jet:1 liner:1 site:3 business:1 park:5 campus:2 university:3 employment:1 among:1 others:1 mobile:1 computacenter:1 ocado:1 subsidiary:1 bae:1 system:1 eads:2 finmeccanica:1 mbda:1 missile:1 astrium:1 produce:1 satellite:1 pharmacy:2 association:2 npa:1 trade:1 community:1 loss:2 manufacture:1 number:1 capitalise:1 move:1 regions:1 cheap:1 recruitment:1 easy:1 example:1 scammell:1 formerly:1 drg:1 lucas:1 general:1 thus:1 free:1 housing:1 landmark:1 list:3 place:3 visit:1 aldenham:1 country:3 ashridge:1 estate:2 house:9 neo:1 gothic:1 james:1 wyatt:1 grade:1 public:2 bridgewater:2 monument:1 memory:1 francis:1 egerton:1 duke:1 tall:1 ascend:1 top:1 centre:2 colney:1 mimms:1 chiswell:1 green:2 society:1 jacobean:1 watermill:1 henry:2 moore:2 foundation:1 hadham:1 sculpture:1 work:1 knebworth:1 venue:1 regular:1 pop:1 festival:1 magic:1 roundabout:1 road:4 junction:1 royston:3 cave:1 beech:1 bottom:1 dyke:1 scale:1 defensive:1 ditch:1 sopwell:1 nunnery:1 cathedral:1 museum:2 remains:1 amphitheatre:1 ye:1 olde:1 fighting:1 cock:1 claimant:1 old:1 pub:1 scott:1 grotto:1 outskirt:1 shaw:2 corner:1 ayot:1 lawrence:1 george:1 bernard:1 six:1 barrows:1 therfield:1 heath:1 nature:1 reserve:1 viaduct:1 rye:2 gatehouse:1 hoddesdon:1 plot:1 assassinate:1 charles:1 ii:1 walter:1 rothschild:1 zoological:1 fine:1 collection:1 stuffed:1 mammal:1 bird:1 reptile:1 insect:1 transport:1 across:1 route:6 midland:4 consequence:1 serve:2 rail:2 canal:2 always:1 traverse:1 principal:2 yorkshire:2 scotland:2 watling:1 street:1 wale:2 sparrows:1 herne:1 turnpike:1 glasgow:1 less:1 cambridge:1 norwich:1 supplement:1 extend:1 two:1 airport:1 outside:2 stansted:1 busy:1 airfield:1 light:1 grand:1 union:1 pass:1 education:2 see:2 school:6 independent:1 state:3 secondary:2 entirely:1 comprehensive:1 southwest:1 partially:1 selective:1 sixth:2 college:6 tertiary:1 multiple:1 oaklands:1 modern:1 student:1 literature:1 location:2 jack:1 worthing:1 oscar:1 wilde:1 play:1 importance:1 earnest:1 jane:1 austen:1 novel:3 pride:1 prejudice:1 primarily:1 set:1 topographical:1 scholar:1 meriton:1 either:2 far:1 mr:1 collins:1 travel:1 post:1 westerly:1 former:1 bennet:1 family:1 longbourn:1 eponymous:1 e:1 forster:2 howard:1 end:1 rook:1 nest:1 describes:1 quiet:1 http:1 www:1 gutenberg:3 org:1 dirs:1 htm:1 etext:1 note:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 council:1 website:3 constabulary:1 lord:1 lieutenant:1 settlement:1 census:1 herbert:1 w:1 tompkins:1 project:1 genuki:1 genealogy:2 |@bigram unitary_authority:1 anglo_saxon:3 saxon_chronicle:1 norman_conquest:2 domesday_book:1 hark_back:1 hemel_hempstead:8 canoe_kayak:1 charity_plantlife:1 easterly_direction:1 sand_gravel:1 st_albans:6 pound_sterling:1 hunting_forestry:1 financial_intermediation:1 intermediation_service:1 de_havilland:2 south_mimms:1 ye_olde:1 bernard_shaw:1 walter_rothschild:1 watling_street:1 oscar_wilde:1 jane_austen:1 pride_prejudice:1 http_www:1 org_dirs:1 gutenberg_etext:1 external_link:1 project_gutenberg:1 |
1,686 | Lincoln,_England | Lincoln () is a cathedral city and county town of Lincolnshire, England. The non-metropolitan district of Lincoln has a population of around 101,000 - the 2001 census gave the entire urban area of Lincoln a population of 120,779. KS01 Usual resident population: Census 2001, Key Statistics for urban areas The council identifies a 'Greater Lincoln' catchment area covering surrounding villages and towns, which has a population of 250,000. http://uk.sitestat.com/lincolnshire/lincolnshire/s?Lincolnshire_Development.Lincolnshires_Potential.Investing_in_Lincolnshire.Development_Opportunties.Lincoln_Eastern_Growth_Corridor&ns_type=pdf&ns_url=http://www.lincolnshire.gov.uk/upload/public/attachments/525/1420EstgrowthCor.pdf It has several twin towns: http://www.lincoln.gov.uk/Information_page_+_3_pic_det.asp?id=3237&sec_id=1603 Port Lincoln, South Australia; Radomsko, Poland; Tangshan, China; and — most notably — Neustadt an der Weinstraße, Germany. History Earliest history: Lindon The Brayford Pool The earliest origins of Lincoln can be traced to the remains of an Iron Age settlement of round wooden dwellings (which were discovered by archaeologists in 1972) that have been dated to the 1st century BC. This settlement was built by a deep pool (the modern Brayford Pool) in the River Witham at the foot of a large hill (on which the Normans later built Lincoln Cathedral and Lincoln Castle) . The origins of the name Lincoln probably come from this period, when the settlement is thought to have been named in the Brythonic language of Iron Age Britain's Celtic inhabitants as Lindon "The Pool", presumably referring to the Brayford Pool. It is not possible to know how big this original settlement was as its remains are now buried deep beneath the later Roman and medieval ruins, as well as the modern city of Lincoln. Roman history: Lindum Colonia Newport Arch The Romans conquered this part of Britain in AD 48 and shortly afterwards built a legionary fortress high on a hill overlooking the natural lake formed by the widening of the River Witham (the modern day Brayford Pool) and at the northern end of the Fosse Way Roman road (A46). The Celtic name Lindon was subsequently Latinized to Lindum and given the title Colonia when it was converted into a settlement for army veterans. Lindum Colonia was shortened on the tongues of the later, English speakers, to become 'Lincoln'. The conversion to a colonia was made when the legion moved on to York (Eboracum) in AD 71. Lindum colonia or more fully, Colonia Domitiana Lindensium, after its founder Domitian, was established within the walls of the hilltop fortress with the addition of an extension of about equal area, down the hillside to the waterside below. It became a major flourishing settlement, accessible from the sea both through the River Trent and through the River Witham, and was even the provincial capital of Flavia Caesariensis when the province of Britannia Inferior was subdivided in the early 4th century, but then it and its waterways fell into decline. By the close of the 5th century the city was largely deserted, although some occupation continued under a Praefectus Civitatis, for Saint Paulinus visited a man of this office in Lincoln in AD 629. AD 410 - 1066 The Norman West Front of Lincoln Cathedral After the first destructive Viking raids the city once again rose to some importance. In Viking times Lincoln was a trading centre important enough to issue coins from its own mint. After the establishment of Dane Law in 886, Lincoln became one of The Five Boroughs in the East Midlands. Over the next few centuries, Lincoln once again rose to prominence. In 1068, two years after the Norman Conquest, William I ordered Lincoln Castle to be built on the site of the former Roman settlement, for the same strategic reasons and using the same road. Cathedral Construction of the first Lincoln Cathedral, within its close or walled precinct facing the castle, began when the see was removed from Dorchester and completed in 1092; it was rebuilt after a fire but was destroyed by an unusual earthquake in 1185. The rebuilt Lincoln Minster, enlarged to the east at each rebuilding, was on a magnificent scale, its crossing tower crowned by a spire reputed to have been 160 m (525 ft) high, the highest in Europe. When completed the central of the three spires is widely accepted to have succeeded the Great Pyramids of Egypt as the tallest man-made structure in the world. The bishops of Lincoln were among the magnates of medieval England: Lincolnshire, the largest diocese, had more monasteries than the rest of England put together, and the diocese was supported by large estates outside the county. When the Magna Carta was drawn up in 1215, one of the witnesses was Hugh of Wells, Bishop of Lincoln. One of only four surviving originals is now preserved in Lincoln Castle. Among the most famous bishops of Lincoln were Robert Bloet, the magnificent justiciar to Henry I; Hugh of Avalon, the cathedral builder canonised as St Hugh of Lincoln; Robert Grosseteste, the 13th century intellectual; Henry, Cardinal Beaufort, a politician deeply involved in the Wars of the Roses; Philip Repyngdon, chaplain to Henry IV of England and defender of Wycliffe; Thomas Cardinal Wolsey. The iconic view of Lincoln Cathedral The administrative centre was the Bishop's Palace, the third element in the central complex. When it was built in the late 12th century, the Bishop's Palace was one of the most important buildings in England. Built by the canonised bishop Hugh of Lincoln, the palace's East Hall range over a vaulted under-croft is the earliest surviving example of a roofed domestic hall. The chapel range and entrance tower were built by Bishop William of Alnwick, who modernised the palace in the 1430s. Both Henry VIII and James I were guests of bishops here; the palace was sacked by royalist troops during the Civil War in 1648. Recently they have had to take some of the stained glass windows out due to vandals breaking in to the cathedral on 21 January 2009 Medieval town By 1150, Lincoln was among the wealthiest towns in England. The basis of the economy was cloth and wool, exported to Flanders; Lincoln weavers had set up a guild in 1130 to produce Lincoln Cloth, especially the fine dyed 'scarlet' and 'green', the reputation of which was later enhanced by Robin Hood wearing woollens of Lincoln green. In the Guildhall that surmounts the city gate called the Stonebow, the ancient Council Chamber contains Lincoln's civic insignia, probably the finest collection of civic regalia outside London. Outside the precincts of cathedral and castle, the old quarter clustered around the Bailgate, and down Steep Hill to the High Bridge, which bears half-timbered housing, with the upper stories jutting out over the river, as London Bridge once had. There are three ancient churches: St Mary le Wigford and St Peter at Gowts are both 11th century in origin and St Mary Magdalene, built in the late 13th century, is an unusual English dedication to the saint whose cult was coming greatly into vogue on the European continent at that time. Jew's House Lincoln was home to one of the five most important Jewish communities in England, well established before it was officially noted in 1154. In 1190, anti-semitic riots that started in King's Lynn, Norfolk, spread to Lincoln; the Jewish community took refuge with royal officials, but their habitations were plundered. The so-called 'House of Aaron' has a two-storey street frontage that is essentially 12th century and a nearby Jew's House likewise bears witness to the Jewish population. In 1255, the affair called 'The Libel of Lincoln' in which prominent Jews of Lincoln, accused of the ritual murder of a Christian boy ('Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln' in medieval folklore) were sent to the Tower of London and 18 were executed. The Jews were expelled en mass in 1290. During the 13th century, Lincoln was the third largest city in England and was a favourite of more than one king. It also became caught up in the strife between the king and the rebel barons who had allied with the French, which was an ongoing result on the baron rebellion against King John. It was here and at Dover that the French and Rebel army was defeated. However, during the 14th century, the city's fortunes began to decline. The lower city was prone to flooding, becoming increasingly isolated, and plagues were common. In 1409, the city was made a county corporate. 16th century The Dissolution of the Monasteries further exacerbated Lincoln's problems, cutting off the main source of diocesan income and drying up the network of patronage controlled by the bishop, with no less than seven monasteries within the city alone closed down. This was accompanied by closure of a number of nearby parliamentary abbeys which led to a further diminishment of the region's political power. When the cathedral's great spire rotted and collapsed in 1549 and was not replaced, it was a significant symbol of Lincoln's economic and political decline. However, the comparative poverty of post-medieval Lincoln preserved pre-medieval structures that would probably have been lost in more prosperous contexts. The Civil War The west front of Lincoln Cathedral viewed through the Exchequer Gate, one of a number of surviving gates in the Cathedral Close walls.Between 1642 and 1651, during the English Civil War, Lincoln was on the frontier between the Royalist and Parliamentary forces. Military control of the city therefore changed hands numerous times. Many buildings were badly damaged. Lincoln now had no major industry, no easy access to the sea and was poorly placed. As a consequence of this, while the rest of the country was beginning to prosper in the beginning of the 1700s, Lincoln suffered immensely, travellers often commenting on the state of what had essentially become a 'one street' town. The Georgian Age By the Georgian era, Lincoln's fortunes began to pick up, thanks in part to the Agricultural Revolution. The re-opening of the Foss Dyke canal allowed coal and other raw materials vital to industry to be more easily brought into the city. As well as the economic growth of Lincoln during this era, the city boundaries expanded to include the West Common. To this day, an annual 'Beat the Boundaries' walk takes place along the perimeter of the common. The Industrial Revolution Coupled with the arrival of the railway links, Lincoln boomed again during the Industrial Revolution, and several world-famous companies arose, such as Ruston's, Clayton's, Proctor's, and William Foster's. Lincoln began to excel in heavy engineering, building diesel engine trains, steam shovels, and all manner of heavy machinery. The 20th century Lincoln was hit by a major typhoid epidemic between November 1904 and August 1905 caused by polluted drinking water from Hartsholme Lake and the River Witham. Over 1,000 people contracted the disease and fatalities totalled 113, ironically including the very man responsible for the city's water supply, Matthew Robinson of Baker Crescent. Westgate Water Tower was constructed to provide new water supplies to the city. In the world wars, Lincoln naturally switched to war production. The first ever tanks were invented, designed and built in Lincoln by William Foster & Co. Ltd during the First World War and population growth provided more workers for even greater expansion. The tanks were tested on land now covered by Tritton Road (in the south-west suburbs of the city). During the Second World War, Lincoln produced a vast array of war goods, from tanks, aircraft, munitions, and military vehicles. Ruston and Hornsby produced diesel engines for ships and locomotives, then by teaming up with former colleagues of Frank Whittle and Power Jets Ltd, in the early 1950s, R & H (which became RGT) opened the first ever production line to build gas turbine engines for land-based and sea-based energy production. Hugely successful, it has become the largest single employer in the city, providing over 5,000 jobs in its factory and research facilities, making it a rich takeover target for industrial conglomerates. It was taken over by GEC in the late 1960s with diesel engine production being transferred to the Ruston Diesels division in Newton-le-Willows, Lancashire of GEC at the former Vulcan Foundry, which was eventually bought by the German MAN B&W Diesel in June 2000. It merged with Alstom of France in the late 1980s, then in 2003 was bought out by Siemens AG of Germany, now being called Siemens Industrial Turbomachinery. This also includes what is left of Napier Turbochargers. Plans were announced early in 2008 for the construction of a new plant just outside the city boundary at Teal Park, North Hykeham Siemens Press Release 5 February 2008 In the post-war years after 1945, new suburbs were built, but heavy industry declined towards the end of the 20th century, mimicking the wider economic profile of the United Kingdom. More people are nevertheless still employed today in Lincoln building gas turbines than anything else. Economy Lincoln's economy is based mainly on public administration, commerce, arable farming and tourism, with industrial relics like Rustons (now Siemens) still in existence. However, many of Lincoln's industrial giants have long ceased production in the city, leaving large empty industrial warehouse-like buildings. More recently, these buildings have become multi-occupant units, with the likes of Lincs FM radio station and LA Fitness gym taking up space. Like many other cities in Britain, Lincoln has developed a growing IT economy, with many e-commerce mail order companies setting up in or around the place. A plethora of other, more conventional small industrial businesses are located in and around Lincoln. One of the reasons for building the university was to increase inward investment and act as a springboard for small companies. Over the last few years, Lincoln has also seen rapid development in its retail sector, in an attempt to keep people shopping in the city and to compete with the neighbouring cities of Nottingham and Sheffield. Around the Tritton Road trading estate, many new businesses have begun trading from large units with car parking. Lincoln has a choice of five large national supermarkets. The recently developed St Mark's Square complex has Debenhams as the flagship store and has an accompanying trading estate with well known chain stores such as Bhs. Another development is also expected to be completed by 2011/12 called Lindongate which includes plans for a new department store, shops, hotel, apartments and new transport facilities. The viability of proposed developments such as this may, however, now be called into question by the sudden economic downturn starting late in 2007. The scheme depends on a continuing demand for retail space, and a continuation of a strong housing market, but by mid-2008 both of these factors had become conspicuously absent. The Extra motorway services company is based on Castle Hill, with most new UK service areas being built by Swayfields who are part of the same company. Tourism The city is a tourist centre and those who come do so to visit the numerous historic buildings including, of course, the Cathedral, the Castle, the Medieval Bishop's Palace and the specialist shops of Steep Hill and Bailgate. The Collection, of which the Usher Gallery is now a part, is an important attraction. Housed partly in a recently opened, purpose-built venue, it currently contains over 2,000,000 objects, and was one of the four finalists for the 2006 Gulbenkian Prize. Any material from official archaeological excavations in Lincolnshire is eventually deposited at in The Collection so it is growing all the time.A view up Steep Hill towards the historic quarter of Bailgate. Other attractions include the Museum of Lincolnshire Life and The Sir Joseph Banks Conservatory at The Lawn, Lincoln, adjacent to Lincoln Castle. Tranquil destinations close by include Whisby Nature Reserve and Hartsholme Park, while noisier entertainment can be found at Waddington airfield, Scampton airfield (base of the RAF's Red Arrows jet aerobatic team), the County Showground or the Cadwell Park motor racing circuit near Louth. Because of its climate, Lincoln attracts many of its tourists in the summer, but also during the second weekend of December when the Bailgate area of the city holds its annual Christmas Market in and around the Castle grounds. The market is based upon the traditional German-style Weihnachtsmarkt as found in several German cities, including Lincoln's 'twin town' Neustadt an der Weinstrasse. Topography: 'Uphill' and 'Downhill' The city of Lincoln is built at the point where there is a gap in the Lincoln Cliff (a limestone escarpment running north-south and rising to 200 ft/60 m in height, also sometimes called the 'Lincoln(shire) Edge' or 'Lincoln Heath'). The River Witham flows through this gap. Lincoln is thus divided informally into two zones, known locally as uphill and downhill. The uphill area comprises the northern part of the city, on top of the Lincoln Cliff (to the north of the gap). This area includes the historical quarter, including the Cathedral, Lincoln castle and the Medieval Bishop's Palace, known locally as The Bail (although described in tourist promotional literature as 'The Cathedral Quarter'). It also includes residential suburbs to the north and north-east. The downhill area comprises the city centre (located in the gap) and the suburbs to the south and south-west. The aptly named street Steep Hill connects the two (although it is too steep for vehicular traffic, which must take a more circuitous route). This divide marks out Lincoln from other historic cities in England and elsewhere in Europe. Whereas in most such cities, the chief historical buildings (cathedrals and castles) tend to be centrally located and intermingled with the present-day city centre, in Lincoln they are separate. The divide was also once an important class distinction, with 'uphill' more affluent and 'downhill' less so. This distinction dates from the time of the Norman Conquest, when the religious and military elite occupied the hilltop. The construction and expansion of suburbs in both parts of the city since the mid-nineteenth century has diluted this distinction, nevertheless 'uphill' residential property continues to fetch a premium, and is almost invariably referred to as such in literature emanating from local estate agents. Membership of noted uphill organisations such as the Lincoln Astronomical Society, the Lincoln Backgammon Club, the Lincoln Uphill Gardeners' Club and the Lincoln Waits is seen as a mark of local success, and much prized. In the UK government scale of economic deprivation for district councils which varies 1 to 5, Lincoln and Boston have been graded as 4. However, this is an average figure, with 'uphill' Lincoln being more likely to be around 2. Transport Railway The station has five platforms and has a steady flow of trains and passengers passing through. Trains run to a range of destinations including Newark-on-Trent, Grimsby, Nottingham, Leicester, Sheffield and Peterborough. Unfortunately the electrification of the East Coast Mainline (ECML) in the late 1980s saw the demise of direct services from Lincoln into London King's Cross, forcing a change at Newark or Peterborough for services via the ECML to London King's Cross or changing at Nottingham for services via the Midland Main Line (MML) to London St Pancras. In December 2008, a direct return service to London began again, operated by East Midlands Trains, running direct from Lincoln Central to London St Pancras via Nottingham and Leicester railway stations. The Midland Main Line route takes three hours, significantly longer than changing at Newark North Gate, or driving down the A1 road. From late 2009, the National Express East Coast (NXEC) franchise is scheduled to provide a two-hourly direct service to London Kings Cross. Level crossings The railway crossing on the High Street. Electrification of the East Coast Main Line prompted an increase in traffic that has led to many of the goods trains running between Doncaster and Peterborough being diverted through Lincoln. This coupled with goods traffic between the Midlands and the ports and oil refineries in the Grimsby, Immingham and Killingholme area and local passenger services operating in and out of Lincoln Central railway station, has led to the High Street level crossing (which cuts the central shopping area in two) being closed for up to 22 minutes out of every hour. Railway barriers misery survey revealed 19 February 2009 Improvements in the station area in 2008 may have sped up the goods traffic through Lincoln. Network Rail The city's MP and the Chamber of Commerce have suggested that this may be deterring inward investment by new employers. House of Commons Hansard Debates for 22 Feb 2000 (pt 2) This has been an issue in Lincoln since the 1860s according to Hansard records. Up until 1986 a second level crossing crossed on the High Street outside the (now closed) Lincoln St. Marks railway station. Roads The £19-million A46 bypass opened December 1985. It is currently exceeding its designed capacity from the North Hykeham roundabout (A1434) to the B1378 Skellingthorpe Road roundabout, especially in the summer on weekends. For many decades Lincoln was barely connected to the UK trunk road network until the A46 to Newark was remodelled as dual carriageway in July 2003 at a cost of £28M, which has made the city more accessible for business. This was largely due to lobbying from Gillian Merron: Boston's much needed bypass has had less conspicuous government support. Lincoln has its own bypass problems however as funding for the A15 eastern bypass was reviewed in 2006 by the East Midlands Regional Assembly and the bypass was postponed several years with it unlikely to be built before 2016. Education Higher education Lincoln has two higher education institutions, the older being Bishop Grosseteste University College, which started life as a teacher training college linked to the Anglican Church in 1862. During the 1990s, the college branched out into new subject areas with a focus on the arts and drama. It has no links with the new university. The larger University of Lincoln started life as the University of Lincolnshire and Humberside in 1996, when the University of Humberside opened a Lincoln campus next to Brayford Pool attracting additional students to the city. Lincoln Art College (which was Lincolnshire's main outlet for higher education) and Riseholme Agricultural College, which had previously been part of De Montfort University in Leicester, were absorbed into the University in 2001, and subsequently the Lincoln campus took priority over the Hull campus. Most buildings were built after 2001. The university changed its name to the University of Lincoln in September 2002. In the 2005/6 academic year, 8,292 full time undergraduates were studying at the university. Facts and figures 2007/8 Around 2002 there was considerable local annoyance with students' residences in the West End area. This subsided with vast numbers of student flats being built next to the Foss Dyke and Brayford Way B1273 bridge. Student life has resulted in the building of the Engine Shed theatre complex on Brayford Wharf East. Further Education Further education courses in Lincoln are provided by Lincoln College, which is the largest education institution in Lincolnshire, with 18,500 students, of whom 2,300 are full time. http://web.archive.org/web/20060109165922/http://www.lincolncollege.ac.uk/college/ Also, Lincoln has an Access To Music branch, situated above Pulse and Ritzy, on Flaxengate. Schools The school system in Lincoln is anomalous within Lincolnshire despite being part of the same LEA, as most the rest of Lincolnshire retained the grammar school system. Other areas near to Lincoln, such as North Hykeham, Branston and Cherry Willingham also have comprehensive schools. Lincoln itself had two grammar schools until September 1974. Since 1992, Lincoln has had a newly-built secondary school, the Priory LSST which although a comprehensive gets A level results better than five Lincolnshire grammar schools. Many Lincoln comprehensive schools have been underperforming, particularly the Joseph Ruston School in Boultham. Media The local newspaper is the Lincolnshire Echo, and the local radio stations are BBC Radio Lincolnshire on 94.9FM and its commercial rival Lincs FM on 102.2FM. The newest addition to the local airwaves is Siren FM, which broadcasts on 107.3FM from the University of Lincoln. BBC Look North have a bureau in Lincoln as an integral part of their coverage of Lincolnshire and East Yorkshire. There are three TV reporters based in Lincoln serving both BBC Look North and East Midlands Today. Sport Lincoln has a professional football team, Lincoln City F.C., nicknamed 'The Imps', which plays at the Sincil Bank stadium on the southern edge of the city. The collapse of ITV Digital, which owed Lincoln City FC more than £100,000, in 2002 saw the team faced with bankruptcy but it was saved after a massive fund-raising venture by the fans that returned ownership of the club to them where it has remained since. The club was famously the first team to be relegated from the English Football League, when automatic relegation to the Football Conference was introduced from the 1986-87 season. Lincoln City regained its league place at the first attempt and has held onto it since. Lincoln City were notably the first club managed by Graham Taylor, who managed the English national football team from 1990 to 1993. He was at Lincoln City from 1972 to 1977, during which time the club won promotion from the Fourth Division. The club's apex arguably came in 1982, when they finished fourth in the Third Division and narrowly missed out on promotion to the Second Division. Lincoln City has a female counterpart, Lincoln City L.F.C. ('The Lady Imps') Lincoln is also home to Lincoln United F.C, Lincoln Moorlands Railway F.C. and Lincoln Griffins Ladies F.C.. Famous citizens George Boole – pioneer of the Boolean algebra and binary notation that would later make computers possible, who was born in Lincoln in 1815. Jim Broadbent – Oscar-winning actor who was born in Wickenby in 1949. Mark Byford, BBC Deputy Director-General, went to Lincoln School. William Byrd – A famous Renaissance composer an organist who resided near the Cathedral. Lee Chapman, former footballer who scored more than 200 first-team goals as a striker, was born in Lincoln. Daniel Cox – British juniors tennis player was born in the city in 1990. Peter Day, BBC broadcaster went to Lincoln School. Jane Eaglen – (opera singer) was born in the city in 1962. James Fenton – poet, journalist and literary critic, born in the city in 1949. Sheila Gish – RADA actress, including roles in Highlander. Darrell Hair – former international cricket umpire who recently was stood down after a ball tampering dispute with the Pakistan cricket team. He lives just outside the city, in Nettleham. Marion Rose Halpenny, equestrian writer and horsewoman known for her pioneering book British Racing and Racecourses, was born in Lincoln. Alex Henshaw, Spitfire chief test pilot, went to Lincoln School. John Hurt, actor, went to Lincoln School. Jonathan Kerrigan - television and stage actor currently appearing in ITV drama, Heartbeat, is from Lincoln. John de Lacy 1192 – July 22, 1240, son of Roger, became Earl of Lincoln Sir Neville Marriner - famous conductor who arranged and conducted the music for the film Amadeus, was born in Lincoln. He attended Lincoln School from 1935-42. Paul Palmer – swimmer, born in Lincoln, who won the silver medal in the 400 metres Freestyle at the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia, USA (also a former pupil of Lincoln Christ's Hospital School). Allison Pearson, newspaper columnist, went to Lincoln Christ's Hospital School. Steve Race – radio broadcaster and host of Radio 4 programme My Music from 1967-93, was born in Lincoln. He attended Lincoln School from 1932-39. Alfred Tennyson – Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom after William Wordsworth and one of the most popular English poets, was born in Somersby. Éamon de Valera, Irish political leader and later President of Ireland, imprisoned in Lincoln Gaol 1918; escaped in February 1919 Twin towns Port Lincoln, Australia Tangshan, China Neustadt an der Weinstraße, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany Radomsko, Poland See also Attractions Empowerment Jew's House Lincoln Arboretum Lincoln Castle Lincoln Cathedral Lincoln City F.C. Lincoln Imp Museum of Lincolnshire Life Newport Arch Steep Hill The Collection (Lincolnshire) The Sir Joseph Banks Conservatory at The Lawn, Lincoln Usher Gallery Places Boultham, Lincoln Engine Shed Golden Eagle, Lincoln High Street, Lincoln Lincoln Drill Hall Lincoln Medieval Bishop's Palace Lincoln Racecourse St. Catherines, Lincoln Steep Hill University of Lincoln People George Boole Aaron of Lincoln Hugh of Lincoln Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln References Further reading Francis Hill, 1948. Medieval Lincoln (Cambridge: University Press) External links Official City of Lincoln Council City of Lincoln Council YouTube channel Gillian Merron - Member of Parliament for Lincoln University of Lincoln History Florilegium urbanum: provision for electing city officers, ca 1300, and Francis Hill's discussion History of Ruston & Hornsby Jewish communities in Eastern England: Lincoln Lincoln Waites Lindum: Roman Lincoln The Society for Lincolnshire History and Archaeology Tourism and pictures Britannia.com Digital pictures of Lincoln Greetwell Hollow Nature Reserve Greetwell Quarry Images of Lincoln Swanholme Lakes Local Nature Reserve The Inside Out Guide to Lincoln website: Visitor guide publications to the City of Lincoln The Lincoln Book Festival Media Radio Lincolnshire 94.9FM Lincoln Forum Lincoln Today Lincs FM 102.2 Siren FM Local business and trade Chamber of Commerce Lincolnshire Echo, the county's best known newspaper is based in Lincoln Local music and art County Amateur Operatic & Dramatic Society (CAODS) website Lincoln Bands website Lincoln District Scout Band Music-Link Local Organisations Grace Church Lincoln (meets in Sudbrooke Drive Community Centre) Lincoln Astronomical Society (meets weekly, monthly formal meetings with guest speaker)\ TCM Baptist Church | Lincoln,_England |@lemmatized lincoln:172 cathedral:18 city:52 county:6 town:8 lincolnshire:21 england:10 non:1 metropolitan:1 district:3 population:6 around:8 census:2 give:2 entire:1 urban:2 area:15 usual:1 resident:1 key:1 statistic:1 council:5 identify:1 great:4 catchment:1 cover:2 surround:1 village:1 http:5 uk:7 sitestat:1 com:2 pdf:2 www:3 gov:2 upload:1 public:2 attachment:1 several:4 twin:3 asp:1 id:1 port:3 south:5 australia:2 radomsko:2 poland:2 tangshan:2 china:2 notably:2 neustadt:3 der:3 weinstraße:2 germany:3 history:6 early:6 lindon:3 brayford:7 pool:7 origin:3 trace:1 remains:2 iron:2 age:3 settlement:7 round:1 wooden:1 dwelling:1 discover:1 archaeologist:1 date:2 century:15 bc:1 build:20 deep:2 modern:3 river:7 witham:5 foot:1 large:10 hill:11 norman:4 later:5 castle:12 name:5 probably:3 come:4 period:1 think:1 brythonic:1 language:1 britain:3 celtic:2 inhabitant:1 presumably:1 refer:2 possible:2 know:6 big:1 original:2 bury:1 beneath:1 late:8 roman:6 medieval:10 ruin:1 well:6 lindum:5 colonia:6 newport:2 arch:2 conquer:1 part:9 ad:4 shortly:1 afterwards:1 legionary:1 fortress:2 high:11 overlook:1 natural:1 lake:2 form:1 widening:1 day:4 northern:2 end:3 fosse:1 way:2 road:7 subsequently:2 latinize:1 title:1 convert:1 army:2 veteran:1 shorten:1 tongue:1 english:6 speaker:2 become:11 conversion:1 make:6 legion:1 move:1 york:1 eboracum:1 fully:1 domitiana:1 lindensium:1 founder:1 domitian:1 establish:2 within:4 wall:3 hilltop:2 addition:2 extension:1 equal:1 hillside:1 waterside:1 major:3 flourishing:1 accessible:2 sea:3 trent:2 even:2 provincial:1 capital:1 flavia:1 caesariensis:1 province:1 britannia:2 inferior:1 subdivide:1 waterway:1 fell:1 decline:4 close:7 largely:2 desert:1 although:4 occupation:1 continue:3 praefectus:1 civitatis:1 saint:4 paulinus:1 visit:2 man:4 office:1 west:6 front:2 first:9 destructive:1 viking:2 raid:1 rise:4 importance:1 time:8 trading:4 centre:6 important:5 enough:1 issue:2 coin:1 mint:1 establishment:1 dane:1 law:1 one:11 five:5 borough:1 east:12 midland:7 next:3 prominence:1 two:8 year:5 conquest:2 william:6 order:2 site:1 former:6 strategic:1 reason:2 use:1 construction:3 precinct:2 face:2 begin:7 see:4 remove:1 dorchester:1 complete:3 rebuild:1 fire:1 destroy:1 unusual:2 earthquake:1 rebuilt:1 minster:1 enlarge:1 rebuilding:1 magnificent:2 scale:2 cross:8 tower:4 crown:1 spire:3 repute:1 ft:2 europe:2 central:5 three:4 widely:1 accept:1 succeed:1 pyramid:1 egypt:1 tallest:1 structure:2 world:5 bishop:13 among:3 magnate:1 diocese:2 monastery:3 rest:3 put:1 together:1 support:2 estate:4 outside:6 magna:1 carta:1 draw:1 witness:2 hugh:7 four:2 survive:3 preserve:2 famous:5 robert:2 bloet:1 justiciar:1 henry:4 avalon:1 builder:1 canonise:1 st:9 grosseteste:2 intellectual:1 cardinal:2 beaufort:1 politician:1 deeply:1 involve:1 war:10 rose:1 philip:1 repyngdon:1 chaplain:1 iv:1 defender:1 wycliffe:1 thomas:1 wolsey:1 iconic:1 view:3 administrative:1 palace:8 third:3 element:1 complex:3 building:9 canonised:1 hall:3 range:3 vault:1 croft:1 example:1 roofed:1 domestic:1 chapel:1 entrance:1 alnwick:1 modernise:1 viii:1 james:2 guest:2 sack:1 royalist:2 troop:1 civil:3 recently:5 take:8 stained:1 glass:1 windows:1 due:2 vandal:1 break:1 january:1 wealthy:1 basis:1 economy:4 cloth:2 wool:1 export:1 flanders:1 weaver:1 set:2 guild:1 produce:3 especially:2 fine:2 dyed:1 scarlet:1 green:2 reputation:1 enhance:1 robin:1 hood:1 wear:1 woollen:1 guildhall:1 surmount:1 gate:4 call:7 stonebow:1 ancient:2 chamber:3 contain:2 civic:2 insignia:1 collection:4 regalia:1 london:9 old:2 quarter:4 cluster:1 bailgate:4 steep:7 bridge:3 bear:13 half:1 timbered:1 housing:2 upper:1 story:1 jut:1 church:4 mary:2 le:2 wigford:1 peter:2 gowts:1 magdalene:1 dedication:1 whose:1 cult:1 greatly:1 vogue:1 european:1 continent:1 jew:5 house:6 home:2 jewish:4 community:4 officially:1 note:1 anti:1 semitic:1 riot:1 start:4 king:7 lynn:1 norfolk:1 spread:1 refuge:1 royal:1 official:3 habitation:1 plunder:1 aaron:2 storey:1 street:7 frontage:1 essentially:2 nearby:2 likewise:1 affair:1 libel:1 prominent:1 accuse:1 ritual:1 murder:1 christian:1 boy:1 little:2 folklore:1 send:1 execute:1 expel:1 en:1 mass:1 favourite:1 also:13 catch:1 strife:1 rebel:2 baron:2 ally:1 french:2 ongoing:1 result:3 rebellion:1 john:3 dover:1 defeat:1 however:6 fortune:2 low:1 prone:1 flooding:1 increasingly:1 isolate:1 plague:1 common:4 corporate:1 dissolution:1 far:2 exacerbate:1 problem:2 cut:2 main:5 source:1 diocesan:1 income:1 dry:1 network:3 patronage:1 control:2 less:3 seven:1 alone:1 accompany:2 closure:1 number:3 parliamentary:2 abbey:1 lead:3 diminishment:1 region:1 political:3 power:2 rot:1 collapse:2 replace:1 significant:1 symbol:1 economic:5 comparative:1 poverty:1 post:2 pre:1 would:2 lose:1 prosperous:1 context:1 exchequer:1 frontier:1 force:2 military:3 therefore:1 change:5 hand:1 numerous:2 many:9 badly:1 damage:1 industry:3 easy:1 access:2 poorly:1 place:5 consequence:1 country:1 prosper:1 beginning:1 suffer:1 immensely:1 traveller:1 often:1 comment:1 state:1 georgian:2 era:2 pick:1 thanks:1 agricultural:2 revolution:3 opening:1 fo:2 dyke:2 canal:1 allow:1 coal:1 raw:1 material:2 vital:1 easily:1 bring:1 growth:2 boundary:3 expand:1 include:13 annual:2 beat:1 walk:1 along:1 perimeter:1 industrial:8 couple:2 arrival:1 railway:8 link:5 boom:1 company:5 arise:1 ruston:5 clayton:1 proctor:1 foster:2 excel:1 heavy:3 engineering:1 diesel:5 engine:6 train:5 steam:1 shovel:1 manner:1 machinery:1 hit:1 typhoid:1 epidemic:1 november:1 august:1 cause:1 polluted:1 drinking:1 water:4 hartsholme:2 people:4 contract:1 disease:1 fatality:1 total:1 ironically:1 responsible:1 supply:2 matthew:1 robinson:1 baker:1 crescent:1 westgate:1 construct:1 provide:5 new:11 naturally:1 switch:1 production:5 ever:2 tank:3 invent:1 design:2 co:1 ltd:2 worker:1 expansion:2 test:2 land:2 tritton:2 suburb:5 second:4 vast:2 array:1 good:4 aircraft:1 munition:1 vehicle:1 hornsby:2 ship:1 locomotive:1 team:8 colleague:1 frank:1 whittle:1 jet:2 r:1 h:1 rgt:1 open:4 line:4 gas:2 turbine:2 base:8 energy:1 hugely:1 successful:1 single:1 employer:2 job:1 factory:1 research:1 facility:2 rich:1 takeover:1 target:1 conglomerate:1 gec:2 transfer:1 division:4 newton:1 willow:1 lancashire:1 vulcan:1 foundry:1 eventually:2 buy:2 german:3 b:1 w:1 june:1 merge:1 alstom:1 france:1 siemens:4 ag:1 turbomachinery:1 leave:2 napier:1 turbochargers:1 plan:2 announce:1 plant:1 teal:1 park:3 north:10 hykeham:3 press:2 release:1 february:3 towards:2 mimic:1 wider:1 profile:1 united:3 kingdom:2 nevertheless:2 still:2 employ:1 today:3 anything:1 else:1 mainly:1 administration:1 commerce:4 arable:1 farming:1 tourism:3 relic:1 like:4 rustons:1 existence:1 giant:1 long:2 cease:1 empty:1 warehouse:1 multi:1 occupant:1 unit:2 lincs:3 fm:5 radio:6 station:7 la:1 fitness:1 gym:1 space:2 develop:2 grow:2 e:1 mail:1 plethora:1 conventional:1 small:2 business:4 locate:3 university:15 increase:2 inward:2 investment:2 act:1 springboard:1 last:1 rapid:1 development:3 retail:2 sector:1 attempt:2 keep:1 shop:3 compete:1 neighbouring:1 nottingham:4 sheffield:2 car:1 parking:1 choice:1 national:3 supermarket:1 mark:5 square:1 debenhams:1 flagship:1 store:3 chain:1 bh:1 another:1 expect:1 lindongate:1 department:1 hotel:1 apartment:1 transport:2 viability:1 proposed:1 may:3 question:1 sudden:1 downturn:1 scheme:1 depend:1 demand:1 continuation:1 strong:1 market:3 mid:2 factor:1 conspicuously:1 absent:1 extra:1 motorway:1 service:8 swayfields:1 tourist:3 historic:3 course:2 specialist:1 usher:2 gallery:2 attraction:2 partly:1 purpose:1 venue:1 currently:3 object:1 finalist:1 gulbenkian:1 prize:2 archaeological:1 excavation:1 deposit:1 museum:2 life:5 sir:3 joseph:3 bank:3 conservatory:2 lawn:2 adjacent:1 tranquil:1 destination:2 whisby:1 nature:3 reserve:3 noisy:1 entertainment:1 find:2 waddington:1 airfield:2 scampton:1 raf:1 red:1 arrows:1 aerobatic:1 showground:1 cadwell:1 motor:1 race:2 circuit:1 near:3 louth:1 climate:1 attract:2 summer:2 weekend:2 december:3 hold:2 christmas:1 ground:1 upon:1 traditional:1 style:1 weihnachtsmarkt:1 weinstrasse:1 topography:1 uphill:8 downhill:4 point:1 gap:4 cliff:2 limestone:1 escarpment:1 run:4 height:1 sometimes:1 shire:1 edge:2 heath:1 flow:2 thus:1 divide:3 informally:1 zone:1 locally:2 comprise:2 top:1 historical:2 bail:1 describe:1 promotional:1 literature:2 residential:2 aptly:1 connect:2 vehicular:1 traffic:4 must:1 circuitous:1 route:2 elsewhere:1 whereas:1 chief:2 tend:1 centrally:1 intermingle:1 present:1 separate:1 class:1 distinction:3 affluent:1 religious:1 elite:1 occupy:1 since:5 nineteenth:1 dilute:1 property:1 fetch:1 premium:1 almost:1 invariably:1 emanate:1 local:11 agent:1 membership:1 noted:1 organisation:2 astronomical:2 society:4 backgammon:1 club:7 gardener:1 wait:2 success:1 much:2 government:2 deprivation:1 vary:1 boston:2 grade:1 average:1 figure:2 likely:1 platform:1 steady:1 passenger:2 pass:1 newark:4 grimsby:2 leicester:3 peterborough:3 unfortunately:1 electrification:2 coast:3 mainline:1 ecml:2 saw:2 demise:1 direct:4 via:3 mml:1 pancras:2 return:2 operate:1 hour:2 significantly:1 drive:2 express:1 nxec:1 franchise:1 schedule:1 hourly:1 level:4 prompt:1 doncaster:1 divert:1 oil:1 refinery:1 immingham:1 killingholme:1 operating:1 crossing:1 shopping:1 minute:1 every:1 barrier:1 misery:1 survey:1 reveal:1 improvement:1 speed:1 rail:1 mp:1 suggest:1 deter:1 hansard:2 debate:1 feb:1 pt:1 accord:1 record:1 roads:1 million:1 bypass:5 exceed:1 capacity:1 roundabout:2 skellingthorpe:1 decade:1 barely:1 trunk:1 remodelled:1 dual:1 carriageway:1 july:2 cost:1 lobby:1 gillian:2 merron:2 need:1 conspicuous:1 funding:1 eastern:2 review:1 regional:1 assembly:1 postpone:1 unlikely:1 education:7 institution:2 college:7 teacher:1 training:1 anglican:1 branch:2 subject:1 focus:1 art:3 drama:2 humberside:2 campus:3 additional:1 student:5 outlet:1 riseholme:1 previously:1 de:3 montfort:1 absorb:1 priority:1 hull:1 september:2 academic:1 full:2 undergraduate:1 study:1 fact:1 considerable:1 annoyance:1 residence:1 subside:1 flat:1 shed:2 theatre:1 wharf:1 web:2 archive:1 org:1 lincolncollege:1 ac:1 music:5 situate:1 pulse:1 ritzy:1 flaxengate:1 school:17 system:2 anomalous:1 despite:1 lea:1 retain:1 grammar:3 branston:1 cherry:1 willingham:1 comprehensive:3 newly:1 secondary:1 priory:1 lsst:1 get:1 underperforming:1 particularly:1 boultham:2 medium:2 newspaper:3 echo:2 bbc:5 commercial:1 rival:1 airwave:1 siren:2 broadcast:1 look:2 bureau:1 integral:1 coverage:1 yorkshire:1 tv:1 reporter:1 serve:1 sport:1 professional:1 football:4 f:6 c:6 nickname:1 imp:2 play:1 sincil:1 stadium:1 southern:1 itv:2 digital:2 owe:1 fc:1 bankruptcy:1 save:1 massive:1 fund:1 raise:1 venture:1 fan:1 ownership:1 remain:1 famously:1 relegate:1 league:2 automatic:1 relegation:1 conference:1 introduce:1 season:1 regain:1 onto:1 manage:2 graham:1 taylor:1 win:3 promotion:2 fourth:2 apex:1 arguably:1 finish:1 narrowly:1 miss:1 female:1 counterpart:1 l:1 lady:2 imps:1 moorlands:1 griffin:1 citizen:1 george:2 boole:2 pioneer:1 boolean:1 algebra:1 binary:1 notation:1 computer:1 jim:1 broadbent:1 oscar:1 actor:3 wickenby:1 byford:1 deputy:1 director:1 general:1 go:5 byrd:1 renaissance:1 composer:1 organist:1 reside:1 lee:1 chapman:1 footballer:1 score:1 goal:1 striker:1 daniel:1 cox:1 british:2 junior:1 tennis:1 player:1 broadcaster:2 jane:1 eaglen:1 opera:1 singer:1 fenton:1 poet:3 journalist:1 literary:1 critic:1 sheila:1 gish:1 rada:1 actress:1 role:1 highlander:1 darrell:1 hair:1 international:1 cricket:2 umpire:1 stand:1 ball:1 tamper:1 dispute:1 pakistan:1 live:1 nettleham:1 marion:1 halpenny:1 equestrian:1 writer:1 horsewoman:1 pioneering:1 book:2 racing:1 racecourse:2 alex:1 henshaw:1 spitfire:1 pilot:1 hurt:1 jonathan:1 kerrigan:1 television:1 stage:1 appear:1 heartbeat:1 lacy:1 son:1 roger:1 earl:1 neville:1 marriner:1 conductor:1 arrange:1 conduct:1 film:1 amadeus:1 attend:2 paul:1 palmer:1 swimmer:1 silver:1 medal:1 metre:1 freestyle:1 olympics:1 atlanta:1 georgia:1 usa:1 pupil:1 christ:2 hospital:2 allison:1 pearson:1 columnist:1 steve:1 host:1 programme:1 alfred:1 tennyson:1 laureate:1 wordsworth:1 popular:1 somersby:1 éamon:1 valera:1 irish:1 leader:1 president:1 ireland:1 imprison:1 gaol:1 escape:1 rhineland:1 palatinate:1 attractions:1 empowerment:1 arboretum:1 golden:1 eagle:1 drill:1 catherine:1 reference:1 read:1 francis:2 cambridge:1 external:1 youtube:1 channel:1 member:1 parliament:1 florilegium:1 urbanum:1 provision:1 elect:1 officer:1 ca:1 discussion:1 archaeology:1 picture:2 greetwell:2 hollow:1 quarry:1 image:1 swanholme:1 lakes:1 inside:1 guide:2 website:3 visitor:1 publication:1 festival:1 forum:1 trade:1 best:1 amateur:1 operatic:1 dramatic:1 caods:1 band:2 scout:1 grace:1 meet:2 sudbrooke:1 weekly:1 monthly:1 formal:1 meeting:1 tcm:1 baptist:1 |@bigram http_www:3 asp_id:1 brayford_pool:5 river_witham:5 shortly_afterwards:1 coin_mint:1 norman_conquest:2 magna_carta:1 cardinal_wolsey:1 henry_viii:1 stained_glass:1 robin_hood:1 mary_magdalene:1 anti_semitic:1 dissolution_monastery:1 badly_damage:1 raw_material:1 diesel_engine:3 gas_turbine:2 hugely_successful:1 siemens_ag:1 anything_else:1 economic_downturn:1 conspicuously_absent:1 archaeological_excavation:1 vehicular_traffic:1 nineteenth_century:1 almost_invariably:1 st_pancras:2 oil_refinery:1 chamber_commerce:2 dual_carriageway:1 de_montfort:1 narrowly_miss:1 george_boole:2 boolean_algebra:1 jim_broadbent:1 atlanta_georgia:1 alfred_tennyson:1 poet_laureate:1 william_wordsworth:1 éamon_de:1 de_valera:1 rhineland_palatinate:1 external_link:1 |
1,687 | Calico_(textile) | A calico bag (in the UK sense) Calico has different meanings according to which country the word is used in. Originally calico was a plain-woven textile which originated in the city of Kozhikode, Kerala, India, which was known by Europeans as Calicut, in the 11th century. The fabric was made by the traditional weavers called chaliyans. In the United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, "calico" refers to fabric made from unbleached, and often not fully processed, cotton, which may for example contain unseparated husk parts. The fabric is less coarse and thick than canvas or denim, but because of its unfinished and undyed state, it is still very cheap. As it is an inexpensive and readily available fabric, calico is often used by tailors in the construction of toile — mockups of a garment for the purpose of testing a pattern. In New Zealand In New Zealand this same fabric is known as "mutton cloth" and is used for wrapping food for cooking underground, in a hangi. In the USA In the US the word calico is used quite differently. In American English, calico is a word for inexpensive printed cotton fabrics that have a colorful small, all-over pattern, which is often floral. Kadolph, Sara J., ed.: Textiles, 10th edition, Pearson/Prentice-Hall, 2007, ISBN 0-13-118769-4, p. 463 These colorful, small patterned, printed fabrics are what gave rise to the use of the term calico in the name of a cat coat color: "calico cat". The patterned fabric also gave rise to one of the common names of a crab, the calico crab. The fabric that is called calico in the UK is called muslin in the USA. Etymology The word calico is derived from the name of the city of Kozhikode, in Kerala, India, which was known by the British as Calicut. History Calico originated in India during the 11th century. It was mentioned in Indian literature by the 12th century when the writer Hemacandra mentioned calico fabric prints with a lotus design. Encyclopedia Britannica (2008). calico Indian textile merchants traded calico with the Africans by the 15th century, when calico fabrics from Gujarat made their appearance in Egypt. Trade with Europe followed from the 17th century onwards. Within India, calico originated in Kozhikode. See also Calico cat Calico Jack References | Calico_(textile) |@lemmatized calico:20 bag:1 uk:2 sense:1 different:1 meaning:1 accord:1 country:1 word:4 use:5 originally:1 plain:1 woven:1 textile:3 originate:3 city:2 kozhikode:3 kerala:2 india:4 know:3 european:1 calicut:2 century:5 fabric:11 make:3 traditional:1 weaver:1 call:3 chaliyans:1 united:2 kingdom:2 refers:1 unbleached:1 often:3 fully:1 process:1 cotton:2 may:1 example:1 contain:1 unseparated:1 husk:1 part:1 less:1 coarse:1 thick:1 canvas:1 denim:1 unfinished:1 undyed:1 state:1 still:1 cheap:1 inexpensive:2 readily:1 available:1 tailor:1 construction:1 toile:1 mockups:1 garment:1 purpose:1 test:1 pattern:4 new:2 zealand:2 mutton:1 cloth:1 wrap:1 food:1 cook:1 underground:1 hangi:1 usa:2 u:1 quite:1 differently:1 american:1 english:1 printed:1 colorful:2 small:2 floral:1 kadolph:1 sara:1 j:1 ed:1 edition:1 pearson:1 prentice:1 hall:1 isbn:1 p:1 print:2 give:2 rise:2 term:1 name:3 cat:3 coat:1 color:1 also:2 one:1 common:1 crab:2 muslin:1 etymology:1 derive:1 british:1 history:1 mention:2 indian:2 literature:1 writer:1 hemacandra:1 lotus:1 design:1 encyclopedia:1 britannica:1 merchant:1 trade:2 african:1 gujarat:1 appearance:1 egypt:1 europe:1 follow:1 onwards:1 within:1 see:1 jack:1 reference:1 |@bigram pearson_prentice:1 prentice_hall:1 encyclopedia_britannica:1 |
1,688 | Fable | A fable is a succinct story, in prose or verse, that features animals, plants, inanimate objects, or forces of nature which are anthropomorphized (given human qualities), and that illustrates a moral lesson (a "moral"), which may at the end be expressed explicitly in a pithy maxim. A fable differs from a parable in that the latter excludes animals, plants, inanimate objects, and forces of nature as actors that assume speech and other powers of humankind. Usage has not always been so clearly distinguished. In the King James Version of the New Testament, "μύθος" ("mythos") was rendered by the translators as "fable" For example, in First Timothy, "neither give heed to fables...", and "refuse profane and old wives' fables..." (1 Tim 1:4 and 4:4, respectively). in First and Second Timothy, in Titus and in First Peter. Definitions Aesop The word "fable" comes from the Latin "fabula" (a "story"), itself derived from "fari" ("to speak") with the -ula suffix that signifies "little": hence, a "little story". Though in its original sense "fable" denotes a brief, succinct story that is meant to impart a moral lesson, in a pejorative sense, a "fable" may be a deliberately invented or falsified account of an event or circumstance. Similarly, a non-authorial person who, wittingly or not, tells "tall tales," may be termed a "confabulator." An author of fables is termed a "fabulist," and the word "fabulous," strictly speaking, "pertains to a fable or fables." In recent decades, however, "fabulous" has come frequently to be used in the quite different meaning of "excellent" or "outstanding". Characteristics Jean de la Fontaine Fables can be described as a didactic mode of literature. That is, whether a fable has been handed down from generation to generation as oral literature, or constructed by a literary tale-teller, its purpose is to impart a lesson or value, or to give sage advice. Fables also provide opportunities to laugh at human folly, when they supply examples of behaviors to be avoided rather than emulated. Fables frequently have as their central characters animals that are given anthropomorphic characteristics such as the ability to reason and speak. In antiquity, Aesop presented a wide range of animals as protagonists, including "the Tortoise and the Hare" who famously engage in a race against each other; and, in another classic fable, a fox which rejects grapes that are out of reach, as probably being sour ("sour grapes"). Medieval French fabliaux might feature Reynard the Fox, a trickster figure, and offer a subtext mildly subversive of the feudal social order. Similarly, the 18th-century Polish fabulist Ignacy Krasicki employs animals as the title actors in his striking verse fable, "The Lamb and the Wolves." Krasicki uses plants the same way in "The Violet and the Grass." Personification may also be extended to inanimate objects, as in Krasicki's "Bread and Sword". His "The Stream and the River", again, offers an example of personified forces of nature. Divinities may also appear in fables as active agents. Aesop's Fables feature most of the Greek pantheon, including Zeus and Hermes. History John Gay Ignacy Krasicki Dositej Obradović Félix María de Samaniego Tomás de Iriarte y Oropesa Ivan Krylov The fable is one of the most enduring forms of folk literature, spread abroad, modern researchers agree, Enzyklopädie des Märchens (1977), see "Fabel", "Äsopica" etc. less by literary anthologies than by oral transmission. Fables can be found in the literature of almost every country. Several parallel animal fables in Sumerian and Akkadian are among those that Erich Ebeling introduced to modern Western readers; Ebeling, Die Babylonishe Fabel und ihre Bedeutung für die Literaturgeschichte (1931). there are comparable fables from Egypt's Middle Kingdom, E. Brunner-Traut, Altägyptische Tiergeschichte und Fabel (1970) and Hebrew fables such as the "king of trees" in Book of Judges 9 and "the thistle and the cedar tree" in II Kings 14:9. Both noted by Walter Burkert, The Orientalizing Revolution: Near Eastern Influence on Early Archaic Greek Culture (1992), p 121 note 4. The varying corpus denoted Aesopica or Aesop's Fables includes most of the best-known western fables, which are attributed to the legendary Aesop, supposed to have been a slave in ancient Greece around 550 BC. When Babrius set down fables from the Aesopica in verse for a Hellenistic Prince "Alexander," he expressly stated at the head of Book II that this type of "myth" that Aesop had introduced to the "sons of the Hellenes" had been an invention of "Syrians" from the time of "Ninos" (personifying Nineveh to Greeks) and Belos ("ruler"). Burkert 1992:121 Epicharmus of Kos and Phormis are reported as having been among the first to invent comic fables. P.W. Buckham, p. 245 Many familiar fables of Aesop include “The Crow and the Pitcher,” “The Hare and the Tortoise,” and “The Lion and the Mouse.” Hundreds of fables were composed in ancient India during the first millennium BC, often as stories within frame stories. These included Vishnu Sarma's Panchatantra, the Hitopadesha, Vikram and The Vampire, and Syntipas' Seven Wise Masters, which were collections of fables that were later influential throughout the Old World. Ben E. Perry has argued that some of the Jataka tales and some of the fables in Panchatantra may have been influenced by similar Greek and Near Eastern ones. Ben E. Perry, "Introduction", p. xix, in Babrius and Phaedrus (1965) Earlier Indian epics such as Vyasa's Mahabharata and Valmiki's Ramayana also contained fables within the main story, often as side stories or back-story. The most famous fables from the Middle East were the One Thousand and One Nights, also known as the Arabian Nights. Fables had a further long tradition through the Middle Ages, and became part of European high literature. During the 17th century, the French fabulist Jean de La Fontaine (1621–1695) saw the soul of the fable in the moral — a rule of behavior. Starting with the Aesopian pattern, La Fontaine set out to satirize the court, the church, the rising bourgeoisie, indeed the entire human scene of his time. La Fontaine's model was subsequently emulated by Poland's Ignacy Krasicki (1735–1801), Spain's Félix María de Samaniego (1745-1801) and Tomás de Iriarte y Oropesa (1750-1791), and Russia's Ivan Krylov (1769–1844). In modern times, while the fable has been trivialized in children's books, it has also been fully adapted to modern adult literature. Felix Salten's Bambi (1923) is a Bildungsroman — a story of a protagonist's coming-of-age — cast in the form of a fable. James Thurber used the ancient fable style in his books, Fables for Our Time (1940) and The Beast in Me and Other Animals (1948). Władysław Reymont's The Revolt (1924), a metaphor for the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, described a revolt by animals that take over their farm in order to introduce "equality." George Orwell's Animal Farm (1945) similarly satirized Stalinist Communism in particular, and totalitarianism in general, in the guise of animal fable. Classic fabulists Aesop (mid-6th century BCE), author of Aesop's Fables. Vishnu Sarma (ca. 200 BCE), author of the anthropomorphic political treatise and fable collection, the Panchatantra. Bidpai (ca. 200 BCE), author of Sanskrit (Hindu) and Pali (Buddhist) animal fables in verse and prose. Syntipas (ca. 100 BCE), Indian philosopher, reputed author of a collection of tales known in Europe as The Story of the Seven Wise Masters. Gaius Julius Hyginus (Hyginus, Latin author, native of Spain or Alexandria, ca. 64 BCE - 17 C.E.), author of Fabulae. Phaedrus (15 BCE – 50 CE), Roman fabulist, by birth a Macedonian. Walter of England c.1175 Marie de France (12th century). Berechiah ha-Nakdan (Berechiah the Punctuator, or Grammarian, 13th century), author of Jewish fables adapted from Aesop's Fables. Robert Henryson (Scottish, 15th century), author of The Morall Fabillis of Esope the Phrygian. Leonardo da Vinci (Italian, 1452 – 1519). Biernat of Lublin (Polish, 1465? – after 1529). Jean de La Fontaine (French, 1621 – 95). Bernard de Mandeville (English, 1670–1733), author of The Fable of the Bees. John Gay (English, 1685 – 1732). Ignacy Krasicki (Polish, 1735 – 1801). Dositej Obradović (Serbian, 1742? – 1811). Félix María de Samaniego (Spanish, 1745 – 1801), best known for "The Ant and the Cicade." Tomás de Iriarte (Spanish, 1750 – 91). Ivan Krylov (Russian, 1769 – 1844). Modern fabulists Ambrose Bierce Władysław Reymont James Thurber George Orwell Leo Tolstoy (1828 – 1910). Nico Maniquis (1834 – 1912). Ambrose Bierce (1842 – ?1914). Sholem Aleichem (1859 – 1916). George Ade (1866 – 1944), Fables in Slang, etc. Władysław Reymont (1868–1925) Felix Salten (1869–1945) Don Marquis (1878 – 1937), author of the fables of archy and mehitabel. Franz Kafka (1883 – 1924). Damon Runyon (1884 – 1946). James Thurber (1894 – 1961), Fables For Our Time. George Orwell (1903 – 50). Dr. Seuss (1904 – 91) Isaac Bashevis Singer (1904 – 91). José Saramago (born 1922). Italo Calvino (1923 – 85), "If on a winter's night a traveler," etc. Arnold Lobel (1933 – 87), author of Fables, winner 1981 Caldecott Medal. Ramsay Wood (born 1943), author of Kalila and Dimna: Fables of Friendship and Betrayal. Bill Willingham (born 1956), author of Fables graphic novels. Notable fables The Jataka Tales The Sky Is Falling Aesop's Fables by Aesop The Boy Who Cried Wolf The Cock and the Jewel Panchatantra by Vishnu Sarma (also known as Kalila and Dimna, Kalilag and Damnag, The Lights of Canopus, Fables of Bidpai, and The Morall Philosophie of Doni) Baital Pachisi (also known as Vikram and The Vampire) Hitopadesha Seven Wise Masters by Syntipas One Thousand and One Nights (also known as Arabian Nights, ca. 800–900) The Fable of the Bees (1714) by Bernard de Mandeville Fables and Parables (1779) by Ignacy Krasicki The Emperor's New Clothes Stone Soup The Little Engine that Could Jonathan Livingston Seagull Watership Down The Lion King The Fox and the Cock by James Thurber Bunt (The Revolt, 1922) by Władysław Reymont (anticipates Orwell's Animal Farm). Fables for Our Time and Famous Poems Illustrated (1940) by James Thurber, Animal Farm (1945) by George Orwell. Life & Death to the Happies, and Other American Amphigories (2007) by Philip Malachowski The Boy In The Striped Pyjamas (2006) by John Boyne See also Allegory Anthropomorphism Apologue Apologia Fabel Fairy tale Fantastique Ghost story Parable Proverb Notes References King James Bible; New Testament (authorised). DLR [David Lee Rubin]. "Fable in Verse", The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics. External links Animal Symbolism List of frequently described animals and their characteristics The Dragon-Tyrant Fables - Collection and guide to fables for children Imaginexus A collection of interconnected stories that anyone can edit Beast Fable Society An academic society focused on fables and related genres | Fable |@lemmatized fable:61 succinct:2 story:13 prose:2 verse:5 feature:3 animal:15 plant:3 inanimate:3 object:3 force:3 nature:3 anthropomorphize:1 give:4 human:3 quality:1 illustrate:2 moral:4 lesson:3 may:6 end:1 express:1 explicitly:1 pithy:1 maxim:1 differs:1 parable:3 latter:1 excludes:1 actor:2 assume:1 speech:1 power:1 humankind:1 usage:1 always:1 clearly:1 distinguish:1 king:5 jam:2 version:1 new:4 testament:2 μύθος:1 mythos:1 render:1 translator:1 example:3 first:5 timothy:2 neither:1 heed:1 fables:3 refuse:1 profane:1 old:2 wife:1 tim:1 respectively:1 second:1 titus:1 peter:1 definition:1 aesop:12 word:2 come:3 latin:2 fabula:1 derive:1 fari:1 speak:3 ula:1 suffix:1 signify:1 little:3 hence:1 though:1 original:1 sense:2 denote:2 brief:1 mean:1 impart:2 pejorative:1 deliberately:1 invent:2 falsify:1 account:1 event:1 circumstance:1 similarly:3 non:1 authorial:1 person:1 wittingly:1 tell:1 tall:1 tale:5 term:2 confabulator:1 author:14 fabulist:6 fabulous:2 strictly:1 pertains:1 recent:1 decade:1 however:1 frequently:3 use:2 quite:1 different:1 meaning:1 excellent:1 outstanding:1 characteristic:3 jean:3 de:13 la:5 fontaine:5 describe:3 didactic:1 mode:1 literature:6 whether:1 hand:1 generation:2 oral:2 construct:1 literary:2 teller:1 purpose:1 value:1 sage:1 advice:1 also:10 provide:1 opportunity:1 laugh:1 folly:1 supply:1 behavior:2 avoid:1 rather:1 emulate:2 central:1 character:1 anthropomorphic:2 ability:1 reason:1 antiquity:1 present:1 wide:1 range:1 protagonist:2 include:5 tortoise:2 hare:2 famously:1 engage:1 race:1 another:1 classic:2 fox:3 reject:1 grape:2 reach:1 probably:1 sour:2 medieval:1 french:3 fabliaux:1 might:1 reynard:1 trickster:1 figure:1 offer:2 subtext:1 mildly:1 subversive:1 feudal:1 social:1 order:2 century:6 polish:3 ignacy:5 krasicki:7 employ:1 title:1 striking:1 lamb:1 wolf:2 us:1 way:1 violet:1 grass:1 personification:1 extend:1 bread:1 sword:1 stream:1 river:1 personified:1 divinity:1 appear:1 active:1 agent:1 greek:3 pantheon:1 zeus:1 hermes:1 history:1 john:3 gay:2 dositej:2 obradović:2 félix:3 maría:3 samaniego:3 tomás:3 iriarte:3 oropesa:2 ivan:3 krylov:3 one:6 enduring:1 form:2 folk:1 spread:1 abroad:1 modern:5 researcher:1 agree:1 enzyklopädie:1 märchens:1 see:2 fabel:4 äsopica:1 etc:3 less:1 anthology:1 transmission:1 find:1 almost:1 every:1 country:1 several:1 parallel:1 sumerian:1 akkadian:1 among:2 erich:1 ebeling:2 introduce:3 western:2 reader:1 die:2 babylonishe:1 und:2 ihre:1 bedeutung:1 für:1 literaturgeschichte:1 comparable:1 egypt:1 middle:3 kingdom:1 e:4 brunner:1 traut:1 altägyptische:1 tiergeschichte:1 hebrew:1 tree:2 book:4 judge:1 thistle:1 cedar:1 ii:2 note:3 walter:2 burkert:2 orientalize:1 revolution:2 near:2 eastern:2 influence:2 early:1 archaic:1 culture:1 p:4 vary:1 corpus:1 aesopica:2 best:2 know:7 attribute:1 legendary:1 suppose:1 slave:1 ancient:3 greece:1 around:1 bc:2 babrius:2 set:2 hellenistic:1 prince:1 alexander:1 expressly:1 state:1 head:1 type:1 myth:1 son:1 hellene:1 invention:1 syrian:1 time:6 ninos:1 personify:1 nineveh:1 greeks:1 belos:1 ruler:1 epicharmus:1 ko:1 phormis:1 report:1 comic:1 w:1 buckham:1 many:1 familiar:1 crow:1 pitcher:1 lion:2 mouse:1 hundred:1 compose:1 india:1 millennium:1 often:2 within:2 frame:1 vishnu:3 sarma:3 panchatantra:4 hitopadesha:2 vikram:2 vampire:2 syntipas:3 seven:3 wise:3 master:3 collection:5 later:1 influential:1 throughout:1 world:1 ben:2 perry:2 argue:1 jataka:2 similar:1 introduction:1 xix:1 phaedrus:2 earlier:1 indian:2 epic:1 vyasa:1 mahabharata:1 valmiki:1 ramayana:1 contain:1 main:1 side:1 back:1 famous:2 east:1 thousand:2 night:5 arabian:2 long:1 tradition:1 age:2 become:1 part:1 european:1 high:1 saw:1 soul:1 rule:1 start:1 aesopian:1 pattern:1 satirize:2 court:1 church:1 rise:1 bourgeoisie:1 indeed:1 entire:1 scene:1 model:1 subsequently:1 poland:1 spain:2 russia:1 trivialize:1 child:2 fully:1 adapt:2 adult:1 felix:2 salten:2 bambi:1 bildungsroman:1 cast:1 james:5 thurber:5 style:1 beast:2 władysław:4 reymont:4 revolt:3 metaphor:1 bolshevik:1 take:1 farm:4 equality:1 george:5 orwell:5 stalinist:1 communism:1 particular:1 totalitarianism:1 general:1 guise:1 mid:1 bce:6 ca:5 political:1 treatise:1 bidpai:2 sanskrit:1 hindu:1 pali:1 buddhist:1 philosopher:1 repute:1 europe:1 gaius:1 julius:1 hyginus:2 native:1 alexandria:1 c:2 fabulae:1 ce:1 roman:1 birth:1 macedonian:1 england:1 marie:1 france:1 berechiah:2 ha:1 nakdan:1 punctuator:1 grammarian:1 jewish:1 robert:1 henryson:1 scottish:1 morall:2 fabillis:1 esope:1 phrygian:1 leonardo:1 da:1 vinci:1 italian:1 biernat:1 lublin:1 bernard:2 mandeville:2 english:2 bee:2 serbian:1 spanish:2 ant:1 cicade:1 russian:1 ambrose:2 bierce:2 leo:1 tolstoy:1 nico:1 maniquis:1 sholem:1 aleichem:1 ade:1 slang:1 marquis:1 archy:1 mehitabel:1 franz:1 kafka:1 damon:1 runyon:1 dr:1 seuss:1 isaac:1 bashevis:1 singer:1 josé:1 saramago:1 born:3 italo:1 calvino:1 winter:1 traveler:1 arnold:1 lobel:1 winner:1 caldecott:1 medal:1 ramsay:1 wood:1 kalila:2 dimna:2 friendship:1 betrayal:1 bill:1 willingham:1 graphic:1 novel:1 notable:1 tales:1 sky:1 fall:1 boy:2 cry:1 cock:2 jewel:1 kalilag:1 damnag:1 light:1 canopus:1 philosophie:1 doni:1 baital:1 pachisi:1 emperor:1 clothes:1 stone:1 soup:1 engine:1 could:1 jonathan:1 livingston:1 seagull:1 watership:1 bunt:1 anticipate:1 poem:1 life:1 death:1 happies:1 american:1 amphigory:1 philip:1 malachowski:1 striped:1 pyjama:1 boyne:1 allegory:1 anthropomorphism:1 apologue:1 apologia:1 fairy:1 fantastique:1 ghost:1 proverb:1 reference:1 bible:1 authorised:1 dlr:1 david:1 lee:1 rubin:1 princeton:1 encyclopedia:1 poetry:1 poetics:1 external:1 link:1 symbolism:1 list:1 dragon:1 tyrant:1 guide:1 imaginexus:1 interconnected:1 anyone:1 edit:1 society:2 academic:1 focus:1 related:1 genre:1 |@bigram inanimate_object:3 timothy_titus:1 la_fontaine:5 trickster_figure:1 ignacy_krasicki:5 aesop_fable:5 sumerian_akkadian:1 und_ihre:1 walter_burkert:1 millennium_bc:1 jataka_tale:1 james_thurber:4 władysław_reymont:4 george_orwell:4 gaius_julius:1 julius_hyginus:1 leonardo_da:1 da_vinci:1 ambrose_bierce:2 leo_tolstoy:1 franz_kafka:1 damon_runyon:1 dr_seuss:1 isaac_bashevis:1 bashevis_singer:1 josé_saramago:1 italo_calvino:1 fairy_tale:1 external_link:1 |
1,689 | Alexandria,_Indiana | Alexandria is a city in Monroe Township, Madison County, Indiana, United States. It is about northeast of Indianapolis. It is part of the Anderson, Indiana Metropolitan Statistical Area. Its population, as of 2000 is 6,260, according to the United States Census. Alexandria is served by the Norfolk & Southern Railway with a connector which allows rail traffic to flow smoothly between lines servicing east-west and north-south destinations. In the city are a Carnegie library and Beulah Park of 24 acres (97,000 m²) & home of the Madison County "4H Fair". The city is located in rich farm country, which produces corn, oats and wheat; and is in the Indiana natural gas region, to which fact it owed its growth as a manufacturing centre. It was one of the principal seats of the glass industry in Indiana-- plate glass, lamp chimneys, mirrors, &c., were once manufactured here. The municipality owns and operates the water-works as well as the city schools. Alexandria was founded in 1836 and was chartered as a city in 1893. Alexandria is also known as "Small Town USA" and holds an annual festival to honor this heritage. Famous residents include Bill and Gloria Gaither, winners of four Grammys. Gaither Studios is a very busy recording center for different types of music. It is especially known for producing Gospel music. Alexandria is home to what is lauded by the Guinness Book of World Records as the world's largest ball of paint. It is also the home of a community band which draws musicians from several neighboring communities. Geography Alexandria is located at . According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 2.7 square miles (7.0 km²), all of it land. Demographics As of the census of 2000, there were 6,260 people, 2,481 households, and 1,654 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,308.6 people per square mile (891.9/km²). There were 2,704 housing units at an average density of 997.2/sq mi (385.2/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 98.10% White, 0.46% Black or African American, 0.08% Native American, 0.11% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.43% from other races, and 0.80% from two or more races. 0.99% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 2,481 households out of which 33.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.0% were married couples living together, 12.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.3% were non-families. 28.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 13.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.48 and the average family size was 3.04. In the city the population was spread out with 27.8% under the age of 18, 8.9% from 18 to 24, 28.0% from 25 to 44, 19.5% from 45 to 64, and 15.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females there were 91.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.4 males. The median income for a household in the city was $35,359, and the median income for a family was $42,731. Males had a median income of $30,529 versus $23,384 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,578. About 4.2% of families and 7.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4.1% of those under age 18 and 15.0% of those age 65 or over. Some text originally from an old encyclopedia References External links Alexandria Chamber of Commerce Roadside Ambition | Alexandria,_Indiana |@lemmatized alexandria:7 city:11 monroe:1 township:1 madison:2 county:2 indiana:4 united:3 state:3 northeast:1 indianapolis:1 part:1 anderson:1 metropolitan:1 statistical:1 area:2 population:5 accord:2 census:3 serve:1 norfolk:1 southern:1 railway:1 connector:1 allow:1 rail:1 traffic:1 flow:1 smoothly:1 line:2 service:1 east:1 west:1 north:1 south:1 destination:1 carnegie:1 library:1 beulah:1 park:1 acre:1 home:3 fair:1 locate:2 rich:1 farm:1 country:1 produce:2 corn:1 oat:1 wheat:1 natural:1 gas:1 region:1 fact:1 owe:1 growth:1 manufacturing:1 centre:1 one:1 principal:1 seat:1 glass:2 industry:1 plate:1 lamp:1 chimney:1 mirror:1 c:1 manufacture:1 municipality:1 operate:1 water:1 work:1 well:1 school:1 found:1 charter:1 also:2 know:2 small:1 town:1 usa:1 hold:1 annual:1 festival:1 honor:1 heritage:1 famous:1 resident:1 include:2 bill:1 gloria:1 gaither:2 winner:1 four:1 grammys:1 studio:1 busy:1 record:2 center:1 different:1 type:1 music:2 especially:1 gospel:1 laud:1 guinness:1 book:1 world:2 large:1 ball:1 paint:1 community:2 band:1 draw:1 musician:1 several:1 neighbor:1 geography:1 bureau:1 total:1 square:2 mile:2 land:1 demographic:1 people:2 household:5 family:5 reside:1 density:2 per:2 housing:1 unit:1 average:3 sq:1 mi:1 racial:1 makeup:1 white:1 black:1 african:1 american:2 native:1 asian:1 pacific:1 islander:1 race:3 two:1 hispanic:1 latino:1 child:1 age:8 living:1 marry:1 couple:1 live:2 together:1 female:4 householder:1 husband:1 present:1 non:1 make:1 individual:1 someone:1 alone:1 year:3 old:3 size:2 spread:1 median:4 every:2 male:3 income:4 versus:1 capita:1 poverty:1 text:1 originally:1 encyclopedia:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 chamber:1 commerce:1 roadside:1 ambition:1 |@bigram metropolitan_statistical:1 census_bureau:1 density_sq:1 sq_mi:1 mi_racial:1 racial_makeup:1 pacific_islander:1 islander_race:1 hispanic_latino:1 latino_race:1 female_householder:1 householder_husband:1 male_median:2 median_income:3 per_capita:1 capita_income:1 external_link:1 chamber_commerce:1 |
1,690 | Indonesian_National_Armed_Forces | The Armed Forces of Indonesia (, TNI, formerly Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia, best known by the acronym ABRI)in 2009 comprises approximately 432.129 personnel including the Army (TNI-AD), Navy (TNI-AL) including the Indonesian Marine Corps (Korps Marinir) and the Air Force (TNI-AU). The Indonesian Army was formed during the Indonesian National Revolution, when it undertook a guerrilla war along with informal militia. As a result of this, and the need to maintain internal security, the Army has been organized along territorial lines, aimed at defeating internal enemies and external invaders once they have occupied the nation *http://www.tni.mil.id .. Under the 1945 Constitution, every citizen is legally entitled and obliged to defend the nation. Conscription is provided for by law, yet the Forces have been able to maintain mandated strength levels without resorting to a draft. Most enlisted personnel were recruited in their own home regions and generally trained and served most of their time in units nearby. Each service has small female units, inaugurated in 1992. These all-female Corps are the Women's Army Corps, the Navy Women's Corps, the Air Force Women's Corps, and the Women's Corps of the Police. These are to "set to work at places and in functions conform[ing] to their feminine disposition." More specifically, women were assigned to administrative work, teaching English and working to improve health and social conditions of armed forces members and their families. The women police were said to "play an important role in solving problems [of] drug addicts and juvenile delinquents." http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+id0171 The Indonesian Army is by far the largest, with about 328.517 active-duty personnel, compared to around 74,963 in the Navy and 34,930 in the Air Force.. The Indonesian armed forces are entirely voluntary. The available manpower fit for military service of males aged between 16 to 49 is 52,000,000, with a further 2,000,000 new suitable for service annually Defense spending in the national budget was widely estimated 3% of GDP in 2005 , but is supplemented by revenue from many military-run businesses and foundations. The Indonesian Defence force personnel does not include members of law enforcement and paramilitary personnel such as POLRI (Indonesian police) consisting of approximately 540,000 personnel, BRIMOB [police mobile brigade] of around 39,000 armed personnel, MENWA [university student regiment] 26,000 trained personnel, and HANSIP [civilian defence] (number unknown). In 2009, all former Indonesian military businesses are to be surrendered to a specialist body. The Indonesian Military Business Management Body (BPBTNI) was established in effect of a stipulation in Law No.34/2004 on the Indonesian Military (TNI) which will takeover ownership and operation of all businesses owned or run by the TNI by 2009. Unlike the former National Banking Restructuring Agency (BPPN) which burdened the Indonesian state with losses, the BPBTNI would bear all losses alone http://www.antara.co.id/en/arc/2006/7/20/tni-businesses-to-be-taken-over-by-special-body/ . Political role of the military During the Suharto era, the military had a "dual function" (dwifungsi in Indonesian) defined as: firstly preservation and enforcement of internal and external security and sovereignty of the State and secondly, as an overseer and arbiter of government policy. This was used to justify substantial military interference in politics. Long-time president Suharto was an army general and was strongly supported by most of the military establishment. Traditionally a significant number of cabinet members had military backgrounds, while active duty and retired military personnel occupied a large number of seats in the legislature. Commanders of the various territorial commands played influential roles in the affairs of their respective regions. Indonesia has not had a substantial conflict with its neighbours since the 1963-1965 Indonesia-Malaysia Confrontation, known in Indonesia as Konfrontasi with Malaysia. Possible future disputes relating to competing Malaysian-Indonesian South China Sea claims, where Indonesia has large natural gas reserves, concern the Indonesian government. As of 2007, some regional claims with neighbouring Malaysia have led to some minor sabre-rattling by both sides with a stalemate over the sovereignty of Unarang rock and the maritime boundary in the Ambalat oil block in the Celebes Sea. In the post-Suharto period since 1998, civilian and military leaders have advocated removing the military from politics (for example, the military's representation in the House of Representatives was reduced and finally ended), but the military's political influence remains extensive. The TNI has been notorious since the massacre of alleged pro-communists in 1965-6 and the East Timor Crisis. In both events, the TNI were alleged to have mistreated and killed hundreds, perhaps thousands of people. Organization Following a decision in 1985, major reorganization separated the Ministry of Defense and Security [HANKAM] from the ABRI headquarters and staff. HANKAM was made responsible for planning, acquisition, and management tasks but had no command or control of troop units. The ABRI commander in chief retained command and control of all armed forces and continued by tradition to be the senior military officer in the country. Since the separation of the ministry from the armed forces headquarters in 1985, the HANKAM staff has been composed largely of retired military personnel. The split provided positions of responsibility for highly qualified but relatively young retired officers of the Generation of 1945 while also opening up high level billets in ABRI to younger active-duty officers who had been frustrated by slow rates of promotion. The administrative structure of HANKAM consisted of a minister, secretary general, inspector general, three directorates-general and a number of functional centers and institutes. The minister, inspector general, and three directors general were retired senior military officers; the secretary general (who acted as deputy minister) and most functional center chiefs were active-duty military officers. Philosophy & Doctrine The Indonesian military philosophy over-riding defense of the archipelago is summarily civilian-military defense, called "Total People's Defense"- consisting of a three-stage war: a short initial period in which invader would defeat a conventional Indonesian military, a long period of territorial guerrilla war followed by a final stage of expulsion- with military acting as a rallying point for defence from grass-roots village level upwards. The doctrine relies on a close bond between villager and soldier to encourage the support of the entire population and enable the military to manage all war-related resources. The civilian population would provide logistical support, intelligence, and upkeep with some trained to join the guerrilla struggle. Armed forces regular engage in large-scale community and rural development . The "Armed Forces Enters the Village" (AMD) program, begun in 1983 is held three times annually to organise and assist construction and development of civilian village projects . Officer Training The officer corps was estimated at 53,000 in 1992. Less than 1 percent of these were of general officer rank. The Armed Forces Academy of the Republic of Indonesia (Akademi TNI), the national military academy at Magelang, Jawa Tengah Province trains most military officer corps. Mandatory retirement exists for officers at age fifty-eight and routine periodic reassignments are enforced. The officer corps is majority ethnic Javanese Branches Army (TNI-AD) First formed in 1945 following the end of World War 2, it initially consisted of local militia and grew to become the regular army of today. Air Force (TNI-AU) In 1946, Indonesia became the second country (after Thailand/Siam) in South East Asia to acquire an Air Force capability. Presently, the Indonesian Air Force has 27,850 personnel equipped with 346 aircraft including Su-27 and Su-30 fighters. Navy (TNI-AL) First formed in 22 August 1945, it became the second country (after Thailand/Siam) in South East Asia to acquire a navy capability. Current strength of the Indonesian Navy is around 74,000. The Indonesian Navy purchased a number of ships of the former East German navy in the 1990s. Navy vessels include KRI Cobra and others. In 2006, Indonesian Navy purchased 2 Kilo class-636 conventional submarines, 2 Shipset Yakhont Missile and 20 BMP-3F amphibious light tank with option of 100 more BMP-3 from Russia. Indonesia also plan to buy landing craft ships from Russia Jitters as Indonesia buys Russian subs - World - smh.com.au . In contrast to many other nations and military traditions, the Navy uses Infantry style ranks Tentara Nasional Indonesia Naval Aviation All Indonesian Navy aircraft are operated by the Indonesian Naval Aviation Service (DINAS PENERBANGAN TNI-AL). The Indonesian Navy has also purchased 8 Mi-2 (now based in Surabaya), but only two have arrived because of problems with the Indonesian Navy's agency. The Navy operates 52 fixed wing aircraft, and 23 combat and transport helicopters. . Marine Corps The Indonesian Marine Corps (KorMar) is the Indonesian Navy's ground troops. It was created on November 15, 1945 and has the duties of being the main amphibious warfare force and quick reaction force of defence against enemy invasion. Police While not strictly part of the armed forces, the national police often operate in a paramilitary role, independently or in cooperation with the other services on internal security missions. Indonesian Police use the name of POLRI (Kepolisian Republik Indonesia). List of commanders ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Name ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Years ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Notes |----- | Lt. Gen. Urip Sumohardjo|| 1945 ||Position held on an interim basis http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/2005/0805/13/0801.htm || |----- | Lt. Gen. Sudirman || 1945-1950 || Position known as Great Commander of the People's Security Army (Panglima Besar Tentara Keamanan Rakyat) || |----- | Maj. Gen. TB Simatupang || 1950-1952 || Position known as Chief of Staff of the Battle Forces (Kepala Staf Angkatan Perang) || |----- | Vacant ||1952-1968 || Position abolished by President Sukarno after the 17th October 1952 incident || |----- | Gen. Suharto|| 1968-1973 || Position known as Commander of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Indonesia (Panglima ABRI) as long as Minister of Defense and Security || |----- | Gen. Maraden Panggabean || 1973-1978 || idem || |----- | Gen. Andi Mohammad Jusuf || 1978-1983 || idem || |----- | Gen. Benny Moerdani|| 1983-1988 || Also Commander of the Operational Command for the Restoration of Security and Order (Kopkamtib) || |----- | Gen. Try Sutrisno|| 1988-1993 || || |----- | Gen. Edi Sudrajat|| 1993 || Also Minister of Defense and Security and Chief of Staff of the Army || |----- | Gen. Feisal Tanjung|| 1993-1998 || || |----- | Gen. Wiranto|| 1998-1999 || Position known as Commander of the Indonesian National Army (Panglima Tentara Nasional Indonesia) in 1999 as long as Minister of Defense and Security || |----- | Adm. Widodo Adi Sutjipto|| 1999-2002 || || |----- | Gen. Endriartono Sutarto|| 2002-2006 || || |----- | ACM. Djoko Suyanto || 2006-2007 || || |----- | Gen. Djoko Santoso || 2007-2008 || || |} US Arms Embargo Following the 2004 Aceh tsunami the United States government suspended the spare parts embargo for non-lethal equipment and military vehicles to support the humanitarian effort in the tsunami-devastated regions of Aceh and Nias. Since then the Indonesian Air Force has signed deals to purchase more C-130 transport aircraft and upgrade the current C-130s in the inventory. On 22 November 2005, the U.S. announced that military ties with Indonesia would be restored. The decision had ended the six-year U.S. ban on arms sales. National, World and Business News | Reuters.co.uk References Library of Congress Studies, , accessed 25 July 2008 @ 07:55 GMT. CIA World Factbook , accessed 25 July 2008 @ 07:55 GMT. Indonesian Official Military Site , accessed 25 July 2008 @ 08:50 GMT Antara News, "TNI Businesses To Be Taken Over by Special Body", accessed 29 March 2009 @ 12:00 GMT Further reading Bresnan, John. (1993). Managing Indonesia: the modern political economy. New York: Columbia University Press. Many topics, including the political role of the military at the height of Suharto's New Order. Chandra, Siddharth and Douglas Kammen. (2002). "Generating Reforms and Reforming Generations: Military Politics in Indonesia’s Transition to Democracy." World Politics, Vol. 55, No. 1. Crouch, Harold. (1988). The army and politics in Indonesia. Ithaca:Cornell University Press. First published 1978. Now somewhat dated, but provides an influential overview of the role of the military in consolidating Suharto's power Kammen, Douglas and Siddharth Chandra. (1999). A Tour of Duty: Changing Patterns of Military Politics in Indonesia in the 1990s. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Modern Indonesia Project No. 75. Kingsbury, Damien. (2003). Power politics and the Indonesian military. London: RoutledgeCurzon. Lowry, Bob (1993). Indonesian Defence Policy and the Indonesian Armed Forces, Canberra Papers on Strategy and Defence No.99, Strategic and Defence Studies Centre, Australian National University Library of Congress Studies, (http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+id0171), accessed 25 July 2008 @ 07:55 GMT. CIA World Factbook, accessed 25 July 2008 @ 07:55 GMT. Indonesian Official Military Site http://www.tni.mil.id, accessed 25 July 2008 @ 08:50 GMT Kingsbury, Damen. Power Politics and the Indonesian Military, Routledge: 2003 ISBN 041529729X: 280 pages External links Official Website of TNI Official Website of TNI-AD (Army) Official Website of TNI-AL (Navy) Official Website of Polri (Indonesian Police) Official Website of the Department of Defense GlobalSecurity.org : Indonesia Unofficial Site Of Indonesian Armed Forces Unofficial Site Of Indonesian Special Forces Indonesian Civil-Military Relations - Civil-Military Relations in Post-Suharto Indonesia and the Implications for Democracy Today: A Preliminary Analysis "Guerilla Warfare and the Indonesian Strategic Psyche" Small Wars Journal article by Emmet McElhatton "ASEAN Armies Rifle Meet" | Indonesian_National_Armed_Forces |@lemmatized armed:8 force:25 indonesia:22 tni:20 formerly:1 angkatan:2 bersenjata:1 republik:2 best:1 know:6 acronym:1 abri:5 comprises:1 approximately:2 personnel:11 include:6 army:14 ad:3 navy:17 al:4 indonesian:40 marine:3 corp:10 korps:1 marinir:1 air:7 au:3 form:3 national:8 revolution:1 undertake:1 guerrilla:3 war:6 along:2 informal:1 militia:2 result:1 need:1 maintain:2 internal:4 security:9 organize:1 territorial:3 line:1 aim:1 defeat:2 enemy:2 external:3 invader:2 occupy:2 nation:3 http:6 www:4 mil:2 id:3 constitution:1 every:1 citizen:1 legally:1 entitle:1 oblige:1 defend:1 conscription:1 provide:4 law:3 yet:1 able:1 mandated:1 strength:2 level:3 without:1 resort:1 draft:1 enlisted:1 recruit:1 home:1 region:3 generally:1 train:4 serve:1 time:3 unit:3 nearby:1 service:5 small:2 female:2 inaugurate:1 woman:6 police:8 set:1 work:3 place:1 function:2 conform:1 ing:1 feminine:1 disposition:1 specifically:1 assign:1 administrative:2 teach:1 english:1 improve:1 health:1 social:1 condition:1 member:3 family:1 say:1 play:2 important:1 role:6 solve:1 problem:2 drug:1 addict:1 juvenile:1 delinquent:1 loc:2 gov:2 cgi:2 bin:2 query:2 r:2 frd:2 cstdy:2 field:2 docid:2 far:2 large:4 active:4 duty:6 compare:1 around:3 arm:7 entirely:1 voluntary:1 available:1 manpower:1 fit:1 military:39 male:1 age:2 new:3 suitable:1 annually:2 defense:9 spending:1 budget:1 widely:1 estimate:2 gdp:1 supplement:1 revenue:1 many:3 run:2 business:7 foundation:1 defence:7 enforcement:2 paramilitary:2 polri:3 consisting:2 brimob:1 mobile:1 brigade:1 menwa:1 university:4 student:1 regiment:1 trained:1 hansip:1 civilian:5 number:5 unknown:1 former:3 surrender:1 specialist:1 body:4 management:2 bpbtni:2 establish:1 effect:1 stipulation:1 takeover:1 ownership:1 operation:1 unlike:1 banking:1 restructuring:1 agency:2 bppn:1 burden:1 state:3 loss:2 would:4 bear:1 alone:1 antara:2 co:2 en:1 arc:1 take:2 special:3 political:4 suharto:7 era:1 dual:1 dwifungsi:1 define:1 firstly:1 preservation:1 sovereignty:2 secondly:1 overseer:1 arbiter:1 government:3 policy:2 use:2 justify:1 substantial:2 interference:1 politics:8 long:4 president:2 general:8 strongly:1 support:4 establishment:1 traditionally:1 significant:1 cabinet:1 background:4 retire:3 seat:1 legislature:1 commander:7 various:1 command:4 influential:2 affair:1 respective:1 conflict:1 neighbour:2 since:5 malaysia:3 confrontation:1 konfrontasi:1 possible:1 future:1 dispute:1 relate:1 compete:1 malaysian:1 south:3 china:1 sea:2 claim:2 natural:1 gas:1 reserve:1 concern:1 regional:1 lead:1 minor:1 sabre:1 rattling:1 side:1 stalemate:1 unarang:1 rock:1 maritime:1 boundary:1 ambalat:1 oil:1 block:1 celebes:1 post:2 period:3 leader:1 advocate:1 remove:1 example:1 representation:1 house:1 representative:1 reduce:1 finally:1 end:3 influence:1 remain:1 extensive:1 notorious:1 massacre:1 alleged:1 pro:1 communist:1 east:4 timor:1 crisis:1 event:1 allege:1 mistreat:1 kill:1 hundred:1 perhaps:1 thousand:1 people:3 organization:1 follow:4 decision:2 major:1 reorganization:1 separate:1 ministry:2 hankam:4 headquarters:2 staff:4 make:1 responsible:1 planning:1 acquisition:1 task:1 control:2 troop:2 chief:4 retain:1 continue:1 tradition:2 senior:2 officer:11 country:3 separation:1 compose:1 largely:1 retired:1 split:1 position:7 responsibility:1 highly:1 qualify:1 relatively:1 young:2 generation:2 also:5 open:1 high:1 billet:1 frustrate:1 slow:1 rate:1 promotion:1 structure:1 consist:2 minister:6 secretary:2 inspector:2 three:4 directorate:1 functional:2 center:2 institute:1 director:1 act:1 deputy:1 philosophy:2 doctrine:2 rid:1 archipelago:1 summarily:1 call:1 total:1 stage:2 short:1 initial:1 conventional:2 final:1 expulsion:1 acting:1 rallying:1 point:1 grass:1 roots:1 village:3 upwards:1 rely:1 close:1 bond:1 villager:1 soldier:1 encourage:1 entire:1 population:2 enable:1 manage:2 related:1 resource:1 logistical:1 intelligence:1 upkeep:1 join:1 struggle:1 regular:2 engage:1 scale:1 community:1 rural:1 development:2 enter:1 amd:1 program:1 begin:1 hold:2 organise:1 assist:1 construction:1 project:2 less:1 percent:1 rank:2 academy:2 republic:2 akademi:1 magelang:1 jawa:1 tengah:1 province:1 mandatory:1 retirement:1 exists:1 fifty:1 eight:1 routine:1 periodic:1 reassignment:1 enforce:1 majority:1 ethnic:1 javanese:1 branch:1 first:3 world:6 initially:1 local:1 grow:1 become:3 today:2 second:2 thailand:2 siam:2 asia:2 acquire:2 capability:2 presently:1 equip:1 aircraft:4 su:2 fighter:1 august:1 current:2 purchase:4 ship:2 german:1 vessel:1 kri:1 cobra:1 others:1 kilo:1 class:1 submarine:1 shipset:1 yakhont:1 missile:1 bmp:2 amphibious:2 light:1 tank:1 option:1 russia:2 plan:1 buy:2 land:1 craft:1 jitter:1 russian:1 sub:1 smh:1 com:2 contrast:1 us:1 infantry:1 style:4 tentara:3 nasional:2 naval:2 aviation:2 operate:3 dinas:1 penerbangan:1 mi:1 base:1 surabaya:1 two:1 arrive:1 fixed:1 wing:1 combat:1 transport:2 helicopter:1 corps:1 kormar:1 ground:1 create:1 november:2 main:1 warfare:2 quick:1 reaction:1 invasion:1 strictly:1 part:2 often:1 independently:1 cooperation:1 mission:1 name:2 kepolisian:1 list:1 text:3 align:3 left:3 aacccc:3 year:2 note:1 lt:2 gen:13 urip:1 sumohardjo:1 interim:1 basis:1 pikiran:1 rakyat:2 cetak:1 htm:1 sudirman:1 great:1 panglima:3 besar:1 keamanan:1 maj:1 tb:1 simatupang:1 battle:1 kepala:1 staf:1 perang:1 vacant:1 abolish:1 sukarno:1 october:1 incident:1 maraden:1 panggabean:1 idem:2 andi:1 mohammad:1 jusuf:1 benny:1 moerdani:1 operational:1 restoration:1 order:2 kopkamtib:1 try:1 sutrisno:1 edi:1 sudrajat:1 feisal:1 tanjung:1 wiranto:1 adm:1 widodo:1 adi:1 sutjipto:1 endriartono:1 sutarto:1 acm:1 djoko:2 suyanto:1 santoso:1 u:3 embargo:2 aceh:2 tsunami:2 united:1 suspend:1 spare:1 non:1 lethal:1 equipment:1 vehicle:1 humanitarian:1 effort:1 devastated:1 nias:1 sign:1 deal:1 c:2 upgrade:1 inventory:1 announce:1 tie:1 restore:1 six:1 ban:1 sale:1 news:2 reuters:1 uk:1 reference:1 library:2 congress:2 study:3 access:7 july:6 gmt:7 cia:2 factbook:2 official:7 site:4 march:1 reading:1 bresnan:1 john:1 modern:2 economy:1 york:1 columbia:1 press:2 topic:1 height:1 chandra:2 siddharth:2 douglas:2 kammen:2 generate:1 reform:2 transition:1 democracy:2 vol:1 crouch:1 harold:1 ithaca:2 cornell:2 published:1 somewhat:1 dated:1 overview:1 consolidate:1 power:3 tour:1 changing:1 pattern:1 ny:1 kingsbury:2 damien:1 london:1 routledgecurzon:1 lowry:1 bob:1 canberra:1 paper:1 strategy:1 strategic:2 centre:1 australian:1 damen:1 routledge:1 isbn:1 page:1 link:1 website:5 department:1 globalsecurity:1 org:1 unofficial:2 civil:2 relation:2 implication:1 preliminary:1 analysis:1 guerilla:1 psyche:1 journal:1 article:1 emmet:1 mcelhatton:1 asean:1 rifle:1 meet:1 |@bigram marine_corp:2 http_www:4 drug_addict:1 loc_gov:2 gov_cgi:2 cgi_bin:2 bin_query:2 frd_cstdy:2 cstdy_field:2 manpower_fit:1 indonesia_malaysia:1 east_timor:1 commander_chief:1 grass_roots:1 mandatory_retirement:1 su_su:1 smh_com:1 marine_corps:1 amphibious_warfare:1 align_left:3 background_aacccc:3 lt_gen:2 maj_gen:1 chief_staff:2 arm_embargo:1 ithaca_cornell:1 ithaca_ny:1 ny_cornell:1 external_link:1 globalsecurity_org:1 guerilla_warfare:1 |
1,691 | Complex_analysis | Plot of the function f(x)=(x2-1)(x-2-i)2/(x2+2+2i). The hue represents the function argument, while the brightness represents the magnitude. Complex analysis, traditionally known as the theory of functions of a complex variable, is the branch of mathematics investigating functions of complex numbers. It is useful in many branches of mathematics, including number theory and applied mathematics, and in physics. Complex analysis is particularly concerned with the analytic functions of complex variables (or, more generally, meromorphic functions). Because the separable real and imaginary parts of any analytic function must satisfy Laplace's equation, complex analysis is widely applicable to two-dimensional problems in physics. History The Mandelbrot set, a fractal. Complex analysis is one of the classical branches in mathematics with its roots in the 19th century and some even before. Important names are Euler, Gauss, Riemann, Cauchy, Weierstrass, and many more in the 20th century. Traditionally, complex analysis, in particular the theory of conformal mappings, has many physical applications and is also used throughout analytic number theory. In modern times, it became very popular through a new boost of complex dynamics and the pictures of fractals produced by iterating holomorphic functions, the most popular being the Mandelbrot set. Another important application of complex analysis today is in string theory which is a conformally invariant quantum field theory. Complex functions A complex function is a function in which the independent variable and the dependent variable are both complex numbers. More precisely, a complex function is a function whose domain Ω is a subset of the complex plane and whose range is also a subset of the complex plane. For any complex function, both the independent variable and the dependent variable may be separated into real and imaginary parts: and where and are real-valued functions. In other words, the components of the function f(z), and can be interpreted as real valued functions of the two real variables, x and y. The basic concepts of complex analysis are often introduced by extending the elementary real functions (e.g., exponentials, logarithms, and trigonometric functions) into the complex domain. Derivatives and the Cauchy–Riemann equations Just as in real analysis, a "smooth" complex function w = f(z) may have a derivative at a particular point in its domain Ω. In fact, the definition of the derivative is analogous to the real case but with one very important difference. In real analysis, the limit can only be approached by moving along the one-dimensional number line. In complex analysis, the limit can be approached from any direction in the two-dimensional complex plane, and for the derivative to exist, the limiting value must be the same no matter what the direction of approach of h to 0. (The claim that "in real analysis, the limit can only be approached by moving along the one dimensional number line" should not be confused with directional derivatives. It may be explained that in directional derivatives, one still moves along the one dimensional x line but it can be in "discrete" units; that is, if one follows the y = x2 curve, that does not mean that one is moving on the plane (instead of the one dimensional x line) but means that one is approaching in steps of discrete units.) If this limit, the derivative, exists for every point z in Ω, then f(z) is said to be differentiable on Ω. It can be shown that any differentiable f(z) is analytic. This is a much more powerful result than the analogous theorem that can be proved for real-valued functions of real numbers. In the calculus of real numbers, we can construct a function f(x) that has a first derivative everywhere, but for which the second derivative does not exist at one or more points in the function's domain. But in the complex plane, if a function f(z) is differentiable in a neighborhood it must also be infinitely differentiable in that neighborhood. (See "Holomorphic functions are analytic" for a proof.) By applying the methods of vector calculus to compute the partial derivatives of the two real functions u(x, y) and v(x, y) into which f(z) can be decomposed, and by considering two paths leading to a point z in Ω, it can be shown that the existence of derivative implies Equating the real and imaginary parts of these two expressions we obtain the traditional formulation of the Cauchy–Riemann equations: or, in another common notation, By differentiating this system of two partial differential equations first with respect to x, and then with respect to y, we can easily show that or, in another common notation, In other words, the real and imaginary parts of a differentiable function of a complex variable are harmonic functions because they satisfy Laplace's equation. Holomorphic functions Holomorphic functions are complex functions defined on an open subset of the complex plane which are differentiable. Complex differentiability has much stronger consequences than usual (real) differentiability. For instance, holomorphic functions are infinitely differentiable, a fact that is far from true for real differentiable functions. Most elementary functions, including the exponential function, the trigonometric functions, and all polynomial functions, are holomorphic. See also: analytic function, holomorphic sheaf and vector bundles. Major results One central tool in complex analysis is the line integral. The integral around a closed path of a function which is holomorphic everywhere inside the area bounded by the closed path is always zero; this is the Cauchy integral theorem. The values of a holomorphic function inside a disk can be computed by a certain path integral on the disk's boundary (Cauchy's integral formula). Path integrals in the complex plane are often used to determine complicated real integrals, and here the theory of residues among others is useful (see methods of contour integration). If a function has a pole or singularity at some point, that is, at that point its values "blow up" and have no finite value, then one can compute the function's residue at that pole, and these residues can be used to compute path integrals involving the function; this is the content of the powerful residue theorem. The remarkable behavior of holomorphic functions near essential singularities is described by Picard's Theorem. Functions which have only poles but no essential singularities are called meromorphic. Laurent series are similar to Taylor series but can be used to study the behavior of functions near singularities. A bounded function which is holomorphic in the entire complex plane must be constant; this is Liouville's theorem. It can be used to provide a natural and short proof for the fundamental theorem of algebra which states that the field of complex numbers is algebraically closed. An important property of holomorphic functions is that if a function is holomorphic throughout a simply connected domain then its values are fully determined by its values on any smaller subdomain. The function on the larger domain is said to be analytically continued from its values on the smaller domain. This allows the extension of the definition of functions such as the Riemann zeta function which are initially defined in terms of infinite sums that converge only on limited domains to almost the entire complex plane. Sometimes, as in the case of the natural logarithm, it is impossible to analytically continue a holomorphic function to a non-simply connected domain in the complex plane but it is possible to extend it to a holomorphic function on a closely related surface known as a Riemann surface. All this refers to complex analysis in one variable. There is also a very rich theory of complex analysis in more than one complex dimension where the analytic properties such as power series expansion still remain true whereas most of the geometric properties of holomorphic functions in one complex dimension (such as conformality) are no longer true. The Riemann mapping theorem about the conformal relationship of certain domains in the complex plane, which may be the most important result in the one-dimensional theory, fails dramatically in higher dimensions. It is also applied in many subjects throughout engineering, particularly in power engineering. See also Several complex variables Runge's theorem List of complex analysis topics Real analysis Complex dynamics Notes References Needham T., Visual Complex Analysis (Oxford, 1997). Henrici P., Applied and Computational Complex Analysis (Wiley). [Three volumes: 1974, 1977, 1986.] Kreyszig, E., Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 9 ed., Ch.13-18 (Wiley, 2006). Scheidemann, V., Introduction to complex analysis in several variables (Birkhauser, 2005) Shaw, W.T., Complex Analysis with Mathematica (Cambridge, 2006). Marsden & Hoffman, Basic complex analysis (Freeman, 1999). External links Complex Analysis -- textbook by George Cain Complex analysis course web site by Douglas N. Arnold Example problems in complex analysis A collection of links to programs for visualizing complex functions (and related) Complex Analysis Project by John H. Mathews Wolfram Research's MathWorld Complex Analysis Page Application of Complex Functions in 2D Digital Image Transformation Complex Visualizer - Java applet for visualizing arbitrary complex functions Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics: Calculus & Analysis | Complex_analysis |@lemmatized plot:1 function:58 f:8 x:9 hue:1 represent:2 argument:1 brightness:1 magnitude:1 complex:55 analysis:27 traditionally:2 know:3 theory:9 variable:11 branch:3 mathematics:6 investigate:1 number:9 useful:2 many:4 include:2 applied:1 physic:2 particularly:2 concern:1 analytic:7 generally:1 meromorphic:2 separable:1 real:20 imaginary:4 part:4 must:4 satisfy:2 laplace:2 equation:5 widely:1 applicable:1 two:7 dimensional:7 problem:2 history:1 mandelbrot:2 set:2 fractal:2 one:17 classical:1 root:1 century:2 even:1 important:5 name:1 euler:1 gauss:1 riemann:6 cauchy:5 weierstrass:1 particular:2 conformal:2 mapping:2 physical:1 application:3 also:7 use:5 throughout:3 modern:1 time:1 become:1 popular:2 new:1 boost:1 dynamic:2 picture:1 produce:1 iterate:1 holomorphic:16 another:3 today:1 string:1 conformally:1 invariant:1 quantum:1 field:2 independent:2 dependent:2 precisely:1 whose:2 domain:10 ω:5 subset:3 plane:11 range:1 may:4 separate:1 value:9 word:3 component:1 z:8 interpret:1 valued:1 basic:2 concept:1 often:2 introduce:1 extend:2 elementary:2 e:2 g:1 exponential:2 logarithm:2 trigonometric:2 derivative:11 smooth:1 w:2 point:6 fact:2 definition:2 analogous:2 case:2 difference:1 limit:5 approach:5 move:4 along:3 line:5 direction:2 exist:2 matter:1 h:2 claim:1 confuse:1 directional:2 explain:1 still:2 discrete:2 unit:2 follow:1 curve:1 mean:2 instead:1 step:1 exists:1 every:1 say:2 differentiable:8 show:3 much:2 powerful:2 result:3 theorem:8 prove:1 calculus:3 construct:1 first:2 everywhere:2 second:1 neighborhood:2 infinitely:2 see:4 proof:2 apply:3 method:2 vector:2 compute:4 partial:2 u:1 v:2 decompose:1 consider:1 path:6 lead:1 existence:1 implies:1 equate:1 expression:1 obtain:1 traditional:1 formulation:1 common:2 notation:2 differentiate:1 system:1 differential:1 respect:2 easily:1 harmonic:1 define:2 open:1 differentiability:2 strong:1 consequence:1 usual:1 instance:1 far:1 true:3 polynomial:1 sheaf:1 bundle:1 major:1 central:1 tool:1 integral:8 around:1 closed:2 inside:2 area:1 bound:1 always:1 zero:1 disk:2 certain:2 boundary:1 formula:1 determine:2 complicate:1 residue:4 among:1 others:1 contour:1 integration:1 pole:3 singularity:4 blow:1 finite:1 involve:1 content:1 remarkable:1 behavior:2 near:2 essential:2 describe:1 picard:1 call:1 laurent:1 series:3 similar:1 taylor:1 study:1 bounded:1 entire:2 constant:1 liouville:1 provide:1 natural:2 short:1 fundamental:1 algebra:1 state:1 algebraically:1 close:1 property:3 simply:2 connect:2 fully:1 small:2 subdomain:1 large:1 analytically:2 continue:2 allow:1 extension:1 zeta:1 initially:1 term:1 infinite:1 sum:1 converge:1 limited:1 almost:1 sometimes:1 impossible:1 non:1 possible:1 closely:1 related:1 surface:2 refers:1 rich:1 dimension:3 power:2 expansion:1 remain:1 whereas:1 geometric:1 conformality:1 long:1 relationship:1 fail:1 dramatically:1 high:1 subject:1 engineering:3 several:2 runge:1 list:1 topic:1 note:1 reference:1 needham:1 visual:1 oxford:1 henrici:1 p:1 computational:1 wiley:2 three:1 volume:1 kreyszig:1 advance:1 ed:1 ch:1 scheidemann:1 introduction:1 birkhauser:1 shaw:1 mathematica:1 cambridge:1 marsden:1 hoffman:1 freeman:1 external:1 link:2 textbook:1 george:1 cain:1 course:1 web:1 site:1 douglas:1 n:1 arnold:1 example:1 collection:1 program:1 visualize:2 relate:1 project:1 john:1 mathews:1 wolfram:1 research:1 mathworld:1 page:1 digital:1 image:1 transformation:1 visualizer:1 java:1 applet:1 arbitrary:1 early:1 us:1 |@bigram applied_mathematics:1 mandelbrot_set:2 holomorphic_function:11 logarithm_trigonometric:1 trigonometric_function:2 cauchy_riemann:2 riemann_equation:2 directional_derivative:2 infinitely_differentiable:2 partial_differential:1 differential_equation:1 complex_differentiability:1 exponential_function:1 liouville_theorem:1 algebraically_close:1 riemann_zeta:1 zeta_function:1 closely_related:1 external_link:1 java_applet:1 |
1,692 | American_Sign_Language | American Sign Language (or ASL, Ameslan) is the dominant sign language of the Deaf community in the United States, in the English-speaking parts of Canada, and in parts of Mexico. Although the United Kingdom and the United States share English as a spoken and written language, British Sign Language (BSL) is quite different from ASL, and the two sign languages are not mutually intelligible. ASL is also used (sometimes alongside indigenous sign languages) in the Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore, Hong Kong, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Haiti, Puerto Rico, Côte d'Ivoire, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Chad, Gabon, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Central African Republic, Mauritania, Kenya, Madagascar, and Zimbabwe. Like other sign languages, its grammar and syntax are distinct from any spoken language in its area of influence. While there has been no reliable survey of the number of people who use ASL as their primary language, estimates range from 500,000 to 2 million in the U.S. alone . History of ASL A sign language interpreter at a presentation In the United States, as in most of the world, hearing families with deaf children often employ ad-hoc home sign for simple communications. Today though, ASL classes are offered in many secondary and postsecondary schools. ASL is a language distinct from spoken English—complete with its own syntax and grammar and supporting its own culture. The origin of modern ASL is ultimately tied to the confluence of many events and circumstances, including historical attempts at deaf education; the unique situation present on a small island in Massachusetts; the attempts of a father to enlist a local minister to help educate his deaf daughter; and in no small part the ingenuity and genius of people (in this case deaf people) for language itself. Prior sign languages France The French had a natural signed language, which is often referred to as Old French Sign Language (OFSL). This is already in use by the deaf cultures in their area of origin, often with additions to show aspects of the grammar of the local spoken languages. Although this language was passed down from deaf person to deaf person, it was not accepted by the educational system. A man by the name of Abbe de l’Epee was the first to acknowledge that signed language could be used to educate the deaf. While visiting a parishioner, Abbe de l’Epee noticed her two deaf daughters conversing with each other using OFSL. The mother explained that her daughters were being educated privately by means of pictures. In 1771 Abbe de l’Epee established the first educational institution for the deaf. Though Abbe de l’Epee recognized that OFSL could be used for educational purposes, he did not view it as a fully developed language. Old French Sign Language was viewed this way because it contained different grammar structure than the French language and was not considered to be a different, independent language of its own. He then modified the language and taught that to his students. America There is little known on sign language in America before 1817. It is said that since there was little contact between communities in early America, home sign language most likely may have been used. However, there is evidence that there was a deaf community in the late 17th century that used natural sign language on Martha’s Vineyard. Between 1690 to the mid-twentieth century there was a high rate of genetic deafness on Martha’s Vineyard caused by the founder effect. It afforded almost everyone the opportunity to have frequent contact with sign language. It was said that 1 out of 155 people on the island was deaf, which by the standards during that time in America was 1 out of 5700 people. The ancestry of the deaf community could be linked to Weald, a small area in England. America-The Plains Indians The Plains Indians used sign language as a medium to communicate between peoples of different languages. In 1688, 1740, 1805, and 1828 it was reported of a developed sign language in the lower Rio Grande. This sign language is believed to have spread northward and become what is known as Plains Indian Sign Language. It is said that this sign language was already in existence prior to the Europeans settling. Variations of this sign language varied from tribe to tribe. Plains Indian Sign Language is still in use today, although not commonly as it did. There is no evidence to show that they influenced the development of American Sign Language. Birth of American Sign Language and American School for the Deaf In 1815 a Protestant minister, Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet, left his home in Hartford, Connecticut and moved to Amsterdam. Dr. Mason Cogswell asked Gallaudet to investigate methods of teaching his deaf daughter. While in England, Gallaudet hit a roadblock when directors of the Braidwood Schools, who taught the oral method, refused to share their methods of teaching. Nevertheless, while in London, Gallaudet met with Abbe Sicard, director of the Royal Institution for the Deaf in Paris and two of his students, one of which was Laurent Clerc. Sicard invited Gallaudet to visit the school in Paris. He did not go immediately, but instead traveled to Edinburgh, Scotland where he again met the methods of Braidwoods. They refused yet again to teach him their methods. Gallaudet then traveled to Paris and learned the educational methods of the Royal Institution for the Deaf with sign language, a combination of Old French Sign Language and the signs developed by Abbė de l’Epėe. Gallaudet persuaded Clerc to return with him to Connecticut and become a teacher for the deaf. Gallaudet and Clerc opened up the Connecticut Asylum for the Education and Instruction of Deaf and Dumb Persons (now called American School for the Deaf) in April 1817. Deaf students were taught French signs and brought in signs of their own, by students such as those coming from Martha’s Vineyard. Thus, it was at this school that all these influences would intermingle and become what would be American Sign Language. There are a great number of signs that are similar between French Sign Language and American Sign Language, so much so that when eighty-seven signs were compared, 58% overlapped in similarity. Growth and standardization American Sign Language Convention of March 2008 in Austin, Texas Interestingly, because of the early influence of the sign language of France upon the school, the vocabularies of ASL and modern French Sign Language are approximately 60% shared, whereas ASL and British Sign Language, for example, are almost completely dissimilar. From its synthesis at this first public school for the deaf in North America, the language went on to grow. Many of the graduates of this school went on to found schools of their own in many other states, thus spreading the methods of Gallaudet and Clerc and serving to expand and standardize the language; as with most languages though, there are regional variations. Oralism vs. Manualism After being strongly established in the United States there was a bitter fight between those who supported oralism over manualism in the late 1800s. Many notable individuals of high standing contributed to this row, such as Alexander Graham Bell. The oralists won many battles and for a long time the use of sign was suppressed, socially and pedagogically. Many considered sign to not even be a language at all. This situation was changed by William Stokoe, a professor of English hired at Gallaudet University in 1955. He immediately became fascinated by ASL and began serious study of it. Eventually, through publication in linguistics journals of articles containing detailed linguistic analysis of ASL, he was able to convince the scientific mainstream that ASL was indeed a natural language on a par with any other. A living language The language continues to grow and change like any living language. In particular, ASL constantly adds new signs in an attempt to keep up with constantly changing technology. Linguistics A group of people signing. ASL is a natural language as proved to the satisfaction of the linguistic community by William Stokoe, and contains phonology, morphology, semantics, syntax and pragmatics just like spoken languages. It is a manual language or visual language, meaning that the information is expressed not with combinations of sounds but with combinations of handshapes, palm orientations, movements of the hands, arms and body, location in relation to the body, and facial expressions. While spoken languages are produced by the vocal cords only, and can thus be easily written in linear patterns, ASL uses the hands, head and body, with constantly changing movements and orientations. Like other natural sign languages, it is "three dimensional" in this sense. (2005), Downs, Sharon. Make A Difference. University of Arkansas at Little Rock. ASL is used natively and predominantly by the Deaf and hard-of-hearing of the United States and Canada. Iconicity Although it often seems as though the signs are meaningful of themselves, in fact they can be as arbitrary as words in spoken language. For example, a speaking child may often make the mistake of using the word "you" to refer to themselves, since others use that word to refer to him or her. Children who acquire the sign YOU (pointing at one's interlocutor) make similar mistakes – they will point at others to mean themselves, indicating that even something as seemingly explicit as pointing is an arbitrary sign in ASL, like words in a spoken language. However, Edward Klima and Ursula Bellugi have modified the common theory that signs can be self-explanatory by grouping signs into three categories: Transparent: Non-signers can usually correctly guess the meaning Translucent: Meaning makes sense to non-signers once it is explained Opaque: Meaning cannot be guessed by non-signers Klima and Bellugi used American Sign Language in formulating that classification. The theory that signs are self-explanatory can be conclusively disproved by the fact that non-signers cannot understand fluent, continuous sign language. The majority of signs are opaque. Generally, signs that are "Transparent" are signs of objects or words that became popular after the basics of ASL were established. There are, of course, exceptions to this. Fingerspelling In ASL, fingerspelling is used primarily for proper nouns, for emphasis (for example, fingerspelling STOP is more emphatic than signing 'stop'), for clarity, and for instruction. ASL includes both fingerspelling borrowings from English, as well as the incorporation of alphabetic letters from English words into ASL signs to distinguish related meanings of what would otherwise be covered by a single sign in ASL. For example, two hands trace a circle to mean 'a group of people'. Several kinds of groups can be specified by handshape: When made with C hands, the sign means 'class'; when made with the F handshape, it means 'family'. Such signs are often referred to as "initialized" signs because they substitute the first letter (the initial) of the corresponding English word as the handshape in order to provide a more specific meaning. When using alphabetic letters in these ways, several otherwise non-phonemic handshapes become distinctive. For example, outside fingerspelling there is but a single fist handshape - the placement of the thumb is irrelevant. However, within fingerspelling, the position of the thumb on the fist distinguishes the letters A, S, and T. Letter-incorporated signs which rely on such minor distinctions as thumb position tend not to be stable in the long run, but they may eventually create new distinctions in the language. For example, due to signs such as 'elevator', which may require the E handshape (depending on the sign used), some argue that E has become phonemically distinct from the 5/claw handshape. Fingerspelling has also given way to a class of signs known as "loan signs" or "borrowed signs." Sometimes defined as "lexicalized fingerspelling," loan signs are somewhat frequent and represent an English word which has, over time, developed a unique movement and shape. Sometimes loan signs are not even recognized as such because they are so frequently used and their movement has become so specialized. Loan signs are sometimes used for emphasis (like the loan sign #YES substituted for the sign YES), but sometimes represent the only form of the sign (e.g., #NO). Probably the most commonly used example of a loan sign is the sign for NO. In this sign, the first two fingers are fused, held out straight, and then tapped against the thumb in a repeated motion. When broken down, it can be seen that this movement is an abbreviated way of fingerspelling N-O-N-O. Loan signs are usually glossed as the English word in all capital letters preceded by the pound sign(#). Other commonly known loan signs include #BACK, #BUS, #CAR, #JOB, #PIZZA, and #YES. Grammar Writing systems ASL is often written with English words in all capital letters, which is known as glossing. This is, however, a method used simply to teach the structure of the language. ASL is a visual language, not a written language. There is no one-to-one correspondence between words in ASL and English, and much of the inflectional modulation of ASL signs is lost. There are two true writing systems in use for ASL: a phonemic Stokoe notation, which has a separate symbol or diacritic mark for every phonemic hand shape, motion, and position (though it leaves something to be desired in the representation of facial expression), and a more popular iconic system called SignWriting, which represents each sign with a rather abstract illustration of its salient features. SignWriting is commonly used for student newsletters and similar purposes. Baby Sign In recent years, it has been shown that exposure to sign language has a positive impact on the socialization of hearing children. When infants are taught to sign, parents are able to converse with them at a developmental stage when they are not yet capable of producing oral speech, which requires fine control of both breathing and the vocal tract. The ability of a child to actively communicate earlier than would otherwise be possible appears to accelerate language development and to decrease the frustrations of communication. Many parents use a collection of simplified or ad hoc signs called "baby sign", as infants do not have the dexterity required for true ASL. However, parents can learn to recognize their baby's approximations of adult ASL signs, just as they will later learn to recognize their approximations of oral language, so teaching an infant ASL is also possible. Typically young children will make an ASL sign in the correct location and use the correct hand motion, but may be able only to approximate the hand shape, for example, using one finger instead of three in signing water. See also American Manual Alphabet ASL Idioms Bimodal Bilingualism in the American Deaf Community British Sign Language Child of deaf adult Cued Speech Filipino Sign Language Gallaudet University Profanity in ASL Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf Signing Exact English References Barnard, Henry (1852), "Tribute to Gallaudet—A Discourse in Commemoration of the Life, Character and Services, of the Rev. Thomas H. Gallaudet, LL.D.— Delivered Before the Citizens of Hartford, January 7, 1852. With an Appendix, Containing History of Deaf-Mute Instruction and Institutions, and other Documents." (Download book: http://www.saveourdeafschools.org/tribute_to_gallaudet.pdf) Lane, Harlan L. (1984). When the mind hears: A history of the deaf. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-394-50878-5. Padden, Carol; & Humphries, Tom. (1988). Deaf in America: Voices from a culture. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-19423-3. Sacks, Oliver W. (1989). Seeing voices: A journey into the land of the deaf. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-06083-0. External links List of every ASL online dictionary - American Sign Language (ASL) resource site. Free online lessons, ASL dictionary, and resources for teachers, students, and parents. The American Sign Language Linguistics Research Project Publications of the ASLLRP The Syntactic Organization of American Sign Language: A Synopsis (.pdf) About ASL - article at deaflibrary.org Ethnologue entry on ASL Video Dictionary of ASL Chimpanzees & Sign Language - article focusing on chimpanzee communication through sign language. Some Cultural Info about ASL Athabaskan Satellites & ASL Ion-Morphs American Sign Language is a Foreign Language - a research/argumentative paper for the consideration of ASL to fulfill University foreign language requirements. ASL Helper Type an English word, links to vocabulary sites. Vocabulary only; no syntax or grammar; some inaccuracies. American Sign Language University-Lifeprint.com | American_Sign_Language |@lemmatized american:16 sign:99 language:82 asl:44 ameslan:1 dominant:1 deaf:31 community:6 united:6 state:6 english:13 speaking:2 part:3 canada:2 mexico:1 although:4 kingdom:1 share:3 spoken:8 write:6 british:3 bsl:1 quite:1 different:4 two:6 mutually:1 intelligible:1 also:4 use:27 sometimes:5 alongside:1 indigenous:1 philippine:1 malaysia:1 singapore:1 hong:1 kong:1 dominican:1 republic:3 el:1 salvador:1 haiti:1 puerto:1 rico:1 côte:1 ivoire:1 burkina:1 faso:1 ghana:1 togo:1 benin:1 nigeria:1 chad:1 gabon:1 democratic:1 congo:1 central:1 african:1 mauritania:1 kenya:1 madagascar:1 zimbabwe:1 like:6 grammar:6 syntax:4 distinct:3 area:3 influence:4 reliable:1 survey:1 number:2 people:8 primary:1 estimate:1 range:1 million:1 u:1 alone:1 history:3 interpreter:2 presentation:1 world:1 hear:3 family:2 child:7 often:7 employ:1 ad:2 hoc:2 home:3 simple:1 communication:3 today:2 though:5 class:3 offer:1 many:8 secondary:1 postsecondary:1 school:10 complete:1 support:2 culture:3 origin:2 modern:2 ultimately:1 tie:1 confluence:1 event:1 circumstance:1 include:3 historical:1 attempt:3 education:2 unique:2 situation:2 present:1 small:3 island:2 massachusetts:1 father:1 enlist:1 local:2 minister:2 help:1 educate:3 daughter:4 ingenuity:1 genius:1 case:1 prior:2 france:2 french:8 natural:5 refer:4 old:3 ofsl:3 already:2 addition:1 show:3 aspect:1 pass:1 person:3 accept:1 educational:4 system:4 man:1 name:1 abbe:5 de:5 l:6 epee:4 first:5 acknowledge:1 signed:1 could:3 visit:2 parishioner:1 notice:1 converse:2 mother:1 explain:2 privately:1 mean:6 picture:1 establish:3 institution:4 recognize:4 purpose:2 view:2 fully:1 developed:2 way:4 contain:4 structure:2 consider:2 independent:1 modify:2 taught:2 student:6 america:7 little:3 know:5 say:3 since:2 contact:2 early:3 likely:1 may:5 however:5 evidence:2 late:2 century:2 martha:3 vineyard:3 mid:1 twentieth:1 high:2 rate:1 genetic:1 deafness:1 cause:1 founder:1 effect:1 afford:1 almost:2 everyone:1 opportunity:1 frequent:2 standard:1 time:3 ancestry:1 link:3 weald:1 england:2 plain:4 indians:1 indian:3 medium:1 communicate:2 report:1 low:1 rio:1 grande:1 believe:1 spread:2 northward:1 become:8 existence:1 european:1 settle:1 variation:2 vary:1 tribe:2 still:1 commonly:4 development:2 birth:1 protestant:1 thomas:2 hopkins:1 gallaudet:13 leave:2 hartford:2 connecticut:3 move:1 amsterdam:1 dr:1 mason:1 cogswell:1 ask:1 investigate:1 method:8 teach:7 hit:1 roadblock:1 director:2 braidwood:1 oral:3 refuse:2 nevertheless:1 london:1 meet:2 sicard:2 royal:2 paris:3 one:5 laurent:1 clerc:4 invite:1 go:3 immediately:2 instead:2 travel:2 edinburgh:1 scotland:1 braidwoods:1 yet:2 learn:3 combination:3 develop:2 abbė:1 epėe:1 persuade:1 return:1 teacher:2 open:1 asylum:1 instruction:3 dumb:1 call:3 april:1 bring:1 come:1 thus:3 would:4 intermingle:1 great:1 similar:3 much:2 eighty:1 seven:1 compare:1 overlap:1 similarity:1 growth:1 standardization:1 convention:1 march:1 austin:1 texas:1 interestingly:1 upon:1 vocabulary:3 approximately:1 whereas:1 example:8 completely:1 dissimilar:1 synthesis:1 public:1 north:1 grow:2 graduate:1 find:1 serve:1 expand:1 standardize:1 regional:1 oralism:2 v:1 manualism:2 strongly:1 bitter:1 fight:1 notable:1 individual:1 stand:1 contribute:1 row:1 alexander:1 graham:1 bell:1 oralists:1 win:1 battle:1 long:2 suppress:1 socially:1 pedagogically:1 even:3 change:4 william:2 stokoe:3 professor:1 hire:1 university:7 fascinate:1 begin:1 serious:1 study:1 eventually:2 publication:2 linguistics:3 journal:1 article:3 detailed:1 linguistic:2 analysis:1 able:3 convince:1 scientific:1 mainstream:1 indeed:1 par:1 living:2 continue:1 particular:1 constantly:3 add:1 new:3 keep:1 technology:1 group:4 prove:1 satisfaction:1 phonology:1 morphology:1 semantics:1 pragmatic:1 manual:2 visual:2 information:1 express:1 sound:1 handshapes:2 palm:1 orientation:2 movement:5 hand:7 arm:1 body:3 location:2 relation:1 facial:2 expression:2 produce:2 vocal:2 cord:1 easily:1 linear:1 pattern:1 head:1 three:3 dimensional:1 sense:2 sharon:1 make:7 difference:1 arkansas:1 rock:1 natively:1 predominantly:1 hard:1 hearing:1 iconicity:1 seem:1 meaningful:1 fact:2 arbitrary:2 word:12 mistake:2 others:2 acquire:1 point:2 interlocutor:1 indicate:1 something:2 seemingly:1 explicit:1 pointing:1 edward:1 klima:2 ursula:1 bellugi:2 common:1 theory:2 self:2 explanatory:2 category:1 transparent:2 non:5 signer:4 usually:2 correctly:1 guess:2 meaning:5 translucent:1 opaque:2 cannot:2 formulate:1 classification:1 conclusively:1 disprove:1 understand:1 fluent:1 continuous:1 majority:1 generally:1 object:1 popular:2 basic:1 course:1 exception:1 fingerspelling:4 primarily:1 proper:1 noun:1 emphasis:2 fingerspell:5 stop:2 emphatic:1 clarity:1 borrowing:1 well:1 incorporation:1 alphabetic:2 letter:7 distinguish:2 related:1 otherwise:3 cover:1 single:2 trace:1 circle:1 several:2 kind:1 specify:1 handshape:6 c:1 f:1 initialize:1 substitute:2 initial:1 corresponding:1 order:1 provide:1 specific:1 phonemic:3 distinctive:1 outside:1 fist:2 placement:1 thumb:4 irrelevant:1 within:1 position:3 incorporate:1 rely:1 minor:1 distinction:2 tend:1 stable:1 run:1 create:1 due:1 elevator:1 require:3 e:3 depend:1 argue:1 phonemically:1 claw:1 give:1 loan:8 borrow:1 define:1 lexicalize:1 somewhat:1 represent:3 shape:3 frequently:1 specialized:1 yes:3 form:1 g:1 probably:1 used:1 finger:2 fuse:1 hold:1 straight:1 tap:1 repeated:1 motion:3 broken:1 see:3 abbreviated:1 n:2 gloss:1 capital:2 precede:1 pound:1 back:1 bus:1 car:1 job:1 pizza:1 glossing:1 simply:1 correspondence:1 inflectional:1 modulation:1 lose:1 true:2 notation:1 separate:1 symbol:1 diacritic:1 mark:1 every:2 desire:1 representation:1 iconic:1 signwriting:2 rather:1 abstract:1 illustration:1 salient:1 feature:1 newsletter:1 baby:3 recent:1 year:1 exposure:1 positive:1 impact:1 socialization:1 infant:3 parent:4 developmental:1 stage:1 capable:1 speech:2 fine:1 control:1 breathing:1 tract:1 ability:1 actively:1 possible:2 appear:1 accelerate:1 decrease:1 frustration:1 collection:1 simplify:1 dexterity:1 approximation:2 adult:2 later:1 typically:1 young:1 correct:2 approximate:1 water:1 alphabet:1 idiom:1 bimodal:1 bilingualism:1 cue:1 filipino:1 profanity:1 registry:1 exact:1 reference:1 barnard:1 henry:1 tribute:1 discourse:1 commemoration:1 life:1 character:1 service:1 rev:1 h:1 deliver:1 citizen:1 january:1 appendix:1 mute:1 document:1 download:1 book:1 http:1 www:1 saveourdeafschools:1 org:2 pdf:2 lane:1 harlan:1 mind:1 york:1 random:1 house:1 isbn:3 padden:1 carol:1 humphries:1 tom:1 voice:2 cambridge:1 harvard:1 press:2 sack:1 oliver:1 w:1 journey:1 land:1 berkeley:1 california:1 external:1 list:1 online:2 dictionary:3 resource:2 site:2 free:1 lesson:1 research:2 project:1 asllrp:1 syntactic:1 organization:1 synopsis:1 deaflibrary:1 ethnologue:1 entry:1 video:1 chimpanzee:2 focus:1 cultural:1 info:1 athabaskan:1 satellite:1 ion:1 morphs:1 foreign:2 argumentative:1 paper:1 consideration:1 fulfill:1 requirement:1 helper:1 type:1 inaccuracy:1 lifeprint:1 com:1 |@bigram mutually_intelligible:1 hong_kong:1 dominican_republic:1 el_salvador:1 puerto_rico:1 côte_ivoire:1 burkina_faso:1 togo_benin:1 benin_nigeria:1 republic_congo:1 ad_hoc:2 martha_vineyard:3 twentieth_century:1 rio_grande:1 hartford_connecticut:1 deaf_dumb:1 alexander_graham:1 graham_bell:1 phonology_morphology:1 facial_expression:2 vocal_cord:1 commonly_used:1 deaf_mute:1 http_www:1 external_link:1 |
1,693 | Magnetic_tape | 7 inch reel of ¼ inch-wide audio recording tape, typical of consumer use in the 1950s-70s. Magnetic tape is a medium for magnetic recording generally consisting of a thin magnetizable coating on a long and narrow strip of plastic. Nearly all recording tape is of this type, whether used for recording audio or video or for computer data storage. It was originally developed in Germany, based on the concept of magnetic wire recording. Devices that record and playback audio and video using magnetic tape are generally called tape recorders and video tape recorders respectively. A device that stores computer data on magnetic tape can be called a tape drive, a tape unit, or a streamer. Magnetic tape revolutionized the broadcast and recording industries. In an age when all radio (and later television) was live, it allowed programming to be prerecorded. In a time when gramophone records were recorded in one take, it allowed recordings to be created in multiple stages and easily mixed and edited with a minimal loss in quality between generations. It is also one of the key enabling technologies in the development of modern computers. Magnetic tape allowed massive amounts of data to be stored in computers for long periods of time and rapidly accessed when needed. Today, many other technologies exist that can perform the functions of magnetic tape. In many cases these technologies are replacing tape. Despite this, innovation in the technology continues and tape is still widely used. Audio recording Compact Cassette Magnetic tape was first invented for recording sound by Fritz Pfleumer in 1928 in Germany, based on the invention of magnetic wire recording by Valdemar Poulsen in 1898. Pfleumer's invention used an iron oxide(Fe2O3) powder coating on a long strip of paper. This invention was further developed by the German electronics company AEG, which manufactured the recording machines and BASF, which manufactured the tape. In 1933, working for AEG, Eduard Schuller developed the ring shaped tape head. Previous head designs were needle shaped and shredded the tape. An important discovery made in this period was the technique of AC biasing which dramatically improved the fidelity of the recorded audio signal by increasing the effective linearity of the recording medium. Due to the escalating political tensions preceding hostilities, and the eventual outbreak of World War II, these developments were largely kept secret from the rest of the world. Although the Allies knew from their monitoring of Nazi radio broadcasts that the Germans had some new form of recording technology, the actual nature of these devices was not discovered until the Allies acquired captured/abandoned German recording equipment as they invaded Europe in the closing stages of the war. It was only after the war that Americans, particularly Jack Mullin, John Herbert Orr, and Richard H. Ranger were able to bring this technology out of Germany and develop it into commercially viable formats. A wide variety of recorders and formats have developed since, most significantly reel-to-reel and Compact Cassette. Video recording The practice of recoding and editing audio using magnetic tape rapidly established itself as an obvious improvement over previous methods. Many people saw the potential of making the same improvements in recording television. Television ("video") signals are, in principle, very similar to audio signals. The main difference is that video signals use much more bandwidth than audio signals. This meant that the existing audio tape recorders could not capture a video signal effectively. Many people set to work on resolving this problem. Jack Mullin (working for Bing Crosby) and the BBC both created crude working systems that involved moving the tape across a fixed tape head at very fast speeds. Neither of these systems saw much use. It was the team at Ampex, lead by Charles Ginsburg, that made the breakthrough of using a spinning recoding head and normal tape speeds to achieve a very high head-to-tape speed that could record and reproduce the high bandwidth signals of video. The Ampex system was called Quadruplex and used 2 inch wide tape, mounted on reels like audio tape, and a wrote the signal in what is now called transverse scan. Later improvements by other companies, particularly Sony, lead to the development of helical scan and the enclosure of the tape reels in an easy-to-handle cartridge. Nearly all modern videotape systems use helical scan and cartridges. Videocassette recorders are very common in homes and television production facilities though many functions of the VCR are being replaced. Since the advent of digital video and computerized video processing, optical disc media and digital video recorders can now perform the same role as videotape. These devices also offer improvements like random access to any scene in the recording and "live" time shifting and are likely to replace videotape in many situations. Data storage The use of magnetic tape for computer data storage has been one of the constants of the computer industry. In all formats, a tape drive (or "transport" or "deck") uses precisely-controlled motors to wind the tape from one reel to another, passing a tape head as it does. Magnetic tape was first used to record computer data in 1951 on the Eckert-Mauchly UNIVAC I. The recording medium was a thin strip of one half inch (12.65 mm) wide metal, consisting of nickel-plated bronze (called Vicalloy). Recording density was 128 characters per inch (198 micrometre/character) on eight tracks. Small open reel of 9 track tape Early IBM tape drives were floor-standing drives that used vacuum columns to physically buffer long U-shaped loops of tape. When active, the two tape reels fed tape into or pulled tape out of the vacuum columns, intermittently spinning in rapid, unsynchronized bursts resulting in visually-striking action. Stock shots of such vacuum-column tape drives in motion were widely used to represent "the computer" in movies and television. Quarter inch cartridges, a data format commonly used in the 1980s and 1990s. Most modern magnetic tape systems use reels that are much smaller than the old 10.5 inch open reels and are fixed inside a cartridge to protect the tape and facilitate handling. Many late 1970s and early 1980s home computers used Compact Cassettes encoded with the Kansas City standard. Modern cartridge formats include LTO, DLT, and DAT/DDC. Tape remains a viable alternative to disk in some situations due to its lower cost per bit. Though the areal density of tape is lower than for disk drives, the available surface area on a tape is far greater. The highest capacity tape media are generally on the same order as the largest available disk drives (about 1 TB in 2007.) Tape has historically offered enough advantage in cost over disk storage to make it a viable product, particularly for backup, where media removability is necessary. In 2002, Imation received an US$11.9 million grant from the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology for research into increasing the data capacity of magnetic tape. References External links History of Tape Recording Technology VidiPax Audio Format Guide | Magnetic_tape |@lemmatized inch:7 reel:10 wide:4 audio:11 recording:8 tape:48 typical:1 consumer:1 use:19 magnetic:15 medium:6 record:17 generally:3 consist:2 thin:2 magnetizable:1 coating:1 long:4 narrow:1 strip:3 plastic:1 nearly:2 type:1 whether:1 video:11 computer:9 data:8 storage:4 originally:1 develop:5 germany:3 base:2 concept:1 wire:2 device:4 playback:1 call:5 recorder:5 recorders:1 respectively:1 store:2 drive:7 unit:1 streamer:1 revolutionize:1 broadcast:2 industry:2 age:1 radio:2 later:1 television:5 live:2 allow:3 program:1 prerecord:1 time:3 gramophone:1 one:5 take:1 create:2 multiple:1 stage:2 easily:1 mixed:1 edit:2 minimal:1 loss:1 quality:1 generation:1 also:2 key:1 enable:1 technology:8 development:3 modern:4 massive:1 amount:1 period:2 rapidly:2 access:2 need:1 today:1 many:7 exist:2 perform:2 function:2 case:1 replace:3 despite:1 innovation:1 continue:1 still:1 widely:2 compact:3 cassette:3 first:2 invent:1 sound:1 fritz:1 pfleumer:2 invention:3 valdemar:1 poulsen:1 iron:1 oxide:1 powder:1 coat:1 paper:1 far:2 german:3 electronics:1 company:2 aeg:2 manufacture:2 machine:1 basf:1 work:4 eduard:1 schuller:1 ring:1 shape:2 head:6 previous:2 design:1 needle:1 shred:1 important:1 discovery:1 make:4 technique:1 ac:1 bias:1 dramatically:1 improve:1 fidelity:1 recorded:1 signal:8 increase:2 effective:1 linearity:1 due:2 escalate:1 political:1 tension:1 precede:1 hostility:1 eventual:1 outbreak:1 world:2 war:3 ii:1 largely:1 kept:1 secret:1 rest:1 although:1 ally:2 know:1 monitoring:1 nazi:1 new:1 form:1 actual:1 nature:1 discover:1 acquire:1 captured:1 abandon:1 equipment:1 invade:1 europe:1 closing:1 american:1 particularly:3 jack:2 mullin:2 john:1 herbert:1 orr:1 richard:1 h:1 ranger:1 able:1 bring:1 commercially:1 viable:3 format:6 variety:1 since:2 significantly:1 practice:1 recode:2 establish:1 obvious:1 improvement:4 method:1 people:2 saw:2 potential:1 principle:1 similar:1 main:1 difference:1 much:3 bandwidth:2 meant:1 could:2 capture:1 effectively:1 set:1 resolve:1 problem:1 bing:1 crosby:1 bbc:1 crude:1 system:5 involve:1 move:1 across:1 fixed:1 fast:1 speed:3 neither:1 team:1 ampex:2 lead:2 charles:1 ginsburg:1 breakthrough:1 spin:2 normal:1 achieve:1 high:3 reproduce:1 quadruplex:1 mount:1 like:2 write:1 transverse:1 scan:3 late:2 sony:1 helical:2 enclosure:1 easy:1 handle:1 cartridge:5 videotape:3 videocassette:1 common:1 home:2 production:1 facility:1 though:2 vcr:1 advent:1 digital:2 computerized:1 processing:1 optical:1 disc:1 role:1 offer:2 random:1 scene:1 shifting:1 likely:1 situation:2 constant:1 transport:1 deck:1 precisely:1 control:1 motor:1 wind:1 another:1 pass:1 eckert:1 mauchly:1 univac:1 half:1 mm:1 metal:1 nickel:1 plat:1 bronze:1 vicalloy:1 density:2 character:2 per:2 micrometre:1 eight:1 track:2 small:2 open:2 early:2 ibm:1 floor:1 stand:1 vacuum:3 column:3 physically:1 buffer:1 u:3 shaped:1 loop:1 active:1 two:1 feed:1 pull:1 intermittently:1 rapid:1 unsynchronized:1 burst:1 result:1 visually:1 strike:1 action:1 stock:1 shot:1 motion:1 represent:1 movie:1 quarter:1 commonly:1 old:1 fix:1 inside:1 protect:1 facilitate:1 handling:1 encode:1 kansa:1 city:1 standard:2 include:1 lto:1 dlt:1 dat:1 ddc:1 remain:1 alternative:1 disk:4 low:2 cost:2 bit:1 areal:1 available:2 surface:1 area:1 great:1 capacity:2 order:1 large:1 tb:1 historically:1 enough:1 advantage:1 product:1 backup:1 removability:1 necessary:1 imation:1 receive:1 million:1 grant:1 national:1 institute:1 research:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 history:1 vidipax:1 guide:1 |@bigram tape_recorder:2 compact_cassette:3 kept_secret:1 jack_mullin:2 commercially_viable:1 reel_reel:1 bing_crosby:1 inch_mm:1 areal_density:1 external_link:1 |
1,694 | Axiom_of_choice | In mathematics, the axiom of choice, or AC, is an axiom of set theory. Informally put, the axiom of choice says that given any collection of bins, each containing at least one object, it is possible to make a selection of exactly one object from each bin, even if there are infinitely many bins and there is no "rule" for which object to pick from each. The axiom of choice is not required if the number of bins is finite or if such a selection "rule" is available. The axiom of choice was formulated in 1904 by Ernst Zermelo. Although originally controversial, it is now used without reservation by most mathematicians. van Heijenoort, 1967, p. 183. Jech, 1977, p. 348ff. One motivation for this use is that a number of important mathematical results, such as Tychonoff's theorem, require the axiom of choice for their proofs. Contemporary set theorists also study axioms that are not compatible with the axiom of choice, such as the axiom of determinacy. Unlike the axiom of choice, these alternatives are not ordinarily proposed as axioms for mathematics, but only as principles in set theory with interesting consequences. Statement A choice function is a function f, defined on a collection X of nonempty sets, such that for every set s in X, f(s) is an element of s. With this concept, the axiom can be stated: For any set of non-empty sets, X, there exists a choice function f defined on X. Thus the negation of the axiom of choice states that there exists a set of nonempty sets which has no choice function. Each choice function on a collection X of nonempty sets can be viewed as (or identified with) an element of the Cartesian product of the sets in X. This leads to an equivalent statement of the axiom of choice: Given any collection of non-empty sets, their Cartesian product is a non-empty set. Variants There are many other equivalent statements of the axiom of choice. These are equivalent in the sense that, in the presence of other basic axioms of set theory, they imply the axiom of choice and are implied by it. One variation avoids the use of choice functions by, in effect, replacing each choice function with its range. Given any set X of pairwise disjoint non-empty sets, there exists at least one set C that contains exactly one element in common with each of the sets in X. Herrlich, p. 9. Another equivalent axiom only considers collections X that are essentially powersets of other sets: For any set A, the power set of A (minus the empty set) has a choice function. Authors who use this formulation often speak of the choice function on A, but be advised that this is a slightly different notion of choice function. Its domain is the powerset of A (minus the empty set), and so makes sense for any set A, whereas with the definition used elsewhere in this article, the domain of a choice function on a collection of sets is that collection, and so only makes sense for sets of sets. With this alternate notion of choice function, the axiom of choice can be compactly stated as Every set has a choice function. Patrick Suppes, "Axiomatic Set Theory", Dover, 1972 (1960), ISBN 0-486-61630-4, p. 240 which is equivalent to For any set A there is a function f such that for any non-empty subset B of A, f(B) lies in B. The negation of the axiom can thus be expressed as: There is a set A such that for all functions f (on the set of non-empty subsets of A), there is a B such that f(B) does not lie in B. Usage Until the late 19th century, the axiom of choice was often used implicitly, although it had not yet been formally stated. For example, after having established that the set X contains only non-empty sets, a mathematician might have said "let F(s) be one of the members of s for all s in X." In general, it is impossible to prove that F exists without the axiom of choice, but this seems to have gone unnoticed until Zermelo. Not every situation requires the axiom of choice. For finite sets X, the axiom of choice follows from the other axioms of set theory. In that case it is equivalent to saying that if we have several (a finite number of) boxes, each containing at least one item, then we can choose exactly one item from each box. Clearly we can do this: We start at the first box, choose an item; go to the second box, choose an item; and so on. The number of boxes is finite, so eventually our choice procedure comes to an end. The result is an explicit choice function: a function that takes the first box to the first element we chose, the second box to the second element we chose, and so on. (A formal proof for all finite sets would use the principle of mathematical induction.) For certain infinite sets X, it is also possible to avoid the axiom of choice. For example, suppose that the elements of X are sets of natural numbers. Every nonempty set of natural numbers has a smallest element, so to specify our choice function we can simply say that it maps each set to the least element of that set. This gives us a definite choice of an element from each set and we can write down an explicit expression that tells us what value our choice function takes. Any time it is possible to specify such an explicit choice, the axiom of choice is unnecessary. The difficulty appears when there is no natural choice of elements from each set. If we cannot make explicit choices, how do we know that our set exists? For example, suppose that X is the set of all non-empty subsets of the real numbers. First we might try to proceed as if X were finite. If we try to choose an element from each set, then, because X is infinite, our choice procedure will never come to an end, and consequently, we will never be able to produce a choice function for all of X. So that won't work. Next we might try the trick of specifying the least element from each set. But some subsets of the real numbers don't have least elements. For example, the open interval (0,1) does not have a least element: If x is in (0,1), then so is x/2, and x/2 is always strictly smaller than x. So taking least elements doesn't work, either. The reason that we are able to choose least elements from subsets of the natural numbers is the fact that the natural numbers come pre-equipped with a well-ordering: Every subset of the natural numbers has a unique least element under the natural ordering. Perhaps if we were clever we might say, "Even though the usual ordering of the real numbers does not work, it may be possible to find a different ordering of the real numbers which is a well-ordering. Then our choice function can choose the least element of every set under our unusual ordering." The problem then becomes that of constructing a well-ordering, which turns out to require the axiom of choice for its existence; every set can be well-ordered if and only if the axiom of choice is true. Nonconstructive aspects A proof requiring the axiom of choice is, in one meaning of the word, nonconstructive: even though the proof establishes the existence of an object, it may be impossible to define the object in the language of set theory. For example, while the axiom of choice implies that there is a well-ordering of the real numbers, there are models of set theory with the axiom of choice in which no well-ordering of the reals is definable. As another example, a subset of the real numbers that is not Lebesgue measurable can be proven to exist using the axiom of choice, but it is consistent that no such set is definable. Some mathematicians dislike the axiom of choice because it produces these intangibles (objects that are proven to exist by a nonconstructive proof, but cannot be explicitly constructed). Because there is no canonical well-ordering of all sets, a construction that relies on a well-ordering may not produce a canonical result, even if a canonical result is desired (as is often the case in category theory). The small community of mathematical constructivists require that all existence proofs should be totally explicit; it should be possible to construct, in an explicit and canonical manner, anything that is proven to exist. They reject the full axiom of choice because it asserts the existence of an object without uniquely determining its structure. In fact the Diaconescu–Goodman–Myhill theorem shows how to derive the constructively unacceptable law of the excluded middle, or a restricted form of it, in constructive set theory from the assumption of the axiom of choice. Another argument against the axiom of choice is that it implies the existence of counterintuitive objects. One example of this is the Banach–Tarski paradox which says that it is possible to decompose ("carve up") the 3-dimensional solid unit ball into finitely many pieces and, using only rotations and translations, reassemble the pieces into two solid balls each with the same volume as the original. The pieces in this decomposition, constructed using the axiom of choice, are extremely complicated. Despite these arguments, the majority of mathematicians accept the axiom of choice as a valid principle for proving new results in mathematics. The debate is interesting enough, however, that it is considered of note when a theorem in ZFC is logically equivalent (with just the ZF axioms) to the axiom of choice, and mathematicians look for results that require the axiom of choice to be false, though this type of deduction is less common than the type which requires the axiom of choice to be true. It is possible to prove many theorems using neither the axiom of choice nor its negation; this is common in constructive mathematics. Such statements will be true in any model of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory (ZF), regardless of the truth or falsity of the axiom of choice in that particular model. The restriction to ZF renders any claim that relies on either the axiom of choice or its negation unprovable. For example, the Banach–Tarski paradox is neither provable nor disprovable from ZF alone: it is impossible to construct the required decomposition of the unit ball in ZF, but also impossible to prove there is no such decomposition. Similarly, all the statements listed below which require choice or some weaker version thereof for their proof are unprovable in ZF, but since each is provable in ZF plus the axiom of choice, there are models of ZF in which each statement is true. Statements such as the Banach–Tarski paradox can be rephrased as conditional statements, for example, "If AC holds, the decomposition in the Banach–Tarski paradox exists." Such conditional statements are provable in ZF when the original statements are provable from ZF and the axiom of choice. Independence By work of Kurt Gödel and Paul Cohen, the axiom of choice is logically independent of the other axioms of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory (ZF). This means that neither it nor its negation can be proven to be true in ZF, if ZF is consistent. Consequently, if ZF is consistent, then ZFC is consistent and ZF¬C is also consistent. So the decision whether or not it is appropriate to make use of the axiom of choice in a proof cannot be made by appeal to other axioms of set theory. The decision must be made on other grounds. One argument given in favor of using the axiom of choice is that it is convenient to use it: using it cannot hurt (cannot result in contradiction) and makes it possible to prove some propositions that otherwise could not be proved. Many theorems which are provable using choice are of an elegant general character: every ideal in a ring is contained in a maximal ideal, every vector space has a basis, and every product of compact spaces is compact. Without the axiom of choice, these theorems may not hold for mathematical objects of large cardinality. The proof of the independence result also shows that a wide class of mathematical statements, including all statements that can be phrased in the language of Peano arithmetic, are provable in ZF if and only if they are provable in ZFC. This is because arithmetical statements are absolute to the constructible universe L. Shoenfield's absoluteness theorem gives a more general result. Statements in this class include the statement that P = NP, the Riemann hypothesis, and many other unsolved mathematical problems. When one attempts to solve problems in this class, it makes no difference whether ZF or ZFC is employed if the only question is the existence of a proof. It is possible, however, that there is a shorter proof of a theorem from ZFC than from ZF. The axiom of choice is not the only significant statement which is independent of ZF. For example, the generalized continuum hypothesis (GCH) is not only independent of ZF, but also independent of ZF plus the axiom of choice (ZFC). However, ZF plus GCH implies AC, making GCH a strictly stronger claim than AC, even though they are both independent of ZF. Stronger axioms The axiom of constructibility and the generalized continuum hypothesis both imply the axiom of choice, but are strictly stronger than it. In class theories such as Von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel set theory and Morse–Kelley set theory, there is a possible axiom called the axiom of global choice which is stronger than the axiom of choice for sets because it also applies to proper classes. And the axiom of global choice follows from the axiom of limitation of size. Equivalents There are a remarkable number of important statements that, assuming the axioms of ZF but neither AC nor ¬AC, are equivalent to the axiom of choice. The most important among them are Zorn's lemma and the well-ordering theorem. In fact, Zermelo initially introduced the axiom of choice in order to formalize his proof of the well-ordering principle. Set theory Well-ordering theorem: Every set can be well-ordered. Consequently, every cardinal has an initial ordinal. For every infinite set A, the sets A and A×A have the same cardinality. Trichotomy: If two sets are given, then either they have the same cardinality, or one has a smaller cardinality than the other. The Cartesian product of any nonempty family of nonempty sets is nonempty. König's theorem: Colloquially, the sum of a sequence of cardinals is strictly less than the product of a sequence of larger cardinals. (The reason for the term "colloquially", is that the sum or product of a "sequence" of cardinals cannot be defined without some aspect of the axiom of choice.) Every surjective function has a right inverse. Order theory Zorn's lemma: Every non-empty partially ordered set in which every chain (i.e. totally ordered subset) has an upper bound contains at least one maximal element. Hausdorff maximal principle: In any partially ordered set, every totally ordered subset is contained in a maximal totally ordered subset. Restricted Hausdorff maximal principle: In any partially ordered set there exists a maximal totally ordered subset. Algebra Every vector space has a basis. Every unital ring other than the trivial ring contains a maximal ideal. General topology Tychonoff's theorem stating that every product of compact topological spaces is compact. In the product topology, the closure of a product of subsets is equal to the product of the closures. Any product of complete uniform spaces is complete. Category theory There are several results in category theory which invoke the axiom of choice for their proof. These results might be weaker than, equivalent to, or stronger than the axiom of choice, depending on the strength of the technical foundations. For example, if one defines categories in terms of sets, that is, as sets of objects and morphisms (usually called a small category), or even locally small categories, whose hom-objects are sets, then there is no category of all sets, and so it is difficult for a category-theoretic formulation to apply to all sets. On the other hand, other foundational descriptions of category theory are considerably stronger, and an identical category-theoretic statement of choice may be stronger than the standard formulation, à la class theory, mentioned above. Examples of category-theoretic statements which require choice include: Every small category has a skeleton. If two small categories are weakly equivalent, then they are equivalent. Every continuous functor on a small-complete category which satisfies the appropriate solution set condition has a left-adjoint (the Freyd adjoint functor theorem). Weaker forms There are several weaker statements that are not equivalent to the axiom of choice, but are closely related. One example is the axiom of countable choice (ACω or CC), which states that a choice function exists for any countable set X, and the stronger axiom of dependent choice (DC). These axioms are sufficient for many proofs in elementary mathematical analysis, and are consistent with some principles, such as the Lebesgue measurability of all sets of reals, that are disprovable from the axiom of choice. Other choice axioms weaker than axiom of choice include the Boolean prime ideal theorem and the axiom of uniformization. Results requiring AC (or weaker forms) but weaker than it One of the most interesting aspects of the axiom of choice is the large number of places in mathematics that it shows up. Here are some statements that require the axiom of choice in the sense that they are not provable from ZF but are provable from ZFC (ZF plus AC). Equivalently, these statements are true in all models of ZFC but false in some models of ZF. Set theory Any union of countably many countable sets is itself countable. If the set A is infinite, then there exists an injection from the natural numbers N to A (see Dedekind infinite). Every infinite game in which is a Borel subset of Baire space is determined. Measure theory The Vitali theorem on the existence of non-measurable sets which states that there is a subset of the real numbers that is not Lebesgue measurable. The Hausdorff paradox. The Banach–Tarski paradox. The Lebesgue measure of a countable disjoint union of measurable sets is equal to the sum of the measures of the individual sets. Algebra Every field has an algebraic closure. Every field extension has a transcendence basis. Stone's representation theorem for Boolean algebras needs the Boolean prime ideal theorem. The Nielsen-Schreier theorem, that every subgroup of a free group is free. The additive groups of R and C are isomorphic. Functional analysis The Hahn-Banach theorem in functional analysis, allowing the extension of linear functionals The theorem that every Hilbert space has an orthonormal basis. The Banach-Alaoglu theorem about compactness of sets of functionals. The Baire category theorem about complete metric spaces, and its consequences, such as the open mapping theorem and the closed graph theorem. On every infinite-dimensional topological vector space there is a discontinuous linear map. General topology A uniform space is compact if and only if it is complete and totally bounded. Every Tychonoff space has a Stone–Čech compactification. Stronger forms of ¬AC Now, consider stronger forms of the negation of AC. For example, if we abbreviate by BP the claim that every set of real numbers has the property of Baire, then BP is stronger than ¬AC, which asserts the nonexistence of any choice function on perhaps only a single set of nonempty sets. Note that strengthened negations may be compatible with weakened forms of AC. For example, ZF + DC Axiom of dependent choice + BP is consistent, if ZF is. It is also consistent with ZF + DC that every set of reals is Lebesgue measurable; however, this consistency result, due to Robert M. Solovay, cannot be proved in ZFC itself, but requires a mild large cardinal assumption (the existence of an inaccessible cardinal). The much stronger axiom of determinacy, or AD, implies that every set of reals is Lebesgue measurable, has the property of Baire, and has the perfect set property (all three of these results are refuted by AC itself). ZF + DC + AD is consistent provided that a sufficiently strong large cardinal axiom is consistent (the existence of infinitely many Woodin cardinals). Statements consistent with ¬AC There are models of Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory in which the axiom of choice is false. We will abbreviate "Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory plus the negation of the axiom of choice" by ZF¬C. For certain models of ZF¬C, it is possible to prove the negation of some standard facts. Note that any model of ZF¬C is also a model of ZF, so for each of the following statements, there exists a model of ZF in which that statement is true. There exists a model of ZF¬C in which there is a function f from the real numbers to the real numbers such that f is not continuous at a, but f is sequentially continuous at a, i.e., for any sequence {xn} converging to a, limn f(xn)=f(a). There exists a model of ZF¬C in which real numbers are a countable union of countable sets. Jech, Thomas (1973) "The axiom of choice", ISBN 0-444-10484-4, CH. 10, p. 142. There exists a model of ZF¬C in which there is a field with no algebraic closure. In all models of ZF¬C there is a vector space with no basis. There exists a model of ZF¬C in which there is a vector space with two bases of different cardinalities. There exists a model of ZF¬C in which there is a free complete boolean algebra on countably many generators . For proofs, see Thomas Jech, The Axiom of Choice, American Elsevier Pub. Co., New York, 1973. There exists a model of ZF¬C in which every set in Rn is measurable. Thus it is possible to exclude counterintuitive results like the Banach–Tarski paradox which are provable in ZFC. Furthermore, this is possible whilst assuming the Axiom of dependent choice, which is weaker than AC but sufficient to develop most of real analysis. In all models of ZF¬C, the generalized continuum hypothesis does not hold. Quotes "The Axiom of Choice is obviously true, the well-ordering principle obviously false, and who can tell about Zorn's lemma?" — Jerry Bona This is a joke: although the three are all mathematically equivalent, most mathematicians find the axiom of choice to be intuitive, the well-ordering principle to be counterintuitive, and Zorn's lemma to be too complex for any intuition. "The Axiom of Choice is necessary to select a set from an infinite number of socks, but not an infinite number of shoes." — Bertrand Russell The observation here is that one can define a function to select from an infinite number of pairs of shoes by stating for example, to choose the left shoe. Without the axiom of choice, one cannot assert that such a function exists for pairs of socks, because left and right socks are (presumably) indistinguishable from each other. "The axiom gets its name not because mathematicians prefer it to other axioms." — A. K. Dewdney This quote comes from the famous April Fools' Day article in the computer recreations column of the Scientific American, April 1989. Notes References Herrlich, Horst, Axiom of Choice, Springer Lecture Notes in Mathematics 1876, Springer Verlag Berlin Heidelberg (2006). ISBN 3-540-30989-6. Paul Howard and Jean Rubin, "Consequences of the Axiom of Choice". Mathematical Surveys and Monographs 59; American Mathematical Society; 1998. Thomas Jech, "About the Axiom of Choice." Handbook of Mathematical Logic, John Barwise, ed., 1977. Gregory H Moore, "Zermelo's axiom of choice, Its origins, development and influence", Springer; 1982. ISBN 0-387-90670-3 Ernst Zermelo, "Untersuchungen über die Grundlagen der Mengenlehre I," Mathematische Annalen 65: (1908) pp. 261-81. PDF download via digizeitschriften.de Translated in: Jean van Heijenoort, 2002. From Frege to Godel: A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879-1931. New edition. Harvard Univ. Press. ISBN 0-674-32449-8 1904. "Proof that every set can be well-ordered," 139-41. 1908. "Investigations in the foundations of set theory I," 199-215. External links Axiom of Choice and Its Equivalents at ProvenMath includes formal statement of the Axiom of Choice, Hausdorff's Maximal Principle, Zorn's Lemma and formal proofs of their equivalence down to the finest detail. Consequences of the Axiom of Choice, based on the book by Paul Howard and Jean Rubin. | Axiom_of_choice |@lemmatized mathematics:6 axiom:101 choice:107 ac:15 set:98 theory:26 informally:1 put:1 say:6 give:7 collection:7 bin:4 contain:7 least:12 one:20 object:11 possible:13 make:10 selection:2 exactly:3 even:6 infinitely:2 many:10 rule:2 pick:1 require:13 number:26 finite:6 available:1 formulate:1 ernst:2 zermelo:9 although:3 originally:1 controversial:1 use:16 without:6 reservation:1 mathematician:7 van:2 heijenoort:2 p:6 jech:4 motivation:1 important:3 mathematical:11 result:15 tychonoff:3 theorem:24 proof:17 contemporary:1 theorist:1 also:9 study:1 compatible:2 determinacy:2 unlike:1 alternative:1 ordinarily:1 propose:1 principle:10 interesting:3 consequence:4 statement:26 function:27 f:14 define:6 x:23 nonempty:8 every:34 element:19 concept:1 state:8 non:10 empty:11 exist:18 thus:3 negation:9 view:1 identify:1 cartesian:3 product:11 lead:1 equivalent:15 variant:1 sense:4 presence:1 basic:1 imply:4 variation:1 avoid:2 effect:1 replace:1 range:1 pairwise:1 disjoint:2 c:14 common:3 herrlich:2 another:3 consider:3 essentially:1 powersets:1 power:1 minus:2 author:1 formulation:3 often:3 speak:1 advise:1 slightly:1 different:3 notion:2 domain:2 powerset:1 whereas:1 definition:1 elsewhere:1 article:2 alternate:1 compactly:1 patrick:1 suppes:1 axiomatic:1 dover:1 isbn:5 subset:14 b:6 lie:2 express:1 usage:1 late:1 century:1 implicitly:1 yet:1 formally:1 example:16 establish:2 might:5 let:1 member:1 general:5 impossible:4 prove:12 seem:1 go:2 unnoticed:1 situation:1 follow:2 case:2 several:3 box:7 item:4 choose:9 clearly:1 start:1 first:4 second:3 eventually:1 procedure:2 come:4 end:2 explicit:6 take:3 formal:3 would:1 induction:1 certain:2 infinite:10 suppose:2 natural:8 small:9 specify:3 simply:1 map:2 u:2 definite:1 write:1 expression:1 tell:2 value:1 time:1 unnecessary:1 difficulty:1 appear:1 cannot:8 know:1 exists:2 real:16 try:3 proceed:1 never:2 consequently:3 able:2 produce:3 win:1 work:4 next:1 trick:1 open:2 interval:1 always:1 strictly:4 either:3 reason:2 fact:4 pre:1 equip:1 well:15 ordering:10 unique:1 perhaps:2 clever:1 though:4 usual:1 may:6 find:2 order:14 unusual:1 problem:3 become:1 construct:5 turn:1 existence:9 true:8 nonconstructive:3 aspects:1 meaning:1 word:1 language:2 implies:3 model:19 definable:2 lebesgue:6 measurable:7 consistent:11 dislike:1 intangible:1 explicitly:1 canonical:4 construction:1 rely:2 desire:1 category:15 community:1 constructivist:1 totally:6 manner:1 anything:1 reject:1 full:1 assert:3 uniquely:1 determine:2 structure:1 diaconescu:1 goodman:1 myhill:1 show:3 derive:1 constructively:1 unacceptable:1 law:1 excluded:1 middle:1 restricted:1 form:6 constructive:2 assumption:2 argument:3 counterintuitive:3 banach:8 tarski:6 paradox:7 decompose:1 carve:1 dimensional:2 solid:2 unit:2 ball:3 finitely:1 piece:3 rotation:1 translation:1 reassemble:1 two:4 volume:1 original:2 decomposition:4 extremely:1 complicate:1 despite:1 majority:1 accept:1 valid:1 new:3 debate:1 enough:1 however:4 note:5 zfc:10 logically:2 zf:44 look:1 false:4 type:2 deduction:1 less:2 neither:4 fraenkel:4 regardless:1 truth:1 falsity:1 particular:1 restriction:1 render:1 claim:3 unprovable:2 provable:10 disprovable:2 alone:1 required:1 similarly:1 list:1 weak:8 version:1 thereof:1 since:1 plus:5 rephrase:1 conditional:2 hold:3 independence:2 kurt:1 gödel:2 paul:3 cohen:1 independent:5 mean:1 decision:2 whether:2 appropriate:2 appeal:1 must:1 ground:1 favor:1 convenient:1 hurt:1 contradiction:1 proposition:1 otherwise:1 could:1 elegant:1 character:1 ideal:5 ring:3 maximal:8 vector:5 space:13 basis:5 compact:5 large:5 cardinality:5 wide:1 class:6 include:5 phrase:1 peano:1 arithmetic:1 arithmetical:1 absolute:1 constructible:1 universe:1 l:1 shoenfield:1 absoluteness:1 np:1 riemann:1 hypothesis:4 unsolved:1 attempt:1 solve:1 difference:1 employ:1 question:1 short:1 significant:1 generalized:3 continuum:3 gch:3 strong:13 constructibility:1 von:1 neumann:1 bernays:1 morse:1 kelley:1 call:2 global:2 apply:2 proper:1 limitation:1 size:1 remarkable:1 assume:2 among:1 zorn:5 lemma:5 initially:1 introduce:1 formalize:1 cardinal:8 initial:1 ordinal:1 trichotomy:1 family:1 könig:1 colloquially:2 sum:3 sequence:4 term:2 aspect:2 surjective:1 right:2 inverse:1 partially:3 chain:1 e:2 ordered:4 upper:1 bound:2 contains:1 hausdorff:4 restrict:1 algebra:4 unital:1 trivial:1 topology:3 topological:2 closure:4 equal:2 complete:6 uniform:2 invoke:1 depend:1 strength:1 technical:1 foundation:2 morphisms:1 usually:1 locally:1 whose:1 hom:1 difficult:1 theoretic:3 hand:1 foundational:1 description:1 considerably:1 identical:1 standard:2 à:1 la:1 mention:1 skeleton:1 weakly:1 continuous:3 functor:2 satisfy:1 solution:1 condition:1 leave:2 adjoint:2 freyd:1 closely:1 relate:1 countable:7 acω:1 cc:1 dependent:3 dc:4 sufficient:2 elementary:1 analysis:4 measurability:1 boolean:4 prime:2 uniformization:1 place:1 equivalently:1 union:3 countably:2 injection:1 n:1 see:2 dedekind:1 game:1 borel:1 baire:4 measure:3 vitali:1 individual:1 field:3 algebraic:2 extension:2 transcendence:1 stone:2 representation:1 need:1 nielsen:1 schreier:1 subgroup:1 free:3 group:2 additive:1 r:1 isomorphic:1 functional:2 hahn:1 allow:1 linear:2 functionals:2 hilbert:1 orthonormal:1 alaoglu:1 compactness:1 metric:1 mapping:1 closed:1 graph:1 discontinuous:1 čech:1 compactification:1 abbreviate:2 bp:3 property:3 nonexistence:1 single:1 strengthen:1 weakened:1 consistency:1 due:1 robert:1 solovay:1 mild:1 inaccessible:1 much:1 ad:2 perfect:1 three:2 refute:1 provide:1 sufficiently:1 woodin:1 following:1 sequentially:1 xn:2 converge:1 limn:1 thomas:3 ch:1 base:2 generator:1 american:3 elsevier:1 pub:1 co:1 york:1 rn:1 exclude:1 like:1 furthermore:1 whilst:1 develop:1 quote:2 obviously:2 jerry:1 bona:1 joke:1 mathematically:1 intuitive:1 complex:1 intuition:1 necessary:1 select:2 sock:3 shoe:3 bertrand:1 russell:1 observation:1 pair:2 left:1 presumably:1 indistinguishable:1 get:1 name:1 prefer:1 k:1 dewdney:1 famous:1 april:2 fool:1 day:1 computer:1 recreation:1 column:1 scientific:1 reference:1 horst:1 springer:3 lecture:1 verlag:1 berlin:1 heidelberg:1 howard:2 jean:3 rubin:2 survey:1 monograph:1 society:1 handbook:1 logic:2 john:1 barwise:1 ed:1 gregory:1 h:1 moore:1 origin:1 development:1 influence:1 untersuchungen:1 über:1 die:1 grundlagen:1 der:1 mengenlehre:1 mathematische:1 annalen:1 pp:1 pdf:1 download:1 via:1 digizeitschriften:1 de:1 translate:1 frege:1 godel:1 source:1 book:2 edition:1 harvard:1 univ:1 press:1 investigation:1 external:1 link:1 provenmath:1 equivalence:1 fine:1 detail:1 |@bigram axiom_choice:71 ernst_zermelo:2 van_heijenoort:2 tychonoff_theorem:2 cartesian_product:3 go_unnoticed:1 mathematical_induction:1 usual_ordering:1 lebesgue_measurable:4 uniquely_determine:1 excluded_middle:1 banach_tarski:6 tarski_paradox:6 zf_axiom:3 constructive_mathematics:1 zermelo_fraenkel:4 truth_falsity:1 provable_zf:5 kurt_gödel:1 axiom_zermelo:1 consistent_zfc:1 maximal_ideal:2 peano_arithmetic:1 constructible_universe:1 riemann_hypothesis:1 generalized_continuum:3 continuum_hypothesis:3 hypothesis_gch:1 von_neumann:1 neumann_bernays:1 bernays_gödel:1 morse_kelley:1 zorn_lemma:5 totally_ordered:4 ordered_subset:4 hausdorff_maximal:3 maximal_totally:2 topological_space:1 category_theoretic:3 closely_relate:1 lebesgue_measure:1 disjoint_union:1 algebraic_closure:2 boolean_algebra:2 hahn_banach:1 linear_functionals:1 orthonormal_basis:1 baire_category:1 infinite_dimensional:1 tychonoff_space:1 stone_čech:1 čech_compactification:1 inaccessible_cardinal:1 bertrand_russell:1 springer_verlag:1 berlin_heidelberg:1 über_die:1 grundlagen_der:1 mathematische_annalen:1 harvard_univ:1 univ_press:1 external_link:1 |
1,695 | Aldred_(name) | Aldred was an English archbishop of the 11th century. Aldred may also refer to: Aldred Lumley, 10th Earl of Scarbrough Aldred of Lindisfarne Anna Lee Aldred Cyril Aldred Guy Aldred Ken Aldred Paul Aldred Robert Aldred Scott Aldred Sophie Aldred See also Aldred's Case Aldred-Rogers Broadcasting Ealdred | Aldred_(name) |@lemmatized aldred:14 english:1 archbishop:1 century:1 may:1 also:2 refer:1 lumley:1 earl:1 scarbrough:1 lindisfarne:1 anna:1 lee:1 cyril:1 guy:1 ken:1 paul:1 robert:1 scott:1 sophie:1 see:1 case:1 rogers:1 broadcast:1 ealdred:1 |@bigram |
1,696 | Lupus_(constellation) | Lupus (, genitive Lupi ; ) is a constellation in the southern sky. Its name is Latin for wolf. Lupus was one of the 48 constellations, listed by the 1st century astronomer Ptolemy, and it remains one of the 88 modern constellations. It lies between Centaurus and Scorpius. Notable features Stars Lupus has no extremely bright stars, but has around thirty stars of second and third magnitude and 70 of greater than sixth, including a number of binary or multiple stars. Among the stars which make up the constellation figure, only a few are named stars, the brightest is α Lupi, or Men, a blue giant. β Lupi has the name Ke Kouan. Most of the brightest stars in Lupus are massive members of the nearest OB association: Scorpius-Centaurus . Deep sky objects Towards the north of the constellation are globular clusters NGC 5824 and NGC 5986, and close by the dark nebula B 228. Two open clusters are to the south of the constellation, NGC 5822 and NGC 5749. On the western border are two spiral galaxies and the Wolf-Rayet planetary nebula IC 4406, containing some of the hottest stars in existence. Another planetary nebula, NGC 5882, is towards the centre of the constellation. The transiting exoplanet Lupus-TR-3b lies in this constellation. Mythology and history In ancient times, the constellation was considered an asterism within Centaurus, and was considered to have been an arbitrary animal, killed, or about to be killed, on behalf of, or for, Centaurus. It was not separated from Centaurus until Hipparchus of Bithynia named it Therion (meaning beast) in the 200s BC. No particular animal was associated with it until the Latin translation of Ptolemy's work identified it with the wolf. References Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2007). Stars and Planets Guide, Collins, London. ISBN 978-0007251209. Princeton University Press, Princeton. ISBN 978-0691135564. External links Star Tales – Lupus | Lupus_(constellation) |@lemmatized lupus:6 genitive:1 lupi:3 constellation:9 southern:1 sky:2 name:4 latin:2 wolf:3 one:2 list:1 century:1 astronomer:1 ptolemy:2 remain:1 modern:1 lie:2 centaurus:5 scorpius:2 notable:1 feature:1 star:10 extremely:1 bright:2 around:1 thirty:1 second:1 third:1 magnitude:1 great:1 sixth:1 include:1 number:1 binary:1 multiple:1 among:1 make:1 figure:1 brightest:1 α:1 men:1 blue:1 giant:1 β:1 ke:1 kouan:1 massive:1 member:1 near:1 ob:1 association:1 deep:1 object:1 towards:2 north:1 globular:1 cluster:2 ngc:5 close:1 dark:1 nebula:3 b:1 two:2 open:1 south:1 western:1 border:1 spiral:1 galaxy:1 rayet:1 planetary:2 ic:1 contain:1 hot:1 existence:1 another:1 centre:1 transit:1 exoplanet:1 tr:1 mythology:1 history:1 ancient:1 time:1 consider:2 asterism:1 within:1 arbitrary:1 animal:2 kill:2 behalf:1 separate:1 hipparchus:1 bithynia:1 therion:1 mean:1 beast:1 bc:1 particular:1 associate:1 translation:1 work:1 identify:1 reference:1 ian:1 ridpath:1 wil:1 tirion:1 planet:1 guide:1 collins:1 london:1 isbn:2 princeton:2 university:1 press:1 external:1 link:1 tale:1 |@bigram astronomer_ptolemy:1 globular_cluster:1 cluster_ngc:1 ngc_ngc:2 spiral_galaxy:1 planetary_nebula:2 nebula_ngc:1 ian_ridpath:1 ridpath_wil:1 wil_tirion:1 tirion_star:1 external_link:1 |
1,697 | Alexander_Fleming | Sir Alexander Fleming (6 August 1881 – 11 March 1955) was a Scottish biologist and pharmacologist. Fleming published many articles on bacteriology, immunology and chemotherapy. His best-known achievements are the discovery of the enzyme lysozyme in 1923 and the antibiotic substance penicillin from the fungus Penicillium notatum in 1928, for which he shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1945 with Howard Walter Florey and Ernst Boris Chain. Biography Early life St.Mary's Hospital, Paddington, London.Fleming was born on 6 August 1881 at Lochfield, a farm near Darvel in East Ayrshire, Scotland. He was the third of the four children of Hugh Fleming (1816 – 1888) from his second marriage to Grace Stirling Morton (1848 – 1928), the daughter of a neighbouring farmer. Hugh Fleming had four surviving children from his first marriage. He was 59 at the time of his second marriage, and died when Alexander (known as Alec) was seven. Fleming went to Loudoun Moor School and Darvel School, and then for two years to Kilmarnock Academy. After working in a shipping office for four years, the twenty-year-old Fleming inherited some money from an uncle, John Fleming. His older brother, Tom, was already a physician and suggested to his younger sibling that he follow the same career, and so in 1901, the younger Alexander enrolled at St Mary's Hospital, Paddington, London. He qualified for the school with distinction in 1906 and had the option of becoming a surgeon. By chance, however, he had been a member of the rifle club (he had been an active member of the Territorial Army since 1900). The captain of the club, wishing to retain Fleming in the team suggested that he join the research department at St Mary's, where he became assistant bacteriologist to Sir Almroth Wright, a pioneer in vaccine therapy and immunology. He gained M.B. and then B.Sc. with Gold Medal in 1908, and became a lecturer at St. Mary's until 1914. On 23 December 1915, Fleming married a trained nurse, Sarah Marion McElroy of Killala, Ireland. Fleming served throughout World War I as a captain in the Army Medical Corps, and was mentioned in dispatches. He and many of his colleagues worked in battlefield hospitals at the Western Front in France. In 1918 he returned to St. Mary's Hospital, which was a teaching hospital. He was elected Professor of Bacteriology in 1928. Research Work before penicillin After the war Fleming actively searched for anti-bacterial agents, having witnessed the death of many soldiers from septicemia resulting from infected wounds. Unfortunately antiseptics killed the patients' immunological defences more effectively than they killed the invading bacteria. In an article he submitted for the medical journal The Lancet during World War I, Fleming described an ingenious experiment, which he was able to conduct as a result of his own glass blowing skills, in which he explained why antiseptics were actually killing more soldiers than infection itself during World War I. Antiseptics worked well on the surface, but deep wounds tended to shelter anaerobic bacteria from the antiseptic agent, and antiseptics seemed to remove beneficial agents produced that actually protected the patients in these cases at least as well as they removed bacteria, and did nothing to remove the bacteria that were out of reach. Sir Almroth Wright strongly supported Fleming's findings, but despite this, most army physicians over the course of WWI continued to use antiseptics even in cases where this worsened the condition of the patients. Accidental discovery Miracle cure. "When I woke up just after dawn on September 28, 1928, I certainly didn't plan to revolutionize all medicine by discovering the world's first antibiotic, or bacteria killer," Fleming would later say, "But I guess that was exactly what I did." Kendall F. Haven, Marvels of Science (Libraries Unlimited, 1994) p182 . By 1928, Fleming was investigating the properties of staphylococci. He was already well-known from his earlier work, and had developed a reputation as a brilliant researcher, but his laboratory was often untidy. On 3 September 1928, Fleming returned to his laboratory having spent August on holiday with his family. Before leaving he had stacked all his cultures of staphylococci on a bench in a corner of his laboratory. On returning, Fleming noticed that one culture was contaminated with a fungus, and that the colonies of staphylococci that had immediately surrounded it had been destroyed, whereas other colonies further away were normal. Fleming showed the contaminated culture to his former assistant Merlin Price who said "that's how you discovered lysozyme" Hare, R. The Birth of Penicillin, Allen & Unwin, London, 1970 Fleming identified the mould that had contaminated his culture plates as being from the Penicillium genus, and—after some months' of calling it "mould juice"— named the substance it released penicillin on 7 March 1929. Diggins, F. The true history of the discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming Biomedical Scientist, March 2003, Insititute of Biomedical Sciences, London. (Originally published in the Imperial College School of Medicine Gazette) He investigated its positive anti-bacterial effect on many organisms, and noticed that it affected bacteria such as staphylococci, and many other Gram-positive pathogens that cause scarlet fever, pneumonia, meningitis and diphtheria, but not typhoid fever or paratyphoid fever—which are caused by Gram-negative bacteria—for which he was seeking a cure at the time. It also affected Neisseria gonorrhoeae, which causes gonorrhoea although this bacterium is Gram-negative. Fleming published his discovery in 1929 in the British Journal of Experimental Pathology, but little attention was paid to his article. Fleming continued his investigations, but found that cultivating penicillium was quite difficult, and that after having grown the mould, it was even more difficult to isolate the antibiotic agent. Fleming's impression was that because of the problem of producing it in quantity, and because its action appeared to be rather slow, penicillin would not be important in treating infection. Fleming also became convinced that penicillin would not last long enough in the human body (in vivo) to kill bacteria effectively. Many clinical tests were inconclusive, probably because it had been used as a surface antiseptic. In the 1930s, Fleming’s trials occasionally showed more promise, Keith Bernard Ros, who worked with Fleming, was treated with penicillin during their research. and he continued, until 1940, to try and interest a chemist skilled enough to further refine usable penicillin. Fleming soon abandoned penicillin, and not long after Florey and Chain took up researching and mass producing it with funds from the U.S and British governments. They started mass production after the bombing of Pearl Harbor. When D-day arrived they had made enough penicillin to treat all the wounded allied forces. Purification and stabilization 3D-model of benzylpenicillin. Ernst Chain worked out how to isolate and concentrate penicillin. He also correctly theorised the structure of penicillin. Shortly after the team published its first results in 1940, Fleming telephoned Howard Florey, Chain's head of department to say that he would be visiting within the next few days. When Chain heard that he was coming he remarked "Good God! I thought he was dead". Norman Heatley suggested transferring the active ingredient of penicillin back into water by changing its acidity. This produced enough of the drug to begin testing on animals. Sir Henry Harris said in 1998: "Without Fleming, no Chain; without Chain, no Florey; without Florey, no Heatley; without Heatley, no penicillin." There were many more people involved in the Oxford team, and at one point the entire Dunn School was involved in its production. After the team had developed a method of purifying penicillin to an effective first stable form in 1940, several clinical trials ensued, and their amazing success inspired the team to develop methods for mass production and mass distribution in 1945. Fleming was modest about his part in the development of penicillin, describing his fame as the "Fleming Myth" and he praised Florey and Chain for transforming the laboratory curiosity into a practical drug. Fleming was the first to discover the properties of the active substance, giving him the privilege of naming it: penicillin. He also kept, grew and distributed the original mold for twelve years, and continued until 1940 to try to get help from any chemist that had enough skill to make penicillin. Antibiotics Modern antibiotics are tested using a method similar to Fleming's discovery Fleming's accidental discovery and isolation of penicillin in September 1928 marks the start of modern antibiotics. Fleming also discovered very early that bacteria developed antibiotic resistance whenever too little penicillin was used or when it was used for too short a period. Almroth Wright had predicted the Antibiotic resistance even before it was noticed during experiments. Fleming cautioned about the use of penicillin in his many speeches around the world. He cautioned not to use penicillin unless there was a properly diagnosed reason for it to be used, and that if it were used, never to use too little, or for too short a period, since these are the circumstances under which bacterial resistance to antibiotics develops. Personal life The popular story eg, Philadelphia Enquirer, 17 July 1945: Brown, Penicillin Man, note 43 to Chapter 2 of Winston Churchill's father's paying for Fleming's education after Fleming's father saved young Winston from death is false. According to the biography, Penicillin Man: Alexander Fleming and the Antibiotic Revolution by Kevin Brown, Alexander Fleming, in a letter 14 November 1945; British Library Additional Manuscripts 56115: Brown, Penicillin Man, note 44 to Chapter 2 to his friend and colleague Andre Gratia, see Wikipedia Discovery of penicillin article entry for 1920 described this as "a wondrous fable." Nor did he save Winston Churchill himself during World War II. Churchill was saved by Lord Moran, using sulphonamides, since he had no experience with penicillin, when Churchill fell ill in Carthage in Tunisia in 1943. The Daily Telegraph and the Morning Post on 21 December 1943 wrote that he had been saved by penicillin. He was saved by the new sulphonamide drug, Sulphapyridine, known at the time under the research code M&B 693, discovered and produced by May & Baker Ltd, Dagenham, Essex - a subsidiary of the French group Rhône-Poulenc. In a subsequent radio broadcast, Churchill referred to the new drug as "This admirable M&B." A History of May & Baker 1834-1984, Alden Press 1984. Fleming's first wife, Sarah, died in 1949. Their only child, Robert Fleming, became a general medical practitioner. After Sarah's death, Fleming married Dr. Amalia Koutsouri-Vourekas, a Greek colleague at St. Mary's, on 9 April 1953; she died in 1986. Death In 1955, Fleming died suddenly at his home in London of a heart attack. He was cremated and his ashes interred in St Paul's Cathedral a week later. Honours and awards Faroe Islands stamp commemorating Fleming His discovery of penicillin had changed the world of modern medicine by introducing the age of useful antibiotics; penicillin has saved, and is still saving, millions of people around the world . The laboratory at St Mary's Hospital, London where Fleming discovered penicillin is home to the Fleming Museum. There is also a school in the Lomita area named Alexander Fleming Middle School. Imperial College also has a building named after him, the Sir Alexander Fleming Building. Fleming, Florey, and Chain jointly received the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1945. According to the rules of the Nobel committee a maximum of three people may share the prize. Fleming's Nobel Prize medal was acquired by the National Museums of Scotland in 1989, and will be on display when the Royal Museum re-opens in 2011. Fleming was awarded the Hunterian Professorship by the Royal College of Surgeons of England Fleming and Florey were knighted in 1944. Florey went on to be elected President of the Royal Society in 1960 and received the greater honour of a peerage in 1965 for his monumental work in making penicillin available to the public and saving millions of lives in World War II, becoming a Baron. The discovery of penicillin was ranked as the most important discovery of the millennium when the year 2000 was approaching by at least 3 large Swedish magazines. It is impossible to know how many lives have been saved by this discovery, but some of these magazines placed their estimate near 200 million lives. In 2009, Fleming is to be commemorated on a new series of banknotes issued by the Clydesdale Bank; his image will appear on the new issue of £5 notes. Bibliography The Life Of Sir Alexander Fleming, Jonathan Cape, 1959. Maurois, André. Nobel Lectures, Physiology or Medicine 1942-1962, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1964 An Outline History of Medicine. London: Butterworths, 1985. Rhodes, Philip. The Cambridge Illustrated History of Medicine. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Porter, Roy, ed. Penicillin Man: Alexander Fleming and the Antibiotic Revolution, Stroud, Sutton, 2004. Brown, Kevin. Alexander Fleming: The Man and the Myth, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1984. Macfarlane, Gwyn References External links Alexander Fleming Biography TIME 100: Alexander Fleming Some places and memories related to Alexander Fleming Alexander Fleming | Alexander_Fleming |@lemmatized sir:6 alexander:15 fleming:62 august:3 march:3 scottish:1 biologist:1 pharmacologist:1 publish:5 many:9 article:4 bacteriology:2 immunology:2 chemotherapy:1 best:1 know:5 achievement:1 discovery:11 enzyme:1 lysozyme:2 antibiotic:12 substance:3 penicillin:35 fungus:2 penicillium:3 notatum:1 share:2 nobel:5 prize:4 physiology:2 medicine:8 howard:2 walter:1 florey:9 ernst:2 boris:1 chain:9 biography:3 early:3 life:6 st:8 mary:7 hospital:6 paddington:2 london:7 bear:1 lochfield:1 farm:1 near:2 darvel:2 east:1 ayrshire:1 scotland:2 third:1 four:3 child:3 hugh:2 second:2 marriage:3 grace:1 stirling:1 morton:1 daughter:1 neighbouring:1 farmer:1 survive:1 first:6 time:4 die:4 alec:1 seven:1 go:2 loudoun:1 moor:1 school:7 two:1 year:5 kilmarnock:1 academy:1 work:8 shipping:1 office:1 twenty:1 old:2 inherit:1 money:1 uncle:1 john:1 brother:1 tom:1 already:2 physician:2 suggest:3 younger:1 sibling:1 follow:1 career:1 young:2 enrol:1 qualify:1 distinction:1 option:1 become:6 surgeon:2 chance:1 however:1 member:2 rifle:1 club:2 active:3 territorial:1 army:3 since:3 captain:2 wish:1 retain:1 team:5 join:1 research:4 department:2 assistant:2 bacteriologist:1 almroth:3 wright:3 pioneer:1 vaccine:1 therapy:1 gain:1 b:4 sc:1 gold:1 medal:2 lecturer:1 december:2 marry:1 trained:1 nurse:1 sarah:3 marion:1 mcelroy:1 killala:1 ireland:1 serve:1 throughout:1 world:9 war:6 medical:3 corp:1 mention:1 dispatch:1 colleague:3 battlefield:1 western:1 front:1 france:1 return:3 teaching:1 elect:2 professor:1 actively:1 search:1 anti:2 bacterial:3 agent:4 witness:1 death:4 soldier:2 septicemia:1 result:3 infect:1 wound:3 unfortunately:1 antiseptic:7 kill:4 patient:3 immunological:1 defence:1 effectively:2 invading:1 bacteria:9 submit:1 journal:2 lancet:1 describe:2 ingenious:1 experiment:2 able:1 conduct:1 glass:1 blowing:1 skill:2 explain:1 actually:2 infection:2 well:3 surface:2 deep:1 tend:1 shelter:1 anaerobic:1 seem:1 remove:3 beneficial:1 produce:5 protect:1 case:2 least:2 nothing:1 reach:1 strongly:1 support:1 finding:1 despite:1 course:1 wwi:1 continue:4 use:11 even:3 worsen:1 condition:1 accidental:2 miracle:1 cure:2 wake:1 dawn:1 september:3 certainly:1 plan:1 revolutionize:1 discover:6 killer:1 would:4 later:2 say:4 guess:1 exactly:1 kendall:1 f:2 marvel:1 science:2 library:2 unlimited:1 investigate:2 property:2 staphylococci:4 develop:4 reputation:1 brilliant:1 researcher:1 laboratory:5 often:1 untidy:1 spend:1 holiday:1 family:1 leave:1 stack:1 culture:4 bench:1 corner:1 notice:3 one:2 contaminate:2 colony:2 immediately:1 surround:1 destroy:1 whereas:1 far:1 away:1 normal:1 show:2 contaminated:1 former:1 merlin:1 price:1 hare:1 r:1 birth:1 allen:1 unwin:1 identify:1 mould:3 plat:1 genus:1 month:1 call:1 juice:1 name:4 release:1 diggins:1 true:1 history:4 biomedical:2 scientist:1 insititute:1 originally:1 imperial:2 college:3 gazette:1 positive:2 effect:1 organism:1 affect:2 gram:3 pathogen:1 cause:3 scarlet:1 fever:3 pneumonia:1 meningitis:1 diphtheria:1 typhoid:1 paratyphoid:1 negative:2 seek:1 also:7 neisseria:1 gonorrhoeae:1 gonorrhoea:1 although:1 bacterium:1 british:3 experimental:1 pathology:1 little:3 attention:1 pay:2 investigation:1 find:1 cultivate:1 quite:1 difficult:2 grow:2 isolate:2 impression:1 problem:1 quantity:1 action:1 appear:2 rather:1 slow:1 important:2 treat:3 convinced:1 last:1 long:2 enough:5 human:1 body:1 vivo:1 clinical:2 test:3 inconclusive:1 probably:1 trial:2 occasionally:1 promise:1 keith:1 bernard:1 ro:1 try:2 interest:1 chemist:2 skilled:1 refine:1 usable:1 soon:1 abandon:1 take:1 researching:1 mass:4 fund:1 u:1 government:1 start:2 production:3 bombing:1 pearl:1 harbor:1 day:2 arrive:1 make:3 allied:1 force:1 purification:1 stabilization:1 model:1 benzylpenicillin:1 concentrate:1 correctly:1 theorise:1 structure:1 shortly:1 telephone:1 head:1 visit:1 within:1 next:1 hear:1 come:1 remark:1 good:1 god:1 think:1 dead:1 norman:1 heatley:3 transfer:1 ingredient:1 back:1 water:1 change:2 acidity:1 drug:4 begin:1 animal:1 henry:1 harris:1 without:4 people:3 involve:2 oxford:3 point:1 entire:1 dunn:1 method:3 purify:1 effective:1 stable:1 form:1 several:1 ensue:1 amazing:1 success:1 inspire:1 distribution:1 modest:1 part:1 development:1 fame:1 myth:2 praise:1 transform:1 curiosity:1 practical:1 give:1 privilege:1 keep:1 distribute:1 original:1 mold:1 twelve:1 get:1 help:1 modern:3 similar:1 isolation:1 mark:1 resistance:3 whenever:1 short:2 period:2 predict:1 caution:2 speech:1 around:2 unless:1 properly:1 diagnose:1 reason:1 never:1 circumstance:1 develops:1 personal:1 popular:1 story:1 eg:1 philadelphia:1 enquirer:1 july:1 brown:4 man:5 note:3 chapter:2 winston:3 churchill:5 father:2 education:1 save:9 false:1 accord:2 revolution:2 kevin:2 letter:1 november:1 additional:1 manuscript:1 friend:1 andre:1 gratia:1 see:1 wikipedia:1 entry:1 described:1 wondrous:1 fable:1 ii:2 lord:1 moran:1 sulphonamides:1 experience:1 fell:1 ill:1 carthage:1 tunisia:1 daily:1 telegraph:1 morning:1 post:1 write:1 new:4 sulphonamide:1 sulphapyridine:1 code:1 may:3 baker:2 ltd:1 dagenham:1 essex:1 subsidiary:1 french:1 group:1 rhône:1 poulenc:1 subsequent:1 radio:1 broadcast:1 refer:1 admirable:1 alden:1 press:3 wife:1 robert:1 general:1 practitioner:1 married:1 dr:1 amalia:1 koutsouri:1 vourekas:1 greek:1 april:1 suddenly:1 home:2 heart:1 attack:1 cremate:1 ash:1 inter:1 paul:1 cathedral:1 week:1 honour:2 award:2 faroe:1 island:1 stamp:1 commemorate:2 introduce:1 age:1 useful:1 still:1 million:3 museum:3 lomita:1 area:1 middle:1 building:2 jointly:1 receive:2 rule:1 committee:1 maximum:1 three:1 acquire:1 national:1 display:1 royal:3 open:1 hunterian:1 professorship:1 england:2 knight:1 president:1 society:1 great:1 peerage:1 monumental:1 available:1 public:1 baron:1 rank:1 millennium:1 approach:1 large:1 swedish:1 magazine:2 impossible:1 place:2 estimate:1 series:1 banknote:1 issue:2 clydesdale:1 bank:1 image:1 bibliography:1 jonathan:1 cape:1 maurois:1 andré:1 lecture:1 elsevier:1 company:1 amsterdam:1 outline:1 butterworths:1 rhodes:1 philip:1 cambridge:3 illustrate:1 university:2 porter:1 roy:1 ed:1 stroud:1 sutton:1 macfarlane:1 gwyn:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 memory:1 relate:1 |@bigram nobel_prize:3 prize_physiology:1 physiology_medicine:2 ayrshire_scotland:1 gold_medal:1 anaerobic_bacteria:1 allen_unwin:1 discovery_penicillin:4 gram_positive:1 scarlet_fever:1 typhoid_fever:1 gram_negative:2 florey_chain:4 pearl_harbor:1 howard_florey:1 clinical_trial:1 antibiotic_resistance:2 winston_churchill:2 daily_telegraph:1 cremate_ash:1 faroe_island:1 antibiotic_penicillin:1 jonathan_cape:1 london_butterworths:1 external_link:1 |
1,698 | Nawaf_al-Hazmi | Nawaf al-Hazmi (, also known as Rabia al-Makki. National Commission on Terrorist Attacks, 9/11 Commission, p. 166 ) (August 9, 1976 – September 11, 2001) was one of five terrorists named by FBI as hijackers of American Airlines flight 77, which was crashed into the Pentagon in the September 11 attack. He was initially dismissed as a "muscle hijacker" following the attacks, but was later revealed to have played a larger role in the operational planning than previously believed. Los Angeles Times, Document links al Qaeda paymaster, 9/11 plotter, September 27, 2002 His younger brother, Salem al-Hazmi, was another hijacker aboard the same flight. Background Nawaf was born in Mecca in Saudi Arabia to Muhammad Salim al-Hazmi, a grocer. He traveled to Afghanistan as a teenager in 1993. CNN's preliminary report following the attacks claimed that an unnamed acquaintance relayed "He told me once that his father had tried to kill him when he was a child. He never told me why, but he had a long knife scar on his forearm", and claimed that his older brother was a police chief in Jizan. In 1995, he and his childhood friend, Khalid al-Mihdhar, joined a group in 1995 that went to fight alongside Bosnian Muslims in the Bosnian War. Afterwards, Nawaf returned to Afghanistan along with his brother Salem, and Mihdhar. In Afghanistan, they fought alongside the Taliban against the Afghan Northern Alliance, and joined up with Al-Qaeda. Nawaf al-Hazmi also fought alongside Chechnyans sometime around 1998, possibly with his brother and Mihdhar, and returned to Saudi Arabia in early 1999. Selected for the 9/11 plot Osama bin Laden held Hazmi and Mihdhar in high respect, with their experience fighting during the 1990s in Bosnia and elsewhere. al-Qaeda later referred to Hazmi as Mihdhar's "second in command". Videotape of recorded will of Abdulaziz al-Omari and others When Bin Laden committed to the "planes operation" plot in spring 1999, Bin Laden personally selected Hazmi and Mihdhar to be involved in the plot as pilot hijackers. In addition to Hazmi and Mihdhar, two Yemenis were selected for a southeast Asia component of the plot, which was later scrapped for being too difficult to coordinated with the operations in the United States. Known as Rabi'ah al-Makki during the preparations, Hazmi had been so eager to participate in operations within the United States, he already had a U.S. visa when Bin Laden selected him. Hazmi obtained a B-1/B-2 tourist visa on April 3, 1999 from the U.S. consulate in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, using a new passport he acquired a few weeks earlier. Hazmi's passport did have indicators of Al-Qaeda association, but immigration inspectors were not trained to look for those. In the autumn of 1999, these four attended the Mes Aynak training camp in Afghanistan, which provided advanced training. Hazmi went with the two Yemenis, Tawfiq bin Attash (Khallad) and Abu Bara al Yemeni, to Karachi, Pakistan where Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, the plot's coordinator, instructed him on western culture, travel, as well as taught some basic English phrases. Mihdhar did not go with him to Karachi, but instead left for Yemen. Khalid Sheikh Mohammed then sent Hazmi and the other men to Malaysia for a meeting. Before leaving for Malaysia, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed doctored Hazmi's Saudi passport in order to conceal his travel to Pakistan and Afghanistan, and make it appear that Hazmi had come to Malaysia from Saudi Arabia via Dubai. After the attacks, the Associated Press would re-publish a "bizarre" story by the Cody Enterprise that quoted witnesses stating that Nawaf entered the United States during the autumn of 1999, crossing along the Canadian border as one of two men delivering skylights to the local high school in Cody, Wyoming. Leaving the city 45 minutes later with the remaining cardboard boxes, the men allegedly asked "how to get to Florida." One Sept. 11 Terrorist in Cody Two Years Ago, The Associated Press, October 23, 2001 Malaysia summit Based on information uncovered by the FBI in the 1998 United States embassy bombings case, the National Security Agency (NSA) began tracking the communications of Mihdhar's father-in-law Ahmad Muhammad Ali al-Hada, who was facilitating al-Qaeda communications, in 1999. Authorities also became aware of Hazmi, as a friend and associate of Mihdhar. Saudi Intelligence was also aware that Hazmi was associated with Al-Qaeda, and associated with the 1998 African embassy bombings and attempts to smuggle arms into the kingdom in 1997. He also said that he revealed this to the CIA, saying "What we told them was these people were on our watch list from previous activities of al-Qaeda, in both the ." The CIA strongly denies having received any such warning. In late 1999 the NSA informed the CIA of an upcoming meeting in Malaysia, which Hada mentioned would involve "Khalid", "Nawaf", and "Salem". On January 5, Hazmi arrived in Kuala Lumpur, where he met up with Mihdhar, Attash, and Abu Bara. The group was in Malaysia to meet with Hambali for the 2000 Al Qaeda Summit, during which key details of the attacks may have been arranged. At this time, there was an East Asia component to the September 11 attacks plot, but Bin Laden later canceled it for being too difficult to coordinate with operations in the United States. Ramzi Binalshibh was also at the summit, and Khalid Sheikh Mohammed possibly attended the summit. In Malaysia, the group stayed with Yazid Sufaat, a local member of Jemaah Islamiyah, who provided accommodations at request of Hambali. Both Mihdhar and Hazmi were secretly photographed at the meeting by Malaysian authorities, who provided surveillance at the request of the CIA. Malaysian authorities reported that Mihdhar spoke at length with Tawfiq bin Attash, one of the Yemenis, and others who were later involved in the USS Cole bombing. Hazmi and Mihdhar also met with Fahad al-Quso, who was later involved in the USS Cole bombing. After the meeting, Mihdhar and Hazmi traveled to Bangkok in Thailand on January 8, and left a week later on January 15 to travel to the United States. In the U.S. Enters the United States with al-Mihdhar Between February and May 2000, Mihdhar and Nawaf al-Hazmi lived at the Parkwood Apartments complex in Claremont Mesa, San Diego. On January 15, 2000, Hazmi and Mihdhar arrived together at Los Angeles International Airport from Bangkok, and were admitted for a six-month period. Immediately after entering the country, Nawaf and al-Mihdhar met Omar al-Bayoumi in an airport restaurant. Al-Bayoumi claims he was merely being charitable in helping the two seemingly out-of-place Muslims to move to San Diego where he helped them find an apartment near his own, co-signed their lease, and gave them $1500 to help pay their rent. In the beginning of February 2000, Mihdhar and Hazmi rented an apartment at the Parkwood Apartments, a 175-unit complex in the Clairemont Mesa section of San Diego, near the Balboa Drive Mosque. In February, Mihdhar purchased a used 1988 Toyota Corolla. While living at the Parkwood Apartments, neighbors thought that Mihdhar and Hazmi were odd. Months passed without them getting any furniture for the apartment. Instead, the men slept on mattresses on the floor, yet they carried briefcases, were frequently on their mobile phones, and were occasionally picked up by a limousine. After the attacks, their neighbors told the media that the pair constantly played flight simulator games. Residents said a total of four men spent time together at Parkwood, playing in the pool like children. On April 4, 2000, Hazmi took a one-hour introductory flight lesson at the National Air College in San Diego. Both Mihdhar and Hazmi took flight lessons in May 2000 at the Sorbi Flying Club, located at Montgomery Field in San Diego. On May 5, Hazmi and Mihdhar took a lesson for one hour, and additional lessons on May 10 at the Sorbi Flying Club, with Hazmi flying an aircraft for 30 minutes. However, their English skills were very poor, and they did not do well with flight lessons. The first day that they showed up, they told instructors that they wanted to learn how to fly Boeings. Mihdhar and Hazmi raised some suspicion when they offered extra money to their flight instructor, Richard Garza, if he would train them to fly jets. Suspicious of the two men, Garza refused the offer but did not report them to authorities. Garza described the two men as "impatient students" who "wanted to learn to fly jets, specifically Boeings." Adel Rafeea received a wire transfer of $5000, on April 18, from Ali Abdul Aziz Ali in the UAE, which he later claimed was money Nawaf had asked him to accept on his behalf. At the end of May 2000, Hazmi and Mihdhar moved out of Parkwood Apartments, and moved to nearby Lemon Grove, California. At this time, Mihdhar transferred his vehicle's registration to Hazmi, and he left San Diego on June 10, 2000. Mihdhar returned to Yemen, which angered Khalid Sheikeh Mohammed, who did not want Hazmi to be left alone in California. On July 12, 2000, Hazmi filed for an extension of his visa, which was due to expire. His visa was extended until January 2001, though Hazmi never filed any further requests to extend it beyond that. In September, Nawaf and al-Mihdhdar both moved into the house of FBI informant Abdussattar Shaikh, although he did not report the pair as suspicious. http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline/2003/congressreportparta072403.html Al-Mihdhar is believed to have left the apartment in early October, less than two weeks before the USS Cole Bombing. Nawaf continued living with Shaikh until December. Hani Hanjour arrived in San Diego in early December 2000, joining Hazmi, but they soon left for Phoenix, Arizona where Hanjour could take refresher flight training. On December 12, Hanjour and Hazmi signed a lease for an apartment in the Indian Springs Village complex in Mesa, Arizona. 2001 In 2001, al-Hazmi and Hanjour moved to Falls Church, Virginia. Eventually two other hijackers, Ahmed al-Ghamdi and Majed Moqed, moved in with them. On April 1, 2001, Oklahoma police officer C. L. Parkins pulled al-Hazmi over for speeding in a Chevrolet Impala , and issued him an additional citation together totalling $138. A routine inspection of his California drivers license turned up no warrants or alerts. On May 1, 2001, al-Hazmi reported to police that men tried to take his wallet outside his Fairfax, Virginia residence, but before the county officer left, al-Hazmi signed a "statement of release" indicating he did not want the incident investigated. On June 30, his car was involved in a minor traffic accident on the east-bound George Washington Bridge. On June 25, 2001, Hazmi obtained a drivers' license in Florida, providing an address in Delray Beach, Florida, and he obtained a USA ID card on July 10. On August 2, Hazmi also obtained a Virginia drivers' license, and made a request for it to be reissued on September 7. Al-Hazmi, along with at least five other future hijackers, traveled to Las Vegas at least six times in the Summer of 2001. They reportedly drank alcohol, gambled, and paid strippers to perform lap dances for them. Throughout the summer , al-Hazmi met with leader Mohammad Atta to discuss the status of the operation of a monthly basis. On August 23, Israeli Mossad reportedly gives his name to the CIA as part of a list of 19 names they say are planning an attack in the near future. Only four of the names are known for certain - Nawaf, Atta, Marwan and al-Mihdhar. http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline/2002/diezeit100102.html BBC, Report details US intelligence failures, October 2 2002 On the same day, he is added to an INS watchlist, together with al-Mihdhar to prevent entry into the U.S. An internal review after 9/11 found that "everything was done [to find them] that could have been done." But the search does not appear to have been particularly aggressive. A national motor vehicle index was reportedly checked, but al-Hazmi's speeding ticket was not detected for some reason. The FBI did not search credit card databases, bank account databases, or car registration, all of which would had positive results. Al-Hazmi was even listed in the 2000-2001 San Diego phone book, but this too was not searched until after the attacks. http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline/2001/latimes102801.html http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline/2002/dailyoklahoman012002.html On August 27, brothers Nawaf and Salem purchased flight tickets through Travelocity.com using Nawaf's visa card. On September 1, Nawaf registered Room #7 at the Pin-Del Motel in Laurel, Maryland. On the registration, he listed his drivers license number as 3402142-D, and gave a New York hotel as his permanent residence. Ziad Jarrah had checked into the hotel on August 27th. Attacks Nawaf and al-Mihdhar purchased their 9/11 plane tickets on-line using a credit card with their real names. This raised no red flags, since the FAA had not been informed that the two were on a terrorist watchlist. http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline/2002/senatecommittee092602.html On September 10, 2001, Hanjour, al-Mihdhar, and Nawaf checked into the Marriott Residence Inn in Herndon, Virginia where Saleh Ibn Abdul Rahman Hussayen, a prominent Saudi government official, was staying - although no evidence was ever uncovered that they had met, or knew of each other's presence. The flight was scheduled to depart at 08:10, but ended up departing 10 minutes late from Gate D26 at Dulles. The last normal radio communications from the aircraft to air traffic control occurred at 08:50:51. At 08:54, Flight 77 began to deviate from its normal, assigned flight path and turned south, and then hijackers set the flight's autopilot heading for Washington, D.C. Passenger Barbara Olson called her husband, United States Solicitor General Ted Olson, and reported that the plane had been hijacked and that the assailants had box cutters and knives. At 09:37, American Airlines Flight 77 crashed into the west facade of the Pentagon, killing all 64 aboard (including the hijackers), along with 125 on the ground in the Pentagon. Aftermath Nawaf al-Hazmi's 1988 blue Toyota Corolla was found on the next day in Dulles International Airport's hourly parking lot. Inside the vehicle, authorities found a letter written by Mohamed Atta, maps of Washington, D.C. and New York City, a cashier's check made out to a Phoenix flight school, four drawings of a Boeing 757 cockpit, a box cutter, and a page with notes and phone numbers. In the recovery process at the Pentagon, remains of all five Flight 77 hijackers were identified through a process of elimination, as not matching any DNA samples for the victims, and put into custody of the FBI. Forensics teams confirmed that it seemed two of the hijackers were brothers, based on their DNA similarities. Several weeks after the attacks, a Las Vegas Days Inn employee went to the FBI and stated that she recognised al-Hazmi's photographs from the media as being a man she had met at the hotel, who had asked for details on hotels near Los Angeles. She admitted that he never gave his name. Ex-hotel worker says she conversed with hijacker, Las Vegas Review-Journal, By GLENN PUIT and J.M. KALIL, Friday, October 26, 2001 Timeline in America Late in 2005, Army Lt. Col. Kevin Shaffer and Congressman Curt Weldon alleged that the Defense Department data mining project Able Danger had kept Nawaf, Khalid al-Mihdhar, Mohamed Atta and Marwan al-Shehhi all under surveillance as Al-Qaeda agents. January 15, 2000: Al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar arrive in Los Angeles from Bangkok, Thailand. February 2000: Al-Hazmi and al-Mihdhar move to San Diego. Autumn 2000: Al-Hamzi works at a gas station while living in San Deigo. March 2001: Nawaf al-Hazmi and Hani Hanjour move from Phoenix to Falls Church, Virginia. Mid-March 2001: Nawaf al-Hazmi, Ahmed Alghamdi, Majed Moqed, and Hani Hanjour stay for four days in the Fairfield Motor Inn, Fairfield, Connecticut. They meet with Eyad Alrababah, a Palestinian who may have provided false identification documents. References External links The Final 9/11 Commission Report | Nawaf_al-Hazmi |@lemmatized nawaf:21 al:51 hazmi:53 also:8 know:3 rabia:1 makki:2 national:4 commission:3 terrorist:4 attack:12 p:1 august:5 september:8 one:6 five:3 name:6 fbi:6 hijacker:11 american:2 airline:2 flight:16 crash:2 pentagon:4 initially:1 dismiss:1 muscle:1 follow:2 later:9 reveal:2 play:3 large:1 role:1 operational:1 planning:1 previously:1 believe:2 los:4 angeles:4 time:5 document:2 link:2 qaeda:9 paymaster:1 plotter:1 younger:1 brother:6 salem:4 another:1 aboard:2 background:1 bear:1 mecca:1 saudi:7 arabia:4 muhammad:2 salim:1 grocer:1 travel:6 afghanistan:5 teenager:1 cnn:1 preliminary:1 report:8 claim:4 unnamed:1 acquaintance:1 relay:1 tell:5 father:2 try:2 kill:2 child:2 never:3 long:1 knife:2 scar:1 forearm:1 old:1 police:3 chief:1 jizan:1 childhood:1 friend:2 khalid:9 mihdhar:36 join:3 group:3 go:4 fight:4 alongside:3 bosnian:2 muslim:1 war:1 afterwards:1 return:3 along:4 taliban:1 afghan:1 northern:1 alliance:1 chechnyans:1 sometime:1 around:1 possibly:2 early:3 select:4 plot:6 osama:1 bin:7 laden:5 hold:1 high:2 respect:1 experience:1 bosnia:1 elsewhere:1 refer:1 second:1 command:1 videotape:1 record:1 abdulaziz:1 omari:1 others:2 commit:1 plane:3 operation:5 spring:2 personally:1 involve:5 pilot:1 addition:1 two:11 yemeni:4 southeast:1 asia:2 component:2 scrap:1 difficult:2 coordinate:2 united:8 state:10 rabi:1 ah:1 preparation:1 eager:1 participate:1 within:1 already:1 u:5 visa:5 obtain:4 b:2 tourist:1 april:4 consulate:1 jeddah:1 use:3 new:3 passport:3 acquire:1 week:4 earlier:1 indicator:1 association:1 immigration:1 inspector:1 train:3 look:1 autumn:3 four:5 attend:2 aynak:1 camp:1 provide:5 advanced:1 training:2 tawfiq:2 attash:3 khallad:1 abu:2 bara:2 karachi:2 pakistan:2 sheikh:4 mohammed:5 coordinator:1 instruct:1 western:1 culture:1 well:2 teach:1 basic:1 english:2 phrase:1 instead:2 leave:9 yemen:2 send:1 men:8 malaysia:7 meeting:4 doctored:1 order:1 conceal:1 make:3 appear:2 come:1 via:1 dubai:1 associated:2 press:2 would:4 publish:1 bizarre:1 story:1 cody:3 enterprise:1 quote:1 witness:1 enter:3 cross:1 canadian:1 border:1 deliver:1 skylight:1 local:2 school:2 wyoming:1 city:2 minute:3 remain:2 cardboard:1 box:3 allegedly:1 ask:3 get:2 florida:3 sept:1 year:1 ago:1 october:4 summit:4 base:2 information:1 uncover:2 embassy:2 bombing:5 case:1 security:1 agency:1 nsa:2 begin:2 track:1 communication:3 law:1 ahmad:1 ali:3 hada:2 facilitate:1 authority:5 become:1 aware:2 associate:3 intelligence:2 african:1 attempt:1 smuggle:1 arm:1 kingdom:1 say:5 cia:5 people:1 watch:1 list:4 previous:1 activity:1 strongly:1 deny:1 receive:2 warning:1 late:3 inform:2 upcoming:1 mention:1 january:6 arrive:4 kuala:1 lumpur:1 meet:8 hambali:2 key:1 detail:3 may:8 arrange:1 east:2 cancel:1 ramzi:1 binalshibh:1 stay:3 yazid:1 sufaat:1 member:1 jemaah:1 islamiyah:1 accommodation:1 request:4 secretly:1 photograph:2 malaysian:2 surveillance:2 speak:1 length:1 uss:3 cole:3 fahad:1 quso:1 bangkok:3 thailand:2 february:4 live:3 parkwood:5 apartment:9 complex:3 claremont:1 mesa:3 san:10 diego:9 together:4 international:2 airport:3 admit:2 six:2 month:2 period:1 immediately:1 country:1 omar:1 bayoumi:2 restaurant:1 merely:1 charitable:1 help:3 seemingly:1 place:1 muslims:1 move:8 find:5 near:4 co:1 sign:3 lease:2 give:4 pay:2 rent:2 beginning:1 unit:1 clairemont:1 section:1 balboa:1 drive:1 mosque:1 purchase:3 used:1 toyota:2 corolla:2 neighbor:2 think:1 odd:1 pass:1 without:1 furniture:1 sleep:1 mattress:1 floor:1 yet:1 carry:1 briefcase:1 frequently:1 mobile:1 phone:3 occasionally:1 pick:1 limousine:1 medium:2 pair:2 constantly:1 simulator:1 game:1 resident:1 total:2 spend:1 pool:1 like:1 take:5 hour:2 introductory:1 lesson:5 air:2 college:1 sorbi:2 fly:6 club:2 locate:1 montgomery:1 field:1 additional:2 aircraft:2 however:1 skill:1 poor:1 first:1 day:5 show:1 instructor:2 want:4 learn:2 boeings:2 raise:2 suspicion:1 offer:2 extra:1 money:2 richard:1 garza:3 jet:2 suspicious:2 refuse:1 describe:1 impatient:1 student:1 specifically:1 adel:1 rafeea:1 wire:1 transfer:2 abdul:2 aziz:1 uae:1 accept:1 behalf:1 end:2 nearby:1 lemon:1 grove:1 california:3 vehicle:3 registration:3 june:3 anger:1 sheikeh:1 alone:1 july:2 file:2 extension:1 due:1 expire:1 extend:2 though:1 beyond:1 mihdhdar:1 house:1 informant:1 abdussattar:1 shaikh:2 although:2 http:5 www:5 cooperativeresearch:5 org:5 timeline:6 html:5 less:1 continue:1 december:3 hani:3 hanjour:7 soon:1 phoenix:3 arizona:2 could:2 refresher:1 indian:1 village:1 fall:2 church:2 virginia:5 eventually:1 ahmed:2 ghamdi:1 majed:2 moqed:2 oklahoma:1 officer:2 c:3 l:1 parkins:1 pull:1 speed:2 chevrolet:1 impala:1 issue:1 citation:1 routine:1 inspection:1 driver:4 license:4 turn:2 warrant:1 alert:1 wallet:1 outside:1 fairfax:1 residence:3 county:1 statement:1 release:1 indicating:1 incident:1 investigate:1 car:2 minor:1 traffic:2 accident:1 bound:1 george:1 washington:3 bridge:1 address:1 delray:1 beach:1 usa:1 id:1 card:4 reissue:1 least:2 future:2 las:2 vega:3 summer:2 reportedly:3 drink:1 alcohol:1 gamble:1 stripper:1 perform:1 lap:1 dance:1 throughout:1 leader:1 mohammad:1 atta:4 discuss:1 status:1 monthly:1 basis:1 israeli:1 mossad:1 part:1 plan:1 certain:1 marwan:2 bbc:1 failure:1 add:1 watchlist:2 prevent:1 entry:1 internal:1 review:2 everything:1 search:3 particularly:1 aggressive:1 motor:2 index:1 checked:1 ticket:3 detect:1 reason:1 credit:2 database:2 bank:1 account:1 positive:1 result:1 even:1 book:1 travelocity:1 com:1 registered:1 room:1 pin:1 del:1 motel:1 laurel:1 maryland:1 number:2 york:2 hotel:5 permanent:1 ziad:1 jarrah:1 check:3 line:1 real:1 red:1 flag:1 since:1 faa:1 marriott:1 inn:3 herndon:1 saleh:1 ibn:1 rahman:1 hussayen:1 prominent:1 government:1 official:1 evidence:1 ever:1 knew:1 presence:1 schedule:1 depart:2 gate:1 dulles:2 last:1 normal:2 radio:1 control:1 occur:1 deviate:1 assigned:1 path:1 south:1 set:1 autopilot:1 head:1 passenger:1 barbara:1 olson:2 call:1 husband:1 solicitor:1 general:1 ted:1 hijack:1 assailant:1 cutter:2 west:1 facade:1 include:1 ground:1 aftermath:1 blue:1 next:1 hourly:1 park:1 lot:1 inside:1 letter:1 write:1 mohamed:2 map:1 cashier:1 drawing:1 boeing:1 cockpit:1 page:1 note:1 recovery:1 process:2 identify:1 elimination:1 match:1 dna:2 sample:1 victim:1 put:1 custody:1 forensics:1 team:1 confirm:1 seem:1 similarity:1 several:1 employee:1 recognise:1 man:1 ex:1 worker:1 converse:1 la:1 journal:1 glenn:1 puit:1 j:1 kalil:1 friday:1 america:1 army:1 lt:1 col:1 kevin:1 shaffer:1 congressman:1 curt:1 weldon:1 allege:1 defense:1 department:1 data:1 mining:1 project:1 able:1 danger:1 keep:1 shehhi:1 agent:1 hamzi:1 work:1 gas:1 station:1 living:1 deigo:1 march:2 mid:1 alghamdi:1 fairfield:2 connecticut:1 eyad:1 alrababah:1 palestinian:1 false:1 identification:1 reference:1 external:1 final:1 |@bigram nawaf_al:9 al_hazmi:19 muscle_hijacker:1 los_angeles:4 al_qaeda:9 younger_brother:1 mecca_saudi:1 saudi_arabia:4 muhammad_salim:1 al_mihdhar:11 osama_bin:1 bin_laden:5 hazmi_mihdhar:8 abdulaziz_al:1 al_omari:1 southeast_asia:1 jeddah_saudi:1 karachi_pakistan:1 khalid_sheikh:4 sheikh_mohammed:4 cardboard_box:1 muhammad_ali:1 kuala_lumpur:1 ramzi_binalshibh:1 jemaah_islamiyah:1 mihdhar_hazmi:6 uss_cole:3 bangkok_thailand:2 san_diego:9 rent_apartment:1 toyota_corolla:2 mobile_phone:1 flight_simulator:1 abdul_aziz:1 fbi_informant:1 http_www:5 www_cooperativeresearch:5 cooperativeresearch_org:5 hani_hanjour:3 phoenix_arizona:1 mesa_arizona:1 al_ghamdi:1 majed_moqed:2 chevrolet_impala:1 delray_beach:1 las_vega:2 israeli_mossad:1 marwan_al:2 ziad_jarrah:1 abdul_rahman:1 barbara_olson:1 ted_olson:1 box_cutter:2 cutter_knife:1 mohamed_atta:2 la_vega:1 lt_col:1 al_shehhi:1 fairfield_connecticut:1 external_link:1 |
1,699 | Mohamed_Atta | Mohamed Atta ( ) (September 1, 1968 – September 11, 2001) was an Egyptian Islamist terrorist, a known associate of al-Qaeda, and the ringleader of the 19 hijackers in the September 11 attacks. Atta was at the controls of American Airlines Flight 11 which was the first plane to strike the World Trade Center. Born in a small town in the Nile Delta, Egypt in 1968, Atta moved with his family to the Abdeen section of Cairo at the age of 10. Atta studied architecture at Cairo University, and went to Hamburg, Germany in 1992 to continue his studies at the Technical University of Hamburg, where he remained a student until fall 1999. In Hamburg, Atta became involved with the Al-Quds Mosque. At some point, he met Marwan al-Shehhi, Ramzi Binalshibh, and Ziad Jarrah who all became part of the Hamburg cell. Atta disappeared from Germany for periods of time, spending some time in Afghanistan, including several months in late 1999 and early 2000 when he met Osama bin Laden and other top Al-Qaeda leaders. Atta and the other Hamburg Cell members were recruited by Bin Laden and Khalid Sheikh Mohammed for the "planes operation" in the United States. Atta returned to Hamburg in February 2000, reported his passport stolen and obtained a clean passport. In late March 2000, Atta began contacting flight schools in the United States, inquiring about training. Atta arrived together with Marwan al-Shehhi in June 2000. Both ended up in south Florida at Huffman Aviation where they entered the Accelerated Pilot Program. Atta and al-Shehhi obtained instrument ratings in November 2000, and continued training on simulators and flight training. Beginning in May 2001, Atta assisted with the arrival of the muscle hijackers. In July 2001, Atta traveled to Spain where he met with Binalshibh to exchange information and finalize the plot. In August, Atta traveled on surveillance flights to determine details on how the attacks could be carried out. In early September 2001, Atta traveled to Maryland, where Hani Hanjour was at the time. Atta then traveled to Boston, and on September 10, he traveled with Abdulaziz al-Omari to Portland, Maine. On the morning of September 11, Atta and al-Omari flew on Colgan Air back to Boston, where they boarded American Airlines Flight 11. Fifteen minutes into the flight, the team of hijackers attacked and Atta took over control of the aircraft. At 8:46 a.m., Atta crashed the Boeing 767 into the North Tower of the World Trade Center. Aliases Mohamed Atta varied his name on documents, also using "Mehan Atta", "Mohammad El Amir", "Muhammad Atta", "Mohamed El Sayed", "Mohamed Elsayed", "Muhammad al-Amir", "Awag Al Sayyid Atta", "Muhammad al-Amir", and "Awad Al Sayad". In Germany, he registered his name as "Mohamed el-Amir Awad el-Sayed Atta", and went by the name, "Mohamed el-Amir" at the Technical University of Hamburg. In his will written in 1996, Atta gives his name as "Mohamed the son of Mohamed Elamir awad Elsayed." When he came to the United States, he used the name "Mohamed Atta." Atta also claimed different nationalities, sometimes Egyptian and other times told people that he was from the United Arab Emirates. Early life Atta was born on September 1, 1968 in Kafr el-Sheikh, located in Egypt's Nile delta region. His father, Mohamed el-Amir Awad el-Sayed Atta, was a lawyer, educated in both sharia and civil law. His mother, Bouthayna Mohamed Mustapha Sheraqi, came from a wealthy farming and trading family and was also educated. Bouthayna and Mohamed married when she was 14, via an arranged marriage. The family had few relatives on the father's side and kept a distance from Bouthayna's family. In-laws characterized Atta's father "austere, strict, and private", and neighbors considered the family reclusive. McDermott (2005), p. 9-11 Atta was the only son, but he had two older sisters who were both well-educated and successful in their careers—one as a medical doctor and the other as a professor. When Atta was ten, his family moved to the Cairo neighborhood of Abdeen, located near the center of the city. Atta's father continued to keep the family private, restricting Atta from socializing with other kids in the neighborhood. Instead, he spent most of his time at home studying, and performed well in his studies. McDermott (2005), p. 12-14 In 1985, Atta entered Cairo University, where he studied engineering. As one of the highest-scoring students, Atta was admitted into the very selective architecture program during his senior year. In addition to his regular courses, Atta studied English at the American University in Cairo. Fouda and Fielding (2003), p. 77 In 1990, Atta graduated with a degree in architecture. For several months after graduating, Atta worked at the Urban Development Center in Cairo, where he worked on architectural, planning, and building design. After he graduated, Atta also studied German at the Goethe-Institut in Cairo. Fouda and Fielding (2003), p. 78 In 1990, Atta's family moved into an 11th floor apartment in Giza. Germany In 1992, Atta's father invited a German couple over for dinner while they were visiting Cairo. The German couple ran an exchange program between Germany and Egypt, and suggested that Atta should continue his studies in Germany. They offered him a temporary place to live at their house in the city. Mohamed Atta travelled to Germany two weeks later, in July 1992. There, he enrolled in the urban planning graduate program at the Technical University of Hamburg-Harburg. Atta initially stayed with the two high school teachers. When he arrived in Germany, Atta began adhering to a strict Islamic diet, frequented the mosque, and seldom socialized. His hosts found Atta frustrating due to his closed-mindedness and intensely introverted personality. After six months, they asked him to move out. By spring 1993, Atta moved into Centrumshaus, a university apartment building, where he shared an apartment with two roommates. Atta continued living in the apartment at Centrumshaus until 1998. During that time, he had two roommates who in the end were "so aggravated" with Atta, who almost never cleaned, seldom washed dishes, and such behavior. Atta would walk in and out of a room "without acknowledging anyone else in it". His roommates described Atta's personality as "complete, almost aggressive insularity". McDermott (2005), p. 25 At the Technical University of Hamburg-Harburg, Atta studied under guidance of the department chair, Dittmar Machule, who himself specialized in the Middle East. McDermott (2005), p. 24 Atta was concerned about modern development and construction of high-rise buildings in Cairo and other ancient cities in the Middle East. He believed that the large, impersonal, and often ugly apartment blocks built in the 1960s and 1970s had ruined old neighborhoods, and took away privacy and dignity from people. Atta's own family moved into such an apartment block in 1990, which to him was "a shabby symbol of Egypt's haphazard attempts to modernize and its shameless embrace of the West." For his thesis, Atta focused his studies on the ancient city of Aleppo in Syria. He explored the history of Aleppo's urban landscapes and the general themes of the conflict between Arab civilization and modernity. Atta criticized how the modern skyscrapers and development projects in Aleppo were disrupting the fabric of that city by blocking community streets and altering the skyline. In 1994, Atta was invited to Aleppo by his professor Dittmar Machule for a three-day archaeological visit. Atta ended up spending several weeks in Aleppo during August 1994, and visited again that December. While in Syria, he met Amal, a young Palestinian woman, who worked there in the planning bureau. Volker Hauth, who was traveling with Atta, described Amal as "attractive and self-confident. She observed the Muslim niceties, taking taxis to and from the office so as not to come into close physical contact with men on the buses. But, she was 'emancipated' and 'challenging'." They both appeared to be attracted to one another, but Atta regretfully explained to Hauth that, "she had a quite different orientation and that the emancipation of the young lady did not fit." This was the closest thing to romance for Atta. During the summer of 1995, Atta spent three months with co-students Volker Hauth and Ralph Bodenstein in Cairo, on a grant from the Carl Duisberg Society. They looked at the effects of redevelopment in the Islamic Cairo old quarter which the government wanted to develop for tourism. Atta remained in Cairo to stay with his family, after Hauth and Bodenstein returned to Germany. McDermott (2005), p. 29-31 Corbin (2003), p. 122 Frank Jansen, "Anschlaege von New York: Terrorpilot Atta betreute Studenten in Berlin" (Attacks on New York: Terror pilot Atta tutored students in Berlin), Der Tagesspiegel (Berlin), October 17, 2001 (English translation). While in Hamburg, Atta also held a number of jobs. Beginning in 1992, he worked part-time at Plankontor, an urban planning firm. Atta remained with the firm through the summer of 1997, when he was laid off. The firm's business had declined, and having bought a CAD system, "his draughtsmanship was not needed." McDermott (2005), p. 47 Atta also worked at a cleaning firm, and buying and selling cars to earn extra money. After studying in Hamburg, Atta wanted to return to Cairo to work, but there were few job prospects, as his family did not have the "right connections". Atta was also concerned about actions of the Egyptian government in arresting political activists, and feared that he too would be a target due to his social and political beliefs. Corbin (2003), p. 123 After leaving Plankontor in the summer of 1997, he disappeared again and did not return until 1998. Atta phoned his graduate adviser in 1998, after a year of doing nothing for his thesis. Atta told Machule that he had family problems at home and said, “Please understand, I don’t want to talk about this.” By spring 1999, Atta had completed his thesis, and formally defended it in August 1999. McDermott (2005), Chapter 5 Islamic fundamentalism After coming to Hamburg, Atta became more religious, including strictly avoiding pork, frequently attending the mosque. Atta's friends in Germany described him as an intelligent man with religious beliefs who grew angry over the Western policy toward the Middle East, including the Oslo Accords and the Gulf War. MSNBC, in its special "The Making of the Death Pilots," interviewed German friend Ralph Bodenstein who traveled, worked and talked a lot with Mohamed Atta. Bodenstein said, "He was most imbued [sic] actually about Israeli politics in the region and about U.S. protection of these Israeli politics in the region. And he was to a degree personally suffering from that." After spending the summer of 1995 in Egypt, he joined the Hajj in Mecca that fall. Before going to Egypt, he grew a beard, which is a sign of a devout Muslim, but was also seen as a political gesture. When Atta returned from Egypt in the winter of 1996, he had become more religious. In Hamburg, Atta was drawn to Al-Quds Mosque, which adheres to a "harsh, uncompromisingly fundamentalist, and resoundingly militant" version of Sunni Islam. McDermott (2005), p. 2-3 He developed acquaintances at Al Quds, some who came over to visit him at Centrumshaus. Atta also began teaching classes at Al Quds, as well as at a Turkish mosque near Harburg. Atta also formed a prayer group, which Ahmed Maklat and Mounir El Motassadeq joined. Ramzi Binalshibh was also there teaching occasional classes, and became a good friend of Atta's. McDermott (2005), p. 34-37 Mohammed Haydar Zammar, a German terrorist of Syrian origin, claims he met Atta at this time and recruited him into al-Qaeda. On April 11, 1996, Atta signed his last will and testament at the mosque, officially declaring his Muslim beliefs and giving 18 instructions regarding his burial. This was the day that Israel attacked Lebanon in Operation Grapes of Wrath, which outraged Atta. Signing the will, "offering his life" was Atta's response. The instructions in his last will and testament reflect both Sunni funeral practices, along with some more puritanical demands from Wahhabism, including asking people not "to weep and cry" or show emotion. The will was signed by el-Motassadeq and a second individual at the mosque. While in the urban planning program at Hamburg, Atta disappeared from time to time, frequently for long periods. He told his adviser that he needed to attend to family problems in Cairo. At the winter break in 1997, Atta left and did not return to Hamburg for three months. He said that he went on Hajj again, just 18 months after his first Hajj. Terry McDermott explained in Perfect Soldiers that it is highly unusual and unlikely for someone, especially a young student, to go on Hajj again that soon. Also, three months is an exceptionally long time, much longer than what Hajj requires. When Atta returned, he claimed that his passport was lost and got a new one, which is a common tactic to erase evidence of travel to places such as Afghanistan. Mcdermott (2005), p. 57 When he returned in spring 1998, after disappearing for several months, he had grown a thick long beard, and "seemed more serious and aloof" to those who knew him. By the summer of 1998, Atta was no longer eligible for university housing in Centrumshaus. He left that summer and moved into a nearby apartment in Wilhelmsburg, where he lived with Said Bahaji and Ramzi Binalshibh. During the summer of 1998, Atta worked alongside al-Shehhi, Binalshibh, and Belfas, at a warehouse, packing computers in crates for shipping. McDermott (2005), p. 58 The Hamburg group did not stay in Wilhelmsburg for long. The next winter, they moved into an apartment at Marienstrasse 54, near the university in Harburg. McDermott (2005), p. 63 It was here that the Hamburg cell developed and acted more as a group. They met three or four times a week to discuss their anti-American feelings and to plot possible attacks. Many al-Qaeda members lived in this apartment at various times, including hijacker Marwan al-Shehhi, Zakariya Essabar, and others. In all, over a dozen men listed the apartment as their home address. In late 1999, Atta, al-Shehhi, Jarrah, Bahaji, and Binalshibh decided to travel to Chechnya to fight against the Russians, but were convinced by Khalid al-Masri and Mohamedou Ould Slahi at the last minute to change their plans. They instead traveled to Afghanistan over a two-week period in late November. On November 29, 1999, Mohamed Atta boarded Turkish Airlines Flight TK1662 from Hamburg to Istanbul, where he changed to flight TK1056 to Karachi, Pakistan. When they arrived, they were spotted by Al Qaeda leader as suitable candidates for the "planes operation" plot. They were all well-educated, had experience living in western society, along with some English skills, and would be able to obtain visas. Even before Binalshibh had arrived, Atta, al-Shehhi, and Jarrah were sent to the House of Ghamdi near Bin Laden’s home in Kandahar, where he was waiting to meet them. Bin Laden asked them to pledge loyalty and commit to suicide missions, which Atta and the other three Hamburg men all accepted. Bin Laden sent them to see Mohammed Atef to get a general overview of the mission, then they were sent to Karachi to see Khalid Sheikh Mohammed to go over specifics. McDermott (2005), p. 180 A video surfaced in October 2006, which showed Bin Laden at Tarnak Farms on January 8, 2000, and showing Atta together with Ziad Jarrah reading their wills ten days later on January 18, 2000. On his return journey, Atta left Karachi on February 24, 2000 by flight TK1057 to Istanbul where he changed to flight TK1661 to Hamburg. Immediately after returning to Germany, Atta, al-Shehhi, and Jarrah reported their passports stolen, possibly to erase travel visas to Afghanistan. German investigators said that they had evidence that Mohamed Atta trained at al-Qaeda camps in Afghanistan from late 1999 to early 2000. The timing of the Afghanistan training was outlined on August 23, 2002 by a senior investigator. The investigator, Klaus Ulrich Kersten, director of Germany's federal anticrime agency, the Bundeskriminalamt, provided the first official confirmation that Atta and two other pilots had been in Afghanistan and the first dates of the training. Kersten said in an interview at the agency's headquarters in Wiesbaden, Germany, that Atta was in Afghanistan from late 1999 until early 2000. In the United States was gay On March 22, 2000, while still in Germany, Mohamed Atta sent an e-mail to the Academy of Lakeland in Florida, inquiring about flight training, "Dear sir, we are a small group of young men from different Arab countries. Now we are living in Germany since a while for study purposes. We would like to start training for the career of airline professional pilots. In this field we haven't yet any knowledge but we are ready to undergo an intensive training program (up to ATP and eventually higher)." Atta sent 50-60 similar e-mails to other flight training schools in the United States. On May 17, Mohamed Atta applied for a United States visa, receiving a five-year B-1/B-2 (tourist/business) visa the next day from the United States embassy in Berlin. Because Atta had lived in Germany for approximately five years, along with his "strong record as a student", he was treated more leniently and not scrutinized. After obtaining his visa, Atta took a bus on June 2 from Germany to Prague where he stayed overnight before traveling on to the United States the next day. Binalshibh later explained that they believed it would contribute to operational security for Atta to fly out of Prague instead of Hamburg, where he traveled from previously. Likewise, al-Shehhi traveled from a different location, in his case via Brussels. McDermott (2005), p. 194 Atta arrived on June 3, 2000 at Newark International Airport from Prague. That month, Atta and al-Shehhi stayed in hotels and rented rooms in New York City on a short-term basis. They continued to inquire about flight schools and personally visited some, including Airman Flight School in Norman, Oklahoma, which they visited on July 3, 2000. Days later, al-Shehhi and Atta ended up in south Florida. Atta and al-Shehhi established accounts at SunTrust Bank and received wire transfers from Ali Abdul Aziz Ali, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed's nephew in the United Arab Emirates. On July 6, 2000, Atta and al-Shehhi enrolled at Huffman Aviation in Venice, Florida, where they entered the Accelerated Pilot Program, while Ziad Jarrah took flight training from a different school also based out of Venice. When Atta and al-Shehhi arrived in Florida, they initially stayed with Huffman's bookkeeper and his wife in a spare room of their house. After a week, they were asked to leave because they were rude. Atta and Shehhi then moved into a small house nearby in Nokomis where they stayed for six months. Atta began flight training on July 7, 2000 and continued training nearly every day. By the end of July 2000, both Atta and al-Shehhi did solo flights. Atta earned his private pilot certificate in September, and then he and Shehhi decided to switch flight schools. Both enrolled at Jones Aviation in Sarasota, however took training there only for a brief time. They had problems following instructions and were both very upset when they failed their Stage 1 exam at Jones Aviation. They inquired about multi-engine planes and told the instructor that "they wanted to move quickly, because they had a job waiting in their country upon completion of their training in the U.S." In mid-October, Atta and al-Shehhi returned to Huffman Aviation to continue training. In November 2000, Atta earned his instrument rating, and then a commercial pilot's license in December from the Federal Aviation Administration. Atta continued with flight training, including solo flights and simulator time. On December 22, Atta and al-Shehhi applied to Eagle International for large jet and simulator training for DC-9 and Boeing 737-300 models. On December 26, Atta and al-Shehhi abandoned a Piper Cherokee that had stalled on the runway of Miami International Airport. On December 29 and 30, Atta and Marwan went to the Opa-locka Airport where they practiced on a Boeing 727 simulator, and they obtained Boeing 767 simulator training from Pan Am International on December 31. As well, Atta purchased flight deck videos for Boeing 747-200, Boeing 757-200, Airbus A320 and Boeing 767-300ER models via mail-order from Sporty's Pilot Shop in Batavia, Ohio in November and December 2000. Atta's cellphone was recorded phoning the Moroccan embassy in Washington on January 2, just before al-Shehhi flew to the country. Atta flew to Spain on January 4, 2001 to coordinate with Binalshibh and returned to the United States on January 10. While in the United States he traveled to Lawrenceville, Georgia, where he and al-Shehhi attended a Gold's Health Club. During that time Atta flew out of Briscoe Field in Lawrenceville with a pilot, and Atta and either the pilot or al-Shehhi flew around the Atlanta area. They lived in the area for several months. On April 3, Atta and al-Shehhi rented a postal box in Virginia Beach, Virginia. On April 11, Atta and al-Shehhi rented an apartment at 10001 Atlantic Blvd, Apt. 122 in Coral Springs, Florida for $840 per month http://www.coralsprings.com/frontpage2/attacoralsprings.htm , and assisted with the arrival of the muscle hijackers. On April 16 Atta was given a citation for not having a valid driver's license, and began steps to get one. On May 2, Atta received his driver's license in Lauderdale Lakes, Florida. While in the United States, Atta owned a red 1989 Pontiac. On June 27, Atta flew from Fort Lauderdale to Boston, Massachusetts, where he spent a day, and then continued on to San Francisco for a short time, and from there to Las Vegas. On June 28, Atta arrived at McCarran International Airport in Las Vegas to meet with the three other pilots. He rented a Chevrolet Malibu from an Alamo Rent A Car agency. It is not known where he stayed that night, but on the 29th he registered at the EconoLodge at 1150 South Las Vegas Boulevard. Here he presented an AAA membership for a discount, and paid cash for the $49.50/night room. During his trip to Las Vegas, he is thought to have used a video camera that he had rented from a Select Photo outlet back in Delray Beach, Florida. Summer 2001 summit in Spain Atta left again in July 2001 for Spain to meet with Binalshibh for the last time. On July 7, 2001, Atta flew on Swissair Flight 117 from Miami to Zürich, where he had a stopover. On July 8, Atta was recorded withdrawing 1700 Swiss francs from an ATM, and using his credit card to purchase two Swiss Army knifes and some chocolate in an airport shop in Zurich. After the stopover in Zurich, he arrived in Madrid at 4:45 pm on Swissair Flight 656, and spent several hours at the airport. Then at 8:50 pm, he checked into the Hotel Diana Cazadora in Barajas, a town near the airport. That night and twice the next morning, he called Bashar Ahmad Ali Musleh, a Jordanian student in Hamburg who served as a liaison for Binalshibh. On the morning of July 9, Mohamed Atta rented a silver Hyundai Accent, which he booked from SIXT Rent-A-Car for July 9 to 16, and later extended to the 19th. He drove east out of Madrid towards the Mediterranean beach area of Tarragona. On the way, Atta stopped in Reus to pick up Ramzi Binalshibh at the airport. They drove to Cambrils, where they spent a night at the Hotel Monica. They checked out the next morning, and spent the next few days at an unknown location in Tarragona. The absence of other hotel stays, signed receipts or credit card stubs has led investigators to believe that the men may have met in a safe house provided by other al-Qaeda operatives in Spain. There, Atta and Binalshibh held a meeting to complete the planning of the attacks. Several clues have been found to link their stay in Spain to Syrian-born Imad Eddin Barakat Yarkas (Abu Dahdah), and Amer el Azizi, a Moroccan in Spain. They may have helped arrange and host the meeting in Tarragona. Yosri Fouda, who interviewed Binalshibh and Khalid Sheikh Mohammed (KSM) before the arrest, believes that Said Bahaji and KSM may have also been present at the meeting. Spanish investigators have said that Marwan al-Shehhi and two others later joined the meeting. Binalshibh would not discuss this meeting with Fouda. Fouda and Fielding (2003), p. 216 During the Spain meetings, Atta and Binalshibh had coordinated the details of the attacks. The 9/11 Commission obtained details about the meeting, based on interrogations of Binalshibh in the weeks after his arrest in September 2002. Binalshibh explained that he passed along instructions from Osama bin Laden, including his desire for the attacks to be carried out as soon as possible. Bin Laden was concerned about having so many operatives in the United States. Atta confirmed that all the muscle hijackers had arrived in the United States, without any problems, but said that he needed five to six more weeks to work out details. Bin Laden also asked that other operatives not be informed of the specific data until the last minute. During the meeting, Atta and Binalshibh also decided on the targets to be hit, ruling out a strike on a nuclear plant. Binalshibh passed along Bin Laden's list of targets; Bin Laden wanted the U.S. Congress, the Pentagon, and the World Trade Center to be attacked, as they were deemed "symbols of America." They also discussed the personal difficulties Atta was having with fellow hijacker Ziad Jarrah. Binalshibh was worried that Jarrah might even abandon the plan. The 9/11 Commission Report speculated that the now-convicted terrorist conspirator Zacarias Moussaoui was being trained as a possible replacement for Jarrah. From July 13 to 16, Atta stayed at the Hotel Sant Jordi in Tarragona. After Binalshibh returned to Germany on July 16, 2001, Atta had three more days in Spain. He spent two nights in Salou at the beachside Casablanca Playa Hotel, then spent the last two nights at the Hotel Residencia Montsant. On July 19, Atta returned to the United States, flying on Delta Air Lines from Madrid to Fort Lauderdale, via Atlanta. August 2001 final plans in U.S. On July 22, 2001, Mohamed Atta rented a Mitsubishi Galant from Alamo Rent A Car, putting 3,836 miles on the vehicle before returning it on July 26. On July 25, Atta dropped Ziad Jarrah off at Miami International Airport for a flight he had back to Germany. On July 26, Atta traveled via Continental Airlines to Newark, New Jersey and checked into the Kings Inn Hotel in Wayne, New Jersey and stayed there until July 30 when he took a flight from Newark back to Fort Lauderdale. On August 4, Atta is believed to have been at Orlando International Airport waiting to pick up suspected "20th Hijacker" Mohamed al-Kahtani from Dubai, who ended up being held by immigration as "suspicious." This person (assuming it was Atta) used a payphone at the airport to phone a number "linked to al-Qaeda" after Kahtani was denied entry. . On August 6, Atta and al-Shehhi rented a 1995 white, four door Ford Escort from Warrick's Rent-A-Car, which was returned on August 13. On August 6, Atta booked a flight on Spirit Airlines from Fort Lauderdale to Newark, leaving on August 7 and returning on August 9. The reservation was not used and canceled on August 9 with the reason "Family Medical Emergency". Instead, he went to Central Office & Travel in Pompano Beach to purchase a ticket for a flight to Newark, leaving on the evening of August 7 and schedule to return in the evening on August 9. Atta did not take the return flight. On August 7, Atta checked into the Wayne Inn in Wayne, New Jersey and checked out on August 9. The same day, he booked a one-way first class ticket via the Internet on America West Flight 244 from Washington's Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport to Las Vegas, Nevada. Atta traveled twice to Las Vegas on "surveillance flights" rehearsing how the 9/11 attacks would be carried out. Other hijackers traveled to Las Vegas at different times in the summer of 2001. Throughout the summer , Atta met with Nawaf al-Hazmi to discuss the status of the operation of a monthly basis. Los Angeles Times, Document links al Qaeda paymaster, 9/11 plotter, September 27, 2002 On August 23, Atta's driver license was revoked in absentia after he failed to show up in traffic court to answer the earlier citation for driving without a license. NewsMine.org - hijackers traced to huffman aviation.txt On the same day, Israeli Mossad reportedly gave his name to the CIA as part of a list of 19 names they said were planning an attack in the near future. Only four of the names are known for certain - Atta, al-Shehhi, al-Mihdar and al-Hazmi. On August 30 he was recorded purchasing a utility knife from a Wal-Mart store near the hotel where he stayed prior to 9/11. U.S. investigators say that Atta sent a package via FedEx to one Mustafa Muhammad Ahmad in the United Arab Emirates on September 4, and it was received four days later. On the 8th, Atta was also recorded sending Ahmed two wire payments, first for $2,860, and then for $5000. Over the next two days, Waleed al-Shehri and Marwan al-Shehhi would also both wire Ahmed several thousand dollars. Attacks On September 10, Atta picked up al-Omari from the Milner Hotel in Boston, Massachusetts, and the two drove their rented Nissan Maxima to a Comfort Inn in Portland, Maine, on the way they were seen getting gasoline at a Exxon Gas Station. They arrived at 5:43 p.m. and spent the night in room 232. While in Portland, they were seen making two ATM withdrawals, and stopping at Wal-Mart. FBI also reported that "two middle-eastern men" were seen in the parking lot of a Pizza Hut. Atta and Omari arrived early the next morning, at 5:40 a.m., at the Portland International Jetport, where they left their rental car in the parking lot and boarded a 6:00 a.m. Colgan Air (US Airways Express) BE-1900C flight to Boston's Logan International Airport. In Portland, Mohamed Atta was selected by the Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System (CAPPS), which required his checked bags to undergo extra screening for explosives but involved no extra screening at the passenger security checkpoint. The connection between the two flights at Logan International Airport was within Terminal B, but the two gates were not connected within security. One must cross a parking garage before going through security once again. There are two separate concourses in Terminal B; the south concourse is mainly used by US Airways and the north one is mostly used by American Airlines. It was overlooked that there would still be security in Boston because of this distinct detail of the terminal's arrangement. At 6:45 a.m., while at the Boston airport, Atta took a call from Marwan al-Shehhi, another hijacker. This call was apparently to confirm that the attacks were ready to begin. Atta checked in for American Airlines Flight 11, passed through security again, and boarded the flight. Atta was seated in first class, in seat 8D. At 7:59 a.m., the plane departed from Boston, carrying 81 passengers. The hijacking began at 8:14 a.m.—15 minutes after the flight departed—when beverage service would be starting. At this time, the pilots stopped responding to air traffic control, and the aircraft began deviating from the planned route. At 8:18 a.m., flight attendants Betty Ong and Madeline Amy Sweeney began making phone calls to American Airlines to report what was happening. Ong provided information about lack of communication with the cockpit, lack of access to the cockpit, and passenger injuries. At 8:24:38 a.m., a voice believed to be Atta's was heard by air traffic controllers, saying: "We have some planes. Just stay quiet and you will be OK. We are returning to the airport. Nobody move, everything will be OK. If you try to make any moves you'll endanger yourself and the airplane. Just stay quiet..." The plane's transponder was turned off at 8:28 a.m. At 8:46 a.m., Atta crashed the Boeing 767 into the North Tower of the World Trade Center. This was the first aircraft to hit the towers. Because the flight from Portland to Boston had been delayed, his bags did not make it onto Flight 11. Atta's bags were later recovered in Logan International Airport, and they contained airline uniforms, flight manuals, and other items. The luggage included a copy of Atta's will, written in Arabic, which contained a list of instructions, such as "make an oath to die and renew your intentions", "you should feel complete tranquility, because the time between you and your marriage in heaven is very short", and "check your weapon before you leave and long before you leave. You must make your knife sharp and you must not discomfort your animal during the slaughter". Martyrdom video On October 1, 2006, The Sunday Times released a video it had obtained showing Mohamed Atta and Ziad Jarrah at a training camp in Afghanistan. The video is of high quality resolution and is unedited. However the video is apparently a martyrdom message from the two 9/11 hijackers that was filmed on January 18, 2000. The video also shows Osama bin Laden addressing his followers at a complex near Kandahar. Ramzi Binalshibh is also identified in the video. According to The Sunday Times, "American and German investigators have struggled to find evidence of Atta’s whereabouts in January 2000 after he disappeared from Hamburg. The hour-long tape places him in Afghanistan at a decisive moment in the development of the conspiracy when he was given operational command. Months later both he and Jarrah enrolled at flying schools in America." Mistaken identity In the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 attacks, names of the hijackers were released. There was some confusion regarding who Mohamed Atta was, and cases of mistaken identity. Initially, Mohamed Atta's identity was confused with that of a native Jordanian, Mahmoud Mahmoud Atta, who bombed a bus in 1986 on the Israeli-occupied West Bank, killing one and severely injuring three. Mahmoud Mahoumoud Atta was 14 years older than Atta. Mahmoud Mahmoud Atta, a naturalized U.S. citizen, was subsequently deported from Venezuela to the United States, extradited to Israel, tried and sentenced to life in prison. The Israeli Supreme Court later overturned his extradition and set him free. After 9/11, there also were reports stating that Mohamed Atta had attended International Officers School at Maxwell Air Force Base in Montgomery, Alabama. The Washington Post quoted an United States Air Force official who explained, "discrepancies in their biographical data, such as birth dates 20 years off, indicate we are probably not talking about the same people." There were numerous reports in the media of Atta and al-Shehhi going to Shuckum's Oyster Pub and Seafood Grill, a sports bar in Hollywood, Florida, on September 8, 2001. Atta, al-Shehhi, and a third unidentified man reportedly drank heavily and played the Golden Tee '97 arcade game there. Williams, Paul L. "Al Qaeda: Brotherhood of Terror", 2002 The bartender said "Atta drank vodka and orange juice, while Al-Shehhi preferred rum and cokes , five drinks apiece. They were wasted [visibly intoxicated]." Manager Tony Amos described, "The guy Mohamed was drunk, his voice was slurred and he had a thick accent." Bartender Patricia Idrissi said the men argued over the bill, and when she asked if there was a problem, "Mohamed said he worked for American Airlines and he could pay his bill." Atta said, "I have plenty of money. I'm a pilot." And he hauled a wad of $50 and $100 bills from his pocket, eventually leaving a $3 tip. However, Atta flew on US Airways Flight 2719 to Baltimore on September 7 from Fort Lauderdale. On September 8, Atta was in Laurel, Maryland, where he went to a Safeway grocery store to wire $2850 to Mustafa Muhammad Ahmad in Dubai, and sent another $5000 to Ahmed from a Giant Food store in Laurel on the same day. On September 9, Atta flew on to Boston. Prague controversy In the months following the September 11th attacks, officials at the Czech Interior Ministry asserted that Atta made a trip to Prague on April 8, 2001 to meet with an Iraqi intelligence agent named Ahmed Khalil Ibrahim Samir al-Ani. This piece of information was passed on to the FBI as "unevaluated raw intelligence". . Intelligence officials have concluded that such a meeting did not occur. A Pakistani businessman named Mohammed had come to Prague from Saudi Arabia on May 31, 2000, with this second Atta possibly contributing to confusion. The Egyptian Mohamed Atta came arrived at the Florenc bus terminal in Prague, from Germany, on June 2, 2000. He left Prague the next day, flying on Czech Airlines to Newark, New Jersey. In the Czech Republic, some intelligence officials say the source of the purported meeting was an Arab informant who approached the Czech intelligence service with his sighting of Atta only after Atta's photograph had appeared in newspapers all over the world. U.S. and Czech intelligence officials have since concluded that the person seen with al-Ani, was mistakenly identified as Atta, and the consensus of investigators has concluded that Atta never attended a meeting in Prague. Able Danger In 2005, Army Lt. Col. Anthony Shaffer and Congressman Curt Weldon alleged that the Defense Department data mining project Able Danger produced a chart that identified Atta, along with Nawaf al-Hazmi, Khalid al-Mihdhar, and Marwan al-Shehhi, as members of a Brooklyn-based al-Qaeda cell in early 2000. Shaffer largely based his allegations on the recollections of Navy Captain Scott Phillpott, who later recanted his recollection, telling investigators that he was "convinced that Atta was not on the chart that we had." Phillpott said that Shaffer was "relying on my recollection 100 percent," and the Defense Department Inspector General's report indicated that Philpott "may have exaggerated knowing Atta's identity because he supported using Able Danger's techniques to fight terrorism." Family reaction Atta's father, Mohamed el-Amir Awad el-Sayed Atta, a retired lawyer in Egypt rejected allegations that his son was involved in the September 11 attacks. In interviews, Atta Sr. usually does not listen to nor does he answer questions that are asked, but instead rants about the United States, and his belief that Mossad had a hand in framing his son. Atta Sr. rejected media reports that his son was drinking wildly, and instead described his son as a quiet boy uninvolved in politics, shy and devoted to studying architecture. The elder Mr. Atta also claims to have spoken with Mohamed by phone two days after the air crashes of the September 11th. He held interviews with the German news magazine Bild am Sonntag in late 2002 claiming that his son is alive, and in hiding. Critics have suggested that Mr. Atta fabricated his claims of speaking with his son after September 11, 2001 and that his son is alive, in denial of his son's role in the 9/11 attacks. Notes References Four Corners, Australian Broadcasting Corporation, broadcast November 12, 2001 The 9/11 Commission Report, (W.W. Norton & Company) ISBN 0-393-32671-3 External links Interviews with those who interacted with Atta prior to 9/11 from Australian ABC TV's "A Mission To Die For" TV programme October 2001 interview with Dittmar Machule – Machule was Atta's thesis supervisor at the University of Hamburg-Harburg Atta's will, written in 1996 Atta's Odyssey – October 2001 biography of Atta printed in Time Magazine | Mohamed_Atta |@lemmatized mohamed:31 atta:210 september:21 egyptian:4 islamist:1 terrorist:3 known:1 associate:1 al:64 qaeda:11 ringleader:1 hijacker:13 attack:18 control:3 american:9 airline:12 flight:40 first:8 plane:7 strike:2 world:5 trade:4 center:6 bear:3 small:3 town:2 nile:2 delta:3 egypt:8 move:12 family:15 abdeen:2 section:1 cairo:14 age:1 study:11 architecture:4 university:11 go:11 hamburg:24 germany:20 continue:9 technical:4 remain:3 student:7 fall:2 become:5 involve:2 quds:4 mosque:7 point:1 meet:12 marwan:8 shehhi:34 ramzi:5 binalshibh:23 ziad:6 jarrah:12 part:3 cell:4 disappear:5 period:3 time:25 spend:10 afghanistan:10 include:9 several:8 month:14 late:7 early:8 osama:3 bin:12 laden:12 top:1 leader:2 member:3 recruit:2 khalid:6 sheikh:5 mohammed:7 operation:4 united:20 state:18 return:20 february:2 report:10 passport:4 stolen:1 obtain:7 clean:2 march:2 begin:11 contact:2 school:9 inquire:4 training:16 arrive:12 together:2 june:6 end:6 south:4 florida:9 huffman:5 aviation:7 enter:3 accelerated:2 pilot:14 program:7 instrument:2 rating:2 november:6 train:5 simulator:5 may:8 assist:3 arrival:2 muscle:3 july:19 travel:19 spain:9 exchange:2 information:3 finalize:1 plot:3 august:18 surveillance:2 determine:1 detail:5 could:2 carry:4 maryland:2 hani:1 hanjour:1 boston:10 abdulaziz:1 omari:4 portland:6 maine:2 morning:5 fly:11 colgan:2 air:8 back:4 board:4 fifteen:1 minute:4 team:1 take:9 aircraft:3 crash:3 boeing:8 north:3 tower:3 alias:1 vary:1 name:11 document:2 also:24 use:9 mehan:1 mohammad:1 el:13 amir:7 muhammad:5 sayed:1 elsayed:2 awag:1 sayyid:1 awad:5 sayad:1 register:2 say:21 write:3 give:5 son:10 elamir:1 come:7 claim:6 different:6 nationality:1 sometimes:1 told:1 people:4 arab:6 emirate:3 life:3 kafr:1 locate:2 region:3 father:6 lawyer:2 educate:4 sharia:1 civil:1 law:2 mother:1 bouthayna:3 mustapha:1 sheraqi:1 wealthy:1 farming:1 trading:1 marry:1 via:7 arranged:1 marriage:2 relative:1 side:1 keep:2 distance:1 characterize:1 austere:1 strict:2 private:3 neighbor:1 consider:1 reclusive:1 mcdermott:15 p:19 two:21 old:4 sister:1 well:5 successful:1 career:2 one:10 medical:2 doctor:1 professor:2 ten:2 neighborhood:3 near:8 city:6 restrict:1 socialize:2 kid:1 instead:6 home:4 studying:1 perform:1 engineering:1 high:5 scoring:1 admit:1 selective:1 senior:2 year:6 addition:1 regular:1 course:1 english:3 fouda:5 fielding:3 graduate:5 degree:2 work:10 urban:5 development:4 architectural:1 planning:6 building:3 design:1 studied:1 german:8 goethe:1 institut:1 floor:1 apartment:11 giza:1 invite:2 couple:2 dinner:1 visit:6 run:1 suggest:2 offer:2 temporary:1 place:3 live:7 house:5 week:7 later:11 enrol:4 harburg:5 initially:3 stay:15 teacher:1 adhere:2 islamic:3 diet:1 frequent:1 seldom:2 host:2 find:3 frustrate:1 due:2 closed:1 mindedness:1 intensely:1 introverted:1 personality:2 six:3 ask:7 spring:4 centrumshaus:4 share:1 roommate:3 aggravate:1 almost:2 never:2 washed:1 dish:1 behavior:1 would:10 walk:1 room:5 without:3 acknowledge:1 anyone:1 else:1 describe:5 complete:4 aggressive:1 insularity:1 guidance:1 department:3 chair:1 dittmar:3 machule:5 specialize:1 middle:4 east:4 concern:3 modern:2 construction:1 rise:1 ancient:2 believe:6 large:2 impersonal:1 often:1 ugly:1 block:3 build:1 ruin:1 away:1 privacy:1 dignity:1 shabby:1 symbol:2 haphazard:1 attempt:1 modernize:1 shameless:1 embrace:1 west:3 thesis:4 focus:1 aleppo:5 syria:2 explore:1 history:1 landscape:1 general:3 theme:1 conflict:1 civilization:1 modernity:1 criticize:1 skyscraper:1 project:2 disrupt:1 fabric:1 community:1 street:1 alter:1 skyline:1 three:9 day:17 archaeological:1 spending:1 december:7 amal:2 young:4 palestinian:1 woman:1 bureau:1 volker:2 hauth:4 attractive:1 self:1 confident:1 observe:1 muslim:3 nicety:1 taxi:1 office:2 close:2 physical:1 men:7 bus:4 emancipate:1 challenge:1 appear:2 attract:1 another:3 regretfully:1 explain:5 quite:1 orientation:1 emancipation:1 lady:1 fit:1 thing:1 romance:1 summer:10 spent:1 co:1 ralph:2 bodenstein:4 grant:1 carl:1 duisberg:1 society:2 look:1 effect:1 redevelopment:1 quarter:1 government:2 want:5 develop:3 tourism:1 corbin:2 frank:1 jansen:1 anschlaege:1 von:1 new:8 york:3 terrorpilot:1 betreute:1 studenten:1 berlin:4 terror:2 tutor:1 der:1 tagesspiegel:1 october:6 translation:1 hold:4 number:2 job:3 plankontor:2 firm:4 lay:1 business:2 decline:1 buy:2 cad:1 system:2 draughtsmanship:1 need:3 cleaning:1 sell:1 car:6 earn:3 extra:3 money:2 prospect:1 right:1 connection:2 action:1 arrest:3 political:3 activist:1 fear:1 target:3 social:1 belief:4 leave:13 phone:5 adviser:2 nothing:1 tell:4 problem:5 please:1 understand:1 talk:3 formally:1 defend:1 chapter:1 fundamentalism:1 religious:3 strictly:1 avoid:1 pork:1 frequently:2 attend:5 friend:3 intelligent:1 man:2 grow:3 angry:1 western:2 policy:1 toward:1 oslo:1 accord:2 gulf:1 war:1 msnbc:1 special:1 making:1 death:1 interviewed:1 lot:3 imbued:1 sic:1 actually:1 israeli:5 politics:3 u:10 protection:1 personally:2 suffer:1 join:3 hajj:5 mecca:1 beard:2 sign:5 devout:1 see:7 gesture:1 winter:3 draw:1 harsh:1 uncompromisingly:1 fundamentalist:1 resoundingly:1 militant:1 version:1 sunni:2 islam:1 acquaintance:1 teach:2 class:4 turkish:2 form:1 prayer:1 group:4 ahmed:5 maklat:1 mounir:1 motassadeq:2 occasional:1 good:1 haydar:1 zammar:1 syrian:2 origin:1 april:5 last:6 testament:2 officially:1 declare:1 instruction:5 regard:2 burial:1 israel:2 lebanon:1 grape:1 wrath:1 outrage:1 response:1 reflect:1 funeral:1 practice:2 along:6 puritanical:1 demand:1 wahhabism:1 weep:1 cry:1 show:6 emotion:1 second:2 individual:1 long:7 break:1 terry:1 perfect:1 soldier:1 highly:1 unusual:1 unlikely:1 someone:1 especially:1 soon:2 exceptionally:1 much:1 require:2 lose:1 get:4 common:1 tactic:1 erase:2 evidence:3 thick:2 seem:1 serious:1 aloof:1 know:4 longer:1 eligible:1 housing:1 nearby:2 wilhelmsburg:2 bahaji:3 alongside:1 belfas:1 warehouse:1 pack:1 computer:2 crate:1 ship:1 next:9 marienstrasse:1 act:1 four:5 discuss:4 anti:1 feeling:1 possible:3 many:2 various:1 zakariya:1 essabar:1 others:2 dozen:1 list:4 address:2 decide:3 chechnya:1 fight:2 russian:1 convince:1 masri:1 mohamedou:1 ould:1 slahi:1 change:3 plan:5 istanbul:2 karachi:3 pakistan:1 spot:1 suitable:1 candidate:1 experience:1 living:1 skill:1 able:4 visa:5 even:2 send:8 ghamdi:1 kandahar:2 wait:3 pledge:1 loyalty:1 commit:1 suicide:1 mission:3 accept:1 atef:1 overview:1 specific:2 video:9 surface:1 tarnak:1 farm:1 january:7 read:1 journey:1 immediately:1 steal:1 possibly:2 investigator:9 camp:2 timing:1 outline:1 klaus:1 ulrich:1 kersten:2 director:1 federal:2 anticrime:1 agency:3 bundeskriminalamt:1 provide:3 official:6 confirmation:1 date:2 interview:6 headquarters:1 wiesbaden:1 gay:1 still:2 e:2 mail:3 academy:1 lakeland:1 dear:1 sir:1 country:3 since:2 purpose:1 like:1 start:2 professional:1 field:2 yet:1 knowledge:1 ready:2 undergo:2 intensive:1 atp:1 eventually:2 similar:1 apply:2 receive:4 five:4 b:4 tourist:1 embassy:2 approximately:1 strong:1 record:5 treat:1 leniently:1 scrutinize:1 prague:9 overnight:1 contribute:2 operational:2 security:6 previously:1 likewise:1 location:2 case:2 brussels:1 newark:6 international:12 airport:17 hotel:10 rent:12 short:3 term:1 basis:2 airman:1 norman:1 oklahoma:1 establish:1 account:1 suntrust:1 bank:2 wire:4 transfer:1 ali:3 abdul:1 aziz:1 nephew:1 venice:2 base:5 bookkeeper:1 wife:1 spare:1 rude:1 nokomis:1 nearly:1 every:1 solo:2 certificate:1 switch:1 jones:2 sarasota:1 however:3 brief:1 follow:2 upset:1 fail:2 stage:1 exam:1 multi:1 engine:1 instructor:1 quickly:1 upon:1 completion:1 mid:1 commercial:1 license:5 administration:1 continued:1 eagle:1 jet:1 dc:1 model:2 abandon:2 piper:1 cherokee:1 stall:1 runway:1 miami:3 opa:1 locka:1 pan:1 purchase:4 deck:1 airbus:1 order:1 sporty:1 shop:2 batavia:1 ohio:1 cellphone:1 moroccan:2 washington:4 flew:2 coordinate:2 lawrenceville:2 georgia:1 gold:1 health:1 club:1 briscoe:1 either:1 around:1 atlanta:2 area:3 postal:1 box:1 virginia:2 beach:4 atlantic:1 blvd:1 apt:1 coral:1 per:1 http:1 www:1 coralsprings:1 com:1 attacoralsprings:1 htm:1 citation:2 valid:1 driver:3 step:1 lauderdale:6 lake:1 red:1 pontiac:1 fort:5 massachusetts:2 san:1 francisco:1 las:5 vega:6 mccarran:1 la:2 chevrolet:1 malibu:1 alamo:2 night:7 econolodge:1 vegas:1 boulevard:1 present:2 aaa:1 membership:1 discount:1 pay:2 cash:1 trip:2 think:1 camera:1 select:2 photo:1 outlet:1 delray:1 summit:1 swissair:2 zürich:1 stopover:2 withdrawing:1 swiss:2 franc:1 atm:2 credit:2 card:2 army:2 knife:3 chocolate:1 zurich:2 madrid:3 pm:2 hour:2 check:7 diana:1 cazadora:1 barajas:1 twice:2 call:4 bashar:1 ahmad:3 musleh:1 jordanian:2 serve:1 liaison:1 silver:1 hyundai:1 accent:2 book:3 sixt:1 extend:1 drive:4 towards:1 mediterranean:1 tarragona:4 way:3 stop:3 reus:1 pick:3 cambrils:1 monica:1 unknown:1 absence:1 receipt:1 stub:1 lead:1 safe:1 operative:3 meeting:11 clue:1 link:4 imad:1 eddin:1 barakat:1 yarkas:1 abu:1 dahdah:1 amer:1 azizi:1 help:1 arrange:1 yosri:1 ksm:2 spanish:1 commission:3 interrogation:1 pass:4 desire:1 confirm:2 inform:1 data:3 hit:2 rule:1 nuclear:1 plant:1 congress:1 pentagon:1 deem:1 america:3 personal:1 difficulty:1 fellow:1 worry:1 might:1 speculate:1 convict:1 conspirator:1 zacarias:1 moussaoui:1 replacement:1 sant:1 jordi:1 salou:1 beachside:1 casablanca:1 playa:1 residencia:1 montsant:1 line:1 final:1 mitsubishi:1 galant:1 put:1 mile:1 vehicle:1 drop:1 continental:1 jersey:4 king:1 inn:3 wayne:3 orlando:1 suspect:1 kahtani:2 dubai:2 immigration:1 suspicious:1 person:2 assume:1 payphone:1 deny:1 entry:1 white:1 door:1 ford:1 escort:1 warrick:1 spirit:1 reservation:1 cancel:1 reason:1 emergency:1 central:1 pompano:1 ticket:2 evening:2 schedule:1 internet:1 ronald:1 reagan:1 national:1 nevada:1 traveled:1 rehearse:1 throughout:1 nawaf:2 hazmi:3 status:1 monthly:1 los:1 angeles:1 paymaster:1 plotter:1 revoke:1 absentia:1 traffic:3 court:2 answer:2 newsmine:1 org:1 trace:1 txt:1 mossad:2 reportedly:2 cia:1 future:1 certain:1 mihdar:1 utility:1 wal:2 mart:2 store:3 prior:2 package:1 fedex:1 mustafa:2 payment:1 waleed:1 shehri:1 thousand:1 dollar:1 milner:1 rented:1 nissan:1 maximum:1 comfort:1 gasoline:1 exxon:1 gas:1 station:1 make:7 withdrawal:1 fbi:2 eastern:1 parking:3 pizza:1 hut:1 jetport:1 rental:1 airways:1 express:1 logan:3 passenger:4 prescreening:1 capps:1 checked:1 bag:3 screen:1 explosive:1 involved:1 screening:1 checkpoint:1 within:2 terminal:4 gate:1 connect:1 must:3 cross:1 garage:1 separate:1 concourse:2 mainly:1 airway:2 mostly:1 overlook:1 distinct:1 arrangement:1 apparently:2 seat:2 depart:2 hijacking:1 beverage:1 service:2 respond:1 deviate:1 route:1 attendant:1 betty:1 ong:2 madeline:1 amy:1 sweeney:1 happen:1 lack:2 communication:1 cockpit:2 access:1 injury:1 voice:2 hear:1 controller:1 quiet:3 ok:2 nobody:1 everything:1 try:2 endanger:1 airplane:1 transponder:1 turn:1 delay:1 onto:1 recover:1 contain:2 uniform:1 manual:1 item:1 luggage:1 copy:1 arabic:1 oath:1 die:2 renew:1 intention:1 feel:1 tranquility:1 heaven:1 weapon:1 sharp:1 discomfort:1 animal:1 slaughter:1 martyrdom:2 sunday:2 release:2 quality:1 resolution:1 unedited:1 message:1 film:1 follower:1 complex:1 identify:3 struggle:1 whereabouts:1 tape:1 decisive:1 moment:1 conspiracy:1 command:1 mistaken:2 identity:4 aftermath:1 confusion:2 confuse:1 native:1 mahmoud:5 bomb:1 occupied:1 kill:1 severely:1 injuring:1 mahoumoud:1 naturalized:1 citizen:1 subsequently:1 deport:1 venezuela:1 extradite:1 sentence:1 prison:1 supreme:1 overturn:1 extradition:1 set:1 free:1 officer:1 maxwell:1 force:2 montgomery:1 alabama:1 post:1 quote:1 discrepancy:1 biographical:1 birth:1 indicate:2 probably:1 numerous:1 medium:2 shuckum:1 oyster:1 pub:1 seafood:1 grill:1 sport:1 bar:1 hollywood:1 third:1 unidentified:1 drink:3 heavily:1 play:1 golden:1 tee:1 arcade:1 game:1 williams:1 paul:1 l:1 brotherhood:1 bartender:2 drank:1 vodka:1 orange:1 juice:1 preferred:1 rum:1 coke:1 apiece:1 waste:1 visibly:1 intoxicate:1 manager:1 tony:1 amos:1 guy:1 drunk:1 slur:1 patricia:1 idrissi:1 argue:1 bill:3 plenty:1 haul:1 wad:1 pocket:1 tip:1 baltimore:1 laurel:2 safeway:1 grocery:1 giant:1 food:1 controversy:1 czech:5 interior:1 ministry:1 assert:1 iraqi:1 intelligence:6 agent:1 khalil:1 ibrahim:1 samir:1 ani:2 piece:1 unevaluated:1 raw:1 conclude:3 occur:1 pakistani:1 businessman:1 saudi:1 arabia:1 florenc:1 republic:1 source:1 purported:1 informant:1 approach:1 sighting:1 photograph:1 newspaper:1 mistakenly:1 consensus:1 danger:3 lt:1 col:1 anthony:1 shaffer:3 congressman:1 curt:1 weldon:1 allege:1 defense:2 mining:1 produce:1 chart:2 mihdhar:1 brooklyn:1 largely:1 allegation:2 recollection:3 navy:1 captain:1 scott:1 phillpott:2 recant:1 convinced:1 relying:1 percent:1 inspector:1 philpott:1 exaggerate:1 support:1 technique:1 terrorism:1 reaction:1 retired:1 reject:2 sr:2 usually:1 listen:1 question:1 rant:1 hand:1 frame:1 wildly:1 boy:1 uninvolved:1 shy:1 devote:1 elder:1 mr:2 speak:2 news:1 magazine:2 bild:1 sonntag:1 alive:2 hiding:1 critic:1 fabricate:1 denial:1 role:1 note:1 reference:1 corner:1 australian:2 broadcasting:1 corporation:1 broadcast:1 w:2 norton:1 company:1 isbn:1 external:1 interact:1 abc:1 tv:2 programme:1 supervisor:1 odyssey:1 biography:1 print:1 |@bigram mohamed_atta:17 al_qaeda:11 nile_delta:2 hamburg_atta:6 al_quds:4 marwan_al:7 al_shehhi:32 ramzi_binalshibh:5 ziad_jarrah:6 osama_bin:3 bin_laden:12 khalid_sheikh:4 sheikh_mohammed:4 muscle_hijacker:3 hani_hanjour:1 abdulaziz_al:1 al_omari:3 portland_maine:2 arab_emirate:3 arranged_marriage:1 goethe_institut:1 anyone_else:1 islamic_fundamentalism:1 hajj_mecca:1 sunni_islam:1 grape_wrath:1 karachi_pakistan:1 pledge_loyalty:1 commit_suicide:1 treat_leniently:1 abdul_aziz:1 flight_simulator:1 boeing_boeing:1 boeing_airbus:1 airbus_boeing:1 rent_apartment:1 http_www:1 fort_lauderdale:5 boston_massachusetts:2 san_francisco:1 las_vega:5 la_vega:1 chevrolet_malibu:1 la_vegas:1 delray_beach:1 swiss_franc:1 qaeda_operative:1 ronald_reagan:1 vega_nevada:1 nawaf_al:2 al_hazmi:3 los_angeles:1 israeli_mossad:1 utility_knife:1 wal_mart:2 al_shehri:1 parking_lot:2 pizza_hut:1 parking_garage:1 flight_attendant:1 amy_sweeney:1 mistaken_identity:2 supreme_court:1 montgomery_alabama:1 orange_juice:1 rum_coke:1 grocery_store:1 saudi_arabia:1 czech_republic:1 lt_col:1 al_mihdhar:1 broadcasting_corporation:1 w_norton:1 external_link:1 |
Subsets and Splits