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9e69e9be26be3665163ae9a1d04d308 | [200]
On November 22, 2004, New York Republican Governor George Pataki named Ford and the other living former Presidents (Carter, George H. W. Bush and Bill Clinton) as honorary members of the board rebuilding the World Trade Center.
In a pre-recorded embargoed interview with Bob Woodward of The Washington Post in July 2004, Ford stated that he disagreed "very strongly" with the Bush administration's choice of Iraq's alleged weapons of mass destruction as justification for its decision to invade Iraq, calling it a "big mistake" unrelated to the national security of the United States and indicating that he would not have gone to war had he been president. The details of the interview were not released until after Ford's death, as he requested.[201][202]
Health problems
On April 4, 1990, Ford was admitted to Eisenhower Medical Center for surgery to replace his left knee, orthopedic surgeon Dr. Robert Murphy saying, "Ford's entire left knee was replaced with an artificial joint, including portions of the adjacent femur, or thigh bone, and tibia, or leg bone."[203]
Ford suffered two minor strokes at the 2000 Republican National Convention, but made a quick recovery after being admitted to Hahnemann University Hospital. | text | {
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57973413711e7f226c9c6a0f588a3a4 | [204][205] In January 2006, he spent 11 days at the Eisenhower Medical Center near his residence at Rancho Mirage, California, for treatment of pneumonia.[206] On April 23, 2006, President George W. Bush visited Ford at his home in Rancho Mirage for a little over an hour. This was Ford's last public appearance and produced the last known public photos, video footage, and voice recording.
While vacationing in Vail, Colorado, Ford was hospitalized for two days in July 2006 for shortness of breath.[207] On August 15 he was admitted to St. Mary's Hospital of the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota, for testing and evaluation. On August 21, it was reported that he had been fitted with a pacemaker. On August 25, he underwent an angioplasty procedure at the Mayo Clinic. On August 28, Ford was released from the hospital and returned with his wife Betty to their California home. On October 13, he was scheduled to attend the dedication of a building of his namesake, the Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy at the University of Michigan, but due to poor health and on the advice of his doctors he did not attend. | text | {
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b3c36c8ccca3bb17eae878681f6aee2a | The previous day, Ford had entered the Eisenhower Medical Center for undisclosed tests; he was released on October 16.[208] By November 2006, he was confined to a bed in his study.[209]
Death and legacy
Main article: Death and state funeral of Gerald Ford
Ford lying in state in the Capitol rotunda
Ford died on December 26, 2006, at his home in Rancho Mirage, California, of arteriosclerotic cerebrovascular disease and diffuse arteriosclerosis. He had end-stage coronary artery disease and severe aortic stenosis and insufficiency, caused by calcific alteration of one of his heart valves.[210] At the time of his death, Ford was the longest-lived U.S. president, having lived 93 years and 165 days (45 days longer than Ronald Reagan, whose record he surpassed).[31] He died on the 34th anniversary of President Harry S. Truman's death; he was the last surviving member of the Warren Commission.[211]
On December 30, 2006, Ford became the 11th U.S. president to lie in state in the Rotunda of the U.S. Capitol.[212] A state funeral and memorial services were held at the National Cathedral in Washington, D.C., on Tuesday, January 2, 2007. | text | {
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f585b0ba79419c31772c723cd8d00e54 | After the service, Ford was interred at his Presidential Museum in Grand Rapids, Michigan.[213]
Scouting was so important to Ford that his family asked for Scouts to participate in his funeral. A few selected Scouts served as ushers inside the National Cathedral. About 400 Eagle Scouts were part of the funeral procession, where they formed an honor guard as the casket went by in front of the museum.[214]
Ford selected the song to be played during his funeral procession at the U.S. Capitol.[215] After his death in December 2006, the University of Michigan Marching Band played the school's fight song for him one final time, for his last ride from the Gerald R. Ford Airport in Grand Rapids, Michigan.[216]
The State of Michigan commissioned and submitted a statue of Ford to the National Statuary Hall Collection, replacing Zachariah Chandler. It was unveiled on May 3, 2011, in the Capitol Rotunda. On the proper right side is inscribed a quotation from a tribute by Tip O'Neill, Speaker of the House at the end of Ford's presidency: "God has been good to America, especially during difficult times. | text | {
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93643ce44c7145a7c3320aa71689c2b1 | At the time of the Civil War, he gave us Abraham Lincoln. And at the time of Watergate, he gave us Gerald Ford—the right man at the right time who was able to put our nation back together again."On the proper left side are words from Ford's swearing-in address: "Our constitution works. Our great republic is a government of laws and not of men. Here the people rule."Ford's wife, Betty Ford, died on July 8, 2011.[217]
Personal life
Family
When speaking of his mother and stepfather, Ford said that "My stepfather was a magnificent person and my mother equally wonderful. So I couldn't have written a better prescription for a superb family upbringing."[17]
Ford had three half-siblings from the second marriage of Leslie King Sr., his biological father: Marjorie King (1921–1993), Leslie Henry King (1923–1976), and Patricia Jane King (1925–1980). They never saw one another as children, and he did not know them at all until 1960. Ford was not aware of his biological father until he was 17, when his parents told him about the circumstances of his birth. | text | {
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1b58043fb83f62b4c9acff8b85b407f5 | That year his biological father, whom Ford described as a "carefree, well-to-do man who didn't really give a damn about the hopes and dreams of his firstborn son", approached Ford while he was waiting tables in a Grand Rapids restaurant. The two "maintained a sporadic contact" until Leslie King Sr.'s death in 1941.[11][218]
The Fords on their wedding day, October 15, 1948
On October 15, 1948, Ford married Elizabeth Bloomer (1918–2011) at Grace Episcopal Church in Grand Rapids; it was his first and only marriage and her second marriage. She had previously been married and, after a five‐year marriage, divorced from William Warren.[219]
Originally from Grand Rapids herself, she had lived in New York City for several years, where she worked as a John Robert Powers fashion model and a dancer in the auxiliary troupe of the Martha Graham Dance Company. At the time of their engagement, Ford was campaigning for what would be his first of 13 terms as a member of the United States House of Representatives. | text | {
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274c90f95a13fcae3f224ca63dc956bf | The wedding was delayed until shortly before the election because, as The New York Times reported in a 1974 profile of Betty Ford, "Jerry Ford was running for Congress and wasn't sure how voters might feel about his marrying a divorced exdancer."[219]
The couple had four children: Michael Gerald, born in 1950, John Gardner (known as Jack) born in 1952, Steven Meigs, born in 1956, and Susan Elizabeth, born in 1957.[145]
Civic and fraternal organizations
Ford was a member of several civic and fraternal organizations, including the Junior Chamber of Commerce (Jaycees), American Legion, AMVETS, Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks, Sons of the Revolution,[220] Veterans of Foreign Wars, and was an alumnus of Delta Kappa Epsilon at Michigan.
Freemasonry
Ford was initiated into Freemasonry on September 30, 1949.[221] He later said in 1975, "When I took my obligation as a master mason—incidentally, with my three younger brothers—I recalled the value my own father attached to that order. But I had no idea that I would ever be added to the company of the Father of our Country and 12 other members of the order who also served as Presidents of the United States. | text | {
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f3dafd290581d2cf0ec0028aafc59868 | "[222] Ford was made a 33° Scottish Rite Mason on September 26, 1962.[223] In April 1975, Ford was elected by a unanimous vote Honorary Grand Master of the International Supreme Council, Order of DeMolay, a position in which he served until January 1977.[224] Ford received the degrees of York Rite Masonry (Chapter and Council degrees) in a special ceremony in the Oval Office on January 11, 1977, during his term as President of the United States.[225]
Ford was also a member of the Shriners and the Royal Order of Jesters; both being affiliated bodies of Freemasonry.[226]
Public image
President George W. Bush with Ford and his wife Betty on April 23, 2006
Ford is the only person to hold the presidential office without being elected as either president or vice president. The choice of Ford to fill the vacant vice-presidency was based on Ford's reputation for openness and honesty.[227] "In all the years I sat in the House, I never knew Mr. Ford to make a dishonest statement nor a statement part-true and part-false. He never attempted to shade a statement, and I never heard him utter an unkind word," said Martha Griffiths. | text | {
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23cbde79bf20bb428acb0b317e3d52f6 | [228]
The trust the American public had in him was rapidly and severely tarnished by his pardon of Nixon.[228] Nonetheless, many grant in hindsight that he had respectably discharged with considerable dignity a great responsibility that he had not sought.[228]
In spite of his athletic record and remarkable career accomplishments, Ford acquired a reputation as a clumsy, likable, and simple-minded everyman. An incident in 1975, when he tripped while exiting Air Force One in Austria, was famously and repeatedly parodied by Chevy Chase on Saturday Night Live, cementing Ford's image as a klutz.[228][229][230] Other pieces of the everyman image were attributed to his inevitable comparison with Nixon, his Midwestern stodginess and his self-deprecation.[227]
Ford has notably been portrayed in two television productions which included a central focus on his wife: the Emmy-winning 1987 ABC biographical television movie The Betty Ford Story[231] and the 2022 Showtime television series The First Lady.[232]
Honors
Foreign honors
Estonia:
First Class of the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana (7 January 1997)
Ford received the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award in May 1970, as well as the Silver Buffalo Award, from the Boy Scouts of America.
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9b77f6881c36946aa5d8e18b0cfd6e5c | In 1974, he also received the highest distinction of the Scout Association of Japan, the Golden Pheasant Award.[233] In 1985, he received the 1985 Old Tom Morris Award from the Golf Course Superintendents Association of America, GCSAA's highest honor.[234] In 1992, the U.S. Navy Memorial Foundation awarded Ford its Lone Sailor Award for his naval service and his subsequent government service. In 1999, Ford was honored with a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs Walk of Stars.[235] Also in 1999, Ford was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by Bill Clinton.[236] In 2001, he was presented with the John F. Kennedy Profiles in Courage Award for his decision to pardon Richard Nixon to stop the agony America was experiencing over Watergate.[237]
The following were named after Ford:
The Ford House Office Building in the U.S. Capitol Complex, formerly House Annex 2.
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d5792dac9f15ac7f60503b690052178 | Gerald R. Ford Freeway (Nebraska)
Gerald R. Ford Freeway (Michigan)
Gerald Ford Memorial Highway, I-70 in Eagle County, Colorado
Gerald R. Ford International Airport in Grand Rapids, Michigan
Gerald R. Ford Library in Ann Arbor, Michigan
Gerald R. Ford Museum in Grand Rapids, Michigan
Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy, University of Michigan
Gerald R. Ford Institute of Public Policy, Albion College
USS Gerald R. Ford (CVN-78)
Gerald R. Ford Middle School, Grand Rapids, Michigan[238]
President Gerald R. Ford Park in Alexandria, Virginia, located in the neighborhood where Ford[239] lived while serving as a Representative and Vice President
President Ford Field Service Council, Boy Scouts of America The council where he was awarded the rank of Eagle Scout. Serves 25 counties in Western and Northern Michigan with its headquarters located in Grand Rapids, Michigan. | text | {
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2e16318c47f0abc5ca62b6fbba534562 | [240]
See also
.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:solid #aaa 1px;padding:0.1em;background:#f9f9f9}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}
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List of Freemasons
List of members of the American Legion
List of presidents of the United States
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Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps
References
.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}
^ .mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}"President Ford Inaugural Ceremony". C-SPAN.org. C-SPAN. August 9, 1974. Retrieved January 25, 2021.
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928c6aab258f2eadaa8d25e4073e7c35 | Legacy of Honor: The Values and Influence of America's Eagle Scouts. New York: St. Martin's Press. pp. 12–13 and 87. ISBN 978-0-312-36653-7. Retrieved December 29, 2006.
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98376d700f839be86948271d15896f1 | Retrieved December 28, 2006. p. 7
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| text | {
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4a1713199b4ef812c1e97ccbae1a1c09 | Masters of the House: Congressional leadership over two centuries. Westview Press. pp. 267–275.
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75e10872f7f11d366480c0e01b0cbb6b | ^ “Gerald R. Ford Events Timeline,” The American Presidency Project, University of California, Santa Barbara, Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, last edited Feb. 2, 2021
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463329d478868172b24aaaff76885319 | Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library & Museum. University of Texas. Archived from the original on June 6, 2010. Retrieved December 30, 2006.
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| text | {
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923add74a12d5e9fad9bfd204a0f2cda | ^ CRS Report RL33305, The Crude Oil Windfall Profit Tax of the 1980s: Implications for Current Energy Policy Archived February 11, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, by Salvatore Lazzari, p. 5.
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"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald_Ford",
"_split_id": 88
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91e36a29f387ed50253e69d8c704474b | "Ford to New York: Drop Dead". Daily News. New York. Archived from the original on October 6, 2008. Retrieved February 20, 2012.
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"_split_id": 89
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a8d0db6422863da8872597d74fa5ff51 | Archived from the original on September 24, 2015. Retrieved December 31, 2006.
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d7bb8e05b741cf3fa42d194219229029 | 35: 33–54.
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"_split_id": 91
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6d2a16f2a41c62d2af35e0f08452f208 | Ford and Kissinger Gave Green Light to Indonesia's Invasion of East Timor, 1975: New Documents Detail Conversations with Suharto
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| text | {
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135393862a5cc88626cfcb8858995845 | ^ Jump up to: a b c Greene, John Robert (October 4, 2016). "Gerald Ford: Family Life". Charlottesville, Virginia: Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. Retrieved March 25, 2018.
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38ba4ff04f442d8f96caa5f18926200b | ^ Letter from Gerald Ford to Michael Treanor Archived June 14, 2007, at the Wayback Machine. Fordham University, September 21, 2005. Retrieved March 2, 2008.
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"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald_Ford",
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| text | {
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Bibliography
Further information: Presidency of Gerald Ford § Further reading, and Foreign policy of the Gerald Ford administration § Bibliography
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Brinkley, Douglas (2007). Gerald R. Ford. New York, New York. ISBN 978-0-8050-6909-9. short biography
Cannon, James. Gerald R. Ford: An Honorable Life (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2013) 482 pp. official biography by a member of the Ford administration
Cannon, James (1993). Time and Chance: Gerald R. Ford's Appointment with History. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-08482-1. older full-scale biography
Congressional Quarterly. | text | {
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cba249fbdb1d5a16e8f0247903cd9fe7 | President Ford: the man and his record (1974) online
Firestone, Bernard J.; Ugrinsky, Alexej, eds. (1992). Gerald R. Ford and the Politics of Post-Watergate America. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-28009-2.
John Robert Greene. The Limits of Power: The Nixon and Ford Administrations. isbn=978-0-253-32637-9. Indiana University Press, 1992.
John Robert Greene. The Presidency of Gerald R. Ford. isbn=978-0-7006-0639-9. University Press of Kansas, 1995. the major scholarly study
Hersey, John Richard. The President: A Minute-By-Minute Account of a Week in the Life of Gerald Ford. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 1975.
Hult, Karen M. and Walcott, Charles E. Empowering the White House: Governance under Nixon, Ford, and Carter. University Press of Kansas, 2004.
Jespersen, T. Christopher. "Kissinger, Ford, and Congress: the Very Bitter End in Vietnam". Pacific Historical Review 2002 71#3: 439–473. Online
Jespersen, T. Christopher. "The Bitter End and the Lost Chance in Vietnam: Congress, the Ford Administration, and the Battle over Vietnam, 1975–76". Diplomatic History 2000 24#2: 265–293. Online
Kaufman, Scott (2017). Ambition, Pragmatism, and Party: A Political Biography of Gerald R. Ford. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-2500-0. latest full-scale biography
Parmet, Herbert S. "Gerald R. Ford" in Henry F Graff ed. | text | {
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a6753a33096bf592d9622983a3b8056e | , The Presidents: A Reference History (3rd ed. 2002); short scholarly overview
Randolph, Sallie G. Gerald R. Ford, president (1987) online; for secondary schools
Schoenebaum, Eleanora. Political Profiles: The Nixon/Ford years (1979) online, short biographies of over 500 political and national leaders.
Williams, Daniel K. The Election of the Evangelical: Jimmy Carter, Gerald Ford, and the Presidential Contest of 1976 (University Press of Kansas, 2020) online review
Primary sources
Ford, Gerald (1994). Presidential Perspectives from the National Archives. Washington, District of Columbia: National Archives and Records Administration. ISBN 978-1-880875-04-9.
Ford, Gerald (1987). Humor and the Presidency. New York: Arbor House. ISBN 978-0-87795-918-2.
Ford, Gerald (1979). A Time to Heal: The Autobiography of Gerald R. Ford. New York, New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-011297-4.
"Gerald Ford Presidential Autograph Letters". SMF. Shapell Manuscript Foundation. Retrieved August 25, 2019.
Ford, Gerald (1973). Selected Speeches. Arlington, Va.: R. W. Beatty. ISBN 978-0-87948-029-5.
Ford, Gerald (1965). Portrait of the assassin (Lee Harvey Oswald). New York, New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1121975514.
Ford, Betty (1978). The Times of My Life. New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-011298-1.
Thompson, Kenneth, ed. (1980). The Ford Presidency: Twenty-Two Intimate Perspectives of Gerald Ford. | text | {
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6183b7a20e43209e076b46dd7a569569 | Lanham: University Press of America. ISBN 978-0-8191-6960-0.
External links
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Gerald Ford at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from WiktionaryMedia from CommonsNews from WikinewsQuotations from WikiquoteTexts from Wikisource
Official sites
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Media coverage
Gerald Ford collected news and commentary at The New York Times
Appearances on C-SPAN
"Life Portrait of Gerald R. Ford", from C-SPAN's American Presidents: Life Portraits, November 22, 1999
Other
United States Congress. "Gerald Ford (id: F000260)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.
Gerald Ford: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress.
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c0c556a2902332eaaece30677716ae99 | Essays on Gerald Ford, each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs
Works by or about Gerald Ford at Internet Archive
Works by Gerald Ford at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Gerald Ford at IMDb
Works by Gerald Ford at Project Gutenberg
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38th President of the United States (1974–1977)
40th Vice President of the United States (1973–1974)
U.S. Representative for MI–5 (1949–1973)
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← Richard Nixon
Jimmy Carter →
← Spiro Agnew
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showOffices and distinctions
U.S. House of Representatives
Preceded byBartel J. Jonkman
Member of the U.S. House of Representativesfrom Michigan's 5th congressional district 1949–1973
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Succeeded byMelvin Laird
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Response to the State of the Union address 1966, 1967, 1968 Served alongside: Everett Dirksen (1966, 1967), Howard Baker, George H. W. Bush, Peter Dominick, Robert Griffin, Thomas Kuchel, Mel Laird, Bob Mathias, George Murphy, Dick Poff, Chuck Percy, Al Quie, Charlotte Reid, Hugh Scott, Bill Steiger, John Tower (1968)
VacantTitle next held byDonald Fraser, Scoop Jackson, Mike Mansfield, John McCormack, Patsy Mink, Ed Muskie, Bill Proxmire
Preceded byRichard Nixon
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36b5dd40c2ecc832c4ea398b995ed16c | H. W. Bush
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8022a408cba2631846b502ac49856340 | H. W. Bush
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Mann
Clark
Kitchin
Garrett
Garner
Snell
Martin
Rayburn
Martin
Rayburn
Martin
Halleck
Ford
Rhodes
Michel
Gephardt
Pelosi
Boehner
Pelosi
McCarthy
Jeffries
showvteRepublican Party leaders of the U.S. House of Representatives
Payne
Mann
Mondell
Longworth
Tilson
Snell
Martin
Halleck
Martin
Halleck
Martin
Halleck
Ford
Rhodes
Michel
Armey
DeLay
Blunti
Boehner
Cantor
McCarthy
Scalise
(i) - interim
showvteRepublican Conference chairs of the United States House of Representatives
Morrill
Schenck
Banks
Blair
Maynard
McCrary
Hale
Frye
Robeson
Cannon
Henderson
Grosvenor
Cannon
Hepburn
Currier
Greene
Towner
S. Anderson
Hawley
Luce
Lehlbach
Woodruff
Hope
Hoeven
Ford
Laird
J. Anderson
Devine
Kemp
D. Cheney
Lewis
Armey
Boehner
Watts
Pryce
Putnam
Pence
Hensarling
McMorris Rodgers
L. Cheney
Stefanik
showvteMembers of the U.S. House of Representatives from MichiganTerritory
Woodbridge
Sibley
Richard
Wing
Biddle
Wing
Lyon
G. Jones
At-large
Crary
J. Howard
Kelley
Staebler
1st district
McClelland
Buel
Penniman
D. Stuart
W. Howard
Cooper
W. Howard
Granger
Beaman
Waldron
Field
A. S. Williams
Newberry
Lord
Maybury
J. L. Chipman
Griffin
Corliss
Lucking
Denby
Doremus
Codd
Clancy
Sosnowski
Clancy
Sadowski
Tenerowicz
Sadowski
Machrowicz
Nedzi
Conyers
Stupak
Benishek
Bergman
2nd district
Lyon
J. S. Chipman
E. Bradley
C. Stuart
Sprague
C. Stuart
Noble
Waldron
Beaman
Upson
Stoughton
Waldron
Willits
Eldredge
Allen
Gorman
Spalding
H. Smith
Townsend
Wedemeyer
Beakes
Bacon
Beakes
Michener
Lehr
Michener
Meader
Vivian
Esch
Pursell
Hoekstra
Huizenga
Moolenaar
3rd district
Hunt
Bingham
J. Conger
Clark
Walbridge
Kellogg
Longyear
Blair
Willard
McGowan
Lacey
O'Donnell
Burrows
Milnes
A. Todd
Gardner
J. Smith
Frankhauser
J. Smith
A. | text | {
"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald_Ford",
"_split_id": 108
} | [
"content"
] | null | null |
4988a0083fff149191c80419b0f313af | B. Williams
Hooper
Kimball
Main
Shafer
Johansen
P. Todd
G. Brown
Wolpe
Henry
Ehlers
Amash
Meijer
Scholten
4th district
H. L. Stevens
Peck
Leach
Trowbridge
Kellogg
Ferry
Foster
Burrows
Potter
Keightley
Burrows
Yaple
Burrows
Thomas
Hamilton
Ketcham
Foulkes
Hoffman
Hutchinson
Stockman
Siljander
Upton
Camp
Moolenaar
Huizenga
5th district
Baldwin
Trowbridge
O. Conger
Foster
W. Williams
Stone
Webber
Houseman
Comstock
M. Ford
Belknap
M. Ford
Belknap
Richardson
W. Smith
Diekema
Sweet
Mapes
Jonkman
G. Ford
Vander Veen
Sawyer
Henry
Barcia
D. E. Kildee
D. T. Kildee
Walberg
6th district
Driggs
Strickland
Sutherland
Begole
Durand
Brewer
Spaulding
Winans
Brewer
Stout
Aitken
S. Smith
Kelley
Hudson
Person
Cady
Blackney
Transue
Blackney
Clardy
Hayworth
Chamberlain
Carr
Dunn
Carr
Upton
Dingell
7th district
O. Conger
Rich
Carleton
Whiting
Snover
Weeks
McMorran
Cramton
Wolcott
McIntosh
O'Hara
Mackie
Riegle
D. E. Kildee
N. Smith
Schwarz
Walberg
Schauer
Walberg
Slotkin
8th district
N. Bradley
Ellsworth
Horr
Tarsney
Bliss
Youmans
Linton
Brucker
Fordney
Vincent
Hart
Crawford
Bentley
Harvey
Traxler
Carr
Chrysler
Stabenow
Rogers
M. Bishop
Slotkin
Kildee
9th district
Hubbell
Cutcheon
H. Wheeler
Moon
R. Bishop
McLaughlin
Harry W. Musselwhite
Engel
Thompson
Griffin
Vander Jagt
D. E. Kildee
Knollenberg
Peters
S. Levin
A. Levin
McClain
10th district
Hatch
Fisher
F. Wheeler
Weadock
Crump
Aplin
Loud
Woodruff
Loud
Currie
Woodruff
Cederberg
Albosta
Schuette
Camp
Bonior
Miller
Mitchell
McClain
J. James
11th district
Breitung
Moffatt
Seymour
Stephenson
Avery
Mesick
Darragh
Dodds
Lindquist
Scott
Bohn
P. Brown
Luecke
F. Bradley
Potter
Knox
Clevenger
Ruppe
Davis
Knollenberg
McCotter
Curson
Bentivolio
Trott
H. Stevens
12th district
Stephenson
Shelden
Young
MacDonald
W. F. James
Hook
Bennett
Hook
Bennett
O'Hara
Bonior
Levin
J. Dingell Jr.
D. Dingell
Tlaib
13th district
Nichols
McLeod
Brennan
McLeod
O'Brien
McLeod
O'Brien
Coffin
O'Brien
Diggs
Crockett
Collins
W. Ford
Rivers
Kilpatrick
Clarke
Conyers
B. Jones
Tlaib
Thanedar
14th district
Weideman
Rabaut
Youngblood
Rabaut
Ryan
Nedzi
Hertel
Conyers
Peters
Lawrence
15th district
J. Dingell Sr.
J. Dingell Jr.
W. Ford
Collins
Kilpatrick
J. Dingell Jr.
16th district
Lesinski Sr.
Lesinski Jr.
J. Dingell Jr.
17th district
Dondero
Oakman
Griffiths
Brodhead
Levin
18th district
Dondero
Broomfield
Huber
Blanchard
Broomfield
19th district
Farnum
McDonald
Broomfield
showvteMembers of the Warren Commission
Earl Warren (Chairman)
Hale Boggs
John Sherman Cooper
Allen Dulles
Gerald Ford
John J. McCloy
Richard Russell Jr.
showvteCold War
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1990s
Mongolian Revolution of 1990
Min Ping Yu No. | text | {
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} | [
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4eb07d12d747dd94239e1a6d53dcd5 | 5540 incident
Gulf War
Min Ping Yu No. | text | {
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"_split_id": 110
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de060582398b1da7ff70294d6075615b | 5202
German reunification
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Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War
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showvteHistory of MichiganTimeline
Glaciation
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Politics
Lewis Cass
Gerald Ford
showvte1932 Michigan Wolverines football—national champions
Chuck Bernard
William F. Borgmann
Herman Everhardus
Stanley Fay
Gerald Ford
John Kowalik
Harry Newman
Russell D. Oliver
Ted Petoskey
John Regeczi
Willis Ward
Ivy Williamson
Whitey Wistert
Head coach: Harry Kipke
Assistant coaches: Jack Blott
Franklin Cappon
Ray Courtright
Cliff Keen
Bennie Oosterbaan
Wally Weber
showvte1933 Michigan Wolverines football—national champions
Thomas Austin
Chuck Bernard
William F. Borgmann
Tony Dauksza
Herman Everhardus
Stanley Fay
Gerald Ford
John Heston
Willard Hildebrand
John Kowalik
Russell D. Oliver
Ted Petoskey
John Regeczi
Bill Renner
Carl Savage
Estel Tessmer
Willis Ward
Louis Westover
Whitey Wistert
Head coach: Harry Kipke
Assistant coaches: Jack Blott
Franklin Cappon
Ray Courtright
Cliff Keen
Bennie Oosterbaan
Wally Weber
showvteCabinet of President Richard Nixon (1969–1974)hideCabinetVice President
Spiro Agnew (1969–1973)
None (1973)
Gerald Ford (1973–1974)
Secretary of State
William P. Rogers (1969–1973)
Henry Kissinger (1973–1974)
Secretary of the Treasury
David M. Kennedy (1969–1971)
John Connally (1971–1972)
George Shultz (1972–1974)
William E. Simon (1974)
Secretary of Defense
Melvin Laird (1969–1973)
Elliot Richardson (1973)
James R. Schlesinger (1973–1974)
Attorney General
John N. Mitchell (1969–1972)
Richard Kleindienst (1972–1973)
Elliot Richardson (1973)
William B. Saxbe (1974)
Postmaster General
Winton M. Blount (1969–1971)
Secretary of the Interior
Wally Hickel (1969–1970)
Rogers Morton (1971–1974)
Secretary of Agriculture
Clifford M. Hardin (1969–1971)
Earl Butz (1971–1974)
Secretary of Commerce
Maurice Stans (1969–1972)
Peter G. Peterson (1972–1973)
Frederick B. Dent (1973–1974)
Secretary of Labor
George Shultz (1969–1970)
James Day Hodgson (1970–1973)
Peter J. Brennan (1973–1974)
Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare
Robert Finch (1969–1970)
Elliot Richardson (1970–1973)
Caspar Weinberger (1973–1974)
Secretary of Housing and Urban Development
George W. Romney (1969–1973)
James Thomas Lynn (1973–1974)
Secretary of Transportation
John A. Volpe (1969–1973)
Claude Brinegar (1973–1974)
hideCabinet-levelDirector of the Bureau of the Budget
Robert Mayo (1969–1970)
Director of the Office of Management and Budget
George Shultz (1970–1972)
Caspar Weinberger (1972–1973)
Roy Ash (1973–1974)
Ambassador to the United Nations
Charles Yost (1969–1971)
George H. W. Bush (1971–1973)
John A. Scali (1973–1974)
Counselor to the President
Arthur F. Burns (1969)
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Bryce Harlow (1969–1970)
Robert Finch (1970–1972)
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Anne Armstrong (1973–1974)
Dean Burch (1974)
Kenneth Rush (1974)
showvteCabinet of President Gerald Ford (1974–1977)hideCabinetVice President
None (1974)
Nelson Rockefeller (1974–1977)
Secretary of State
Henry Kissinger (1974–1977)
Secretary of the Treasury
William E. Simon (1974–1977)
Secretary of Defense
James R. Schlesinger (1974–1975)
Donald Rumsfeld (1975–1977)
Attorney General
William B. Saxbe (1974–1975)
Edward H. Levi (1975–1977)
Secretary of the Interior
Rogers Morton (1974–1975)
Stanley K. Hathaway (1975)
Thomas S. Kleppe (1975–1977)
Secretary of Agriculture
Earl Butz (1974–1976)
John Albert Knebel (1976–1977)
Secretary of Commerce
Frederick B. Dent (1974–1975)
Rogers Morton (1975–1976)
Elliot Richardson (1976–1977)
Secretary of Labor
Peter J. Brennan (1974–1975)
John Thomas Dunlop (1975–1976)
William Usery Jr. (1976–1977)
Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare
Caspar Weinberger (1974–1975)
F. David Mathews (1975–1977)
Secretary of Housing and Urban Development
James Thomas Lynn (1974–1975)
Carla Anderson Hills (1975–1977)
Secretary of Transportation
Claude Brinegar (1974–1975)
William Thaddeus Coleman Jr. (1975–1977)
hideCabinet-levelDirector of the Office of Management and Budget
Roy Ash (1974–1975)
James Thomas Lynn (1975–1977)
Trade Representative
Frederick B. Dent (1975–1977)
Ambassador to the United Nations
John A. Scali (1974–1975)
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Dick Cheney (1975–1977)
Counselor to the President
Anne Armstrong (1974)
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Kenneth Rush (1974)
Robert T. Hartmann (1974–1977)
John Otho Marsh Jr. (1974–1977)
Rogers Morton (1976)
White House Counsel
Philip W. Buchen (1974–1977)
showvte(← 1972) 1976 United States presidential election (1980 →)Democratic Party
Convention
Primaries
Candidates
Nominee: Jimmy Carter
campaign
VP nominee: Walter Mondale
Other candidates: Birch Bayh
Lloyd Bentsen
Jerry Brown
Robert Byrd
Hugh Carey
Frank Church
Fred R. Harris
Hubert Humphrey
Henry M. Jackson
Leon Jaworski
Barbara Jordan
Eugene McCarthy
Ellen McCormack
Walter Mondale
Jennings Randolph
Terry Sanford
Milton Shapp
campaign
Sargent Shriver
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Mo Udall
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Republican Party
Convention
Primaries
Candidates
Incumbent nominee: Gerald Ford
VP nominee: Bob Dole
Other candidates: James L. Buckley
Ronald Reagan
campaign
positions
Harold Stassen
showThird party and independent candidatesAmerican Party
Nominee: Thomas J. Anderson
American Independent Party
Nominee: Lester Maddox
Communist Party
Nominee: Gus Hall
VP nominee: Jarvis Tyner
Libertarian Party
Nominee: Roger MacBride
VP nominee: David Bergland
People's Party
Nominee: Margaret Wright
VP nominee: Benjamin Spock
Prohibition Party
Nominee: Ben Bubar
VP nominee: Earl Dodge
Socialist Workers Party
Nominee: Peter Camejo
VP nominee: Willie Mae Reid
U.S. Labor Party
Nominee: Lyndon LaRouche
Other 1976 elections: House
Senate
Gubernatorial
showvteTheodore Roosevelt Award winners
1967: Eisenhower
1968: Saltonstall
1969: White
1970: Hovde
1971: Kraft Jr.
1972: Holland
1973: Bradley
1974: Owens
1975: Ford
1976: Hamilton
1977: Bradley
1978: Zornow
1979: Chandler
1980: Cooley
1981: Linkletter
1982: Cosby
1983: Palmer
1984: Lawrence
1985: Fleming
1986: Bush
1987: Zable
1988: Not presented
1989: Ebert
1990: Reagan
1991: Gibson
1992: Kemp
1993: Alexander
1994: Johnson
1995: Mathias
1996: Wooden
1997: Payne
1998: Dole
1999: Richardson
2000: Staubach
2001: Cohen
2002: Shriver
2003: de Varona
2004: Page
2005: Ride
2006: Kraft
2007: Tagliabue
2008: Glenn
2009: Albright
2010: Mitchell
2011: Dunwoody
2012: Allen
2013: Dungy
2014: Mills
2015: Jackson
2016: Ueberroth
2017: Brooke-Marciniak
2018: Wilmore
2019: Caslen
2020: Delaney
2021: McLendon
2022: Boudreaux
showvteNational Football Foundation Gold Medal winners
1958: Dwight D. Eisenhower
1959: Douglas MacArthur
1960: Herbert Hoover & Amos Alonzo Stagg
1961: John F. Kennedy
1962: Byron "Whizzer" White
1963: Roger Blough
1964: Donold B. Lourie
1965: Juan T. Trippe
1966: Earl H. "Red" Blaik
1967: Frederick L. Hovde
1968: Chester J. LaRoche
1969: Richard Nixon
1970: Thomas J. Hamilton
1971: Ronald Reagan
1972: Gerald Ford
1973: John Wayne
1974: Gerald B. Zornow
1975: David Packard
1976: Edgar B. Speer
1977: Louis H. Wilson
1978: Vincent dePaul Draddy
1979: William P. Lawrence
1980: Walter J. Zable
1981: Justin W. Dart
1982: Silver Anniversary Awards (NCAA) - All Honored Jim Brown, Willie Davis, Jack Kemp, Ron Kramer, Jim Swink
1983: Jack Kemp
1984: John F. McGillicuddy
1985: William I. Spencer
1986: William H. Morton
1987: Charles R. Meyer
1988: Clinton E. Frank
1989: Paul Brown
1990: Thomas H. Moorer
1991: George H. W. Bush
1992: Donald R. Keough
1993: Norman Schwarzkopf
1994: Thomas S. Murphy
1995: Harold Alfond
1996: Gene Corrigan
1997: Jackie Robinson
1998: John H. McConnell
1999: Keith Jackson
2000: Fred M. Kirby II
2001: Billy Joe "Red" McCombs
2002: George Steinbrenner
2003: Tommy Franks
2004: William V. Campbell
2005: Jon F. Hanson
2006: Joe Paterno & Bobby Bowden
2007: Pete Dawkins & Roger Staubach
2008: John Glenn
2009: Phil Knight & Bill Bowerman
2010: Bill Cosby
2011: Robert Gates
2012: Roscoe Brown
2013: National Football League & Roger Goodell
2014: Tom Catena & George Weiss
2015: Condoleezza Rice
2016: Archie Manning
2017: None awarded
2018: Aaron Feis & Jason Seaman
2019: Mark Harmon
showvteLain in state (United States)Lain in stateUS Capitol rotunda
Clay (1852)
Lincoln (1865, funeral)2
Stevens (1868)
Sumner (1874)
Wilson (1875)
Garfield (1881)
Logan (1886)
McKinley (1901)
L'Enfant (1909)1
Dewey (1917)
Unknown Soldier for World War I (1921)
Harding (1923)2
W. H. Taft (1930)
Pershing (1948)
R. A. Taft (1953)
Unknown Soldiers for World War II and the Korean War (1958)
Kennedy (1963, funeral)2
MacArthur (1964)
H. Hoover (1964)
Eisenhower (1969)
Dirksen (1969)
J. E. Hoover (1972)
Johnson (1973)
Humphrey (1978)
Blassie / Unknown Soldier for the Vietnam War (1984)
Pepper (1989)
Reagan (2004, funeral)
Ford (2006–07, funeral)
Inouye (2012)
McCain (2018)
Bush (2018, funeral)
Lewis (2020)
Dole (2021)
Reid (2022)
National Statuary Hall
Cummings (2019)
Ginsburg (2020, funeral)4
Young (2022)
House Chamber
Hooper (1875)
Herbert C. Hoover Building
Brown (1996)
Old Senate Chamber
Chase (1873)
Lain in honorUS Capitol rotunda
Chestnut and Gibson (1998)
Parks (2005)
Graham (2018)
Sicknick (2021)
Evans (2021)
Williams (2022)
Lain in reposeEast Room
Harrison (1841)
Taylor (1850)
Lincoln (1865, funeral)2
McKinley (1901)
Harding (1923)2
Roosevelt (1945)
Kennedy (1963, funeral)2
Great Hall of theUS Supreme Court
Warren (1974)
Marshall (1993)
Burger (1995)
Brennan (1997)
Blackmun (1999)
Rehnquist (2005)
Scalia (2016)
Stevens (2019)
Ginsburg (2020, funeral)2
Senate Chamber
Byrd (2010)
Lautenberg (2013)
Bold - Presidents and chief justices • 1 Died in 1825, exhumed and honored before reinterment • 2 Lain in repose and Lain in state
showvteMichigan's delegation(s) to the 81st–93rd United States Congress (ordered by seniority)
81st
Senate: ▌A. | text | {
"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald_Ford",
"_split_id": 111
} | [
"content"
] | null | null |
dc38dbd77ce629d85722a81efc275d52 | Vandenberg (R) · ▌H. Ferguson (R)
House:
▌E. Michener (R)
▌R. Woodruff (R)
▌J. Wolcott (R)
▌J. Dingell Sr. (D)
▌G. Dondero (R)
▌J. Lesinski Sr. (D)
▌G. Sadowski (D)
▌W. Blackney (R)
▌F. Crawford (R)
▌A. Engel (R)
▌C. Hoffman (R)
▌L. Rabaut (D)
▌G. O'Brien (D)
▌P. Shafer (R)
▌J. Bennett (R)
▌C. Potter (R)
▌G. Ford (R)
82nd
Senate:
▌A. Vandenberg (R)
▌H. Ferguson (R)
▌B. Moody (D)
▌C. Potter (R)
House:
▌R. Woodruff (R)
▌J. Wolcott (R)
▌J. Dingell Sr. (D)
▌G. Dondero (R)
▌W. Blackney (R)
▌F. Crawford (R)
▌C. Hoffman (R)
▌L. Rabaut (D)
▌G. O'Brien (D)
▌P. Shafer (R)
▌J. Bennett (R)
▌C. Potter (R)
▌G. Ford (R)
▌J. Lesinski Jr. (D)
▌T. Machrowicz (D)
▌G. Meader (R)
▌R. Thompson (R)
83rd
Senate: ▌H. Ferguson (R) · ▌C. Potter (R)
House:
▌J. Wolcott (R)
▌J. Dingell Sr. (D)
▌G. Dondero (R)
▌C. Hoffman (R)
▌L. Rabaut (D)
▌G. O'Brien (D)
▌P. Shafer (R)
▌J. Bennett (R)
▌G. Ford (R)
▌J. Lesinski Jr. (D)
▌T. Machrowicz (D)
▌G. Meader (R)
▌R. Thompson (R)
▌A. Bentley (R)
▌E. A. Cederberg (R)
▌V. Knox (R)
▌K. Clardy (R)
▌C. Oakman (R)
84th
Senate: ▌C. | text | {
"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald_Ford",
"_split_id": 112
} | [
"content"
] | null | null |
943fb19af1ad685208585c2fef7e3677 | Potter (R) · ▌P. McNamara (D)
House:
▌J. Wolcott (R)
▌J. Dingell Sr. (D)
▌G. Dondero (R)
▌C. Hoffman (R)
▌L. Rabaut (D)
▌J. Bennett (R)
▌G. Ford (R)
▌J. Lesinski Jr. (D)
▌T. Machrowicz (D)
▌G. Meader (R)
▌R. Thompson (R)
▌A. Bentley (R)
▌E. A. Cederberg (R)
▌V. Knox (R)
▌M. Griffiths (D)
▌C. Diggs (D)
▌A. Johansen (R)
▌D. Hayworth (D)
▌J. Dingell Jr. (D)
85th
Senate: ▌C. Potter (R) · ▌P. McNamara (D)
House:
▌C. Hoffman (R)
▌L. Rabaut (D)
▌J. Bennett (R)
▌G. Ford (R)
▌J. Lesinski Jr. (D)
▌T. Machrowicz (D)
▌G. Meader (R)
▌A. Bentley (R)
▌E. A. Cederberg (R)
▌V. Knox (R)
▌M. Griffiths (D)
▌C. Diggs (D)
▌J. Dingell Jr. (D)
▌A. Johansen (R)
▌W. Broomfield (R)
▌C. Chamberlain (R)
▌R. Griffin (R)
▌R. McIntosh (R)
86th
Senate: ▌P. McNamara (D) · ▌P. Hart (D)
House:
▌C. Hoffman (R)
▌L. Rabaut (D)
▌J. Bennett (R)
▌G. Ford (R)
▌J. Lesinski Jr. (D)
▌T. Machrowicz (D)
▌G. Meader (R)
▌A. Bentley (R)
▌E. A. Cederberg (R)
▌V. Knox (R)
▌M. Griffiths (D)
▌C. Diggs (D)
▌J. Dingell Jr. (D)
▌A. Johansen (R)
▌W. Broomfield (R)
▌C. Chamberlain (R)
▌R. Griffin (R)
▌J. | text | {
"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald_Ford",
"_split_id": 113
} | [
"content"
] | null | null |
e90990b8ff6091adb700c835a16c8d18 | O'Hara (D)
87th
Senate: ▌P. McNamara (D) · ▌P. Hart (D)
House:
▌C. Hoffman (R)
▌L. Rabaut (D)
▌J. Bennett (R)
▌G. Ford (R)
▌J. Lesinski Jr. (D)
▌T. Machrowicz (D)
▌G. Meader (R)
▌E. A. Cederberg (R)
▌V. Knox (R)
▌M. Griffiths (D)
▌C. Diggs (D)
▌J. Dingell Jr. (D)
▌A. Johansen (R)
▌W. Broomfield (R)
▌C. Chamberlain (R)
▌R. Griffin (R)
▌J. O'Hara (D)
▌R. J. Harvey (R)
▌L. Nedzi (D)
▌H. Ryan (D)
88th
Senate: ▌P. McNamara (D) · ▌P. Hart (D)
House:
▌J. Bennett (R)
▌G. Ford (R)
▌J. Lesinski Jr. (D)
▌G. Meader (R)
▌E. A. Cederberg (R)
▌V. Knox (R)
▌M. Griffiths (D)
▌C. Diggs (D)
▌J. Dingell Jr. (D)
▌A. Johansen (R)
▌W. Broomfield (R)
▌C. Chamberlain (R)
▌R. Griffin (R)
▌J. O'Hara (D)
▌R. J. Harvey (R)
▌L. Nedzi (D)
▌H. Ryan (D)
▌J. E. Hutchinson (R)
▌N. Staebler (D)
89th
Senate:
▌P. McNamara (D)
▌P. Hart (D)
▌R. Griffin (R)
House:
▌G. Ford (R)
▌E. A. Cederberg (R)
▌J. Dingell Jr. (D)
▌M. Griffiths (D)
▌C. Diggs (D)
▌W. Broomfield (R)
▌C. Chamberlain (R)
▌R. Griffin (R)
▌J. O'Hara (D)
▌R. J. Harvey (R)
▌L. Nedzi (D)
▌J. | text | {
"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald_Ford",
"_split_id": 114
} | [
"content"
] | null | null |
6b3aaa1548ad2eefb120e7d099fc0215 | E. Hutchinson (R)
▌J. Conyers (D)
▌W. Ford (D)
▌R. Clevenger (D)
▌B. Farnum (D)
▌J. Mackie (D)
▌P. Todd (D)
▌W. Vivian (D)
▌G. Vander Jagt (R)
90th
Senate: ▌P. Hart (D) · ▌R. Griffin (R)
House:
▌G. Ford (R)
▌E. A. Cederberg (R)
▌J. Dingell Jr. (D)
▌M. Griffiths (D)
▌C. Diggs (D)
▌W. Broomfield (R)
▌C. Chamberlain (R)
▌J. O'Hara (D)
▌R. J. Harvey (R)
▌L. Nedzi (D)
▌J. E. Hutchinson (R)
▌J. Conyers (D)
▌W. Ford (D)
▌G. Vander Jagt (R)
▌G. Brown (R)
▌M. Esch (R)
▌J. McDonald (R)
▌D. Riegle (R)
▌P. Ruppe (R)
91st
Senate: ▌P. Hart (D) · ▌R. Griffin (R)
House:
▌G. Ford (R)
▌E. A. Cederberg (R)
▌J. Dingell Jr. (D)
▌M. Griffiths (D)
▌C. Diggs (D)
▌W. Broomfield (R)
▌C. Chamberlain (R)
▌J. O'Hara (D)
▌R. J. Harvey (R)
▌L. Nedzi (D)
▌J. E. Hutchinson (R)
▌J. Conyers (D)
▌W. Ford (D)
▌G. Vander Jagt (R)
▌G. Brown (R)
▌M. Esch (R)
▌J. McDonald (R)
▌D. Riegle (R)
▌P. Ruppe (R)
92nd
Senate: ▌P. Hart (D) · ▌R. Griffin (R)
House:
▌G. Ford (R)
▌E. A. Cederberg (R)
▌J. Dingell Jr. (D)
▌M. Griffiths (D)
▌C. Diggs (D)
▌W. | text | {
"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald_Ford",
"_split_id": 115
} | [
"content"
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9418b1b05dfdd605da76d1f79de0b782 | Broomfield (R)
▌C. Chamberlain (R)
▌J. O'Hara (D)
▌R. J. Harvey (R)
▌L. Nedzi (D)
▌J. E. Hutchinson (R)
▌J. Conyers (D)
▌W. Ford (D)
▌G. Vander Jagt (R)
▌G. Brown (R)
▌M. Esch (R)
▌J. McDonald (R)
▌D. Riegle (R)
▌P. Ruppe (R)
93rd
Senate: ▌P. Hart (D) · ▌R. Griffin (R)
House:
▌G. Ford (R)
▌E. A. Cederberg (R)
▌J. Dingell Jr. (D)
▌M. Griffiths (D)
▌C. Diggs (D)
▌W. Broomfield (R)
▌C. Chamberlain (R)
▌J. O'Hara (D)
▌R. J. Harvey (R)
▌L. Nedzi (D)
▌J. E. Hutchinson (R)
▌J. Conyers (D)
▌W. Ford (D)
▌G. Vander Jagt (R)
▌G. Brown (R)
▌M. Esch (R)
▌D. Riegle (R)
▌P. Ruppe (R)
▌R. Huber (R)
▌R. Vander Veen (D)
▌J. | text | {
"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald_Ford",
"_split_id": 116
} | [
"content"
] | null | null |
64019218e051964381f3bab9d9ab94c2 | B. Traxler (D)
showAuthority control General
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<img src="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" title="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;" />
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gerald_Ford&oldid=1141630430"
Categories: Gerald Ford1913 births2006 deaths20th-century American Episcopalians21st-century American Episcopalians20th-century presidents of the United States20th-century vice presidents of the United StatesAmerican adopteesAmerican athlete-politiciansAmerican football centersUnited States Navy personnel of World War IIAmerican people of English descentAmerican shooting survivorsBurials in MichiganCongressional Gold Medal recipientsDeaths from cerebrovascular diseaseDeaths from arteriosclerosisEast Grand Rapids, MichiganAmerican FreemasonsGerald Ford familyMembers of the Warren CommissionMichigan lawyersMichigan Wolverines football playersMilitary personnel from MichiganMilitary personnel from Omaha, NebraskaMinority leaders of the United States House of RepresentativesNixon administration cabinet membersPeople from Kent County, MichiganPeople from Rancho Mirage, CaliforniaPlayers of American football from MichiganPoliticians from Grand Rapids, MichiganPoliticians from Omaha, NebraskaPresidential Medal of Freedom recipientsPresidents of the United StatesRepublican Party (United States) presidential nomineesRepublican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from MichiganRepublican Party presidents of the United StatesRepublican Party vice presidents of the United StatesSons of the American RevolutionUniversity of Michigan Law School alumniUnited States Navy officersCandidates in the 1976 United States presidential electionVice presidents of the United StatesYale Bulldogs football coachesYale Law School alumniPeople of the Cold WarHidden categories: Webarchive template wayback linksCS1 French-language sources (fr)All articles with dead external linksArticles with dead external links from June 2022Articles with permanently dead external linksCS1 uses Japanese-language script (ja)CS1 Japanese-language sources (ja)Articles with short descriptionShort description matches WikidataWikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pagesUse American English from February 2022All Wikipedia articles written in American EnglishUse mdy dates from September 2020Articles with hAudio microformatsPages using embedded infobox templates with the title parameterAll articles with unsourced statementsArticles with unsourced statements from September 2022Pages using Sister project links with wikidata mismatchPeople appearing on C-SPANArticles with Internet Archive linksArticles with LibriVox linksArticles with Project Gutenberg linksArticles with ISNI identifiersArticles with VIAF identifiersArticles with WorldCat identifiersArticles with BIBSYS identifiersArticles with BNE identifiersArticles with BNF identifiersArticles with CANTICN identifiersArticles with GND identifiersArticles with ICCU identifiersArticles with J9U identifiersArticles with LCCN identifiersArticles with LNB identifiersArticles with NDL identifiersArticles with NKC identifiersArticles with NLA identifiersArticles with NLG identifiersArticles with NLK identifiersArticles with NSK identifiersArticles with NTA identifiersArticles with PLWABN identifiersArticles with SELIBR identifiersArticles with DTBIO identifiersArticles with CINII identifiersArticles with FAST identifiersArticles with MusicBrainz identifiersArticles with NARA identifiersArticles with RERO identifiersArticles with SNAC-ID identifiersArticles with SUDOC identifiersArticles with Trove identifiersArticles with USCongress identifiers
This page was last edited on 26 February 2023, at 00:52 (UTC).
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4c427d3f8d2f686d1f120a46e6cf9901 | Toggle the table of contents
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1Early life and education
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1.1College education and adulthood
1.2Law practice and marriage
2Career before the Revolution
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2.1Opponent of Stamp Act
2.2Counsel for the British: Boston Massacre
2.3Becoming a revolutionary
3Continental Congress
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3.1Member of Continental Congress
3.2Independence
4Diplomatic service
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4.1Commissioner to France
4.2Ambassador to the Dutch Republic
4.3Treaty of Paris
4.4Ambassador to Great Britain
5Vice presidency (1789–1797)
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5.1Election
5.2Tenure
5.3Election of 1796
6Presidency (1797–1801)
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6.1Inauguration
6.2Failed peace commission and XYZ affair
6.3Alien and Sedition Acts
6.4Quasi-War
6.5Fries's Rebellion
6.6Federalist divisions and peace
6.7Establishing government institutions and move to Washington
6.8Election of 1800
6.9Cabinet
6.10Judicial appointments
7Post-presidency (1801–1826)
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7.1Initial years
7.2Correspondence with Jefferson
7.3Last years and death
8Political writings
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8.1Thoughts on Government
8.2Massachusetts Constitution
8.3Defence of the Constitutions
9Political philosophy and views
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9.1Slavery
9.2Accusations of monarchism
9.3Religious views
10Legacy
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10.1Historical reputation
10.2In memoriam
11Explanatory notes
12References
13Bibliography
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13.1Biographies
13.2Specialized studies
13.3Primary sources
14Further reading
15External links
John Adams
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
President of the United States from 1797 to 1801
.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}This article is about the second president of the United States. | text | {
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40dd4ebb71f9e20d3b31081e38017b9c | For his son, the sixth president, see John Quincy Adams. For other uses, see John Adams (disambiguation).
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dece1d0c1a6df61e54d0e0cf11c591b0 | .mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-header,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-subheader,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-above,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-title,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-image,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-below{text-align:center}John AdamsPortrait by Gilbert Stuart, c. 1800–18152nd President of the United StatesIn officeMarch 4, 1797 – March 4, 1801Vice PresidentThomas JeffersonPreceded byGeorge WashingtonSucceeded byThomas Jefferson1st Vice President of the United StatesIn officeApril 21, 1789 – March 4, 1797PresidentGeorge WashingtonPreceded byOffice establishedSucceeded byThomas Jefferson1st United States Minister to Great BritainIn officeApril 1, 1785 – February 20, 1788[1]Appointed byCongress of the ConfederationSucceeded byThomas Pinckney1st United States Minister to the NetherlandsIn officeApril 19, 1782 – March 30, 1788[1]Appointed byCongress of the ConfederationSucceeded byCharles W. F. Dumas (acting)United States Envoy to FranceIn officeNovember 28, 1777[2][3] – March 8, 1779Preceded bySilas DeaneSucceeded byBenjamin FranklinChairman of the Marine CommitteeIn officeOctober 13, 1775 – October 28, 1779Preceded byOffice establishedSucceeded byFrancis Lewis (Continental Board of Admiralty)12th Chief Justice of the Massachusetts Superior Court of JudicatureIn officeOctober 1775 – February 1777Appointed byProvincial CongressPreceded byPeter OliverSucceeded byWilliam CushingDelegate from Massachusettsto the Continental CongressIn officeSeptember 5, 1774 – November 28, 1777Preceded byOffice establishedSucceeded bySamuel Holten
Personal detailsBorn(1735-10-30)October 30, 1735Braintree, Massachusetts Bay, British America (now Quincy)DiedJuly 4, 1826(1826-07-04) (aged 90)Quincy, Massachusetts, U.S.Resting placeUnited First Parish ChurchPolitical party.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}
Pro-Administration (before 1795)
Federalist (1795 – c. 1808)
Democratic-Republican (c. 1808 – 1826)[4]
SpouseAbigail Smith
(m. .mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}1764; died 1818)Children6, including Abigail, John Quincy, Charles, and ThomasParents
John Adams Sr.
Susanna Boylston
EducationHarvard University (AB, AM)Occupation.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}PoliticianlawyerSignature
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This article is part of a series aboutJohn Adams
Early life
Family
Diplomacy
Electoral history
Legacy
Memorials
Bibliography
1st Vice President of the United States
Vice Presidency
2nd President of the United States
Inauguration
Presidency
Cabinet appointments
Judicial appointments
XYZ Affair
Alien and Sedition Acts
Fries's Rebellion
Treaty of Tellico
Treaty of Tripoli
State of the Union Address
1797
1798
1799
1800
Publications
Thoughts on Government
Defense of Constitutions
Vice Presidential and Presidential elections
1789 election
1792 election
1796 election
1800 election
Post-presidency
Correspondence with Jefferson
Death
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John Adams (October 30, 1735[a] – July 4, 1826) was an American statesman, attorney, diplomat, writer, and Founding Father who served as the second president of the United States from 1797 to 1801. | text | {
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1d948516ca9df036e29ef3b4e298b9c8 | Before his presidency, he was a leader of the American Revolution that achieved independence from Great Britain. During the latter part of the war and in the early years of the nation, he served as a diplomat in Europe. He was the first person to hold the office of vice president of the United States, serving from 1789 to 1797. Adams was a dedicated diarist and regularly corresponded with many important contemporaries, including his wife and adviser Abigail Adams as well as his friend and rival Thomas Jefferson.
A lawyer and political activist prior to the Revolution, Adams was devoted to the right to counsel and presumption of innocence. He defied anti-British sentiment and successfully defended British soldiers against murder charges arising from the Boston Massacre. Adams was a Massachusetts delegate to the Continental Congress and became a leader of the revolution. He assisted Jefferson in drafting the Declaration of Independence in 1776. As a diplomat in Europe, he helped negotiate a peace treaty with Great Britain and secured vital governmental loans. Adams was the primary author of the Massachusetts Constitution in 1780, which influenced the United States constitution, as did his essay Thoughts on Government.
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22fea0d8e9b035762232ff3656602a5e | Adams was elected to two terms as vice president under President George Washington and was elected as the United States' second president in 1796. He was the only president elected under the banner of the Federalist Party. During his single term, Adams encountered fierce criticism from the Jeffersonian Republicans and from some in his own Federalist Party, led by his rival Alexander Hamilton. Adams signed the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts, and built up the Army and Navy in the undeclared naval war (called the "Quasi-War") with France. During his term, he became the first president to reside in the executive mansion now known as the White House.
In his bid in 1800 for reelection to the presidency, opposition from Federalists and accusations of despotism from Jeffersonians led to Adams losing to his vice president and former friend Jefferson, and he retired to Massachusetts. He eventually resumed his friendship with Jefferson by initiating a correspondence that lasted fourteen years. He and his wife generated the Adams political family, a line of politicians, diplomats, and historians. It includes their son John Quincy Adams, the sixth president. | text | {
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6231f0f8b31918d72a007dd15b6c02e | John Adams died on July 4, 1826 – the fiftieth anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence – hours after Jefferson's death. Adams and his son are the only presidents of the first twelve who never owned slaves. Surveys of historians and scholars have favorably ranked his administration.
Early life and education
Further information: Adams political family
Adams's birthplace now in Quincy, Massachusetts
John Adams was born on October 30, 1735 (October 19, 1735, Old Style, Julian calendar), to John Adams Sr. and Susanna Boylston. He had two younger brothers: Peter (1738–1823) and Elihu (1741–1775).[5] Adams was born on the family farm in Braintree, Massachusetts.[6][b] His mother was from a leading medical family of present-day Brookline, Massachusetts. His father was a deacon in the Congregational Church, a farmer, a cordwainer, and a lieutenant in the militia.[7] Adams often praised his father and recalled their close relationship.[8] Adams's great-great-grandfather Henry Adams immigrated to Massachusetts from Braintree, Essex, England, around 1638.[7]
Adams's formal education began at age six at a dame school for boys and girls, conducted at a teacher's home, and was centered upon The New England Primer. | text | {
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7fdb0ec4cd88f6a7b86184ca86573c42 | He then attended Braintree Latin School under Joseph Cleverly, where studies included Latin, rhetoric, logic, and arithmetic. Adams's early education included incidents of truancy, a dislike for his master, and a desire to become a farmer. All discussion on the matter ended with his father's command that he remain in school: "You shall comply with my desires."Deacon Adams hired a new schoolmaster named Joseph Marsh, and his son responded positively.[9] Adams later noted that "As a child I enjoyed perhaps the greatest of blessings that can be bestowed upon men – that of a mother who was anxious and capable to form the characters of her children."[10]
College education and adulthood
At age sixteen, Adams entered Harvard College in 1751, studying under Joseph Mayhew.[11] As an adult, Adams was a keen scholar, studying the works of ancient writers such as Thucydides, Plato, Cicero, and Tacitus in their original languages.[12] Though his father expected him to be a minister,[13] after his 1755 graduation with an A.B. degree, he taught school temporarily in Worcester, while pondering his permanent vocation. | text | {
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c3be619db01d7dd5bb49d20a8ef5825b | In the next four years, he began to seek prestige, craving "Honour or Reputation" and "more defference from [his] fellows", and was determined to be "a great Man". He decided to become a lawyer to further those ends, writing his father that he found among lawyers "noble and gallant achievements" but, among the clergy, the "pretended sanctity of some absolute dunces". He had reservations about his self-described "trumpery" and failure to share the "happiness of [his] fellow men".[14]
When the French and Indian War began in 1754, Adams, aged nineteen, felt guilty he was the first in his family not to be a militia officer. He did not go to war, but said "I longed more ardently to be a Soldier than I ever did to be a Lawyer".[15]
Law practice and marriage
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In 1756, Adams began reading law under James Putnam, a leading lawyer in Worcester. | text | {
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dcb8ecebee4fc9bceed16b826c504f0f | [16] In 1758, he earned an A.M. from Harvard,[17] and in 1759 was admitted to the bar.[18] He developed an early habit of writing about events and impressions of men in his diary; this included James Otis Jr.'s 1761 legal argument challenging the legality of British writs of assistance, allowing the British to search a home without notice or reason. Otis's argument inspired Adams to the cause of the American colonies.[19]
A group of Boston businessmen had been appalled at the writs of assistance that the crown had started issuing to clamp down on colonial smuggling. Writs of assistance were not only search warrants without any limits, they also required local sheriffs, and even local citizens, to assist in breaking into colonists' houses or lend whatever assistance customs officials desired.[20][21][22] The outraged businessmen engaged lawyer James Otis Jr. to challenge writs of assistance in court. Otis gave the speech of his life, making references to the Magna Carta, classical allusions, natural law, and the colonists' "rights as Englishmen".[20][23][24][22]
The court ruled against the merchants. However, the case lit the fire that became the American Revolution. | text | {
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59a46609035ee4950a7a47bfe575249a | Otis's arguments were published in the colonies, and stirred widespread support for colonial rights. As a young lawyer, John Adams was observing the case in the packed courtroom, and was moved by Otis's performance and legal arguments. Adams later said that "Then and there the child Independence was born."[25][24][22][26]
In 1763, Adams explored various aspects of political theory in seven essays written for Boston newspapers. He offered them anonymously, under the pen name "Humphrey Ploughjogger", and in them ridiculed the selfish thirst for power he perceived among the Massachusetts colonial elite.[27] Adams was initially less well known than his older cousin Samuel Adams, but his influence emerged from his work as a constitutional lawyer, his analysis of history, and his dedication to republicanism. Adams often found his own irascible nature a constraint in his political career.[13]
In the late 1750s, Adams fell in love with Hannah Quincy; while they were alone, he was poised to propose but was interrupted by friends, and the moment was lost. In 1759, he met 15-year-old Abigail Smith, his third cousin,[28] through his friend Richard Cranch, who was courting Abigail's older sister. | text | {
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a24a431aa5b8c5761ae3e8ba0ab2a380 | Adams initially was not impressed with Abigail and her two sisters, writing that they were not "fond, nor frank, nor candid".[29] In time, he grew close to Abigail and they were married on October 25, 1764, despite the opposition of Abigail's haughty mother. They shared a love of books and kindred personalities that proved honest in their praise and criticism of each other. After his father's death in 1761, Adams had inherited a .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}9+1⁄2-acre (3.8 ha) farm and a house where they lived until 1783.[30][31] John and Abigail had six children: Abigail "Nabby" in 1765,[32] future president John Quincy Adams in 1767,[33] Susanna in 1768, Charles in 1770, Thomas in 1772,[34] and Elizabeth in 1777.[35] Susanna died when she was one year old,[34] while Elizabeth was stillborn.[35] All three of his sons became lawyers. Charles and Thomas were unsuccessful, became alcoholics, and died before old age, while John Quincy excelled and launched a career in politics. Adams's writings are devoid of his feelings about the sons' fates. | text | {
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5c206b160d25225645f0a82946a4430b | [36]
Career before the Revolution
Opponent of Stamp Act
Adams rose to prominence leading widespread opposition to the Stamp Act of 1765. The Act was imposed by the British Parliament without consulting the American legislatures. It required payment of a direct tax by the colonies for stamped documents,[37][38] and was designed to pay for the costs of Britain's war with France. Power of enforcement was given to British vice admiralty courts, rather than common law courts.[39][38] These Admiralty courts acted without juries and were greatly disliked.[37] The Act was despised for both its monetary cost and implementation without colonial consent, and encountered violent resistance, preventing its enforcement.[39] Adams authored the "Braintree Instructions" in 1765, in the form of a letter sent to the representatives of Braintree in the Massachusetts legislature. In it, he explained that the Act should be opposed since it denied two fundamental rights guaranteed to all Englishmen (and which all free men deserved): rights to be taxed only by consent and to be tried by a jury of one's peers. The instructions were a succinct and forthright defense of colonial rights and liberties, and served as a model for other towns' instructions. | text | {
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6a7ce368c98d4a295c8bcd1a2fc119f5 | [40]
Adams also reprised his pen name "Humphrey Ploughjogger" in opposition to the Stamp Act in August of that year. Included were four articles to the Boston Gazette. The articles were republished in The London Chronicle in 1768 as True Sentiments of America, also known as A Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law. He also spoke in December before the governor and council, pronouncing the Stamp Act invalid in the absence of Massachusetts representation at Parliament.[41][42] He noted that many protests were sparked by a popular sermon of Boston minister Jonathan Mayhew, invoking Romans 13 to justify insurrection.[43] While Adams took a strong stand against the Act in writing, he rebuffed attempts by Samuel Adams, a leader in the popular protest movements, to involve him in mob actions and public demonstrations.[44] In 1766, a town meeting of Braintree elected Adams as a selectman.[45]
With the repeal of the Stamp Act in early 1766, tensions with Britain temporarily eased.[46] Putting politics aside, Adams moved his family to Boston in April 1768 to focus on his law practice. The family rented a clapboard house on Brattle Street that was known locally as the "White House". | text | {
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c24c2afed7a972366a73e022f6427389 | He, Abigail, and the children lived there for a year, then moved to Cold Lane; still, later, they moved again to a larger house in Brattle Square in the center of the city.[33] In 1768, Adams successfully defended the merchant John Hancock, who was accused of violating British acts of trade in the Liberty Affair.[47] With the death of Jeremiah Gridley and the mental collapse of Otis, Adams became Boston's most prominent lawyer.[45]
Counsel for the British: Boston Massacre
Boston Massacre of 1770 by Alonzo Chappel (1878)
Britain's passage of the Townshend Acts in 1767 revived tensions, and an increase in mob violence led the British to dispatch more troops to the colonies.[48] On March 5, 1770, when a lone British sentry was accosted by a mob of men and boys, eight of his fellow soldiers reinforced him, and the crowd around them grew to several hundred. The soldiers were struck with snowballs, ice, and stones, and in the chaos the soldiers opened fire, killing five civilians, bringing about the infamous Boston Massacre. The accused soldiers were arrested on charges of murder. | text | {
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f4d0c4b3a05a211f2d5b4d2de2041af3 | When no other attorneys would come to their defense, Adams was impelled to do so despite the risk to his reputation – he believed no person should be denied the right to counsel and a fair trial. The trials were delayed so that passions could cool.[49]
The week-long trial of the commander, Captain Thomas Preston, began on October 24 and ended in his acquittal, because it was impossible to prove that he had ordered his soldiers to fire.[50] The remaining soldiers were tried in December when Adams made his famed argument regarding jury decisions: "Facts are stubborn things; and whatever may be our wishes, our inclinations, or the dictates of our passion, they cannot alter the state of facts and evidence."[51] He added, "It is more important that innocence be protected than it is that guilt be punished, for guilt and crimes are so frequent in this world that they cannot all be punished. | text | {
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5eb648e29035cc82a29fcfdfddb67b2c | But if innocence itself is brought to the bar and condemned, perhaps to die, then the citizen will say, 'whether I do good or whether I do evil is immaterial, for innocence itself is no protection,' and if such an idea as that were to take hold in the mind of the citizen that would be the end of security whatsoever."Adams won an acquittal for six of the soldiers. Two, who had fired directly into the crowd, were convicted of manslaughter. Adams was paid a small sum by his clients.[30]
According to biographer John E. Ferling, during jury selection Adams "expertly exercised his right to challenge individual jurors and contrived what amounted to a packed jury. Not only were several jurors closely tied through business arrangements to the British army, but five ultimately became Loyalist exiles."While Adams's defence was helped by a weak prosecution, he also "performed brilliantly."[52] Ferling surmises that Adams was encouraged to take the case in exchange for political office; one of Boston's seats opened three months later in the Massachusetts legislature, and Adams was the town's first choice to fill the vacancy. | text | {
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85297ab69de085a3e22f4d169c065340 | [53]
The prosperity of his law practice increased from this exposure, as did the demands on his time. In 1771, Adams moved his family to Braintree but kept his office in Boston. He noted on the day of the family's move, "Now my family is away, I feel no Inclination at all, no Temptation, to be any where but at my Office. I am in it by 6 in the Morning – I am in it at 9 at night. ... In the Evening, I can be alone at my Office, and no where else."After some time in the capital, he became disenchanted with the rural and "vulgar" Braintree as a home for his family – in August 1772, he moved them back to Boston. He purchased a large brick house on Queen Street, not far from his office.[54] In 1774, Adams and Abigail returned the family to the farm due to the increasingly unstable situation in Boston, and Braintree remained their permanent Massachusetts home. | text | {
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f03b63e62f083e452f227d656f22babd | [55]
Becoming a revolutionary
Adams, who had been among the more conservative of the Founders, persistently held that while British actions against the colonies had been wrong and misguided, open insurrection was unwarranted and peaceful petition with the ultimate view of remaining part of Great Britain was a better alternative.[56] His ideas began to change around 1772, as the British Crown assumed payment of the salaries of Governor Thomas Hutchinson and his judges instead of the Massachusetts legislature. Adams wrote in the Gazette that these measures would destroy judicial independence and place the colonial government in closer subjugation to the Crown. After discontent among members of the legislature, Hutchinson delivered a speech warning that Parliament's powers over the colonies were absolute and that any resistance was illegal. Subsequently, John Adams, Samuel, and Joseph Hawley drafted a resolution adopted by the House of Representatives threatening independence as an alternative to tyranny. The resolution argued that the colonists had never been under the sovereignty of Parliament. Their original charter, as well as their allegiance, was exclusive to the King. | text | {
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a9ddbcefcc28f379e943e1ce17c04086 | [57]
The Boston Tea Party, a historic demonstration against the British East India Company's tea monopoly over American merchants, took place on December 16, 1773. The British schooner Dartmouth, loaded with tea to be traded subject to the new Tea Act, had previously dropped anchor in Boston harbor. By 9:00 PM, the work of the protesters was done – they had demolished 342 chests of tea worth about ten thousand pounds. The Dartmouth owners briefly retained Adams as legal counsel regarding their liability for the destroyed shipment. Adams applauded the destruction of the tea, calling it the "grandest Event" in the history of the colonial protest movement,[58] and writing in his diary that the dutied tea's destruction was an "absolutely and indispensably" necessary action.[59]
Continental Congress
Member of Continental Congress
John Trumbull's Declaration of Independence depicts the Committee of Five presenting its draft to Congress. Adams is depicted in the center with his hand on his hip.
In 1774, at the instigation of John's cousin Samuel Adams, the First Continental Congress was convened in response to the Intolerable Acts, a series of deeply unpopular measures intended to punish Massachusetts, centralize authority in Britain, and prevent rebellion in other colonies. | text | {
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5e1154718f7e624131dd2d46f9eea195 | Four delegates were chosen by the Massachusetts legislature, including John Adams, who agreed to attend,[60] despite an emotional plea from his friend, Attorney General Jonathan Sewall, not to.[61]
Shortly after he arrived in Philadelphia, Adams was placed on the 23-member Grand Committee tasked with drafting a letter of grievances to King George III. The members of the committee soon split into conservative and radical factions.[62] Although the Massachusetts delegation was largely passive, Adams criticized conservatives such as Joseph Galloway, James Duane, and Peter Oliver who advocated a conciliatory policy towards the British or felt that the colonies had a duty to remain loyal to Britain, although his views at the time did align with those of conservative John Dickinson. Adams sought the repeal of objectionable policies, but at this early stage he continued to see benefits in maintaining the ties with Britain.[63] He renewed his push for the right to a jury trial. | text | {
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f0ff2025b5545764054aacd2801d4534 | [64] He complained of what he considered the pretentiousness of the other delegates, writing to Abigail, "I believe if it was moved and seconded that We should come to a Resolution that Three and two make five We should be entertained with Logick and Rhetorick, Law, History, Politicks and Mathematicks, concerning the Subject for two whole Days, and then We should pass the Resolution unanimously in the Affirmative."[65] Adams ultimately helped engineer a compromise between the conservatives and the radicals.[66] The Congress disbanded in October after sending the final petition to the King and showing its displeasure with the Intolerable Acts by endorsing the Suffolk Resolves.[67]
Adams's absence from home was hard on Abigail, who was left alone to care for the family. She still encouraged her husband in his task, writing: "You cannot be, I know, nor do I wish to see you an inactive Spectator, but if the Sword be drawn I bid adieu to all domestick felicity, and look forward to that Country where there is neither wars nor rumors of War in a firm belief that thro the mercy of its King we shall both rejoice there together. | text | {
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145a6f4f5fb9a7c3325a06e938c2ec7b | "[68]
News of the opening hostilities with the British at the Battles of Lexington and Concord made Adams hope that independence would soon become a reality. Three days after the battle, he rode into a militia camp and, while reflecting positively on the high spirits of the men, was distressed by their poor condition and lack of discipline.[69] A month later, Adams returned to Philadelphia for the Second Continental Congress as the leader of the Massachusetts delegation.[70] He moved cautiously at first, noting that the Congress was divided between Loyalists, those favoring independence, and those hesitant to take any position.[71] He became convinced that Congress was moving in the proper direction – away from Great Britain. Publicly, Adams supported "reconciliation if practicable," but privately agreed with Benjamin Franklin's confidential observation that independence was inevitable.[72]
In June 1775, with a view of promoting union among the colonies against Great Britain, he nominated George Washington of Virginia as commander-in-chief of the army then assembled around Boston.[73] He praised Washington's "skill and experience" as well as his "excellent universal character. | text | {
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a7353b0fa3730ea988398bbb6f2e88d9 | "[74] Adams opposed various attempts, including the Olive Branch Petition, aimed at trying to find peace between the colonies and Great Britain.[75] Invoking the already-long list of British actions against the colonies, he wrote, "In my opinion Powder and Artillery are the most efficacious, Sure, and infallibly conciliatory Measures We can adopt."[76] After his failure to prevent the petition from being enacted, he wrote a private letter derisively referring to Dickinson as a "piddling genius."The letter was intercepted and published in Loyalist newspapers. The well-respected Dickinson refused to greet Adams and he was for a time largely ostracized.[77] Ferling writes, "By the fall of 1775 no one in Congress labored more ardently than Adams to hasten the day when America would be separate from Great Britain."[72] In October 1775, Adams was appointed the chief judge of the Massachusetts Superior Court, but he never served, and resigned in February 1777.[73] In response to queries from other delegates, Adams wrote the 1776 pamphlet Thoughts on Government, which laid out an influential framework for republican constitutions. | text | {
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a1904fea193f715564db93df42ce434d | [78]
Independence
Throughout the first half of 1776, Adams grew increasingly impatient with what he perceived to be the slow pace of declaring independence.[79] He kept busy on the floor of the Congress, helping push through a plan to outfit armed ships to launch raids on enemy vessels. Later in the year, he drafted the first set of regulations to govern the provisional navy.[80] Adams drafted the preamble to the Lee Resolution of colleague Richard Henry Lee.[81] He developed a rapport with delegate Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, who had been slower to support independence but by early 1776 agreed that it was necessary.[82] On June 7, 1776, Adams seconded the Lee Resolution, which stated that the colonies were "free and independent states."[83]
The Assembly Room in Philadelphia's Independence Hall, where the Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence
Prior to independence being declared, Adams organized and selected a Committee of Five charged with drafting a Declaration of Independence. He chose himself, Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Robert R. Livingston and Roger Sherman.[84] Jefferson thought Adams should write the document, but Adams persuaded the committee to choose Jefferson. | text | {
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9521a9267558a4dd4f46598971c61282 | Many years later, Adams recorded his exchange with Jefferson: Jefferson asked, "Why will you not? You ought to do it."To which Adams responded, "I will not – reasons enough."Jefferson replied, "What can be your reasons?"and Adams responded, "Reason first, you are a Virginian, and a Virginian ought to appear at the head of this business. Reason second, I am obnoxious, suspected, and unpopular. You are very much otherwise. Reason third, you can write ten times better than I can.""Well," said Jefferson, "if you are decided, I will do as well as I can."[85] The Committee left no minutes, and the drafting process itself remains uncertain. Accounts written many years later by Jefferson and Adams, although frequently cited, are often contradictory.[86] Although the first draft was written primarily by Jefferson, Adams assumed a major role in its completion.[87] On July 1, the resolution was debated in Congress. It was expected to pass, but opponents such as Dickinson made a strong effort to oppose it anyhow. Jefferson, a poor debater, remained silent while Adams argued for its adoption. | text | {
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bb58f41d459c27b4af471d577fcc4e17 | [88] Many years later, Jefferson hailed Adams as "the pillar of [the Declaration's] support on the floor of Congress, [its] ablest advocate and defender against the multifarious assaults it encountered."[89] After editing the document further, Congress approved it on July 2. Twelve colonies voted in the affirmative, while New York abstained. Dickinson was absent.[90] On July 3, Adams wrote to Abigail that "yesterday was decided the greatest question which was ever debated in America, and a greater perhaps never was nor will be decided among men."He predicted that "[t]he second day of July, 1776, will be the most memorable epoch in the history of America," and would be commemorated annually with great festivities.[91]
During the congress, Adams sat on ninety committees, chairing twenty-five, an unmatched workload among the congressmen. As Benjamin Rush reported, he was acknowledged "to be the first man in the House."[92] In June 1776, Adams became head of the Board of War and Ordnance, charged with keeping an accurate record of the officers in the army and their ranks, the disposition of troops throughout the colonies, and ammunition. | text | {
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d7eec1646a7268a33788d099b40bf24c | [93] He was referred to as a "one man war department," working up to eighteen-hour days and mastering the details of raising, equipping and fielding an army under civilian control.[94] As chairman of the Board, Adams functioned as a de facto Secretary of War. He kept extensive correspondences with a wide range of Continental Army officers concerning supplies, munitions, and tactics. Adams emphasized to them the role of discipline in keeping an army orderly.[95] He also authored the "Plan of Treaties," laying out the Congress's requirements for a treaty with France.[94] He was worn out by the rigor of his duties and longed to return home. His finances were unsteady, and the money that he received as a delegate failed even to cover his own necessary expenses. However, the crisis caused by the defeat of the American soldiers kept him at his post.[96]
After defeating the Continental Army at the Battle of Long Island on August 27, 1776, British Admiral Richard Howe determined that a strategic advantage was at hand, and requested that Congress send representatives to negotiate peace. | text | {
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17ed44bbc96654b6e7f056098e883807 | A delegation consisting of Adams, Franklin, and Edward Rutledge met with Howe at the Staten Island Peace Conference on September 11.[97][98] Howe's authority was premised on the states' submission, so the parties found no common ground. When Lord Howe stated he could view the American delegates only as British subjects, Adams replied, "Your lordship may consider me in what light you please, ... except that of a British subject."[99] Adams learned many years later that his name was on a list of people specifically excluded from Howe's pardon-granting authority.[100] Adams was unimpressed with Howe and predicted American success.[101] He was able to return home to Braintree in October before leaving in January 1777 to resume his duties in Congress.[102]
Diplomatic service
Main article: Diplomacy of John Adams
Commissioner to France
Adams advocated in Congress that independence was necessary to establish trade, and conversely, trade was essential for the attainment of independence; he specifically urged negotiation of a commercial treaty with France. He was then appointed, along with Franklin, Dickinson, Benjamin Harrison of Virginia and Robert Morris of Pennsylvania, "to prepare a plan of treaties to be proposed to foreign powers." | text | {
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a0ffb549c002a1cf671d961c0ef8eff2 | While Jefferson was laboring over the Declaration of Independence, Adams worked on the Model Treaty. The Model Treaty authorized a commercial agreement with France but contained no provisions for formal recognition or military assistance. There were provisions for what constituted French territory. The treaty adhered to the provision that "free ships make free goods," allowing neutral nations to trade reciprocally while exempting an agreed-upon list of contraband. By late 1777, America's finances were in tatters, and that September a British army had defeated General Washington and captured Philadelphia. More Americans came to determine that mere commercial ties between the U.S. and France would not be enough, and that military assistance would be needed to end the war. The defeat of the British at Saratoga was expected to help induce France to agree to an alliance.[103]
In November 1777, Adams learned that he was to be named commissioner to France, replacing Silas Deane and joining Franklin and Arthur Lee in Paris to negotiate an alliance with the hesitant French. James Lovell invoked Adams's "inflexible integrity" and the need to have a youthful man who could counterbalance Franklin's advanced age. On November 27, Adams accepted, wasting no time. | text | {
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df112fbac0444854eae4d8009d3e18fe | He wrote to Lovell that he "should have wanted no motives or arguments" for his acceptance if he "could be sure that the public would be benefited by it."Abigail was left in Massachusetts to manage their home, but it was agreed that 10-year-old John Quincy would go with Adams, for the experience was "of inestimable value" to his maturation.[104] On February 17, 1778, Adams set sail aboard the frigate Boston, commanded by Captain Samuel Tucker.[105] The trip was stormy and treacherous. Lightning injured 19 sailors and killed one. The ship was pursued by several British vessels, with Adams taking up arms to help capture one. A cannon malfunction killed one of the crew and injured five others. On April 1, the Boston arrived in France, where Adams learned that France had agreed to an alliance with the United States on February 6.[106] Adams was annoyed by the other two commissioners: Lee, whom he thought paranoid and cynical, and the popular and influential Franklin, whom he found lethargic and overly deferential and accommodating to the French.[107] He assumed a less visible role but helped manage the delegation's finances and record-keeping. | text | {
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739cf21e62232e5c2f92cb63c072165b | [108] Frustrated by the perceived lack of commitment on the part of the French, Adams wrote a letter to French foreign minister Vergennes in December, arguing for French naval support in North America. Franklin toned down the letter, but Vergennes still ignored it.[109] In September 1778, Congress increased Franklin's powers by naming him minister plenipotentiary to France while Lee was sent to Spain. Adams received no instructions. Frustrated by the apparent slight, he departed France with his son John Quincy on March 8, 1779.[110] On August 2, they arrived in Braintree.[111]
Adams frequently clashed with Benjamin Franklin over how to manage French relations.
In late 1779, Adams was appointed as the sole minister charged with negotiations to establish a commercial treaty with Britain and end the war.[112] Following the conclusion of the Massachusetts constitutional convention, he departed for France in November,[113] accompanied by his sons John Quincy and 9-year-old Charles.[114] A leak in the ship forced it to land in Ferrol, Spain, and Adams and his party spent six weeks travelling overland until they reached Paris. | text | {
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b8423dd860c5bb5cbd993bf12953726d | [115] Constant disagreement between Lee and Franklin eventually resulted in Adams assuming the role of tie-breaker in almost all votes on commission business. He increased his usefulness by mastering the French language. Lee was eventually recalled. Adams closely supervised his sons' education while writing to Abigail about once every ten days.[116]
In contrast to Franklin, Adams viewed the Franco-American alliance pessimistically. The French, he believed, were involved for their own self-interest, and he grew frustrated by what he saw as their sluggishness in providing substantial aid to the Revolution. The French, Adams wrote, meant to keep their hands "above our chin to prevent us from drowning, but not to lift our heads out of water."[117] In March 1780, Congress, trying to curb inflation, voted to devalue the dollar. Vergennes summoned Adams for a meeting. In a letter sent in June, he insisted that any fluctuation of the dollar value without an exception for French merchants was unacceptable and requested that Adams write to Congress asking it to "retrace its steps."Adams bluntly defended the decision, not only claiming that the French merchants were doing better than Vergennes implied but voicing other grievances he had with the French. | text | {
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2276a81a4524cada4308f9268ce21a6f | The alliance had been made over two years before. During that period, an army under the comte de Rochambeau had been sent to assist Washington, but it had yet to do anything of significance and America was expecting French warships. These were needed, Adams wrote, to contain the British armies in the port cities and contend with the powerful British Navy. However, the French Navy had been sent not to the United States but to the West Indies to protect French interests there. France, Adams believed, needed to commit itself more fully to the alliance. Vergennes responded that he would deal only with Franklin, who sent a letter back to Congress critical of Adams.[118] Adams then left France of his own accord.[119]
Ambassador to the Dutch Republic
In mid-1780, Adams traveled to the Dutch Republic. One of the few other existing republics at the time, Adams thought it might be sympathetic to the American cause. Securing a Dutch loan could increase American independence from France and pressure Britain into peace. At first, Adams had no official status, but in July he was formally given permission to negotiate for a loan and took up residence in Amsterdam in August. | text | {
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d5fe50ce9a154b776ced9b3d32173b24 | Adams was originally optimistic and greatly enjoyed the city, but soon became disappointed. The Dutch, fearing British retaliation, refused to meet Adams. Before he had arrived, the British found out about secret aid the Dutch had sent to the Americans, the British authorized reprisals against their ships, which only increased their apprehension. Word had also reached Europe of American battlefield defeats. After five months of not meeting with a single Dutch official, Adams in early 1781 pronounced Amsterdam "the capital of the reign of Mammon."[120] He was finally invited to present his credentials as ambassador to the Dutch government at The Hague on April 19, 1781, but they did not promise any assistance. In the meantime, Adams thwarted an attempt by neutral European powers to mediate the war without consulting the United States.[121] In July, Adams consented to the departure of both of his sons; John Quincy went with Adams's secretary Francis Dana to Saint Petersburg as a French interpreter, in an effort to seek recognition from Russia, and a homesick Charles returned home with Adams's friend Benjamin Waterhouse. | text | {
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e35d64f1257c8f34c413086813f62ecb | [122] In August, shortly after being removed from his position of sole head of peace treaty negotiations, Adams fell seriously ill in "a major nervous breakdown."[123] That November, he learned that American and French troops had decisively defeated the British at Yorktown. The victory was in large part due to the assistance of the French Navy, which vindicated Adams's stand for increased naval assistance.[124]
News of the American triumph at Yorktown convulsed Europe. In January 1782, after recovering, Adams arrived at The Hague to demand that the States General of the Netherlands answer his petitions. His efforts stalled, and he took his cause to the people, successfully capitalizing on popular pro-American sentiment to push the States General towards recognizing the U.S. Several provinces began recognizing American independence. On April 19, the States General in The Hague formally recognized American independence and acknowledged Adams as ambassador.[125] On June 11, with the aid of the Dutch Patriotten leader Joan van der Capellen tot den Pol, Adams negotiated a loan of five million guilders. In October, he negotiated with the Dutch a treaty of amity and commerce. | text | {
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5c820ddcfe43b9dd6a9c9a3bfad8f900 | [126] The house that Adams bought during this stay in the Netherlands became the first American embassy on foreign soil.[127]
Treaty of Paris
Treaty of Paris by Benjamin West (Adams in front).
After negotiating the loan with the Dutch, Adams was re-appointed as the American commissioner to negotiate the war-ending treaty, the Treaty of Paris. Vergennes and France's minister to the United States, Anne-César de La Luzerne, disapproved of Adams, so Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Jay, and Henry Laurens were appointed to collaborate with Adams, although Jefferson did not initially go to Europe and Laurens was posted to the Dutch Republic following his imprisonment in the Tower of London.[128]
In the final negotiations, securing fishing rights off Newfoundland and Cape Breton Island proved both very important and very difficult. In response to very strict restrictions proposed by the British, Adams insisted that not only should American fishermen be allowed to travel as close to shore as desired, but that they should be allowed to cure their fish on the shores of Newfoundland.[129] This, and other statements, prompted Vergennes to secretly inform the British that France did not feel compelled to "sustain [these] pretentious ambitions." | text | {
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d3fb21bd73f525a0c541aa11e20812d6 | Overruling Franklin and distrustful of Vergennes, Jay and Adams decided not to consult with France, instead dealing directly with the British.[130] During these negotiations, Adams mentioned to the British that his proposed fishing terms were more generous than those offered by France in 1778 and that accepting would foster goodwill between Britain and the United States while putting pressure on France. Britain agreed, and the two sides worked out other provisions afterward. Vergennes was angered when he learned from Franklin of the American duplicity, but did not demand renegotiation. He was surprised at how much the Americans could extract. The independent negotiations allowed the French to plead innocence to their Spanish allies, whose demands for Gibraltar might have caused significant problems.[131] On September 3, 1783, the treaty was signed and American independence was recognized.[132]
Ambassador to Great Britain
Adams was appointed the first American ambassador to Great Britain in 1785.[133] After arriving in London from Paris, Adams had his first audience with King George III on June 1, which he meticulously recorded in a letter to Foreign Minister Jay the next day. | text | {
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90c1f8e28e242664710091683a6b289c | The pair's exchange was respectful; Adams promised to do all that he could to restore friendship and cordiality "between People who, tho Seperated [sic] by an Ocean and under different Governments have the Same Language, a Similar Religion and kindred Blood," and the King agreed to "receive with Pleasure, the Assurances of the friendly Dispositions of the United States."The King added that although "he had been the last to consent" to American independence, he wanted Adams to know that he had always done what he thought was right. Towards its end, he startled Adams by commenting that "There is an Opinion, among Some People, that you are not the most attached of all Your Countrymen, to the manners of France."Adams replied, "That Opinion sir, is not mistaken, I must avow to your Majesty, I have no Attachments but to my own Country."To this King George responded, "An honest Man will never have any other."[134]
Adams – 1785 Mather Brown Portrait
Adams was joined by Abigail while in London. | text | {
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e41aae49995e84b07e969cb26e17a9f2 | Suffering the hostility of the King's courtiers, they escaped when they could by seeking out Richard Price, minister of Newington Green Unitarian Church and instigator of the debate over the Revolution within Britain.[135] Adams corresponded with his sons John Quincy and Charles, both of whom were at Harvard, cautioning the former against the "smell of the midnight lamp" while admonishing the latter to devote sufficient time to study.[136] Jefferson visited Adams in 1786 while serving as Minister to France; the two toured the countryside and saw many British historical sites.[137] While in London, Adams met his old friend Jonathan Sewall, but the two discovered that they had grown too far apart to renew their friendship. Adams considered Sewall one of the war's casualties, and Sewall critiqued him as an ambassador:
.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 40px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}His abilities are undoubtedly equal to the mechanical parts of his business as ambassador, but this is not enough. He cannot dance, drink, game, flatter, promise, dress, swear with the gentlemen, and small talk and flirt with the ladies; in short, he has none of those essential arts or ornaments which constitute a courtier. | text | {
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c75b6c97fad9736d64a9104803bcac5e | There are thousands who, with a tenth of his understanding and without a spark of his honesty, would distance him infinitely in any court in Europe.[138]
While in London Adams wrote his three-volume A Defense of the Constitutions of Government of the United States of America. It was a response to those he had met in Europe who criticized the government systems of the American states.[139]
Adams's tenure in Britain was complicated by both countries failing to follow their treaty obligations. The American states had been delinquent in paying debts owed to British merchants, and in response, the British refused to vacate forts in the northwest as promised. Adams's attempts to resolve this dispute failed, and he was often frustrated by a lack of news of progress from home.[140] The news he received of tumult at home, such as Shays' Rebellion, heightened his anxiety. He then asked Jay to be relieved;[141] in 1788, he took his leave of George III, who engaged Adams in polite and formal conversation, promising to uphold his end of the treaty once America did the same. | text | {
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9d39a1d6be896d1e9560e98c91bdf337 | [142] Adams then went to The Hague to take formal leave of his ambassadorship there and to secure refinancing from the Dutch, allowing the United States to meet obligations on earlier loans.[143]
Vice presidency (1789–1797)
Election
Main article: 1788–1789 United States presidential election
On June 17, 1788, Adams arrived back in Massachusetts to a triumphant welcome. He returned to farming life in the months after. The nation's first presidential election was soon to take place. Because George Washington was widely expected to win the presidency, many felt that the vice presidency should go to a northerner. Although he made no public comments on the matter, Adams was the primary contender.[144] Each state's presidential electors gathered on February 4, 1789, to cast their two votes for the president. The person with the most votes would be president and the second would become vice president.[145] Adams received 34 electoral college votes in the election, second place behind Washington, who was a unanimous choice with 69 votes. As a result, Washington became the nation's first president, and Adams became its first vice president. | text | {
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2e2cb6c0c18e3b5287ab288ea7ffbd81 | Adams finished well ahead of all others except Washington, but was still offended by Washington receiving more than twice as many votes.[146] In an effort to ensure that Adams did not accidentally become president and that Washington would have an overwhelming victory, Alexander Hamilton convinced at least 7 of the 69 electors not to cast their vote for Adams. After finding out about the manipulation but not Hamilton's role in it, Adams wrote to Benjamin Rush that his election was "a curse rather than a blessing,"[146][147]
Although his term started on March 4, 1789, Adams did not begin serving as Vice President of the United States until April 21, because he did not arrive in New York in time.[148][149]
Tenure
Portrait of Adams by John Trumbull, 1793
The sole constitutionally prescribed responsibility of the vice president is to preside over the Senate, where he can cast a tie-breaking vote.[150] Early in his term, Adams became deeply involved in a lengthy Senate controversy over the official titles for the president and executive officers of the new government. | text | {
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8703c943373105d7b776174f9f04ce59 | Although the House agreed that the president should be addressed simply as "George Washington, President of the United States", the Senate debated the issue at some length. Adams favored the adoption of the style of Highness (as well as the title of Protector of Their [the United States'] Liberties) for the president.[151] Some senators favored a variant of Highness or the lesser Excellency.[152] Anti-federalists in the Senate objected to the monarchical sound of them all; Jefferson described them as "superlatively ridiculous."[153] They argued that these "distinctions," as Adams called them, violated the Constitution's prohibition on titles of nobility. Adams said that the distinctions were necessary because the highest office of the United States must be marked with "dignity and splendor" to command respect. He was widely derided for his combative nature and stubbornness, especially as he actively debated and lectured the senators. "For forty minutes he harangued us from the chair," wrote Senator William Maclay of Pennsylvania. Maclay became Adams's fiercest opponent and repeatedly expressed personal contempt for him in both public and private. He likened Adams to "a monkey just put into breeches. | text | {
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18648d60894a6b310ed6ff44a2687097 | "[154] Ralph Izard suggested that Adams be referred to by the title "His Rotundity," a joke which soon became popular.[155] On May 14, 1789, the Senate decided that the title of "Mr. President" would be used.[156] Privately, Adams conceded that his vice presidency had begun poorly and that perhaps he had been out of the country too long to know the sentiment of the people. Washington quietly expressed his displeasure with the fuss and rarely consulted Adams.[157]
Portrait of George Washington by Gilbert Stuart, 1795. Washington rarely consulted Vice President Adams, who often felt marginalized and overshadowed by Washington's prestige.
As vice president, Adams largely sided with the Washington administration and the emerging Federalist Party. He supported Washington's policies against opposition from anti-Federalists and Republicans. He cast 31 tie-breaking votes, all in support of the administration, and more than any other vice president.[158] He voted against a bill sponsored by Maclay that would have required Senate consent for the removal of executive branch officials who had been confirmed by the Senate. | text | {
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Subsets and Splits