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986d2ef6dea2ae4faa02d1da2c7de152 | A group arrived in his office on March 16 to demand the removal of all Democrats from any appointed office, and Harrison proclaimed, "So help me God, I will resign my office before I can be guilty of such an iniquity!"[112] His own cabinet attempted to countermand his appointment of John Chambers as Governor of the Iowa Territory in favor of Webster's friend James Wilson. Webster attempted to press this decision at a March 25 cabinet meeting, and Harrison asked him to read aloud a handwritten note, which said simply "William Henry Harrison, President of the United States". Harrison then stood and declared: "William Henry Harrison, President of the United States, tells you, gentlemen, that, by God, John Chambers shall be governor of Iowa!"[113]
Harrison's only other official decision of consequence was whether to call Congress into a special session. He and Clay had disagreed over the necessity of such a session, and Harrison's cabinet proved evenly divided, so the president initially vetoed the idea. Clay pressed him on the special session on March 13, but Harrison rebuffed him and told him not to visit the White House again, to address him only in writing. | text | {
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6e8bbbbb1f30954048aac23ab11c6f4 | [114] A few days later, however, Treasury Secretary Thomas Ewing reported to Harrison that federal funds were in such trouble that the government could not continue to operate until Congress' regularly scheduled session in December; Harrison thus relented, and proclaimed the special session on March 17, in the interests of "the condition of the revenue and finance of the country". The session would have begun on May 31 as scheduled if Harrison had lived.[115][116]
Death and funeral
An illustration depicting the death of Harrison, April 4, 1841
Harrison had been physically worn down by many persistent office seekers and a demanding social schedule.[105] On Wednesday, March 24, 1841, Harrison took his daily morning walk to local markets, without a coat or hat. Despite being caught in a sudden rainstorm, he did not change his wet clothes upon return to the White House.[117] On Friday, March 26, Harrison became ill with cold-like symptoms and sent for his doctor, Thomas Miller, though he told the doctor he felt better after having taken medication for "fatigue and mental anxiety". | text | {
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84b2e36ea9f7366be9ab07df4c34c047 | [117] The next day, Saturday, the doctor was called again, and arrived to find Harrison in bed with a "severe chill", after taking another early morning walk. Miller applied mustard plaster to his stomach and gave him a mild laxative, and he felt better that afternoon.[117] At 4:00 a.m. Sunday, March 28, Harrison developed severe pain in the side and the doctor initiated bloodletting; the procedure was terminated when there was a drop in his pulse rate. Miller also applied heated cups to the president's skin to enhance blood flow.[117] The doctor then gave him castor oil and medicines to induce vomiting, and diagnosed him with pneumonia in the right lung.[117] A team of doctors was called in Monday, March 29, and they confirmed right lower lobe pneumonia.[118] Harrison was then administered laudanum, opium, and camphor, along with wine and brandy.[119]
No official announcements were made concerning Harrison's illness, which fueled public speculation and concern the longer he remained out of public view.[118] Washington society had noticed his uncharacteristic absence from church on Sunday.[111] Conflicting and unconfirmed newspaper reports were based on leaks by people with contacts in the White House. | text | {
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572272f5340db7545743f22d16b75b22 | [117] A Washington paper reported on Thursday, April 1, that Harrison's health was decidedly better. In fact, Harrison's condition had seriously weakened, and Cabinet members and family were summoned to the White House—his wife Anna had remained in Ohio due to her own illness.[117] According to papers in Washington on Friday, Harrison had rallied, despite a Baltimore Sun report that his condition was of a "more dangerous character".[117] A reporter for the New York Commercial indicated that "the country's people were deeply distressed and many of them in tears."[117]
In the evening of Saturday, April 3, Harrison developed severe diarrhea and became delirious, and at 8:30 p.m. he uttered his last words, to his attending doctor, assumed to be for Vice President John Tyler:[117] "Sir, I wish you to understand the true principles of the government. I wish them carried out. I ask nothing more."[120] Harrison died at 12:30 a.m. on April 4, 1841, Palm Sunday, nine days after becoming ill and exactly one month after taking the oath of office;[117] he was the first president to die in office. | text | {
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caa31a7cebf9f95c52b4821e80784139 | [118] Anna was still in Ohio packing for the trip to Washington when she learned of her loss.[121]
The prevailing theory at the time was that his illness had been caused by the bad weather at his inauguration three weeks earlier. [122] Jane McHugh and Philip A. Mackowiak did an analysis in Clinical Infectious Diseases (2014), examining Miller's notes and records showing that the White House water supply was downstream of public sewage, and they concluded that he likely died of septic shock due to "enteric fever" (typhoid or paratyphoid fever).[123][124]
A 30-day period of mourning commenced following the president's death. The White House hosted various public ceremonies, modeled after European royal funeral practices. An invitation-only funeral service was also held on April 7 in the East Room of the White House, after which Harrison's coffin was brought to Congressional Cemetery in Washington, D.C., where it was placed in the Public Vault.[125] Solomon Northup gave an account of the procession in Twelve Years a Slave:
The next day there was a great pageant in Washington. | text | {
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8ce7dcbf995ff5b930ea626778573444 | The roar of cannon and the tolling of bells filled the air, while many houses were shrouded with crape, and the streets were black with people. As the day advanced, the procession made its appearance, coming slowly through the Avenue, carriage after carriage, in long succession, while thousands upon thousands followed on foot—all moving to the sound of melancholy music. They were bearing the dead body of Harrison to the grave…. I remember distinctly how the window glass would break and rattle to the ground, after each report of the cannon they were firing in the burial ground.[126]
That June, Harrison's body was transported by train and river barge to North Bend, Ohio, and he was buried on July 7 at the summit of Mt. Nebo, which is now the William Henry Harrison Tomb State Memorial.[127]
Tyler's accession to office
On April 5, Fletcher Webster, the son of Secretary of State Daniel Webster, notified Tyler that Harrison had died in office. Tyler had been visiting family in Williamsburg. Tyler arrived in Washington on the morning of April 6.[128] The same day Tyler was sworn into office in front of Harrison's cabinet. | text | {
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75ddec8da6efca2fe4678367a6533222 | On April 9, Tyler gave a brief inaugural address. In his address to the nation, Tyler did not give any personal consolation to Harrison's widow Anna or family members. Tyler did compliment Harrison by saying Harrison had been elected for a "great work" of purging the federal government of corruption.[129][a] Tyler and his family moved into the White House one week after Harrison's funeral before Harrison's 30 day time of mourning was over. The White House state rooms were still hung with black mourning crapes.[128][130][131] Harrison's wife Anna was still in Ohio packing to be with her husband in Washington, scheduled for May, when she was informed of Harrison's death. Anna never moved into the White House. Harrison's daughter-in-law, Jane Irwin Harrison, widow of Harrison's son, had served as hostess of the White House in Anna's place while Harrison was President.[131]
Impact of Harrison's death
The William Henry Harrison Memorial in North Bend, Ohio
Harrison's death called attention to an ambiguity in Article II, Section 1, Clause 6 of the Constitution regarding succession to the presidency. | text | {
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7a3a7e6d0bdb959603da53da7d932741 | The Constitution clearly provided for the vice president to take over the "Powers and Duties of the said Office" in the event of a president's removal, death, resignation, or inability, but it was unclear whether the vice president formally became president of the United States, or simply temporarily assumed the powers and duties of that office, in a case of succession.[132]
Harrison's cabinet insisted that Tyler was "Vice President acting as President". Tyler was resolute in his claim to the title of President and in his determination to exercise the full powers of the presidency.[133] The cabinet consulted with Chief Justice Roger Taney and decided that, if Tyler took the presidential oath of office, he would assume the office of president. Tyler obliged and was sworn into office on April 6, 1841. Congress convened, and on May 31, 1841, after a short period of debate in both houses, passed a joint resolution, which confirmed Tyler as president for the remainder of Harrison’s term.[134] The precedent that Congress set in 1841 was followed on seven occasions when an incumbent president died, and it was written into the Constitution in 1967 through Section One of the Twenty-fifth Amendment. | text | {
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119f4e2e53e61cd111a9b38167bb2a8e | [135]
Legacy
Historical reputation
Harrison (on left) at Tippecanoe County Courthouse, Lafayette, Indiana
Among Harrison's most enduring legacies is the series of treaties that he negotiated and signed with Indian leaders during his tenure as the Indiana territorial governor.[7] As part of the treaty negotiations, the tribes ceded large tracts of land in the west which provided additional acreage for purchase and settlement by the nation.[33][136]
Harrison's long-term impact on American politics includes his campaigning methods, which laid the foundation for modern presidential campaign tactics.[137] Harrison died nearly penniless, and Congress voted his wife Anna a presidential widow's pension of $25,000,[138] one year of Harrison's salary (equivalent to about $657,000 in 2021).[139] She also received the right to mail letters free of charge.[140]
Freehling refers to Harrison as "the most dominant figure in the evolution of the Northwest territories into the Upper Midwest today".[141] Harrison, age 68 at the time of his inauguration, was the oldest person to assume the U.S. presidency, a distinction he held until 1981, when Ronald Reagan was inaugurated at age 69.[142]
Harrison's son John Scott Harrison represented Ohio in the House of Representatives between 1853 and 1857. | text | {
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a9e0c0f43e52316480fbc0ad669e9811 | [143] Harrison's grandson Benjamin Harrison of Indiana served as the 23rd president from 1889 to 1893, making William and Benjamin Harrison the only grandparent-grandchild pair of presidents.[144]
Honors and tributes
Main article: List of memorials to William Henry Harrison Several monuments and memorial statues have been erected in tribute to Harrison. There are public statues of him in downtown Indianapolis,[145] Cincinnati's Piatt Park,[146] the Tippecanoe County Courthouse,[147] Harrison County, Indiana,[148] and Owen County, Indiana.[149] Numerous counties and towns also bear his name.
The Village of North Bend, Ohio, honors Harrison every year with a parade to celebrate his birthday.[150] The Gen. William Henry Harrison Headquarters in Franklinton, Ohio, commemorates Harrison. The house was his military headquarters from 1813 to 1814.[151] On February 19, 2009, the U.S. Mint released the ninth coin in the Presidential $1 Coin Program, bearing Harrison's likeness. | text | {
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3001abb671511c6d9d1c47399e5ebf0f | [152][153]
Chromolithograph print
Equestrian statue of Harrison in Cincinnati, by Louis Rebisso
Painting by Bass Otis
2009 Presidential Dollar
Harrison on Indiana statehood stamp, Issue of 1950
Notes
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^ Full Text: "FELLOW-CITIZENS: Before my arrival at the seat of Government the painful communication was made to you by the officers presiding over the several Departments of the deeply regretted death of William Henry Harrison, late President of the United States. Upon him you had conferred your suffrages for the first office in your gift, and had selected him as your chosen instrument to correct and reform all such errors and abuses as had manifested themselves from time to time in the practical operation of the Government. While standing at the threshold of this great work he has by the dispensation of an all-wise Providence been removed from amongst us, and by the provisions of the Constitution the efforts to be directed to the accomplishing of this vitally important task have devolved upon myself." | text | {
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eef4bd50589f93bf91cf207a4a4ad39 | John Tyler (April 9, 1841)[129]
See also
Curse of Tippecanoe
List of presidents of the United States
List of presidents of the United States by previous experience
List of presidents of the United States who died in office
Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps
Second Party System
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References
Citations
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^ Jump up to: a b c d .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}Smith, Howard; Riley, Edward M., eds. (1978). Benjamin Harrison and the American Revolution. Virginia in the Revolution. Williamsburg, VA: Virginia Independence Bicentennial Commission. pp. 59–65. OCLC 4781472.
^ "William Henry Harrison". | text | {
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17811e26fbd218e9638e5dbc80d71f5b | p. 282. ISBN 0253307511.
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b6581da1e2f5330ffc6a95b8cc972941 | Retrieved November 14, 2021.
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280f0ba4ac1da3de404025010b3db2ef | ISBN 978-1-4001-0354-6.
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60a283c2753d9a504b91525bc25b57e | ^ Jump up to: a b Carnes & Mieczkowski 2001, p. 41.
^ "Buckeyes?". Village of North Bend.
^ "Tippecanoe and Buckeyes Too". Ohio State Univ. Alumni Assoc. August 29, 2016. Archived from the original on May 28, 2022. Retrieved January 21, 2022.
^ Gugin & St. Clair 2006, p. 25.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "American Treasures–Harrison's Inauguration". Library of Congress. August 2007. Retrieved September 21, 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b "William Henry Harrison Inaugural Address". Inaugural Addresses of the Presidents of the United States. Bartleby. Retrieved February 11, 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Freehling, William (October 4, 2016). "William Harrison: Domestic Affairs". Charlottesville, Virginia: Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. Retrieved January 22, 2022.
^ Jump up to: a b c Freehling, William (October 4, 2016). "William Harrison: March 4, 1841 Inaugural Address". Charlottesville, Virginia: Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. Retrieved January 20, 2022.
^ Jump up to: a b McCormick 2002, p. 140.
^ "Inaugural Ball". Joint Congressional Committee on Inaugural Ceremonies. June 10, 2013. Archived from the original on February 25, 2016.
^ "Current Value of $10 from 1841". | text | {
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3c325b72c4967e27d9cf0a7ce9a59d5 | CPI Inflation Calculator. Retrieved April 7, 2019.
^ "The annexation of Texas". Magazine of American History. VIII (6): 379. June 1882.
^ Remini 1997, pp. 511–515.
^ "Letter from Harrison to R. Buchanan, Esq., March 10, 1841". Shapell Manuscript Foundation. Archived from the original on June 18, 2012. Retrieved November 9, 2021.
^ Jump up to: a b c Whitcomb, John & Claire (2002). Real Life at the White House: 200 Years of Daily Life at America's Most Famous Residence. New York: Routledge. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-415-93951-5.
^ Woollen, William Wesley (1975). Biographical and historical sketches of early Indiana. New York: Ayer Publishing. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-405-06896-6.
^ Remini 1997, pp. 520–521.
^ "American History Series: The Brief Presidency of William Henry Harrison". Voice of America News. Retrieved June 21, 2009.
^ Brinkley, Alan; Dyer, Davis (2004). The American Presidency. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-618-38273-6. Retrieved June 21, 2009.
^ "Pres. W.H. Harrison, Proclamation 45B–Convening an Extra Session of the Congress". American Presidency Project. Retrieved November 9, 2021.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Shafer, Ronald G. (October 6, 2020). "In 1841 pneumonia killed the president". Washington Post. | text | {
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"_split_id": 63
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e9e8ec842311b45004192299e37db8ae | Retrieved December 13, 2021.
^ Jump up to: a b c Freehling, William (October 4, 2016). "William Henry Harrison: Death of the President". Charlottesville, Virginia: Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. Retrieved March 9, 2019.
^ Collins 2012, p. 123.
^ "William Henry Harrison: Key Events". Charlottesville, Virginia: Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. October 7, 2016. Retrieved March 9, 2019.
^ "Anna T. S. Harrison". The White House. Retrieved December 13, 2021.
^ Cleaves 1939, p. 152.
^ McHugh, Jane; Mackowiak, Philip A. (March 31, 2014). "What Really Killed William Henry Harrison?". The New York Times. Retrieved August 27, 2014.
^ McHugh, Jane; Mackowiak, Philip A. (June 23, 2014). "Death in the White House: President William Henry Harrison's Atypical Pneumonia". Clinical Infectious Diseases. Oxford Univ. Press. 59 (7): 990–995. doi:10.1093/cid/ciu470. PMID 24962997.
^ "William Henry Harrison Funeral: April 7, 1841". Washington, D.C.: White House Historical Association. Retrieved March 9, 2019.
^ "Twelve Years a Slave: Narrative of Solomon Northup". Library, UNC-Chapel Hill. 1997. Retrieved November 10, 2021.
^ "William Henry Harrison Memorial". Columbus Ohio: Ohio History Connection. Retrieved March 9, 2019.
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29706dbc56e25eb303fa922ffdd7b9c5 | ^ Jump up to: a b Hopkins, John Tyler and the Presidential Succession
^ Jump up to: a b John Tyler (April 9, 1841) Upon Assuming the Office of President of the United States
^ McCormick 2002, pp. 141–142.
^ Jump up to: a b The White House, Anna Tuthill Symmes Harrison
^ Feerick, John. "Essays on Article II: Presidential Succession". The Heritage Guide to the Constitution. The Heritage Foundation. Retrieved June 12, 2018.
^ "A controversial President who established presidential succession". Constitution Daily. National Constitution Center. March 29, 2017. Retrieved March 11, 2019.
^ Rankin, Robert S. (February 1946). "Presidential Succession in the United States". The Journal of Politics. 8 (1): 44–56. doi:10.2307/2125607. JSTOR 2125607. S2CID 153441210.
^ Abbott, Philip (December 2005). "Accidental Presidents: Death, Assassination, Resignation, and Democratic Succession". Presidential Studies Quarterly. 35 (4): 627–645. doi:10.1111/j.1741-5705.2005.00269.x. JSTOR 27552721.
^ Madison & Sandweiss 2014, p. 47.
^ Greene 2007, p. 100.
^ Damon, Allan L. (June 1974). "Presidential Expenses". American Heritage. 25 (4). Archived from the original on January 7, 2009. Retrieved February 10, 2009.
^ 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? | text | {
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eb18ec3db39bdace404193b6d5cee4db | A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Retrieved April 16, 2022.
^ "First Lady Biography: Anna Harrison". National First Ladies Library. 2009. Retrieved February 11, 2009.
^ Freehling, William (October 4, 2016). "William Henry Harrison: Impact and Legacy". Charlottesville, Virginia: Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. Retrieved March 9, 2019.
^ Freehling, William (October 4, 2016). "William Henry Harrison: Life In Brief". Charlottesville, Virginia: Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. Retrieved March 8, 2019.
^ "Harrison, John Scott, (1804–1878)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. Retrieved June 18, 2008.
^ Calhoun 2005, pp. 43–49.
^ Greiff 2005, pp. 12, 164.
^ "The Harrison Monument, Cincinnati". The Monumental News. 8 (7). July 1896.
^ Greiff 2005, p. 243.
^ Greiff 2005, p. 131.
^ Greiff 2005, p. 206.
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f2ca1a4f23b88c6e909759073abbee37 | ^ "William Henry Harrison Birthday Tribute". Village of North Bend, Ohio. Retrieved November 10, 2021.
^ National Register of Historic Places Registration Form. File Unit: National Register of Historic Places and National Historic Landmarks Program Records: Ohio, 1964 – 2013. National Park Service. Retrieved May 17, 2020.
^ "The United States Mint Coins and Medals Program". U.S. Mint. Retrieved July 28, 2016.
^ "Circulating Coins Production Figures". U.S. Mint. Retrieved July 28, 2016.
Bibliography
.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}
Bolívar, Simón (1951). Bierck, Harold A. Jr. (ed.). Selected Writings of Bolívar. Vol. II. New York: Colonial Press. ISBN 978-1-60635-115-4. compiled by Lecuna, Vicente, translated by Bertrand, Lewis
Burr, Samuel Jones (1840). The Life and Times of William Henry Harrison. New York: R. W. Pomeroy. Retrieved September 14, 2016.
Calhoun, Charles William (2005). Benjamin Harrison: The 23rd President 1889–1893. The American Presidents. Vol. 23. New York: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-8050-6952-5.
Carnes, Mark C.; Mieczkowski, Yanek (2001). The Routledge Historical Atlas of Presidential Campaigns. Routledge Atlases of American History. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-92139-8. Retrieved November 10, 2021.
Cleaves, Freeman (1939). Old Tippecanoe: William Henry Harrison and His Time. | text | {
"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison",
"_split_id": 67
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1c72ace210eb35e376d130088be10dfc | New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN 978-0-9457-0701-1.
Collins, Gail (2012). William Henry Harrison: The 9th President, 1841. New York: Henry Holt and Co. ISBN 978-0-8050-9118-2.
Dowdey, Clifford (1957). The Great Plantation. New York: Rinehart & Co. OCLC 679792228.
Greene, Meg (2007). William H. Harrison. Breckenridge, CO: Twenty-First Century Books. ISBN 978-0-8225-1511-1. Retrieved November 21, 2021.; for children
Greiff, Glory-June (2005). Remembrance, Faith and Fancy: Outdoor Public Sculpture in Indiana. Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society Press. ISBN 978-0-87195-180-9.
Gugin, Linda C.; St. Clair, James E., eds. (2006). The Governors of Indiana. Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society Press and the Indiana Historical Bureau. ISBN 978-0-87195-196-0. Retrieved November 10, 2021.
Hall, James (1836). A Memoir of the Public Services of William Henry Harrison, of Ohio. Philadelphia: Key & Biddle. LCCN 11019326. Retrieved November 16, 2021.
Hopkins, Callie. "John Tyler and the Presidential Succession". whitehousehistory.org. Retrieved August 16, 2022.
Langguth, A. J. (2007). Union 1812: The Americans Who Fought the Second War of Independence. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4165-3278-1. Retrieved November 20, 2021.
Madison, James H.; Sandweiss, Lee Ann (2014). Hoosiers and the American Story. Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Society Press. ISBN 978-0-87195-363-6.
McCormick, Richard P. (2002). "William Henry Harrison and John Tyler". | text | {
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26bdb7a1460fb9c15b746da6b8865960 | In Graff, Henry (ed.). The Presidents: A Reference History (7th ed.). pp. 139–151. ISBN 978-0-684-80551-1.
Owens, Robert M. (2007). Mr. Jefferson's Hammer: William Henry Harrison and the Origins of American Indian Policy. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-3842-8.
Remini, Robert V. (1997). Daniel Webster: The Man and His Time. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-04552-8. Retrieved November 10, 2021.
Taylor, William Alexander; Taylor, Aubrey Clarence (1899). Ohio statesmen and annals of progress: from the year 1788 to the year 1900 ... Vol. 1. Columbus: Westbote Co. LCCN 01011959.
"Anna Tuthill Symmes Harrison". whitehouse.gov. Retrieved August 16, 2022.
Tyler, John (April 9, 1841). "Address Upon Assuming the Office of President of the United States". Retrieved August 8, 2022.
Further reading
Barnhart, John D.; Riker, Dorothy L. (1971). Indiana to 1816, the colonial period. Indianapolis: Indiana Historical Bureau. OCLC 154955.
Booraem, Hendrik (2012). A Child of the Revolution: William Henry Harrison and His World, 1773–1798. Kent State University Press. ISBN 978-1-6127-7643-9.
Borneman, Walter R. (2005). 1812: The War That Forged a Nation. New York: HarperCollins (Harper Perennial). ISBN 978-0-06-053113-3.
Cheathem, Mark R. (2018). The Coming of Democracy: Presidential Campaigning in the Age of Jackson. ISBN 9781421425986.
Ellis, Richard J. (2020). | text | {
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"_split_id": 69
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8a7453dddfa26ed08358b6b62fa7b7a | Old Tip vs. the Sly Fox: The 1840 Election and the Making of a Partisan Nation. U of Kansas Press. ISBN 978-0-7006-2945-9.
Fazio, N. Robert (2021). The Forgotten Four: The American Whig Presidents. Amazon Publishing. ISBN 979-8722977069.
Graff, Henry F. (2002). The Presidents: A Reference History. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. OCLC 1036830795.
Jortner, Adam (2012). The Gods of Prophetstown: The Battle of Tippecanoe and the Holy War for the American Frontier. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-1997-6529-4.
Peckham, Howard Henry (2000). William Henry Harrison: Young Tippecanoe. Carmel, IN: Patria Press. ISBN 978-1-8828-5903-0. Retrieved November 10, 2021.
Peterson, Norma Lois (1989). The Presidencies of William Henry Harrison and John Tyler. U of Kansas Press.
Pirtle, Alfred (1900). The Battle of Tippecanoe. Louisville: John P. Morton & Co./ Library Reprints. p. 158. ISBN 978-0-7222-6509-3. as read to the Filson Club.
Shade, William G. (2013). "Tippecanoe and Tyler Too: William Henry Harrison and the rise of popular politics". In Silbey, Joel H. (ed.). A Companion to the Antebellum Presidents 1837–1861. pp. 155–72.
Skaggs, David Curtis (2014). William Henry Harrison and the Conquest of the Ohio Country: Frontier Fighting in the War of 1812. Johns Hopkins Univ. Press. ISBN 978-1-4214-0546-9.
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1850b24da22aace273fed738515bd563 | External links
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William Henry Harrison at Wikipedia's sister projects
Media from CommonsQuotations from WikiquoteTexts from WikisourceTextbooks from WikibooksResources from WikiversityData from Wikidata
United States Congress. "William Henry Harrison (id: H000279)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.
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dfe322bc9c3da213ed9b7be5e44cd6e2 | William Henry Harrison Papers – Library of Congress
William H. Harrison at Ohio History Central
Papers of William Henry Harrison, 1800–1815, Collection Guide, Indiana Historical Society
Announcement of William Henry Harrison Impending Death Archived June 10, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
Essays on Harrison, each member of his cabinet and First Lady
William Henry Harrison Biography and Fact File
Biography by Appleton's and Stanley L. Klos
"Life Portrait of William Henry Harrison", from C-SPAN's American Presidents: Life Portraits, May 10, 1999
William Henry Harrison at FindAGrave
In 1841 Anthony Philip Heinrich wrote The President's Funeral March dedicated to President Harrison.
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9th President of the United States (1841)
Minister to Gran Colombia (1829)
Senator from Ohio (1825–1828)
Representative of Ohio's 1st congressional district (1816–1819)
Governor of the Territory of Indiana (1801–1812)
Delegate of Northwest Territory's at-large congressional district (1799–1800)
Life
Berkeley Plantation
First American Regiment
Treaty of Greenville
Grouseland
Treaty of St. Louis (1804)
Treaty of Grouseland
Treaty of Fort Wayne (1809)
Tecumseh's War
Fort Harrison
Battle of Tippecanoe
Army of the Northwest
Fort Meigs
Battle of the Thames
Treaty of Spring Wells
1822 United States House of Representatives elections in Ohio
1836 United States presidential election
1840 United States presidential election
1839 Whig National Convention
William Henry Harrison 1840 presidential campaign
Tippecanoe and Tyler Too
William Henry Harrison Tomb State Memorial
Presidency
Inauguration of William Henry Harrison
Public image
List of memorials to William Henry Harrison
Brave Warrior
Tecumseh
Gen. William Henry Harrison Headquarters
Equestrian statue of William Henry Harrison
Curse of Tippecanoe
Family
Anna Harrison (wife)
John Scott Harrison (son)
Benjamin Harrison (grandson)
Benjamin Harrison V (father)
Benjamin Harrison VI (brother)
Carter Bassett Harrison (brother)
Benjamin Harrison IV (grandfather)
Benjamin Harrison III (great-grandfather)
Robert Carter I (great-grandfather)
← Martin Van Buren
John Tyler →
Category
showOffices and distinctions
Political offices
Preceded byWinthrop Sargent
Secretary of the Northwest Territory 1798–1799
Succeeded byCharles Willing Byrd
New office
Governor of the Indiana Territory 1800–1812
Succeeded byJohn GibsonActing
Preceded byAmos Stoddardas Commandant of the District of Louisiana
Governor of the District of Louisiana 1804–1805
Succeeded byJames Wilkinsonas Governor of the Louisiana Territory
Preceded byMartin Van Buren
President of the United States 1841
Succeeded byJohn Tyler
U.S. House of Representatives
New constituency
Delegate to the U.S. House of Representativesfrom the Northwest Territory's at-large congressional district 1799–1800
Succeeded byWilliam McMillan
Preceded byJohn McLean
Member of the U.S. House of Representativesfrom Ohio's 1st congressional district 1816–1819
Succeeded byThomas R. Ross
Ohio Senate
Preceded byGeorge Torrence
Member of the Ohio Senatefrom Hamilton County 1819–1821 Served alongside: Ephraim Brown
Succeeded byBenjamin Piatt
U.S. Senate
Preceded byEthan Allen Brown
U.S. | text | {
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35ebe156a8922c99f22ea239c9cdcd59 | Senator (Class 3) from Ohio 1825–1828 Served alongside: Benjamin Ruggles
Succeeded byJacob Burnet
Preceded byAndrew Jackson
Chair of the Senate Military Affairs Committee 1825–1828
Succeeded byThomas Hart Benton
Diplomatic posts
Preceded byBeaufort Watts
United States Minister to Gran Colombia 1829
Succeeded byThomas Patrick Moore
Party political offices
New political party
Whig nominee for President of the United States 1836¹, 1840
Succeeded byHenry Clay
Notes and references
1. The Whig Party ran regional candidates in 1836. Harrison ran in the Northern states, Hugh White ran in the Southern states, and Daniel Webster ran in Massachusetts.
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d952b8231d2c43e8eb73b6ee3239535c | showArticles related to William Henry Harrison
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George Washington (1789–1797)
John Adams (1797–1801)
Thomas Jefferson (1801–1809)
James Madison (1809–1817)
James Monroe (1817–1825)
John Quincy Adams (1825–1829)
Andrew Jackson (1829–1837)
Martin Van Buren (1837–1841)
William Henry Harrison (1841)
John Tyler (1841–1845)
James K. Polk (1845–1849)
Zachary Taylor (1849–1850)
Millard Fillmore (1850–1853)
Franklin Pierce (1853–1857)
James Buchanan (1857–1861)
Abraham Lincoln (1861–1865)
Andrew Johnson (1865–1869)
Ulysses S. Grant (1869–1877)
Rutherford B. Hayes (1877–1881)
James A. Garfield (1881)
Chester A. Arthur (1881–1885)
Grover Cleveland (1885–1889)
Benjamin Harrison (1889–1893)
Grover Cleveland (1893–1897)
William McKinley (1897–1901)
Theodore Roosevelt (1901–1909)
William Howard Taft (1909–1913)
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Calvin Coolidge (1923–1929)
Herbert Hoover (1929–1933)
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Harry S. Truman (1945–1953)
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showvteUnsuccessful major party candidates for President of the United States
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showvteUnited States senators from OhioClass 1
Smith
Meigs
Worthington
Kerr
Ruggles
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Ewing
Wade
Thurman
Sherman
Hanna
Dick
Pomerene
Fess
Donahey
H. Burton
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K. Taft
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R. Taft Jr.
Metzenbaum
DeWine
S. Brown
Class 3
Worthington
Tiffin
Griswold
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Morrow
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E. Brown
Harrison
Burnet
Ewing
Allen
Chase
Pugh
Chase
Sherman
Matthews
Pendleton
Payne
Brice
Foraker
T. Burton
Harding
Willis
Locher
T. Burton
McCulloch
Bulkley
R. Taft Sr.
Burke
Bender
Lausche
Saxbe
Metzenbaum
Glenn
Voinovich
Portman
Vance
showvteMembers of the U.S. House of Representatives from Ohio's 1st congressional district
McLean
Harrison
Ross
Gazlay
Findlay
Lytle
Storer (father)
Duncan
N. Pendleton
Duncan
Faran
Disney
Day
G. Pendleton
Eggleston
Strader
Perry
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Sayler
Butterworth
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C. Taft
Shattuc
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Bowdle
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Hollister
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Elston
Scherer
Rich
Gilligan
R. Taft Jr.
Keating
T. Luken
Gradison
T. Luken
C. Luken
Mann
Chabot
Driehaus
Chabot
Landsman
showvteMembers of the U.S. House of Representatives from Ohio's 23rd, 24th, at-large, and the Northwest Territory's congressional districtsOhio 23
George H. Bender (1953–1954)
William Edwin Minshall Jr. (1955–1974)
Ronald M. Mottl (1975–1983)
Ohio 24
Buz Lukens (1967–1971)
Walter E. Powell (1971–1973)
Ohio at-large
Jeremiah Morrow (1803–1813)
Robert Crosser (1913–1915)
Charles V. Truax (1933–1935)
Stephen M. Young (1933–1937)
Daniel S. Earhart (1936–1937)
John McSweeney (1937–1939)
Harold G. Mosier (1937–1939)
George H. Bender (1939–1949)
L. L. Marshall (1939–1941)
Stephen M. Young (1941–1943)
Stephen M. Young (1949–1951)
George H. Bender (1951–1953)
Robert Taft Jr. (1963–1965)
Robert E. Sweeney (1965–1967)
Northwest Territoryat-large
William Henry Harrison (1799–1800)
William McMillan (1800–1801)
Paul Fearing (1801–1803)
.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}showvteGovernors of IndianaTerritorial (1800–1816)
Harrison
Gibson (acting)
Posey
State (since 1816)
Jennings
Boon
W. Hendricks
Ray
Noble
Wallace
Bigger
J. Whitcomb
Dunning
Wright
Willard
Hammond
Lane
Morton
Baker
T. Hendricks
Williams
Gray
Porter
Gray
Hovey
Chase
Matthews
Mount
Durbin
Hanly
Marshall
Ralston
Goodrich
McCray
Branch
Jackson
Leslie
McNutt
Townsend
Schricker
Gates
Schricker
Craig
Handley
Welsh
Branigin
E. Whitcomb
Bowen
Orr
Bayh
O'Bannon
Kernan
Daniels
Pence
Holcomb
See also: Governor of Indiana
showvte United States Ambassadors to Colombia Gran ColombiaEnvoy Extraordinary andMinister Plenipotentiary
Anderson
Watts (chargé d'affaires)
Harrison
Moore
Republic of New GranadaChargé d'Affaires
McAfee
Semple
Blackford
Bidlack
Foote
King
Green
Minister Resident
Bowlin
Jones
United States of ColombiaMinister Resident
Burton
Sullivan
Hurlbut
Scruggs
Dichman
Maney
Envoy Extraordinary andMinister Plenipotentiary
Scruggs
Jacob
Republic of ColombiaEnvoy Extraordinary andMinister Plenipotentiary
Maury
Abbott
McKinney
Hart
Beaupre
Russell
Barrett
T. Dawson
Northcott
DuBois
Thompson
Philip
Piles
Caffery
Whitehouse
W. Dawson
Ambassador Extraordinaryand Plenipotentiary
Braden
Lane
Wiley
Beaulac
Waynick
Schoenfeld
Bonsal
Cabot
McIntosh
Freeman
Oliver
Carlson
Vaughn
Saccio
Vaky
Sanchez
Asencio
Boyatt
Tambs
Gillespie
McNamara
Busby
Frechette
Kamman
Patterson
Wood
Brownfield
McKinley
Whitaker
Goldberg
showvteCabinet of President William Henry Harrison (1841)Secretary of State
Daniel Webster (1841)
Secretary of the Treasury
Thomas Ewing (1841)
Secretary of War
John Bell (1841)
Attorney General
John J. Crittenden (1841)
Postmaster General
Francis Granger (1841)
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showvteChairmen of the United States Senate Committee on Armed ServicesMilitary Affairs Committee (1816–1947)
J. Williams
Troup
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Preston
Crittenden
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Cass
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Weller
Davis
Johnson
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Logan
Spencer
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Gwin
Mallory
J. Hale
Grimes
Cragin
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McPherson
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E. Hale
Perkins
Tillman
Swanson
Page
F. Hale
Trammell
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Tower
Goldwater
Nunn
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Warner
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Warner
Levin
Warner
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showvteIndiana in the War of 1812People
William Henry Harrison
Zachary Taylor
Tecumseh
John Tipton
William Wells
Indiana Rangers
Places
Eel River
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Fort Wayne
Fort Vallonia
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Battles/Raids
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See also: Tecumseh's War and Battle of Tippecanoe
showvte(← 1832) 1836 United States presidential election (1840 →)Democratic Party(Convention)Nominee
Martin Van Buren
VP nominee
Richard M. Johnson
Whig PartyNominees
William H. Harrison
Hugh L. White
Daniel Webster
Willie P. Mangum
VP nominees
Francis Granger
John Tyler
Other 1836 elections: House
Senate
showvte(← 1836) 1840 United States presidential election (1844 →)Whig Party(Convention)Nominees
President: William Henry Harrison
campaign
Vice President: John Tyler
Other candidates
Henry Clay
Winfield Scott
Democratic Party(Convention)Nominees
President: Martin Van Buren (incumbent)
Vice President: none
Other 1840 elections: House
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showvteBenjamin Harrison
23rd President of the United States (1889–1893)
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Life
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Caroline Harrison (first wife)
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William Henry Harrison (grandfather)
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<img src="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" title="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;" />
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Henry_Harrison&oldid=1141068586"
Categories: William Henry Harrison1773 births1841 deaths1820 United States presidential electors1824 United States presidential electors1841 in the United States18th-century American Episcopalians19th-century American Episcopalians19th-century American diplomats19th-century American politicians19th-century presidents of the United StatesAmerican people of English descentAmerican people of the Northwest Indian WarAmerican slave ownersBurials in OhioCandidates in the 1836 United States presidential electionCandidates in the 1840 United States presidential electionCarter family of VirginiaCongressional Gold Medal recipientsDeaths from pneumonia in Washington, D.C.Deaths from sepsisDelegates to the United States House of Representatives from the Northwest TerritoryDemocratic-Republican Party members of the United States House of RepresentativesGovernors of Indiana TerritoryHampden–Sydney College alumniHarrison family of VirginiaIndiana Democratic-RepublicansInfectious disease deaths in Washington, D.C.National Republican Party United States senatorsOhio Democratic-RepublicansOhio WhigsPeople from Charles City County, VirginiaPeople from Hamilton County, OhioPeople from Vincennes, IndianaPresidents of the United StatesPresidents of the United States who died while in officeRepublican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from OhioUnited States Army generalsUnited States Army personnel of the War of 1812United States senators from OhioUniversity of Pennsylvania peopleUniversity and college foundersWhig Party presidents of the United StatesWhig Party (United States) presidential nomineesUnited States senators who owned slavesHidden categories: Articles with short descriptionShort description matches WikidataWikipedia pages semi-protected against vandalismWikipedia indefinitely move-protected pagesUse mdy dates from November 2022CS1: Julian–Gregorian uncertaintyArticles with hAudio microformatsSpoken articlesPages using Sister project links with wikidata namespace mismatchPages using Sister project links with default searchPages using Sister project links with hidden wikidataWebarchive template wayback linksArticles with ISNI identifiersArticles with VIAF identifiersArticles with WorldCat identifiersArticles with BNF identifiersArticles with GND identifiersArticles with J9U identifiersArticles with LCCN identifiersArticles with NKC identifiersArticles with NLA identifiersArticles with NLG identifiersArticles with NTA identifiersArticles with ULAN identifiersArticles with DTBIO identifiersArticles with CINII identifiersArticles with FAST identifiersArticles with NARA identifiersArticles with SNAC-ID identifiersArticles with SUDOC identifiersArticles with Trove identifiersArticles with USCongress identifiers
This page was last edited on 23 February 2023, at 05:20 (UTC).
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1Early life
2College and law school
3U.S. Naval Reserve
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3.1Sea duty
4U.S. | text | {
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77a43acd28632e3917bd07b21e5b79c7 | House of Representatives (1949–1973)
Toggle U.S. House of Representatives (1949–1973) subsection
4.1Warren Commission
4.2House Minority Leader (1965–1973)
5Vice presidency (1973–1974)
6Presidency (1974–1977)
Toggle Presidency (1974–1977) subsection
6.1Swearing-in
6.2Pardon of Nixon
6.3Draft dodgers and deserters
6.4Administration
6.5Midterm elections
6.6Domestic policy
6.6.1Inflation
6.6.2Budget
6.6.3Swine flu
6.6.4Equal rights and abortion
6.7Foreign policy
6.7.1Middle East
6.7.2Vietnam
6.7.3East Timor
6.7.4Mayaguez incident
6.8Assassination attempts
6.9Judicial appointments
6.9.1Supreme Court
6.9.2Other judicial appointments
6.101976 presidential election
7Post-presidency (1977–2006)
Toggle Post-presidency (1977–2006) subsection
7.1Health problems
8Death and legacy
9Personal life
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9.1Family
9.2Civic and fraternal organizations
9.2.1Freemasonry
10Public image
11Honors
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11.1Foreign honors
12See also
13References
14Bibliography
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14.1Primary sources
15External links
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15.1Official sites
15.2Media coverage
15.3Other
Gerald Ford
135 languages
AfrikaansAlemannischአማርኛÆngliscالعربيةAragonésArpetanAsturianuAzərbaycancaتۆرکجهBasa BaliবাংলাBân-lâm-gúБеларускаяБеларуская (тарашкевіца)Bikol CentralBislamaБългарскиBoarischBosanskiBrezhonegCatalàЧӑвашлаCebuanoČeštinaCorsuCymraegDanskDeutschEestiΕλληνικάEspañolEsperantoEuskaraفارسیFrançaisFryskGaeilgeGaelgGàidhligGalego客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî한국어HawaiʻiՀայերենहिन्दीHornjoserbsceHrvatskiIdoIlokanoBahasa IndonesiaInterlinguaIsiZuluÍslenskaItalianoעבריתJawaKapampanganქართულიҚазақшаKernowekIkinyarwandaKiswahiliKurdîLatinaLatviešuLëtzebuergeschLietuviųLigureLingálaLingua Franca NovaLombardMagyarМакедонскиMalagasyമലയാളംमराठीმარგალურიمصرىمازِرونیBahasa Melayu閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄Монголမြန်မာဘာသာNederlandsनेपाली日本語NordfriiskNorsk bokmålNorsk nynorskOccitanOʻzbekcha / ўзбекчаਪੰਜਾਬੀپنجابیپښتوPiemontèisPlattdüütschPolskiPortuguêsRipoarischRomânăRumantschRuna SimiРусскийScotsShqipSicilianuSimple EnglishSlovenčinaSlovenščinaSoomaaligaکوردیСрпски / srpskiSrpskohrvatski / српскохрватскиSuomiSvenskaTagalogதமிழ்Татарча / tatarçaไทยТоҷикӣᏣᎳᎩTürkçeУкраїнськаاردوTiếng ViệtWinaray吴语ייִדישYorùbá粵語ZazakiZeêuwsŽemaitėška中文126 more
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
President of the United States from 1974 to 1977
.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}This article is about the president of the United States. For other uses, see Gerald Ford (disambiguation).
| text | {
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314b80b4af6ea2d94ff503dd3d0b68d6 | .mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-header,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-subheader,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-above,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-title,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-image,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-below{text-align:center}Gerald FordOfficial portrait, 197438th President of the United StatesIn officeAugust 9, 1974 – January 20, 1977Vice President.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}
None (August–December 1974)
Nelson Rockefeller (1974–1977)
Preceded byRichard NixonSucceeded byJimmy Carter40th Vice President of the United StatesIn officeDecember 6, 1973 – August 9, 1974PresidentRichard NixonPreceded bySpiro AgnewSucceeded byNelson RockefellerHouse Minority LeaderIn officeJanuary 3, 1965 – December 6, 1973WhipLeslie C. ArendsPreceded byCharles A. HalleckSucceeded byJohn Jacob RhodesLeader of the House Republican ConferenceIn officeJanuary 3, 1965 – December 6, 1973Preceded byCharles A. HalleckSucceeded byJohn Jacob RhodesChair of the House Republican ConferenceIn officeJanuary 3, 1963 – January 3, 1965LeaderCharles A. HalleckPreceded byCharles B. HoevenSucceeded byMelvin LairdMember of the U.S. House of Representativesfrom Michigan's 5th districtIn officeJanuary 3, 1949 – December 6, 1973Preceded byBartel J. JonkmanSucceeded byRichard Vander Veen
Personal detailsBornLeslie Lynch King Jr.(1913-07-14)July 14, 1913Omaha, Nebraska, U.S.DiedDecember 26, 2006(2006-12-26) (aged 93)Rancho Mirage, California, U.S.Resting placeGerald R. Ford Presidential MuseumPolitical partyRepublicanSpouseBetty Bloomer (m. .mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}1948)Children.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}
Michael
Jack
Steven
Susan
Parents
Leslie Lynch King Sr.
Dorothy Ayer Gardner Ford
Education
University of Michigan (BA)
Yale University (LL.B)
OccupationPoliticianlawyerSignatureMilitary serviceBranch/serviceUnited States NavyYears of service1942–1946RankLieutenant commanderBattles/warsWorld War IIAwards
American Campaign Medal
Asiatic–Pacific Campaign Medal (9 campaign stars)
World War II Victory
College football careerNo. | text | {
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849907978489af53dfe9e113fc1aa9ec | 48PositionCenterClass1935MajorEconomicsCareer historyCollege
Michigan (1932–1934)
High schoolGrand Rapids SouthCareer highlights and awards
2× National champion (1932, 1933)
Meyer Morton Award (1932)
Michigan MVP (1934)
Michigan Wolverines No. | text | {
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dbb7e8e192c438f945265add95fd27c7 | 48 retired
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Gerald Ford's voice
7:54
Gerald Ford's comments at his Swearing in Ceremony to be 38th President of the United StatesRecorded August 9, 1974
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This article is part of a series aboutGerald Ford
Early life
Electoral history
Pre-vice presidency
Military service
U.S. Representative for Michigan's 5th
Warren Commission
40th Vice President of the United States
Confirmation
Tenure
Resignation of Richard Nixon
38th President of the United States
Presidency
Timeline
Inauguration
Policies
Environmental
Foreign
International trips
Pardons
Appointments
Cabinet
Judiciary
Tenure
Pardon of Richard Nixon
Federal-Aid Highway Amendments of 1974
Education for All Handicapped Children Act
Assassination attempts
Sacramento
San Francisco
Timeline
'74
'75
'76–77
showPresidential campaign
1976
Primaries
Convention
Debates
Election
Post-presidency
Presidential Library
Activities
AEI World Forum
Death and state funeral
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Gerald Rudolph Ford Jr. (/ˈdʒɛrəld/ JERR-əld;[1] born Leslie Lynch King Jr.; July 14, 1913 – December 26, 2006) was an American politician who served as the 38th president of the United States from 1974 to 1977. | text | {
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6ba28c26ccba719fd04e57a8bf0646 | He was the only president never to have been elected to the office of president or vice president as well as the only president to date from Michigan. He previously served as the leader of the Republican Party in the House of Representatives, and was appointed to be the 40th vice president in 1973. When President Richard Nixon resigned in 1974, Ford succeeded to the presidency, but was defeated for election to a full term in 1976.
Born in Omaha, Nebraska, and raised in Grand Rapids, Michigan, Ford attended the University of Michigan, where he was a member of the school's football team, winning two national championships. Following his senior year, he turned down offers from the Detroit Lions and Green Bay Packers, instead opting to go to Yale Law School.[2] After the attack on Pearl Harbor, he enlisted in the U.S. Naval Reserve, serving from 1942 to 1946; he left as a lieutenant commander. Ford began his political career in 1949 as the U.S. representative from Michigan's 5th congressional district. He served in this capacity for nearly 25 years, the final nine of them as the House minority leader. | text | {
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674cd83758fd353915c850fc1a5339e | In December 1973, two months after the resignation of Spiro Agnew, Ford became the first person appointed to the vice presidency under the terms of the 25th Amendment. After the subsequent resignation of President Nixon in August 1974, Ford immediately assumed the presidency.
Domestically, Ford presided over the worst economy in the four decades since the Great Depression, with growing inflation and a recession during his tenure.[3] In one of his most controversial acts, he granted a presidential pardon to Richard Nixon for his role in the Watergate scandal. During Ford's presidency, foreign policy was characterized in procedural terms by the increased role Congress began to play, and by the corresponding curb on the powers of the president.[4] As president, Ford signed the Helsinki Accords, which marked a move toward détente in the Cold War. With the collapse of South Vietnam nine months into his presidency, U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War essentially ended. In the 1976 Republican presidential primary campaign, Ford defeated former California Governor Ronald Reagan for the Republican nomination, but narrowly lost the presidential election to the Democratic challenger, former Georgia Governor Jimmy Carter. | text | {
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fb50b32ac0bdae6740a23d61f1de1485 | Surveys of historians and political scientists have ranked Ford as a below-average president,[5][6][7] though retrospective public polls on his time in office were more positive.[8][9]
Following his years as president, Ford remained active in the Republican Party. His moderate views on various social issues increasingly put him at odds with conservative members of the party in the 1990s and early 2000s. In retirement, Ford set aside the enmity he had felt towards Carter following the 1976 election, and the two former presidents developed a close friendship. After experiencing a series of health problems, he died at home on December 26, 2006, at age 93.
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Early life
.mw-parser-output .stack{box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .stack>div{margin:1px;overflow:hidden}@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-left{float:left;clear:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-clear-right{float:right;clear:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .stack-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-left{float:left;clear:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-clear-right{float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-left{float:left;margin-right:1em}.mw-parser-output .stack-margin-right{float:right;margin-left:1em}} Ford in 1916
Ford was born Leslie Lynch King Jr. on July 14, 1913, at 3202 Woolworth Avenue in Omaha, Nebraska, where his parents lived with his paternal grandparents. He was the only child of Dorothy Ayer Gardner and Leslie Lynch King Sr., a wool trader. | text | {
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66b442bf58e4cf8f51d0d96cc8e67b4 | His father was the son of prominent banker Charles Henry King and Martha Alicia King (née Porter). Gardner separated from King just sixteen days after her son's birth. She took her son with her to Oak Park, Illinois, home of her sister Tannisse and brother-in-law, Clarence Haskins James. From there, she moved to the home of her parents, Levi Addison Gardner and Adele Augusta Ayer, in Grand Rapids, Michigan. Gardner and King divorced in December 1913, and she gained full custody of her son. Ford's paternal grandfather Charles Henry King paid child support until shortly before his death in 1930.[10]
Ford later said that his biological father had a history of hitting his mother.[11] In a biography of Ford, James M. Cannon wrote that the separation and divorce of Ford's parents was sparked when, a few days after Ford's birth, Leslie King took a butcher knife and threatened to kill his wife, infant son, and Ford's nursemaid. Ford later told confidants that his father had first hit his mother when she had smiled at another man during their honeymoon. | text | {
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ed3fe886b1b6be67b633f2fed07c064f | [12]
After living with her parents for two and a half years, on February 1, 1917, Gardner married Gerald Rudolff Ford, a salesman in a family-owned paint and varnish company. Though never formally adopted, her young son was referred to as Gerald Rudolff Ford Jr. from then on; the name change was formalized on December 3, 1935.[13] He was raised in Grand Rapids with his three half-brothers from his mother's second marriage: Thomas Gardner "Tom" Ford (1918–1995), Richard Addison "Dick" Ford (1924–2015), and James Francis "Jim" Ford (1927–2001).[14]
Ford was involved in the Boy Scouts of America, and earned that program's highest rank, Eagle Scout.[15] He is the only Eagle Scout to have ascended to the U.S. presidency.[15] Ford attended Grand Rapids South High School, where he was a star athlete and captain of the football team.[16] In 1930, he was selected to the All-City team of the Grand Rapids City League. He also attracted the attention of college recruiters. | text | {
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589931516fa3b196525b465802c76c56 | [17]
College and law school
Ford during practice as a center on the university of Michigan Wolverines football team, 1933
Ford attended the University of Michigan, where he played center, linebacker, and long snapper for the school's football team[18] and helped the Wolverines to two undefeated seasons and national titles in 1932 and 1933. In his senior year of 1934, the team suffered a steep decline and won only one game, but Ford was still the team's star player. In one of those games, Michigan held heavily favored Minnesota—the eventual national champion—to a scoreless tie in the first half. After the game, assistant coach Bennie Oosterbaan said, "When I walked into the dressing room at halftime, I had tears in my eyes I was so proud of them. Ford and [Cedric] Sweet played their hearts out. They were everywhere on defense."Ford later recalled, "During 25 years in the rough-and-tumble world of politics, I often thought of the experiences before, during, and after that game in 1934. Remembering them has helped me many times to face a tough situation, take action, and make every effort possible despite adverse odds." | text | {
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2a59f8c17e560ecc4569ccfe99f86ba6 | His teammates later voted Ford their most valuable player, with one assistant coach noting, "They felt Jerry was one guy who would stay and fight in a losing cause."[19]
During Ford's senior year, a controversy developed when Georgia Tech said that it would not play a scheduled game with Michigan if a black player named Willis Ward took the field. Students, players and alumni protested, but university officials capitulated and kept Ward out of the game. Ford was Ward's best friend on the team, and they roomed together while on road trips. Ford reportedly threatened to quit the team in response to the university's decision, but he eventually agreed to play against Georgia Tech when Ward personally asked him to play.[20]
In 1934, Ford was selected for the Eastern Team on the Shriner's East–West Shrine Game at San Francisco (a benefit for physically disabled children), played on January 1, 1935. As part of the 1935 Collegiate All-Star football team, Ford played against the Chicago Bears in the Chicago College All-Star Game at Soldier Field.[21] In honor of his athletic accomplishments and his later political career, the University of Michigan retired Ford's No. 48 jersey in 1994. | text | {
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735ac5e060086c6b8e7743438c11ae2e | With the blessing of the Ford family, it was placed back into circulation in 2012 as part of the Michigan Football Legends program and issued to sophomore linebacker Desmond Morgan before a home game against Illinois on October 13.[22]
Throughout life, Ford remained interested in his school and football; he occasionally attended games. Ford also visited with players and coaches during practices; at one point, he asked to join the players in the huddle.[23] Before state events, Ford often had the Navy band play the University of Michigan fight song, "The Victors," instead of "Hail to the Chief."[24]
Ford graduated from Michigan in 1935 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics. He turned down offers from the Detroit Lions and Green Bay Packers of the National Football League. Instead, he took a job in September 1935 as the boxing coach and assistant varsity football coach at Yale University[25] and applied to its law school.[26]
Ford hoped to attend Yale Law School beginning in 1935. Yale officials at first denied his admission to the law school because of his full-time coaching responsibilities. | text | {
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f2f7cf04eb779e3280350de6e36ef45f | He spent the summer of 1937 as a student at the University of Michigan Law School[27] and was eventually admitted in the spring of 1938 to Yale Law School.[25] That year he was also promoted to the position of junior varsity head football coach at Yale.[28] While at Yale, Ford began working as a model. He initially worked with the John Robert Powers agency before investing in Harry Conover's agency, with whom he modelled until 1941.[29]
While attending Yale Law School, Ford joined a group of students led by R. Douglas Stuart Jr., and signed a petition to enforce the 1939 Neutrality Act. The petition was circulated nationally and was the inspiration for the America First Committee, a group determined to keep the U.S. out of World War II.[30] His introduction into politics was in the summer of 1940 when he worked for the Republican presidential campaign of Wendell Willkie.[25]
Ford graduated in the top third of his class in 1941, and was admitted to the Michigan bar shortly thereafter. In May 1941, he opened a Grand Rapids law practice with a friend, Philip W. Buchen.[25]
U.S. | text | {
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9233839c6f6fb21df3d1bed091a02e8d | Naval Reserve
The Gunnery officers of USS Monterey, 1943. Ford is second from the right, in the front row.
Following the December 7, 1941, attack on Pearl Harbor, Ford enlisted in the Navy.[31] He received a commission as ensign in the U.S. Naval Reserve on April 13, 1942.[32] On April 20, he reported for active duty to the V-5 instructor school at Annapolis, Maryland. After one month of training, he went to Navy Preflight School in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, where he was one of 83 instructors and taught elementary navigation skills, ordnance, gunnery, first aid, and military drill. In addition, he coached all nine sports that were offered, but mostly swimming, boxing, and football. During the year he was at the Preflight School, he was promoted to Lieutenant, Junior Grade, on June 2, 1942, and to lieutenant, in March 1943.[33]
Sea duty
After Ford applied for sea duty, he was sent in May 1943 to the pre-commissioning detachment for the new aircraft carrier USS Monterey (CVL-26), at New York Shipbuilding Corporation, Camden, New Jersey. | text | {
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74a0276e28b7dfb3422ab0e87ae5a599 | From the ship's commissioning on June 17, 1943, until the end of December 1944, Ford served as the assistant navigator, Athletic Officer, and antiaircraft battery officer on board the Monterey. While he was on board, the carrier participated in many actions in the Pacific Theater with the Third and Fifth Fleets in late 1943 and 1944. In 1943, the carrier helped secure Makin Island in the Gilberts, and participated in carrier strikes against Kavieng, Papua New Guinea in 1943. During the spring of 1944, the Monterey supported landings at Kwajalein and Eniwetok and participated in carrier strikes in the Marianas, Western Carolines, and northern New Guinea, as well as in the Battle of the Philippine Sea.[34] After an overhaul, from September to November 1944, aircraft from the Monterey launched strikes against Wake Island, participated in strikes in the Philippines and Ryukyus, and supported the landings at Leyte and Mindoro.[34]
Although the ship was not damaged by the Empire of Japan's forces, the Monterey was one of several ships damaged by Typhoon Cobra that hit Admiral William Halsey's Third Fleet on December 18–19, 1944. The Third Fleet lost three destroyers and over 800 men during the typhoon. | text | {
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1d1302d0f90f48705f9c6685414028e4 | The Monterey was damaged by a fire, which was started by several of the ship's aircraft tearing loose from their cables and colliding on the hangar deck. Ford was serving as General Quarters Officer of the Deck and was ordered to go below to assess the raging fire. He did so safely, and reported his findings back to the ship's commanding officer, Captain Stuart H. Ingersoll. The ship's crew was able to contain the fire, and the ship got underway again.[35]
After the fire, the Monterey was declared unfit for service. Ford was detached from the ship and sent to the Navy Pre-Flight School at Saint Mary's College of California, where he was assigned to the Athletic Department until April 1945. From the end of April 1945 to January 1946, he was on the staff of the Naval Reserve Training Command, Naval Air Station, Glenview, Illinois, at the rank of lieutenant commander. | text | {
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ab126173a9b391bd4cd8ecc155bb88fd | [25]
Ford received the following military awards: the American Campaign Medal, the Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with nine .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}3⁄16" bronze stars (for operations in the Gilbert Islands, Bismarck Archipelago, Marshall Islands, Asiatic and Pacific carrier raids, Hollandia, Marianas, Western Carolines, Western New Guinea, and the Leyte Operation), the Philippine Liberation Medal with two 3⁄16" bronze stars (for Leyte and Mindoro), and the World War II Victory Medal.[31] He was honorably discharged in February 1946.[25]
U.S. House of Representatives (1949–1973)
A billboard for Ford's 1948 congressional campaign from Michigan's 5th district
After Ford returned to Grand Rapids in 1946, he became active in local Republican politics, and supporters urged him to challenge Bartel J. Jonkman, the incumbent Republican congressman. Military service had changed his view of the world. "I came back a converted internationalist", Ford wrote, "and of course our congressman at that time was an avowed, dedicated isolationist. And I thought he ought to be replaced. Nobody thought I could win. I ended up winning two to one."[17]
During his first campaign in 1948, Ford visited voters at their doorsteps and as they left the factories where they worked. | text | {
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5e3440d04af01eec6b816a9d0515081b | [36] Ford also visited local farms where, in one instance, a wager resulted in Ford spending two weeks milking cows following his election victory.[37]
Ford was a member of the House of Representatives for 25 years, holding Michigan's 5th congressional district seat from 1949 to 1973. It was a tenure largely notable for its modesty. As an editorial in The New York Times described him, Ford "saw himself as a negotiator and a reconciler, and the record shows it: he did not write a single piece of major legislation in his entire career."[38] Appointed to the House Appropriations Committee two years after being elected, he was a prominent member of the Defense Appropriations Subcommittee. Ford described his philosophy as "a moderate in domestic affairs, an internationalist in foreign affairs, and a conservative in fiscal policy."[39] He voted in favor of the Civil Rights Acts of 1957,[40][41] 1960,[42][43] 1964,[44][45] and 1968,[46][47] as well as the 24th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.[48][49][50] Ford was known to his colleagues in the House as a "Congressman's Congressman". | text | {
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1fcb0ba4217f722a68a13c4061dbd9e2 | [51]
In the early 1950s, Ford declined offers to run for either the Senate or the Michigan governorship. Rather, his ambition was to become Speaker of the House,[52] which he called "the ultimate achievement. To sit up there and be the head honcho of 434 other people and have the responsibility, aside from the achievement, of trying to run the greatest legislative body in the history of mankind ... I think I got that ambition within a year or two after I was in the House of Representatives".[31]
Warren Commission
Further information: Warren Commission and Assassination of John F. Kennedy
The Warren Commission (Ford 4th from left) presents its report to President Johnson (1964).
On November 29, 1963, President Lyndon B. Johnson appointed Ford to the Warren Commission, a special task force set up to investigate the assassination of President John F. Kennedy.[53] Ford was assigned to prepare a biography of accused assassin Lee Harvey Oswald. He and Earl Warren also interviewed Jack Ruby, Oswald's killer. | text | {
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eb15d699fd866c58cff2dd549509e610 | According to a 1963 FBI memo that was released to the public in 2008, Ford was in contact with the FBI throughout his time on the Warren Commission and relayed information to the deputy director, Cartha DeLoach, about the panel's activities.[54][55][56] In the preface to his book, A Presidential Legacy and The Warren Commission, Ford defended the work of the commission and reiterated his support of its conclusions.[57]
House Minority Leader (1965–1973)
Congressman Gerald Ford, MSFC director Wernher von Braun, Congressman George H. Mahon, and NASA Administrator James E. Webb visit the Marshall Space Flight Center for a briefing on the Saturn program, 1964.
In 1964, Lyndon Johnson led a landslide victory for his party, secured another term as president and took 36 seats from Republicans in the House of Representatives. Following the election, members of the Republican caucus looked to select a new minority leader. Three members approached Ford to see if he would be willing to serve; after consulting with his family, he agreed. After a closely contested election, Ford was chosen to replace Charles Halleck of Indiana as minority leader. | text | {
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8618c52d6b3c55f4ad0fc62cc557baee | [58] The members of the Republican caucus that encouraged and eventually endorsed Ford to run as the House minority leader were later known as the "Young Turks" and one of the members of the Young Turks was congressman Donald H. Rumsfeld from Illinois's 13th congressional district, who later on would serve in Ford's administration as the chief of staff and secretary of defense.[59]
With a Democratic majority in both the House of Representatives and the Senate, the Johnson Administration proposed and passed a series of programs that was called by Johnson the "Great Society". During the first session of the Eighty-ninth Congress alone, the Johnson Administration submitted 87 bills to Congress, and Johnson signed 84, or 96%, arguably the most successful legislative agenda in Congressional history.[60]
In 1966, criticism over the Johnson Administration's handling of the Vietnam War began to grow, with Ford and Congressional Republicans expressing concern that the United States was not doing what was necessary to win the war. Public sentiment also began to move against Johnson, and the 1966 midterm elections produced a 47-seat swing in favor of the Republicans. | text | {
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df3f35d7895e33a870caea8aa5a3925 | This was not enough to give Republicans a majority in the House, but the victory gave Ford the opportunity to prevent the passage of further Great Society programs. | text | {
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f5e1086c2bf0ceea588cf81e5d4ae3f | [58]
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Ford's private criticism of the Vietnam War became public knowledge after he spoke from the floor of the House and questioned whether the White House had a clear plan to bring the war to a successful conclusion. | text | {
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9c45c48153e81c296d85584bc1ebd654 | [58] The speech angered President Johnson, who accused Ford of having played "too much football without a helmet".[58][61]
As minority leader in the House, Ford appeared in a popular series of televised press conferences with Illinois Senator Everett Dirksen, in which they proposed Republican alternatives to Johnson's policies. Many in the press jokingly called this "The Ev and Jerry Show."[62] Johnson said at the time, "Jerry Ford is so dumb he can't fart and chew gum at the same time."[63] The press, used to sanitizing Johnson's salty language, reported this as "Gerald Ford can't walk and chew gum at the same time."[64]
After Richard Nixon was elected president in November 1968, Ford's role shifted to being an advocate for the White House agenda. Congress passed several of Nixon's proposals, including the National Environmental Policy Act and the Tax Reform Act of 1969. Another high-profile victory for the Republican minority was the State and Local Fiscal Assistance act. Passed in 1972, the act established a Revenue Sharing program for state and local governments. | text | {
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2d95ba54d9abad533bb9c239d7ee9368 | [65] Ford's leadership was instrumental in shepherding revenue sharing through Congress, and resulted in a bipartisan coalition that supported the bill with 223 votes in favor (compared with 185 against).[58][66]
During the eight years (1965–1973) that Ford served as minority leader, he won many friends in the House because of his fair leadership and inoffensive personality.[58]
Vice presidency (1973–1974)
Gerald and Betty Ford with the President and First Lady Pat Nixon after President Nixon nominated Ford to be vice president, October 13, 1973
In his effort to become House Speaker, Ford worked to help Republicans across the country get a majority in the chamber, often traveling on the rubber chicken circuit. After a decade of failing to do so, he promised his wife that he would try again in 1974 then retire in 1976.[31] On October 10, 1973, Vice President Spiro Agnew resigned and then pleaded no contest to a single count of tax evasion over his failure to report $29,500 in income received while he was governor of Maryland.[67] According to The New York Times, Nixon "sought advice from senior Congressional leaders about a replacement."The advice was unanimous. | text | {
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f707cb58412c5aa28abe4b8443284e20 | House Speaker Carl Albert recalled later, "We gave Nixon no choice but Ford."[38] Ford agreed to the nomination, telling his wife that the vice presidency would be "a nice conclusion" to his career.[31]
Ford was nominated to take Agnew's position on October 12, the first time the vice-presidential vacancy provision of the 25th Amendment had been implemented. The United States Senate voted 92 to 3 to confirm Ford on November 27. On December 6, 1973, the House confirmed Ford by a vote of 387 to 35. After the confirmation vote in the House, Ford took the oath of office as vice president.[25]
Ford became vice president as the Watergate scandal was unfolding. On Thursday, August 1, 1974, Chief of Staff Alexander Haig contacted Ford to tell him to prepare for the presidency.[25] At the time, Ford and his wife, Betty, were living in suburban Virginia, waiting for their expected move into the newly designated vice president's residence in Washington, D.C. | text | {
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66ac459ff2c045bc30480628f0dfcfba | However, "Al Haig asked to come over and see me", Ford later said, "to tell me that there would be a new tape released on a Monday, and he said the evidence in there was devastating and there would probably be either an impeachment or a resignation. And he said, 'I'm just warning you that you've got to be prepared, that things might change dramatically and you could become President.'And I said, 'Betty, I don't think we're ever going to live in the vice president's house.'"[17]
Presidency (1974–1977)
Main article: Presidency of Gerald Ford
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the Gerald Ford presidency.
Swearing-in
Gerald Ford is sworn in as president by Chief Justice Warren Burger in the White House East Room, while Betty Ford looks on.
When Nixon resigned on August 9, 1974, Ford automatically assumed the presidency. This made him the only person to become the nation's chief executive without having been previously voted into either the presidential or vice-presidential office by the Electoral College. | text | {
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da194452e55b0b9172eb2a55ceb3c310 | Immediately after Ford took the oath of office in the East Room of the White House, he spoke to the assembled audience in a speech that was broadcast live to the nation.[68][69] Ford noted the peculiarity of his position: "I am acutely aware that you have not elected me as your president by your ballots, and so I ask you to confirm me as your president with your prayers."[70] He went on to state:
.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 40px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}I have not sought this enormous responsibility, but I will not shirk it. Those who nominated and confirmed me as Vice President were my friends and are my friends. They were of both parties, elected by all the people and acting under the Constitution in their name. It is only fitting then that I should pledge to them and to you that I will be the President of all the people.[71]
He also stated:
My fellow Americans, our long national nightmare is over. Our Constitution works; our great Republic is a government of laws and not of men. Here, the people rule. | text | {
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4ae06bb0952c71cfc375ba4bc8846a0b | But there is a higher Power, by whatever name we honor Him, who ordains not only righteousness but love, not only justice, but mercy. ... let us restore the golden rule to our political process, and let brotherly love purge our hearts of suspicion and hate.[72]
A portion of the speech would later be memorialized with a plaque at the entrance to his presidential museum.
On August 20, Ford nominated former New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller to fill the vice presidency he had vacated.[73] Rockefeller's top competitor had been George H. W. Bush. Rockefeller underwent extended hearings before Congress, which caused embarrassment when it was revealed he made large gifts to senior aides, such as Henry Kissinger. Although conservative Republicans were not pleased that Rockefeller was picked, most of them voted for his confirmation, and his nomination passed both the House and Senate. Some, including Barry Goldwater, voted against him.[74]
Pardon of Nixon
Main article: Pardon of Richard Nixon
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
The Nixon Pardon
President Ford appears at a House Judiciary Subcommittee hearing in reference to his pardon of Richard Nixon.
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e7bb65d7152986112465734a128ac002 | On September 8, 1974, Ford issued Proclamation 4311, which gave Nixon a full and unconditional pardon for any crimes he might have committed against the United States while president.[75][76][77] In a televised broadcast to the nation, Ford explained that he felt the pardon was in the best interests of the country, and that the Nixon family's situation "is a tragedy in which we all have played a part. It could go on and on and on, or someone must write the end to it. I have concluded that only I can do that, and if I can, I must."[78]
Ford's decision to pardon Nixon was highly controversial. Critics derided the move and said a "corrupt bargain" had been struck between the two men,[17] in which Ford's pardon was granted in exchange for Nixon's resignation, elevating Ford to the presidency. Ford's first press secretary and close friend Jerald terHorst resigned his post in protest after the pardon.[79] According to Bob Woodward, Nixon Chief of Staff Alexander Haig proposed a pardon deal to Ford. He later decided to pardon Nixon for other reasons, primarily the friendship he and Nixon shared. | text | {
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23da1a7cd6cddb6ca5b96a7f4009575a | [80] Regardless, historians believe the controversy was one of the major reasons Ford lost the 1976 presidential election, an observation with which Ford agreed.[80] In an editorial at the time, The New York Times stated that the Nixon pardon was a "profoundly unwise, divisive and unjust act" that in a stroke had destroyed the new president's "credibility as a man of judgment, candor and competence".[38] On October 17, 1974, Ford testified before Congress on the pardon. He was the first sitting president since Abraham Lincoln to testify before the House of Representatives.[81][82]
In the months following the pardon, Ford often declined to mention President Nixon by name, referring to him in public as "my predecessor" or "the former president."When Ford was pressed on the matter on a 1974 trip to California, White House correspondent Fred Barnes recalled that he replied "I just can't bring myself to do it. | text | {
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279fec446bddc220eccf616b51f5a2ae | "[83]
After Ford left the White House in January 1977, he privately justified his pardon of Nixon by carrying in his wallet a portion of the text of Burdick v. United States, a 1915 U.S. Supreme Court decision which stated that a pardon indicated a presumption of guilt, and that acceptance of a pardon was tantamount to a confession of that guilt.[84] In 2001, the John F. Kennedy Library Foundation awarded the John F. Kennedy Profile in Courage Award to Ford for his pardon of Nixon.[85] In presenting the award to Ford, Senator Edward Kennedy said that he had initially been opposed to the pardon, but later decided that history had proven Ford to have made the correct decision.[86]
Draft dodgers and deserters
On September 16 (shortly after he pardoned Nixon), Ford issued Presidential Proclamation 4313, which introduced a conditional amnesty program for military deserters and Vietnam War draft dodgers who had fled to countries such as Canada. | text | {
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5eb87ab6cbd07ef7a97db912d038366f | The conditions of the amnesty required that those reaffirm their allegiance to the United States and serve two years working in a public service job or a total of two years service for those who had served less than two years of honorable service in the military.[87] The program for the Return of Vietnam Era Draft Evaders and Military Deserters[88] established a Clemency Board to review the records and make recommendations for receiving a Presidential Pardon and a change in Military discharge status. Full pardon for draft dodgers came in the Carter administration.[89]
Administration
When Ford assumed office, he inherited Nixon's Cabinet. During his brief administration, he replaced all members except Secretary of State Kissinger and Secretary of the Treasury William E. Simon. Political commentators have referred to Ford's dramatic reorganization of his Cabinet in the fall of 1975 as the "Halloween Massacre". One of Ford's appointees, William Coleman—the Secretary of Transportation—was the second black man to serve in a presidential cabinet (after Robert C. Weaver) and the first appointed in a Republican administration. | text | {
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527e5d9393f5a834322102981a7f17f8 | [90]
Ford selected George H. W. Bush as Chief of the US Liaison Office to the People's Republic of China in 1974, and then Director of the Central Intelligence Agency in late 1975.[91]
Ford's transition chairman and first Chief of Staff was former congressman and ambassador Donald Rumsfeld. In 1975, Rumsfeld was named by Ford as the youngest-ever Secretary of Defense. Ford chose a young Wyoming politician, Richard Cheney, to replace Rumsfeld as his new Chief of Staff; Cheney became the campaign manager for Ford's 1976 presidential campaign.[92]
Midterm elections
Main articles: 1974 United States House elections and 1974 United States Senate elections
The 1974 Congressional midterm elections took place in the wake of the Watergate scandal and less than three months after Ford assumed office. The Democratic Party turned voter dissatisfaction into large gains in the House elections, taking 49 seats from the Republican Party, increasing their majority to 291 of the 435 seats. This was one more than the number needed (290) for a two-thirds majority, the number necessary to override a Presidential veto or to propose a constitutional amendment. | text | {
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afdb90bfdfd4364339c8d8b414783c1 | Perhaps due in part to this fact, the 94th Congress overrode the highest percentage of vetoes since Andrew Johnson was President of the United States (1865–1869).[93] Even Ford's former, reliably Republican House seat was won by a Democrat, Richard Vander Veen, who defeated Robert VanderLaan. In the Senate elections, the Democratic majority became 61 in the 100-seat body.[94]
Domestic policy
Inflation
Ford meeting with his Cabinet, 1975
The economy was a great concern during the Ford administration. One of the first acts the new president took to deal with the economy was to create, by Executive Order on September 30, 1974, the Economic Policy Board.[95] In October 1974, in response to rising inflation, Ford went before the American public and asked them to "Whip Inflation Now". As part of this program, he urged people to wear "WIN" buttons.[96] At the time, inflation was believed to be the primary threat to the economy, more so than growing unemployment; there was a belief that controlling inflation would help reduce unemployment.[95] To rein in inflation, it was necessary to control the public's spending. | text | {
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c59aa5c091b0ee30ec7ba51365c34d8a | To try to mesh service and sacrifice, "WIN" called for Americans to reduce their spending and consumption.[97] On October 4, 1974, Ford gave a speech in front of a joint session of Congress; as a part of this speech he kicked off the "WIN" campaign. Over the next nine days, 101,240 Americans mailed in "WIN" pledges.[95] In hindsight, this was viewed as simply a public relations gimmick which had no way of solving the underlying problems.[98] The main point of that speech was to introduce to Congress a one-year, five-percent income tax increase on corporations and wealthy individuals. This plan would also take $4.4 billion out of the budget, bringing federal spending below $300 billion.[99] At the time, inflation was over twelve percent.[100]
Budget
Ford and his golden retriever, Liberty, in the Oval Office, 1974
The federal budget ran a deficit every year Ford was president.[101] Despite his reservations about how the program ultimately would be funded in an era of tight public budgeting, Ford signed the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, which established special education throughout the United States. | text | {
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1465cf00b4067a91467ec0be77a7beca | Ford expressed "strong support for full educational opportunities for our handicapped children" according to the official White House press release for the bill signing.[102]
The economic focus began to change as the country sank into the worst recession since the Great Depression four decades earlier.[103] The focus of the Ford administration turned to stopping the rise in unemployment, which reached nine percent in May 1975.[104] In January 1975, Ford proposed a 1-year tax reduction of $16 billion to stimulate economic growth, along with spending cuts to avoid inflation.[99] Ford was criticized for abruptly switching from advocating a tax increase to a tax reduction. In Congress, the proposed amount of the tax reduction increased to $22.8 billion in tax cuts and lacked spending cuts.[95] In March 1975, Congress passed, and Ford signed into law, these income tax rebates as part of the Tax Reduction Act of 1975. This resulted in a federal deficit of around $53 billion for the 1975 fiscal year and $73.7 billion for 1976.[105]
When New York City faced bankruptcy in 1975, Mayor Abraham Beame was unsuccessful in obtaining Ford's support for a federal bailout. | text | {
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23403b5de53569d234dc702006735e8c | The incident prompted the New York Daily News' famous headline "Ford to City: Drop Dead", referring to a speech in which "Ford declared flatly ... that he would veto any bill calling for 'a federal bail-out of New York City'".[106][107]
Swine flu
Main article: 1976 swine flu outbreak
Ford was confronted with a potential swine flu pandemic. In the early 1970s, an influenza strain H1N1 shifted from a form of flu that affected primarily pigs and crossed over to humans. On February 5, 1976, an army recruit at Fort Dix mysteriously died and four fellow soldiers were hospitalized; health officials announced that "swine flu" was the cause. Soon after, public health officials in the Ford administration urged that every person in the United States be vaccinated.[108] Although the vaccination program was plagued by delays and public relations problems, some 25% of the population was vaccinated by the time the program was canceled in December 1976.[109]
Equal rights and abortion
Cheney, Rumsfeld and Ford in the Oval Office, 1975
Ford was an outspoken supporter of the Equal Rights Amendment, issuing Presidential Proclamation no. | text | {
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88268766ed84f81f68b1c070ca94b855 | 4383 in 1975:
In this Land of the Free, it is right, and by nature it ought to be, that all men and all women are equal before the law.
Now, therefore, I, Gerald R. Ford, President of the United States of America, to remind all Americans that it is fitting and just to ratify the Equal Rights Amendment adopted by the Congress of the United States of America, in order to secure legal equality for all women and men, do hereby designate and proclaim August 26, 1975, as Women's Equality Day.[110]
As president, Ford's position on abortion was that he supported "a federal constitutional amendment that would permit each one of the 50 States to make the choice".[111] This had also been his position as House Minority Leader in response to the 1973 Supreme Court case of Roe v. Wade, which he opposed.[112] Ford came under criticism when First Lady Betty Ford entered the debate over abortion during an August 1975 interview for 60 Minutes, in which she stated that Roe v. Wade was a "great, great decision".[113] During his later life, Ford would identify as pro-choice. | text | {
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ae60e685ad5111b3782e6c2be67acc3a | [114]
Foreign policy
Ford meets with Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev to sign a joint communiqué on the SALT treaty during the Vladivostok Summit, November 1974.
Ford continued the détente policy with both the Soviet Union and China, easing the tensions of the Cold War. Still in place from the Nixon administration was the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT).[115] The thawing relationship brought about by Nixon's visit to China was reinforced by Ford's own visit in December 1975.[116] The Administration entered into the Helsinki Accords[117] with the Soviet Union in 1975, creating the framework of the Helsinki Watch, an independent non-governmental organization created to monitor compliance which later evolved into Human Rights Watch.[118]
Ford attended the inaugural meeting of the Group of Seven (G7) industrialized nations (initially the G5) in 1975 and secured membership for Canada. Ford supported international solutions to issues. "We live in an interdependent world and, therefore, must work together to resolve common economic problems," he said in a 1974 speech. | text | {
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edd00ba96af8532b3c0462da319d1fb2 | [119]
In November 1975, Ford adopted the global human population control recommendations of National Security Study Memorandum 200 – a national security directive initially commissioned by Nixon – as United States policy in the subsequent NSDM 314.[120][121] The plan explicitly states the goal was population control and not improving the lives of individuals despite instructing organizers to "emphasize development and improvements in the quality of life of the poor", later explaining the projects were "primarily for other reasons".[122][123] Upon approving the plan, Ford stated "United States leadership is essential to combat population growth, to implement the World Population Plan of Action and to advance United States security and overseas interests".[124] Population control policies were adopted to protect American economic and military interests, with the memorandum arguing that population growth in developing countries resulted with such nations gaining global political power, that more citizens posed a risk to accessing foreign natural resources while also making American businesses vulnerable to governments seeking to fund a growing population, and that younger generations born would be prone to anti-establishment behavior, increasing political instability. | text | {
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dfdbdb1ed17f3af0485a889710fd6a95 | [120][124][125]
Middle East
Countries visited by Ford during his presidency
In the Middle East and eastern Mediterranean, two ongoing international disputes developed into crises. The Cyprus dispute turned into a crisis with the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in July 1974, causing extreme strain within the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) alliance. In mid-August, the Greek government withdrew Greece from the NATO military structure; in mid-September, the Senate and House of Representatives overwhelmingly voted to halt military aid to Turkey. Ford, concerned with both the effect of this on Turkish-American relations and the deterioration of security on NATO's eastern front, vetoed the bill. A second bill was then passed by Congress, which Ford also vetoed, fearing that it might impede negotiations in Cyprus, although a compromise was accepted to continue aid until December 10, 1974, provided Turkey would not send American supplies to Cyprus.[4] U.S. military aid to Turkey was suspended on February 5, 1975.[4]
Ford with Anwar Sadat in Salzburg, 1975
In the continuing Arab–Israeli conflict, although the initial cease fire had been implemented to end active conflict in the Yom Kippur War, Kissinger's continuing shuttle diplomacy was showing little progress. | text | {
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aafcd3a21557d703b1f57ddd4223606d | Ford considered it "stalling" and wrote, "Their [Israeli] tactics frustrated the Egyptians and made me mad as hell."[126] During Kissinger's shuttle to Israel in early March 1975, a last minute reversal to consider further withdrawal, prompted a cable from Ford to Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin, which included:
I wish to express my profound disappointment over Israel's attitude in the course of the negotiations ... Failure of the negotiation will have a far reaching impact on the region and on our relations. I have given instructions for a reassessment of United States policy in the region, including our relations with Israel, with the aim of ensuring that overall American interests ... are protected. You will be notified of our decision.[127]
On March 24, Ford informed congressional leaders of both parties of the reassessment of the administration's policies in the Middle East. In practical terms, "reassessment" meant canceling or suspending further aid to Israel. For six months between March and September 1975, the United States refused to conclude any new arms agreements with Israel. Rabin notes it was "an innocent-sounding term that heralded one of the worst periods in American-Israeli relations". | text | {
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9f35b7119c3c1cf4db6fc5349c11c9ff | [128] The announced reassessments upset the American Jewish community and Israel's well-wishers in Congress. On May 21, Ford "experienced a real shock" when seventy-six U.S. senators wrote him a letter urging him to be "responsive" to Israel's request for $2.59 billion (equivalent to $13.04 billion in 2021) in military and economic aid. Ford felt truly annoyed and thought the chance for peace was jeopardized. It was, since the September 1974 ban on arms sales to Turkey, the second major congressional intrusion upon the President's foreign policy prerogatives.[129] The following summer months were described by Ford as an American-Israeli "war of nerves" or "test of wills".[130] After much bargaining, the Sinai Interim Agreement (Sinai II) was formally signed on September 1, and aid resumed.
Vietnam
Ford and his daughter Susan watch as Henry Kissinger (right) shakes hands with Mao Zedong, December 2, 1975.
One of Ford's greatest challenges was dealing with the continuing Vietnam War. American offensive operations against North Vietnam had ended with the Paris Peace Accords, signed on January 27, 1973. The accords declared a cease-fire across both North and South Vietnam, and required the release of American prisoners of war. | text | {
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3f3ed4bb5ee6aa62d05588a1a9e8c14f | The agreement guaranteed the territorial integrity of Vietnam and, like the Geneva Conference of 1954, called for national elections in the North and South. The Paris Peace Accords stipulated a sixty-day period for the total withdrawal of U.S. forces.[131]
The agreements were negotiated by US National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger and North Vietnamese Politburo member Lê Đức Thọ. South Vietnamese President Nguyen Van Thieu was not involved in the final negotiations, and publicly criticized the proposed agreement. However, anti-war pressures within the United States forced Nixon and Kissinger to pressure Thieu to sign the agreement and enable the withdrawal of American forces. In multiple letters to the South Vietnamese president, Nixon had promised that the United States would defend Thieu's government, should the North Vietnamese violate the accords.[132]
In December 1974, months after Ford took office, North Vietnamese forces invaded the province of Phuoc Long. General Trần Văn Trà sought to gauge any South Vietnamese or American response to the invasion, as well as to solve logistical issues, before proceeding with the invasion. | text | {
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c628dbecc47d39d028d6bf989d390261 | [133]
As North Vietnamese forces advanced, Ford requested Congress approve a $722 million aid package for South Vietnam, funds that had been promised by the Nixon administration. Congress voted against the proposal by a wide margin.[115] Senator Jacob K. Javits offered "...large sums for evacuation, but not one nickel for military aid".[115] President Thieu resigned on April 21, 1975, publicly blaming the lack of support from the United States for the fall of his country.[134] Two days later, on April 23, Ford gave a speech at Tulane University. In that speech, he announced that the Vietnam War was over "...as far as America is concerned".[132] The announcement was met with thunderous applause.[132]
1,373 U.S. citizens and 5,595 Vietnamese and third-country nationals were evacuated from the South Vietnamese capital of Saigon during Operation Frequent Wind. Many of the Vietnamese evacuees were allowed to enter the United States under the Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act. The 1975 Act appropriated $455 million toward the costs of assisting the settlement of Indochinese refugees.[135] In all, 130,000 Vietnamese refugees came to the United States in 1975. Thousands more escaped in the years that followed. | text | {
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52d5e44ceef604195f9be3e8a427f7a5 | [136]
East Timor
Indonesian President Suharto with Ford and Kissinger in Jakarta on December 6, 1975, one day before the Indonesian invasion of East Timor
The former Portuguese colony of East Timor declared its independence in 1975. Indonesian president Suharto was a strong U.S. ally in Southeast Asia. In December 1975, Suharto discussed the plans to invade East Timor during a meeting with Ford and Henry Kissinger in the Indonesian capital of Jakarta. Both Ford and Kissinger made clear that the U.S. would not object to the proposed Indonesian annexation of East Timor.[137] According to Ben Kiernan, the invasion and occupation resulted in the deaths of nearly a quarter of the Timorese population from 1975 to 1981.[138]
Mayaguez incident
North Vietnam's victory over the South led to a considerable shift in the political winds in Asia, and Ford administration officials worried about a consequent loss of U.S. influence there. The administration proved it was willing to respond forcefully to challenges to its interests in the region when Khmer Rouge forces seized an American ship in international waters.[139] The main crisis was the Mayaguez incident. | text | {
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a30da2c032286324848c74afa4b7c037 | In May 1975, shortly after the fall of Saigon and the Khmer Rouge conquest of Cambodia, Cambodians seized the American merchant ship Mayaguez in international waters.[140] Ford dispatched Marines to rescue the crew, but the Marines landed on the wrong island and met unexpectedly stiff resistance just as, unknown to the U.S., the Mayaguez sailors were being released. In the operation, two military transport helicopters carrying the Marines for the assault operation were shot down, and 41 U.S. servicemen were killed and 50 wounded, while approximately 60 Khmer Rouge soldiers were killed.[141] Despite the American losses, the operation was seen as a success in the United States, and Ford enjoyed an 11-point boost in his approval ratings in the aftermath.[142] The Americans killed during the operation became the last to have their names inscribed on the Vietnam Veterans Memorial wall in Washington, D.C.
Some historians have argued that the Ford administration felt the need to respond forcefully to the incident because it was construed as a Soviet plot. | text | {
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2af552e5036eec19690e10e6dafbb2bd | [143] But work by Andrew Gawthorpe, published in 2009, based on an analysis of the administration's internal discussions, shows that Ford's national security team understood that the seizure of the vessel was a local, and perhaps even accidental, provocation by an immature Khmer government. Nevertheless, they felt the need to respond forcefully to discourage further provocations by other Communist countries in Asia.[144]
Assassination attempts
Main articles: Gerald Ford assassination attempt in Sacramento and Gerald Ford assassination attempt in San Francisco
See also: Sara Jane Moore and Oliver Sipple
Reaction immediately after the second assassination attempt
Ford was the target of two assassination attempts during his presidency. In Sacramento, California, on September 5, 1975, Lynette "Squeaky" Fromme, a follower of Charles Manson, pointed a Colt .45-caliber handgun at Ford and pulled the trigger at point-blank range.[145][146] As she did, Larry Buendorf,[147] a Secret Service agent, grabbed the gun, and Fromme was taken into custody. She was later convicted of attempted assassination of the President and was sentenced to life in prison; she was paroled on August 14, 2009, after serving 34 years. | text | {
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3e180a91bff554c117f9a250063b99f6 | [148]
In reaction to this attempt, the Secret Service began keeping Ford at a more secure distance from anonymous crowds, a strategy that may have saved his life seventeen days later. As he left the St. Francis Hotel in downtown San Francisco, Sara Jane Moore, standing in a crowd of onlookers across the street, fired a .38-caliber revolver at him. The shot missed Ford by a few feet.[145][149] Before she fired a second round, retired Marine Oliver Sipple grabbed at the gun and deflected her shot; the bullet struck a wall about six inches above and to the right of Ford's head, then ricocheted and hit a taxi driver, who was slightly wounded. Moore was later sentenced to life in prison. She was paroled on December 31, 2007, after serving 32 years.[150]
Judicial appointments
Further information: Gerald Ford judicial appointment controversies
Supreme Court
Main article: Gerald Ford Supreme Court candidates
John Paul Stevens, Ford's only Supreme Court appointment
In 1975, Ford appointed John Paul Stevens as Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States to replace retiring Justice William O. Douglas. | text | {
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91157dbd4d3b9f45d9fe72969b756432 | Stevens had been a judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit, appointed by President Nixon.[151] During his tenure as House Republican leader, Ford had led efforts to have Douglas impeached.[152] After being confirmed, Stevens eventually disappointed some conservatives by siding with the Court's liberal wing regarding the outcome of many key issues.[153] Nevertheless, in 2005 Ford praised Stevens. "He has served his nation well," Ford said of Stevens, "with dignity, intellect and without partisan political concerns."[154]
Other judicial appointments
Main article: List of federal judges appointed by Gerald Ford
Ford appointed 11 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals, and 50 judges to the United States district courts.[155]
1976 presidential election
Main article: 1976 United States presidential election
Governor Ronald Reagan congratulates President Ford after the president successfully wins the 1976 Republican nomination, while Bob Dole, Nancy Reagan, and Nelson Rockefeller look on.
Ford reluctantly agreed to run for office in 1976, but first he had to counter a challenge for the Republican party nomination. | text | {
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dd5d4a132c59a6f25123176d204befed | Former Governor of California Ronald Reagan and the party's conservative wing faulted Ford for failing to do more in South Vietnam, for signing the Helsinki Accords, and for negotiating to cede the Panama Canal. (Negotiations for the canal continued under President Carter, who eventually signed the Torrijos–Carter Treaties.)Reagan launched his campaign in autumn of 1975 and won numerous primaries, including North Carolina, Texas, Indiana, and California, but failed to get a majority of delegates; Reagan withdrew from the race at the Republican Convention in Kansas City, Missouri. The conservative insurgency did lead to Ford dropping the more liberal Vice President Nelson Rockefeller in favor of U.S. Senator Bob Dole of Kansas.[156]
In addition to the pardon dispute and lingering anti-Republican sentiment, Ford had to counter a plethora of negative media imagery. Chevy Chase often did pratfalls on Saturday Night Live, imitating Ford, who had been seen stumbling on two occasions during his term. As Chase commented, "He even mentioned in his own autobiography it had an effect over a period of time that affected the election to some degree. | text | {
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a900daac7e90d58c9366db594571a821 | "[157]
Ford's 1976 election campaign benefitted from his being an incumbent president during several anniversary events held during the period leading up to the United States Bicentennial. The Washington, D.C. fireworks display on the Fourth of July was presided over by the President and televised nationally.[158] On July 7, 1976, the President and First Lady served as hosts at a White House state dinner for Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip of the United Kingdom, which was televised on the Public Broadcasting Service network. The 200th anniversary of the Battles of Lexington and Concord in Massachusetts gave Ford the opportunity to deliver a speech to 110,000 in Concord acknowledging the need for a strong national defense tempered with a plea for "reconciliation, not recrimination" and "reconstruction, not rancor" between the United States and those who would pose "threats to peace".[159] Speaking in New Hampshire on the previous day, Ford condemned the growing trend toward big government bureaucracy and argued for a return to "basic American virtues".[160]
Jimmy Carter and Ford in a presidential debate, September 23, 1976
Televised presidential debates were reintroduced for the first time since the 1960 election. | text | {
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3dd19c8f2144a3b75b0b67aeeab81ce | As such, Ford became the first incumbent president to participate in one. Carter later attributed his victory in the election to the debates, saying they "gave the viewers reason to think that Jimmy Carter had something to offer". The turning point came in the second debate when Ford blundered by stating, "There is no Soviet domination of Eastern Europe and there never will be under a Ford Administration."Ford also said that he did not "believe that the Poles consider themselves dominated by the Soviet Union".[161] In an interview years later, Ford said he had intended to imply that the Soviets would never crush the spirits of eastern Europeans seeking independence. However, the phrasing was so awkward that questioner Max Frankel was visibly incredulous at the response.[162]
1976 electoral vote results
In the end, Carter won the election, receiving 50.1% of the popular vote and 297 electoral votes compared with 48.0% and 240 electoral votes for Ford.[163]
Post-presidency (1977–2006)
Main article: Post-presidency of Gerald Ford
The Nixon pardon controversy eventually subsided. | text | {
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660a99a0385a40e365d3e06e1d75cda4 | Ford's successor, Jimmy Carter, opened his 1977 inaugural address by praising the outgoing president, saying, "For myself and for our Nation, I want to thank my predecessor for all he has done to heal our land."[164]
After leaving the White House, the Fords moved to Denver, Colorado. Ford successfully invested in oil with Marvin Davis, which later provided an income for Ford's children.[165]
He continued to make appearances at events of historical and ceremonial significance to the nation, such as presidential inaugurals and memorial services. In January 1977, he became the president of Eisenhower Fellowships in Philadelphia, then served as the chairman of its board of trustees from 1980 to 1986.[166] Later in 1977, he reluctantly agreed to be interviewed by James M. Naughton, a New York Times journalist who was given the assignment to write the former president's advance obituary, an article that would be updated prior to its eventual publication.[167] In 1979, Ford published his autobiography, A Time to Heal (Harper/Reader's Digest, 454 pages). A review in Foreign Affairs described it as, "Serene, unruffled, unpretentious, like the author. | text | {
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73006d12099674a9c4a72522d50763e8 | This is the shortest and most honest of recent presidential memoirs, but there are no surprises, no deep probings of motives or events. No more here than meets the eye."[168]
During the term of office of his successor, Jimmy Carter, Ford received monthly briefs by President Carter's senior staff on international and domestic issues, and was always invited to lunch at the White House whenever he was in Washington, D.C. Their close friendship developed after Carter had left office, with the catalyst being their trip together to the funeral of Anwar el-Sadat in 1981.[169] Until Ford's death, Carter and his wife, Rosalynn, visited the Fords' home frequently.[170] Ford and Carter served as honorary co-chairs of the National Commission on Federal Election Reform in 2001 and of the Continuity of Government Commission in 2002.
Like Presidents Carter, George H. W. Bush, and Bill Clinton, Ford was an honorary co-chair of the Council for Excellence in Government, a group dedicated to excellence in government performance, which provides leadership training to top federal employees. He also devoted much time to his love of golf, often playing both privately and in public events with comedian Bob Hope, a longtime friend. | text | {
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fac04a166fee3b19a838fa290fb2e799 | In 1977, he shot a hole in one during a Pro-am held in conjunction with the Danny Thomas Memphis Classic at Colonial Country Club in Memphis, Tennessee. He hosted the Jerry Ford Invitational in Vail, Colorado from 1977 to 1996.[citation needed]
In 1977, Ford established the Gerald R. Ford Institute of Public Policy at Albion College in Albion, Michigan, to give undergraduates training in public policy. In April 1981, he opened the Gerald R. Ford Library in Ann Arbor, Michigan, on the north campus of his alma mater, the University of Michigan,[171] followed in September by the Gerald R. Ford Museum in Grand Rapids.[172][173]
Ford considered a run for the Republican nomination in 1980, forgoing numerous opportunities to serve on corporate boards to keep his options open for a rematch with Carter. Ford attacked Carter's conduct of the SALT II negotiations and foreign policy in the Middle East and Africa. Many have argued that Ford also wanted to exorcise his image as an "Accidental President" and to win a term in his own right. Ford also believed the more conservative Ronald Reagan would be unable to defeat Carter and would hand the incumbent a second term. | text | {
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cefacd1ed90d1c7825c3e03dd3ea715f | Ford was encouraged by his former Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger as well as Jim Rhodes of Ohio and Bill Clements of Texas to make the race. On March 15, 1980, Ford announced that he would forgo a run for the Republican nomination, vowing to support the eventual nominee.[174]
On July 16, 1980 (day 3 of the 1980 Republican National Convention) Gerald Ford consults with Bob Dole, Howard Baker and Bill Brock before ultimately making a decision to decline the offer to serve as Ronald Reagan's running mate.
After securing the Republican nomination in 1980, Ronald Reagan considered his former rival Ford as a potential vice-presidential running mate, but negotiations between the Reagan and Ford camps at the Republican National Convention were unsuccessful. Ford conditioned his acceptance on Reagan's agreement to an unprecedented "co-presidency",[175] giving Ford the power to control key executive branch appointments (such as Kissinger as Secretary of State and Alan Greenspan as Treasury Secretary). After rejecting these terms, Reagan offered the vice-presidential nomination instead to George H. W. Bush. | text | {
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a2459c40f0cf7d53360281dc2396c859 | [176] Ford did appear in a campaign commercial for the Reagan-Bush ticket, in which he declared that the country would be "better served by a Reagan presidency rather than a continuation of the weak and politically expedient policies of Jimmy Carter".[177] On October 8, 1980, Ford said former President Nixon's involvement in the general election potentially could negatively impact the Reagan campaign: "I think it would have been much more helpful if Mr. Nixon had stayed in the background during this campaign. It would have been much more beneficial to Ronald Reagan."[178]
On October 3, 1980, Ford cast blame on Carter for the latter's charges of ineffectiveness on the part of the Federal Reserve Board due to his appointing of most of its members: "President Carter, when the going gets tough, will do anything to save his own political skin. This latest action by the president is cowardly."[179]
Following the attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan, Ford told reporters while appearing at a fundraiser for Thomas Kean that criminals who use firearms should get the death penalty in the event someone is injured with the weapon. | text | {
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81788880c157bba075425bc0ab350b99 | [180]
In September 1981, Ford advised Reagan against succumbing to Wall Street demands and follow his own agenda for the economic policies of the US during an appearance on Good Morning America: "He shouldn't let the gurus of Wall Street decide what the economic future of this country is going to be. They are wrong in my opinion."[181] On October 20, 1981, Ford stated stopping the Reagan administration's Saudi arms package could have a large negative impact to American relations in the Middle East during a news conference.[182]
On March 24, 1982, Ford offered an endorsement of President Reagan's economic policies while also stating the possibility of Reagan being met with a stalemate by Congress if not willing to compromise while in Washington.[183]
Ford founded the annual AEI World Forum in 1982, and joined the American Enterprise Institute as a distinguished fellow. He was also awarded an honorary doctorate at Central Connecticut State University[184] on March 23, 1988.
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a598a1ad2f5b6eee67b96b282e4dd18c | During an August 1982 fundraising reception, Ford stated his opposition to a constitutional amendment requiring the US to have a balanced budget, citing a need to elect "members of the House and Senate who will immediately when Congress convenes act more responsibly in fiscal matters."[185] Ford was a participant in the 1982 midterm elections, traveling to Tennessee in October of that year to help Republican candidates.[186]
In January 1984, a letter signed by Ford and Carter and urging world leaders to extend their failed effort to end world hunger was released and sent to Secretary-General of the United Nations Javier Pérez de Cuéllar.[187]
In 1987, Ford testified before the Senate Judiciary Committee in favor of District of Columbia Circuit Court judge and former Solicitor General Robert Bork after Bork was nominated by President Reagan to be an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court.[188] Bork's nomination was rejected by a vote of 58–42.[189]
In 1987, Ford's Humor and the Presidency, a book of humorous political anecdotes, was published.
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79b36566519dde9ca6558d8512dd8040 | By 1988, Ford was a member of several corporate boards including Commercial Credit, Nova Pharmaceutical, The Pullman Company, Tesoro Petroleum, and Tiger International, Inc.[190] Ford also became an honorary director of Citigroup, a position he held until his death.[191]
In October 1990, Ford appeared in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania with Bob Hope to commemorate the centennial anniversary of the birth of former President Dwight D. Eisenhower, where the two unveiled a plaque with the signatures of each living former president.[192]
In April 1991, Ford joined former presidents Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, and Jimmy Carter, in supporting the Brady Bill.[193] Three years later, he wrote to the U.S. House of Representatives, along with Carter and Reagan, in support of the assault weapons ban.[194]
At the 1992 Republican National Convention, Ford compared the election cycle to his 1976 loss to Carter and urged attention be paid to electing a Republican Congress: "If it's change you want on Nov. 3, my friends, the place to start is not at the White House but in the United States' Capitol. Congress, as every school child knows, has the power of the purse. | text | {
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e5a699ce6fe3255c8d728cae8b07fa06 | For nearly 40 years, Democratic majorities have held to the time-tested New Deal formula, tax and tax, spend and spend, elect and elect."(The Republicans would later win both Houses of Congress at the 1994 mid-term elections.)[195]
Ford joins President Bill Clinton and former presidents George H. W. Bush and Jimmy Carter onstage at the dedication of the George H.W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum at Texas A&M University, November 6, 1997.
Ford at his 90th birthday with Laura Bush, President George W. Bush, and Betty Ford in the White House State Dining Room in 2003
In April 1997, Ford joined President Bill Clinton, former President Bush, and Nancy Reagan in signing the "Summit Declaration of Commitment" in advocating for participation by private citizens in solving domestic issues within the United States.[196]
On January 20, 1998, during an interview at his Palm Springs home, Ford said the Republican Party's nominee in the 2000 presidential election would lose if the party turned ultra-conservative in their ideals: "If we get way over on the hard right of the political spectrum, we will not elect a Republican President. I worry about the party going down this ultra-conservative line. | text | {
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1311d084e989018ed22bf351c162d708 | We ought to learn from the Democrats: when they were running ultra-liberal candidates, they didn't win."[197]
In the prelude to the impeachment of President Clinton, Ford conferred with former President Carter and the two agreed to not speak publicly on the controversy, a pact broken by Carter when answering a question from a student at Emory University.[198]
In October 2001, Ford broke with conservative members of the Republican Party by stating that gay and lesbian couples "ought to be treated equally. Period."He became the highest-ranking Republican to embrace full equality for gays and lesbians, stating his belief that there should be a federal amendment outlawing anti-gay job discrimination and expressing his hope that the Republican Party would reach out to gay and lesbian voters.[199] He also was a member of the Republican Unity Coalition, which The New York Times described as "a group of prominent Republicans, including former President Gerald R. Ford, dedicated to making sexual orientation a non-issue in the Republican Party". | text | {
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Subsets and Splits